The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
HOSTS and ORGANIZERS
The Royal Ins tute
The Interdisciplinary Network of the Royal Ins tute of Thailand
Chiang Mai University
Maejo University
North-Chiang Mai University
University of Interdisciplinary Studies
Rajamangala University of Technology Isan
CO-HOSTS and SPONSORS
Science and Educa on for Agriculture and Development
Agricultural Research Development Agency
University of the Philippines Los Baños
Na onal Research Council of Thailand
POLA Skincare & Cosme cs Proprietary Limited
Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University
PTT public Company Limited
University of California
Chia Tai Group
Thailand Conven on & Exhibi on Bureau
Acknowledgements On behalf of Editor Boards of The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks, we convey our grateful thanks to all organiza ons contributed to the journal. The apprecia on is in connec on with The 2013 Interna onal Conference of Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universi es through hosts, organizers and sponsors for publica on expense of this special issue.
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
iv
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Journal Information This special issue of The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks (JIN) is a peer-reviewed publication owned by The Interdisciplinary Network Foundation for Research and Development (www.inrit.net), Under the Royal Patronage of the HRH Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, The Royal Institute of Thailand. The journal intends to deliver latest research output from working groups and to share knowledge and ideas from several disciplines in order to give rise to the participation of interdisciplinary researches and development. Publication Information JIN is published bi-annually. Articles are available in hard copy under copyrighted by The Interdisciplinary Network Foundation for Research and Development, The Royal Institute of Thailand. Publication is free of charge. The journal is accepted several types of article including original research, review, research extension, communication and short report. Scope JIN offers wide range of discipline scope including science and technology, engineering, social science, information technology, business and administration, economics, and public administration.
Contact Information Journal office: The Interdisciplinary Foundation for Research and Development, The Royal Institute of Thailand, Sanam Suea Pa, Khet Dusit, Bangkok, 10300, Thailand. Special issue office: Maejo University Graduate School, 1st floor Faculty of Science building, Maejo University, San Sai, Chiang Mai 50290, Thailand. Tel: +66-53-87-8113 E-mail:
[email protected]
Digital Edition Published by Graduate School, Maejo University
Copyrights© Reserved 2013 The Interdisciplinary Network Foundation for Research and Development The Royal Institute of Thailand
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
v
Editor-in-Chief Dr. Porntip Antivanothai Guest Editor Prof. Dr. Siriwat Wongsiri Associate Editors Assoc. Prof. Dr. Niwooti Whangchai Asst. Prof. Dr. Somkiat Jaturonglumlert
Editorial Boards Prof. Dr. Tomoaki Itayama Prof. Dr. Kun Suk Woo Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nakao Nomura Assoc. Prof. Dr. Morakot Sukchotiratana Assoc. Prof. Dr. Siriporn Kiratikrnkul Asst. Prof. Dr. Jatuphong Varith Asst. Prof. Dr. Sinth Sarobol Asst. Prof. Dr. Rawiwan Wongpoonchai Asst. Prof. Dr. Chutima Kongjaroon Asst. Prof. Dr. Paisarn Kanchanawong Dr. Yardfon Tanongkankit Dr. Buncha Thongmee Dr. Doungporn Amornlerdpison Dr. Pairote Wongputtisin Dr. Udomluk Sompong Dr. Rameshprabu Ramara
Prof. Dr. Chen Li Hong Prof. Dr. Potchanat Samermit Assoc. Prof. Dr. Boonreang Kajornsin Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wiwat Wangcharoen Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nopmanee Topoonyanont Asst. Prof. Dr. Chanawat Nitatwichit Asst. Prof. Dr. Piyarat Nimmanpipug Asst. Prof. Dr. Watee Kongbuntad Asst. Prof. Dr. Jiraporn Inthasarn Dr. Louis Lebel Dr. Paisarn Kanchanawong Dr. Kanjana Narkprasom Dr. Choatpong Kanjanaphachoat Dr. Parawee Kanjanaphachoat Dr. Yuwalee Anpapom Dr. Chalida M. Purush
Editorial Assistants Maria Diana P. Jantakad Redel Gutierrez
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
vi
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Contents Page Editor’s Note Siriwat Wongsiri
xi
Science and Technology Adoption of Good Agricultural Practices(GAP): How Does the Philippines Fare? Agnes T. Banzon, Loida E. Mojica and Angela A. Cielo
2
Energy Plan of Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia Lilies Setiartiti
9
The Economic Behavior of Rubber Farm Household in Musi Banyuasin Regency, South Sumatera Province, Indonesia Laila Husin
15
Effective Diffusion Coefficient of Okra During Hot Air Drying Kritsna Mongkolkerd and Siva Achariyaviriya
19
Combustion Behaviors of Rice Husk in a Fluidized Bed with V-Ribs Pongjet Promvonge, Suriya Chokphoemphun and Pattarapan Tongyote
26
Heat Transfer Characteristics in Square Duct with Winglet Inserts Supattarachai Suwannapan, Sompol Skullong, Teerapat Chompookham, Pongjet Promvonge and Chinaruk Thianpong
32
The History of Pharmacy Education in Thailand Chalermsri Pummangura and Pithan Kositchaivat
39
Characterization and Chemical Stability Study of Rifampicin-Cyclodextrin for Pulmonary Delivery Kamolporn Jongchanapong, Wipawee Phalad, Suthamas Mungmee, Werayut Pothitirat, Wiriyaporn Sirikun and Phatsawee Jansook
44
Formulation and Evaluation of Vernonia cinerea Less. Mouthwash for Smoking Cessation Pattarapon Srithongdang, Nopparat Sritraptawee, Wannipa Nonboon, Narumol Phosrithong and Orawan Chitvanich
50
Adverse Drug Reactions to GPO-VIR (Stavudine, Lamivudine and Nevirapine) in HIV Infected Patients Thaksin Jansing, Chalermsri Pummangura, Roongrudee Mesomboon, Phongsri Phuewaranukho, Wanwisa Pengdam, Wanrada Chumapai and Leena Naowaket
54
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Science and Technology
vii
Page
Good Organic Farm Management Practices in Bicol Region, Philippines Hanilyn A. Hidalgo
59
Influence of Trimethyl Chitosan on Dissolution of Charged Drugs from Oral Solid Dosage Forms Orapan Phongwarin, Pornsiri Wongchan-udom, Pissuporn Rewsuwan, Worawan Boonyo, Supavadee Boontha and Tasana Pitaksuteepong
65
Skin Lightening Microemulsion Formulation of Broussonetia papyrifera Leaf Extract and Human Skin Irritation Test Suradwadee Thungmungmee, Kornkanok Ingkaninan, Punpimol Tuntijarukorn amd Tasana Pitaksuteepong
71
Novel BsuRI PCR-RFLP Detecting Genetic Polymorphism of IL-4 Gene and Association with Litter Size Traits in Thai Commercial Pig Breeds W. Norseeda and S. Mekchay
77
Biological Activity of Phyllanthus emblica Fruit Extract Prepared by Different Methods of Extraction Werayut Pothitirat, Ruxjinda Wattanalai, Patama Sopach, Nalinee Suwannawat, Yodphon Nakhronkren, Pongtip Sithisan and Wandee Gritsanapan
84
The Stability Comparison of Ranitidine Hydrochloride Extemporaneous Suspensions which Prepared from Different Commercial Tablets Chutimon Mheankaew, Kornkamol Piemfa, Thanramon Tulachotikul, Kusuma Doroman and Wiriyaporn Sirikun
89
HPLC Analysis of Curcuminoids in Turmeric Rhizomes Collected from Indonesia and Thailand Werayut Pothitirat, Sundari Desi Nuryanti, Phatsawee Jansook, Chalermsri Pummangura and Wandee Gritsanapan
93
Biodiesel Degradation by Photo-Oxidation: Effect of Fatty Acid Saturation Sitapa Butetongkum, Boontham Paweewan, Nuwong Chollacoop, Issaree Ong-oon and Jarurin Chotisakul
99
Carbon Footprint from Activities and Services in Car-Service Centers: A Case Study of Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co.,Ltd. Sayam Aroonsrimorakot and Chumporn Yuwaree
106
The Potential of Band[N]calicenes as Carbon Dioxide Hosts Willard E. Collier and Thawalrat Ratanadachanakin
112
Pharmacological Aspects of Javanese Non-Fermented Ketchup to Minimize Western Illness in the Globalization Era Dara Prabandari Sumardi, Yohanes Dwiatmaka and Paulus Wiryono
118
Access to Healthcare for the Second Generation of the Burmese Immigrants in Thailand Liwa Pardthaisong-Chaipanich
125
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
viii ٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠
Science and Technology Multi-Disciplinary R/D Access for Asia Sustainability
Page 131
Nobutaka Ito Detoxifi cation of Jatropha Residue via Methanol Extraction
137
Sim Siang Leng, Tan Meng Kiat, Parncheewa Udomsap, Nuwong Chollacoop and SuzanaBt Yusuf Experimental study on Heat Transfer Augmentation in a Round Tube with V-shaped Ribs
144
Suriya Chokphoemphun, Pattarapan Tongyote, Teerapat Chompookham, Sompol Skullong and Pongjet Promvonge Fungitoxicity of 1, 2-Substituted Benzimidazole Derivatives Against Fusarium spp.
150
Uthumporn Kankeaw and Waranya Wannalangka Study on Some Characteristics of Elaeagnus latifolia Linn., an Endemic Fruit Plant in the Upper North of Thailand
156
Pratoomporn Yingthongchai, Daruni Naphrom and Prasartporn Smitamana
Retraction: Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor
161
Watcharee Boonlue, Nuntaree Chaichanawongsaroj and Mana Sriyudthsak Effect of Harvesting Period on Quality Change and Shelf Life of Vietnamese Mango Fruits cv. Cat Hoa Loc
174
Do-Chi Thinh, Adisak Joomwong and Jamnong Uthaibutra Ethion Residue Reduction and Green Mold Disease Control of Tangerine cv. Sai Nam Pung Using Ozone Microbubbles and Ultrasonic Irradiation Nobchulee Nuanaon, Hideki Aoyagi, Jamnong Uthaibutra and Kanda Whangchai
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
181
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Social Science
ix
Page
Northern Tertiary Educational Institutions’ Preparation for ASEAN Community Yuthasin Chumanee , Thipwan Sriprom , Utchara Sinchaikul and Tachasorn Sombatmai
190
The Time Equation and the Weak Points of the Theoretical Demand and the Supply Curves in Microeconomic Theory Poramest Boonsri
196
Appropriate Agricultural Strategies for Small Farmers in Bataan, Philippines to Enhance Rice Self-Reliance Mel S. Abas, Chalermchai Panyadee, Somkid Kaewthip, Methee Payomyong and Apichart Traisaeng
203
Conducive Business Environment: A Measurement of Local Authority Integrity Othman Mohd Yunus, HasnunAnip Bustaman and Khalizani Khalid
213
Network Dynamics in the Organic Product Supply Chain of the Bicol Region, Philippines Ma. Cresilda M. Caning
221
Motivational Factors and Level of Satisfaction of UPLB Students in Choosing Shakti as a Physical Activity Merites M. Buot and Rowena D.T. Baconguis
225
Super Mata Waste Management Service Delivery Campaign in Tiyani Elementary School, Calamba City, Province of Laguna Chrysanthemum Collado, Felino J. Gutierrez Jr., Christopher Mantillas, Phairin Sohsai, Vincent Soriano and Manolinh Thepkhamvong
232
Education and Training Cooperation Vietnam-Cambodia in the Current Period Hiep Xuan Tran
242
AdoptingBlended Learning in Tourism Mass Communication: An Interdisciplinary Course in Tourism Development Program Paisarn Kanchanawong
249
The Bridgehead Strategy in Yunnan Province P.R.China. as a Connecting Point to Other ASEAN Countries Piyaphong Supanyo and Fang Zi Yu
256
Functional Framework: Determination of Causal Model of Work Attitude, Need for Achievement, Budgetary Participation, and Job Performance Kijpokin Kasemsap
262
Unified Framework: Constructing a Causal Model of Six Sigma, Organizational Learning, Organizational Innovation, and Organizational Performance Kijpokin Kasemsap
268
A Stimulant of Information Technology Service Management in Hotel Management Niran Chawla and Montri Wiboonrat
274
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
x
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Social Science
Page
Indigenous Knowledge for In-kind contribution in Myanmar: A case study of Exodus Non-profit Organization (ENO) in Hlaingtharyar Township, Yangon City, Yangon Division, Myanmar Cung Khin Dim
288
Locating Participation in a Community-Based Forest Resources Management Project Eileen Lorena, Rowena Baconguis, Jose Medina and Maria Rowena
293
Enhancing English Speaking Skills of Graduate Students At King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang Pattaraporn Thampradit
299
A Survey of Internet Utilization and Impacts of Internet Utilization on Studentsof Boromarajonnani College of Nursing, Chiang Mai Waraporn Wanchaitanawong and Kesaraporn Choopun
307
Promotion and Adoption of Organic Farming in Bicol, Philippines Georgina J. Bordado, DBM
314
How Do People’s Participation on Public Health Policy Development in Local Administration? Sinth Sarobol
319
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
xi
Editor’s Note The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks (JIN) special issue#1 is a collection of papers from the International Conference on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities on August 8-10, 2013 hosted by Maejo University and several academic institutions. The conference aims to present latest research outcomes from global researchers to share with those from ASEAN Universities under the theme Global Education: Building Bridges across ASEAN. The content includes inter-disciplines among applied agriculture, organic and green, plant and animal applications, apiculture and apitherapy, health and wellness, functional foods and nutraceutical, natural science, global and environmental sciences, climate changes engineering and technology, applied education, socioeconomics, business and management, and information science and technology. We hope that this special issue will draw attention of all peers. Our sincere appreciation is extended to all the authors and reviewers who provide great efforts to our special collection of JIN.
Siriwat Wongsiri Guest Editor Niwooti Whangchai and Somkiat Jaturonglumlert Associate Editors
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
Science and Technology
2
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Adoption of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP): How Does the Philippines Fare? Agnes T. Banzon1, Loida E. Mojica1 and Angela A. Cielo2* 1
Department of Agribusiness Management and Entrepreneurship, College of Economics and Management, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines 2 Faculty of Management and Development Studies, University of the Philippines Open University, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The Philippines tails its Southeast Asian neighbors with respect to Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) adoption. While Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam have granted GAP certification to thousands of farms, the Philippines has only 15 GAP-certified entities. In view of this and cognizant of the recommendation of the FAO-sponsored expert consultation to compare existing GAP schemes and experiences of countries practicing GAP along with the drivers and motivators, and the harmonization of national GAP programs with ASEANGAP, this research was conducted. It assessed the status of GAP adoption in the Philippines in relation to two of the countrytop fruit exports: banana and mango and identified the drivers of and constraints to GAP adoption in the country with the end goal of crafting policy strategies to enhance adoption. It was found that a high level of GAP adoption in the Davao banana industry primarily because of the predominance of corporate farms in the area that cater to the export markets. But despite the Philippine governmentefforts and the Philippine National Standard (PNS) - Code of GAP for Mango in force since 2009, there are only two GAP-certified mango farms in the country. Support from government as well as non-government agencies, export market requirements and individual/management or corporate culture are seen as drivers for GAP adoption. Constraints to adoption are categorized as knowledge, cost, process and reward/incentive constraints. The following strategies are proposed to promote GAP adoption in the country: intensification of awareness campaigns (push strategy) for the implementers (farmers or organizations); stepping-up of efforts on creating consumer awareness of GAP (pull strategy); focusing awareness campaigns on product attributes that consumers value (value creation) and harnessing collaborative potential of public and private sectors to effect increased market performance, long-term capacity building and sustainability (capturing value). Keywords: Good Agricultural Practices INTRODUCTION Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) refer to approaches which address the sustainability of on-farm processes to ensure safety and quality of food and non-food agricultural products [1,2].While the terminology is associated with international regulatory frameworks, it alsorelates to applications developed by various private and public organizations to meet the needs of farmers and consumers with respect to: (a) ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain; (b) capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain governance; (c) improving natural resources use, workers’ health, and working conditions; and (d) creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters in developing countries [1, 3]. In the late 1990s, the Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group and Good Agricultural Practices (EUREPGAP), a common standard for farm management practice, was created by several European supermarket chains and their major
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
3
suppliersto bring about conformity to different standards of suppliers, which have been creating problems for farmers. In September 2007, EUREPGAP changed its name to GLOBALGAP to reflect its expanding international role in establishing GAP for multiple retailers and their suppliers. In 2006, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)Secretariat launched ASEANGAP as a standard for good agricultural practices for fresh fruits and vegetables in the ASEAN region [4]. Cognizant of the growing adoption of codes and standards by different stakeholders and its commitment to the sustainability of world agriculture, a multi-stakeholder expert consultation was organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) with participants coming from various countries to review and confirm the basic GAP approach, provide guidelines in addressing concerns and identify implementation strategies. The forum recommended among others, the identification and comparison of existing GAP schemes and experiences of countries practicing GAP along with the drivers and motivation [1]. Aside from presenting the status of GAP in the Philippines, the study aimed to identify the issues related to its adoption with the end goal of crafting policy strategies to enhance adoption specifically for two top fruit exports, mango and banana. MATERIALS AND METHODS Primary information was obtained from three groups of respondents, namely: ADOPTERS (entities engaged in the production and marketing of mangoes and bananas that have adopted GAP), NON-ADOPTERS (entities engaged in the production of the crops of interest but who have not adopted GAP) and agribusiness support providers. The information was drawn through a combination of key informant interview using a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussion (FGD).A total of 68 respondents representing relevant government agencies (9), agribusiness support entities (3), corporate farms and exporters (8), industry associations (3), cooperatives (2), banana farmers and traders (16) and mango growers and traders (27) participated in the key informant interview. Fifty-eight banana and mango farmers participated in the FGD.Secondary information was obtained from the reports of the Bureau of Fisheries and Product Standards (BAFPS), Provincial Agriculture Office and Municipal Agriculture Office, industry and other government publications and related literature. The study employed descriptive analysis in presenting the profile and relevant statistics of the respondents and their farms. Issues, drivers, and constraints related to GAP adoption were identified through qualitative analysis. Preliminary risk assessment and analysis of the corresponding risk management strategies adopted by the respondents were performed. At the time this study was conducted, there were no Philippine GAP or PhilGAP-certified entities engaged in the production and marketing of mango. The Cardava Integrated Inland Farming (CIIF), a cooperative in Sulop, Davao del Norte, was the lone PhilGAP-certified entity (ADOPTERS) involved in the production and marketing of banana. This singularity plus the pioneering and exploratory nature of the study precluded a large sample size. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Status of GAP in the Philippines The Department of Agriculture (DA) approved Administrative Order 25 on August 22, 2005 that sets the Guidelines on the Certification of Good Agricultural Practices for Fruits and Vegetable (GAP-FV) Farming. Applications for GAP certification were reviewed by the GAP Certification Committee composed of directors of agencies attached to DA, representatives from private organization, non-government organization and academe. The Bureau of Agricultural and Fisheries Products Standards (BAFPS) serves as the Secretariat of the committee.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
4
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
The level of adoption of GAP in the Davao banana industry is high because of the predominance of corporate farms in the area, which cater to the export markets. The operations of these farms are aligned with GLOBALGAP but not with PhilGAP. As of December 2011, PhilGAP has only certified one banana cooperative and none of the corporate farms, although one has already applied for PhilGAP certification.On the other hand, there is a lack of awareness and fair understanding of GAP among the individual mango growers. Farmers who sell to suppliers of export firms have GAP-aligned operations to meet the demands of the export market. However, they do not realize that the practices they employ are part of GAP.The mango traders and exporters are aware of GAP but none of them explicitly require their suppliers to be GAP-certified. A mango farmer being assisted by the Department of Agriculture (DA) in Zambales for PhilGAPcertification has already aligned his farm operations with PhilGAP. However, he has yet to get the certification. As his PhilGAP-aligned operations only started in the middle of 2010, he disclosed that there was no increase in the volume and in the price of his produce. Thus, his farm recorded losses due to the increase in expenses resulting from GAP-related operations and investments on farm structures. As of April 2013 there were15 GAP-certified entities in the country.The PhilGAP is now harmonized with ASEAN GAP and GLOBAL GAP. Drivers of GAP Adoption As farmers rarely initiate the certification process, the support and involvement of various stakeholders serve as enabling forces in the certification process or adoption of GAP. GAP adoption is driven by: (1) Government and non-government initiatives/support; (2) Export market requirements and (3) Individual/management or corporate culture. Adopting standards or codes of practice has become an imperative for countries for them to earn regional or global integrity as exporters of various commodities. Government-led certification or GAP initiatives are part of a sector-wide policy strategy which includes legislation [5]. Many private or non-government entities undertake projects which assist individuals or groups as part of their social or corporate responsibility or as part of their mandate. They provide their beneficiaries access to information credit and technology such that they are enabled to face not only more but better options. Producer or marketing organizations, industry associations, export companies, assemblers, or wholesalers engage in mutually beneficial relationships with individual farmers and farmer groups. Exporters require their suppliers or contract growers to follow specific production processes to produce products that meet the requirements of their export market. While government-led GAP initiatives are more developmental in nature, private sector-led initiatives focus more on meeting export market requirements [5]. To a lesser extent, an individual farmer’s outlook in life may serve as a driving force to undergoing product certification. As the certification process is not only costly but also tedious, the farmer must have a long-term orientation and the tenacity to go through the entire course. The management culture defines the vision and mission of a company and serves as its guiding force in every endeavor. A forward-looking culture and management openness to change make it easier for a company to innovate in order to better tap opportunities in the environment. Constraints to GAP Adoption There are numerous constraints to GAP adoption but the major ones can be summarized into four categories: (1) Knowledge constraints; (2) Cost constraints; (3) Process constraints and (4) Reward/incentive constraints.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
5
Despite the awareness campaign efforts of the government through BAFPS, most of the respondents lack awareness or fair understanding of GAP. Farmers who have heard about it have various interpretations. GAP certification generally requires additional investments in hard assets like new technology or infrastructure and total costs will vary significantly with, among other things, the production method employed before the certification process and the services available locally, i.e., laboratories. New production and marketing activities may require more laborers, in addition to more time and labor for the farmer. Furthermore, there is an opportunity cost for the time required for organizational issues (attending meetings) and administrative issues (completing mandatory paperwork and record keeping).Though the certification fee and payments for the first sample laboratory test can be waived by the Philippine government as an incentive for GAP adoption, such costs when eventually charged are beyond the means of small farmers particularly because of the lack of scalability inherent to the small size of operations. The certification process can be very lengthy and tedious. Laboratory proof of clean soil and water is an integral part of the GAP certification procedure. The absence of laboratories capable of performing the protocols in the locality is not uncommon in developing countries. Samples for testing may have to be sent to the main laboratory in major cities. Thus, testing takes time. Should the samples show that GAP standards are not met, another waiting period is necessary so that measures to meet the GAP standards can be taken. Certification may also require farmers to acquire new skills and competencies not only to adopt new standards in their production and processing operations but also to manage and plan their activities. Such skills can be built through a continuous learning process, which can be achieved via a long-term and sustained capacity building [6]. Government efforts on information dissemination focused more on the processes involved in GAP adoption and targeted the potential adopters—the crop growers. However, if the market does not appreciate the GAP-certified produce, then the processes adopted have no added value. Thus, there is no price premium on the product. The lack of local demand and price premium for GAPcertified produce deters farmers from adopting GAP. Risk Assessment and Management Risk management strategies are employed by GAP adopters and those whose operations are GAP-aligned, or are compliant with export market requirements. One of the major risks is the possibility of non-compliance with the pertinent standards during annual validation by the relevant entities and farm visitations by export market representatives. A fundamental strategy is strict monitoring of operations to make sure standards set by the relevant compliance body are always met. In Davao, the banana growers closely coordinate with the Multipartite Monitoring Team so they are updated with the list of banned and allowed chemicals. The membersof the Pilipino Banana Growers and ExportersAssociation (PBGEA) strictly monitor their banana exports for pesticide residues to comply with maximum residue limits. Another risk management strategy is vigilance in monitoring the prescribed practices.Mango exporters make sure their required practices are followed through the provision of bagging materials and pesticide manuals for their mango growers.To address the problem of spray drift or agrochemical trespass in mango grower farms, whenever possible, Hi-Las Marketing Corporation chooses growers whose farms are isolated from areas that may be possible sources of contaminants. Diamond Star Agro-Products avoid growers whose farms are next to rice fields. Large corporate banana farms employing aerial spraying notify the owners of neighboring properties in advance of their spraying schedule. They employ drift-mitigating measures such as the use of GPS-equipped
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
6
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
planes and computer-controlled spraying equipment, avoidance of adverse weather conditions and timing application when most people are indoors. CONCLUSION Compared to some Southeast Asian countries, GAP adoption in the Philippines is relatively slow primarily because of the lack of awareness and appreciation of the benefits of GAP among the producers and marketers of products (supply side) and the consumers (demand side); and the high costsand tedious process associated with GAP compliance and certification. To address these, the following proposals are put forward. These are not stand-alone strategies as each should be considered an integral part of an interrelated set of interventions to achieve the maximum benefits from their synergistic relationships. Push and Pull Strategy The country GAP program should be more multi-dimensional in its scope, involving all sectors of the society that can affect its full understanding and appreciation or are affected by the program. The relevant players for the GAP program can be categorized into three dimensions namely: demand dimension (consumers, retailers, processors, importers, and governments); the supply dimension (farmers, workers, producer cooperatives or associations, and exporters); and entities (local advisors or consultants, certifiers, and NGOs) and support services (extension, capacity building, and research) that facilitate the link between supply and demand [1]. Aside from intensifying awareness campaigns (push strategy) for the implementers (farmers or organizations), efforts to create awareness on the part of the final consumers should also be stepped up. The demand dimension should pave the way for the pull strategy. If the end consumers are aware of and appreciate the benefits of GAP, then demand for certified products would be generated. Value Creation To set the pull strategy in motion, three major interventions are set forth: (1) Focus on the tangibles; (2) Branding or labelingand (3) Multi-media approach. A critical point in awareness campaigns is the focus on the set of attributes that consumers’ value. For food products, consumers are mostly familiar with the physical attributes like taste, size, color, and texture. There is another set of attributes (process attributes) that consumers appreciate and this refers to the production process. An increasing number of consumers is getting interested in how fruits and vegetables are raised or how animals are treated in the production process. Unlike the physical attributes, which are easily ascertained by consumers, the process attributes, being intangible, are not easily determined by consumers. The presence of chemicals, additives, and nutritive value of food products are not easily observable. These process characteristics that are not readily determined through consumption or experiences are categorized as credence attributes.The credence attributes can be made tangible by focusing the awareness campaign efforts on extrinsic indicators of valued characteristics such as brands, labels, quality seals, or certificates from quality assurance schemes. Directing trust into the factors in the value chain (farmers and retailers) as well as advertisements and quality seals or logos, allows consumers to compensate for their lack of knowledge of the intrinsic qualities like the growing practices [7]. The platforms for awareness campaigns should shift to those that the stakeholders can better relate to or are more accessible to them. Trainings and seminars can be supplemented by
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
7
information dissemination using the short messaging system, social networks, public service radio and television programs, and endorsements by socially responsible celebrities or authority figures. Capturing Value The GAP-adoption process can be made more meaningful and facilitative through the appropriate mix of efforts from public and private sectors aimed at increasing market performance, providing long-term capacity building and sustainability. These are: (1) Intensification of PhilGAP certification campaign for corporate banana farms; (2) Identification of farmer-innovators for faster GAP adoption; (3) Establishment of collective farms or public-private partnerships and (4) Incremental GAP adoption through good enough practices. Corporate banana farms have either international standard certifications (Rainforest Alliance or GLOBALGAP) or have GAP-aligned operations. Since most, if not all, of the basic requirements are already in place in these farms, the application process therefore will not take long when they start from scratch. Automatic PhilGAP certification to corporate banana farms that have certifications from GLOBALGAP and Rainforest Alliance can also be explored to avoid duplication of efforts and expenses. The adage “to see is to believe” usually works with new practices. To encourage adoption, farmers have to see results. A good way to do this is to get a farmer who is willing and able to take the risks of adopting the new practice. His farm will serve as a showcase for other farmers. Due to their meager asset base, most small farmers lack the capacity to participate in a certification scheme. To make adoption more affordable, collective farms can be established by farmers whose farms are adjacent to each other. These farmers can share the costs, responsibilities, and risks. Support from a strategic partner is necessary to encourage farmers to consider certification and facilitate the certification process. A non-private entity like a governmental body, international development agency, or a non-governmental organization (NGO) may take the role of the initiator of the certification process. Another entity is the private sector agent like an exporter, processor, or retailer. The third entity is represented by producer organizations [6]. Shifting focus on the easily appreciated end results like increased productivity and improved quality of produce rather than on the process of attaining such make it easier for farmers to understand GAP [8]. Farmers will better appreciate small, incremental changes that can directly affect their target results. Considering local knowledge, skills, resources, and biodiversity, farmers can focus on certain doable practices rather than on certification. By working within natural limits and considering the variations in agro-ecological and socio-economic situations, farmers will not be overwhelmed with dramatic changes [9]. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study in Research and Agriculture (SEAMEO-SEARCA) for funding the project through its Seed Fund for Strategic Research and Training (SFRT) Program. REFERENCES 1.
FAO, “Report of the Expert Consultation on a Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) Approach”, 2003, Rome. November 10–12. Retrieved July 27, 2010 from http://www.rlc.fao.org/Foro/bpa / pdf/ good.pdf
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
8
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
2.
University of Kentucky College of Agriculture,“Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)”, 2010, Retrieved July 27, 2010from UK Cooperative Extension Service:http://www. uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/gap.pdf FAO, “Good Agricultural Practices”, 2008, Retrieved July 28, 2010 from http://www.fao.org/ prods/GAP/index_en.htm P. Liu, S. Casey, J. Cadilhon, P. S. Hoejskov, and N. Morgan, “A practical manual for producers and exporters from Asia regulations, standards and certification for agricultural exports”, 2007, FAO. O. van der Valk and J. van der Roest, “National benchmarking against GLOBALGAP case studies of good agricultural practices in Kenya, Malaysia, Mexico, and Chile”, Wagenigen, 2009, LEI. E. Le Coutois, E. Galvez-Nogales, P. Santacoloma, and F. Tartanac, “Enhancing farmers' access to markets for certified products: A comparative analysis using a business model approach”, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2011. M. N. Kusairi, and M. A. Fatimah, “Malaysian Farm Certification Scheme”, Impak, 2009, pp. 1, 3-4. I. Idrovo, M. Boquiren, and A. Baird, “Getting to “good enough” in product upgrading: SDCAsia and the Cardava banana value chain”,Washington, 2009, The SEEP Network and SDCAsia. J.T.S. Walker, “Development of good agricultural practice programs in New Zealand's fruit industries” Proceedings of the International Seminar on Technology Development for Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) in Asia and Oceania, 2005, Taipei, pp. 15-28.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
9
Energy Plan of Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia Lilies Setiartiti Department of Economics, Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta, Indonesia; Economics Ph.D Program, Sebelas Maret University of Surakarta, Indonesia *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Yogyakarta is one of the provinces in Indonesia that has no fossil energy potential. All activities in are highly dependent on the stability of energy supplies from other regions. Almost all energy needs in Yogyakarta, such as fuel oil and liquid petrolium gas (LPG) are supplied from the outside area. Electrical energy is supplied from the interconnection network of Java-Madura-Bali (JAMALI). Energy plan in order to secure supply of energy is an important agenda for energy policy in Yogyakarta, so that energy usage can be optimized. For the purpose of this research econometric models was attempted by using LEAP (Long-range Energy Alternative Planning) software, and firstly analyzed the current situation of Yogyakarta’s energy consumption. Applying LEAP model to simulate primary energy and final energy demand during 2011-2030 under different scenario composition that is Bussiness As Usual (BAU), Moderate (MOD), and Optimistic (OPT). The results showed that: energy demand grew an average of 3.43% per year and the overall final energy demand was 9792.11 thousand BOE in 2030. Demand for fuel oil for BAU, MOD, and OPT scenario in 2030 was 6.861.35, 6,782.24, and 6,651.82 thousand BOE, respectively. While the demand for electricity for BAU, MOD, and OPT scenario was 2417.11, 1994.96, and 1807.06 thousand BOE, respectively. For all the three scenarios, 8.09-12.5% carbon emission intensity reduction target can be realized, and energy elasticity was smaller than 1, suggesting that energy was efficent. Keywords: Yogyakarta Province, Energy Plan, LEA INTRODUCTION World energy crisis is happening now and the energy consumption is largely controlled only by the industrialized countries of the world (Zhao 2008). According to the projections of the International Energy Assosiation (IEA), in the year 2030 world energy demand increases by 45%, or an average increase of 1.6% per year. The implication is the decrease in security of energy supply, and its potential to trigger a global economic recession again.[1] This fact has been responed by several countries to redesign its energy planning policy, such as in China,[2] Thailand,[3] Turkey,[4] Iran,[5] and Sweden.[6] Developed countries such as Canada[7] and United States[8] even anticipate the energy crisis with early energy planning. For Indonesia, redesign of the energy policy is also an important agenda because since 2003 has become a net oil importer and is still heavily dependent on world oil prices, while the frequency of increasing price occur in a relatively short time,[9] if not, the energy deficit will continue and harm the economy. Meanwhile, in relation to regional autonomy, then in Law No.30/2007 on Energy, the region has a very important role. Restructuring and regulation of the energy sector that implemented a few years ago, has led to major changes toward management and use of energy, from the central to local governments (Law No.30/2007). Yogyakarta (DIY) is one of the provinces in Indonesia that has no fossil energy potential, where almost all energy needs in Yogyakarta, such as fuel oil and liquid
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
10
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
petrolium gas (LPG) were supplied from outside the area with the use of energy increasing each year. Electrical energy was supplied from the inter connection network of Java-Madura-Bali (JAMALI) because there are no power stations to fulfill the electricity demand of Yogyakarta. This means that all community activities in Yogyakarta is highly dependent on the stability of energy supplies from other regions. Therefore, the Government of Yogyakarta Province, as the opinion of Cai et.al[10] and Connolly et.al has gone into the proper planning on energy supply in order to build strong energy security to fulfill the energy needs of society. Energy planning to secure supply of energy is an important agenda for energy policy in Yogyakarta[11], otherwise, Yogyakarta will have serious energy issues that will affect the economy and public welfare in the future. Energy Condition of Yogyakarta Province As shown in Figure.1 on primary energy component that the use of petroleum is predominant about 71.91% of total energy, and coal used in electricity generation is 16.59%. A small fraction of coal is also used in the industrial sector. Natural gas used in the generation of electric energy is 9.60%. In 2010, the use of new and renewable energy was only 1.90%. Renewable energy consists of hydropower and geothermal energy used in the generation of electricity through the JAMALI interconection system and firewood is used for cooking activity in the household sector. The pattern of energy consumption in Yogyakarta is the consumptive patterns. The energy that has been used is largely not supporting the economic growth. This can be seen from most energy used in household and transportation sectors, that reached 28.52% and 59.45% of the total energy used in 2010, the rest is the energy used in commercial and industrial sectors (Figure.2). While elasticity of energy used GDP growth in the same period amounted to 1.37. This suggests that the elasticity of energy use in Yogyakarta is wasteful because to run the activity sector with the growth of 1% per year, 1.37% energy growth per year is needed.
Hdyro
RE
Geothermal Biogas
28.52%
Biodiesel 9.60%
71.91%
1.43% 2.01%
Commercial
Biomass
Industry
Solar 16.59%
59.45%
Wood
0.42% 0.05%
Household
Wind
Other Sector 7.26%
Transportation
Coal Oil
3.73%
Natural Gas
Figure 1 Primary energy component in 2010.
1.03%
Figure 2 Energy Usage by Sector in 2010.
METHODOLOGY According to the International Energy Assosiation (IEA) provision, energy demand model in this research using final energy approach, where the final energy demand is modeled by sector, and energy end users in detail, namely: (1) industrial sector was separated into five sub-sectors, (2) energy demand in the household sector (residential) was separated into four groups according to income, (3) commercial sector based on the share of sub-sector to the formation of value added to GDP, (4) other sectors based on sub-sector share to the formation of value added GDP, and (5) energy demand in the transport sector is modeled according to the mode of transport.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
11
Primary data were used in this study, namely: the demographics that consisted of the total population, number of households, population growth, and the composition of the villages and towns, as well as economic growth and inflation. Supporting data were energy supply which was obtained from the PLN and Pertamina, potential for renewable energy in Yogyakarta was obtained from field survey. Planning and energy models were designed with software tools, Long Range Energy Alternative Planning (LEAP). LEAP software would generate an energy model based on energy scenarios that had been designed before, i.e. Business as Usual (BAU), Moderate (MOD), and Optimistic (OPT) scenarios. The timeframe used for projecting the supply and demand for energy in Yogyakarta Province is for 20 years (2011-2030), 2010 was the base year. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Energy Demand Projection Calculation of energy demand is based on three scenarios, that is BAU, MOD, and OPT. In the BAU scenario, the calculation of energy forecasts was based on the pattern of energy used as they did in the base year. OPT and MOD scenarios were developed based on the energy policy of intervention, in terms of energy conservation and renewable energy. Based on these scenarios, projection of energy demand of Yogyakarta Province are shown in Figures.3 and 4. Overall, demand for fuel oil for BAU, MOD and OPT scenarios in 2030 was 6,861.35, 6,782.24, and 6,651.82 thousand BOE respectively. At the same period the demand for electricity for BAU, MOD and OPT scenarios is at 2,417.1, 1994.96, and 1,807.06 thousand BOE respectively. Demand for LPG in 2030 is 1,156.29 thousand BOE for BAU and MOD scenarios, and 1,151.49 thousand BOE for OPT scenario. Demand for energy-dense types consisting of coal, coal briquettes and firewood for BAU, MOD and OPT scenarios in 2030 amounted to 31.01, 25.04 and 25.65 thousand BOE respectively. Until the end of the projection, transport sector still dominates energy use (63%) and the household sector is the second largest sector of energy use in Yogyakarta (19%). 10000
12,000.00 Gasoline
9000
Gasoline 90 Kerosene
7000
ADO
thousand BOE
IDO 6000
MFO LPG
5000
Electricity
4000
Wood
10,000.00 8,000.00 Ribu SBM
8000
Transportasi 6,000.00
Sektor Lainnya
4,000.00
Industri Komersial
LGV
3000
Coal Briquette
2000
2,000.00
Rumah Tangga
Biogas Biodiesel Coal
0 BAU MOD OPT BAU MOD OPT BAU MOD OPT BAU MOD OPT BAU MOD OPT 2010
2015
2020
2025
Avtur
2030
BAU MOD OPT BAU MOD OPT BAU MOD OPT BAU MOD OPT BAU MOD OPT
1000
2010
Figure 3 Final energy demand by type of energy
2015
2020
2025
2030
Figure 4 Final Energy Demand by Sectors
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
12
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Energy Supply Projection Energy supply in Yogyakarta is also compiled for the year 2010 as the base year and the year 2030 as the year end of the projection. Energy supply calculation is based on three scenarios, that is BAU, MOD, and OPT. Based on MOD and OPT scenarios, the primary energy component in 2030 is shown in Figures.5 and 6. From Figure.5, the primary energy use of oil is 66.69%, natural gas 14.11% and renewable energy 3.35%. From Figure 6 oil and coal role in providing energy in Yogyakarta can be further reduced through the implementation of programs within the OPT scenario. Meanwhile, the use of renewable energy increase compared with the MOD scenario. The implication is that the supply of oil energy will decrease.
Hdyro
RE
Biogas 1.47%
14.11%
19.77%
Biodiesel Wind
66.69%
8.15%
Biomass
3.35% 1.29%
0.04% 0.13% 0.01% 0.26% 0.15% 0.01%
16.71%
Solar
Hdyro
RE
Geothermal
Geothermal 1.45%
Biogas
1.22% 0.04% 0.90%
Biodiesel
1.28%
Biomass
57.68%
Wood
Solar 15.85%
Coal
Wind
2.73% 0.51% 0.01%
Oil
Wood Coal Oil Natural Gas
Natural Gas
Figure 5 Primary energy component in MOD Figure 6 Primary energy component in OPT scenario scenario Carbon Emission Environmental impact of energy used on the demand side can be represented by the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) produced. GHG emissions based on the scenarios that have been prepared, show that the impact of the implementation of energy efficiency and renewable energy can reduce greenhouse gas generated by the activity sectors. These conditions is shown Table.1 Table 1 Total GHG Emissions In 2030 No 1 2 3
Scenarios BAU MOD OPT
Total Emission 6.56 Million tons of CO2 Equivalent 6.03 Million tons of CO2 Equivalent 5.75 Million tons of CO2 Equivalent
Energy Elasticity The index used to measure the energy needs for economic development of a country is the energy elasticity, which describes the growing energy needs required to achieve certain level of economic growth (GDP). Based on a series of analysis that have been conducted, energy elasticity of Yogyakarta is shown in Table 2. It appears that energy elasticity using BAU scenario until the end of the projection is greater than 1 (e> 1), both for electricity and fuel indicating that energy consumption in the province inefficient or wasteful, due to an increase of 1% requires larger quantities. Meanwhile, based on OPT scenario including aspects of energy conservation policy as outlined previously, energy elasticity of Yogyakarta until the end of the projection recorded
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
13
numbers smaller than 1 (e <1), both for electricity and fuel showing that with the implementation of conservation programs the use of energy can be optimized and becomes more efficient. No 1 2 3 No 1 2 3
Table 2 Yogyakarta Energy Elasticity Based on Scenario BAU Year Scenario 2010 2015 2025 Electricity 1.00006 1.03056 1.05542 Oil 1.40692 1.5205 1.61522 Total 1.30166 1.40591 1.49151 OPT Scenario Year 2010 2015 2025 Electricity 0.54172 0.52376 0.46592 Oil 0.60551 0.60324 0.59509 Total 0.57361 0.5635 0.53051
2030 1.13493 1.69377 1.59914 2030 0.34576 0.58793 0.46684
CONCLUSION The total primary energy demand for BAU, MOD, and OPT scenarios will reach 9,848.17, 9,374.99, and 8,706.95 thousand BOE respectively.In the next 20 years, Yogyakarta primary energy consumption will still be dominated by oil, but the proportion will decrease, while the share of non-fossil energy will rise. By sector energy consumption, transport sector will occupy the dominant position in total energy consumption followed by the household sector. For all the three scenarios, 8.09-12.5% carbon intensity reduction target can be realized. Energy use in Yogyakarta Province is still not efficient under the BAU scenario but with a variety of energy conservation programs, until the end of the projection (2030) energy use shows the efficiency. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank, in particular Dr. Lukman Hakim Hasan, my adviser, as well as all those who have helped in this study. REFERENCES 1. D. Connolly, H. Lund b, B.V. Mathiesen b, M. Leahy (2009): A review of computer tools for analysing the integration of renewable energy into various energy systems, Juornal of Applied Energy 87 (2010) 1059–1082. 2. Zhao Taoa, Liu Zhaoa, Zhao Changxin (2011): Research on the prospects of low-carbon economic development in China based on LEAP model, Energy Procedia 5 (2011) 695– 699, 3. Weerin Wangjiranirana, Supawat Vivanpatarakij, and Raksanai Nidhiritdhikrai (2011): Impact of Economic Restructuring on the Energy System in Thailand, Energy Procedia 9 ( 2011 ) 25 – 34 4. Karabulut, Alkan, and Yilmaz, (2008): Long Term Energy Consumption Forecasting Using Genetic Programming,. Mathematical and Computational Applications, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 71-80, 2008.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
14
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
5. Ghader, S.F., M.A. Azadeh, and Sh. Mohammad Zadeh. 2006. Modeling and Forecasting the Electricity Demand for Major Economic Sectors of Iran. Information Technology Journal, 5(2): 260-266. 6. J. Stenlund Nilsson, A. Martensson (2002): Municipal energy-planning and development of local energy-systems, Journal of Applied Energy 76 (2003) 179–187 7. Tubss, W.J. 2008. A Simulation Model of Energy Supply and Demand for Climate Policy Analysis. http://www.bill.tubbs.name/thesis2008/USAEE paper_BTubbs .pdf., downloaded 20 October 2009. 8. Ghanadan dan Koomey (2005): Using energy scenarios to explore alternative energy pathways in California, Journal of Energy Policy 33 (2005) 1117–1142 9. Tambunan, Mangara. 2006. The Second High Cycle of World Oil (Energy) Price Crisis: Challenges and Option. Global Dialogue on Natural Resources, Washington DC, USA, April 4th-5th. 10. Y.P. Cai, G.H. Huang, Z.F. Yang, Q. Tan (2008): Identification of optimal strategies for energy management systems planning under multiple uncertainties, Journal of Applied Energy 86 (2009) 480–495. 11. Stern, David (2011) : The role of energy in economic growth, Energy Bulletin, The Oil Drum, Oct 20 2011 12. International Energy Agency (IEA), Key World Energy Statisctic 2007, IEA, 2007 13. Undang-undang No.30 tahun 2007 tentang Energi.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
15
The Economic Behavior of Rubber Farm Household in Musi Banyuasin Regency, South Sumatera Province, Indonesia Laila Husin Department of Agribusiness, Sriwijaya University, Jl. Palembang-Prabumulih Km.32 Indralaya 30662,OganIlir Regency.South Sumatra Province, Indonesia * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: This study aimedtoanalyzethe determinant factors of rubber farm household’s economic behavior through some productive activities to fulfill their family needs. This research used cross section dataof rubber farm householdsin Musi Banyuasin Regency, South Sumatera,and analyzed by descriptive and econometric measures. The estimation of econometric model (the simultaneous equation) used two stages least squares (2SLS) method. The result of this study showed that most respondents have some income sources (rubber farm, non-rubber farm and off farm activities), while having the rubber farm income as the main source. Average rubber production is relatively lower (1.87 tons/ha) than the national average production (2.50 tons/ha), but higher than provincialaverage production (1.40 tons/ha). Rubber farm household income per year is around Rp38.22 millions (US $3,940.50) for 2.9 ha of rubber area. This income contribution to total farm household was almost equal to their working time allocation (around 63%). On average, the family income (Rp61.45 millions) was higher than family expenditure for consumption (Rp41.91 millions), thus allowing farm households to fulfill all primary needsespecially for food and non-food consumption and also can make saving (in the same proportion). Estimation result of simultaneous equation has proved that the economic behavior of rubber farm households (in working time allocation, production and consumption) interacted with each other. These relationships also indicated a high response (elastics) among variables of economic activities. The behavior of farm household in working time allocation was affected by rubber farm area,non-rubber-farm area, rubber farm income and non-farm income. The behavior of farm household production was influenced by the working time allocation of family labor on rubber and non-rubber farm, rubber production cost. The behavior of farm household consumption (for food) was affected by total income and the number of farm household members, whereas behavior of farm household consumption (for non-food) was affected by total income and the production cost for rubber and non-rubber farm and for saving. Keywords: Economic Behavior, Farm Household, Rubber, Productive Activities.
INTRODUCTION The agricultural sector in developing countries (including Indonesia), will always regard three characteristics, namely (1) agricultural production technology, (2) farm household as a single economic unit, and (3) agricultural products as commodities [8].Farm household is an important aspect to be studied considering the majority of agricultural products in Indonesia were contributed by their activities. In reality, there are many complexproblemsinfarm household, their behavior can bedivided intothreemaingroups,namely as producer,labour supply andas consumer.The rubber farm household income can befrommultiplesources,depending onthe seasonandoccasion [1, 5, 6, and 10]. In 2011, Musi Banyuasin Regency is the third largest rubber areain South Sumatera Province (13.80%) and the numbers of farmers involved are about 82,000 households; however
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
16
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
rubber productivity is the lowest in this province (0.95 tons/hectare) [2]. The rubber farm income contribution in this area is the highest; the rest of income proportion comes from non-rubber farm and non-farm income [10]. The research result in the same province but in different area (Prabumulih) shows similarity that isrubber farm income also has the highest in proportion by allocating more than 75 percentof family working time. Generally, however the rubber farm household in South Sumatera has several kinds of productive activities to support their family income, that is non-rubber farm (such as paddy, fish, or horticulture) and non-farm activities (such as driver, trader,and farm worker). Their income from these sources canfulfill their needs, including primary, secondary needs and investment [1, 5, 6 and 10]. Severalstudies had been donein relationto this topic,whether conductedby theresearcherherself or byother researchers, on activities of farm householdsasone unit,asa producer and a consumer,especiallywhen they interactwiththe labormarket [3 and 8].Study about farm household economic behavior had been done for several commodities in Indonesia such as oil palm [4 and 12], food crops [11], and rubber farm [1, 5,6 and 10]. Most of these studies concluded that family labor supply, production and consumption interacted with each other (non-recursive), but another studyfound that those activities were separable (recursive) [11].Therefore, this study was to analyze how family members allocate their working time to several kinds of productive activities, how much each productive activity contribute to their family income, and how their income can be used to fulfill their family’sneeds (for food,non-food consumption and investment). This study also wantedto prove this interaction and to analyze thefactors thatinfluence farm household behavior. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study used the cross section data of 2012represented by 80 rubber farm households (5.15%) as respondents, from two villagespurposively in Musi Banyuasin, South Sumateraprovince.This study useddescriptive (by mathematical tabulation) and econometric analysis (simultaneous equation). The identification process proved that this model was over identified so that Two Stage Least Squares (2SLS) method could be applied [7]. Data processing was performed by SAS computer program.The analysisof economic behavior was derived from the concept of consumer’s utility maximizing, as follow [3 and 9]: Max U = u (X a , X, m , X l ) ………................…………………........….............................. (1) Subject to: P m X m + P a X a + W X l = S …………………..…….................……................….(2) So the Lagrange function can be: L = u (X a , X m , X l ) - (P m X m + P a X a + W X l - S) ……………….................................... (3) First Derivative of L-function can be found on the first order condition (FOC): L a = U / X a - P a = 0 or U a = P a ………………….….....…..…….…..……(4) Lm = U /
Xm-
P m = 0 or U m =
P m …………..…..……...................................(5)
Ll = U /
Xl -
W = 0 or U l =
P l …………….…..................…….....……… (6)
L = -(P m X m +P a X a + W X l - S) = 0 …………….…………….…………..……….… (7) or P m X m + P a X a + W X l = S …………………………………………………..........…(8) Next. by using the equation system, the consumer demands for good and service could be derived X i = f (P a , P m , W. S),for i = a. m. l…. ………………….………………..…...…….....…. (9)
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
17
In case of rubber farm household, the income determined by family productive activities. and will then influence their full income (S), then changed their consumer behavior through demand or the consumption (X a , X m , X l ). Consumer behavior will be influenced by production behavior through their income. By doing several times of model re-specifications,the rubber farm household’s economic behavior model could be estimated by using the system equation (consists of 12 structural and 8 identity equations). These equations are the allocation of the family working time (husband and wife in those productive activities), production and income (from rubber farm, non-rubber farm and off farm),consumption(for food and non-food) and saving. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Each farm household hasa rubber area of around 2.9 ha and non-rubber area of 1.45 ha on average,where the rubber farm is a primary activity. The farmers generally are in productive age and mostly in 40 to 56 years oldwith formal education atsecondary school level for wives and high school level for husbands. There are 4 family members per household on average.Allocation of working time by husband and wifeare for rubber farming (around 63%). and the rest on working time allocated equally for non-rubber farming (paddy or fish cultivation) and off farm activities. The rubber productivity in this area (1.87 tons/ha) is lowerthan in Indonesia (2.5 tons/ha) but still higher than in South Sumatera (1.46 tons/ha) [2]. The total family income is Rp61.45million per year, and the highest contribution (62.21%) come from rubber income (Rp38.22million/year). This rubber income is higher than farm household incomein a different area but in the same province(in Prabumulih). The rubber farm households allocate their income for their needs almost equally, that is for food consumption, non- food consumption and for investment or saving.This expenditure share for food consumption in this area (33.89%) is lower than farm household in Prabumulih (51.71%). This finding is supported by the Engel's Law, where the part of income used for food spending tends to decline when income increases. In other words, the higher income households will spend a smaller part of their income for food consumption [9]. The household working time behavior is affected by rubber farm area, non-rubber farm area, rubber farm income and off farm income. Rubber and non-rubberproduction are influenced by the number of family working time and rubber production cost. The farm household consumption behaviorsare affected by total income and number of family members. This result also proves that the farm household economic behavior will influence each other through their endogenous variables (non-recursive behavior). This behavior is the same for the same commodity but different area [1 and 5],for different commodity and area [4, 11 and 12]. Therefore, every farm household’s decision in oneproductive activity has to consider other activities, in terms of making income to fulfill their family’s need and increase their welfare. The estimation of economic behavior model of rubber farm household in this area is presented in Appendix A. CONCLUSION Based on the study, some conclusions can be made onsome sources of family income (from rubber farm non-rubber farm and off farm), and the highest portion of working time for rubber farm,thereby givingthe highest contribution to total income (around 62%). Mostly,the family incomeis higher than theirexpenditure,so they canfulfillall theirfamily needsfor food,non-food consumptions and investmentin equal share. Estimation of simultaneous equation has proved that the behavior of family labor supply (working time on productive activities), production and consumptioninteract each otherso that each decision made will influence the others. The rubber
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
18
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
farm householdsin this area have made accurate decisionwhere they do not rely only on rubber farm income (due to the unpredicted rubber price and low bargaining position in determining the product price), but they also make income from other sources. In order to develop their rubber farm as a competitive commodity, any government intervention (policy) should consider the rubber farm household as a complex economic and non-recursive behavior as indicated by the result ofthis study. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer is indebted to the staff from theDepartment of Agribusiness for their support and this study would not be possible without financial support from the President of Sriwijaya University (Rector), South Sumatra, Indonesia. Thank you very much for all your support. REFERENCES 1. Anggraini, R. 2011. Analysis of Rubber Farm Household Economic Behavior inPrabumulih, South Sumatera. Thesis . Post Graduate Program. Sriwijaya University. Palembang. (not published) 2. Agriculture Agency of South Sumatera Province. 2011. Rubber Smallholder Area and Production Data. Palembang. 3. Becker, G.S. 1976. The Economic Approach to Human Behavior. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago. 4. Husin, L. 2007. Performance of Oil Palm Nucleus Estate Smallholderin South Sumatera: Analysis of Partnership and Farm Household Economic. Ph.D Thesis. Post Graduate SchoolBogor Agriculture University. Bogor (not published). 5. Husin, L and D. Wulansari. 2011. Farm Household Economic Behavior in Prabumulih in Labor Allocation, Production and Consumption. Sriwijaya Unversity. Palembang (not published). 6. Husin, L. 2012. The Rubber Farm Household Behavior on Economic Activities to Achieve Family Food Security. APCBEE Procedia of ICCCA International Conference 23-24 July, 2012. Singapore. ISSN 2212-6708. p 168-171. 7. Koutsoyiannis, A. 1977. Theory of Econometrics, Second Edition. The Macmillan Press Ltd. London. 8. Nakajima, C., 1986. Subjective Equilibrium Theory of The Farm Household. Elsevier Science Publisher. Amsterdam. 9. Nicholson, W. 2000. Intermediate Microeconomics and Application (translation). Erlangga Press. Jakarta. 10. Perwitasari, L. 2012. Economic Analysis of Rubber Farm Household in Lais Sub District. Musi Banyuasin Regency. Thesis . Post Graduate Program. Sriwijaya University.Palembang. (not published) 11. Sawit, M.H. 1993. A Farm Household Model for Rural Households of West Java. Indonesia. PhD. Thesis. Department of Economics. University of Wollongong. Northfield Av. Wollongong. 12. Zahri, I. 2003. The Influencing of Family Labor Allocation to Farm Income of Oil Palm Nucleus Estate Smallholder n Post Replanting in South Sumatera. Dissertation. Post Graduate. Pajajaran University.Bandung. (not published).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
19
Effective Diffusion Coefficient of Okra During Hot Air Drying Kritsna Mongkolkerd* and Siva Achariyaviriya Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: This paper will focus on the development of a diffusion model for okra. The effects of drying temperature, moisture content and shrinkage of okra were investigated. The initial moisture content of okra was about 1030 - 1190% dry basis. The final moisture content of sample was about 18% dry basis. The shrinkage during drying process was considered as a function of sample moisture. The experimental data were fitted to the theoretical drying equation to determine the effective diffusion coefficient. The diffusion model developed Arrhenius-type equation by modifying Arrhenius factor and the activation energy (Ea). First model is used to estimate the effective diffusivity as a function of constant drying temperature. Second model, the Arrhenius factor is associated with the drying temperature and moisture content of the material in the seconddegree polynomial equation and the activation energy is related to the moisture content in the form of linear equation. Third model, the Arrhenius factor was similar to second model and the activation energy is related to the moisture content in the form of a second-degree polynomial equation. The results indicate that the predicted values of effective diffusion coefficient and moisture ratio calculated by using third model close to experimental data. Keywords: Okra, Drying Kinetics, Effective Diffusion Coefficient, Shrinkage INTRODUCTION Okra is a highly nutritious green edible pod vegetable. Botanically, this perennial flowering plant belongs to the mallow family and named scientifically as Abelmoschus esculentus. The plant is cultivated throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions around the world. The fibrous okra pods full of round, white colored seeds arranged in vertical rows which, when picked immature are eaten as a vegetable. The plant bears numerous dark green colored pods measuring about 5-15 cm in length. The majority of okra areas are the central region of Thailand (Nakhon Pathom, Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Suphan Buri, and Samut Sakhon provinces, including Bangkok, Ratchaburi, Kanchanaburi and Phichit). In 2011, the export value of okra was U.S. $10.8 million (Ministry of Commerce, 2012). Basically, okra is exported in two forms: fresh and frozen. Nevertheless, okra has short shelf life highly perishable 5-7 days at 10oC (Worraadul, 2009). Drying is one of most widely used primary methods of food preservation. Okra is traditional preserved by drying (Doymaz, 2005). Drying of okra has many researchers conduct by drying in some form; one of the most popular effective diffusion coefficients (Deff) is defined as a function of temperature as follows. Gogus and Maskan (1999) studied the drying kinetics of okra with hot air temperatures 6080OC by the slab material shaped is considered. The model for D eff in the form of the Arrhenius equation, the activation energy is equal to 32.4 kJ/mol. Doymaz, I. (2005) studied the okra have been conducted on drying temperatures 50-70OC at air velocity 1.0 m/s by the sphere material shaped is considered. The Deff values in the range of 4.27x10-10- 1.30x10-9 m2/s and the activation energy is 51.26 kJ/mol. Sobukola, O (2009) conducted by dried okra with drying temperatures 5070OC at air velocity 1.5 m/s. The samples considered as a slab shape, compared between pre-
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
20
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
treatment samples (hot water blanching, 1 and 3 %sodium metabisulphite solutions) and untreated samples. The values of Deff for treated and untreated samples were in the range of 1.125×10 -8– 9.937×10-9 m2/s and 1.165×10-8 – 7-131×10-9 m2/s. The activation energy values for treated and untreated samples were determined to be 16.479 kJ/mol and 22.437 kJ/mol respectively. Several researchers have attempted to improve relationships that have been used to express the dependence of the effective diffusion coefficient on moisture content, and hot air temperature. The effective diffusion coefficients of material are listed in Table 1. However, no report has been made on the effect of the drying characteristic of okra. The aim of this work was to predict effective diffusion coefficient of okra with a relationship between the drying temperature and moisture content. Table 1 Effective diffusion model functions with drying temperature and the moisture content Model Product 1. Grapes 2.
Longan flesh
3.
Longan without stone
4.
Mango
5.
Papaya
Model Equation Ea exp RTabs
Deff
D0 exp
Deff
2.567 10
Deff
( 14.260M 2
3
exp
CTabs
0.4899M 2
40.731M
370.40M 2
2303.6M RTabs
Deff
( 4.29M 2
275.7 M
Deff
( 6.86M 2
8.08M
exp
DM 2.634M
36.378) 10 35.533 10
2485.7) exp 0.36) exp
References Azzouz et al. (2002) 0.08618 exp 3
3
65.83 RTabs
41.23 RTabs
30.48 RTabs
Achariyaviriya et al. (2001) Achariyaviriya & Punyabute (2003) Achariyaviriya et al. (2000) Achariyaviriya et al. (2000)
MATERIALS AND METHODS Raw Material The whole Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench.) was used in this study. The diameter and length of whole Okra were in the range 16±1 mm. and 111±5 mm., respectively. They were purchased from a local market and stored in the refrigerator for 24 hours for equilibration of moisture. They were transferred to room temperature for 2 hours before each drying test. The initial moisture content of Okra was in the range of 1030 - 1190% dry basis. Drying Procedure The drying experiments were carried using thin layer dryer available in the drying laboratory of the Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University. The air temperature was controlled by electronic microcontroller by PID controller. Moisture losses during the drying process were measure using digital balance with an accuracy of ±0.001 g. Approximately 300 g of okra was prepared in each the experiment. The diameter and length of okra were measured by digital vernier before and after drying. The experiments were conducted in a thin layer dryer at hot air at the temperature of 45, 55 and 65 oC and air velocity was constant at 0.7 m/s. Drying experiments were conducted in triplicates. During drying process, drying temperature, product temperature, and weight of product were recorded every 15 minutes in the first hour, every 30
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
21
minutes to two hours later, with a 1 hour in 2 hours later, every 2 hours to 2 hours later and every 4 hours until the final moisture content of 18% dry basis, and the diameter and length of okra were measured after drying process. Mathematical Modeling The moisture content of sample can be determined from the analytical solution of Fick’s second law of diffusion for infinite cylinder shaped, considering the okra which can be expressed as (Crank, 1975): 4
MR n 1
2
exp
n
2 n
Deff t r2
(1)
where MR is moisture ratio defined as MR = (M)/(Min), Deff is effective diffusion coefficient (m 2/h), n is root of the Bessel equation of the first kind of zero order (J0( n) = 0, 1 = 2.4048, 2 = 5.5201, 3 = 8.6537, 4 = 11.7915, 5 = 14.9309, 6 = 18.0711, 7 = 21.2116, 8 = 24.3525, 9 = 27.4935, 10 = 30.6346). Drying of agricultural materials, most are shrinking the size of the material to which researchers (Achariyaviriya et al., 2001, Somjai et al., 2009) have studied the shrinkage of agricultural materials. The proportion of radial shrinkage correlated with the proportion of moisture. In this work, okra does experience significant shrinkage. The effective diffusion coefficients were calculated with shrinkage consideration. Shrinkage of sample was taken into account in the model, correlated as a linear function calculates the radiuses were obtained from equation (2). r rin
a
b
M M in
(2)
where r and rin are respectively the radius of material and the initial radius of the material, (m). Analytical model for effective diffusion coefficient (Deff) was divided into two cases. The first case (Model 1) the effective diffusion coefficient is determined by method of least square analysis of the experimental data to Equation (1). The dependent of the effective diffusion coefficient on drying temperature is considered as an Arrhenius-type equation. The second case the effective diffusion coefficient is assumed to be constant in the short period of the drying. At each short time period ( t = 0.001h), the effective diffusion coefficient is calculated by fitting of the experiment data to Equation (1), thereby obtaining the effective diffusion coefficient as a function of average moisture constant in that period. Then, bring the value of D eff, the average of moisture content of okra and drying temperature were fitted to Model 2. The Arrhenius Factor is a function of the moisture content in the form of second-degree polynomial and the Activation Energy as a function of the moisture content in the form of linear equations. Model 3 is similar as Model 2, by the Activation Energy as a function of the moisture content in the form of a polynomial second degree. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the all experiments indicate that were no constant drying rate period. Fig.1 illustrates the drying curves of okra at different temperatures. The drying times of okra were 53, 25 and 13 hours for corresponding the drying temperatures that were 45, 55 and 65 oC, respectively, in which air velocity of 0.7 m/s. The shrinkage ratio during drying is correlated with the fraction of moisture content as Equation (2). By comparing among different drying temperature, it was found that okra drying
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
22
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
process had the least degree of shrinkage. The evolution of shrinkage of okra after drying was about 49±1%. The values of a and b calculated by regression analysis were 0.496 and 0.504 for external radius, respectively. 1 0.9 0.8
45 C 55 C 65 C
Moisture Ratio
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Drying time (h)
Figure 1 Experimental drying curves of okra at drying temperature 45, 55 and 65
Figure 2 Experimental and predicted values of Deff according to equation (4)
Effective diffusion coefficient The first case Model 1, the effective diffusion coefficient was considering on drying temperatures. In this work, the Deff in drying of okra calculated with shrinkage consideration. The effective diffusion coefficient varies of 0.2915×10-6 m2/h - 0.9203×10-6 m2/h. The results show that the higher drying temperature resulted in the higher values of D eff because of the higher temperatures for drying materials with the vapor pressure that greater than the pressure outside. As a result, water moves through the pores of the material increases. In addition, Fig 2 shows the relations between Deff and drying temperature. These values can be expresses as in Table 2. 60
1.E-06
45 C 55 C 65 C
50
Temperature (oC)
Deff (m2/h)
1.E-06 8.E-07 6.E-07 4.E-07 2.E-07 0.E+00
40 30
Drying Temperature Product Temperature
20 10 0
0
5
10
15
0
Figure 3 Variation of Deff with moisture content at different drying temperatures
5
10
15
20
25
Drying Time (h)
Moisture content (decimal)
Figure 4 Comparison of drying temperature and product temperature at 55
The second case, the effective diffusion coefficient is assumed to be constant in the short period of the drying. The values of calculated Deff are related to the drying temperature and moisture content showing in Fig 3. In the first stages of drying, the D eff increases in inverse moisture content decrease until the moisture content of okra reached the 460.9 ± 35% dry basis and then it decrease with moisture content decrease until reached final moisture content at 18% dry basis. Traditionally at early period of drying increase product temperature resulted in increased value of Deff. The beginning of high moisture content material drying, the material has high
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
23
concentration of water that can cause the product temperature was lower than the drying temperature as shown in Fig 4. When the product temperature increase the value of effective diffusion coefficient of okra is gradually increasing. The later stages of drying, the moisture content of okra decrease and materials have shrunk. Caused by the internal resistance of okra, the water moved from inner material to surface lower. In addition, decreasing moisture content of the material reduces the concentration of water inner material. Consequently, the D eff decrease due to decrease of moisture content. However, the behavior might present more satisfactory agreement in the form of empirical equations as reported by many researchers (Luangmalawat, P et al.,2008; Lucia, M. et al.,2007; Achariyaviriya & Punyabute, 2003; Achariyaviriya et al.,2000) The effective diffusion coefficients calculated by curve fitting and the constant of drying expression in different model are calculated by fitting calculated data to the different equation. The results are presented in Table 2. The results show that model 3 is the highest coefficient of de te rm i na ti on (R 2 ) a nd t he va lue of root m ea n squa re er ror (RMSE ) i s l owe st . Fig. 5(a) shows the relationships between Deff and moisture content of okra. These values can be expressed as model 3, which is tended to underestimate the experiment results. The evolutions of experimental and predicted moisture ratios of okra are shown in Fig. 5(b). The result indicates that the calculation for moisture ratio of okra during the hot air temperature agree with the experiment in last period of drying. Forasmuch, in the early stages of the product temperature lower than drying temperature and high moisture content of okra.
8.E-07
1.2
7.E-07 1.0
Moisture Ratio
6.E-07
Deff (m2/h)
5.E-07 4.E-07
Experimental Model 1 (Prediction) Model 2 (Prediction) Model 3 (Prediction)
3.E-07 2.E-07 1.E-07 2
4
6
8
Moisture content (decimal)
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.E+00 0
Experimental Model 1 (Prediction) Model 2 (Prediction) Model 3 (Prediction)
10
0.0 0
5
10
15
20
25
Drying Time (h)
(a)
(b)
Figure 5 (a) Comparison of experimental and predicted the effective diffusion coefficient at 55 , (b) Comparison of experimental and predicted the moisture ratio at 55
Table 2 The effective diffusion coefficient models of okra drying. Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
24
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Model
Model equation
1
Deff
2
Deff
46.254 RTabs
11.541exp
a bM
cM 2 exp
- 13.07
1.433 10 2 M RTabs
R2
RMSE
0.852
7.49×10-8
0.936
5.54×10-8
0.986
2.28×10-8
a = [2.568×10-5+(-1.765×10-7T)+( 3.033×10-10T2)] b = [-4.845×10-6+(2.736×10-8T)+( -3.777×10-11T2)] c = [6.962×10-7+(-4.715×10-9T)+( 7.989×10-12T2)] 3
Deff
A BM
CM 2 exp
34.01
9.378 10 2 M RTabs
19.44M 2
A = [2.797×10-5+(-1.904×10-7T)+( 3.244×10-10T2)] B = [-9.434×10-6+(6.116×10-8T)+(-9.941×10-11T2)] C = [6.249×10-7+(-3.974×10-9T)+(6.336×10-12T2)]
where Ea is activation energy, (kJ/mol); R is gas constant, (8.314× 10-3kJ/mol.K); a, b, c, d, e, x, y, z, A, B, C are constant of drying expression; Tabs is absolute temperature (K). CONCLUSIONS The drying kinetics was created for okra drying. The model for thin layer was developed to test, validity and predictions on different experiment data. The drying temperature and the moisture content were correlated with the effective diffusion coefficient of the drying material. Whenever, the Deff values are increased with drying temperature. The model 3 described the Arrhenius factor (Do) associated with the drying temperature and moisture content of the material in the equation polynomial second degree, and the activation energy (E a) is related to the moisture content of the material in the polynomial second degree. It was found that model 3 was able to have better fit particularly towards the final period of drying. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research has been supported by Energy Conservation Promotion Fund. We also would like gratefully to thank faculty of science and technology Uttaradit rajabhat University for a scholarship, department of mechanical engineering faculty of engineering Chiang Mai University and Dr. John T. Harry Pearce, National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC) for editing for English language. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3.
A. Achariyaviriya and T. Punyabute, “Drying kinetic of longan fruit without stone”, Proceedings of AETC/ICCHP Precedes the National Farm Machinery Conference, 2003, Kentucky, USA. A. Achariyaviriya, S. Soponronnarit, and J. Tiaxuwan, “Study of longan flesh drying”, Drying Technology, 2001, 19(9), 2315-2329. S. Achariyaviriya, S. Soponronnarit, and A. Terdyothin, “Diffusion model of papaya and mango glace’ drying” Drying Technology, 2000, 18(7), 1605-1615.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
25
ASAE (2000), “ASAE S 352.2 Moisture measurement - Unground grain and seeds”, in “ASAE Standards”, 2000. St Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 563. S. Azzouz, A. Guizani, W. Jomaa, A. Belghith, “Moisture diffusivity and drying kinetic equation of convective drying of grapes”, Journal of Food Engineering, 2002, 55, 323-330. J. Crank, Diffusion in a cylinder, “The Mathematics of Diffusion”, 2se Edn., Oxford University Press, England, 1975, pp.69-88. I. Doymaz, “Drying characteristics and kinetics of okra”, Journal of food engineering, 2005, 69, 275-279. F.Gogus, and M. Maskan, “Water adsorption and drying characteristic of okra (Hibiscus Esculentus L.)” Drying Technology, 1999, 17, 883-894. M. B. Lucia, A. da Rosa Cezar, and A. A. Pinto Luiz, “Diffusive model with variable effective diffusivity considering shrinkage in thin layer drying of chitosan” Journal of Food Engineering, 2007, 81, 127–132. P. Luangmalawat, S. Prachayawarakorn, A. Nathakaranakule, and S. Soponronnarit, “Effect of temperature on drying characteristics and quality of cooked rice” LWT - Food Science and Technology, 2008, 41, 716–723. Ministry of Commerce, “Thailand Trading Report”, 2012, http://www.ops3.moc.go.th /infor /MenuComTH/stru1_export/export_topn_re/report.asp Okra nutrition facts, 2011, http://thrai.sci.ku.ac.th/node/1410; O. Sobukola, “Effect of Pre-Treatment on the Drying Characteristics and Kinetics of Okra (Abelmoschus esculetus (L.) Moench) Slices”, International Journal of Food Engineering, 2009, 5, Article 9. T. Somjai, S. Achariyaviriya, A. Achariyaviriya, and K. Namsanguan, “Strategy for longan drying in two-stage superheated steam and hot air”, Journal of food engineering, 2009, 95, 313–321. F. Worraadul, “Effects of controlled atmosphere storage and modified atmosphere packaging on quality of okra”, Master’ s Thesis, 2009, Kasetsart University, Thailand [in Thai].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
26
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Combustion Behaviors of Rice Husk in a Fluidized Bed with V-Ribs Pongjet Promvonge*, Suriya Chokphoemphun, Pattarapan Tongyote Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The research presents an effect of V-shaped ribs mounted diagonally into a fluidized rice-husk rectangular-bed on combustion behaviors. The temperature distributions inside the bed, exhaust gas emissions and combustion efficiency are taken into account in the present study. In the present work, the rib configurations, namely, 60º V-shaped ribs and 30º V–shaped ribs are introduced and placed diagonally in the upper part of the combustion chamber to generate counterrotating vortices in the chamber. Experiments are made by varying the percent excess air to be 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% at a constant mass flow rate of rice husk fuel of 7.4 kg/hr. The results show that the fluidized bed combustor with 60º V–shaped ribs at 20% excess air provides the highest combustion temperature of about 840 oC and the maximum combustion efficiency of 95.7%. Keywords: Fluidized-bed Combustor, Biomass Fuel, Rice Husk, Ribs INTRODUCTION Biomass has been come from various sources, such as agricultural crops, agricultural waste materials, wood and wood waste or the rest of the industry and the community. Biomass can be used to produce energy and seems to be popular because it was clean energy. Processing biomass into energy forms, there are many methods such as combustion, gasification, fermentation, etc. The direct combustion of biomass can be done in different kinds of combustor. There have been many investigators who studied the biomass combustion characteristics in various combustor types. Eiamsa-ard et al. [1] experimentally studied the combustion characteristics of rice husk fuel in a multi-staging vortex combustor. The technique provided the maximum temperature of about 950 °C in the chamber with less smoke of flue gas. Besides, the emissions and the sizes of fly-ash particles from the exhaust stack can be controlled by the secondary air ratio. Eiamsa-ard et al. [2] measured the temperature distributions and the flue gas emissions during the combustion of fine and normal rice husk fuels in the vortex-combustor. They observed that the fine rice husk fuel yields a significant effect on the temperature distributions inside and helps to reduce emissions and the fly ash elutriated. Rozainee [3] focused on investigating the optimum fluidizing velocity during the combustion of rice husk in a bench-scale fluidized bed combustor (ID 210 mm) to obtain low carbon ash in the amorphous form. The range of fluidizing velocities investigated was from as low as 1.5 Umf to as high as 8 Umf. It was found that the optimum fluidizing velocity was approximately 3.3 Umf as the mixing of rice husk with the bed was good with a high degree of penetration into the sand bed. Madhiyanon [4] described the combustion characteristics of co-firing rice husk with bituminous coal in a 120 kWth-capacity cyclonic fluidized-bed combustor, and how excess air ratios and fuel blends impacted emissions and combustion efficiency.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
27
Duan et al. [5] conducted experiments on rice husk combustion in a vortexing fluidized-bed combustor (VFBC) with flue gas recirculation (FGR). The effect of FGR on combustion characteristics is investigated. In addition, the effect of operating variables such as excess oxygen ratio, and in-bed stoichiometric oxygen ratio on the temperature distributions, pollutants emissions, and combustion efficiency are also studied. The results show that the combustion efficiency of rice husk can reach 99% at optimal operation condition. CO emission increases with the in-bed stoichiometric oxygen ratio, but decreases with excess oxygen ratio. NO x emissions show inverse trend, and it can be effectively reduced by using FGR in the VFBC. Janvijitsakul and Kuprianov [6] investigated major gaseous (CO and NOx) and PAH emissions from a 400 kWth fluidized-bed combustor with a cone-shaped bed (referred to as ‘conical FBC’) firing rice husk with high, over 99%, combustion efficiency. Experimental tests were carried out at the fuel feed rate of 80 kg/h for different values of excess air (EA). The combustion of rice husk as fuel was performed in a 30 kW th atmospheric bubbling fluidized bed pilot plant of CIEMAT. The influence of different variables such as temperature, fluidization velocity on the combustion efficiency and CO emissions was investigated by Armesto et al. [7]. This work was aimed at studying the combustion of rice husk in a fluidized-bed combustor fitted with V-shaped ribs used as the vortex generator. The effects of attack angle of the V-shaped ribs and excess air on temperature distribution, gas emission characteristics and combustion efficiency were the main focus of this experimental study. MATERIALS AND METHODS Apparatus The experimental set-up of the fluidized-bed combustor system was shown in Fig. 1. The square-cross-sectional fluidized bed combustor is divided into 4 parts: mixing chamber, combustion chamber, extension section part or nozzle and freeboard. All the details of the combustor were introduced; mixing chamber and nozzle have height of 250 mm, combustion chamber has cross section area of 200x200 mm and 1000 mm height and freeboard has cross section area of 300x300 mm and 800 mm height. The combustor was insulated with ceramic insulator. Air was drawn to the rig through a blower. The air was separated into two lines for primary and secondary combustion air where the flow rates of both lines were controlled by the gate valves and orifice flow meter. LPG was supplied to the chamber for preheating. Rice husk was kept in a hopper and fed to the chamber via screw feeder, driven by a motor. The feeding rate was controlled by an inverter, connected to the motor. The temperature of the combustion air in the chamber were tapped and monitored for 10 stations along the combustion chamber with K-type thermocouple probes. The exhausted gas was trapped by a cyclone collector to collect dust before leaving to the surrounding. The flue gas emissions at the exit were measured by a calibrated gas analyzer (Testo 350 MXL). All data collection was taken at steady state conditions. Figure 2 presents the details of the four 30° and 60° V-shaped ribs placed repeatedly by holding both rib-ends with steel plates to tie them together. The pitch spacing of the V-ribs is 100 mm apart. The V-shaped triangular ribs were mounted diagonally on the haft-top portion of the combustion chamber.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
28
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 1 Experimental setup of fluidized-bed combustor system.
Figure 2 Details of 30° and 60° V-shaped ribs. Method The rice husk particles were milled, grinded and sieved up to 2×8 mm and stored in the laboratory under dry condition. A blower supplied the air into the combustor while rice husk was fed through a screw feeder and injected to the bottom part of the combustion chamber by pneumatic, conveying via the primary air. Start-up process was commenced by heating up the combustor with LPG torch inserted at the mixing chamber. The preheating took about 30 minutes for the chamber to raise its temperature to be about 500°C. Then the feeding commenced through the hopper, slowly at the first with the fine rice husk until 7.4 kg/hr and then kept constant. The preheating stopped when the temperature in the chamber reached 700-800 °C, The tests were conducted for four excess air values, EA=10, 20, 30 and 40%. Temperature measurements at ten specific stations in the test system were monitored at various selected locations with K-type thermocouple probes while the volumetric flow rate of primary and secondary airs was measured by the orifice meters. The measured data include temperature at various locations, primary and secondary air flow rate and fly-ash sampling for each run were taken at steady state condition.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
29
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Temperature Distributions The effect of using the 30° and 60° V-shaped ribs on combustion temperature distributions along the combustor height including the case of chamber with no rib was depicted in Fig. 3. The temperatures of the chambers with the 60o and 30o V-shaped rib inserts are found to be higher than that the chamber with no rib at about 130oC and 80oC, respectively, because the V-ribs can generate vortex flows that assist to better chaotic mixing between the rice husk fuel and the combustion air. In addition, the use of the V-ribs also prolongs the residence time of burning rice husk inside the combustor. The use of the V-ribs leads to higher combustion temperature of about 10-20% above that of no rib for all EA values as can been seen in Fig. 3. 2000 EA 10% 1800 1600
o
60 V-ribs o 30 V-ribs No-ribs
EA 20% o
60 V-ribs o 30 V-ribs No-ribs
EA 30% o
60 V-ribs o 30 V-ribs No-ribs
EA 40% o
60 V-ribs o 30 V-ribs No-ribs
Height (mm)
1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 400 500 600 700 800 400 500 600 700 800 400 500 600 700 800 400 500 600 700 800 900
Temperature (oC)
Figure 3 Temperature distributions in the fluidized-bed combustor The influences of the excess air on temperature distributions in fluidized bed combustor with two V-shaped ribs are presented in Fig. 4. It can be observed that, at lower EA value (EA =10%), complete combustion process occurs at the combustion chamber, resulting in a high temperature in this zone and then lower temperature is found for the increase of the height of combustor or in the freeboard zone. For EA=20%, The experimental result shows the highest mean temperature in the combustion zone for both cases of 30° and 60° V-shaped ribs and then the temperature is reduced in the freeboard zone. The mean combustion temperatures for the 30° and 60° V-shaped ribs at excess air is 20% are around 660oC and 700oC respectively. For the EA > 20% or further increasing the fluidizing velocity, the combustion temperatures tend to reduce gradually since the strong combustion intensity zone will move to the top of the freeboard and increases the losses in unburned combustibles. Gas Emissions The flue gas emissions of CO and NOx for various excess air values are presented in Fig. 5. As can be seen in the figure, the combustion chamber with V-shaped ribs shows the emission of CO to be lower than the chamber without ribs due to much better mixing between fuel and combustion apart from prolonging the residence time leading to more complete combustion inside the combustor. The combustion chamber with 60 o V-shaped ribs at excess air, EA=20% presents the minimum CO emission. The emission of NOx is seen to decrease for increasing the excess air when the EA>20%. The NOx values of the chamber with V-ribs are found to be higher than that the chamber with no ribs because of higher combustion temeperature. From the experimental data, the values of CO and NOx were between 234 - 270 ppm and 120 - 158 ppm, respectively.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
30
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
2000
2000
o
30 V-ribs
1600
EA = 10% EA = 20% EA = 30% EA = 40%
1800 1600
1400
1400
Heigth (mm)
Heigth (mm)
o
60 V-ribs
EA = 10% EA = 20% EA = 30% EA = 40%
1800
1200 1000
1200 1000
800
800
600
600
400
400
200 500
600
700
800
o
200 500
900
600
Temperature ( C)
700
Temperature (oC)
800
900
Figure 4 Temperature distributions in fluidized bed combustor with V-shaped ribs. 400
250 o
60 V-ribs o 30 V-ribs No-ribs
350
o
60 V-ribs o 30 V-ribs No-ribs
200
NOx (ppm)
CO (ppm)
300
250
150
100
200
50
150
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
0
10
20
30
40
EA (%)
EA (%)
(a)
(b)
Figure 5 Emissions of exhaust gases (a) CO and (b) NO x 100 o
60 V-ribs o 30 V-ribs No-ribs
98
Eff (%)
96
94
92
90
0
10
20
30
40
50
EA (%)
Figure 6 Combustion efficiency against excess air.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
50
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
31
Combustion Efficiency Influences of the excess air (EA) on the combustion efficiency are depicted in Fig. 6 for using V-ribs. In the figure, it is found that the maximum combustion efficiency for both V-ribs is found at the excess air, EA=20%. The 60° V-ribs provides the maximum combustion efficiency at about 2% higher than the 30° V-ribs. The combustion efficiency of the V-ribs tends to slightly decrease for EA > 20% or EA < 20% for both the V-ribs used. The combustion efficiency of the combustor with V-ribs is found between 94.6-95.7%, depending on excess air values. The combustion efficiency of the bed with V-ribs is seen to be better than that of the one with no rib at about 5%. This indicates the merit of using the V-ribs to generate vortex flows inside the combustor. CONCLUSION An experimental investigation has been conducted to examine the combustion temperature distributions, gas emissions and the combustion efficiency in a fluidized-bed rice-husk combustor fitted with 30o and 60o V-shaped ribs. The experimental results reveal that the bed with V-shaped ribs provides much higher combustion temperatures and combustion efficiency than that with no rib. The fluidized-bed combustor with V-shaped ribs can be operated at higher excess air and therefore the combustion air is sufficient to provide higher fuel and air mixing to complete the combustion. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
S. Eiamsa-ard, Y. Kaewkaokiet, W. Lelaphatikul, C. Thianpong, P. Promvonge "Experimental investigation of combustion characteristics in a multi-staging vortex combustor firing rice husk", Int. Comm. Heat Mass Transfer, 2008, 35, 139-148. S. Eiamsa-ard, P. Akkarakuntron, P. Promvonge, "Effects of fuel particle sizes on combustion behaviors in a rice husk fired vortex combustor", The 2nd Regional Conference on Energy Technology towards a Clean Environment., Phuket, 2003, paper number 1-029-0. M. Rozainee, S.P. Ngo, A.A. Salema, K.G. Tan, M. Ariƥn, Z.N. Zainura, "Eơect of fluidising velocity on the combustion of rice husk in a bench-scale fluidised bed combustor for the production of amorphous rice husk ash", Bioresource Technology., 2008, 99, 703–713. T. Madhiyanon, P. Sathitruangsak, S. Soponronnarit. "Co-combustion of rice husk with coal in a cyclonic fluidized-bed combustor ( -FBC) ", Fuel, 2009, 88 132–138. Feng Duan, Chien-Song Chyang, Chien-Wei Lin, Jim Tso. "Experimental study on rice husk combustion in a vortexing fluidized-bed with flue gas recirculation (FGR)", Bioresource Technology., 2013, 134, 204–211. K. Janvijitsakul, V. I. Kuprianov, "Major gaseous and PAH emissions from a fluidized-bed combustor firing rice husk with high combustion efficiency". Fuel Processing Technology, 2008, 89, 777 – 787. L. Armesto, A. Bahillo, K. Veijonen, A. Cabanillas, J. Otero, "Combustion behaviour of rice husk in a bubbling fluidised bed", Biomass and Bioenergy., 2002, 23, 171 – 179
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
32
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Heat Transfer Characteristics in Square Duct with Winglet Inserts Supattarachai Suwannapan1, Sompol Skullong2, Teerapat Chompookham3, Pongjet Promvonge1* and Chinaruk Thianpong1 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering at Si Racha, Kasetsart University Si Racha Campus, 199 M.6, Tungsukhla, Si Racha, Chonburi, 20230, Thailand 3 Heat Pipe and Thermal Tools Design Research Unit (HTDR), Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham 44150, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: This work presents an experimental study on thermal performance enhancement in a constant heat-fluxed square-duct heat exchanger inserted with winglets. The experiments are carried out by varying airflow rate range in terms of Reynolds number (Re) from 4000 to 25,000. The heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics in the square duct are presented in terms of Nusselt number (Nu) and friction factor (f), respectively. The effects of winglet inserts on heat transfer and pressure loss behaviors in the square duct are investigated. Several winglet parameters are introduced such as winglet to duct height ratio or blockage ratio, (BR = 0.3), pitch to duct height ratio or pitch ratio, (PR = 1.0 and 1.5) and the attack angles, ( = 30 , 45 and 60 ). The results reveal that the heat transfer and friction factor values from using the winglet are increased with the rise of the attack angle but with the decrease in PR. The winglet pair at = 30 and PR = 1.0 provides the highest thermal performance. Keywords: Heat Transfer, Square Duct, Winglet, Friction Factor, Thermal Enhancement Factor INTRODUCTION A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants and chemical plants. The increasing of heat transfer and thermal performance in a heat exchanger system is the target of the experiment. Many engineering techniques have been devised for enhancing the rate of convective heat transfer from the wall surface such as coating of the surfaces, rough surfaces and extended surfaces in order to increase heat transfer rate leading to the compact heat exchanger and increasing the efficiency. The uses of turbulator such as winglets, ribs, twist tape, wire coil, etc., are the techniques for enhancing heat transfer rate and results in the change of the flow field and hence the variation of the local heat transfer coefficient increases not only the heat transfer rate both for the increased turbulence degree and for the effects caused by reattachment but also substantial the pressure loss. Several investigations have been carried out to study the effect of these parameters of turbulators on heat transfer and friction factor. Promvonge et al. [1,2] studied experimentally and numerically the turbulent flow over 30° angle-finned tapes inserted diagonally in the square duct. They noted that at smaller fin pitch spacing provides the highest heat transfer and friction factor. The thermal performance of the finned tape turbulator is found to be much higher
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
33
than that of the wire-coil/twisted-tape turbulators. Eiamsa-ard [3] reported the effects of insertion of tandem wire coil elements used as turbulator in a square duct. It was found that the use of the fulllength wire coil provides higher heat transfer and friction factor than the tandem wire coil elements. Chompookham et al. [4] examined the effects of combined wedge ribs and winglet type vortex generators (WVGs) in the channel and found that the Nusselt number and friction factor values obtained from combined the ribs and the WVGs are much higher than those from the ribs/WVGs acting alone. Promvonge [5] investigated thermal characteristics of circular and square-wire coils inserted tubes and presented that the square-wire coil performs better than the circular-one. Tanda [6] studied the effect of transverse, angled ribs, discrete, angled discrete ribs, V-shaped, V-shaped broken and parallel broken ribs on heat transfer and flow friction. Wang and Sunden [7] investigated using several inserted devices for both laminar and turbulent regions and found that the coiled wire performed eơectively in enhancing heat transfer in a turbulent flow region, whereas the twisted tape yielded a poorer overall eƥciency. Chandra et al. [8] carried out measurements on heat transfer and pressure loss in a square channel with continuous ribs on four walls and reported that the heat transfer augmentation increased with the rise in the number of ribbed walls. Han et al. [9, 10] studied experimentally the heat transfer in a square channel with ribs on two walls for nine different rib configurations. In the present work, the experiment has been conducted for turbulent duct flow over winglets in a square duct with the main aim being to study the changes in the flow pattern and heat transfer performance. The use of the winglet is expected to create a vortex flow throughout the tested duct to better mixing of flows between the core and near-wall regimes leading to higher heat transfer rate. MATERIALS AND METHODS A schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus is presented in Fig. 1 while the detail of the winglet, inserted horizontally into the core of the square duct is shown in Fig. 2. In Fig. 1, the square duct and winglet configurations were characterized by the duct height, H of 45 mm and winglet to duct height ratio or blockage ratio, (e/H=BR= 0.3), two winglet-pitch to duct height ratios or pitch ratios (PR=P/H=1 and 1.5) and the three winglet attack angles ( =30°, 45° and 60°). The tested duct made of 3 mm thick aluminum sheets has a cross section of 45×45 mm 2 and 1000 mm. length (L). The winglet strip sizes was 13.5 mm high (e) with 0.3 mm thickness (t). The test section consisted of the four heating walls, used for heating all walls of the test section in order to maintain a uniform surface heat flux. Air as the test fluid was directed into the systems by a high-pressure blower. The operating speed of the blower was varied by using an inverter to provide desired airflow rates. The airflow rate in the system was measured by using an orifice plate system. The pressure drop across the orifice was measured using an inclined manometer. To measure temperature distributions, twenty eight thermocouples were fitted to the walls included two thermocouples to measure the inlet and outlet bulk temperatures positioned upstream and downstream of the test duct. All thermocouples were type-K. The thermocouple voltage outputs were fed into a data acquisition system and then recorded via a personal computer. Two static pressure taps were located at the top of the wall to measure axial pressure drops across the test section, used to evaluate the friction factor. One of these taps were positioned upstream of the test duct and the other were positioned downstream. The pressure drop was measured by a digital differential pressure.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
34
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus.
Figure 2 Test section with the winglet inserts. DATA REDUCTION The Reynolds number based on the duct hydraulic diameter is given by
Re UDh /
(1) The average heat transfer coefficients are evaluated from the measured temperatures and heat inputs. With heat added uniformly to fluid (Qair) and the temperature difference of wall and fluid (Tw-Tb), average heat transfer coefficient will be evaluated by: Qconv Qair Qconv mC p To Ti VI h (2) ~ A Ts Tb ~ in which, Tb (To Ti ) / 2 (3) and Ts Ts / 28 ~
The term A is the convective heat transfer area of the heated channel wall whereas Ts is the average surface temperature. Then, average Nusselt number is written as: hDh (4) Nu k The friction factor is evaluated by: 2 P f (5) L / Dh U 2 where P is the pressure drop across the test section and U is the mean air velocity of the channel.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
35
The thermal enhancement factor (TEF) defined as the ratio of the, h of an augmented surface to that of a smooth surface, h0, at equal pumping power, calculated by the equation as below: h h0
Nu = Nu0 pp
Nu = Nu0 pp
f f0
13
(6)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Verification of Smooth Duct The present experimental result shows the Nusselt number and friction factor obtained from the present smooth duct are compared with the correlations of Gnielinski and Petukhov Ref. [11]. Correlation of Gnielinski, f / 8 Re 1000 Pr Nu for 3000 < Re < 5 x 106 (7) 1/ 2 2/3 1 12.7 f / 8 Pr 1 Correlation of Petukhov 2 for 3000 < Re < 5 x 106 (8) f 0.79 ln Re 1.64 Figure 3a and b shows, respectively, a comparison of Nusselt number and friction factor obtained from the present work with those from correlations of Eqs. (7) and (8). In the figures, the present results reasonably agree very well within ±2.8% and ±3.2%.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3 Validation of (a) Nu and (b) f for smooth duct. Effect of Pitch Ratio Effects of winglet pitch spacing ratios on heat transfer rate and friction factor are presented in Fig. 4a and b, respectively. In Fig. 4a, the winglet insert provides a considerable heat transfer rate with a similar trend in comparison with the smooth duct and the Nu tends to increase with reducing the PR, but with the rise of Re. The inserted duct with PR=1 provide heat transfer rate higher than the one with PR=1.5 at the same attack angle. This caused by the PR=1 winglet interrupting the flow and promoting higher level of vortex strength which is a major component of turbulent flow providing higher heat transfer rate than the PR=1.5 one. It is also observed in Fig. 4b that the winglet inserts yield a substantial increase in friction factor over the smooth duct. The friction factor shows a slight decrease with the rise of Re. The friction factor for the PR=1 is higher than that for the PR=1.5 as the same attack angle.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
36
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Effect of Attack Angles Figure 4a and 4b present the comparison of Nusselt number and friction factor with Re for different attack angles. It is visible in Fig. 4a that the Nu increases with the rise of attack angle. This can be attributed to the higher flow blockage of the winglet with larger the attack angle that can help to induce stronger vortex strength behind the winglet. The 60° winglet provides the highest heat transfer rate. In Fig. 4b, the friction factor for the larger attack angle is found to be considerably higher than the smaller one and tends to reduce slightly with the increase in Re. The 60° winglet shows the highest pressure drop while the 30° winglet gives the lowest.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4 Variation of (a) Nu and (b) f with Re Performance evaluation The Nusselt number ratio, Nu/Nu0, defined as a ratio of the augmented Nusselt number to Nusselt number of smooth duct and the isothermal friction factor ratio, f/f0, plotted against the Re are depicted in Fig. 5a and b, respectively. In Fig. 5a, it can be observed that the Nu/Nu0 shows a decrease trend with the rise of Re. The 60 winglet with PR=1 provides higher value of Nu/Nu0 than the others at the same BR. The use of PR=1 and =60 yields the Nu/Nu0 at about 2.0-2.8 times higher than the smooth duct. In Fig. 5b, the f/f0 is found to increase with the rise of Re. The 60 winglet with PR=1 yields the highest value of f/f0 at the same BR. The 60 winglet with PR=1 gives a substantial increase in the f/f0 at about 8–13 times above the smooth duct. The maximum Nu/Nu0 is found at the lowest Re. Figure 5c shows the variation of the TEF with Re. For all, the data of Nu/Nu0 and f/f0 are compared at equal pumping power. In the figure, the TEF tends to decrease with the rise of Re and values. It is seen that the 30 winglet with PR=1 performs the highest TEF of 1.55 at the lowest Re.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
(a)
37
(b)
Figure 5 Variation of (a) Nu/Nu0, (b) f/f0 and (c) TEF with Re.
(c) CONCLUSION An experimental work has been carried out to examine airflow friction and heat transfer characteristics in a square-duct heat exchanger fitted with BR=0.3 winglets at different the attack angles and pitch ratios for Reynolds number from 4000 to 25,000. The use of the winglets leads to a considerable increase in the pressure drop and heat transfer rate. The heat transfer and friction factor values for the winglets are increased with the rise of the attack angle but show an opposite trend with the PR. The 60 winglet with PR=1.0 provides the highest Nu/Nu0 and f/f0 of about 2.0-2.8 and 8–13 times, respectively. The 30 winglet at PR = 1.0 yields the highest TEF of 1.55. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The financial support of this research from the Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) is gratefully acknowledged. REFERENCES 1. P. Promvonge, S. Skullong, S. Kwankaomeng and C. Thiangpong, “Heat transfer in square duct fitted diagonally with angle-finned tape–Part 1: Experimental study”. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer., 2012, 39, 617-624. 2. P. Promvonge, S. Skullong, S. Kwankaomeng and C. Thiangpong, “Heat transfer in square duct fitted diagonally with angle-finned tape–Part 2: Numerical study”. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer., 2012, 39, 625-633. 3. S. Eiamsa-ard, N. Koolnapadol and P. Promvonge, “Heat transfer behavior in a square duct with tandem wire coil element insert”, Chin. J. Chem. Eng., 2012, 20, 863-869. Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
38
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
4. T. Chompookham, C. Thianpong, S. Kwankaomeng and P. Promvonge, “Heat transfer augmentation in a wedge-ribbed channel using winglet vortex generators”, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer., 2010, 37, 163–169. 5. P. Promvonge, “Thermal performance in circular tube fitted with coiled square wires”, Energy Conver. Manage., 2008, 49, 980–987. 6. G. Tanda, “Heat transfer in rectangular channels with transverse and V-shaped broken ribs”, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer., 2004, 47, 229–243. 7. L. Wang and B. Sunden, “Performance comparison of some tube inserts”, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer., 2002, 29, 45–56. 8. P.R. Chandra, C.R. Alexander and J.C. Han, “Heat transfer and friction behaviors in rectangular channels with varying number of ribbed walls”, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer., 2003, 46, 481-495. 9. J.C. Han, Y.M. Zhang and C.P. Lee, “Influence of surface heat flux ratio on heat transfer augmentation in square channels with parallel, crossed, and V-shaped angled ribs”, ASME. J. Turbomach., 1992, 114, 872–880. 10. J.C. Han, Y.M. Zhang and C.P. Lee, “Augmented heat transfer in square channels with parallel, crossed and V-shaped angled ribs”, ASME. Heat Transfer., 1991, 113, 590–596. 11. F. Incropera and P.D. Dewitt, “Introduction to heat transfer”, 5th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2006.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
39
The History of Pharmacy Education in Thailand Chalermsri Pummangura*, Pithan Kositchaivat Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University, 38 Petkasem Rd., Phasicharoen, Bangkok, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The upcoming centennial anniversary of Thai pharmacy, December 8th, 2013 is regarded as one of the most important events in the Thai pharmacy history. This long remarkable history has led to the interesting development of pharmacy in Thailand. Pharmacy education on Thailand was established on December 8th, 1913. At the beginning, the study duration based on the pharmacy curriculum used to be only a three - year study. It was later changed to four, five, and six year study in 1939, 1957 and 2008, respectively. The current curriculum also requires much greater professional practice that in the past. This also included knowledge and insights from many other areas apart from Pharmacy and therefore has become Pharmacy Interdisciplinary Study. With concern to the real practice, the faculty of pharmacy is currently supported by both government and private sectors. It emphasizes patient oriented practice in various settings such as drug stored, hospitals (primary, secondary and tertiary), and so on. The pharmaceutical care approach has been significantly improved and smoothly synchronized with Thai culture both in terms of institution and home perspectives. The latest Thai pharmacy’s development is family practice pharmacy. All pharmacists must not only take good care of patients, but show great concern to the whole members of the family. Although pharmaceutical technology has remained as the most important area in the pharmacy industry, the significance of real practice pharmacy has greatly increased which would be more applicable and suitable for each different culture. In order to honor and respect the prestige and long history of Thai pharmacy, there will be several grand centennial celebrations at the end of the year on December 8th, 2013. Keywords: Pharmacy, Patient Oriented Practice, Family Practice Pharmacy INTRODUCTION Pharmacy education in Thailand was first established on December 8 th, 1913. At the beginning, the study duration based on the pharmacy curriculum used to be only a three-year study. It was later changed to four, five, and six year study in 1939, 1957, and 2008 respectively. This means any faculties of pharmacy established after 2008 must be only six-year study at the greatest. In the early period, the study of pharmacy was only theoretical lecture in a classroom and laboratory. Then it was gradually transformed to include more professional practice. Since 1974, there has been a significant increase in the number of the contents relating to clinical pharmacy which are included in the pharmacy curriculum. This led to the establishment of pharmaceutical care education and was later developed to family pharmacy [1-21].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
40
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
DEFINITIONS Clinical Pharmacy Clinical pharmacy is a part of the pharmacy practice that contributes directly to patient care which develops and promotes the rational and appropriate use of the medicinal products and devices [15]. Pharmaceutical Care Pharmaceutical care is a patient-centered practice in which the practitioner assumes responsibility for patient’s drug related needs and is held accountable and commitment [7]. Pharmaceutical care is the responsibility of pharmacists in efficacy and safety drug-used. Therefore, pharmacists should educate patients not only about the proper use of prescribed medicine, but also the appropriate self medication to fulfill patient’s need and achieve good quality of life [5]. Family Pharmacy Family pharmacy is the responsibility of pharmacist in taking care of patients and also their family. This also includes teaching them the correct use of medications in order to improve their quality of life. Therefore, it is essential that their duty should cover both holistic care and good collaboration with other healthcare personnel (physician, nurses, etc) [20]. Pharmaceutical Sciences The original pharmaceutical study is a rather broad subject. It includes pharmacy technology, preparations in small scale and large scale, research and development, and all procurement of raw material, packaging, quality control, quality assurance in each steps of production in order to deliver good quality and safety pharmaceutical products [21]. HISTORY [1-21] Pharmacy education in Thailand is divided into 3 phrases: the past, the present, and the future. The Past Phrase The beginning period of pharmacy education was from December 8th, 1913 to the end of 1957. During this phrase, the curriculum was based on technology and pharmaceutical sciences. Moreover, there was only one faculty of pharmacy located in Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. From 1957 to 2008, there were total of 15 pharmacy faculties in Thailand. Ten of these received governmental support, while the remaining five were private universities. All universities implemented a five-year study curriculum except Siam University who used six-year study. Also, other universities offered a degree of Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy (B.Sc in Pharm), whereas only Siam University offered Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm D.) degree. The Present Phase Another four pharmacy faculties were established in this present period. All of them are supported by government and use 6-year curriculum. Currently there are 19 Pharmacy Schools in Thailand as follows;
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
41
Four Faculties are located in the North: - Chiang Mai University - Naresuan University - Payao University - Payap University (Private) Three Faculties are located in the Northeast: - KhonKaen University - UbonRatchathani University - Mahasarakham University Ten Faculties in the Central, including Bangkok - Chulalongkorn University - Mahidol University - Silpakorn University - Sri Nakarinviroj University - Rangsit University (Private) - HuaChiew University (Private) - Siam University (Private) - Eastern Asia University (Private) - Burapha University - Thammasat University Two Faculties in the South - Prince of Songkla University - Walailak University One of the most significant organizations involving pharmacy education is The Pharmacy Council of Thailand. The Pharmacy Council was established in 1994. They were the one who set up the standard of pharmacy study. In addition, all faculties of pharmacy must be accredited by the Pharmacy Council and those which established after 2008 must be six-year study only. The Standard Pharmacy Curriculum consists of: - General education (30 credits) - Core pharmacy subjects (144-184 credits) - Pharmaceutical Sciences - Pharmaceutical Care - Social and Administrative Pharmacy Science - Professional Practice credits (2000 hours) - Professional Elective (6 credits) Professional practice includes: - Compulsory practice 400 hours - Specialized practice 1600 hours - Specialized practice: o Medicine Clerkship I o Medicine Clerkship II o Ambulatory Pharmacy Clerkship o Community Pharmacy Clerkship I, II o Hospital Pharmacy Clerkship - Elective practice: o Pediatric Clerkship o Industrial Pharmacy Clerkship o Psychiatry Clerkship Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
42
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
o o o o
Oncology Clerkship Nephrology Clerkship Drug Information Clerkship Adverse Drug Reaction Clerkship
Note: The total of credits must be at least 220 credits. Each school of pharmacy can independently set up courses or main objectives according to their specialization such as patient care (pharmaceutical care) or pharmaceutical sciences and technology. Higher Education Since 2003, college of pharmacotherapy was established under the supervision of the Pharmacy Council of Thailand (Pharmacotherapy (2003)). The other area is Consumer Protection (2012). In the past, all graduates used to obtain the pharmacy licenses automatically. However, after the year 2007, only those who have passed the exams administered by the Pharmacy Council of Thailand would be qualified for the licenses. By the year 2014, license qualification would require two levels of exams provided by the Pharmacy council of Thailand. After pharmacy students have completed their fourth year at universities, they are required to take the first level qualification exam. By passing this exam, they would be allowed to participate in internship and externship programs. At the end of their sixth year, they are obliged to take another qualification exam and practice in professional pharmacy settings in order to receive pharmacy licenses and finally become the qualified pharmacists. In order to achieve higher education, pharmacists with licenses have two choices; academic or practice purposes. For academic principle, they could pursue Master degrees and Doctorate degrees in pharmacy programs. On the other hand, those pharmacists who are more interested in patients and pharmacy practice, they could obtain Board of Certified Pharmacotherapy (BCP) instead. The Future Phrase All faculties of pharmacy have to improve their proficiency both in terms of theories and practices to be able to effectively cooperate with ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). In doing so, it would ease the exchange of knowledge among pharmacists within ASEAN nations. Therefore, this would be a giant leap for Thai pharmacy education which requires good collaboration among all parties including universities, government, and pharmacy experts. The two significant changes are the start of the new semester will be changed by next year (2014) and the study curriculum would greatly incorporate foreign languages especially English and local languages used by the members countries in ASEAN. In order to honor and respect the prestige and long history of Thai pharmacy, there will be several grand centennial celebrations and activities including academic conferences at the end of the year on December 8th, 2013. REFERENCES 1. 2.
P. Plengvidthaya, “72th Year of Pharmacy Education”, Chulalongkorn University Press, Bangkok, 1986. P. Pothiyanond, “86th Year Pharmacy Education in Thailand 1914-1994”, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Bangkok, 1994.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
43
The Pharmacy council Act, 1994. C. Pummangura, “Pharmaceutical Care”, in “Pharmacotherapy in Hospital” (Ed. B. Chindavijak and N. Suksomboon), Thaimitr Publication, Bangkok, 1996. C. Pummangura, “Pharmaceutical care: New wave of clinical pharmacy profession”, Clinic, 1996, 10, 635-640. C. Pummangura, “Pharmaceutical Care, Concept through Practice, Pediatric Model”, Proceedings of the 1st Indochina Conference on Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmacy in Harmony, 1997, Bangkok, Thailand. R. Cipolle, L.M. Strand, and P.C. Morley, “Pharmaceutical Care Practice”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1998, pp. 37-64. C. Pummangura, “Philosophy of Pharmaceutical Care”, in “Pharmacotherapy” (Ed. C. Pummangura and G. Tanyasaensuk), New Thaimitra Publications, Bangkok, 2000. C. Pummangura, "Implimentation of Pharmaceutical Care in Geriatric Patients in the general medical wards at Maharat Nakhon Ratchasima Hospital”, 2001. C. Pummangura, P. Tragulpiankit, S. Kaocharoen, et al. Characteristics of Adverse Drug Reactions and Patient at Risk in Medical Wards, Mahidol Univ. J. Pharm. Sci. 2003, 30(3), 25-31. C. Pummangura, “Integration of Clinical Pharmacy Activities into Pharmaceutical Care”, Clin. Pharm., 2003, 11, 49-57. C. Pummangura, The Development of Pharmaceutical Care in Thailand, Drug Information Center, 2003, 5, 5-7. C. Pummangura, “Development of Pharmaceutical Education Emphasizing on Pharmaceutical Care”, Proceedings of the Asian Conference on Clinical Pharmacy, 2004, Seoul, Korea. “90th Year Pharmacy Education and Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science”, Chulalongkorn University Press, Bangkok, 2004. B.D. Franklin and J.W.F. Van Mill, “Defining the Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Care”, Pharm.World Sci., 2005, 27-12. C. Pummangura, “Pitfalls in Pharmacy Practice” in “Contemporary Review in Pharmacotherapy” (Ed. P. Sonthisombat, A. Jesadayarnmeta, S. Nateesuwan, and S. Mapantae), PayaoGobkam Publication, 2007, pp. 89-97. C. Pummangura, “New Era of Education Implimented at Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University”, Proceedings of the Asian Conference on Clinical Pharmacy Education Development and Challenge for The Future Success, 2007, Shanghai, China. C. Pummangura, J. Srisasalak, and U. Chantapho, “Satisfaction of Siam University Pharmacy Students to Integrative Learning, Thai Pharm. Health Sci. J., 2009, 370-376. C. Pummangura, “Pharmaceutical Care: Concept and Practice for Today Pharmacists”, in “Contemporary Review in Pharmacothery” (Ed. C. Pummangura, P. Montakarntigul, P. Sontisombat, et al), Prachachon Publication Ltd, Bangkok, 2009, pp. 1-7. Hospital Pharmacy Association (Thailand), 2013. Thai Industrial Pharmacist Association 2013, 1, 1-3.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
44
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Characterization and Chemical Stability Study of Rifampicin – Cyclodextrin for Pulmonary Delivery Kamolporn Jongchanapong, Wipawee Phalad, Suthamas Mungmee, Werayut Pothitirat, Wiriyaporn Sirikun and Phatsawee Jansook Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University, 38 Petkasem Rd., Phasicharoen, Bangkok 10160, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Rifampicin (Rif) is a board spectrum antibiotic active against gram-positive and gramnegative microorganisms and its clinical use is mainly in the treatment of tuberculosis. Rif has rather low aqueous solubility, poor stability and it has been shown that chronic oral or i.v. therapy resulted in adverse systemic side effects. Thus, the aim of the study was to investigate the effect of cyclodextrin (CD) and polymer on enhancing solubility and stability of Rif in order to optimize the formulation for minimizing side effect via pulmonary route. The selected CDs were methylated beta-CD (RM CD), beta-CD ( CD) and gamma-CD ( CD), and the polymers were carboxymethylcellulose sodium (Na CMC), polyvinylpyrrolidone K30 (PVP K30) and chitosan. The stability constant (K1:1) and complexation efficiency (CE) of the complexes between drugs and CDs were obtained by phase solubility studies. The phase solubility diagrams were AL type in all cases. It was shown that RM CD noticeably increased Rif solubility seven-times and four-times higher than those of CD and CD, respectively. In addition, ternary complex of Rif – RM CD - Na CMC possessed the maximum Rif solubility (K1:1=317.23, CE=0.167). The Rif-CD suspension and solution formulations were developed. The physicochemical characterization i.e., appearance, pH, viscosity, and physical and chemical stability were evaluated. The results had shown that all formulations were good appearance, the pH was in the range of 6.90-7.13 and had low viscosity (4.2-5.2 cps). Regarding to Rif suspension, they were easily redispersed by mechanical shaking. The optimum formulation containing 1% Rif and 3% RM CD (%w/v) had the predicted shelf-life 23.23± 3.41 and 36.23±4.01 days after storage at 40ºC 75% RH and 30ºC, respectively. It was suggested that Rif probably predominantly formed solid complex which retards chemical degradation of Rif. Keywords: Cyclodextrin, Pulmonary Tuberculosis, Rifampicin, Solubility, Stability. INTRODUCTION Rifampicin (Rif) is a board spectrum antibiotic active against gram-positive and gramnegative microorganisms and its clinical use is mainly in the treatment of tuberculosis (TB). TB is an infectious disease caused by bacteria whose scientific name is Mycobacterium tuberculosis [1]. The standard course treatment for TB is isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol [2]. Rif has rather low aqueous solubility (Fig. 1), poor stability and it has been shown that chronic oral or i.v. therapy resulted in adverse systemic side effects. Novel drug delivery via pulmonary route has been widely studied for drug targeting. The obvious advantages of inhaled therapy include direct drug delivery to the diseased organ and reduce risk of systemic toxicity [3]. Cyclodextrins (CDs) are a group of structurally related natural products formed during bacterial digestion of cellulose. These cyclic oligosaccharides consist of ( -1,4)-linked -D-glucopyranose units and
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
45
contain a somewhat lipophilic central cavity and a hydrophilic outer surface. In the pharmaceutical industry, CDs have mainly been used as complexing agents to increase aqueous solubility of poorly soluble drugs, and to increase their bioavailability and stability [4]. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of CDs and polymers on enhancing solubility and stability of Rif in order to optimize the formulation for minimizing side effect via pulmonary route.
Appearance
orange-brown to red-brown powder
Molecular formula
C43H58N4O12
Molecular weight
823 Da
pKa
1.7 (4-hydroxyl group), 7.9 (4-piperazine nitrogen)
Melting point:
183-188°C (dec.)
solubility
rather low solubility (from 1.58 to 3.35 mg/mL at pH7.4
Figure 1 The structure and the physicochemical properties of rifampicin. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Rifampicin was kindly gift from Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand, -cyclodextrin ( CD), -cyclodextrin ( CD) and randomly methylated- cyclodextrin (RM CD) from Wacker Chemie (Germany), disodium edetate dihydrate (EDTA), disodium phosphate, monosodium phosphate and polyvinylpyrrolidone K30 (PVP K30) from Ajax Finechem (Australia), benzalkonium chloride from Sigma (USA), chitosan was kindly gift from Defence Pharmaceutical Factory, Thailand, acetic acid from Qrec, Malaysia, carboxymethyl cellulose sodium (Na CMC) from Fluka, Switzerland, and all other chemicals used were of analytical reagent grade purity. Milli-Q (Millipore, USA) water was used for the preparation of all solutions. Solubility Determinations Solubility of Rif and in water or aqueous CD solutions was determined by heating method [5]. Excess amount of rifampicin was added to an aqueous solution containing different concentrations of CD (0-1.5% CD, 0-3% CD, or 0-3% RM CD, all w/v). The suspensions formed were heated in autoclave at 40°C for 30 minutes in sealed glass vials and then allowed to cool to room temperature. Then small amount of solid drug was added to the suspensions, and the
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
46
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
suspension allowed to equilibrium at room temperature (25 to 30°C) for 7 days under constant agitation. After equilibrium was attained, the suspensions were filter through 0.45 m membrane filters, the filtrates diluted with mobile phase and analyzed by HPLC. The phase-solubility profiles were determined according to Higuchi and Connors [6]. To investigate the effect of polymers on Rif solubility, the phase-solubility of rifampicin was determined in pure aqueous RM CD solutions containing various water-soluble polymers. In this study, PVP K30, Na CMC and chitosan were chosen as neutral, anionic and cationic polymer, respectively. The polymer (PVP K30, Na CMC or chitosan, all 0.25% w/v) was dissolved in water and 0-3% w/v RM CD dissolved in the polymer solution. Then excess Rif was added to form drug suspension. The phase-solubility was determined as described above. The stability constant of the drug/CD complexes and complexation efficiency were calculated from the phase-solubility profiles [5]. CE
Slope 1 - Slope
drug/CD complex CD
K 1:1 S 0
Eq. 1
Quantitative Determinations The quantitative determinations of Rif were performed on a reversed-phase HPLC component system from Hewlett Packard Series 1100, consisting of a G132A binary pump with a G1379A solvent degasser, a G13658 multiple wavelength detector, a G1313A auto sampler, and Phenomenex Luna 5 C18 reverse-phase column (250 x 4.6 mm). The HPLC conditions were as follows. Mobile phase: 60% (v/v) acetonitrile and 40% (v/v) phosphate buffer pH 7.0; UV wavelength: 340 nm; flow rate: 1.0 ml/min; injection volume: 20 l; and column oven temperature: 40 C. Rifampicin formulation for inhalation The aqueous Rif formulations were prepared by suspending of Rif (300 mg or 600 mg) in 20 ml of water containing benzalkonium chloride (6 mg), EDTA (30 mg) and PVP K30 (75 mg) in solution and RM CD (0.9 g or 1.8 g) was added under stirring until homogenously suspensions were obtained. Then the suspensions were heated in a sonicator in sealed containers (40 C for 30 min). The formulations were allowed to cool to room temperature and then the volume was adjusted to 30 ml with sterile water. Compositions of Rif formulations are given in Table 1. Total Rif content was determined by diluting 50- l sample with 5 ml of the mobile phase. For the amount of dissolved Rif in solution, the sample was centrifuge at 3000 rpm, 20 C for 10 min (Model Rotina 35R, Hettich, Germany), then the supernatant diluted further with the mobile phase and analyze by HPLC. Table 1 Composition of rifampicin formulation (all %w/v) Ingredient rifampicin disodium edetate (EDTA) benzalkonium chloride Na CMC RM CD phosphate buffer pH 7.4 qs to
F1 1% 0.1% 0.02% 0.25% 3% 30 ml
F2 1% 0.1% 0.02% 0.25% 6% 30 ml
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
F3 2% 0.1% 0.02% 0.25% 6% 30ml
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
47
Determination of Physicochemical Parameters The pH values of preparations were determined at room temperature with Thermo Orion StarTM Series pH meter (USA). The viscosity measurement were performed with a viscometer (Brookfield model DV-I+, USA) equipped with a thermostated water bath at 25 C (Polystat model, USA). Chemical stability Chemical stability of Rif formulations was determined at 30 1 C and 40 1 C, 75%RH in thermostated incubators (Venticell, MMM Medcenter Einrichtungen GmbH, Germany). Each of the three formulations were divided into three samples and transferred into glass vials and sealed with rubber stopper and aluminium cap after preparation. Aliqouts (50 l) were withdrawn at 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 39 and 54 days. All samples were diluted with the mobile phase and analyzed by HPLC as described under the quantitative determinations section. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Phase-solubility diagrams of Rif-CD were performed and K1:1 and CE were calculated. The phase solubility diagrams were AL type in all cases. It was shown that RM CD noticeably increased Rif solubility 7-times and 4-times higher than those of CD and CD, respectively (Fig. 2 and Table 2). RM CD possessed the maximum Rif solubility (K1:1= 317.2265, CE=0.1669). It might due to that formation of CD complexes are able to form larger aggregates in aqueous solutions, which can solubilize themselves or lipophilic water-insoluble drugs through noninclusion complexation or micelle-like structures [7]. Duan et al. reported that RM CD display formation of higher-order complexes or complex aggregates with triclosan and triclocarban [8]. Thus, RM CD was selected to further study. Fig. 3 and Table 3 show the effect of polymer on CD solubilization of Rif. The pH of solutions was 5.0-6.0 in case of using PVP and Na CMC while the solutions containing chitosan as positive charge polymer showed lower pH since it is soluble in an aqueous dilute acid solution. The Rif-RM CD solution containing chitosan had the highest stability constant but the lowest CE was observed. The solubility of Rif is reduced in an acidic solution. [9]. Among the polymer tested Na CMC was the most effective enhancer (K1:1=209.9945, CE=0.1976).
Figure
2 Phase solubility profiles of Figure 3 Phase solubility profiles of rifampicin-cyclodextrin in water ; rifampicin-cyclodextrin-polymer in : CD, : CD and :RM CD water; : Chitosan, : PVP K30 and :Na CMC
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
48
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 2 Apparent K1:1 and CE of Rifampicin-cyclodextrin Type CD CD CD RM CD
Slope 0.023 0.039 0.143
K1:1 (M-1) 44.7556 77.1535 317.2265
R² 0.978 0.999 0.801
CE 0.0235 0.0406 0.1669
Table 3 Apparent K1:1 and CE of Rifampicin-RM CD-polymer ternary complex Polymer PVP K30 Chitosan Na CMC
Slope 0.146 0.049 0.165
K1:1 (M-1) 298.8814 510.1457 209.9945
R² 0.996 0.981 0.999
CE 0.1710 0.0515 0.1976
Rif–CD suspension and solution formulation were developed (Table 1). The physicochemical characterization had shown in Table 4. F1 and F3 are the suspension while F2 is the solution. All formulations was good appearance, the pH was in the range of 6.90-7.13 and had low viscosity (4.2-5.2 cps). Table 4 Physical and chemical characterizations Formulation Physical Characterizations Appearance pH Viscosity (cP) Chemical Characterizations Content (mg/ml) Dissolved rifampicin (%)
F1
F2
Reddish-brown Reddish-brown suspension solution 7.13 7.00 4.16±0.00 5.15±0.04 8.53±0.43 48.38±4.01
8.65±0.34 95.89±6.90
F3 Dark reddish-brown suspension 6.90 5.15±0.04 17.95±0.86 59.35±2.06
All formulations had good physical stability i.e., good in appearance with can be resuspended easily by mechanical shaking and not significantly changes both pH and viscosity values. The optimum formulation containing 1% Rif and 3% RM CD (%w/v) had the predicted shelf-life 23.23± 3.41 and 36.23±4.01 days after storage at 40ºC 75% RH and 30ºC, respectively (Table 5). It was suggested that Rif probably predominantly formed solid complex which retards chemical degradation of Rif.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
49
Table 5 Predicted shelf-life of Rifampicin formulation Formulation
F1 F2 F3
Storage condition 30°C k1 t90 (days) 0.0278±0.0030 36.23±4.01 0.0658±0.0111 15.47±2.56 0.0585±0.0052 17.18±1.45
R² 0.973 0.981 0.972
°40C, 75% RH k1 t90 (days) R² 0.0437±0.0064 23.23±3.41 0.932 0.1356±0.0199 7.48±1.07 0.938 0.0745±0.0135 13.75±2.68 0.967
CONCLUSION The RM CD and Na CMC can improve solubility of Rif but not enhance stability in aqueous solution. It was suggested that the Rif-CD formulation should be spray-dried or lyophilized as dry powder inhalation to increase stability and prolong drug residence time to the lung. REFERENCES 1. I. Coowanitwong, V. Arya, P. Kulvanich and G. Hochhaus, “Formulations of inhaled rifampicin”, AAPS J., 2008, 10(2), 342-348. 2. M.A. Moretton, D. A. Chiappetta and A. Sosnik, “Cryoprotection-lyophilization and physical stabilization of rifampicin-loaded flower-like polymeric micelles”, J. R. Soc. Interface., 2012, 9(68), 487-502. 3. Y-J Son and J.T. McConville, “Preparation of sustained release rifampicin microparticles for inhalation”, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 2012, 64, 1291-1302. 4. T. Loftsson and M.E. Brewster, “Pharmaceutical applications of cyclodextrins.1. Drug solubilization and stabilization”. J. Pharm. Sci., 1996, 85(10), 1017-1025. 5. T. Loftsson, D. Hreinsdottir and M. Masson, “Evaluation of cyclodextrin solubilization of drugs”. Int. J. Pharm., 2005, 302(1-2), 18-28. 6. T. Higuchi and K.A. Connors, “Phase-solubility techniques”. Adv. Anal. Chem. Instrum., 1965, 4, 117-212. 7. T. Loftsson, M. Masson and M.E Brewster, “Self-association of cyclodextrins and cyclodextrin complexes”. J. Pharm. Sci., 2004, 93, 1091–1099. 8. M.S. Duan, N. Zhao, I.B. Ossurardottir, T. Thorsteinsson, T. Loftsson, “Cyclodextrin solubilization of the antibacterial agents triclosan and triclocarban: formation of aggregates and higher-order complexes”. Int. J. Pharm., 2005, 297(1–2), 213–222. 9. T. Frédéric, B. Julien, C. William and J-C Olivier. Formulation of rifampicin-cyclodextrin complexes for lung nebulization. J. Controlled Rel. 2008, 129, 93-99.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
50
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Formulation and Evaluation of Vernonia cinerea Less. Mouthwash for Smoking Cessation Pattarapon Srithongdang, Nopparat Sritraptawee, Wannipa Nonboon, Narumol Phosrithong and Orawan Chitvanich* Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University, Bangkok, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The objective of this study is to formulate a mouthwash for smoking cessation containing Vernonia cinerea Less (VC) for easy and convenient use. It was found that nitrate salt in the herb caused tongue numbness, inability to recognize the cigarette taste and decreased cigarette craving. Therefore, VC mouthwash was able to replace the chemical mouthwash for smoking cessation including promoting the herbal utilization and being an alternative treatment for smoke cessation. The selected formulation consisted of VC which was extracted by boiled water, menthol, peppermint oil, saccharin sodium and paraben conc. as flavour, sweetener and preservative respectively. The description of VC mouthwash was a brown liquid with an aroma scent and prickle-sweet taste. It had no precipitation and separation of the ingredients in the preparation. Chromatograms of VC extract and VC mouthwash showed the same Rf value about 0.34. The pH value of VC mouthwash was 6.50 which did not irritate the oral mucous membrane. The results of microbial contamination in VC mouthwash were not more than the total aerobic microbial count and also yeast and mold which defined in Thai Herbal Pharmacopoeia. In conclusion, the formulation of VC mouthwash in this study was a good preparation with appropriate standard and safety for smoking cessation. Keywords: Herbal Mouthwash, Smoking Cessation, Vernonia cinerea Less. INTRODUCTION It is recognized that a cigarette was the important cause of people’s death from lung’s cancer, cardiovascular disease, emphysema and hemorrhagic or ischemic stroke. World Health Organization reported that the death from smoking was 4 million people and will rise to over 8 million deaths per year in 2030per year [1].Thai smoker had been cancer 100,000 persons per year and died 115 people per day. 24% of adults (13.0 million people) currently smoked tobacco in 2011. More men smoked than women (46.6% vs. 2.6%) [2]. 94.2% of people believed that exposure to second hand smokers (SHS) causes serious illness; The percentage of people who believed that SHS causes lung cancer was 91.2%. Among current smokers and recent quitters within 12 months, 37% made a quit attempt in the past 12 months. Set up an effective referral system for smoking cessation is one of the policy goal is to quit tobacco use [3]. There are 3 major methods of smoking cessation: cold turkey techniques, behavior and social treatment and drug treatments [4]. Some medications are associated with unwanted side effects such as weight gain,nausea, dry mouth and sedation [5]. Nowadays natural products are alternative treatment for smoking cessation. One of the herbs popularly studied in Thailand for periods of time is Vernonia cinerea. (VC) [6,7]. The other names of this plant are little iron weed or yadokkoa in Thais. They applied decoction of this herb, remedy dose of 3 gin 150 ml boiling water for 3 times daily. Otherwise Lee and Lee 2, who studied the effects of 21 herbs to smoking
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
51
cessation, had mentioned Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less to 38% less smoking volunteers [8]. It is also official in Herbal List of National List of Essential Medicine 2011for smoking cessation, remedy dose of 2 g in 120 - 200 ml boiling water, after meal, for 3-4 times daily [9]. It was found that the potassium nitrate obtained from the stems and roots of VC [10]. Nitrate salt is claimed to act as smoking tasteless and facilitating smokers to give-up smoking. Mouthwash preparation was studied and prepared for antismoking by using nitrate salt as active ingredient [11, 12]. Thus,this study was to formulate also evaluate the physicochemical and microbial properties of mouthwash preparation with VC. MATERIALS AND METHODS Dried Vernonia cinerea was bought from herb store in Bangkok, Thailand. VC in crushed in pieces and powdered form was boiled with purified water in ratio 1:10 weight by volume. The extract was filtered through Whatman® filter paper No.1 by vacuum pump. 10 ml of the obtained filtrate was equivalent to 2 g of VC. The extract of VC was sterilized by autoclave at 121 degree celsius within 20 minutes. VC mouthwash was developed by using VC extract 50% by volumeand purified water as active ingredient and vehicle respectively. The other compositions in the formula were menthol and peppermint oil in aromatic water form as flavoring agent. Saccharin sodium and parabenconc (methylparaben and propylparaben in propylene glycol) were using as sweetener and preservative respectively. The physicochemical properties of VC mouthwash were examined by thin layer chromatography (TLC) and pH measurement by pH meter. The stationary and mobile phase using in TLC system were Silica gel F254 and ethyl acetate: methanol: water= 100:13.5:10 respectively. The chromatograms were detected by UV spectrophotometer at 254 nm (short wavelength) and 366 nm (long wavelength). Microbial test of the preparation followed United State Pharmacopoeia (USP) method [13]. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION VC Mouthwash Preparation The extract of VC was brown liquid with specific odor and a little bitter and harsh to the taste. The VC extract was not difference between before and after sterilization. The optimum formula was alcohol free with 0.1% menthol and 0.1% peppermint oil as flavor and for breath freshener. The obtained VC mouthwash was brown liquid with aromatic scent and sweet taste from 0.025% saccharin sodium. Evaluation of VC Mouthwash The properties of VC mouthwash were tested such as physic, chemical and microbial quality. The consumer or smoker will be assured both effectiveness and safety of the preparation. Physicochemical Properties Evaluation of VC Mouthwash TLC chromatogram of VC extract and VC mouthwash with sterile and nonsterile VC extract were similar as shown in Figure 1. The mentioned samples had the same Rf value (0.34) which was confirmed by the previous study [14]. It showed that the constituents in VC extract still persistedin VC mouthwash. The ingredients in nonsterile VC extract were also remained in sterile VC extract.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
52
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
UV 366 nm
UV 254 nm
A
B
C
A
B
C
Figure 1 TLC chromatogram of VC mouthwash compared with VCextract A = VC extract B = VC mouthwash with sterile VC extract C = VC mouthwash with nonsterile VC extract The pH of VC mouthwash (6.5) was almost neutral value which nearby VC extracts (6.18). VC mouthwash did not local irritate the oral mucosa because its pH value of both was the same. pH value also affected preservative action. So parabenconc which was effective in wide-ranging pH was chosen as preservative in VC mouthwash. Microbiological Properties Evaluation of VC Mouthwash VC mouthwash is the herbal preparation which may be microbiological contamination during cultivation, harvesting, processing, packing and distribution. Microbiological test are necessary to guarantee acceptable microbial quality in the final preparation. Total aerobic microbial count and total combined yeast and mold count of 1ml of VC mouthwash was less than 10 4 and 103cfu. The acquired VC mouthwash met the USP (15) and also Thai Herbal Pharmacopoeia(16) requirement for microbiological properties of herbal preparation. CONCLUSION The mouthwash containing VC extract was formulated and evaluation the properties for smoking cessation. The results showed that its odor and taste was developed for the smoker who made a quit attempt. The direction was to gargle 20 ml of VC mouthwash (equivalent to 2 g of VC,dose recommendation in National List of Essential Medicine 2011) 3-4 times daily after waking up and meal. The physical, chemical and microbiological properties were tested for confirmation the efficiency and safety of the preparation. The clinical trial of the VC mouthwash should be evaluated in the further study of potential use for smoking compared with placebo. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors express their gratitude to the Graduate School, Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University for providing research funds.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
53
REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
14.
15.
16.
World Health Organization,"WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic 2008, theMPOWER Package", Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. National Statistical Office of Thailand,"The Cigarette Smoking and Alcoholic Drinking Behavior Survey 2011", National Statistical Office of Thailand, Thailand, 2011(in Thai). Bureau of Tobacco Control, Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health,"Global Adult Tobacco Survey: 2011 GATS, Thailand 28 May 2012",Thammasart University Publishing, 2012. A. J. Zillich, M.Ryan, A.Admas, B.Yeager, and K.Farris, "Effectiveness of a pharmacist-based smoking cessation program andits impact on quality of life", Pharmacotherapy,2002, 26(6), pp. 759-765. MC Fiore, CR Jaen, TB Baker, WC Bailey, NL Benowitz, SJ Curry, et al,"Treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update", clinical practice guideline, 2008, U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services. S. Wongwiwatthananukit1, P. Benjanakaskul, T. Songsak, S. Suwanamajo and V. Verachai, "Efficacy of Vernoniacinerea for Smoking Cessation", 2009,J Health Res 23(1),pp. 31-36. S.Jitpukdeebodintra and A. Jangwang, "Coffee for smoking cessation", J FoodAgrEnviron, 2009, Vol.7 (3&4), pp. 130-133. H.J. Lee, J.H. Lee,"Effects of medicinal herb tea on the smoking cessation and reducingsmoking withdrawal symptoms". Journal of Am J Chin Med. 2005;33(1) pp. 127-138. National List of Essential Medicine, "Herb List", Drug division, Ministry of Health, Thailand, 2011, pp. 84 (in Thai). S.Zmeili, A.Salhab, K. Shubair,M. Gharaibeh, N. Suliman, A. Al-Kayed, et al, "Clinical evaluation of a new A.S. mouth wash 881010 as an antismoking agent: a placebo-controlled double-blind trial", Int J ClinPharmacolTher. 1999 Jan;37(1) pp. 41-50. Local-Manager Online, Thailand, [updated 2012August 24; cited 2012Sept 9], Available from:http://www.manager.co.th/local/viewnews.aspx?NewsID=9550000104183. S. Lhieochaiphant, "A phytochemical study of Vernoniacinerea Less. (Compositae)", M.S. Thesis, 1985, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. J. Cohen Lawrence, "MICROBIAL ENUMERATION TESTS—NUTRITIONAL AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS" in "Dietary Supplements Chapters", e-book of The US Pharmacopeia 30-NF 25, Arabswell edition. The United States of Pharmacopoeia convention Inc., 2007 W. Boonyarikpunchai, S. Wattanasaringkhan, S. Aroonwong, O. Chitvanich and C. Sardsangchan. "Formulation of Vernoniacinerea (Linn) Less. Extract Flimstrip for smoking cessation", Senior Project, 2009, HuachiewChalermprakiat University, Thailand. (in Thai) J. Cohen Lawrence, "MICROBIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OF NONSTERILE NUTRITIONAL AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS" in e-book of The US Pharmacopeia 30NF 25, Arabswell edition. The United States of Pharmacopoeia convention Inc., 2007 Thai Herbal Pharmacopoeia 2000, Department of Medical Sciences, Ministry of Public Health Nonthaburi 11000, Thailand "Appendix 10.5 Limits for Microbial Contamination", Prachachon Publishing, Bangkok.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
54
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Adverse Drug Reactions to GPO-VIR (Stavudine, Lamivudine and Nevirapine) in HIV Infected Patients Thaksin Jansing1,*, Chalermsri Pummangura1, Roongrudee Mesomboon1, Phongsri Phuewaranukho2, Wanwisa Pengdam1, Wanrada Chumapai1 and Leena Naowaket1 1
Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University, Bangkok, Thailand Pharmacy Department, Rachapiphat Hospital, Thailand
2
*Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: GPO-VIR a generic fixed-dose combination of stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine is recommended as a first-line HIV treatment in Thailand. Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) to GPOVIR is a major cause of discontinuing and switching antiretroviral therapy. This descriptive, retrospective study aimed to evaluate the incidence rate of the ADRs to GPO-VIR. Database were collected form medical records between 2006 to 2010. Sixty eight HIV infected patients who were treated with GPO-VIR continuously for 2 years were included in this study. The mean age of all patients in this study was 39.9±9.4 years (range 20-60 years) and nearly half of them were male (54.4%). BMI and CD4 T-cell in all patients at the baseline were 18.6-22.9 kg/m2 (48.5%) and 0100 cell/mm3 (58.8%), respectively. Incidence rate of the overall ADRs to GPO-VIR was 42.6%. The major ADRs were hepatotoxicity (48.3%) and lipodystrophy (31.0%). Hepatotoxicity was usually diagnosed after the first 2 months of initiating GPO-VIR while lipodystrophy was reported over 6 months after GPO-VIR used. Management of the ADRs by switching the antiretroviral regimen was performed in 93.1% of the patients who had ADRs. However, only 65.5% of all patients who had ADRs completely recovered. There were no statistical significant differences in gender, BMI and CD4 T-cell count at baseline before initiating the GPO-VIR between patients in ADRs and non-ADRs groups, but the mean age in the ADRs group was statistically significant higher the non-ADR group (41.2±8.8 and 39.1±9.7, p=0.002, respectively). The incidence rate of ADRs to GPO-VIR was extremely high. ADRs monitoring on GPO-VIR is needed to mainly prevent hepatotoxicity or lipodystrophy. Keywords: GPO-VIR, Adverse Drug Reaction, HIV, Hepatotoxicity, Lipodystrophy INTRODUCTION HIV-1 antiretroviral therapy (ART) has evolved and improved significantly since the advent of combined ART. Optimal management of ART has resulted in substantial reductions in morbidity, mortality, and health care utilization. Currently, more than 150,000 patients are treated with ART under the National AIDS Program (NAP) in Thailand. A generic fixed dose combination stavudine (d4T) 30 mg, lamivudine (3TC) 150 mg and nevirapine (NVP) 200 mg, a product of the Thai Government Pharmaceutical Organization (GPO), branded GPO-VIR, is recommended as a firstline HIV treatment in Thailand[1]. GPO-VIR provides optimal, effective and simple formulation, simple dosing, well tolerated and inexpensive therapy[2]. Treatment of HIV-1 infection with ART represents a complicated balance between the benefits of maximal durable viral suppression and the risks of adverse drug effects or adverse drug reactions (ADRs). The most common reason for switching or discontinuing ART is ADRs[3]. This study aimed to evaluate the incidence rate of the ADRs associated with GPO-VIR.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
55
MATERIALS AND METHODS The objectives of this study were to evaluate the incidence rate, onset, management of the ADRs and results after management of the ADRs associated with GPO-VIR. This is a retrospective study. Patient database was collected form medical records between 2006 to 2010. Patient who were diagnosed HIV-1 infection and treated with GPO-VIR continuously for 2 years were included in the study. Medical records were reviewed on demographics, medical history, medications, laboratory tests, and ADRs reports. Mean±SD and frequencies (%) were use to describe patient characteristics. Independent-sample t-test and chi-square were used to analyze risk factors between patients who had history of ADRs to GPO-VIR (ADR group) and controlled patients (non-ADRs group). All analyses were processed on SPSS for window version 20. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS Sixty-eight patients who met inclusion criteria were identified. All patients had a mean age of 39.9 ± 9.4 years (range 20-60 years) and 36 patients (54.4%) were male. Body mass index (BMI) and CD4 T-cell count of all the patients at baseline before initiating GPO-VIR were in the range of 18.6-22.9 kg/m2 (48.5%) and 0-100 cell/mm3 (58.8%), respectively. The baseline characteristics were shown in Table 1. The overall incidence rate of ADRs to GPO-VIR was 42.6% (29/68) including hepatotoxicity (48.3%, 14/29), lipodystrophy (31.0%, 9/29), peripheral neuropathy (10.3%, 3/29), maculopapular rash (6.9%, 2/29) and Steven-Johnson syndrome (3.4%, 1/29) as shown in Table 2. Onset of ADRs to GPO-VIR in all patients was shown in Table 3. Hepatotoxicity usually occurred since the first 2 months after starting the GPO-VIR while lipodystrophy was detected after GPOVIR was used for longer than 6 months. Patients who had ADRs were managed by discontinuing GPO-VIR immediately and switching to different antiretroviral regimen (93.1%, 27/29) and receiving supportive therapy (6.9%, 2/29). After ADRs management (65.5%, 19/29) of the patients completely recovered and 34.5% (10/29) had a rare symptom. Risk factors associated with GPO-VIR were identified by patients baseline characteristics between patients in the ADRs and non-ADRs group. There were no statistically significant differences in gender, BMI and CD4 T-cell count between the two groups (data not shown), however the mean age of the patients in the ADRs group was significantly more than that of the patients in the non-ADRs group (41.2±8.8 and 39.1±9.7, p=0.002, respectively). Table 1 Baseline characteristics of 68 patients. Characteristics Gender : Male/female Age (years) Baseline body mass index (kg/m2) 18.5 (underweight) 18.6-22.9 (normal) 23 (overweight) Baseline CD4 T-cell counts (cells/mm3) 0-100 101-200 201
Number of patients (%) 37/31 (54.4/45.6)
Mean±SD 39.9±9.4 20.3±3.6
23 (33.8) 33 (48.5) 12 (17.6) 122.9±147.5 40 (58.8) 17 (25.0) 11 (16.2)
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
56
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 2 Adverse drug reactions to GPO-VIR of 29 patients. Adverse drug reactions Hepatotoxicity Lipodystrophy Peripheral neuropathy Maculopapular rash Steven-Johnson syndrome Total
Number of patients (%) 14 (48.3) 9 (31.1) 3 (10.3) 2 (6.9) 1 (3.4) 29 (100.0)
Table 3 Onset of adverse drug reactions to GPO-VIR of 29 patients.
Adverse drug reactions Hepatotoxicity Lipodystrophy Peripheral neuropathy Maculopapular rash Steven-Johnson syndrome N = Number of patients
Onset of ADRs (Months) 2 3-4 5-6 6 N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) 7 (50.0) 3 (21.4) 1 (7.2) 3 (21.4) 2 (22.2) 7 (77.8) 1 (33.3) 2 (66.7) 1 (50.0) 1 (50.0) 1 (100.0) -
Total N (%) 14 (100.0) 9 (100.0) 3 (100.0) 2 (100.0) 1 (100.0)
DISCUSSION In this study, the incidence rate of ADRs to GPO-VIR in 68 patients was 42.6% with the two most common ADRs were hepatotoxicity (48.3%) and lipodystrophy (31.0%). Other studies have reported that the incidence rates of ADRs to GPO-VIR, during the study periods of 6 months to 5 years, were in a wide range of 11.67% to 38%[4-8] with the common of ADRs being maculopapular rash (12%-66.7%)[4-5], lipodystrophy (35.5%-63.3)[6-7], and hepatotoxicity (4.9%)[8]. The reported ADRs incidences varied possibly due to variation in the study protocols such as methodology, defining a criteria of types of ADRs as well as the study period. All three medications (stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine) in GPO-VIR have been evaluated to cause hepatotoxicity. Hepatotoxicity induced by nevirapine usually occurred early within 8 weeks and often associated with hypersensitivity syndrome[9]. It has been recommended to start nevirapine in a lower dose of 200 mg daily for 2 weeks, then increase to the usual daily dose of 400 mg which may decrease the risk of nevirapine induced cutaneous hypersensitivity. However, there were no sufficient clinical evidences to date of this nevirapine dose recommendation to prevent hepatic hypersensitivity[10]. Stavudine and lamivudine have less evidences to cause hepatotoxicity than nevirapine, which may occur in long-term treatment (after 2-12 months)[9]. In this study, GPO-VIR were discontinued in all patients after hepatotoxicity was detected. The different and safer antiretroviral regimens were initiated as soon as hepatotoxicity was fully resolved. Lipodystrophy is a common ADRs of stavudine which usually occurs in a long-term therapy. The stavudine discontinuation early after lipodystrophy detection could help promote patients recovery[11-12]. In this study, lipodystrophy was observed in patient who were treated with GPO-VIR for a long period of time. However, GPO-VIR discontinuation may be initiated too late,
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
57
so the lipodystrophy symptoms still remained. Patients who treated with GPO-VIR should be counselled about self-report of early symptoms such as hepatitis and lipodystrophy. The Thai NAP guideline had recommended a program to detect early drug-related adverse effects or treatment failure including antiretroviral therapy (ART) history review, routine laboratory and patients adherence monitoring every 6 to 12 months. Antiretroviral drugs that cause adverse effects should be replaced by other antiretroviral drugs which are in the same class and does not cause overlapping adverse effects. The Thai NAP has positioned a two-year phase out policy for patients who have been taking stavudine (d4T) and zidovudine (AZT) or tenofovir (TDF) in combination with lamivudine (3TC) and nevirapine are recommended as the preferred backbone. Stavudine is no longer recommended as a first-line drug due to its high rate of toxicities (lipodystrophy or peripheral neuropathy). Patients who have stavudine-related lipodystrophy should be switched to TDF or AZT and those who have nevirapine-related hepatotoxicity should be switched to efavirenz (EFV) instead[1]. Limitations of the present study are small sample size and a short follow up period and, therefore, some other ADR events could not be detected during the study period. CONCLUSION In our studies, the incidence rate of the ADRs to GPO-VIR in all the patients was rather high (42.6%). The ADRs among these patients were mainly hepatotoxicity (48.3%) and lipodystrophy (31.0%). Patients who treated with GPO-VIR should be counselled about self-report and monitoring every 6 to 12 months to detect early symptoms such as hepatotoxicity and lipodystrophy. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the participants in this study for their outstanding cooperation, Ms.Phongsri Phuewaranukho for providing the patient information and Siam University for funding the research. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
S. Sungkanuparph, W. Techasathit, C. Utaipiboon, S. Chasombat, S. Bhakeecheep, M. Leechawengwongs, et al. Thai national guidelines for antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infected adults and adolescents 2010. Asian Biomedicine, 2010, 4, 515-528. W. Phoolcharoen, C. Kunanusont, P. Pitisuttithum, N. Bhamarapravati. HIV/AIDS in Thailand. In: Y. Lu, M. Essex, eds. AIDS in Asia. New York: Plenum Publishers, 2004: 3-33. R. Nuesch, P. Srasuebkul, J. Ananworanich1, K. Ruxrungtham, P. Phanuphak and C. Duncombe. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 2006, 58, 637-644. S. Kiertiburanakul, S. Khongnorasat, S. Rattanasiri, S. Sungkanuparph. Efficacy of a generic fixed-dose combination of stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine (GPO-VIR) in Thai HIVinfected patients. J Med Assoc Thai, 2007, 90 (2), 237-243. T. Anekthananon, W. Ratanasuwan, W. Techasathit, A. Sonjai, S. Suwanagool. Safety and efficacy of a simplified fixed-dose combination of stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine (GPOVIR) for the treatment of advanced HIV-infected patients: A 24-Week Study. J Med Assoc Thai, 2004, 87(7), 760-767. V. Desakorn, B. M. Karmacharya, V. Thanachartwet, N. L. Kyaw, S. Tansuphaswadikul, D. Sahassananda, et al. Effectiveness of fixed-dose combination stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine (GPO-VIR) for treatment of naïve HIV patients in Thailand: a 3-year follow-up. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health, 2011, 42, 1414-1422.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
58
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
7.
M. Ouwuttipon. Efficacy of GPO-VIR in HIV-infected and AIDS patients in Sukhothai Hospital. Buddhachinaraj Medical Journal, 2008, 25(1), 220-231. 8. A. Getahun, S. Tansuphasawadikul, V. Desakorn, J. Dhitavat, P. Pitisuttithum. Efficacy and safety of generic fixed-dose combination of stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine (GPO-VIR) in advanced HIV Infection. J Med Assoc Thai, 2006, 89 (9), 1472-1478. 9. V. Sorianoa, M. Puotib, P. Garcia-Gasco´ a, J. K. Rockstrohc, Y. Benhamoud, P. Barreiroa and B. McGoverne. Antiretroviral drugs and liver injury. AIDS, 2008, 22:1-13. 10. S. Johnson, J. Chan and C. L. Bennett. Hepatotoxicity after prophylaxis with a nevirapinecontaining antiretroviral regimen. Ann Intern Med, 2002, 137, 146-147. 11. S. Puttawong, W. Prasithsirikul, S. Vadcharavivad. Prevalence of lipodystrophy in Thai-HIV infected patients. J Med Assoc Thai, 2004, 87, 605-611. 12. Y. Chuapai, S. Kiertiburanakul, K. Malathum, S. Sungkanuparph. Lipodystrophy and dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected Thai patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. J Med Assoc Thai, 2007, 90, 452-458.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
59
Good Organic Farm Management Practices in Bicol Region, Philippines Hanilyn A. Hidalgo Department of Agribusiness and Entrepreneurship, College of Economics and Management, Central Bicol State University of Agriculture, San Jose, Pili, Camarines Sur, Philippines *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Organic farming has now become a trend in the agriculture sector. However, issues on higher productivity and profitability in organic agriculture still bring doubts to farmers because few farms can really demonstrate successful organic farming approach which may be better than the conventional farms. The study aimed at achieving the following objectives: 1) identify successful organic agricultural enterprises within the region; 2) determine the use of creativity, ingenuity and innovation in their respective farm enterprises; 3) describe the degree of difficulty in launching and building an organic agriculture-based business; and 4) determine enterprise indicators of success and guiding principles that helped them achieve their milestones. Using the criteria of advocacy, recognition, consistency and sustainability factors, four farm enterprises have been selected: Pecuaria Development Cooperative Inc. (PDCI) exemplifies a standard production method, niche marketing and extensive linkaging; Save Our Soil Foundation (SOSF) practices innovation and creativity in organic farming coupled with dutiful adoptation and good leadership; Carlito’s Farm implements multi-cropping and diversification with low-pricing scheme similar to non-organic products; and Greenearth Café employs variety of products and consistency in concept. It was revealed that organic farming must have wholehearted commitment and should not be treated as mere production method but a lifestyle. It is a choice between gaining more and gaining longer. Keywords: Organic Agriculture, Good Farm Management Practices, Organic Farming INTRODUCTION Many consumers are now shifting into a healthier lifestyle by consuming natural and organic products. However, issues on higher productivity and profitability in organic agriculture still bring some doubts to many farmers because very few farms can really demonstrate successful organic farming approach which may be better than the conventional farms. Issues on yield, production costs and market prices have always become their parameters whether to shift or not. There may be farmers who have been successful or almost successful in pursuing organic agriculture, these are not documented and well-validated. Hence, model cases of organic farming approaches of various agricultural commodities will provide these farmers a clear picture of how it can compete with the conventional farms in a sustainable manner. The results of this paper served as input for the preparation of strategic investment programs to support organic agriculture and at the same time served as model enterprises to existing and future farmers in achieving a sustainable agriculture in the region. A research team at the University of the Philippines Los Baños proved that sustainable organic practices are feasible and benefits small farmers when they compared the agronomic, economic and yield responses of three different sustainable rice-production systems. Similarly, in a Comparative Economic Study on Organic and Conventional Rice Farming in Davao del Sur,
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
60
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Rubinos et.al (2007) concluded that yield and gross revenue of conventional farming is significantly higher by 23 per cent than organic farming. However, its high costs and lower farm gate price lower the net returns. Hence, organic farmers have higher net income than the conventional ones. The study aimed at achieving the following objectives: (1) identify successful organic agricultural enterprises within the region; (2) determine the use of creativity, ingenuity and innovation in their respective farm enterprises; (3) describe the degree of difficulty in launching and building an organic agriculture-based business; and (4) determine the enterprises’ indicators of success and guiding principles that helped them achieve their milestones. METHODS The study concentrated on searching successful organic enterprise in three provinces of the region, namely, Camarines Sur, Camarines Norte and Albay where organic agriculture initiatives were significantly evident. The respondents were farmers who were already two years or more in organic agriculture. Successful organic agricultural enterprises were selected using the criteria: 1) organic advocate; 2) recipient of organic farming-related awards and/or with community or media recognition; and 3) presence of consistency and sustainability factors in farm Out of the twelve farmer-respondents interviewed, only four organic farm enterprises met the criteria set above. They were also validated by the Organik Bikol Advocates Network (OBAN) and other organic agriculture industry stakeholders in Camarines Sur. Coincidentally, these enterprises were from Camarines Sur. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pecuaria Development Cooperative Inc. The Pecuria Development Cooperative Inc. (PDCI) was established in 1991 by 426 agrarian reform farmer-beneficiaries. Pecuria lies on a rustic cluster of hills and vast undulating pasture in barangay Lanipga, in the town Bula, Camarines. More than 120 hectares of their irrigated area is planted with organic rice and 10 hectares of non-irrigated area with upland organic rice. Some 543 hectares are planted with sugarcane, 30 hectares with bamboo, 20 hectares with fruit and agro-forest trees, 5 hectares with vegetables and another 5 hectares with rootcrops. By 2007, PDCI became the first and only certified organic rice producer and trader in the country. The cooperative reaps about PhP 10 million in yearly incomes from the sale of their prime organic rice: polish red, unpolished red, white, brown, pink, violet, black, and blended rice that commanded a fair price through its market outlets nationwide. The cooperative also produce bioorganic fertilizers out of rice straw, chicken dung and carbonized rice hull and sells pro-organic garden soil and compost fungus activator. Its current status could be attributed to the factors such as committed leadership and empowered management, niche marketing and strong linkaging. The farmers are already harvesting 70-100 cavans per hectare in each of the two croppings per year. Furthermore, PDCI has already developed its own white and “sampaguita red” organic rice varieties called “Pecuaria selections.” Now, 80 percent of the produce is marketed in Metro Manila. PDCI annual gross income is now at the average of PhP10-15 million. To meet the demands, PDCI employs “clustering approach” to command high price for the farmers and to ensure the volume of supply. At present they have organized five clusters with 87 members. PDCI exposure to trade fairs helped improve their products’ packaging and allowed the farmers to know the buying and eating preferences of the clientele. They were once known for their white organic rice but that did not give much return of investment (ROI). They realized that there were plenty of competitors for white rice in the market, both local and imported. This compelled
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
61
them to concentrate on the production of red rice. Mr. Miller Bicaldo, PDCI General Manager, shared the advantages of marketing red rice – fewer competitors, the color stays even if left under the sun for two days, and the red varieties fetch a higher price. Finding their niche in the industry translated to substantial benefits to the Cooperative. The rest are sold locally through their marketing center and in several cities in Bicol – Naga, Tabaco, Legaspi, Daet and Sorsogon. Greenearth Café Mr. Jose Obias’ Greenearth Café (GEC) is a vegetarian restaurant that serves fresh, organic and natural foods. This concept was born out of the family need for authentic sources of organic vegetables in the city. This restaurant was an instant hit because there was a silent demand for organic and healthy foods. Aside from this, it is the only vegan restaurant in the province or possibly in the region which really offers fresh, organic and genuine vegan dishes. GEC had found a niche in the food business. The organic products served in this restaurant were results of selfstudy and trial and error. One factor that made Greenearth Cafe a thriving business is its consistency to its concept – a vegetarian cafe in a natural setting and laid-back mood away from the central business district of the city with herbs and garden surrounding the area. Mr. Obias’ gift of cooking became the moving force of the restaurant. He took charge of the kitchen while his wife took charge of the market. Their children became their food evaluators. Until now, he still prepares the recipes but he has already staff to help him in the kitchen. Mr. Obias admitted that for the past six years, GEC had provided them with good financial returns, enough to recover operating expenses and a few profit to continue the operation.
Save Our Soil Foundation Save Our Soil Foundation (SOSF) was born out of a strong advocacy of Mrs. Rosalina Tan on organic farming. Her private farm started in 2007 with a 200 square meter lettuce and herb garden inside a private lot in Cadlan, Pili, Camarines Sur. With such a small lot, she was able to harvest about 5-10 kg of lettuce per week. Being one of the pioneers in lettuce production in Camarines Sur, Mrs Tan saw a huge potential to penetrate the Naga City market. Her farm is now harvesting around 40 kg of lettuce weekly, which is already almost half of her 100-kg target. Aside from lettuce, her farm is also producing organic broccoli and cauliflower which are considered high value vegetables normally produced in cold temperatures like Baguio and Benguet. Perhaps, her bold attempt to change the rules of the game in organic farming has set her apart from other organic farmers. While others adapt the “wait and see” attitude, she practices the “trial and error” approach and grab every opportunity she sees in the market. While she still considers her farm small and under development, she treats her farm like a serious business. She became a model and benchmark to many of the organic farming practitioners. Admittedly, during the start of the operation, the company find it hard to introduce lettuce in the province. Many are not aware of its benefits and utility. Marketing, then, was really the hardest part of the operation. When her organic garden was starting to flourish, she also had a hard time finding authentic suppliers of organic fertilizers in the area. Being new in the province, she had very few acquaintances whom she could start her organic network. She initiated the organization of local organic producers in the province by setting up the Organik Bikol Advocateurs Network (OBAN) to help in her advocacy. She is well-loved by her staff. Her personal assistant and marketing officer confessed that her leadership had made her stay in her work despite good offers from other employers. Her authenticity in her advocacy for organic products transcended even to her employees. Most of her employees had already imbibed the lifestyle of eating organic and healthy products.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
62
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Carlito’s Farm The farm of Mr. Carlito Aquino is an offshoot of a plan he developed while he was still in military service in Mindanao. After an early retirement, he started converting his 3.7 ha. lot into a chemical-free farm. He started with organic rice production. When he saw improvement in its harvest, he apportioned his lot and diversified to high-value vegetables (cucumber, pepper, bitter gourd, squash, tomato, radish, stringbeans, Baguio beans, carrots and upo), fish (tilapia) and poultry (native chicken and mallard duck) production. With the principles of sustainable farming in mind, he now produces organic fertlizers and pesticides using indigenous materials found within or near his farm such as kangkong, rice straw, water hyacinth, banana trunk, molasses, corn husks, and weeds. He is a devoted producer, user and promoter of Indigenous Micro Organisms (IMO.) The use of IMO also influenced him to venture into vermicomposting which he now uses in his crops. Mr. Aquino, just like any ordinary farmer, started with basic farming principles. What set him apart from the common farmers was his hunger for knowledge and growth. He searched new techniques and opportunities with gusto. He grabbed every opportunities he saw in the trainings and seminars he attended, and then he shares to his fellow farmers. One of his entrepreneurial achievements was the vegetable-fish farming technology. He thought that if there’s rice-fish culture then a vegetable-fish could also be possible. This model is a farming technique to maximize space by establishing mini ponds in between the vegetable plots. In his 1.2 ha of ricefield, his first harvest of organic rice yielded him with only 60 cavans of palay. It was way below the average of 80-100 cavans of harvest before it was converted. Now, he is harvesting more than 100 cavans of palay. His maximum yield reached to 146 cavans. There is a high prospect for Mr. Aquino’s farm to become sustainable because just about everything it needs to operate can already be found in the farm. Mr. Aquino has successfuly fulfilled his objective that all farm inputs needed to produce organic products must be within the farm – fertilizers, pesticides, water, worms and even food that could sustain a variety of meal combination for the family. He was also able to penetrate the market easily with his pricing scheme. Usually, producers charge a premium price for organic products with an added value for the “tender-loving-care” factor but Mr. Aquino thinks otherwise. He was able to create a demand for organic products using lowpricing penetration scheme—a result he never expected to happen. These organic farmers do not even believe that they are employing good farm practices because they have basically the same farm inputs and production method with the rest of the organic farmers. What makes them good farmers are the distinct management practices that are not common to most rural farmers.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
63
Table 1. Good Organic Farm Management Practices Adopted in the Bicol Region, Philippines. Organic Farm
Difficulty in Creativity/ Launching Organic Innovation Adopted Farming Created its own brand of organic rice;
13 years of experimentation
PDCI
SOSF
Early adopter (“Being the first in the market”)
Greenearth Café
Authentic organic food products
Carlito’s Farm
Indicators of Success
Committed Love for the land; leadership; Spirit of Niche marketing cooperativism strategy; Extensive linkaging
Risky investment in Organic farming as product and market lifestyle; development good leadership; treats farming as real business High investment cost; High marketing risk
Guiding Principles
Consistency in concept
Education by example
Food is medicine
Farm diversification; More than 5 years of Low pricingEating without Early adopter off-farm and on-farm scheme as market guilt experimentation penetration strategy
CONCLUSION The stories of the farmers revealed that organic farming is not a fad in the agriculture sector nor a marketing strategy to boost farm revenues but a long-term commitment to boost farm productivity. Organic farming should not be treated as mere production method but as a lifestyle. The farmer should embrace organic agriculture with gusto and should emanate to his consumption patterns to achieve consistency of principles. It is not only a change of planting techniques but also a change of mindset. If most farmers believe that size matters to realize high production, for organic farmers, patience matters. The first few cycles of planting serve as the critical stage of whether the farmer can pass the intricacies of going into organic farming. Unfortunately, many farmers failed this test and go back to their conventional routines. It just proves to show that the foundation to shift to organic farming has not been strongly built at this point. Lastly, organic agriculture is a choice between gaining more or gaining longer. With high poverty incidence in rural farms, farmers would not think of a long-term solution to their hungry stomach. They need immediate cash to solve their pressing problem. Hence, it is important to provide them with substantial livelihood mix. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Intervida Philippines and the Central Bicol State University of Agriculture for funding the study and to our project leader Dr. Georgina Bordado. Also thanks to Keith Eduard Hidalgo, Lea Boquiron, Carlito Aquino and Jose Obias for their contribution to the content
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
64
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
REFERENCES 1. R. Rubinos, A.T. Jalipa and P. Bayacag, “Comparative Economic Study of Organic and Conventional Rice Farming in Magsaysay, Davao Del Sur”, 10th National Convention on Statistics (NCS) EDSA Shangri-La Hotel, 2007.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
65
Influence of Trimethyl Chitosan on Dissolution of Charged Drugs from Oral Solid Dosage Forms Orapan Phongwarin1, Pornsiri Wongchan-udom2, Pissuporn Rewsuwan3, Worawan Boonyo4, Supavadee Boontha2 and Tasana Pitaksuteepong5* 1
Fort Mengraimaharaj Hospital, Chiangrai, 57000, Thailand School of Pharmacy, University of Phayao, Phayao, 56000, Thailand 3 Mae Suai Hospital, Chiang Rai, 57180, Thailand 4 Department of Technical Pharmacy Program, Sirindhorn Collage of Public Health Phitsanulok, Phitsanulok, 65130, Thailand 5 Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, 65000, Thailand 2
* Corresponding author: Tel: +66 5596 1877, Fax: +66 5596 3731, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Trimethyl chitosan (TMC) is a soluble cationic methylated derivative of chitosan. It has been widely reported to enhance intestinal absorption of drugs. However, an influence of TMC on the dissolution which is important for a drug to be absorbed has never been reported. This study was therefore aimed to investigate the influence of TMC on the dissolution of charged model drugs from the tablets. Firstly, TMC was synthesized and characterized. Then it was mixed with binder solution before adding to the tablet formulation. Tablets were compressed by a hydraulic press using a 6.35-mm diameter round flat-faced punch at compaction force 1.5 kN. Finally, the dissolution was evaluated. Four model drugs were used in this study. Cationic model drugs used were neostigmine bromide (NEO), cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC) and methylene blue (MB). Anionic model drug used was erythrosine (ERY) . The results showed that % degree of quarternization (DQ) of the synthesized TMC determined by 1H-NMR spectrophotometer was 37.84 0.91. Its intrinsic viscosity and molecular weight were 3.92 ml/g and 1.1 x 10 5 g/mol, respectively. The dissolution of ERY from tablets containing TMC was found to be decreased compared to that from those containing no TMC. This may be due to ionic interaction between ERY and TMC. On the other hand, the addition of TMC did not influence the dissolution profiles of CPC and MB from the tablets. Interestingly, although NEO has the same positive charge as CPC and MB, dissolution profiles of NEO was found to be retarded when TMC was present in the formulations, indicating an interaction between NEO and TMC might occur. This is the first study to report an interaction of a cationic model drug with TMC, a cationic polymer. Thus, the application of TMC in oral solid dosage form is needed to pay more attention. Keywords: Trimethyl Chitosan, Dissolution, Charged Drug, Tablet, Absorption Enhancer INTRODUCTION It is generally known that the membrane of the epithelial cells in gastrointestinal tract favor the absorption of unionized drug. The ionized or charged drug cannot penetrate the membrane easily because of its low lipid solubility and high electrical resistance, resulting from its charge and the charged groups on the membrane surface. An absorption enhancer is needed to overcome the barrier for the oral absorption of the charged drug. Trimethyl chitosan (TMC), a partially quarternized chitosan derivative, has gained attention in the pharmaceutical field owing to its biocompatibility, non-toxicity and biodegradability. An increase in the positive charges on the
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
66
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
polymer chain results in a high water solubility compared to chitosan [1]. Moreover, it possesses mucoadhesive properties and be able to open the tight junctions of epithelial cells to allow transport of various compounds including mannitol (small hydrophilic compound) [2], [ 14C] PEG4000 [3], buserelin (peptide drug) [1] and octreotide (peptide drug) [4]. The degree of quaternization (DQ), indicating the charge density, of TMC is reported to have an important role on the absorption enhancing properties [2, 3]. Although, TMC has been widely used as an absorption enhancer, only a few studies have been used it in oral solid dosage form. Van der Merwe et. al. [5] developed minitablet and granule formulations as solid oral dosage forms for the delivery of desmopressin, the peptide drug which has absolute oral bioavailability only 0.1%, using TMC as an absorption enhancer. It was found that both the optimized minitablet formulation and the granule formulation show suitable release profiles for the delivery of desmopressin. A prerequisite to absorption is drug dissolution. In addition, as TMC is a positively charged polymer, an interaction with charged drug may occur. However, to the best of our knowledge, none has been studied the dissolution of charged drugs from oral solid dosage forms with TMC as an absorption enhancer. Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate the influence of TMC with various DQ on the dissolution of charged drugs from oral solid dosage forms. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Chitosan polymer from shrimp shell, MW 160 kDa, 96% deacetylation was supplied by Aqua premier Co., Ltd, Thailand. Methyl iodide, N-methylpyrrolidinone (NMP), sodium hydroxide and sodium iodide were purchased from Merck, Germany. Diethyl ether was ordered from Labscan, Bangkok, Thailand. Neostigmine bromide (Neo) and cetylpyridenium chloride (CPC) were obtained from Sigma®, St. Louis, USA. Methylene blue hydrate (MB) and erythrosin extra Bluish, 45690 (ERY) were supplied by Fluka Chemie AG, Switzerland. Corn starch was purchased from Pharmatose®, Thailand. Lactose was supplied by Knorr®, Thailand. Magnesium stearate was obtained from Magnesia®, China. Talcum was received from Haicheng talc powder ®, China. Model Drug Neo, CPC and MB were selected as cationic model drugs used in this study while ERY was selected as an anionic model drug. Their characteristics are presented in Table 1. Synthesis and Characterization of Trimethyl Chitosan (TMC) A range of TMC with DQ of approximately 20% (TMC20), 40% (TMC40), and 60% (TMC60) was synthesized from chitosan according to the methods, previously described by Boonyo et al. [6]. The resulting TMC polymers obtained were characterized for DQ, average molecular weight, and intrinsic viscosities of the synthesized polymers using 1H-Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-NMR) (AV400, Bruker, Denmark), gel permeation chromatography (GPC) (Waters 600E, Waters Co., USA), and an Ostwald-Cannon-Fenske viscometer (No 75, DC Specific Glass, Maryland, USA), respectively.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
67
Table 1 Characteristics of model drugs. Active ingredient
Chemical structure
Formula
Neostigmine bromide
C12H19BrN2O2
Molecular weight (g/mol) 303.2
Water solubility
Cetylpyridinium chloride
C21H38ClN H2O
358.0
freely soluble
Methylene blue
C16H18ClN3S 3H2O
373.9
50 mg/ml
Erythrosine (Red No. 3)
C20H6I4Na2O5
879.9
70 mg/ml
1 g/ml
Preparation of Tablets Granules were prepared by wet granulation technique. The ingredients of each formulation are shown in Table 2. TMC was dissolved in the binder solution. Lactose was used as diluents to make final tablet weight of 150 mg. The required quantity of drug, diluents and intragranular disintegrant were mixed thoroughly and binder solution was added slowly. The dump mass was prepared and passed through sieve no. 16. The wet granules were dried in hot-air oven at 50oC overnight. The dried granules were passed through sieve no. 18 and then mixed with extragranular disintegrant. Magnesium stearate and talc were added to the granules at 1 and 3% of dried granules, respectively prior to tablet compression. Tablets were compressed by a hydraulic press (Groveby specae®, Bangkok, Thailand) using a 3.65 mm in diameter round flat-faced punch at compaction force 1.5 kN. Dissolution Study In vitro dissolution studies of the prepared tablets were performed using USP apparatus II (Vankel®, USA). A 500-ml volume of purified water maintained at 37±0.5 ˚C, were used as dissolution medium. The rotation speed of the paddles was 50 rpm. For each formulation, four replicates were tested. Aliquots of samples were withdrawn at the designated time points and replaced with an equal volume of fresh medium. The samples were filtered and diluted with dissolution medium to a proper concentration. Then they were subjected to quantify drug released using UV spectrophotometer (Varian®, California, USA) at 260, 259, 292 and 530 nm for Neo, CPC, MB and ERY, respectively. The amount of drug released was calculated from standard curve. The time required for 50% tablet dissolution (t 50) was calculated from the overall dissolution profile. The t50 values obtained were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
68
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
by Scheffe test. The results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation and p < 0.05 was considered as significant. Table 2 Tablet formulations of neostigmine bromide (Neo), cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), methylene blue (MB) and erythrosin (ERY) tablets in the absence and the presence of trimethyl chitosan with degree of quaternization of 20% (TMC20), 40% (TMC40) and 60% (TMC60).
Note:
-
0.47 - 0.47 - 0.47
-
15 2 2 2 2 1 15 mg/tab 1.87 mg/tab 0.47 - 0.47 - 0.47 - 0.47 - 0.47 - 0.47 150 mg/tab
ERY -TMC60
15 -
ERY-TMC40
15 -
ERY -TMC20
CPC -TMC40
15 -
ERY
CPC -TMC20
15 -
MB -TMC60
CPC
15 -
MB -TMC40
Neo-TMC60
15 -
MB -TMC20
Neo-TMC40
Neo CPC MB ERY Corn starch* Corn starch** TMC20 TMC40 TMC60 Lactose qs to
MB
Neo-TMC20
15 -
Ingredient
CPC -TMC60
Neo
Amount (mg/tablet)
1
1
1
0.47 - 0.47 - 0.47
* Disintegrant was divided into 2 parts and added intra- and extra-granularly ** Binder was prepared as 10% w/w starch paste
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Synthesis and Characterization of TMC The DQ, average molecular weight, and intrinsic viscosities of the synthesized polymers are presented in Table 3. Table 3 The characteristics of the starting chitosan and its respective synthesized TMC derivative Sample Chitosan TMC20 TMC40 TMC60
Degree of quaternization (%) 18.34 2.60 37.84 0.91 62.99 5.70
Weight-average molecular weight 1.6 x 105 1.3 x 105 1.1 x 105 8.5 x 104
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
Intrinsic viscosity (ml/g) 8.90 6.12 3.92 3.13
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
69
Dissolution Study Neo, a cholinesterase inhibitor, is widely used for the treatment of Myasthenia Gravis. It was selected as a model cationic drug in this study because it is poorly absorbed following oral administration. The extent of oral absorption is only 1-2% of the administered dose [7]. Unexpectedly, the dissolution study of Neo tablets found that the release of Neo from tablets containing TMC was significantly lower than that of those containing no TMC (Figure 1a). The release of Neo from tablets was found to be retarded with the addition of TMC and this effect was more pronounce with increasing DQ of TMC. The t50 data (Table 4) clearly showed that release of Neo from the tablets containing TMC with DQ 60% was slower than those from the corresponding tablets containing TMC with DQ 40% and 20%, respectively. However, this effect was not observed when using other cationic model drugs including CPC and MB (Figure 1b and 1c). The retarded dissolution was again in the release of erythrosin, an anionic model drug (Figure 1d). In case of ERY, these results may be attributed to the ionic interactions between ERY and TMC. However, Neo and TMC have the same cationic charge, ionic interaction should not be the reason for the retarded dissolution. In addition, another three model cationic drugs including CPC, MB and ERY were also tested and the release was not found to be influence by the addition of TMC. All model drugs are freely soluble in water. Thus, retarded dissolution does not cause by their solubility in dissolution medium. Base on the chemical structures of cationic drugs studied, the only difference is Neo contains carbamate (HNCOO) group. Therefore, a possible explanation may be an interaction between the carbamate group of Neo and amino (NH2) amine (N(CH3)+) group of TMC. (a)
(b)
100 90
100 90 80
70
Cumulative release (%)
Cumulative release (%)
80
60 Neo
50
Neo-TMC 20
40
Neo-TMC 40
30
Neo-TMC 60
CPC
50
CPC-TMC20
40
CPC-TMC40
30
CPC-TMC60
20
10
10 0
0
10
20
30 40 Time (min)
50
60
70
0
(d)
100
100
80
90
70 60 MB
50
MB-TMC20
40
MB-TMC40
30
MB-TMC60
20
30 40 Time (min)
50
60
70
80 70
60
ERY
50
ERY-TMC20 ERY-TMC40
40
ERY-TMC60
30
20
20
10
10
0
10
110
90
Cumulative release (%)
Cumulative release (%)
60
20
0
(c)
70
0 0
10
20
30 40 Time (min)
50
60
70
0
10
20
30 40 Time (min)
50
60
70
Figure 1 Dissolution profiles of neostigmine bromide (Neo), cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC), methylene blue (MB) and erythrosine (ERY) from tablets prepared in the absence of trimethyl chitosan and in the presence of trimethyl chitosan at degree of quaternization 20% (TMC20), 40% (TMC40) and 60% (TMC60).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
70
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 4 T50 values of various charged model drugs. T50 (min) Neo CPC MB ERY
without TMC 11.08 ± 3.20 8.35 ± 0.73 9.88 ± 1.01 6.43 ± 0.33
TMC20 12.24 ± 2.30 7.50 ± 0.00 7.85 ± 0.31 45.81 ± 5.31*
TMC40 44.25 ± 13.19* 7.96 ± 0.49 7.28 ± 0.10 > 60*
TMC60 > 60* 8.00 ± 0.41 8.33 ± 0.79 15.51 ± 1.84
CONCLUSION TMC is the value added product from frozen food biowaste. It may be used as a tablet excipient in pharmaceutical industry. However, none has been reported its effect on drug dissolution which is a prerequisite to absorption. This study was therefore investigated the influence of TMC with various DQ on the dissolution of charged model drugs from oral solid dosage form. It is clearly shown that TMC may cause ionic with an anionic model drug, resulting in lower drug release. Although TMC has same positively charge as cationic model drug, a possible chemical interaction might also occur as in the case of Neo. DQ, indicating the charge density, of TMC also showed to influence the dissolution rate of Neo and ERY. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was financially supported by Naresuan University under the Office of the Higher Education Commission (grant number R2554D017). The authors would also like to thank Mr. Chein Yhirayha for his help in chemical reactions. Asst. Prof. Dr Ruengwit Kitbunnadaj is also gratefully acknowledged for the initiation of this project. REFERENCES 1. A. F. Kotzé, H. L. Lueßen, B. J. De Leeuw, B. G. De Boer, J. C. Verhoef and H. E. Junginger, “Ntrimethyl chitosan chloride as a potential absorption enhancer across mucosal surfaces: In vitro evaluation in intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2)”, Pharm. Res., 1997, 14 (9), 1197 – 1202. 2. J. H. Hamman, M. Stander and A. F. Kotze, “Effect of the degree of quaternisation of N-trimethyl chitosan chloride on absorption enhancement: in vivo evaluation in rat nasal epithelia”, Int. J. Pharm., 2002, 232, 235 – 242. 3. A. F. Kotzé, M. Thanou, H. L. Lueßen, A. G. de Boer, J. C. Verhoef and H. E. Junginger, “Effect of the degree of quaternization of N-trimethyl chitosan chloride on the permeability of intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2)”, Eur. J. Pharm Biopharm., 1999, 47, 269-274. 4. B. I. Florea, M. Thanou, H. E. Junginger and G. Borchard, “Enhancement of bronchial octreotide absorption by chitosan and N-trimethyl chitosan shows linear in vitro / in vivo correlation. J. Control. Release, 2006, 110, 353 – 361. 5. S. M. Van der Merwe, J. C. Verhoef, A. F. Kotzé and H. E. Junginger, “N-Trimethyl chitosan chloride as absorption enhancer in oral peptide drug delivery. Development and characterization of minitablet and granule formulations. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 2004, 57(1), 85-91. 6. W. Boonyo, H. E. Junginger, N. Waranuch, A. Polnok and T. Pitaksuteepong, “Chitosan and trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC) as adjuvants for inducingimmune responses to ovalbumin in mice following nasal administration”, J. Control. Release, 2007, 121, 168-175. 7. G. K. McEvoy. “Neostigmine bromide/neostigmine methylsulfate”. in “AHFS Drug Information” (Ed. M. D. Bethesda), American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 2007, 1245-1247.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
71
Skin Lightening Microemulsion Formulation of Broussonetia papyrifera Leaf Extract and Human Skin Irritation Test Suradwadee Thungmungmee 1, Kornkanok Ingkaninan Tasana Pitaksuteepong 1, 3, *
2, 3
, Punpimol Tuntijarukorn
3
and
1
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand 2 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Pharmacognocy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand 3 Cosmetics and Natural Products Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The skin color is related with melanin biosynthesis which occurs through the action of the enzyme tyrosinase. The extract prepared from leaves of Broussonetia papyrifera or por-sa which are waste from paper industry has been previously proved to have antityrosinase and also antioxidant activities with IC50 value of 22.9 ± 0. 9 and 199.2 ± 13.8 g/ml, respectively. The antityrosinase activity of the extract was only 3.9 times lower than kojic acid and its antioxidant activity was 12.8 times lower than butylated hydroxyltoluene. Thus it possessed high potential for being used as a skin lightening agent. Therefore, this study was aimed to develop microemulsion formulation of extract as a skin lightening product. Firstly, the microemulsion prepared was consist of olive oil, cremophor RH40/span 80 and water. Then, the microemulsions formed were incorporated with extract at 0.5% w/w and subjected to stability study at 4 oC, room temperature and 45 oC for 6 months. The physical and chemical stability were observed. The microemulsion formulation containing extract was also tested for human skin irritation test by single application closed patch test. It was found that the formulation consisting of 30% olive oil, 60% cremophor RH40/span 80 (ratio 2:1) and 10% water prepared in this study could greatly enhance the stability of the extract. The results of human skin irritation test showed no sign of irritation. This study can be concluded that microemulsion developed can enhance the stability of extract as well as free of skin irritation and thus it is the promising candidate for developing a skin lightening product. Keywords: Broussonetia papyrifera, Por-sa, Microemulsions, Stability, Skin irritation INTRODUCTION The skin color is related with melanin biosynthesis which occurs through the action of the enzyme tyrosinase. The extract prepared from leaves of Broussonetia papyrifera or por-sa which are waste from paper industry has been previously proved to have antityrosinase and also antioxidant activities with IC50 value of 22.9 ± 0.9 and 199.2 ± 13.8 g/ml, respectively [1]. The antityrosinase activity of the extract was only 3.9 times lower than kojic acid and its antioxidant activity was 12.8 times lower than butylated hydroxyltoluene. Thus it possessed high potential for being used as a skin lightening agent. However, the stability of por-sa leaf extract (PSE) was found to be poor [2]. Microemulsions are systems composing oil, water and surfactant, frequently in combination with a cosurfactant and droplet size is usually in the range of 10-100 nm [3]. These systems have gained attention in this study because of ease of preparation, long-term stability, low
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
72
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
viscosity and high solubilizing power of active ingredient [3, 4]. Moreover, it has been reported to prevent degradation of triptolide [5] and curcumin [6]. Therefore, this study was aimed to develop microemulsion formulation of extract as a skin lightening product. The study included the formulation of microemulsion, long-term stability test and human skin irritation test of the formulation developed. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Cetiol HE (PEG-7 glyceryl cocoate), cremophor RH40 (PEG-40 hydrogenated Castor Oil) and span 80 (sorbitan oleate) were obtained from Numsiang Co., Ltd. (Bangkok, Thailand). Olive oil was bought from Giralda (Madrid, Spain). Preparation of PSE crude extract The leaves of B. papyrifera (Por-sa) used were collected from Lablae, Uttaradit, Thailand in July, 2010. The fresh leaves were washed and air dried. Then, they were dried at 50 C using hot-air oven (Memmert, Germany) for a further 48 hr. Dried leaves were ground into powder, macerated with 80% ethanol. Then, the extract was filtered and the filtrate was evaporated under reduced pressure using a rotary evaporator (Buchi Rotavapor R-114, Switzerland) at 50 C. Preparation of microemulsion containing por-sa leaf extract (ME-PSE) and long-term stability test From the previous study [1], the pseudoternary phase diagrams were constructed to identify the microemulsion regions and the best microemulsion formulation was selected to incorporate PSE in this study. The ME-PSE formulation was simply performed by preparing the selected premicroemulsion base containing 30% olive oil, 60% Cremophor RH40/Span 80 (ratio 2:1) and 10% water. Then it was incorporated with the PSE at a concentration of 0.5% (w/w) under stirring. Then, the ME-PSE was then tested for the long term stability by storing at 4 C, room temperature (RT) and 45 C for 6 months. Samples were withdrawn at time intervals of 0, 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 months. The physical stability of microemulsions containing PSE was determined including color, phase separation, viscosity and pH changes. The degradation of PSE incorporated in microemulsions was also investigated using HPLC analysis. An isocratic reversed-phase HPLC method was developed for the analysis of the marker peaks of PSE. The HPLC equipment (LC20AT, Shimadzu, Japan) consists of a Shimadzu LC-10A pump and SPD-M10A photodiode array detector. Chromatography was performed on phenomenex luna C18 column (5 m, 150x4.60 mm) with a mobile phase of acetonitrile: 0.02M phosphate buffer pH 3 (17:83) and a flow rate of 0.8 ml/min. The volume injected is 20 l with detection at 340 nm. The remaining percentage of PSE was calculated based on peak area of HPLC chromatogram of the marker peaks having various retention times. Skin irritation test in human volunteers This study was performed with the approval of Naresuan University Human Ethics Committee (protocol number: 55 03 01 0002; year 2012). This study design was double blinded. The thirty female subjects with no underlying skin disease on the test area were recruited. The subjects aged 20-40 years with Fitzpatrick skin type III-V who voluntarily to participate were asked to sign an informed consent. Skin irritation was performed by single application closed patch test. Briefly, each sample (20 l) i.e. microemulsion containing PSE (ME-PSE, test product), microemulsion without PSE (placebo) and de-ionized water (negative control) was randomly applied to each chamber of the Finn Chambers (Finn Chambers on Scanpor, SmartPractice®,
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
73
Denmark) and then placed on forearms of the subjects by the investigator. After that, the Finn Chambers were covered with hypoallergic tape (Tegaderm TM Film, Maryland, USA) to secure the chambers in place. After the patches were occluded for 30 min, they were removed and the test samples were wiped off gently using cotton pads soaked with water and left the test sites for 30 min to accustom with the environment. Then, the test sites were observed for the irritation signs using visual and instrumental assessments. The subjects who show no irritation sign would be further occluded for a total of 24 hr to confirm that the product developed was not irritate with exposures of even longer duration. After the required periods of skin contact, the patch was opened and observed for signs of skin irritation 30 min after patch removal, then 24 and 48 hr afterwards (i.e. observed at 24, 48 and 72 hr after application) using visual and instrumental assessments. For visual assessment, visual grading and scoring was performed by the dermatologist using parameters presented in Table 1. The primary irritation index (PII) is calculated based on the sum of the scores divided by the number of the observations for the each treated site. Categories of skin irritation, based on PII values, are shown in Table 2. For instrumental assessment, the skin parameters were measured using Tewameter and Mexameter MX18 (Courage and Khazaka electronic GmbH, Cologne, Germany) for measuring the transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and the skin redness (erythema value), respectively. Table 1 Assessment of grading for visual evaluation Scoring 0 1 2 3
Description of response No reaction Mild erythema or dryness Moderate erythema or dryness Strong erythema or dryness
Table 2 Response categories of irritation in human skin Category Negligible Slight irritation Moderate irritation Severe irritation
Primary Irritation Index (PII) 0-0.4 0.5-1.9 2-4.9 5-8
Statistical analysis Data on the skin irritation test in human volunteers was presented as visual scores based on PII value and as instrumental values (TEWL and erythema). The instrumental values were expressed as mean SD and were evaluated by one way ANOVA and Tukey Multiple comparisons. All of these data, p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant difference.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
74
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preparation of microemulsion containing por-sa leaf extract (ME-PSE) and long-term stability test ME-PSE was tested for long term stability and it was found that the color of the formulation stored at 4 C and RT did not change but it changed from light green to yellowish color when stored at 45 C. No phase separation was observed after storing for 6 months at all temperature. The viscosity was slightly changed and not dependent on storage temperature. pH was remained at 5.0. The stability of PSE was determined by the reduction of peak area of HPLC chromatograms following storing for 6 months at 4, RT and 45 oC. The peaks of key compound observed are shown in Figure 1. The remaining percentage of the PSE incorporated in microemulsion formulation detected based on the marker peak at retention time 8.8 min was found to be dependent on storage temperatures (Figure 2). The remaining percentage of the PSE incorporated in microemulsions stored at 45 C < RT < 4 C. However, the remaining percentage of the PSE incorporated in microemulsions stored at all temperatures was greatly higher than that of non-formulated PSE (Figure 2).
Figure 1
The HPLC chromatogram of PSE at concentration 4 mg/ml the arrows indicated the peaks of key compounds observed. 120
100 80
60 40 20
% Remaining of major compound
120 % Remaining of major compound
%Remaining of major compound
120
100
0
80
60 40 20
RT
45 °C
Temperature
(a)
80
60 40 20
0
0 4 °C
100
4 °C
RT
45 °C
Temperature
(b)
4 °C
RT
45 °C
Temperature
(c)
Figure 2 The remaining percentage of PSE (-- --) and PSE formulated in microemulsion ( ) after storing for 6 months. The percentage remaining was calculated based on peak area of HPLC chromatogram of the maker peaks having retention time a) 8.8 min, b) 9.5 min and c) 17.6 min.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
75
Skin irritation on human All subjects showed no irritation sign on the test sites applied with the test samples and placebo. Clinical evaluation using visual assessment by the dermatologist revealed no dryness in all subjects at 30 min and also at 24, 48, and 72 hr after application. One subject was observed skin redness for the whole area covered with TegadermTM. This local irritation resolved within 2 hr after discontinuation of the TegadermTM occlusive dressing. In addition, five subjects showed no erythema immediately after removal of Finn chamber (i.e. 24 hr after application). However, mild erythema on the test site applied with water gradually developed within 30 min after removal of Finn chamber and then subsided within 1 hr. TEWL values of the test sites applied with test product and placebo were lower than those of the test sites applied with water, especially after at 30 min and 24 hr after application (Figure 3, left). However, when compared the preparations tested with baseline, TEWL values was not significantly different. Erythema value of the test sites applied with all samples was not significantly different (Figure 3, right). In addition, the category of irritation degree for sum of erythema and dryness after removal of the Finn chamber 30 min, 24, 48 and 72 hr calculated based on the PII was found to be negligible.
Figure 3 Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) (left) and erythema index (right) of microemulsion containing PSE (test product), microemulsion without PSE (placebo) and water (negative control) before application (baseline) and at 30 min, 24, 48 and 72 hr after application in human volunteers CONCLUSION This study clearly demonstrates that microemulsion developed can greatly enhance the stability of por-sa leaf extract. In addition, it does not cause irritation to human skin. Moreover, heating process which may affect the stability of PSE does not be required in the preparation of microemulsion. Therefore, the ME-PSE formulation is the promising candidate for developing a skin lightening product. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research project was supported by Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry (PERCH-CIC), Office of the Higher Education Commission, Ministry of Education and Naresuan University, Thailand for the research fund from University Revenue (R2553C028 and R2555C121).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
76
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
REFERENCES 1. S. Thungmungmee, K. Ingkaninan and T. Pitaksuteepong, Development of skin lightening microemulsion containing Broussonetia papyrifera leaf extract”, Proceedings of the Pure and Applied Chemistry International Conference (PACCON), 2012, Chiang Mai, Thailand, pp. 283286. 2. S. Thungmungmee, K. Ingkaninan and T. Pitaksuteepong, “Stability study of Broussonetia papyrifera leaf extract”, Thai J. Pharm. Sci., 2012, 36, 197-200. 3. M. Kreilgaard, “Influence of microemulsions on cutaneous drug delivery”, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 2002, 54, s77-s98. 4. S. Peltola, P. S. Savolainen, J. Kiesvaara, T. M. Suhonen and A. Urtti, “Microemulsions for topical delivery of estradiol”, Int. J. Pharm., 2003, 254, 99-107. 5. H. Chen, X. Chang, T. Weng, X. Zhao, Z. Gao, and Y. Yang, “A study of microemulsion systems for transdermal delivery of triptolide”, J. Control. Release, 2004, 98, 427-436. 6. C. C. Lin, H. Y. Lin, H. C. Chen, M. W. Yu and M. H. Lee, “Stability and characterisation of phospholipid-based curcumin-encapsulated microemulsions”, Food Chem., 2009, 116, 923–928.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
77
A Novel BsuRI PCR-RFLP Detecting Genetic Polymorphism of IL-4 Gene and Association with Litter Size Traits in Thai Commercial Pig Breeds Worrarak Norseeda1, 2 and Supamit Mekchay1, 2, * 1
Department of Animal and Aquatic Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand 2 Center of Excellence on Agricultural Biotechnology: (AG-BIO/PERDO-CHE), Bangkok 10900, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail: S. Mekchay,
[email protected] Abstract: Several cytokine genes are involved in the immune system and associated with the reproductive system. Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is one of the cytokines and related with implantation of embryo and embryo development. The objective of this study was to analyze the effects of an IL-4 gene polymorphism with litter size traits in Thai commercial pig breeds. Data of litter size traits from 426 sows (Large White and Landrace sows) were recorded including total number of piglets born (TNB), number of piglets born alive (NBA) and number of weaning alive (NWA). The PCR primers were designed throughout the porcine IL-4 gene. PCR products were screened for single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). The polymorphism of IL-4 gene was amplified and genotyped with PCR-RFLP (BsuRI). The IL-4 gene was significantly associated with NBA (P<0.01) and NWA (P<0.05) in Large White sows on the second and following parities. In all parities, the IL-4 gene was significantly associated with NBA (P<0.05). The sows of AB and BB genotypes had higher NBA and NWA when compared to AA genotype. These results indicated that the IL-4 gene is associated with litter size traits in Thai commercial pig breeds and could be used as the markerassisted selection (MAS) for increasing litter size traits in pigs. Keywords: IL-4, Pigs, Litter Size Traits, Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) INTRODUCTION Litter size traits are important trait in reproductive performance because these traits are closely related to affect to economic yield such as number of piglets born alive and number of weaning pigs [1]. However, the improvement in reproductive traits is limited by traditional selection due to low heritability [23]. Many candidate gene studies have been reported to find the QTL and genes associated with litter size traits [4-11].
Reproductive performance is affected by most factors such as ovulation, implantation and embryo development. Thus, if this step proceeds successfully, it can directly influence porcine litter size traits [12]. Several studies indicated that cytokines were important in animal reproduction [13 15]. The immune system is the autocrine, paracrine and endocrine which play a role in regulating human reproductive events such as ovulation, luteinization and implantation [16]. Therefore, cytokines probably affect the reproductive system of animals, especially, the litter size traits in sows. Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is one of those cytokines and is produced by T helper type 2 cells. The effects of IL-4 are associated with the modulation of host defense and immunity through action on a variety of cell types [17]. IL-4 is important in the reproductive system because it accelerates the
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
78
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
release of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) [18]. Moreover, hCG induced progesterone is produced in the corpus luteum to maintain pregnancy [19, 14]. The porcine IL-4 gene is located in chromosome 2 and previous studies have been found the candidate gene were associated with litter size traits [20-21]. The objective of this study was to determine the association of the IL-4 gene with litter size traits in Thai commercial pig breeds. MATERIALS AND METHODS Animals and Data A total of 426 sows (207 Large White and 219 Landrace sows) were taken blood samples from the jugular vein with a 0.5 M EDTA anti-coagulant. The litter size data were recorded in term of TNB, NBA and NWA in 1,291 litters of sows farrowing up to 8 th parities. DNA Extraction DNA samples were extracted by using Chelex® [22]. Briefly, the blood were lysed twice, centrifuge at 4,000 rpm for 2 minutes then Chelex® solution was added over the pellet and incubated at 56 ºC overnight. The solution samples were boiled at 95 ºC for 5 minutes and stored at 4ºC until analyzed. PCR-RFLP The IL-4 primers (forward: 5 -GTGGTAGGTATCCTTTCCAC-3 and reverse: 5 -AACAGT GATCAAACCAGGGC-3 ) were designed base on the porcine IL-4 gene sequence (GenBank, accession number NC_010444.3). The PCR amplification was performed in a final reaction volume of 20 l by using 50.0 ng of genomic DNA sample, 1X NH4SO4 buffer, 0.4 mol of each primer, 0.5 l of 0.2 mmol dNTPs, 1.5 mmol MgCl2and 0.25 units Taq DNA polymerase (Fermentas). The PCR conditions were 94 ºC 3 min, followed by 35 cycles of 94 ºC for 30s, 58 ºC for 30s, 72 ºC for 30s and then 5 minutes extension at 72 ºC. The PCR product was digested with BsuRI (Fermentas, USA) at 37 oC for 3 hours. The digestion products were separated by electrophoreses on 6% polyacrylamide. The gels were stained with ethidium bromide. Statistic Analysis Allele and genotype frequencies were calculated. Association of the IL-4 marker and the reproductive traits were performed with general linear model (GLM) including fixed effects of parity number, year-season, genotype and residual error. The model was used as follows: Yijkl = + parityi+ year-seasonj+genotypek+ eijkl Where: Yijk = observed value = average normalized of populations parityi = fixed effect of parity i (i = 1 to 8) year-seasonj = fixed effect of year-season j (j = 1 to 14) genotypek = fixed effect of genotype k (k = 1 to 3) eijkl = residual error Moreover, additive effect (a) was estimated by comparison of the means of the traits value for homozygote a = ½(BB-AA). The dominance effect (d) for alleles A and B was calculated from the means for three genotypes as follows: d =AB – ½(AA+BB). The estimated effects were tested by using a t-test on significant deviation from zero.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
79
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION RFLP Analysis The PCR product of IL-4 maker was 333 bp. The PCR product digested with BsuRI showed a 295 bp fragment for allele A and 180 and 115 bp fragment for allele B (Figure1). 500 bp
12
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
300 bp
333 bp 295 bp
200 bp
180 bp 115 bp
100 bp
Figure 1 Polyacrylamide gel of IL-4 gene digested by BsuRI. Lane 1: 100 bp DNA ladder; Lane 2: BB genotype; lane 5, 6, 8 and 10: AA genotype; lane 3, 4, 7 and 9: AB genotype; lane 11: PCR product Genotype Frequencies and Allele Frequencies The genotype and allele frequencies of Large White and Landrace sows are shown in Table1. Table 1 Genotype and allele frequencies of IL-4 in Large White and Landrace sows Breed
Number of sows
Genotype frequencies
Allele frequencies
AA
AB
BB
f(A)
f(B)
Large White
207
0.52
0.41
0.07
0.72
0.28
Landrace
219
0.63
0.32
0.05
0.79
0.21
Total
426
0.57
0.37
0.06
0.75
0.25
Effects of IL-4 on Litter Size Traits Effects of the IL-4 gene on the litter size traits of Large White sows are shown in Table2. The polymorphism of IL-4 gene was significantly associated with NBA and NWA in Large White sows. In the 2nd to 8th parities, the AB and BB genotypes were significantly differed from AA genotype on NBA (P<0.01) and NWA (P<0.05). In all parities, the AB and BB genotypes was significantly differed from AA genotype on NBA (P<0.05). For Landrace sows, no significant association of IL-4 gene with litter size traits was found (Table3). Moreover, additive and dominant effects of the IL-4 gene showed no significantly different on litter size traits in sows. The results of this study show that the IL-4 gene was associated with litter size traits in Large White sows. The beginning of the embryo implantation phase is probably important to determine the rate of embryo loss which could decrease litter size and associated the NBA. According to the scientific evidence, the IL-4 stimulates the secretion of hCG and hCG inducing progesterone production [14, 19]. The functions of progesterone and estrogen hormones in the endometriam are facilitated to the embryo implantation process such as thickness of the uterine wall and producing embryonic nutrition to result in blood vessel growth. Besides, progesterone stimulates milk production by expanding milk ducts and alveoli in preparation for the piglets. For these reasons, the IL-4 was
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
80
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
associated with the NWA traits in sows. Nevertheless, the influence of genetics affects the expression of traits. As a result, the polymorphism of IL-4 gene was no significant association with litter size traits in Landrace sows. Therefore, the genetic markers should be tested before use in other pig breeds for marker-assisted selection in pig breeding program. Currently, there are the reports regarding functions and association of the IL-4 with diseases in human and porcine [23-27]. However, the results in this study show the first report of the association of the IL-4 gene with litter size traits in pigs. The IL-4 marker could be used as the marker-assisted selection (MAS) for litter size traits improvement. CONCLUSION The results of this study reveal that the IL-4 gene is associated with litter size trait in pigs. The IL-4 gene showed significant association with the litter size trait in NBA and NWA. Moreover, the animals with genotype AB and BB had higher litter size traits than genotype AA. These results indicate that the IL-4 gene can be used as the marker-assisted selection for improvement of litter size traits in pigs. Table 2 Association of IL-4 Gene with litter size traits in Large White sows Genotypes
Traits
Effects
AA
AB
BB
Additive
Dominant
TNB
11.47±0.33
10.99±.54
11.84±2.33
-0.18±1.17
-0.67±1.29
NBA
9.72±0.32
9.56±0.53
11.56±2.29
-0.92±1.15
-1.07±1.27
NWA
8.80±0.30
8.67±0.49
10.66±2.11
-0.93±1.05
-1.06±1.17
13.82±1.39
Parity 1
Parity 2-8 TNB
11.51±0.52 A
12.09±0.55
11.89±1.36
-1.15±0.66
-0.57±0.71
B
-0.72±0.64
0.19±0.69
b
-2.4±0.62
0.58±0.67
NBA
10.44±0.50
NWA
a
10.50±0.52
b
10.15±1.32
TNB
12.01±0.38
12.30±0.41
13.73±1.19
-0.85±0.57
-0.57±0.63
NBA
10.74±0.37
a
b
12.36±1.16
b
-0.81±0.56
-0.23±0.61
NWA
9.91±0.35
10.42±0.38
10.84±1.11
-0.46±0.54
9.68±0.49
11.36±0.54
B
All Parity 11.32±0.39
Least squared means in rows with different superscripts are different (
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
A, B
P < 0. 01), (
0.05±0.58 a, b
P < 0. 05).
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
81
Table 3 Association of IL-4 Gene with litter size traits in Landrace sows Genotypes
Traits
Effects
AA
AB
BB
Additive
Dominant
TNB
9.76±0.41
10.19±0.44
9.82±0.62
-0.03±0.28
0.39±0.37
NBA
8.63±0.47
8.78±0.50
7.85±0.71
0.38±0.32
0.53±0.42
NWA
8.07±0.47
7.92±0.50
6.63±0.71
0.72±0.32
0.57±0.43
TNB
11.17±0.40
11.13±0.38
11.31±0.52
-0.06±0.20
-0.11±0.27
NBA
9.98±0.42
9.65±0.40
9.68±0.40
0.14±0.21
-0.18±0.28
NWA
9.43±0.39
9.25±0.37
9.14±0.51
0.14±0.20
-0.03±0.26
TNB
10.21±0.44
10.30±0.44
10.30±0.52
-0.04±0.16
0.04±0.22
NBA
9.25±0.47
9.05±0.46
8.78±0.55
0.23±0.17
0.03±0.23
NWA
8.77±0.45
8.60±0.45
8.11±0.53
0.33±0.17
0.15±0.22
Parity 1
Parity 2-8
All Parity
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is partially supported by the Center of Excellence on Agricultural Biotechnology, Science and Technology Postgraduate Education and Research Development Office, Office of Higher Education Commission, Ministry of Education (AG-BIO/PERDO-CHE) as well as the National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) and Betagro group (CPM-54016). We like to acknowledge NSTDA University Industry Research Collaboration (NUI-RC) project (NUI-RC_CPMO01-55-006) for support a scholarship to W. Norseeda. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
N. Schaefer and R. Morrison,"Effect on total pigs weaned of herd closure for elimination of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus", J. Swine. Health. Prod.,2007, 15, 152-155. C. Okere and L. Nelson,"Novel reproductive techniques in swine production-a review", J. Anim. Sci., 2002, 15, 445-452. R. K. Johnson, M. K. Nielsenand D. S. Casey,"Responses in ovulation rate, embryonal survival, and Litter traits in swine to 14 generations of selection to increase litter size", J. Anim. Sci., 1999, 77, 541-557. C. Drogemuller, H. Hamann and O. Distl,"Candidate gene markers for litter size in different German pig lines", J. Anim. Sci., 2001, 79, 2565-2570. L. A. Messer, L. Wang, J. Yelich, D. Pomp, R. D. Geisert and M.F. Rothschild, "Linkage mapping of the retinol-binding protein (RBP4) gene to porcine chromosome 14", Mamm. Genome., 1996, 7, 396-401. M. F. Rothschild, C. Jacobson, D. A. Vaske, C. K. Tuggle, L. Wang, T. Short, G. Eckardt, S. Sasaki, A. Vincent, D. G. McLaren, O. Southwood, H. van der Steen, A. Mileham, and G. Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
82
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.
25.
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Plastow, "The estrogen receptor locus is associated with a major gene influencing litter size in pigs", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 1996, 93, 201-205. M. F. Rothschild, L. Messer, L. Day, R. Wales, T. Short, O. Southwood and G. Plastow, "Investigation of the retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) gene as a candidate gene for increased litter size in pigs", Mamm. Genome., 2000, 11, 75-77. A. Spötter, S. Muller, H. Hamann and O. Distl, "Effect of polymorphisms in the genes for LIF and RBP4 on litter size in two German pig lines", Reprod.Dom. Anim., 2009, 44, 100-105. A. Terman, M. Kmiec, D. Polasik and K. Pradziadowicz, "Retinol binding protein 4 gene and reproductive traits in pigs", Arch. Tierz., 2007, 50, 181-185. X. Wang, A.G. Wang, J. fu and H. Lin, "Effects of ESR1, FSHB and RBP4 genes on litter size in Large White and Landrace Herd", Arch. Tierz., 2006, 49, 64-70. D. J. Zhang, D. Liu, G. W. Yang, X. K. Fuand and X. M. He, "Impact of the NCOA1, OPN and RBP4 genes on individual weight at birth and individual weight at 30 days in hybrid pig", Acta. Agric. Scand. A. Anim. Sci., 2010, 60, 33-37. L. Yang, J. Fu, Y. Fuand A. Wang, "Association analysis between a polymorphism in the 5 regulatory region of the IL-6 gene and litter size in pigs", J. Anim. Sci. Biotech., 2011, 2, 187-191. G. Chaouat, S. Dubanchet and N. Ledée, "Cytokines: Important for implantation?", J. Assist. Reprod. Genet., 2007, 24, 491–505. S. A. RobertSon, V. J. Mau, S. N. Hudson and K. P. Tremellen, "Cytokine-leukocyte networks and the establishment of pregnancy", AJRI., 1997, 37, 438-442. C. Simon, A. Bechenbach and B. Crespi, "Evolution, weighting, and phylogenetic utility of mitochondrial gene sequence and compilation of conserved polymerase chain reaction primers", Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am., 1994, 87, 651-701. W. E. Paul, "Interleukin-4: a prototypic immunoregulatory lymphokine", Blood., 1991, 77, 1859-1866. S. Saito, N. Harada, N. Ishii, T. Morii, S. Sakakura, M. Enomoto, H.Umekage, K. Nishikawa, N. Narita, M. Nakamura, K. Sugamura and H. Morikawa, "Functional expression on human trophoblasts of interleukin 4 and interleukin 7 receptor complexes with common chain", Biochem. Biophys., 1997, 231, 429–434. M. P. Piccinni, L. Beloni, C. Livi, E. Maggi, G. Scarselli and S. Romaganani, "Defective production of both leukemia inhibitory factor and type 2 T helper cytokines by decidual T cells in unexplained recurrent abortions", Nature. Med., 1998, 4, 1020–1024. S. Saito, "Cytokine network at the feto-maternal interface", J. Reprod. Immunol.,2000, 47, 87–103. B. Lei, S. Gao, L. F. Luo, X. Y. Xia, S. W. Jiang, C. Y. Deng, Y. Z. Xiong and F. E. Li, "A SNP in the miR-27a gene is associated with litter size in pigs", Mol. Biol. Rep., 2011, 38, 3725–3729. A. Stinckens, P. Mathur, S. Janssens, V. Bruggeman, O. M. Onagbesan, M. Schroyen, G. Spincemaille, E. Decuypere, M. Georges and N. Buys, "Indirect effect of IGF2 intron3 g.3072G>A mutation on prolificacy in sows", Anim. Genet., 2010, 41, 493-498. P. S. Walsh, D. A. Metzger and R. Higuchi, "Chelex 100 as a medium for simple extraction of DNA for PCR-based typing from forensic material", Biotechniques., 1991, 10, 506-513. P. Choi and H. Reiser, "IL-4: role in disease and regulation of production", Clin. Exp. Immunol., 1998, 113, 317–319. L. Darwich, M. Balasch, J. Plana-Duran, J. Segales, M. Domingo and E. Mateu, "Cytokine profiles of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from pigs with postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome in response to mitogen, superantigen or recall viral antigens", J. Gen. Virol., 2003, 84, 3453-3457. J. Gilmour and P. Lavender, "Control of IL-4 expression in T helper 1 and 2 cells", Immunology. 2008, 124, 437–444.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
83
26. N. Nasrin, M. J. Grusby, P. W. Finn, D. J. Wolgemuth and L.H. Glimcher, "Identification of an IL4-inducible gene expressed in differentiating lymphocytes and male germ cells", Dev. Immunol., 1990, 1, 19-30. 27. A. Nuntaprasert, Y. Mori, Y. Muneta, K. Yoshihara, K. Tsukiyama-Kohara and C. Kai, "The effect of recombinant swine interleukin-4 on swine immune cells and on pro-inflammatory cytokine productions in pigs", Comp. Immun. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 2004, 28, 83–101.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
84
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Biological Activity of Phyllanthus emblica Fruit Extract Prepared by Different Methods of Extraction Werayut Pothitirat1,*, Ruxjinda Wattanalai1, Patama Sopach1, Nalinee Suwannawat1, Yodphon Nakhronkren1, Pongtip Sithisan2 and Wandee Gritsanapan2 1 2
Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University, Bangkok, Thailand Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
* Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Phyllanthus emblica (P. emblica) fruit has been reported to promote high antioxidant and antibacterial activities. In addition, this plant is popularly used in herbal cosmetics and food supplements. The aim of this study was to determine and to compare the antioxidants as well as antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The fruit extract of P. emblica was prepared by different methods of extraction, i.e. maceration, percolation, soxhlet extraction, ultrasonic extraction and expression. The antioxidant activity of each extract was evaluated using DPPH and FRAP assay. Furthermore, the antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli was also determined using broth microdilution method. The results show that the extract from soxhlet extraction method promotes the high antioxidant activity (DPPH assay: EC 50 = 2.78 ± 0.05 g/ml and FRAP assay: FRAP value = 59.05 ± 2.94 mg FeSO 4/100 g extract). Base on MIC and MBC values, the extract from percolation showed the strongest antibacterial activity against S. aureus (MIC, MBC = 8 mg/ml) and E. coli (MIC = 1 mg/ml, MBC =16 mg/ml). That information’s can be useful to select the appropriate extraction method for the production of cosmetics and food supplements from this plant. Keywords: Antibacterial, Antioxidant, Indian gooseberry, Phyllanthus emblica. INTRODUCTION Extraction is the first steps involved in the qualitative and quantitative analysis of medicinal plant constituents. The extract obtained may be ready for use as a medicinal agent in any dosage form such as tablets, capsules, creams, lotions or ointments. Therefore, the method of extraction contributes significantly to the final quality of the herbal medicine products [1].Phyllanthus emblica Linn. (Ma Kham Pom), is widely distributed in subtropical and tropical areas in Asean countries. The fruit of P. emblica has been recommended for using in primary health care for treatments of expectorant, laxative and antiscobutic [2]. In Thai traditional medicine preparations, P. emblica fruit is a common constituent, and most notably is the primary ingredient such as in triphala. The fruits of this plant are containing high amounts of ascorbic acid [3]. It also has many polyphenols, i.e. emblicanin A and B, punigluconin, pedunculagin and flavonoids [4-5]. Additionally, this plant have been reported to exhibit numerous biological activity especially antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [6]. Nowadays, the extract of P. emblica fruit is popularly used as ingredients in dietary supplement and herbal cosmetic. Thus, the aims of this study were to investigate the appropriate extraction method that promoted strong antioxidants and antibacterial activities against S. aureus and E. coli of the extracts of P. emblica fruit. Consequently, several methods of extraction, i.e. maceration, percolation, soxhlet extraction, ultrasonic extraction and expression were investigated. The appropriate method of extraction was then selected for extraction of P. emblica fruit in the further commercial production.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
85
MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of Plant Materials The fruits of P. emblica were obtained from local market in Bangkok, Thailand during June 2012. The samples were identified by Dr. Wandee Gritsanapan at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. The voucher specimens (WPPE0612) were deposited at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University, Bangkok, Thailand. The fresh fruits were cleaned and the seeds were removed. The fruit was cut into small pieces and dried in a hot air oven at 50°C for 24 h. The dried samples were ground into powder and passed through a sieve (20 mesh). The powdered sample were kept in air tight container and protected from light until used. Preparation of P. emblica Fruit Extracts by Various Extraction Methods Several extraction methods have been done using 95% v/v ethanol as a solvent except expression. Each method was performed in triplicate. Maceration The dried powder of P. emblica (15 g) was placed in a stoppered container and was macerated with 95% ethanol (150 mL) at room temperature for 24 h with frequent agitation. The marc was pressed and the mixture was filtered through a Whatman no. 1 filter paper. Other portions of solvent were added to the marc and the extraction was repeated for 5 times. The total extraction time was 120 h. Percolation Fifteen grams of P. emblica dried powder was mixed with 95% ethanol (10 mL) and the mixture was allowed to stand for 1 h. The mixture was transferred to a percolator and the 95% ethanol was added (7.2 l). The extraction was done at room temperature with flow rate 4 mL/min until the percolate was exhausted. The total extraction time was 30 h. Ultrasonic Extraction In this method, the extract was prepared by extracting 15 g of the dried powder with 95% ethanol (100 mL) in an ultrasonic apparatus for 30 min. The temperature of the water in the water bath was controlled at 30°C by changing the water every 30 min. The extraction was repeated for 10 times. The total extraction time was 5 h. Soxhlet Extraction The dried powder of P. emblica (15 g) was placed into a trimble which is placed in chamber of the Soxhlet apparatus and was extracted with 350 mL of 95% ethanol. Extraction was carried out at 16 cycles/h until exhausted. The total extraction time was 5 h. Expression Fresh fruit of P. emblica (150 g) was milled by blender and the juice was squeezed out through of wet muslin cloth. The juices were centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant was collected and was filtered through Whatman no. 1 filter paper. The extracts were dried by freeze dryer. The combined extract of each extraction method was filtered through a Whatman no. 1 filter paper. The filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressured at 50°C using a rotary vacuum evaporator. The crude extract was then dried by freeze dryer until a constant weight was obtained. The extract was used for antioxidant and antibacterial testing.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
86
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Determination of Antioxidant Activity of P. emblica Fruit Extracts DPPH Scavenging Assay (DPPH assay) The various concentrations (0.1-500 g/ml) of the P. emblica fruits were extracted by methanol. The DPPH solution was prepared in concentration of 152 M. The scavenging reaction was performed when DPPH solution was added to the sample solution in the same volume. After 30 min, absorbance of the mixture at 517 nm was determined using a UV-visible spectrophotometer. The percentage inhibition activity was calculated as follows: [(A0–A1)/A0] x 100, where A0 is the absorbance of the control, and A1 is the absorbance of the extract or standard. The inhibition curves were prepared and EC50 values were obtained. All tests were carried out in triplicate. Ascorbic acid was taken as positive control. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power Assay (FRAP assay) The sample solutions of P. emblica fruit extract were prepared in methanol at concentrations of 500 g/mL. The solution (500 L) was mixed with 500 l of 0.2 M sodium phosphate buffer and 500 l of 1% w/v potassium ferricyanide. The mixture was incubated for 20 minutes at 45°C and were then added with 2 ml of 10% w/v trichloroacetic acid and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant (500 L) was drawn and mixed with 500 L of deionized water and 100 L of 0.1% w/v ferric chloride. The absorbance of the mixtures was measured at 700 nm. Ascorbic acid was used as a reference standard. The result was expressed as mmol of (FeSO 4) equivalents [7]. Determination of Antibacterial Activity of P. emblica Fruit Extract Bacterial Cultures and Inoculum Preparation Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 13565) and Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) were used in this study; those species were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection, USA. These microorganisms were incubated in brain heart infusion medium for 24 h at 37 C under aerobic conditions adjusted to yield approximately 108 CFU/mL. Antibacterial Susceptibility Test Antibacterial activity of P. emblica fruit extract against S. aureus and E. coli were worked out by broth microdilution method [8]. The extract was dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide and incorporated into medium to get a concentration of 16 mg/mL and diluted to range of 8-0.0078 mg/mL. Standardized suspension of each tested organism was transferred to each well. The broth cultures of S. aureus and E. coli were incubated for 24 h. The minimum inhibitory concentration (M IC) was defined as the lowest concentration of the compound to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. The lowest concentration of the compound that kills the microorganism was defined as the minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC). This showed the lowest concentration of the compound, which showed no visible growth after subculture of each clear well onto a new plate containing brain heart infusion agar. The experiment was performed in triplicates. Ceftazidime pentahydrate was used as positive control.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
87
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Antioxidant and antibacterial activities against S. aureus and E. coli of P. emblica fruit extract obtained from various extraction methods are shown in Table 1. Pothitira et al. [9] reported that ethanol 95 %v/v is appropriate solvent for extraction of bioactive compounds from P. emblica with high antioxidant activity. Therefore, in this study 95% ethanol was used in all extraction procedures. Table 1 Antioxidant and antibacterial activities against S. aureus and E. coli of P. emblica fruit extract obtained from different extraction methods Antioxidant activity Extracts/Compounds
Extraction methods Expression Maceration Percolation Soxhlet extraction Ultrasonic extraction Positive controls Ascorbic acid Ceftazidime pentahydrate
Antibacterial activity E. coli S. aureus MIC MBC MIC MBC (mg/mL) (mg/mL) (mg/mL) (mg/ml)
DPPH assay (EC50; g/mL)
FRAP assay (mg FeSO4/100 g ext)
5.30 ± 1.43 2.78 ± 0.05 3.09 ± 0.33 2.78 ± 0.45 2.86 ± 0.42
48.74 ± 1.52 51.04 ± 4.79 50.45 ± 1.64 59.05 ± 2.94 55.16 ± 0.37
2 2 1 2 2
>16 >16 16 >16 >16
16 8 8 8 16
16 8 8 16 16
2.97 ± 0.87 -
52.91 ± 5.87 -
0.0195
1.25
0.0781
10
The antioxidant activity of P. emblica extracts was determined on the basis of the scavenging activity of the stable 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical and ferric reducing ability. The results showed that P. emblica fruit extracts had good antioxidant activity (EC50: 2.78-3.09 g/mL, FRAP value: 50.45-59.05 mg FeSO4/100 g extract) compared with ascorbic acid (EC50: 2.97 g/mL, FRAP value: 52.91 mg FeSO4/100 g extract). The extracts obtained from maceration and soxhlet extraction exhibited the strongest DPPH scavenging activity (EC50: 2.78 g/mL), while the extract from expression method gave poor activity (EC 50: 5.30 g/mL) than the other methods. Based on MIC and MBC values, the extract prepared by percolation using 95 % ethanol as a solvent showed strongest inhibition of E. coli (MIC 1 mg/mL, MBC 16 mg/mL) and S. aureus (MIC 8 mg/mL, MBC 8 mg/mL) than the other methods. In contract, the extracts from expression and ultrasonic extraction gave a weak inhibitory effect against S. aureus and E. coli (MIC 1 mg/mL, MBC 16 mg/mL). Therefore, the P. emblica extract from soxhlet extraction is interesting for being developed as herbal antioxidant pharmaceutical products and cosmetics, while the extract from percolation should be used for preparing the antimicrobial preparations. CONCLUSION In this study results were indicated that the biological activity of the extract of P. emblica fruit altered by method of extraction. And the soxhlet extraction method of P. emblica fruit with 95 % ethanol promoted the highest antioxidant activity. In addition, the extract from percolation exhibited the strongest antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli. Consequently, the results
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
88
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
can be used as basic information for selection of the extraction method in the further commercial production. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge Siam University, Thailand for financial support for this project. REFERENCES 1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.
S. S. Handa, “An Overview of Extraction Techniques for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants”, in “Extraction Technologies for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants” (Ed. S.S. Handa, S.P.S. Khanuja, G. Longo and D.D. Rakesh), International Centre for Science and High Technology, Trieste, Italy, 2008, Ch. 1. Thai Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Vol.2, Prachachon, Bangkok, 2000, 55-62. K. Tarwadi, V. Agte, "Antioxidant and micronutrient potential of common fruits available in the Indian subcontinent", Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr., 2007, 58(5), 341–349. A. Bhattacharya, A. Chatterjee, S. Ghosal, and S.K. Bhattacharya, "Antioxidant activity of active tannoid principles of Emblica officinalis (amla)", Indian J. Exp. Biol., 37(7), 676-680. Habib-ur-Rehman, K.A. Yasin, M.A. Choudhary, et al., "Studies on the chemical constituents of Phyllanthus emblica", Nat. Prod. Res., 2007, 21(9), 775–781. S.S. Sawhney, R.M. Painuli, and S. Dolly, “Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Phyllanthus emblica for its application in treatment of ophthalmic disorders”, Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2011, 3(4), 129-132. I.C.F.R. Ferreira, P. Baptista, M. Vilas-Boas, and L .Barros, “Free-radical scavenging capacity and reducing power of wild edible mushrooms from northeast Portugal: Individual cap and stipe activity, Food Chem., 2007, 100, 1511-1516. 1&&/6 Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing; ninth informational supplement. 1&&/6 GRFXPHQW 06 1DWLRQDO &RPPLWWHH IRU &OLQLFDO /DERUDWRU\
9.
6WDQGDUGV:D\QH3$ W. Pothitirat, W. Kantawong, P. Tongdusri, P. Jukomsri, and W. Gritsanapan, “ Comparison of DPPH scavenging activity and bioactive compounds content of Phyllanthus emblica fruit extracts prepared using different solvent”, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Natural Products for Health and Beauty, 2012, Chiang Mai, Thailand, pp.551.267-551.270.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
89
The Stability Comparison of Ranitidine Hydrochloride Extemporaneous Suspensions which Prepared from Different Commercial Tablets Chutimon Mheankaew 1, Kornkamol Piemfa1, Thanramon Tulachotikul1, Kusuma Doroman1, Wiriyaporn Sirikun 1,* 1
Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University 38 Phetkasem Rd., Bangwa, Pasi-charoen, Bangkok, Thailand 10160 * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Nowadays, oral liquid dosage forms of ranitidine hydrochloride (RHCl) have not been available in Thailand. It caused a problem when RHCl would be used in pediatric and elderly patients. In hospital settings RHCl extemporaneous preparations would be prepared from RHCl tablets which manufactured from only original company, caused high medical cost for those patients. The aim of this study was to reduce medical cost. The extemporaneous RHCl suspensions were prepared from three different local RHCl tablets and comparing their stability to the preparations which produced from RHCl tablets original company. All preparations were storage under accelerated, refrigerated and long term conditions for nine weeks. Evaluation of physical, chemical and physical-chemistry properties was done. Those preparations have no difference in stability results. There were only changes in the color of all preparations which kept for seven weeks under accelerated condition, while there were no changes of odor in all preparation. The viscosity of each preparation was not significantly changed in all conditions. Moreover, the amounts of active ingredients were determined and it was found that the percentage of labeled amount (%LA) of all preparations were in the ranges of 90-110 %LA throughout the stability study. However, the pH values of the preparations which produced from RHCl tablets local companies were out of the ranges (6.7-7.5) when storage under accelerated condition for nine weeks while the others were not shifted. These results could be concluded that RHCl tablets from three local companies could be used instead of RHCl tablets from original company in RHCl extemporaneous preparations. Keywords: Ranitidine Hydrochloride, Suspensions INTRODUCTION Ranitidine hydrochloride (RHCl) is a selective histamine (H2) receptor antagonist which used for a powerful inhibitor of gastric acidity in stomach and duodenum. [2,4] Chemically it is N[2-[[[5-[(dimethylamino) methyl]-2furanyl] methyl] thio] ethyl]-N'-methyl-2-nitro- 1,1 ethenedi amine, HCl (Figure 1). In Thailand, RHCl is used in only tablet and injection dosage forms, while oral liquid dosage forms have been not available. It caused a problem when RHCl would be used in pediatric and elderly patients. Therefore, RHCl extemporaneous preparations were existed in hospitals. The preparations were prepared from RHCl tablets which manufactured from only original company, caused high medical cost for those patients.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
90
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 1 Structure of ranitidine hydrochloride (RHCl), [6] This study was aimed to reduce the medical cost by using the RHCl tablets which manufactured from local companies to prepare the extemporaneous preparations instead of original company. Physical and chemical stability of the extemporaneous preparations using the RHCl tablets which manufactured from original and local companies were evaluated for nine weeks at refrigerator, long term and accelerated conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Ranitidine hydrochloride (RHCl) tablets were purchased from original company and three local companies (local A, B and C). RHCl reference standard was obtained from Bureau of Drug and Narcotic (control no. 03A53083). All other chemicals used for analysis were analytical grade. Methods Extemporaneous Preparation All RHCl tablets were uncoated and grinded as fine powder. The powder of tablets from each company was extemporaneously prepared RHCl oral suspension as followed formula; Ingredients RHCl tablet (grinded) Simple syrup q.s. to pH range of 6.7-7.5
amount 600 mg (4 tablet) 60 ml pH adjust to 7.0
All preparations were kept under refrigerator (2-8 C); R, long term condition (30 C±2 C/ 75%RH±5%RH); LT and accelerated condition (40 C±2 C/75%RH±5%RH); AC for nine weeks. Physical and chemical properties of those preparations were evaluated. Physical Characterization All extemporaneous preparations were evaluated physical property as following; color of the preparations was determined by naked-eye and odor testing of each preparation was observed by human Evaluation of preparation viscosity was done by Brookfield viscometer and pH values of the preparation were measured by pH meter. Chemical Characterization Amounts of RHCl in the preparations were determined by using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique. The chromatographic system was composed of a phenomenex luna 5 m C18 4.6X250nm, a UV-Vis spectrophotometric detector set at 254 nm. The mobile phase was methanol: 0.1 M phosphate buffer; (25:75), pH=5 and flow rate was 0.8 ml/min. The injection
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
91
volume was 20 l and the chromatographic system was performed at room temperature. [1] The method was validated in compliance with the United States Pharmacopeia. [5] The sample preparations were done by diluting RHCl extemporaneous preparation being final concentration of100 g/ml with mobile phase and analyzed with the HPLC method above. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This experiment, ranitidine hydrochloride (RHCl) extemporaneous suspensions were prepared from tablets which manufactured from original and three local companies. They were kept under three different conditions for nine weeks and compared physical and chemical stability every 0, 1st, 5th, 7th and 9th week. The result showed that there was no difference in color between the extemporaneous suspensions throughout the experiment. The color of all suspensions which kept under accelerated condition at the seventh week turned to be yellowish. It might increase temperature to accelerate color destabilization of all preparations. [3-4] Determination of odor was done the result revealed that each suspension was no appreciable changes in odor. Similarly, the viscosity of all preparations was not significantly changed in all conditions (Figure 2). It could be concluded that all preparations were stable in odor and viscosity properties even accelerated condition for nine weeks. pH
Viscosity 7.6 74 7.4 72 7.2 7 68 6.8 66 6.6 64 6.4 62 6.2 6
week 0 week 1 week 5
LT R AC LT R AC LT R AC LT R AC
week 7 original
original
local A
local B
local C
Figure 2 Viscosity (centipoises, cP) of all extemporaneous suspension as a function of time at various conditions
local A A
local B B
week 9 local C
C
Figure 3 pH values of each preparation at three different conditions
Acid and base property, all preparations could be stabilized at the pH ranges of 6.7-7.5 for seven weeks at three different conditions. At ninth week, the pH values of the extemporaneous suspensions which produced from RHCl tablets local companies were out of the ranges (6.7-7.5) when storage under accelerated condition. However, the others which produced from RHCl tablets original company were not shifted (Figure 3). [4-5] The amounts of active ingredients were determined and it was found that the percentage of labeled amount (%LA) of all preparations were in the ranges of 90-110 %LA throughout the stability study (Table 1).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
92
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 1 Percentages of label amounts (%LA) of RHCl in each extemporaneous suspension as a function of time at three conditions Week Company Condition LT Original R AC LT Local A R AC LT Local B R AC LT R Local C AC
0 95.08 (23.21) 98.26 (8.14) 110.05 (0.62) 108.36 (9.61)
5
7
9
93.37 (2.50) 91.63 (1.36) 93.47 (1.22) 97.66 (9.11) 99.83 (2.14) 101.55 (10.23) 96.68 (1.38) 97.53 (0.55) 92.48 (1.90) 95.65 (1.28) 94.86 (1.70) 92.02 (0.85)
92.31 (6.42) 90.76 (1.00) 93.72 (0.49) 93.79 (1.58) 93.39 (2.49) 97.50 (2.04) 91.09 (4.14) 96.51 (0.93) 92.22 (0.55) 91.79 (0.69) 92.45 (2.78) 91.90 (0.31)
96.33 (1.45) 93.35 (1.21) 99.62 (2.21) 100.20 (0.90) 101.01 (0.99) 118.77 (4.37) 106.99 (4.15) 93.33 (0.71) 100.97 (1.74) 106.24 (1.02) 104.27 (1.30) 95.13 (1.99)
CONCLUSION The extemporaneous preparations which produced from tablets that manufactured from original and three local companies were compared their physical and chemical properties for nine weeks at various conditions. These results revealed that there was no significant difference in both physical and chemical properties. All extemporaneous preparations could be stabilized approximately two months under studied conditions. Therefore, it could be concluded that RHCl tablets from three local companies could be used instead of RHCl tablets from original company in RHCl extemporaneous preparations. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1. Faculty of pharmacy, Siam University 2. Queen Sirikit National Institute of Child Health REFERENCES 1. D. Preechagoon and R. Komsri “Stability test of ranitidine hydrochloride syrup which prepare from tables” available on: http://www.thaihp.org/ (visited on 6/9/2012) 2. M. C. Nahata and L. V. Allen, “Extemporaneous drug formulations” Clin Ther. 2008, 30 (11), 2112-2119. 3. M. O. Ferreira, M. F. Bahia and P. Costa, “Stability of ranitidine hydrochloride in different aqueous solutions” EJHP. 2004, 4, 60-63 4. M. Vehabovic, S. Hadzovic, F. Stambolic, A. Hadzic, E. Vranjes and E. Haracic, “Stability of ranitidine in injectable solution” Int. J. Pharm. 2003, 256, 109-115. 5. The United States Pharmacopeia, 24th rev, Asian Edition. India: Tata Donnelly Inc, 2000: 1809-18. 6. http://www.rxlist.com/zantac-drug.htm (visited on 4/10/2012)
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
93
HPLC Analysis of Curcuminoids in Turmeric Rhizomes Collected from Indonesia and Thailand Werayut Pothitirat 1,*, Sundari Desi Nuryanti Pummangura 1 and Wandee Gritsanapan 3
2
, Phatsawee Jansook
1
, Chalermsri
1
Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University, Bangkok, Thailand Faculty of Pharmacy, Ahmad Dahlan University, Yogyakata, Indonesia 3 Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand 2
* Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Turmeric rhizome (Curcuma longa Linn.) has been popularly used as herbal medicine and cosmetics. The major active compound of this plant is curcuminoids, comprising curcumin (C), demethoxycurcumin (DMC) and bisdemethoxycurcumin (BDMC). In this study, turmeric rhizomes were collected from Indonesia and Thailand. The samples were extracted using maceration method as recommended by the Standard of ASEAN Herbal Medicine. A validated HPLC method was used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of C, DMC, and BDMC in all samples. The results suggested that all samples of turmeric rhizome contained three major curcuminoids. Moreover, the content of C, DMC and BDMC in the samples were found in the range of 1.10 to 12.80, 0.33 to 4.91 and 0.45 to 10.15 % w/w, respectively. The highest average amounts of C (9.27 % w/w), DMC (3.77 %w/w) and BDMC (7.30 % w/w) was found in the samples from Thailand while the lowest average contents of these compounds were found in the samples from Indonesia. These results will be useful as a basic information for further standardization of turmeric powder and finding sources of good quality of turmeric in Indonesia and Thailand. Keywords: Curcuminoid, Curcuma longa, Variation, Turmeric, HPLC INTRODUCTION Turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn.) is a medicinal plant in family of Zingiberaceae. In Asian country, the turmeric rhizome has been used as household medicine, coloring agent, and spice. This plant is widely cultivated in Southeastern Asian especially in Thailand and Indonesia. The rhizomes of turmeric are used for treatment of several diseases such as peptic ulcer, dyspepsia and skin disorder [1]. The bioactive substances in the rhizomes of this plant are volatile oil and curcuminoids which is composed of curcumin and two related demethoxy compounds, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin (Figure 1). Curcumin is considered to be the major bioactive compound with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticarcinogenic properties. It also exhibit hepatoprotective and nephroprotective activities [2-4]. Other curcumin derivative, i.e. demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin, also exhibit biological activities such as cytotoxic as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects on cancer cell [5-7]. There are many methods for determination of curcuminoids including UV spectrophotometry [8], TLC-densitometry [9] and HPLC [10]. This study was performed to evaluate the content of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin of turmeric rhizomes collected from Thailand and Indonesia.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
94
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
o
o
R1
R2
HO
OH
Figure 1 Structure of curcuminoids Curcumin : R1 = OMe, R2 = OMe; Demethoxycurcumin : R1= H, R2=OMe; Bisdemethoxycurcumin : R1= H, R2=H
MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of Plant Materials The fresh rhizomes and dried powder of turmeric were collected from 5 samples from Thailand and 5 samples from Indonesia during August 2012 (Table 1). The voucher specimens (WPCL0112 - WPCL1012) were deposited at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Siam University, Bangkok, Thailand. For fresh rhizomes, they were cut into small pieces and dried in a hot air oven at 45°C for 48 hours, then ground into powder and passed through a sieve (20 mesh). The samples were kept in air-tight container and protected from light until used. Table 1 Sources of turmeric rhizomes collected from Thailand and Indonesia No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Code Ind 1 Ind 2 Ind 3 Ind 4 Ind 5
Tha 1 Tha 2 Tha 3 Tha 4 Tha 5
Source Beringharjo market, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Solo market, Solo, Indonesia Kulonprogo, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Bantul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Traditional drug store 1, Bangkok, Thailand Traditional drug store 2, Bangkok, Thailand Pattani, Thailand Surat Thani, Thailand Narathiwat, Thailand
Determination of Curcumin, Demethoxycurcumin and Bisdemethoxycurcumin Content by HPLC Method Preparation of the sample solution The sample solutions of turmeric powders were prepared as recommended by the Standard of ASEAN Herbal Medicine [8]. Briefly, dried powder of turmeric (300 g) was extracted with tetrahydrofuran (10 ml) using maceration method. The samples were kept at room temperature (2530 °C) for 24 hours. One milliter of the clear supernatant solution were transferred to 25.0-ml volumetric flask and the methanol was added to the volume and mix well. The experiment was done in triplicate. Preparation of the standard solution
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
95
Curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin were isolated in our laboratory. The identification of this compound was performed using 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy and comparing with the reference [11]. Stock solutions of these compounds were separately prepared in methanol at concentration of 1000 g/ml. Each stock solutions of standard solution was diluted with methanol to obtain concentrations of 0.19 to 50 g/ml. Instrumentation and analytical condition for HPLC method The content of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin in turmeric powder were analyzed using HPLC method [10]. HPLC assay was carried out on C18 column with isocratic system with a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min at 33°C. The mobile phase was consisted of acetonitrile and 2% acetic acid (40:60, v/v) and a wavelength of 425 nm were used as detector. The injection volume was 20 L. Solutions were filtered through a 0.45 m nylon membrane filters prior to HPLC injection. The total chromatographic analysis time was 30 min. Each curcuminoid content was calculated using its calibration curve with regard to the dilution factor. The content of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin was expressed as gram per 100 grams of dried powder. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this experiment, HPLC was chosen for analysis of curcuminoids due to it can be used for separation, identification and quantification of individual curcuminoid. From Table 2, curcumin was found to be a major component in all samples while the other two minor peaks were identified as demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin. HPLC profiles of all samples showed 3 main peaks of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin at retention time of 26.87, 23.60 and 20.98 min, respectively (Figure 2). Table 2 The percentage of each curcuminoid contents in dried powder of turmeric rhizome collected from Thailand and Indonesia analyzed by HPLC
Location
Indonesia
Thailand
Code Ind 1 Ind 2 Ind 3 Ind 4 Ind 5 Tha 1 Tha 2 Tha 3 Tha 4 Tha 5
Each curcuminoid content C 1.10 0.07 3.49 0.14 3.52 0.14 3.82 0.21 3.19 0.08 4.43 1.28 7.04 0.16 11.25 0.67 10.81 0.33 12.80 0.16
average
3.02
1.10
9.27 3.43
DMC 0.33 0.01 0.97 0.05 1.15 0.06 1.16 0.02 0.84 0.00 1.82 0.49 2.94 0.02 4.54 0.26 4.62 0.07 4.91 0.04
average
0.89 0.34
3.77 1.33
BDMC 0.45 0.02 1.04 0.05 1.76 0.15 1.44 0.02 1.13 0.03 3.19 0.91 5.32 0.31 8.73 0.73 9.08 0.09 10.15 0.21
Average
1.16 0.49
7.30 2.92
C-Curcumin, DMC-Demethoxycucumin, BDMC-Bisdemethoxycurcumin Ind1= Beringharjo market, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Tha1=Traditional drug store 1, Bangkok Thailand Ind2= Solo market, Solo, Indonesia Tha2=Traditional drug store 2, Bangkok Thailand Ind3= Kulonprogo, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Tha3=Pattani, Thailand Ind4= Bantul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Tha4=Surat Thani, Thailand Ind5= Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Tha5=Narathiwat, Thailan
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
96
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 2 HPLC chromatograms of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin and turmeric rhizome collected from Thailand and Indonesia A = Curcumin B = Demethoxycurcumin C = Bisdemethoxycurcumin D = Turmeric rhizome collected from Kulonprogo, Yogyakarta, Indonesia E = Turmeric rhizome collected from Pattani, Thailand
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
97
HPLC analysis demonstrated chemical variations among the turmeric rhizome from different location. The contents of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin in all samples varied from 1.10 0.07 to 12.80 0.16, 0.33 0.01 to 4.91 0.04 and 0.45 0.02 to 10.15 0.21% w/w, respectively. The highest average contents of curcumin (9.27 3.43% w/w), of demethoxycurcumin (4.91 0.04% w/w) and of bisdemethoxycurcumin (7.30 2.92% w/w) were found in the samples from the Thailand. In contrast, the lowest content of the average of curcumin (3.02 1.10% w/w), of demethoxycurcumin (0.89 0.34 %w/w) and of bisdemethoxycurcumin (1.16 0.49% w/w) were found in the samples from Indonesia (Table 2). The result support our previous studied that turmeric cultivated in Thailand contains high content of curcuminoids while turmeric cultivated in Indonesia contained low content of curcuminoids [12-13] CONCLUSION From this study, it indicate that turmeric rhizomes collected from Thailand and Indonesia contain varying yields of main bioactive compounds including the curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin. HPLC chromatograms of all samples showed the same pattern. The results also show that all samples of turmeric rhizome contained three major curcuminoids and it can be used as a marker compound for quality control of raw material and its product. In addition, turmeric rhizome collected from Thailand provided higher amounts of curcuminoids than other cultivation regions in Indonesia. This is basic information for searching appropriate locations of high quality turmeric. In the future, it can also be used as a guideline for further standardization of turmeric extracts for pharmaceutical productions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was supported by a research grant from Siam University, Bangkok, Thailand. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
W. Pothitirat, and W. Gritsanapan. “Traditional herbs for healthcare-turmeric: a case history”, in “Evaluation of Herbal Medicinal Products”, Pharmaceutical Press. 2009. pp. 322-334. K.M. Radha, K.S. Anoop, G. Jaya, and C.S. Rikhab, “Multiple biological activities of curcumin: A short review”, Life Sci., 2006, 78, 2081–2087. B.B. Aggarwal, A. Kumar, and A.C. Bharti, “Anticancer potential of curcumin: preclinical and clinical studies”, Anticancer Res., 2003, 23, 363–398. B.B. Aggarwal, and K.B. Harikumar, “Potential therapeutic effects of curcumin, the antiinflammatory agent, against neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, autoimmune and neoplastic diseases”, Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 2009, 41(1), 40-59. R.J. Anto, J. George, K.V. Babu, K.N. Rajasekharan, and R. Kuttan, “Antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activity of natural and synthetic curcuminoids”, Mutat. Res., 1996, 370, 127131. R.S. Ramsewak, D.L. Dewitt, and M.G. Nair, “Cytotoxicity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of curcumins I-III from Curcuma longa”, Phytomedicine, 2000, 7, 303-308. A.J. Ruby, G. Kuttan, K.D. Babu, K.N. Rajasekharan, and R. Kuttan, “Anti-tumour and antioxidant activity of natural curcuminoids”, Cancer Lett., 1995, 94, 79-83. Standard of ASEAN Herbal Medicine Vol. I. Jakarta: Indonesia, 1993, 193-206. W. Pothitirat, and W. Gritsanapan, “Quantitative analysis of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin in the crude curcuminoid extract from Curcuma longa in Thailand by TLC-densitometry”, Mahidol Univ. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2005, 32, 23-30. Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
98
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
10. W. Wichitnithad, N. Jongaroonngamsang, S. Pummangura and P. Rojsitthisak, “A simple isocratric HPLC method for the simultaneous determination of curcuminoids in commercial turmeric extracts”, Phytochem. Anal., 2009, 20, 314-319. 11. G.K. Jayaprakasha, L.J. Rao, K.K. Sakariah, “Antioxidant activities of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin”, Food Chem., 2006, 98, 720–724. 12. W. Pothitirat, and W. Gritsanapan, 2006. Variation of bioactive components in Curcuma longa in Thailand. Curr. Sci., 2006, 91(10), 1397-1400. 13. W. Pothitirat, S.D. Nuryanti, P. Jansook, K. Sanpanya, and W. Gritsanapan, “Variation of total curcuminoids and volatile oil content in turmeric rhizome in Indonesia. Thai J. Pharm. Sci., 2012, 36(Suppl.), 3-5.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
99
Biodiesel Degradation by Photo-Oxidation: Effect of Fatty Acid Saturation Sitapa Butetongkum1,2, Boontham Paweewan2,*, Nuwong Chollacoop3, Issaree Ong-oon2 and Jarurin Chotisakul2 1
TAIST Tokyo Tech, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathumthani, Thailand 12120 2 Department of Chemical Engineering, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand 10900 3 National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC), Pathumthani, Thailand 12120 * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Biodiesel degradation by auto-oxidation has been well studied while its degradation by photo-oxidation has not been widely studied, as a result of small amount of chlorophyll in current sources. The potential future sources of biodiesel from in particular algae, which contain higher residual chlorophyll content, could consequently resulted in possible biodiesel degradation by photo-oxidation. This study was to mimic the biodiesel from algae by adding chlorophyll-A at concentration up to 40 ppm into two biodiesels derived from palm and soybean, distinctively differing in unsaturated fatty acid structures. The changes of physical and chemical properties of biodiesel under controlled light exposure and storage time up to 8 weeks were measured; in addition, for the mathematical correlations usage Minitab software was established. The results showed that biodiesel with chlorophyll-A in range of 5 – 40 ppm increased the acid value but did not change the induction period. Light exposure was the major factor to decrease the induction period but did not change acid value of biodiesel. On the other hand, the storage time was decreased the induction period and increased the acid value. It was concluded that chlorophyll has certain impact to biodiesel degradation, however unsaturated fatty acid structure in biodiesel, exposing to light and storage time; those are more dominant factors by this study boundary. Keywords: Biodiesel, Algae, Photo-Oxidation, Auto-Oxidation, Chlorophyll-A INTRODUCTION Biodiesel is an alternative clean energy source, which is consists of alkyl fatty acid with esters of short chain alcohols. The biodiesel is used widely by blending with petroleum products or direct replacement for diesel in vehicle [1-2]. This fuel has cleaner residue, renewable, biodegradable, low sulfur, smoke, and pollutants when compared to diesel. However, biodiesel has some disadvantages, such as higher viscosity, pour point, lower reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon chains and lower volatility compared with diesel. Those problems can cause clogging on injectors, carbon deposits, and gelling of the engine lubricant oil [3]. When biodiesel was stored for long time and exposed with ambient air, the degradation of biodiesel can occur because
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
100
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
unsaturated fatty acid composition in biodiesel will react with oxygen, which is called oxidation [45]. Oxidation is the mechanism of oxygen in the air reacting with unsaturated fatty acid, which can produce degradation of biodiesel. In addition to unsaturated fatty acid, metal, sensitizer and light, types of oxygen define oxidation mechanism. The oxygen molecule sets in two forms, which are ground state and excited state oxygen. Ground state oxygen or triplet form ( 3O2) can produce auto-oxidation - react with olefinic ester that is radical chain including of initiation, propagation and termination, as follows [4-5]. Another one is excited state oxygen (1O2), which can produce photo-oxidation. Singlet oxygen is formed from triplet oxygen and sensitizer such as light, chlorophyll and, riboflavin. That sensitizer absorbs energy from photon to convert triplet to singlet state. Hence photo-oxidation was quicker process than auto-oxidation, result were shown in Table 1 [4-5]. Table 1 Relative rate of autoxidation and photo-oxidation [5] Reaction Auto-oxidation Photo-oxidation Ratio
Oxygen Triplet Singlet
C18:01 1 3x104
C18:02 27 4x104
C18:03 77 7x104
30,000
1,500
900
This work is focused photo-oxidation, which is caused by triplet oxygen and sensitizer such as light, chlorophyll and, riboflavin. Although most current oil crops do not contain much amount of chlorophyll, future oil feedstock like microalgae has some residual chlorophyll from the production process. As microalgae biodiesel could become a significant source of energy in 2040 due to its faster growth, better tolerance in high saline water unsuitable for other agriculture, and better utilization of solar energy to photosynthetic [6], the potential photo-oxidation problem from the residual chlorophyll reaction with triplet oxygen needs to be assessed. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Soy bean oil and palm oil without additive were purchased from commercial sources in Thai market. Chlorophyll A (90% HPLC) was from WAKO Pure Chem. Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan). The other chemicals and reagents such as methanol (MtOH) and 2-propanol were from J.T. Baker, U.S.A. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) was from Ajax Chemical Co., Ltd. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) was from Merck, Germany. Methyl heptadecanoate 95%, Toluene and Phenolphthalein were from Fluka. Syvania Glolux (15W) lamp was used in the experiment. Transesterification The production of biodiesel was prepared by heating up 500 g of vegetable oil to 50-55°C. Then, the mixture of 1% of potassium hydroxide (by weight of oil) and methanol (at 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil) was added into heated oil. Transesterification process was started while oil was still heated and stirred at 320 rpm speed for an hour. After the temperature cooled down, reacted oil was transferred to separation funnel to settle down overnight. There were two liquid phases - ester phase (biodiesel) at the top and glycerol phase at the bottom, which could be drained out to keep ester phase. Ester phase was then washed by 40°C distilled water to remove the residual catalyst. Washing process was repeated for several times until the washed water has pH equal to distilled
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
101
water. Then biodiesel was evaporated to reduce residual water. Finally, biodiesel was analyzed for fatty acid methyl ester, which is more than 96.5% wt, according to ASTM D6751 [4]. Biodiesel Storage and Handling of Samples Palm and soybean biodiesel samples were stored at room temperature in glass bottles as a laboratory scale. While air gap of each biodiesel sample was kept constant, the container was sealed without exposure to additional air and water. There are two experimental conditions, light exposure and no light exposure, in each storage time to determine degradation of each biodiesel [7]. Then, biodiesel samples with light exposure were additized with varied quantities of chlorophyll - 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 20 ppm, and 40 ppm to detect photo-oxidation of biodiesel with a presence of sensitizer and light as shown in Figure 1 [8-9].
Figure 1 Experiment setup (a) light exposure (b) no light exposure (c) chlorophyll was added in palm and soybean biodiesel Biodiesel Analysis Biodiesel was analyzed to determined fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) by gas chromatography (GC) which is more than 96.5%wt. FAMEs were separated by GC equipped with column (30 m x 0.25 mm i.d., 0.20 mm film thickness). Carrier gas was He at 1 mL/min. The oven temperature was initially held at 150 C for 15 min, and then increased to 210 C at 2 C/min, followed by an increase to 220 C at 50 C/min. The injector and detector temperatures were set at 240 C and 270 C respectively [10]. FAME peaks were identified by comparison to the retention times of known reference standards. In this study, GC did not only detect fatty acid methyl ester, but also found unsaturated fatty acid composition of biodiesel. Oxidation stability of biodiesel was measured for the induction period (h) by the Rancimat instrument (EN 14112). Firstly, air was passed at a steady rate (10 l/h) - through a 3 g of biodiesel sample in the vessel, which was heated to 110°C. The air passes out of the sample carried volatile into a measuring vessel with distilled water. The conductivity was continuously monitored by cell electrodes, and IP was determined by conductivity (mS/cm) plot of deionized water versus time (h). A sharp rise in cell conductivity indicated accumulation of volatile acids in the water due to oxidation of the sample [2, 10]. Acidity of biodiesel can cause corrosion and deposits in the fuel injectors. Acid value can be determined by titration according to test method EN 14104. The biodiesel sample (3g) was titrated with 1% of KOH solution, and phenolphthalein was used as an indicator to detect the end point. Acid value is used to determine degradation of biodiesel during storage time [2,9,10].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
102
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fatty Acid Composition of Methyl Esters Methyl ester of each sample was analyzed by GC (ASTM D6584) as shown in Table 2. The results for these methyl esters were within a standard limit of FAME profiles reported (>96.5 wt.%). Methyl palmitate (33.2 wt.%) and methyl stearate (36.3wt.%) of FAMEs were mainly found in palm biodiesel. The dominant FAME detected in soybean biodiesel was methyl linoleate (44.7 wt.%), methyl stearate (22.0 wt.%) and methyl palmitate (8.5 wt.%). The results showed that palm biodiesel has high saturated fatty acid composition. On the other hand, soybean biodiesel has high unsaturated fatty acid composition. Therefore, soybean biodiesel could degrade faster than palm biodiesel. Table 2 fatty acid methyl esters of each biodiesel Ester composition Saturated fatty acid Unsaturated fatty acid Other
Palm (wt.%) 70.4 8.6 21.0
Soybean (wt.%) 30.8 45.2 24.0
Influence of Storage Time on Oxidation Stability The initial induction period values of palm and soybean biodiesel are 20.77 and 4.43 hours, respectively. When the biodiesel was exposed light, the induction period was decreased as shown in Figure 2. Since soybean biodiesel has higher content of unsaturated fatty acid (45.2 wt.% shown in Table2), its oxidation stability is lower. In contrast, palm biodiesel contains higher percentage of saturated fatty acid (70.4 wt.% shown in Table 2) so it has higher oxidation stability according to Rancimat (EN14112) method. Therefore, oxidation stability of biodiesel decreases with increasing content of unsaturated fatty acid. For photo-oxidation investigation, this study has varied the content of chlorophyll at concentration up to 40 ppm into palm and soybean, which differ in unsaturated fatty acid structures, to mimic the biodiesel from algae. Figure 3 shown that both biodiesel with and without light exposure have similar induction period along with the experiment. With varied content of chlorophyll (5 - 40 ppm), it had little effect on the decreasing oxidation stability.
Figure 2 Influence of storage time on induction period of (a) palm biodiesel (b) soybean biodiesel
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
103
Figure 3 Influence of storage time of biodiesel with various chlorophyll contents on induction period of (a) palm biodiesel (b) soybean biodiesel Influence of Storage Time on Acid Value Influence of storage time on acid value of palm biodiesel and soybean biodiesel results were presented in Figure 4. Both biodiesel types yield was similar and acid value regardless of light exposure along the experiment displayed evidently in the same figure. According to Bryan R. Moser [2], unsaturated fatty acid, storage time and temperature effect on acid value. As a result, palm biodiesel, with lower percentage of unsaturated fatty acid, show less acid value increase than soybean biodiesel. When chlorophyll was added in each biodiesel, acid value increased to the same level as shown in Figure 5. The increase of acid value is not related to the amount of chlorophyll but to long storage time. 2
1.2
no light light
1
1.5
0.8
TAN
TAN
no light light
1
0.6 0.4
0.5
0 0
0.2 200
400 600 800 Storage time (h)
1000
0 0
200
400 600 800 1000 1200 Storage time (h)
Figure 4 Influence of storage time on acid value of (a) palm biodiesel (b) soybean biodiesel
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
2
no light light 5ppm 10ppm 20ppm 40ppm
TAN
1.5 1
1.2
no light light 5ppm 10ppm 20ppm 40ppm
1 0.8
TAN
104
0.6 0.4
0.5
0.2
0 0
200
400 600 800 Storage time (h)
1000
0 0
200
400 600 800 1000 1200 Storage time (h)
Figure 5 Influence of storage time of biodiesel with chlorophyll content on acid value of (a) palm biodiesel (b) soybean biodiesel Influence of Storage Time on Kinematic Viscosity The initial kinematic viscosities of palm and soybean biodiesel are 4.76 mm2/s and 4.28 2 mm /s, respectively, the standard range of 3.5-5 mm2/s. From the experimental data, the storage time, light exposure and chlorophyll content have no effect on the viscosity of biodiesel for eight weeks (or 1,344 hours). Surface plot and correlation of oxidation stability 3D correlations between the induction period and chlorophyll-A of palm with soybean biodiesel results were presented in Figure 6. The oxidation stability equations of palm and soybean biodiesel derived by Minitab program are shown in equations (1) and (2), respectively. ݀݅ݎ݁݊݅ݐܿݑ݀݊ܫሺ݄ݎሻ ൌ ʹͲǤͲͻ ሺͲǤͳͻͷͺሻȂ ሺͲǤͲʹʹͻሻȂ ሺͲǤͲͲͶʹ ଶ ሻ െ ሺͲǤͲͲͲͳሻ (1) ݀݅ݎ݁݊݅ݐܿݑ݀݊ܫሺ݄ݎሻ ൌ ͶǤͻʹͲʹ ሺͲǤͲ͵ͺͶͷሻȂ ሺͲǤͲͲͳͳሻȂ ሺͲǤͲͲͳͷͳ ܥଶ ሻ ሺͲǤͲͲͲͲͶሻ(2)
Where, C and t were chlorophyll content in ppm and storage time in hour. The surface plot suggested that chlorophyll had some impact to biodiesel degradation but unsaturated fatty acid structure in biodiesel, exposing to light and storage time, are more dominant factors.
Figure 6 Surface plot of induction period versus time and chlorophyll A (a) palm biodiesel (b) soybean biodiesel
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
105
CONCLUSION Biodiesel was, produced from palm oil and soybean oil, was stored at room temperature for eight weeks in different conditions (light exposure and chlorophyll contents) for biodiesel degradation studies. Mainly, degradation of biodiesel is caused by light exposure, which reduces oxidation stability but little changes acid value. Chlorophyll content of 5-40 ppm did not affect the oxidation stability but increased acid value. Finally, the study results were demonstrated that soybean biodiesel could degrade faster than palm biodiesel. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by Kasetsart University Research and Development Institute (KURDI), National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC) and the TAIST-Tokyo Tech program of National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA). REFERENCES 1. J. Siddharth and M. P. Sharma. "Stability of Biodiesel and its blends : A Review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews", 2010, 14, 667-678. 2. B. R. Moser., "Influence of extended storage on fuel properties of methyl esters prepared from canola, palm, soybean and sunflower oils", Renewable Energy, 2011, 36, 1221-1226. 3. A. Monyem and J. H. V.Gerpen, "The effect of biodiesel oxidation on engine performance and emission", Biomass and Bioenergy, 2001, 20, 317-325. 4. J. Pullen, K. Saeed. "An overview of biodiesel oxidation stability", Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, United Kingdom, 2012, 16, 5924–5950. 5. F. D. Gunstone, "Oxidation through reaction with oxygen", The chemistry of fats and oils, Blackwell Publishing", 2004, 150-168. 6. I. Rawat, R. Ranjith, T. Mutanda, F. Bux., "Biodiesel from microalgae : A critical evaluation from laboratory to algae scale production", Applied energy, South Africa, 2012. 7. A. Bouaid, M. Martinez, J. Aracil., "Long storage stability of biodiesel from vegetable and used frying oils", Fuel, 2007, 86, 2596–2602. 8. Y. Chen, B. Huang, T. Chiang, T. Tang., "Fuel properties of microalgae (Chlorella protothecoides) oil biodiesel and its blends with petroleum diesel", Fuel, 2012, 94, 270–273. 9. D. Y. C. Leung, B. C. P. Koo, Y. Guo., "Degradation of biodiesel under different storage conditions", Bioresource Technology, 2006, 97, 250–256. 10. Z. Yang, B. P. Hollebone, Z. Wang, C. Yang, M. Landriault., "Effect of storage period on the dominant weathering processes of biodiesel and its blends with diesel in ambient conditions", Fuel, 2013, 104, 342–350.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
106
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Carbon Footprint from Activities and Services in Car-Service Centers: A Case Study of Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. Sayam Aroonsrimorakot* and Chumporn Yuwaree Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University, Salaya campus, Nakhonpathom 73170 Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Researchers investigated greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions from activities and services within a car-service center in units of kilograms carbon dioxide equivalent (kgCO2e). The average rate of carbon dioxide emissions from cars receiving services was measured by calculating the amount of carbon dioxide emitted per car. The research was carried out at the Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co.,Ltd. Researchers collected emitted carbon dioxide from monitoring the activities and services , for example electricity usage, water usage, wastewater, paper and chemicals (thinner, coating color, grease, gear oil, engine oil and gasoline). Data were processed according to the guidelines of carbon footprint associated with the promotion of the use of carbon footprint in products in December 2009.A total of 135,359.6060 kgCO2 were emitted by activities and services in the Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. throughout the year 2010. The activities that highly generated carbon dioxide emissions were electricity usage, oil change and wastewater. The total number of cars receiving services from the Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co.Ltd.in 2010 was 12,121, each car emitted 11.1674 kgCO2. Keywords: Carbon Footprint, Greenhouse Gases, Car-service Centers INTRODUCTION Currently, the car industry is an important business that has grown from the needs of the economy and society. A great quantity of multi-brand car-service centers has been established to support the sales and after-sales service. These services use a high amount of electricity, water supply and many chemicals. Among the consequences of air pollution that car industry generates several types of greenhouse gases (GHGs) are included, especially carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a major cause of the greenhouse effect and results in rising global temperatures, a major environmental problem in many countries. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate the carbon footprint generated by a car-service center. We conducted this research at such a site because car business has expanded rapidly being among the highest ranking activities (7 th) releasing most greenhouse gases. Car factories’ carbon emissions equal to 7% of the total release (NSTDA, 2010). This research determined the carbon footprint within Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. activities and services by evaluating the carbon dioxide emissions. Carbon dioxide was measured in accordance with the Guidelines of Carbon Footprint for Product under the program to promote the use of carbon footprint of product in December 2010 and from Thailand Environment Institute. Obtained results will lead to the establishment of policies to reduce, save, and efficiently use resources as well as to realize of the GHGs impact into the atmosphere.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
107
MATERIALS AND METHODS We determined the amount of GHGs emissions from activities and service of Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. on the principle of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) by exploring the activities and services that cause GHGs emissions. The formula of Thailand Environment Institute was used to determine the amount of GHG emissions. Study Area Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. 129, Moo 1, Pinklao-Nakhonchaisi Tumbol Bang Toey Amphoe Sam Phran, NakhonPathom 73210 Data Collection Both primary and secondary data were collected. The following data were collected: water and electricity consumption, paper, chemicals (e.g. gear oil, gasoline), and number of cars entering the car-center services. Research Procedure 1. Identify the study area: Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. 2. Survey activities and services that are the factors causing release of GHGs. 3. Collect data: water and electricity consumption, paper, chemicals, and the number of cars entering the car-center services. 4. Calculate the amount of greenhouse gas emissions: By multiplying the amount of resources used and the waste generated in a year 2010 by the Emission factor (kgCO 2e) as shown in Table 1. Table 1 Emission factor values used in this study Source of GHGs Water supply
Unit m3
Emission factor ) kg CO2e) 0.0264
Wastewater Electricity Paper Coating color chemicals Diesel Thinner Grease Gear oil Engine oil Gasoline
L kWh kg kg
0.0012 0.5610 0.0050 0.8500
References Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (Thailand) JEMAI TC Common data Ecoinvent 2.0, IPCC 2007 Ecoinvent 2.0, IPCC 2007
kg kg kg kg kg kg
0.4980 1.8300 1.0700 1.0700 1.0700 0.6790
Ecoinvent 2.0, IPCC 2007 Ecoinvent 2.0, IPCC 2007 Ecoinvent 2.0, IPCC 2007 Ecoinvent 2.0, IPCC 2007 Ecoinvent 2.0, IPCC 2007 Ecoinvent 2.0, IPCC 2007
5. Calculate the average GHGs emissions per car: By dividing the emission of GHGs from
activities and services in the year 2010 by the total number of cars entered the car-canter service. 6. Summarize and report results
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
108
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Electricity and Water Consumption Given the country's current electricity production, most of the fuel used in power generation is natural gas followed by coal. The burning of fossil fuels is causing a high emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Therefore, the use of electricity from activities such as a light, computer or fans causes the release of carbon dioxide. Car Services are locations where a lot of electricity is employed. The information needed to calculate GHGs emissions is the quantity of electricity consumption measured in kilowatt hours (kWh), which in this study was measured from January to December 2010. The estimates of the GHGs emissions from electricity consumption at the study site are shown in Table 2. Although the tap water process does not have to burn fuel directly, it is associated with the release of GHGs through the use of energy and chemicals in the process or transport chemicals to the water plant. Therefore, the water used is an indirect value of GHGs emissions. GHGs emissions from water consumption of the study site, measured in liters or cubic meters (m 3/L), are shown in Table 2. Table 2 GHGs emission from electricity and water consumption Quantity of electricity consumption (kWh)
GHGs emission (kgCO2e)
Water consumption (m3)
GHGs emission (kgCO2e)
287704
143620.5
13600
359.04
Wastewater Generated The wastewater process is one of the main sources of GHGs generation, especially methane, an important GHG. In this study, wastewater volume was calculated by 80 percent of the amount of water used as shown in Table 3. Table 3 Wastewater volume and GHGs emission from wastewater treatment process Water consumption (m3)
Wastewater volume (m3)
Wastewater volume (L)
GHGs emission (kgCO2e)
13600
10880
10880000
13056
Paper Usage The survey data in the car-service center indicates that paper usage was another source of GHGs release as shown in Table 4. Table 4 GHGs emission from paper use Amount of paper used (ream)
Amount of paper used (kg)
GHGs emission (kgCO2e)
1133
2945.8
14.729
Note: Paper 1 ream = 2.6 kg
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
109
Chemical Usage Concerning the auto repair activities of Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co.,Ltd., the use of chemicals was diverse: thinner, coating color, grease, gear oil, engine oil, diesel and gasoline. The presence of chemicals within the year 2010 is shown in Table 5 (the amount of chemicals used are organized by color and machine sector). Among the chemicals used in auto repair process, engine oil was the most used with a quantity equal to 43,500 L (35,424 kg), grease and thinner with a consumption of about 20 kg, were the least used (Table 5). Table 5 Greenhouse gas emissions of chemicals Chemicals
Total amount in year 2010 (L)
Density
Total amount in year 2010 (kg)
Emission Factor
GHGs emission (kgCO2e)
Coating color
-
-
24
1.83
43.92
Diesel
800
0.8692
695.36
0.85
591.06
Thinner
4400
0.8669
3814.35
0.498
1899.55
Grease
-
-
20
1.07
21.4
Gear oil
3700
0.855
-
1.07
3959
Engine oil
43200
0.82
35424
1.07
37903.68
Gasoline
3500
0.73
2555
0.679
1734.845
Note: Some chemicals are measured in units of L that were converted to kg by multiplying them by the density of each species.
We found that electricity consumption caused most GHGs in the year 2010, which resulted in 83,005.96 kgCO2 because it consumed 165,991 kWh / year. Paper usage contributed with the least of GHGs emissions with 8.605 kgCO2. GHGs varied upon the amount of usage and the emission factor of each GHGs because Kitpaisarn Honda Cars have a lot of lamps on for 10-12 hours a day. Especially, in eject-oven color room, the site has about 80 fluorescent tubes that must create most of the GHGs emissions from electricity consumption. The total release of GHGs considering all activities and services in the year 2010 from Kitpaisarn Honda Cars was 136,663.7023 kgCO2 (Figure 1).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
110
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Total GHGs emission (kgCO2e) 100000
83005.96
80000
60000 37903.68
40000 20000
7853.76 3959 1899.55 1734.84 591.06 215.98
43.92
21.4
8.6
0
Figure 1 The graph shows the amount of GHGs emissions from activities and services within the Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. (kgCO2e). CONCLUSION We studied the carbon footprint of the activities and services of Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. by focusing on energy and resource consumption in year 2010. GHGs emissions were estimated from by multiplying them by the emission factor of each type of material in accordance with the Guidelines of Carbon Footprint for Product under the program to promote the use of carbon footprint of product in December 2010. The results were as follows: electricity consumption emitted the amount of GHGs 83,005.96 kgCO2e, engine oil 37,903.68 kgCO2e, wastewater discharge 7,853.76 kgCO2e, gear oil 3,384.94 kgCO2e, thinner 1,899.55 kgCO2e, gasoline 1,734.84 kgCO2e, diesel 591.06 kgCO2e, water supply 215.98 kgCO2e, coating color 43.92 kgCO2e, grease consumption 21.4 kgCO2e, and paper used 8.605 kgCO2e as summarized in Table 6. Therefore, the total GHGs emissions from the activities and services of Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. in the year 2010 was 136,663.7023 kgCO2. The number of cars entering the car-center services of Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. in year 2010 was12,121. This means that each car is causing the release of 11.2749 kgCO 2 of GHGs. Table 6 Amount of GHGs emissions from activities and services within Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd. (kgCO2e) Sources of GHGs emission Electricity consumption Engine oil Wastewater Gear oil Thinner Gasoline Diesel Water supply Coating color chemicals Grease Paper
Amount of GHGs emission (kgCO2e) 83005.96 37903.68 7853.76 3959 1899.55 1734.84 591.06 215.98 43.92 21.4 8.6
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
111
RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Data that covers all the activities and services of the target organization should be collected to obtain effective results 2. Surveys of longer than one year should be required to evaluate trends and changes in the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. 3. Ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions should be communicated to the organization to achieve a good image and demonstrate the social responsibility of such activity. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
Kitpaisarn Honda Cars Co., Ltd.[online]. Available source: www.kitpaisarnhonda.com [17 October 2010]. Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP) [online]. Available source: http://www.onep.go.th/index.php?option=com_content&task= blogcategory&id=66Itemid=76.[17 October 2010]. National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Ministry of Science and Technology [online]. Available source: http://www.mtec.or.th/ecodesign2010/index.php? option=com_content&view=article&id=9:carbon-footprint-cf-&catid=1:-ecodesign&Itemid. [17 October 2010]. Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization. [online]. Available source: http:www. tgo.or.th/index.php?option=com_content&task=section&id=5&Itemid=28.[17 October 2010]. Amarin Printing & Publishing Public Co., Ltd. MTEC and TGO. (2010). Guidelines of Carbon Footprint for Product under the program promote the use of carbon footprint of product in December 2010 NSTDA-Thailand. (2010). Carbon Footprint. [online]. Available source: http://www.nstda. or.th/cc/index.php/2010/01/carbon-footprint/.[17 October 2010].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
112
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
The Potential of Band[N]calicenes as Carbon Dioxide Hosts Willard E. Collier 1 and Thawalrat Ratanadachanakin2,* 1
Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, 36088, USA 2 Faculty of Science, Maejo University, Sansai, Chiang Mai, 50290, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected], Fax: 66 5387 3548, Tel: 668 7504 3314 Abstract: The increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration has led to interest in capturing CO2 from ambient air. CO2 from ambient air has the potential to be a plentiful C1 feedstock if the technology to capture CO2 can be developed. The trial and error method of searching for novel CO2 adsorbents has produced some promising candidates, but this method is slow and expensive. The rational design of CO2 adsorbents with desired properties is possible using computational chemistry. We have investigated the ability of a series of band[N]calicenes, where N = 3-5, to complex with CO2. The potential energy surface of each band[N]calicene/CO 2 complex was explored to find all local minima. All molecules were fully optimized at B3LYP/6-31g(d,p) level of theory. Harmonic vibrational frequencies were calculated to characterize the geometries on the potential energy surface. The local minima were compared by the difference in energy between the band[N]calicene/CO2 complex and the total energy of the separate band[N]calicene and CO 2. Band[4]calicene and band[5]calicene form complexes with CO2 that are 4.57 and 3.27 kcal mol-1 lower in energy than the dissociated band[N]calicene and CO 2 suggesting they are potential carbon dioxide hosts. Keywords: Carbon Dioxide, Density Functional Theory, CO2 Adsorbent, B3LYP. INTRODUCTION The large amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere from industry, vehicles, and human activities is becoming a global concern [1]. There is an urgent need to devise methods for removing CO2 from the atmosphere on a 20-40 gigaton per year scale to offset human contributions to atmospheric CO2 [2]. One proposal to control CO2 emissions is to develop an anthropogenic carbon cycle [3] that captures CO2 from ambient air and uses renewable energy to synthesize liquid fuels [4, 5]. Thus, CO2 acts as a C1 feedstock for the synthesis of methanol, higher alcohols, and other fuels. This would allow recycling of carbon with no net increase in atmospheric CO2 and the conversion of lower alcohols to structural polymers would eventually allow a decrease in atmospheric CO2 as the carbon is sequestered in structures. CO2 capture from ambient air is seen by some as an insurmountable challenge while others point out that plants have been capturing CO2 for billions of years and insist that capture of atmospheric CO2 by humans is necessary for a sustainable future [6]. One key hurdle to CO2 capture from ambient air is finding new and better CO 2 adsorbents [7]. Current adsorbents are mainly zeolites, liquid amines, and inorganic chemisorbents. Liquid amines, such as monoethanolamine (MEA) and diethanolamine (DEA), are common amine-based adsorbents that
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
113
are often supported on silica or alumina. Amine adsorbents typically have large binding energies that require energy intensive deadsorption processes. Inorganic chemisorbents, such as CaO and MgO, require even greater amounts of energy for regeneration. The key question when designing a CO2 adsorbent is what you plan to do with the CO2 adsorbed. If you want to sequester the CO2 then a high binding energy might be best if the adsorbent is cheap and readily available. On the other hand, if regeneration of the adsorbent is needed then the optimal binding energy is a trade off between one that is high enough to extract CO2 from ambient air yet low enough for economical adsorbent regeneration. In light of the need for new CO2 adsorbents, we have begun to focus on the rational design of new CO2 adsorbents, especially non-amine based materials that are capable of capturing CO 2 from ambient air. The long range goal of our research is to design novel CO 2 adsorbents with tailored properties that allow facile coupling with catalytic processes that convert CO 2 into fuel and feedstock chemicals. We have been exploring the chemistry of polycalicenes, a class of novel non-benzenoid aromatic molecules [8]. Polycalicenes are polymers of calicene that differ in their bonding motifs, resulting in a variety of polycalicene families. The band[N]calicenes (N = the number of calicenes), illustrated in Figure 1, are truncated cones with an internal cavity that allow band[N]calicenes to serve as host molecules for a variety of guest molecules. In keeping with our new research direction, we have investigated the potential of band[N]calicenes to serve as CO 2 hosts.
Figure 1 Band[N]calicenes where N = 3-5 MATERIALS AND METHODS All molecules were optimized with the Becke 3-parameter exchange-energy functional plus correlation-energy functional of Lee, Yang, and Parr (B3LYP) [9, 10] using a 6-31G(d,p) basis set [11, 12]. The larger 6-31+G(d,p) basis set that includes diffuse functions on the second row atoms [13] was also used but calculations that involved band[5]calicene could not be completed due to a numerical error. Harmonic vibrational frequencies were calculated to characterize the geometries on the potential energy surface. All calculations were carried out using the Gaussian 09 suite of quantum mechanical programs [14]. To explore the potential energy surface of each band[N]calicene/CO 2 complex, the initial carbon dioxide positions were varied using two styles, parallel ( ) and perpendicular ( ), illustrated in Figure 2. The initial carbon dioxide position in both styles ( , ) was varied from the molecular center and extending 3 Å above and below the center at 0.5 Å intervals along the central axis of each molecule (see Figure 2, a and b). The initial carbon dioxide position in the perpendicular style was also varied from the molecular center and extending 3 Å out from the center at intervals 0.5 Å perpendicular to the central axis (side to side) of each molecule (see Figure 2, c). The initial geometries were then fully optimized and all minima were found by calculating harmonic vibrational frequencies.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
114
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 2 Scheme for searching the potential energy surface of band[N]calicene/CO 2 complexes by varying the initial CO2 placement RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figures 3 and 4 summarize the results of this work. The energies of the minimum energy band[N]calicene/CO2 complexes at B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) level of theory are compared in Figure 3 while the energies of the band[N]calicene/CO2 complexes using B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) are compared in Figure 4. All calculations that included band[5]calicene using the larger 6-31+G(d,p) basis set failed due to a numerical error. This has been a common occurrence in our work with large cyclic polycalicenes [7]. Therefore, the results and discussion will focus on the band[N]calicene/CO 2 complexes at B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) level of theory because that series is complete and therefore, more reliable comparisons can be made. The available results of band[N]calicene/CO2 complexes using B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) are included for completeness and possible insights that can be drawn from using the larger basis set. Examining the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) data first, two minimum energy band[3]calicene/CO2 complexes were found (Figure 3). Complex 1X , where the CO2 molecule is not inside the band[3]calicene, but sits on top of the cone, off center and slightly inside the rim defined by the hydrogen atoms, is 1.50 kcal mol-1 more stable than the separate band[3]calicene and CO2. In contrast, complex 1X1 has the CO2 molecule inside the band[3]calicene and is 9.72 kcal mol-1 higher in energy than the separate band[3]calicene and CO2. The huge increase in the energy of 1X1 compared to 1X is due to the internal cavity of band[3]calicene being too small to accommodate a CO2 molecule. Like the band[3]calicene/CO2 complexes, there are two band[4]calicene/CO2 complexes, 2X and 2X , with similar geometries to 1X and 1X1 , respectively. Complex 2X is 1.63 kcal mol-1 lower in energy than the separate band[4]calicene and CO 2 indicating slightly more binding affinity between the CO2 and the band[4]calicene compared to 1X . There is a striking difference between band[3]calicene/CO2 complex 1X1 and band[4]calicene/CO2 complex 2X as 2X .is 4.57 kcal mol-1 lower in energy than the separate band[4]calicene and CO 2, over 14 kcal mol-1 more stable than 1X1 . This huge difference can be attributed to the larger internal cavity of band[4]calicene allowing the CO2 molecule sufficient room to fit inside. The two band[5]calicene/CO2 complexes, 3X and 3X , repeat the structural motifs found in the band[3]calicene/CO2 and band[4]calicene/CO2 complexes. The energies of 3X and 3X are
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
115
Figure 3 Energy diagram of band[N]calicene/CO2 complexes using B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) 1.64 and 3.27 kcal mol-1lower in energy than the separate band[5]calicene and CO2, respectively, as shown in Figure 3. Complexes 1X , 2X , and 3X , where the CO2 molecule is sitting on the rim of the band[N]calicene cone, have similar stabilities with energies 1.50, 1.63, and 1.64 kcal mol-1 lower in energy than the separate band[N]calicene and CO2, respectively. The decreased stability of 1X , 1.50 kcal mol-1 vs. 1.63 and 1.64 kcal mol-1 for 2X and 3X , respectively, can be explained by the tighter curvature of the band[3]calicene in 1X compared to both band[4]calicene and band[5]calicene in 2X and 3X , respectively. The band[N]calicene/CO2 complexes with the CO2 molecule inside the band[N]calicene, 1X1 , 2X , and 3X , exhibit a large span of stabilities with energies ranging from 9.72 kcal mol-1 higher in energy to 4.57 and 3.27 kcal mol-1lower in energy than the separate band[N]calicene and CO2, respectively. The internal cavity of band[3]calicene is too small to accommodate the CO 2 molecule, and the strain required to accommodate the CO 2 molecule results in 1X1 being a much higher energy complex. In contrast, band[4]calicene is larger and the CO2 molecule easily fits into its internal cavity resulting in a lower energy complex, 2X . Band[5]calicene is even larger and while the CO2 molecule easily fits inside, the CO2 molecule is less constrained by the opposite wall of the band[5]calicene leading to a weaker interaction and slightly higher energy complex, 3X , compared to 2X , 3.27 versus 4.57 kcal mol-1kcal lower in energy than the separate band[N]calicene and CO2, respectively. In contrast to the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) results for the band[3]calicene/CO2 complexes, the B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) results (Figure 4) show three minimum energy band[3]calicene/CO2 complexes. Overall the geometry motifs are the same as for the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) results with
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
116
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 4 Energy diagram of band[N]calicene/CO2 complexes using B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) 1X characterized by the CO2 molecule sitting on the upper rim of the band[3]calicene and both 1X1 and 1X2 having the CO2 molecule inside the band[3]calicene aligned vertically. The third minimum energy complex 1X2 is similar to 1X1 but its CO2 molecule is above the center plain of band[3]calicene in contrast to the CO2 molecule below the center plain in 1X1 . Just as the geometry motifs are similar for both basis sets, the energy trends of the complexes are also similar between basis sets. Complex 1X is 0.55 kcal mol-1lower in energy while 1X1 and 1X2 are 12.23 and 9.93 kcal mol-1 higher in energy than the separate band[3]calicene and CO2, respectively. The CO2 molecule inside 1X2 is above the center plane of band[3]calicene in the more open top of the truncated cone resulting in a lower energy, 9.93 kcal mol-1, compared to 12.23 kcal mol-1 for 1X1 with the CO2 molecule in the bottom constricted portion of the band[3]calicene. The B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) results for the band[4]calicene/CO2 complexes are similar to the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) results with two mimimum energy complexes, 2X and 2X , that are 0.91 and 2.74 kcal mol-1lower in energy than the separate band[4]calicene and CO2, respectively. The trends within the B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) results are also similar to trends within the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) results. The B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) 1X and 2X have energies 0.55 and 0.91 kcal mol-1 lower in energy, respectively, compared to the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) 1X and 2X energies of 1.50 and 1.63 kcal mol-1 lower, respectively, than the separate band[N]calicene and CO2. Likewise, the B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) results for the band[N]calicene/CO2 complexes with a CO2 molecule inside the band[N]calicene, 1X1 and 2X , are drastically different, 12.23 higher and 2.74 lower in energy than the separate band[N]calicene and CO 2, respectively. The most notable trend when comparing the two sets of results is that the B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) energy for each complex is consistently higher than its respective B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) energy. Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
117
CONCLUSION The results indicate that band[4]calicene is the best potential CO2 host of the band[N]calicenes studied. The band[4]calicene/CO2 complex, 2X , where the CO2 molecule is nestled inside the band[4]calicene, is 4.57 and 2.74 kcal mol-1lower in energy in energy than the separate band[4]calicene and CO2 at B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) and B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p), respectively. The band[4]calicene is large enough to accommodate the CO2 molecule but not so large that the interaction between the CO2 and band[4]calicene is weakened. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS time.
We would like to thank the Mississippi Center for Supercomputing Research for computer
REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
A. A. Lacis, G. A. Schmidt, D. Rind and R. A. Ruedy, “Atmospheric CO 2: Principal Control Knob Governing Earth’s Temperature”, Science, 2010, 330, 356-359. M. Mikkelsen, M. Jørgensen and F. C. Krebs, “The Teraton Challenge. A Review of Fixation and Transformation of Carbon Dioxide”, Energy Environ. Sci., 2010, 3, 43-81. G. A. Olah, G. K. S. Prakash and A. Goeppert, “Anthropogenic Chemical Carbon Cycle for a Sustainable Future”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2011, 133, 12881-12898. Z. Jiang, T. Xiao, Kuznetsov and P. P. Edwards, “Turning Carbon Dioxide into Fuel”, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, 2010, 368, 3343-3364. A. Goeppert, M. Czaun, G. K. S. Prakash and G. A. Olah, “Air as the Renewable Carbon Source of the Future: An Overview of CO2 Capture from the Atmosphere”, Energy & Environ Sci., 2012, 1-48. K. S. Lackner, S. Brennan, J. M. Matter, A.-H. A. Park, A. Wright and B. v. d. Zwaan, “The Urgency of the Development of CO2 Capture from Ambient Air”, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 2012, 109, 13156-13162. K. S. Lackner, “Capture of Carbon Dioxide From Ambient Air”, Eur. Phys. J. Special Topics, 2009, 176, 93–106. W. E. Collier, “A Computational Investigation of Some Polycalicenes as Novel Nonbenzenoid Aromatic Molecules and the Strange Case of the Cyclopropenyl Anion”, Ph.D. Dissertation, 2009, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States of America. A.D. Becke, “Density-functional Thermochemistry. III. The Role of Exact Exchange.”, J. Chem. Phys., 1993, 98, 5648-5652. C. Lee, W. Yang and R.G. Parr, “Development of the Colle-Salvetti Correlation-Energy Formula into a Functional of the Electron Density”, Phys. Rev. B, 1988, 37, 785-789. W. J. Hehre, R. Ditchfield, R. F. Stewart and J. A. Pople, “SelfǦConsistent Molecular Orbital Methods. IV. Use of Gaussian Expansions of SlaterǦType Orbitals. Extension to SecondǦRow Molecules” J. Chem. Phys., 1970, 52, 2769-2773. R. Ditchfield, W. J. Hehre and J. A. Pople, “Self-Consistent Molecular Orbital Methods. IX. An Extended Gaussian-Type Basis for Molecular-Orbital Studies of Organic Molecules,” J. Chem. Phys., 1971, 54, 724-728. T. Clark, J. Chandrasekhar, G. W. Spitznagel and P. v. R. Schleyer, “Efficient Diffuse Function-Augmented Basis-Sets for Anion Calculations. 3. The 3-21+G Basis Set for 1st-Row Elements, Li-F”, J. Comp. Chem., 1983, 4, 294-301. Gaussian 09, Revision A.1: Frisch, M. J. et al. 2009 Gaussian Inc., Wallingford CT.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
118
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Pharmacological Aspects of Javanese Non-Fermented Ketchup to Minimize Western Illness in the Globalization Era Dara Prabandari Sumardi*, Yohanes Dwiatmaka and Paulus Wiryono Faculty of Pharmacy, Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Globalization is hard to be avoided by the international community, including the ASEAN’s. Over the last two decades, various types of food and western lifestyles have flooded ASEAN region and consequently, western illness have been increasing rapidly. One of them was blood clot thatincludes stroke, thrombocytosis, and some others. In Indonesia, the prevalence of stroke itself was increasing significantly, from about 2.4 cases per 1,000 population in early 1990s to about 8.3 cases per 1,000 population in the late 2000s. Similar situation was also found in the ASEAN countries, where the case was increasing from 3 cases to 6.3 cases per 1,000 population in the same period. In 2010, as many as 3.47 million ASEAN people died because of stroke. Nowadays, stroke is the third leading cause of death in most developing countries. Meanwhile, our previous studies on Javanese indegeneous food technology of non-fermented ketchup, using the seeds of kluwak (PangiumeduleReinw), gave us an interesting finding that the ketchup contained coumarineat 5.133 g/ml. When it was converted to the average of ketchup consumption in Indonesia, it was equivalent to 2.7 ppm per day. This level was medically safe, as daily maximum consumption limit was 6 ppm. Pharmacologically coumarineis an anticoagulant, which is useful to prevent blood clots. We believe in other ASEAN countries there must be plenty of local and indigenous foods, which have similar pharmacological characteristics. However, some of them might be nearly extinct because they have to compete with commercial products produced by modern and chemical-based industry, as what happen in Indonesia. Repromoting these local and indigenous foods is needed to minimize western illness and diseases in ASEAN countries under this era of globalization. Keywords: ASEAN’s Western Illness, Javanese Indigenous Food, Blood Clot, Coumarine, Non-Fermented Ketchup INTRODUCTION Globalization is a global phenomenon related to the world economic order set by WTO since 1994, and this refers to reduction in barriers to the cross-border movement of goods, services and capital (Thangavelu and Toh, 2005). Even though globalization is basically an economic order, the consequence of the barrier reduction it has changed many aspects of human life. One of the most seriously affected sectors is food culture and lifestyle. Southeast Asia is a region rich in food culture with its own lifestyle that has lasted for centuries, is not spared from the impact of globalization.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
119
Food consumption patterns have been changing around the Southeast Asia region, shown in the increasing consumption of meat products, edible oil, salt and sugar. In between 1990 and 2010 the annual sugar consumption was doubled while palm oil consumption increased more than fourfold (Gereffi and Christian, 2011). At the same time lifestyle has also been changing. WHO (2003) identified lifestyle of a constructing factor through which people express their identity related to their activities, interests, and opinions. The newly ASEAN’s lifestyle has increased consumption of brand-name processed and store-bought foods, affecting the amount of meals eaten outside and changing consumer behaviors driven by assumed as modern foods, which rich in sugar, fat, and salt. These higher-fat, higher-sugar, and higher-salt consumption pattern are increasing the risk for non-communicable diseases. One of them is blood clot thatincludes stroke, thrombocytosis, and some other cardiovascular diseases. Nowadays, stroke alone is the third leading cause of death in most developing countries. Such a risky consumption pattern should be considered as a great challenge to Southeast Asian people who see their region as rich in culture, including food culture. Culturally, the nations of Southeast Asia were influenced by the culture of their ancestor countries India and China, two biggest countries in Asia, even in the world. The better natural wealth and more hospitable climate conditions have been enabling the Southeast Asian nations to develop a better food culture compared to their ancestor countries. One of the most typical examples is the use of kluwak (PangiumeduleReinw) seed as a spice in various cuisines. In Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, and the philippinesthe seed is used as a spice in cooking meat. Whereas in Brunei Darussalam it is used as preservative ingredient as well as spice for sea food. In Central Java, Indonesia, kluwak seed is also used to make soy ketchup, i.e. a kind of soy sauce, without fermentation. The coumarine compounds contained in the seeds can denaturalize peptide compounds of protein in tempeh or soybean into amino acids. The produced ketchup contained coumarineat 5.133 g/ml (Sumardi et al, 2012). When this level of coumarine concentration was converted to the average of ketchup consumption in Indonesia, it was equivalent to 2.7 ppm per day. This level of coumarine consumption was medically safe, as daily maximum consumption limit was 6 ppm. Pharmacologically, coumarine is an anticoagulant which is useful to prevent blood clot, which was previously mentioned as the third leading cause of death in most developing countries, includes in Southeast Asia region. This paper explores a possible repromotion of local and indigenous food in Southeast Asia to minimize western illness and diseases in the region under this era of globalization. This repromotion is needed as the fact some of the traditional foods might be nearly extinct because of competition with commercial products produced by modern and chemical-based industry. MATERIALS AND METHODS This paper wasbased on our previous research about the content of coumarine in the kluwaksoy ketchup obtained from the Muria Peninsula, Central Java, Indonesia. We have presented these research findings at the International Student Conference, organized by the Faculty of Food Technology, Soegijapranata Catholic University, Semarang, 4 December 2012.To illustrate the impact of globalization which began in 1994, the data on food consumption and western disease progression was made on the basis of early 1990s (before globalization) and post-2010; assuming the effect of globalization over the last two decades. To analyze the results of our study with blood clot issues and changing patterns of food and food culture in the era of globalization, we did literature studies on food and health Journals OnLine, Medline, PubMed, and legal documentations published by World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), as well as other respected data sources in Southeast Asia. In order to explore the use of local food in Southeast Asia regions as well as to
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
120
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
analyze the relationship between our results with the actual problems in the field of noncomunicable diseases mainly caused by a blood clot in Southeast Asia, we did aliteraturesearchonstudiesconducted byscholars and researchers inSoutheast Asia. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Globalization was initiated in the world economic order of the WTO, since 1994, to replace the previous order of the GATT, which stagnated in the multilateral trade negotiations for agricultural products and processed products. To resolve the trade impasse, then there was an agreement on the reduction of barriers to the cross-border movement of goods, services and capital amongst the WTO member countries (Gereffiand Christian, 2011). Since then there have been significant increase of flow of commodities, technologies, information, business models, modes of distribution and marketing to all over the countries on earth. As the results, the competition between the products, services, attitudes and lifestyles cannot be avoided. The products those are sold at a lower price, better quality and can be servedfaster, will dominate the market. Similarly, the services that can provide fast service, safe, convenient, inexpensive, with an extensive network and professional management will dominate the market. Contrary to this, local products that generally more expensive and run simple management, started fading out. In most developing countries, food business is the sector that received the most serious of these effects (de Haan et al, 2003). Today, religious and ethnic food and nutrition cultures are struggling for survival under the pressure of internationalization of nutrition habits. Foreign foods, especially western foods, have been easily dominating market share of food business in developing countries, and Southeast Asia is no exception. People's lifestyles are getting busier with a higher financial capacity, causing the adoption of western food so quickly, which all lead to the changing in the dietary pattern in the region (Schipmann and Qaim, 2011). Since 1967, the countries in the region of Southeast Asia, formed Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Today the organization comprises of 11 countries that aimed of accelerating the economic, social and cultural growth through collaboration and mutual assistance. ASEAN covering of almost 4.4 million km 2 and the population in 2012 was approximately 5275 million people (ASEAN, 2012 a), which means about 8.7% of the world population. Since 1992, ASEAN members established ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), and in 2002 there was signed an agreement to lowering of intra-regional tariffs through the Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) for AFTA (ASEAN, 2012). Due to this reduction in import duties, the intra-ASEAN trade was increase significantly from US $ 174.5 billion in 2003 to US $ 519.6 in 2010 and he income per capita was jumping from US$ 4,300 (2003) to US$ 5,090 (2013a). In 2012, the ASEAN’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) had grown to more than USD $ 1.87 trillion (ASEAN, 2013b); means if ASEAN assumed as a single country, it would rank at the 9th largest economy in the world. With this economic potential, it is therefore not surprising that ASEAN is a strategic area in the world and a major goal of westernization under this globalization era. As early as 2004, Mendezand Popkin(2004) have describedthe changes of dietary pattern basically can be separated in two ways; dietary convergence and dietary adaptation. The dietary convergence dealing with increase consumption of meat and meat products, dairy products, edible oil, salt and sugar, and a lower intake of dietary fibre, whereas the dietary adaptation deals with the increase consumption of brand-name processed and store-bought foods, the way of meals consumption eaten outside the home, and consumer interest to new non-local foods. Both of these changes, has resulted in increased consumption of fats, including animal fats, sugar and salt, and also the consumption of preservatives and food colorant all over the developing world,in the last two decades. In Southeast Asia, the annual sugar consumption doubled between 1990 and 2010 while annual palm oil consumption more than four-fold in the same time period (Gereffi and Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
121
Christian, 2011). In the rest of developing countries, the conditions were even worse. The latest FAO report confirmed that the percentage of dietary energy derived from fat has steadily increased almost six-fold over the past two decades. Similarly per capita consumption of caloric sweeteners has risen by nearly 100 kcal per day in the same period (Mazzocchi et al, 2012). These higher-fat (WHO, 2003), higher-sugar (Malik et al, 2010), higher-salt (Bochud et al, 2013), as well as higher-preservatives (Takachi et al., 2010) and higher-food colourant (Oluwaniyi et al, 2009) diets have been scientifically proven related with increased risk for non-communicable disease. There is clear scientific documentation that saturated or trans fats, which are a major component of edible processed oils, significantly inhibit the metabolism that is responsible for breaking down fat in the body and lead the accumulation of fat in the bloodstream (Gray-Donald, 2000). If these fat deposits start to block blood flow through crucial arteries, then it will be resulting higher risk for blood clot and the related illness due to this mechanism, such as stroke, thrombocytosis, and othercardiovascular diseases (Hooper et al., 2001). As a result of adopting globalization changing patterns of consumption in Southeast Asian region, the development of a disease caused by blood clot is increased rapidly over the last two decades. In Indonesia, the prevalence of stroke itself was increasing sharply, from about 2.4 cases per 1,000 population in early 1990s (Darmojo, 1993) to about 8.3 cases per 1,000 population in the late 2000s (MPH GOI, 2008). The only ASEAN country which successfully reduced mortality is Thailand. In 1990, the death rate due to blood clot attack only 4.2 people per 1,000 populations increased to 6.9 in 1999. In 2003, the death rate could be reduced to 5.0 people, and in 2006 declined again to 4.3 people per 1,000 populations. Until the end of 2008, the mortality rate was reported only 2.8 people per 1,000 populations (MPH RGT, 2008). In all ASEAN countries however, the case was increasing from 3.0 cases to 6.3 cases per 1,000 populations in the same period. In 2010, as many as 3.5 million Southeast Asia people died because of stroke (WHO, 2011). Blood clot isimportant to stop bleeding after injury, however it is harmful because most heart attacks and strokes are resulted from this sudden formation of a blood clot inside an artery that goes to heart or brain. According to Lillicrap (2009) blood clot formation can be described in four stages: 1. The platelet plug initiate blood clot; 2. Chemical reactions grow the blood clot. The availability of dissolved proteins in the blood is acting as clotting factors, therefore it will promote blood clots formation by forming blood fibrin; 3. Anti-clotting processes halt the blood clot growth, which preventing from extending the blood clot farther than it should be; and 4. The body slowly breaks down the blood clot, where the body slowly degrades the blood clot and reabsorbs it. While intensive research is needed to documenting the effect of coumarine on blood clot formation, it is suggested that the existence coumarine which is a natural anticoagulant, will affect the stages 1 and 2. The initiation of blood clot formation is started when the platelets clump together and form a plug, which reduces bleeding. The platelets will release substances that start the chemical reaction of blood clot formation. The existence of coumarine is suggested to coagulate the substances and disturb the clot formation. When the formation was initiated, the coumarine will inhibit the coagulation agent at stage 2, then will inhibit the coagulation process. Coumarine is the main compound present in the seed of kluwak (PangiumeduleReinw). The fresh fruit and seeds contain hydrogen cyanide and are deadly poisonous, if consumed without adequate preparation. The seeds have to be fermented and boiled, and let for several days. During the time, the seeds colour will turn from a creamy white to dark brown or black. The method is fairly simple because hydrogen cyanide is basically easy to release by boiling and fermentation, because the acid is water soluble and is evaporated at 26 oC. The seeds are widely used in Southeast Asian countries, mainly as spices. In Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia, the seeds are best known as an essential ingredient in cooking chicken, beef, pork, buffalo or goat. In Indonesia the seed is a source of oily seeds, and is broadly used as spices for cooking various cuisines, namely rawon, rendang. In some areas of Indonesia, the seed Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
122
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
also used as kluwak powder (TanaToraja) and non-fermented ketchup (Central Java). In Brunei Darussalam the seed is used as a spice for strong taste sea food like crab or prawn, whereas in the Philippines used for seasoning pork. Basically kluwak seeds provide a dark colour, an intensive nutty taste, and smoother due oily texture, and to improving flavour. However, like other local food in the most developing countries, the technology in food processing kluwak is nearly extinct, because of competition with commercial products produced by modern and chemical-based industry. However, the extinction of local food is not only in Indonesia but also in other Southeast Asia countries. In fact, the local food can reduce the risk of developing blood clot, which is a serious cause of mortality in the Southeast Asian region. Therefore, ASEAN community have to join hands, to repromoting these local and indigenous food, as one of the cultural treasures of the region, which in term also important to minimize western illness and diseases in the region under this era of globalization. On December 9, 2012, ASEAN Work Plan on Traditional Medicine declared “Kuala Lumpur Declaration on Traditional Medicine in ASEAN” (ASEAN, 2013b). The cooperation among ASEAN researchers on these indigenous issues is therefore possible to be realized when the issues can be incorporated into this ASEAN task force. CONCLUSION 1. Globalization which was run under WTO since 1994, has changed people in Southeast Asia region to adopt western food culture and lifestyle. 2. The change in food culture has resulted in increased consumption of sugar, fat, salt, preservatives and food colourant, thereby increasing the risk of western disease such as those diseases due to blood clot, such as stroke and thrombocytosis 3. Kluwak ketchup produced from soybeans without fermentation but mixed with seeds kluwak containing compounds coumarineof 5.133 g/ml. Coumarine is a natural anticoagulant, which is useful to reduce the risk of blood clot. 4. This local food is nearly extinct because of competition with commercial products produced by modern and chemical-based industry. A repromotion of these local and indigenous foods is needed to minimize western illness and diseases in ASEAN countries under globalization era. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thankful to Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, for financing our participation to this conference. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4.
ASEAN, ASEAN Macroeconomic Indicators: ASEAN Economic Community, 2012, available at http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community, accessed on April 20, 2013 ASEAN, ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2012, 2013a, available at http://www.asean.org/resources/2012-02-10-08-47-55/statistical-publications, accessed on April 20, 2013 ASEAN, Towards Harmonisation of Traditional Medicine Practices, e-Health Bull. No. 2 July– Dec.2012, 2013b,vailable at http://www.asean.org/publications/asean-e-healthbulletin?category_id=382,accessed on April 20, 2013 Bochud, M., P.Marques-Vidal, M.Burnier, F.Paccaud, “Dietary Salt Intake and Cardiovascular Disease: Summarizing the Evidence”, Public Health Reviews 33:530-52, 2012, available at http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/Bochud.pdf, accessed on April 14, 2013.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
123
Darmojo, B., “KecenderunganMeningkatnyaPenyakitJantung di Indonesia”, BuletinPenelitianKesehatan 21 (4), 1993, pp. 63 – 71. de Haan, H., K.Stamoulis, & P.Pingali,“The World Food Economy in the Twenty-First Century: Challenges For International Cooperation”,Dev. Pol. Rev. 21(5-6), 2003, pp. 683-696 Gereffi, G. and M. Christian, “Transnational Corporations and Food Consumption: a Global Value Chain Approach, Trade, Food, Diet and Health: Perspectives and Policy Options”,Oxford: Wiley Blackwell: 91–110, 2011 Gray-Donald, K., L. Jacobs-Starkey, L. Johnson-Down, “Food Habits OfCanadians: Reduction in Fat Intake Over A Generation”, Canadian Journal of Public Health 91, 2000, pp. 381–385. Hawkes C., M. Chopra and S. Friel, “Globalization, Trade, and The Nutrition Transition”, In Globalization and Health: Pathways, Evidence and Policy. Edited by R. Labonté, T. Schrecker, C. Packer C and V. Runnels, Routledge, New York, 2009, 2009, pp. 235-262. Hooper, L., C.D. Summerbell, J.P. Higgins, “Dietary Fat Intake and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Systematic Review”, Biomedical Journal 322, 2001, pp. 757–763. Kennedy, G., G.Nantel and P.Shetty, “Globalization of Food Systems in Developing Countries: A Synthesis of Country Case Studies”, FAO Food and Nutr. Paper No. 83: 1 - 26, 2004, Rome. Lillicrap, D., N. Key, M. Makris, D. O'Shaughnessy, “Practical Hemostasis and Thrombosis”, Wiley-Blackwell. 2009, ISBN 1-4051-8460-4pp. 1–5. Malik, V.S., B.M. Popkin, G.A. Bray, D. Jean-Pierre, and F.B. Hu, “Sugar-Sweetened Beverages, Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, and Cardiovascular Disease Risk”, Contemporary Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine, Circulation121, 2010, pp. 1356-1364. Mazzocchi, M., B. Shankar and B. Traill, “The Development of Global Diets Since 1992: Influences of Agri-Food Trends and Policies”, FAO Trade Policy Working Paper No. 34, 2012, available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ ap625e/ap625e.pdf, accessed on April 10, 2013. Mendez, M. and B. Popkin, Globalization, “Urbanization and Nutritional Change in The Developing World”, In: Globalization Of Food Systems In Developing Countries: Impact On Food Security And Nutrition, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 83: 55 - 80, 2004, Rome. Minis try of Public Health, Royal Government of Thailand (MPH RGT), “Health Status and Health Problems of Thai People”, 2008, available at http://www.hiso.or.th/hiso/picture/reportHealth/ THF2007/THP2005_6eng.pdf, accessed on April 10, 2013. Mitchell A. and T. Voon, “Implications of the World Trade Organization on NonCommunicable Diseases”, Research Paper No. 485, Univ. of Melbourne, 2010, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1626733, accessed on March 25, 2013. Oluwaniyi, O.O., O.O. Dosumu, G.V. Awolola and A.F. Abdulraheem, “Nutritional Analysis and Stability Studies of Some Natural and Synthetic Food Colourants”, 2009, American Journal of Food Technology Volume 4, Number 5, 218-225, 2009. Ruel, M. and J. Garrett, “Features of Urban Food and Nutrition Security and Considerations for Successful Urban Programming”, In: Globalization Of Food Systems In Developing Countries, FAO Food and Nutr. PaperNo. 83: 24 - 54, 2004, Rome. Schipmann, C. and M. Qaim, “Modern Food Retailers and Traditional Markets in Developing Countries: Comparing Quality, Prices, And Competition Strategies in Thailand”, applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 33, 2011, pp. 345-362. Schmidhuber, J., “The Growing Global Obesity Problem: Some Policy Options To Address It”. In: Globalization of Food Systems in Developing Countries: Impact on Food Security and Nutrition, FAO Food and Nutr. Paper No. 83: 81 - 98, 2004, Rome. Sumardi, D.P., Y. Dwiatmaka and P. Wiryono, “Safety Aspects Analysis of Javanese Indigenous Non-fermented Ketchup Made From Kluwak”, 2012, International Student Conference, Fac. of Food Techn., Soegijapranata Catholic Univ., Semarang, December 4, 2012. Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
124
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
23. Takachi, R., M. Inoue, T. Shimazu, S. Sasazuki, J. Ishihara, N. Sawada, T. Yamaji, M. Iwasaki, H. Iso, Y. Tsubono, and S. Tsugane, “Consumption Of Sodium And Salted Foods In Relation To Cancer And Cardiovascular Disease: The Japan Public Health Center–Based Prospective Study”, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 91 (2): 456-464, 2010 24. Thangavelu SM and Toh M-H, “Bilateral 'WTO-Plus' Free Trade Agreements: The WTO Trade Policy Review of Singapore 2004”, The World Economy 2005, 28, 2005, pp. 1121-1128. 25. The Ministry of Public Health, Government of Indonesia (MPH GOI), Research on Basic Health, 2008, MPH GOI, Jakarta. 26. WHO, “Nutrition in Transition: Globalization And Its Impact On Nutrition Patterns And DietRelated Diseases”, 2003, available at www.who.int/nut/trans.htm, accessed on 12 April 2013. 27. WHO, “Non-communicable Diseases In The South-East Asia Region: Situation And Response 2011”, 2011, WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
125
Access to Healthcare for the Second Generation of the Burmese Immigrants in Thailand Liwa Pardthaisong-Chaipanich Department of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: This study investigated how the second generation of Burmese immigrants in Thailand had accessed to healthcare services under certain circumstances, and how these processes affected the Thai healthcare system. The research was conducted in 4 provinces of Thailand: Chiang Mai, Tak, Samutsakorn and Ranong. In-depth interviews with 80 people who were the second generation of immigrants and 30 staffs from 24 involved government and non-government organizations were conducted. Results showed that foreign migrant public health volunteers and foreign migrant public health staffs play the important roles in the accessibility to healthcare among the second generation group, together with community health support, consultation, and co-operation with staffs from government and non-government organizations. However, problems found in statuses and rights of this second generation group reflect problems related to health care planning that the Thai state can no longer ignored. In addition, results in problems and limitations in government organization health services show that the government hospitals in border areas or areas with a high number of Burmese/foreign immigrants have to carry heavy burdens. There is the urgent need for the state to seriously consider the foreign immigrant health/healthcare problems, and policies involved. Keywords: Healthcare, Immigrants, Thailand. INTRODUCTION It has been over two decades that Thailand has facing and trying to cope with the increasing number of immigrants from neighbouring countries, particularly from Myanmar. The number of Burmese immigrants had been estimated to reach over one million since 2002 (Athichat and Kongkuntod, 2004). While some of these immigrants have been registered with work permits, many of them have not been registered as migrant workers which mean that their working statuses are illegal and are not covered by health insurance. In addition, there are also the dependent of these immigrants that have not been legally recognized. Among many aspects resulting from the increasing number of immigrants, healthcare is one of the most important implications worldwide (Gellert, 1993; Sundquist, 2001; Mladovsky, 2007). While several studies (i.e., Archavanichkul and Saisunthorn, 2005; Buodang, 2008) have examined health problems among the Burmese immigrants in Thailand, little has been focused on the second generation of these group. The ‘second generation’ of Burmese immigrants here refers to those who were born in Thailand or have been migrated, with their parent(s), to Thailand since they were young. Some of them are now the
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
126
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
‘migrant workers’ themselves. This paper aims to address how these second generation had accessed to healthcare services under certain circumstances, and how these processes affected the Thai healthcare system. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research sites in 4 provinces with the high number of Burmese immigrants had been chosen. These include the provinces of Chiang Mai (Mae Ai District) and Tak (Mae Sot District) in the Northern region, Samutsakorn (Mueang Samutsakorn District) in the Central region, and Ranong (Mueang Ranong District) in the Southern region. It was conducted by in-depth interviews with 80 people who were the second generation of immigrants and 30 staffs from 24 involved government and non-government organizations. The government organizations were the village health stations, district/provincial health offices and hospitals in the study areas. The nongovernment organizations were, for instances, World Vision Foundation of Thailand, Raks Thai Foundation, MAP Foundation, International Rescue Committee (IRC), Labor Right Promotion Network Foundation (LPN), National Catholic Commission on Migration Center (NCCM), and Human Right and Development Foundation (HRDF). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results showed that healthcare accessibility was different in each research sites. When the studied population felt unwell or ill, most of them in Chiang Mai (55 per cent) went to the local health office, followed by buying drugs from flea markets and drug stores (35 per cent). In Samutsakorn, most people (50 per cent) buy drugs, followed by going to private clinics. In Tak, 70 per cent of the studied population buy drugs, followed by going to private clinics (Mae Tao Clinic in particular) and hospital. In Ranong, most people buy drugs, followed by going to health station and private clinics. These various methods they had been chosen were depending on their working statuses and health insurances, incomes, language communication, access to health information, and the roles of organizations in each area. Work Status and Health Insurance Any migrant worker who wants to be registered with work permit needs to have health check which cost 600 Baht and 1,300 Baht for health insurance, before being able to apply for work permit which cost another 1,900 Baht. For those who are dependents can buy only health insurance for the amount of 1,900 Baht. This amount has been considered by most migrants as too high so if it has not been requested by the employers, most of them would choose not to be registered. Most of the migrants in Samutsakorn (95 per cent) and Ranong (80 per cent) had work permit and health insurance while most of the migrants in Chiang Mai (80 per cent) and Tak (95 per cent) did not have work permit and health insurance. It is found that among migrants who had health insurance, some did not go to their registered hospitals because they thought that it provided low quality drugs
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
127
and services were slow and wasted their time. In some cases, they had problems in communication with hospital staffs, with difficult medical terms/words that they did not understand. While some unregistered migrants were afraid to go to hospitals because of their illegal statuses, some got information from friends and relatives that if they do not have money, they do not have to pay, and decided to go to the hospital. In addition, as most migrants were in their reproductive age, they thought it was unnecessary to have health insurance because they were still young and healthy and 1,900 Baht health insurance was very expensive and was a waste of money. Income Results show that income is not related to access in healthcare of the studied population. There are other factors that play important roles in deciding where to go for healthcare such as the length of service and the expense that they have to pay. Some of them chose to go to private clinic (even though they have had health insurance with the government hospital) because it is quicker and more convenience. Some of them also believed that private clinic provides better drugs than the hospital. The high proportion of migrant workers in Samutsakorn makes it exceptional as there were more than 50 private clinics that provide Burmese doctors and staffs to serve the migrants. Moreover, there was also a mobile clinic of the provincial health office that provided service to local community occasionally. Language Communication, Health Information and Roles of Organizations Health information is the most important tool for the understanding of diseases or health problems as well as for decision-making in terms of healthcare accessibility. This study found that language communication is the most important factor for the studied population to decide where to go or how to access the healthcare services. There is no doubt that the foreign migrant public health volunteers and foreign migrant public health staffs and the support from the non-government organizations played the important roles in the accessibility to healthcare among the second generation group. In Chiang Mai, the foreign migrant public health volunteers and migrant public health staffs have helped in given access for migrants and the second generation of migrants to the local health office as well as to the district hospital via the health office. During the time of the study, the foreign migrant public health staffs were financially supported by Shield Project, Chiang Mai. In Tak, The World Vision Thailand (Mae Sot) played a significant role in distributing knowledge to migrants in the communities. These include: the establishment of community health center, particularly for knowledge and surveillance in HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis, the health service by Burmese doctor in the community, and the distribution of health/disease knowledge via brochures and leaflets in Burmese language (figure 1). Moreover, there is also a Mae Tao Clinic, established by Dr. Cynthia Maung. The clinic is very popular among immigrants within and outside the area of Mae Sot as well as people from Myanmar. This clinic/hospital gives free medical care
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
128
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
and treatment with doctors, medical staffs, and medical volunteers from many countries around the world. Currently, between 400 -500 people on average come to the clinic each day. Total caseload exceeds 115,000 cases annually with a client number of over 75,000 per year (Mae Tao Clinic, 2013). Mae Tao Clinic also has a birth registration center for foreign population as well as provide maternity and child health book that is written in 3 languages: Thai, English, and Burmese. This health book has also been provided in government and private hospitals. In addition, the Mae Sot hospital also played a role in health campaigning and treatment, and occasionally received transferred cases from Mae Tao Clinic. Most of the patients are migrants and people from Myanmar. In Samutsakorn, foreign migrant public health staffs were supported by Samutsakorn provincial health office and worked at the local health office in the area near migrant communities. These staffs helped as interpreter/translator between migrants or the second generation group and the Thai staffs at the local health office and hospital. In addition, in Mueang Samutsakorn district, there were many private clinics with Thai and Burmese doctors, and foreign staffs to help with communication problems. There were also many NGOs that provided health and healthcare information leaflets in foreign language. In the hospital, ‘Buddy Center’ has been established in order to take care of foreign workers with Thai staffs as well as foreign migrant public health staffs to assist with migrant/foreign workers (figure 2).
Figure 1 Health information in foreign language distributed by the World Vision Thailand. Source: World Vision Thailand, 2010.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
129
Figure 2 ‘Buddy Center’ at Samutsakorn hospital. In Ranong, the World Vision in Ranong has played a key role in giving healthcare information and services. Its duties are similar to the one in Mae Sot but also has its own clinic in reproduction health, HIV/AIDS, and Sexual Transmitted Diseases. It also provided interpreters/translators to help migrants in hospital and local health offices. Ranong hospital also has one stop service for foreign migrants. CONCLUSION This study has examined how the second generation of the Burmese immigrants in Thailand has accessed to healthcare, and how these processes affected the Thai healthcare system. Demographically, most of them are in their reproductive ages, child and maternity healthcare and knowledge in Sexual Transmitted Diseases such as HIV/AIDS are mostly needed. These involved the use of condoms, pregnancy check-up, birth deliveries, and basic vaccine treatments for small children. Results have indicated that in the study areas where there were a high number of migrant workers, the foreign migrant public health volunteers and foreign migrant public health staffs had played the very important roles in the accessibility to healthcare among the second generation group. This was partly a result of PHAMIT (Prevention of HIV/AIDS Among Migrant Workers in Thailand) project that had been supported by the GFATM (Global Fund Against AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria) that covered in 22 provinces throughout Thailand, with the co-orperation with other NGOs and the Ministry of Public Health. Although this project ended in 2008, some approaches and concepts have been supported continuously by the Ministry of Public Health. The roles of foreign migrant public health volunteers and foreign migrant public health staffs are indeed important for migrants and the second generation group. However, problems found in statuses and rights of this second generation group reflect problems related to health care planning that the Thai state can no longer ignored. In addition, results in problems and limitations in government organization health services show that the
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
130
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
government hospitals in border areas or areas with a high number of foreign immigrants have to carry heavy burdens. These include the increasing expenditure, medicine and medical supplies, lack of staffs and problems in communication as well as budget management. All of these problems indicate the urgent need for the state to seriously consider the foreign immigrant health and healthcare problems, and should have policies and regulations that are clear, appropriate, and harmonious for every sector involved. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank the National Policies and International Relations Division, Thailand Research Fund, for funding this research. REFERENCES 1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
K. Archavanichkul and P. K.Saisunthorn, “Questions and Challenges of Thai State Policy in the Dimension of Health and Rights of Cross-Border Migrants”, Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, Nakorn Pathom, 2005. (in Thai) P. Athichat and S. Kongkuntod, “Foreign migrant database for the Ministry of Public Health”, in K.Archavanichkul (ed.), “Who are Foreign Migrants in Thailand? How many of them? Which Database is the Answer?”, Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, Nakorn Pathom, 2004, 167-196. (in Thai) K. Buodang, “Health of the cross-border migrants and access to the governmental public health service”, Journal of Social Science, 2008, 20 (1), 145-172.(in Thai) G. Gellert, “International migration and control of communicable disease”, Social Science & Medicine, 1993, 37 (12), 1489-1499. P. Mladovsky, “Migration health in the EU”, Eurohealth, 2007, 13 (1), 9-11. J. Sundquist, “Migration, equality and access to health care services”, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 2001, 55, 691-691.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
131
Multi-Disciplinary R/D Access for Asia Sustainability Nobutaka Ito Visiting Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Asian Economic Community (Asian Union) will be organized and established in 2015. It should be notified that we human beings are facing two serious emerging issues of energy and environment mainly caused by drastic CO2 production due to the fossil energy combustion. In addition the world human population is more than 7 billion and still continuously increasing at the rate of 100 million per year. It can be easily guessed that the food issue comes next. Bio-resources are now very much closed up from the viewpoints that they are eco-friendly and available for food, energy and environment materials. Asia has higher potential to be qualified as one of the food giants, however the regional food supply R/D station should be established not only for regional prosperity but also for international one to overcome the upcoming food issue enough to function collaboratively and competitively among the nations involved. Multi-disciplinary education is extremely needed for growing the global resource engineer enough to access to the social needs. Keywords: Asia sustainability, Global Tetralemma, Food giants, Asian Economic ommunity, Multi-disciplinary education, Technology transfer, Human resources evelopment, Bio-resources. INTRODUCTION As already known, the human population is now more than 7 billion and still increasing at the rate of 100 million per year. It is estimated that it will be 10 billion in 2050. The present available food amount per capita per year can be simply calculated as 400 kg/capita/year from the total food production divided by the world population. This amount looks almost enough, however preparation is needed for increasing the food production enough to cover the drastic increase of human population. Technological access is really required to avoid the upcoming food shortage. Asia has higher potential to be qualified as one of the food giants in the world for the following reasons: 1) More than 90 % of the world rice (totally 680 million ton) is produced in Asia 2) Almost 40 % of the world production of wheat is in Asia, which is equal to that produced in Europe 3) Almost 30 % of the total world farm land is in Asia 4) Not only cereals but also other food resources such as vegetables, fruits, meats and so on are in Asia It is already estimated that the human population in 2050 will be 10 billion based on the increasing rate. It can be guessed that the required amount of food production will be 4 billion ton. The cultivated land available for food production has neither increased nor decreased, but kept almost constant in the past three decades from 1960 to 1990 (Cultivated land: FAO [Production Year Book], 1998). The main reason is due to the offset between the new development of land and its annihilation due to erosion. The food production has been however increased in spite of the humans population increase fortunately by the new technology development and innovation. It looks almost impossible to develop enough land for food production. The three dimensional usage of the land
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
132
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
may be one of the possible solutions. To discuss the food security issue the following may be the requirements. 1) Enough food production to supply and cover the demand due to the increase in human population 2) Safe, uniform and high quality controlled food products should be supplied smoothly and timely on demand 3) This means that two conditions should be satisfied, not only the enough amount of production, but also the supply of highly controlled safe food products on demand 4) Highly innovated technology is really needed to achieve the requirements for food security. 5) Asia has a lot of bio-resources available for food, energy and environment. What about the technology to make it possible? From where can it be obtained and applied? 6) Japan has no natural resources, however it already has high technology to apply 7) The best way is to apply these technologies to process resources and add value to them for the purpose of mutual prosperity 8) It is then possible to make Asia a food giant in the world, which can ensure global food security 9) Through this business model project both technology transfer and human resources development can be achieved in addition to the mutual prosperity and encouragement among Asian nations. 10) This is an ideal contribution model based on the concept of regional / international “Collaboration and Competition” TECHNOLOGIES FOR ASIA SUSTAINABILITY [1-4] The following three technologies are expected to promote the project mentioned above (Figure.1). 1) Precision Agriculture. This technology is the application of an autonomous unmanned guidance operation of agricultural machinery equipped with necessary tools and attachments under the combined control of Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information System (GIS). 2) Agricultural Robots. Many kinds of agricultural operation can be possibly robotized. The agricultural production system is now shifting from Mass Production System (MPS) to Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) as in the industry. Robotization is one of the ultimate levels of mechanization in agriculture enable to save energy and add more values on the final products. 3) Green Factory. This technology is based on the bio-resources production (agricultural products are included) under the environmentally controlled condition and the production system is similar to the industrial production. The three technologies do not seem to fitt with the current situation of Asian agriculture. The action should be however started as soon as possible in making the preparation from the upcoming food issue due to the drastic increase in human population.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
HIGHER POTENIALITY IN AGRICULURE • Precision Agriculture • Agricultural Robot • Green Factory
NARC
133
AGRICULTURAL ROBOTIZATION
NARC
JSAM
Yamagata Tech. HS
FUJI HI & SIT
Chiba Univ.
Figure 1 Hopefully applicable three high technologies [1-4] MULTI - DISCIPLINARY ACADEMIC AREA Figure 2 shows some of the required academic areas necessary to conduct and promote the above mentioned project. Some of the examples of the multi-disciplinary academic areas involved in the project are shown not only for the main core science and technology, but also for the social science area too. Agricultural engineering is one of the inter-disciplinary areas consisting of two major areas of agriculture and engineering, in which the students must study a whole enclosed area of agriculture and engineering in addition the overlapped area shown in Figure. 3. Some of the students specializing agricultural engineering sometimes misunderstand their area of study. People sometimes misunderstand that it is enough to study the overlapped area only, shown as domain C in Figure. 3. The author would like to clarify the correct area of agricultural engineering to be studied. It must be the whole enclosed area by the periphery consisting of domains A, B and C. In addition the students should specifically study deeper the overlapped area of C in addition to both domains of A (agriculture) and B (engineering). The main point for the agricultural engineering students is to study the whole area expressed by (A + B + C), not only area C. Enthusiasm is one of the most important factors for an engineer involved in a collaborative project. The conceptual equation in Figure 4 shows how the best design can be made. The equation shows that design (D) can be expressed as the function of product of information (I), judgment (J) and knowledge (K), however the most important factor is enthusiasm (E) expressed by the power of the product of (I࣭J࣭K). The E directly depends on the designer’s desire how much he is highly motivated. Figure 5 shows the simple arithmetic equation how to maximize the effect of the work. Effect becomes bigger in proportion to new idea and inversely proportion (N) to time of work completion (Z). Equation shows the following meaning (Figure 5). 1) New original idea acts to maximize the value of effect 2) If the idea is the same as the others, the work should be completed faster than the others
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
134
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
ACADEMIC AREAS INVOLVED IN THE COLLABORATION PROJECT AREA OF STUDY
WHICH AREA IS IN AGR. ENG.? (A + B + C)?
PURPOSE & Subjects
C only ?
Genetic Engineering.
Higher yield variety development
Chemical Engineering.
Fermentation & distillation, Process Eng. for Ethanol production
Bio-Crop Science
Rice plant physiology & cultivation
Agricultural Engineering
Autonomous control of machine guidance, Precision Farming, Biomass
Electric and Electronic Eng.
Automatic control & Communication, Related area to GPS & GIS
Robotics
Overlapped areas related to AgriTechno Fusion (Agricultural. Robot)
Others related to
Food, Energy & Environment, Technology Licensing, Human Resource Development
Figure 2 Related academic areas to be involved in the proposed project
FOR MAKING THE DESIGN BETTER
D is a function of power of E
A Agriculture
c
B Engineering
Agricultural Engineer should cover the total area shown by (A+B+C) Area C should be covered more deeply & known as professionals
Overlapped area
Figure 3 Academic area of Agricultural Engineering to study
TO TO MAKE MAKE IT IT EFFECTIVE EFFECTIVE & & BETTER BETTER
E
D = (I 䞉 J 䞉 K) D : Design I : Information, J : Judgment K : Knowledge,
E : Enthusiasm
Figure 4 Best design consists of four factors of Information, Judgment, Knowledge and Enthusiasm (Source: unknown)
N E=䠉 Z
E E :: Effect Effect E New N : N : New idea idea Z Z :: Time Time
How How to to Maximize Maximize ““ Effect Effect ””
Figure 5 How to make “Effect” more effective (Source: unknown)
3T, 3V and 3P Many inter-disciplinary areas are newly born not only agricultural engineering, but also in others such as mechatronics consisting of mechanical and electric-electronic engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-infomatics and so on. Figure 6 shows the concept of growing “3T” type multi-disciplinary engineer. Now the engineer is requested to have three specialties in addition to wider knowledge enough to communicate with the other fields of engineering. It can be clearly understood that the character “T” consists of two bars of horizontal and vertical ones in which the vertical bar shows the depth of knowledge and the horizontal one shows the width of knowledge. For example, a car consists of many parts and the engineer is strongly requested to have higher level of performance enough to communicate with the different areas of engineers to make the best design. This is the reason why “3T” type engineer is really wanted socially nowadays.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
CONCEPT OF “3V”
CONCEPT OF “3T” I
T shows one specialty consisting of two bars,
T
Vision Vision
Horizontal & Vertical I shows Depth of K & E
2T
䠉shows Width of K & E
3T
K: Knowledge E: Experienced career
Depth
Time Where
135
Grow Grow your your eyes eyes enough enough to to see see forward forward widely widely
Vitality Vitality
Specialty Area (D x W)
Train Train yourself yourself physically physically & & mentally mentally to to challenge challenge
Venture Venture
Don’t Don’t be be afraid afraid of of failure failure Learn Learn from from it it !!
Width
Figure 6 Philosophical concept of “3T”
Figure 7 Philosophical concept of “3V” “EQUIPPED” FOR BOTH UNIVERSITY & GRADUATE
CONCEPT OF “3P”
University
Paper Paper Patent Patent
Take Take memo memo & & Leave Leave always always record record !! Pay Pay attention attention to to derive derive Original Original idea idea!! Not copy of the others Not copy of the others !!
Performance Performance
Show Show& &explain explainyour your thought thoughteffectively effectively & efficiently &efficiently
Figure 8 Philosophical concept of “3P”
• • • • • • • •
Excellent Quality Up-to-date International Pioneer Professional Efficient Direction
Graduates
• • • • • • • •
Experienced Qualified Understanding Intelligent Potential Personality Ethics Dedicated
Figure 9 Global Engineer Education
Figures 7 and 8 show the concept of 3V and 3P respectively. These concepts are very simple and easy to keep in mind for engineering students in order to level up the motivation higher and expand the interest and curiosity to study engineering. 3V means the following: 1) Vision. Try to make an effort continuously to grow your eyes enough to look forward widely. Always be ready to collect and gather the information. 2) Vitality. Always train yourself in good condition, physically and mentally, and be ready for making action at any time whenever a chance comes. 3) Venture Don’t be afraid of failure and learn more from it. Strong spirit to challenge with full power. Figure 8 shows the 3P consist of the following: 1) Paper. The word “paper” here means research paper especially for the researcher and engineer. It is one of the most important factors to show the performance and originality of the idea. University faculty is requested to write papers. 2) Patent. Patenting is one of the expressions of originalities of the engineer and researcher as well. 3) Performance. This can be evaluated in many ways based on the various evaluation factors and indexes. Figure 9 shows the important keywords for both university and graduate which should be equipped especially for the autonomous university. (Source: Dr. Ekachai Sang-in, Chiang Mai University, Thailand)
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
136
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
CONCLUSION 1) Research project is proposed to organize the consortium to negotiate the upcoming food issue aiming at the establishment of Asian Economic Community in 2015 2) Three hopeful technologies are picked up and the future aspect of agriculture in Asia is described 3) The importance of growing multi-disciplinary engineer is emphasized 4) For developing and growing the human resources, both university and graduate should make efforts together for level up and quality in education and research 5) Both the university and the graduate should know and recognize their role to play 6) Mutual collaboration and competition are keywords to organize the project and conduct the research in addition to enrich the education curriculum 7) Individual self-consciousness of the university’s faculty should be changed for university autonomy 8) The role of university plays in education is important including the way of teaching how to make it attractive to motivate students 9) Education should function to encourage the students by use of original materials of teaching 10) Enthusiasm is the most important factor to maximize the effect 11) Original idea and time to complete the work are keys of maximizing the effect 12) Conceptual expression by use of mathematical (arithmetic) equation acts effectively to deepen understanding and to make the memory impressive for the students 13) Conditions and requirements for both the university and the graduate qualifications are shown ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Dr. Sermkait Jimjunyong, Vice President, Research and Academic Services and Dr. Nat Vorayos, Dean, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Thailand for their collaborative warmest assistance and providing the invaluable opportunity for him to present this paper. REFERENCES [1] Amazon.co.jp㸸www.amazon.co.jp/㎰ᴗࣟ࣎ࢵࢺࠑ1ࠒᇶ♏⌮ㄽ-㏆⸨-┤/dp/4339052159 · [2] ㎰ᴗࣟ࣎ࢵࢺ㸦ϩ㸧ᶵᵓCD-ROM 㹺ࢥࣟࢼ♫ww.coronasha.co.jp/np/isbn/9784339052169 [3] 㐍ᒎࡍࡿࣟ࣎ࢵࢺᢏ⾡㎰ᴗᶵᲔࡢ㛤ⓎᨵⰋrobot.watch.impress.co.jp/cda/news/2007/03/15/408.html . [4] ㎰ᯘỈ⏘┬/ ᳜≀ᕤሙࡢᬑཬ࣭ᣑྥࡅ࡚www.maff.go.jp/j/seisan/ryutu/plant_factory/index.html.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
137
Detoxification of Jatropha Residue via Methanol Extraction Sim Siang Leng1,, Tan Meng Kiat1, Parncheewa Udomsap2, Nuwong Chollacoop2,*and SuzanaBt Yusuf1 1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti TeknologiPetronas, 31750Tronoh, Perak DarulRidzuan, Malaysia 2 Bioenergy Laboratory, National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC), 114 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Rd, KlongLuang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: With the growing concern on fossil fuel shortage and global warming, renewable sourcesof energy have been of great interest worldwide. For transportation fuel, biodiesel is deemed one of the alternatives. With food versus fuel debate, Jatropha curc as has been selected as feedstock. Not only the oil from Jatropha can be used for biodiesel, but also its residue after oil extraction can be used for animal feed and fertilizer due to its high protein and rich nutrition. However, the deoiled Jatropha curc as seed cake contains toxic phorbol esters (PEs), which could not be easily destroyed by simple heating. Hence, the present study investigated upon chemical extraction of PEs with methanol at optimal conditions of temperature, rotation speed, methanol ratio and extraction time/sequence. The PEs-extracted methanol could then be subjected to transesterification for biodiesel production. The toxic PEs amount in Jatropha residues was reduced to safety level, as detected chemically by HPLC. Therefore, Jatropha residue can be fully utilized for feed purpose without harm. Keywords: Jatropha, Residue, Detoxification, Phorbol Esters (PEs), Methanol Extraction INTRODUCTION In recent years, biodiesel has been receiving considerable attention as a renewable source of energy. Biodiesel can be produced by transesterification of plant oils or animal fats. One of the nonedible feed stocks that have received great attention as a source of renewable energy is Jatrophacurcas. Jatropha is a small tree or shrub distributed in the subtropical and tropical regions of the world. It is a drought-resistant plant, which belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. The plant can be utilized in multiple ways, such as to prevent erosion, to reclaim land, to be grown as a live fence, or planted as a commercial crop, and thus has proven its potential to be cultivated in a larger scale. Jatropha seedscan weigh an average of 0.53 g to 0.86 g containing 30 – 40% of oil [1]. The oil contains approximately 24.60% of crude protein, 47.25% of crude fat and 5.54% of moisture contents [2]. It is found53-58% fully that defatted Jatropha cake have a protein content of between [3] with nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) contents of about 6.4%, 2.8% and 0.95% respectively[4]. The high percentage of protein has earned itself as animal’s meal in husbandry. The levels of essential amino acids, except lysine in Jatropha meal protein, are higher than those of the Food and Agriculture Organization reference protein for a growing child of 2-5 years [5]. The high content of NPK also makes Jatropha cake very beneficial for fertilization purposes in agricultural field. Jatropha seeds are mechanically pressed to obtain 240-300 g kg-1 of oil and, the remaining 700-760 g kg-1as seed cake [6]. The non-edible extracted oil can be used for biodiesel production via esterification and transesterification. Although the cake left after oil extraction has a very high content of protein, it cannot be fed to animals directly due to the presence of anti-nutritional (trypsin inhibitors, curcin, tannins, saponins, phytates) and toxic factors, phorbol esters (PEs) [1]. These
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
138
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
anti-nutritional substances could be inactivated by heat treatment [7]. PEs are the most active compounds responsible for toxicity in Jatropha seeds with their concentration ranging from 2 to 3 mg g-1 in defatted kernel meal and 2 to 8 mg g-1 in the oil [6]. PEs have been identified as main toxicants in the cake [8] because it cannot be eliminated by heat treatment. PEs are heat stable and can withstand roasting temperature as high as 160 oC for 30 min [8]. PEs have been found to be responsible for skin irritant effects and tumor promotion.They are able to activate protein kinase C by mimicking the diacyl glycerol, which in turn activates cascade of signal transduction reaction causing tumor promotion [9].In order to make sure the Jatropha residues are safe to be used, some processes need to be carried out to remove the PEs.The methods include chemical treatment, physical treatment and solvent extraction. The present studies focus on the solvent extraction method using methanol. The objective is to study the optimized conditions to extract the highest amount of PEs from the deoiled Jatropha residues, which are subjected to toxicity detection via HPLC. MATERIALS AND METHODS The deoiled Jatropha residue was obtained from Kasetsart University, KamphaengSaen Campus. The Jatropha seeds were previously screw-pressed to extract the crude oil. The residue was grinded thoroughly and filtered through 1mm sized sieve tray to obtain seed cake with size of less than1mm. Smaller particle size allows the extraction of PEs to be more effective. The extraction solvent used in this experiment was methanol of analytical grade. The HPLCgrade acetonitrile and water were used as mobile phase solvent in HPLC analysis. For toxicity evaluation, HPLC analysis was used to chemically detect PEs with tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate (TPA) being used as external standard for construction of the calibration curve. Details of toxicity characterization methods are explained as follows. Evaluating the Content of Phorbol Esters Using HPLC Phorbol ester content in the extracted methanol was analyzed following the adapted method using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). HPLC analyse were carried out with a 1260 Infinity liquid chromatography system (Agilent, Germany), equipped with a quaternary pump, a degasser, an autosampler, a chem station software and a diode array detector. The functional group of the reversed phase chromatography column was octadecyl, 150 x 4.6 mm, particle size 5 m. The column was thermally controlled at 40oC. A mixture of acetonitrile and HPLC grade water with the ratio of 80:20 (v/v) was used as an eluent at a flow rate of 1 ml min -1. The detector wavelength was set at 280 nm and the injection volume of sample was 50 l. Tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate (TPA) was used as the external standard to generate a calibration curve. Optimum Conditions for PEs Extraction from Jatropha Residues PEs extraction was done using the Ultra-turrax homogenizer, as shown in Figure 1. Five parameters affecting the process were studied, namely temperature (25, 40, 55, 60 oC), rotation speed (3400, 11700, 15800 and 20000 rpm), extraction time (15, 30, 45, 60 and 120 minutes), methanol to deoiled Jatropha cake ratio (1.5:1, 2:1, 3:1 and 4:1 v/w), and number of extraction step. First, Jatropha cake sample with average size of 1mmwas weighed and methanol was measured based on the ratio required before being mixed in the reactor flask. Ultra turrax stirrer and thermocouple was installed in a reactor flask sealed with parafilm. The timer started when the temperature reached the set temperature. After the extraction, the mixturewas poured into a test tube, and the methanol containing phorbol esters was separated by centrifuging at 1000rpm for 10 Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
139
minutes. After being centrifuged, the methanol was filtered before being inserted into vial for HPLC. All the parameters of interested were varied and tested sequentially. When varying one parameter, the other parameters were fixed in order to optimize the result. Once optimal condition was found for varied parameter, that optimal condition was used for other varied parameters.
Ultra Turrax Stirrer Temperature Regulator
Thermocouple Clamp Reactor Flask Stand Water Bath
Heating Plate
Figure 1 Amount (solid) and percentage (dash) of PEs extracted at different temperatures
It was vital to determine the PEs content in deoiled Jatropha residue in order to calculate the percentage of PEs extracted. After extraction, the mixture of methanol and Jatropha cake were centrifuged at 1000rpm for 10 minutes to have a clear separation of 2 phases. The methanol was then collected and filtered with 0.2 m nylon syringe filter before inserting into a vial. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As previously mentioned, PEs extraction from the deoiled Jatropha cakes was optimized among five parameters, namely temperature, rotation speed, stirring time, methanol to Jatropha cake ratio (v/w) and number of extraction step. First, the extracting temperature was varied from 25 to 60 o C, as shown in Figure 2. The amount of PEs extracted increased with increasing temperature until 55 ºC but significantly dropped at 60 oC because the temperature was too close to the boiling point of methanol (65 ºC). At this temperature some of the methanol might have evaporated and thus caused a drop in PEs extraction. It was then decided to apply 55 ºC in further extraction optimization.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
140
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 2 Amount (solid) and percentage (dash) of PEs extracted at different temperatures
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 18000 21000
% PEs Extraction
PEs Content (mg/g)
Second, the rotation speed was varied from 3,400 to 20,000 rpm, as shown in Figure 3. With increasing rotation speed, the amount of phorbol esters extracted increased slowly at the beginning and toward the end. Increase of rotation speed helpedmix deoiled Jatropha cakes and methanol more thoroughly, allowing solvent to be in contact with the solute for extraction. At 15,800 rpm, further increase of rotation speed did not yield much extractedphorbol esters. The extraction at rotation speed higher than 15,800 rpm was rather constant. Hence, rotation speed of 15,800 rpm was selected in order to minimize energy consumption.
Rotation speed (rpm.) Figure 3 Amount (solid) and percentage (dash) of PEs extracted at different rotation speeds Third, the extraction time was varied from 15 to 120 minutes, as shown in Figure 4. With increasing extraction time, the amount of phorbol esters extracted from deoiledJatropha cake increased because the longer time allowed for extraction, more solvent molecules could collide with the solute resulting better extraction of phorbol esters. However, After 60minutes, the methanol solvent has reached its maximum limit of extraction. Therefore, stirring time of 60 minutes were selected.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
141
100 80 60 40 20
% PEs Extraction
PEs Content (mg/g)
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
0 0
15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 Extraction Time (minute)
Figure 4 Amount (solid) and percentage (dash) of PEs extracted at different extraction times Fourth, the methanol to cake ratio was varied from 1.5:1 to 4:1, as shown in Figure 5. With increasing methanol to cake ratio, the amount of extracted phorbol esters increased because higher volume of methanol allowed more phorbol esters from deoiledJatropha cake to dissolve out. However, the amount of phorbol esters extracted became constant after 3:1 ratio because the extraction has reached its saturation limit. Thus, the methanol to cake ratio of 3:1 (v/w) was chosen.
100
0.8
80
0.6
60
0.4
40
0.2
20
0
%PEs Extraction
PEs Content (mg/g)
1
0 0
1 1:1
2:12
3 3:1
4 4:1
5:15
Methanol to Oil Ratio (vol/wt.) Figure 5 Amount (solid) and percentage (dash) of PEs extracted at different methanol to deoiledJatropha residue ratios (v/w) From all parameters investigated, the optimum condition for phorbol ester extraction wasmethanol to oil ratio of 3:1 (v/w) under stirring speed of 15,800 rpm at 55 oC for 60 minutes. This condition could extract phorbol ester up to 60%. Next, the number of extraction step(s) was investigated in order to reach non-toxic level of PEs, which is 0.11mg/g from non-toxic Mexican Jatropha species [10]. The extraction steps were carried out until there are no PEs peaks detected by HPLC analysis. With increasing number of extraction steps, the total amount of extracted PEs increased but at diminishing increment at each extraction step since it became harder to extract the smaller amount of PEs, as shown in
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
142
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 6. After five consecutive extraction steps, no PEs could be detected in the HPLC analysis. From the safety standard for Jatropha residue as animal feed of 0.11 mg g -1 [10], only three extraction steps were needed to reduce remaining PEs content inJatropha residue to0.08287 mg g-1. Hence, three extraction steps are sufficient for the PEs extraction. The sum of all PEs extracted in all five steps was1.6635 mg g-1, which could reasonably considered as the total amount of PEs content in original deoiledJatropha residue. This value was consistent with a study done by HarinderMakkar [11], which suggested 1.67 mg g-1 of PEs in defatted Jatropha meal.
PEs Content (mg/g)
1
80
0.8
60
0.6
40
0.4
20
0.2 0
% PEs Extraction
100
1.2
0 0
1
2 3 4 Extraction Step
5
6
Figure 6 Amount (solid) and cumulative (dash) percentage of PEs extracted at different extraction steps CONCLUSION The present study aimed to widen the usage of deoiledJatropha residue, which contained rich nutrition, as animal feed so toxic substance, such as heat-tolerant phorbol ester (PE), must be removed. Solvent extraction with methanol was employed with optimization schemes on various parameters. It was found that the optimum condition for PE extraction werewith methanol to oil ratio of 3:1 (v/w) under stirring speed of 15,800 rpm at 55 C for 60 minutes for 3 consecutive steps. These conditions could extract PE up to 95% with remaining PE content of 0.08287 mg g-1, less than the safety level of 0.11 mg g-1 from non-toxic Mexican Jatropha species. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge the Student Industrial Internship Program of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) at Bioenergy Laboratory, National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC) under Memorandum of Understanding. The present work was part of a joint research collaboration entitled “Innovation on Production and Automobile Utilization of Biofuels from Non-Food Biomass” under Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development (SATREPS) financially supported by Japan Science and Technology Agency: JST) and Japan International Cooperation Agency: JICA)
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
143
REFERENCES 1.
H. P. S. Makkar, A. O. Aderibigbe and K. Becker, "Comparative evaluation of non-toxic and toxic varieties of Jatrophacurcas for chemical composition, digestibility, protein degradability and toxic factors", Food Chem., 1998, 62(2), 207-215. 2. E. T. Akintayo, "Characteristics and composition of Parkiabiglobbossa and Jatrophacurcas oils and cakes", Bioresour. Technol., 2004, 92, 307-310. 3. E. M. Aregheore, K. Becker and H. P. S. Makkar,"Detoxification of a toxic variety of Jatrophacurcas using heat and chemical treatments, and preliminary nutritional evaluation with rats",S.Pac.J.Nat.Sci.,2003, 21, 50-56. 4. S. Gaur,"Development and evaluation of an effective process for the recovery of oil and detoxification of meal from Jatrophacurcas"Thesis, 2009, Missouri University of Science and Technology, UnitedState. 5. H. P. S.Makkar andK.Becker, "Nutrients and antiquality factors in different morphological parts of the Moringaoleifera tree", J. Agric. Sci., 1999, 128, 311-322. 6. J. Martinez-Herrera, P. Siddhuraju, G. Francis, G. Davila-Ortiz and K. Becker, "Chemical composition, toxic/antimetabolic constituents, and effects of different treatments on their levels, in four provenances of Jatrophacurcas L. from Mexico", Food Chem., 2006, 96, 80-89. 7. H. P. S. Makkar, K. Becker, F. Sporer and M. Wink, "Studies on nutritive potential and toxic constituents of different provenances of Jatrophacurcas", J Agric Food Chem., 1997, 45, 31523157. 8. C.Joshi, P. Mathur andS. K.Khare, "Degradation of phorbol esters by Pseudomonas aeruginosaPseA during solid-state fermentation of deoiledJatrophacurcas seed cake", Bioresource Technology, 2011, 102, 4815-4819. 9. A. Kumar and S.Sharma,"An evaluation of multipurpose oil seed crop for industrial uses (Jatrophacurcas L.): A review", Industrial Crops and Products, 2008, 28, 1-10. 10. H.P.S. Makkar, A.O. Aderibigbe and K. Becker, “Comparative evaluation of non-toxic and toxic varieties of Jatrophacurcas for chemical composition, digestibility, protein degradability and toxic factors”, Food Chemistry, 1998, 62(2), 207-215. 11. H.P.S. Makkar, "Comparative evaluation of toxic and non-toxic Jatropha genotypes", BMBFMOST Jatropha Project, University of Hohenheim, Germany.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
144
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Experimental study on Heat Transfer Augmentation in a Round Tube with V-shaped Ribs Suriya Chokphoemphun1, Pattarapan Tongyote1, Teerapat Chompookham2, Sompol Skullong3, and Pongjet Promvonge1,* 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand 2 Heat Pipe and Thermal Tools Design Research Unit (HTDR), Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham 44150, Thailand 3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering at Si Racha, Kasetsart University Si Racha Campus, 199 M.6, Tungsukhla, Si Racha, Chonburi, 20230, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The paper presents a study on heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics in a round tube heat exchanger inserted with repeated V-shaped ribs. The tested tube using air as the test fluid is at a uniform heat-fluxed wall. The V-rib dimensions are at attack angle of 45°, two different pitch ratios (PR = P/D = 0.5 and 1) and two rib height to tube diameter ratios (BR = e/D= 0.1 and 0.2). The heat transfer rate and pressure drop in the tube are, respectively, presented in terms of Nusselt number and friction factor. Both the Nusselt number and friction factor from the inserted tube are compared with those from the smooth tube. The flow friction and heat transfer characteristics are presented in a turbulent regime for Reynolds numbers ranging from 5300 to 24,000. According to the experimental results, the heat transfer rate in the tube inserted with periodic V- ribs is augmented around 1.73 to 2.87 times higher than the smooth tube, depending upon operating conditions. Over the range investigated, the maximum thermal performance factor of around 1.34 is found for the ribs with BR=0.2 and PR=0.5 at lower Re. Keywords: Heat Transfer, V-shaped Ribs, Turbulators, Nusselt Number, Turbulent Flow. INTRODUCTION A passive technique for enhancing heat transfer in a heat exchanger has been developed and applied in many engineering applications. The use of turbulence promoter or turbulator devices is one of the passive technique that has been widely employed for improving the heat transfer rate. Various styles of turbulator devices have been applied to improve the heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger [1–10]. The effects of V-nozzle inserts with 3 pitch ratios; PR=2.0, 4.0, and 7.0, on heat transfer and friction characteristics in a uniform heat flux tube were experimentally studied by Eiamsa-ard [1]. Promvonge [2] reported an experimental study of the influence of conical-nozzle turbulator inserts on heat transfer and friction characteristics in a circular tube. In the work, the turbulators were placed in the test tube with two different types: diverging and converging nozzle arrangement with various pitch ratios, PR=2.0, 4.0, and 7.0. Yakut et al. [3] studied the influence ofconical-ring turbulator on heat transfer enhancement and fluid flow in a tube under a uniform heat flux condition with different PRs. Promvonge [4] investigated the effects of wires with square cross section forming a coil used as a turbulator on heat transfer and turbulent flow friction characteristics and compared the experimental results with the results obtained from circular-wire coil. The effects
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
145
of the triangular cross-sectioned coiled wire were carried out with three different PRs and two different ratios of triangle length side to tube diameter were also presented by Gunes [5].Rahimi et al. [6] examined the thermal-hydraulic performance in a round tube fitted with the classic and the modified twisted tape inserts. Promvonge [7] used wire-coil in conjunction with twisted tape for heat transfer augmentation. Bharadwaj et al. [8] investigated the heat transfer and pressure drop in a spirally grooved tube with the twisted tape for laminar to turbulent regions. Apart from the above, there are other turbulator devices, such as baffles, ribs and fins that have been applied in a round tube heat exchanger. However, in these groups, there are very few compared to twisted tape and wire coil. Therefore, the main aim of the present work is to investigate the influence of the V-shaped ribs placed repeatedly inside the tube on heat transfer and flow friction. MATERIALS AND METHODS A general arrangement of experimental apparatus is shown in Figure 1. In the apparatus setting, the copper test tube has inner diameter (D) of 50.8 mm, thickness of 2 mm and length of 3000 mm which included the length of the test section (L) of 1000 mm. The test tube was heated by continually winding flexible electrical wires to provide a uniform heat-fluxed tube wall. The outer surface of the test tube was well insulated to reduce convective heat loss to surroundings. The inlet bulk air from a 1.5 kW high pressure blower was directed through the orifice flow meter and passed to the heat transfer test section in the turbulent region, Reynolds numbers of 5300 to 24,000. The air flow rate was measured by an orifice meter, built according to ASME standard [9] and calibrated by using a hot-wire anemometer to measure flow velocities across the tube section. Manometric fluid was used in an inclined manometer with specific gravity of 0.826 to ensure reasonably accurate measurement of pressure drop across the orifice. The volumetric airflow rates from the blower were adjusted by varying motor speed through an inverter. The electrical output power of electric heater was controlled by a variac transformer. The inlet and outlet fluid temperatures in the tube were measured by type-K thermocouples while the surface temperatures (Tw) were measured by 24 thermocouples located along the test section. All of the temperatures getting from the system were consistently recorded using a data logger. The pressure drop across the test section was measured using a digital manometer. Figure 2 presents a detail of the 45º V-shaped ribs placed repeatedly inside the tube. All ribs used in the present work are made of aluminum strip with 0.3 mm thickness and length of 50 mm. In the experiments, the V-ribs were inserted into the test tube using two small steel rods to tie rib elements together. Two different rib heights (e); 5 and 10 mm (BR = e/D = 0.1 and 0.2) and pitch lengths (P); 25 and 50 mm, (in terms of pitch ratio, PR = P/D = 0.5 and 1) were introduced. Thermocouple Set
Electrical Heater Settling Tank
Blower
Insulator
Test Section Inclined Manometer Inverter
Data Logger
Variac Transformer Digital Manometer
Figure 1 Schematic diagrams of experimental apparatus.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
146
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
45o
e
P
Figure 2 Test tubes fitted with 45° inclined ribs. Data Reduction The Reynolds number (Re) is given by
Re UD /
(1)
The friction factor (f) computed by pressure drop across the length of the test section (L) is f
2 L/ D
P U2
(2)
In the experiment, the steady state of the convective heat transfer rate is assumed to be equal to the heat loss from the test section. The average heat transfer coefficient (h) are estimated as follows: ~ h MC p, a To Ti / A Tw Tb
(3)
The heat transfer is calculated from Nusselt number which can be obtained by Nu
hD k
(4)
For constant pumping powerand the relationship between friction and Reynolds number. The enhancement efficiency is given by TEF
hs hp
pp
Nu s Nu p
pp
Nu s Nu p
fs fp
13
(5)
where hp and hs are the heat transfer coefficients for the plain tube and the inserted tube. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Validation Test The Nusselt number and friction factor obtained from the present smooth tube are, respectively, compared with the correlations of Dittus–Boelter and Blasius found in the open literature for turbulent flow in circular tubes [10]. Verification tests depicted in Figure 3 are in satisfactory agreement with data from the correlations. The average deviation of the present experiment is within 5% for Nusselt number and 6% for friction factor.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
80
147
0.10 Smooth Tube 0.8 0.4 Dittus and Boelter equation (Nu = 0.023Re Pr )
Smooth Tube -25 Blasius equation (f = 0.316Re )
0.08
60
40
f
Nu
0.06
0.04
20 0.02
0 4000
8000
12000
16000
20000
24000
0.00 4000
8000
12000
Re
16000
20000
24000
Re
(a) (b) Figure 3 Verification of Nusselt number and friction factor for smooth tube. Effect of V-Ribs on Heat Transfer The relationships between heat transfer (Nu) and Reynolds numbers (Re) of the tube with Vribs are demonstrated in Figure 4a. The Nusselt number increases with the rise of Reynolds number and the BRs but with the decreasing PRs. The heat transfer enhancement values of the tube fitted with V-ribs are found to be considerably higher than that of the smooth tube with no rib. This is because the inserted V-rib turbulators provide an interruption of boundary layer development and cause enhancement of heat transfer by increasing turbulence intensity or fast fluid mixing. 5
200 180 160
BR=0.2, PR=0.5 BR=0.2, PR=1.0 BR=0.1, PR=0.5 BR=0.1, PR=1.0 Smooth Tube
4
BR=0.2, PR=0.5 BR=0.2, PR=1.0 BR=0.1, PR=0.5 BR=0.1, PR=1.0
140
3
Nu/Nu0
Nu
120 100
2
80 60
1
40 20 0 4000
8000
12000
16000
Re
20000
24000
0 4000
8000
12000
16000
20000
24000
Re
(a) (b) Figure 4 Variation of Nu and Nu/Nu0 with Re for tubes fitted with 45°V-ribs. The Nusselt number ratio (Nu/Nu0) defined as a ratio of augmented Nusselt number to Nusselt number of smooth tube plotted against the Reynolds number values is displayed in Figure 4b. In the figure, the Nusselt number ratio tends to slightly decrease with the rise of Reynolds number for all case studies. Under the present experimental conditions, the increases in heat transfer for using the 45º V-shaped ribs are approximately 1.73-2.87 times above the smooth tube, respectively.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
148
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Effect of V-Ribs on Friction Factor Figure5a shows the relation between the friction factor and the Reynolds number obtained from the 45º V-ribs. It can be observed that the friction factor tends to decrease with the increment of Reynolds number and the PRs but increases with increasing the BRs. The V-shaped ribs give rise to the friction factor higher than that of the smooth tube. This can be attributed to the flow blockage, higher surface area and the act caused by the reverse flow. The variation of the friction factor ratio (f/f0) with the Reynolds number is presented in Figure 5b. It is noted that the friction factor ratio tends to increase slightly with the rise in Reynolds number. The tube with V-shaped ribs provide higher mean friction factor than the smooth tube with no rib at about 3.85-12.02 times. 20
0.6 BR=0.2, PR=0.5 BR=0.2, PR=1.0 BR=0.1, PR=0.5 BR=0.1, PR=1.0 Smooth Tube
0.5
BR=0.2, PR=0.5 BR=0.2, PR=1.0 BR=0.1, PR=0.5 BR=0.1, PR=1.0
16
0.4
f/f0
f
12 0.3
8 0.2
4
0.1
0.0 4000
8000
12000
16000
20000
24000
0 4000
Re
8000
12000
16000
20000
24000
Re
(a) (b) Figure 5 Variation of (a) f and (b) f/f0 with Re for variousrib BRs and PRs. Effect of V-Ribs on Thermal Performance Figure 6 displays the variation of the thermal enhancement factor (TEF) with Reynolds number for various BR and PR values. It can be seen in the figure that the thermal enhancement factors generally are above unity, indicating that the use of V-rib turbulators is advantageous over the smooth tube. The TEF tends to decrease with the increase of Reynolds number and the pitch ratios. The maximum TEF of using the 45°V-ribs turbulator is about 1.34 at Re = 5300 for BR = 0.2 and PR = 0.5 while the minimum TEF is around 1.1 at BR=0.1, PR=1 and Re=26,000. CONCLUSION An experimental study has been conducted to examine the heat transfer and flow friction characteristics in a round tube inserted with the 45° V-shaped ribs. The characterizations of the Vribs are two different pitch ratios (PR= 0.5 and 1) and two rib-height to tube-diameter ratios (BR = 0.1 and 0.2).Air is used as the test fluid in the turbulent regime, Reynolds number of 5000 to 26,000 under a uniform heat-fluxed wall. The heat transfer rate in the tube inserted with the V- ribs is augmented around 1.73 to 2.87 times higher than that in the smooth tube, depending upon operating conditions. Over the range investigated, the maximum TEF of about 1.34 is found for the V-ribs at BR =0.2, PR=0.5 and Re = 5300.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
149
1.6 BR=0.2, PR=0.5 BR=0.2, PR=1.0 BR=0.1, PR=0.5 BR=0.1, PR=1.0
TEF
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8 4000
8000
12000
16000
20000
24000
Re
Figure 6 Variation of TEF with Re for tubes fitted with 45° V-ribs. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the Thailand Research Fund (TRF) for the financial support of this research. REFERENCES 1.
S. Eiamsa-ard, P. Promvonge, "Experimental investigation of heat transfer and friction characteristics in a circular tube fitted with V-nozzle turbulators", Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer, 2006, 33, 591–600. 2. P. Promvonge, S. Eiamsa-ard, "Heat transfer and turbulent flow friction in a circular tube fitted with conical-nozzle turbulators", Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer, 2007, 34, 72–82.P. 3. K. Yakut, B. Sahin, S. Canbazoglu, "Performance and flow-induced vibration characteristics for conical-ring turbulators", Applied Energy., 2004, 79, 65–76. 4. P.Promvonge, "Thermal performance in circular tube fitted with coiled square wires", Energy Convers. Manage, 2008, 49, 980–987. 5. S. Gunes, V. Ozceyhan and O. Buyukalaca, "Heat transfer enhancement in a tube with equilateral triangle cross sectioned coiled wire inserts", Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science., 2010, 34, 684–691. 6. M. Rahimi, S.R. Shabanian, A.A. Alsairafi, "Experimental, CFD studies on heat transfer and friction factor characteristics of a tube equipped with modified twisted tape inserts". Chem. Eng. Process, 2009, 48(3), 762-770. 7. P. Promvonge, "Thermal augmentation in circular tube with twisted tape and wire coil turbulators", Energy Conversion and Management, 2008, 49, 2949–2955. 8. P. Bharadwaj, A.D. Khondge, A.W. Date, "Heat transfer and pressure drop in a spirally grooved tube with twisted tape insert". Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 2009, 52(7-8), 1938-1944. 9. ASME, "Standard Measurement of fluid flow in pipes using orifice, nozzle and venturi". ASME MFC-3M-1984; United Engineering Center 345 East 47th Street, New York; 1984, pp. 1–56. 10. F.P. Incropera, P.D. Witt, T.L. Bergman, A.S. Lavine, "Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer". John-Wiley & Sons, 2006.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
150
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Fungitoxicity of 1,2-Substituted Benzimidazole Derivatives Against Fusarium spp. Uthumporn Kankeaw* and Waranya Wannalangka Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Maejo University, Sansai, Chiang Mai, 50290 Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Benzimidazoles were reported to be antifungal, which the substitution at the 2nd position with different functional groups would exhibit potential antimicrobial properties. In the present study, a series of 1,2 substituted benzimidazoles were synthesized and characterized by spectroscopic methods. The compounds were assessed for their fungitoxicity against Fusarium spp., the causal agent of leaf spot disease of tomatoes. Fungitoxicity of all products was assessed by poison food and soaking techniques and the percentage of growth inhibition at different concentration was calculated. It was found that 3-nitrobenzimidazole was the most effective antifungal activity at 1000 ppm as determined by poison food technique and at 125 ppm by soaking technique, respectively. Keywords: Fungitoxicity, Fusarium spp., Benzimidazole, Antifungal INTRODUCTION Benzimidazoles were reported to have antimicrobial properties (David et al., 2004) against bacteria or fungi. The azetidinone ring bearing compounds showed varied biological activities like antibacterial and antifungal activities. The wide range of therapeutic value of these nuclei promoted the synthesis of compounds comprised of the benzimidazole derivatives with substitution at 1,2 position with different aldehyde compounds would posses potential antimicrobial properties. In the present study, a series of 1,2-substituted benzimidazole derivatives were synthesized without Schiff base or 2-substituted benzimidazole compounds as by product in order to investigate their antifungal activities. Its derivatives were characterized by IR and 1H-NMR spectroscopy. The compounds were screened for antifungal activity against Fusarium spp., which causes fungal diseases in tomatoes. The minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined by poison food and soaking techniques. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials IR spectra of the compounds were recorded on Perkin Elmer FTIR spectrometer with KBr pellets. 1H-NMR spectra were recorded on 400 MHz – Bruker AMX AVANCE. The chemical shifts were reported as parts per million down field from tetramethylsilane. All the compounds gave satisfactory chemical analyses (±0.4%). The purity of the compounds was checked by TLC on precoated SiO2 gel (HF254 200 mesh) aluminum plates (E Merck).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
151
General Procedures The synthetic strategy leading to the target compounds is illustrated in Figure 1. The benzimidazole derivative was synthesized by mixing 0.05 mole of o-phenylenediamine and 0.10 mole of thiophene-2-carboxaldehyde in 30 mL ethanol and refluxed for 2-6 hr. The mixture was cooled for 1 d and filtered. The product was recrystallized with absolute alcohol. Six aldehydes including 2-bromo-benzaldehyde, benzaldehyde, tert-butylbenzaldehyde, 3-nitro benzaldehyde, fural-2-carboxaldehyde and pyridine-2-carboxaldehyde were used as starting materials for another derivatives.
R2
R1
Figure 1 Synthesis of benzimidazole from 1,2-phenylinediamine and aldehyde Poison Food Technique Fusarium spp. isolated from infected tomato leaves on potato dextrose agar was used as the test fungus and poisoned food method (Grover and Moore, 1962) was used to study fungitoxicity. A seven-day old culture of the test fungus was used to prepare inoculum discs (4 mm diameter). A single disc was aseptically placed upside down at the center of each PDA plate containing benzimidazole derivatives. Acetone (80%) was used as the solvent to prepare different concentrations of benzimidazole derivatives (Rao et. al, 1994) to assess fungitoxicity with poisoned food technique (Grover and Moore, 1962). A volume of 0.5ml of each cocentration of benzimidazole derivatives was aseptically poured into the petri dish followed by the addition of 9.5 ml melted PDA and thoroughly mixed. Benzimidazole derivatives was, however, replaced by an equal amount of acetone only in the control set. After the media solidified one inoculum disc of Fusarium spp., the test fungus, was aseptically placed on each agar plate and incubated at 25±20oC. The average diameter of fungal colonies was measured on the 10th day after inoculation. Soaking Techniques The method is similar to poison food technique however soaked piece of Fusarium spp. was used RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The synthesis of benzimidazole derivatives Only thiophene-2-carboxaldehyde and 3-nitrobenzaldehyde were successful starting compound for the synthesis of benzimidazole derivatives and the results are shown in Table 1.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
152
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 1 Synthesis of benzimidazole derivatives Starting material
% yield
Product S
46.40 N
S
N
Thiophene-2- carboxaldehyde
Thiophene benzimidazole NO2
NO2 N
98.01
N
3-Nitro-benzaldehyde
3-Nitro benzimidazole
The mechanism of reaction can be expressed in Figure2. O NH2
H
S
+
H
H
OH
HN S NH2
NH2
OH2 N
-H 2O S
NH2
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
NH S NH2
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
153
H
H N
S
NH
- 2H NH 2
S
N O S H
HO
S H
N
O
S
HN
S
+
S N
N
H2O
N
S S
- H 2O
N
S
S N
N
Figure 2 Mechanism of thiophene benzimidazole synthesis From the proposed mechanism the aldehyde compound acts as electron withdrawing group 3-nitrobenzaldehyde has nitro group that make the compound like electron so it eapress very high of percent yield. Assessment of fungitoxicity Fungitoxicity of each of the benzimidazole derivative was assessed by poisoned food technique using its 1000 ppm of the concentration against Fusarium spp.,. As shown in Table2. the results were obtained in terms of the diameter of fungal colony inhibition of mycelial growth compared with the control acetone plate.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
154
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 2 Antifungal activity of the synthesized compounds by poison food technique Sample
diameter of colony (cm) 2d
4d
6d
8d
10d
3-nitrobenzimidazole
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
thiophenebenzimidazole
1.9
3.0
3.9
7.9
8.1
control (acetone)
0.8
1.1
1.8
3.7
4.8
control
2.0
3.3
4.8
8.2
9.0
Only 3-nitrobenzimidazole exhibited significant antifungal activity however acetone which was the solvent also affected the fungus. The result was confirm by soaking technique which the fungus was soaked and the result is shown in Table 3. Table 3 Antifungal activity of 3-nitrobenzimidazole by soaking techniques Sample
3nitrobenzi midazole
control
[ ] ppm
diameter of colony (cm) 2
125
0.5
4 days 0.5
8
10
0.5
0.5
500
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1000
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
125
2.5
4.5
7.5
9.0
500
2.0
4.0
7.0
9.0
1000
2.5
4.5
7.5
9.0
The fungitoxicity was found on 3-nitrobenzimidazole with the concentration less than 125 ppm by soaking techniques. CONCLUSION Seven aldehydes including thiophene-2-carboxaldehyde, 2-bromo-benzaldehyde, benzaldehyde, tert-butylbenzaldehyde, 3-nitro benzaldehyde, fural-2-carboxaldehyde and pyridine2-carboxaldehyde were used as starting materials. After refluxing with 1,2-phenylenediamine in ethanol, only thiophene-2-carboxaldehyde and 3-nitrobenzaldehyde afforded 1,2-substituted benzimidazole compounds without Schiff base or 2-substituted benzimidazole compounds as by products. The products were tested for anti-fungal, Fusarium spp., which causes fungal diseases in tomatoes. The minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined by poison food technique and Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
155
soaking techniques. Only 3-nitrobenzimidazole was found to exhibit the most potent anti-fungal activity by poison food technique (1000 ppm) and by soaking technique (125 ppm). It is advisable to include a reference standard to make sure that the tests are working as expected. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors are highly obliged to National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) for Development Research and Education. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
K.F. Ansari and C. Lal., Eur. J. Med. Chem. 44 (2009) 4028–4033. A. Ben, K. Alloum and M. Bougrin, Tetrahedron Lett. 44 (2003) 5935-5937. C.T. Brain and J.T. Steer., J. Org. Chem., 68 (2003) 6814-6816. B. Das, H. Holla and Y. Srinivas, Tetrahedron Lett. 48 (2207) 61-64. P. Gogi and and D. Konwar., Tetrahedron Lett. 47 (2006) 79-82. G.A. Kilcigil and N. Altanlar, Turk J Chem. 30 (2006) 223-228. R.N. Nadaf, S.A. Siddiqui, T. Daniel, R.J. Lahoti, and K.V. Srinivasan, S. Laksanacharoen, J. Mol. Catal. A. 214 (2004) 155-160. V.K. Tandon and M. Kuma, Tetrahedron. Lett. 45 (2004) 4185-4187.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
156
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Study on Some Characteristics of Elaeagnus latifolia Linn., an Endemic Fruit Plant in the Upper North of Thailand Pratoomporn Yingthongchai 1, 2*, Daruni Naphrom 3 and Prasartporn Smitamana 1 1
Plant Biotechnology section, Graduated School, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand 2 Science and Technology Research Institute, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand 3 Department of Plant Science and Natural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Survey of Elaeagnus latifolia Linn. local name as Ma-lod, an endemic fruit plant in the Upper North of Thailand. One hundred and ninety five accessions were collected from eight provinces: Chaing Mai, Chaing Rai, Mae Hong Son, Lumphun, Lumpang, Phayao, Phrae and Nan. Morphological and botanical characteristics included physicochemical characters were studied. The results revealed that the plant was scandent shrub and branches often thorny or spiny. The vegetative parts densely covered with silvery brownish or golden-colored lepidote or peltate scales or stellate hairs. Leaf was simple, entire and estiputate. Fruit size was varied from small to large. Mature fruits had dark red, red, red-orange and orange-yellow color groups. Eight forms of fruit shapes were found as elliptic, pyriform, obconical, highround, ovate, obovate, cylindrical and fusiform. Sour and sweet tasted of the fruit plants were found to be 80.00% and 20.00%, respectively. The parameters evaluate from fruits were as follow; 2.91-20.32 g. fruit weight, 0.05-4.00 % titratable acid (TA), 6.7-21.1 oBrix total soluble solids content (TSS) and 2.37-17.26 mg/100 g vitamin C content. Data have shown important applicable figures used for the genetic diversity, identification, selection and improvement program of Elaeagnus latifolia as an economic potential fruits in the future. Keywords: Elaeagnus latifolia Linn., Endemic Fruit, Characteristics, Genetic Diversity INTRODUCTION The plants belonging to the genus Elaeagnus (Elaeagnaceae) are distributed widely from the northern regions of Asia to the Himalayas and Europe [1]. Elaeagnus is a genus of about 50-70 species of flowering plants. They are deciduous or evergreen shrubs or small trees with alternate leaves. The leaves and shoots are usually covered with a dense pubescence of scales or stellate hairs, tiny silvery to brownish scales. The fruit is a drupe-like achene with the persistent base of the hypanthium surrounding it. It is edible in many species and several species are cultivated for their fruits [10]. Species of this family have a variety of medicinal uses [6].This genus is known to contain mono-and disaccharides in the leaves, fructose and L-ascorbic acid in the fruits, fatty acids and phytosterols in the seed leaves and stems and carotenoids in the fruits [3]. One species of this genus, Elaeagnus latifolia Linn., Ma lod is an endemic fruit plant almost found in the upper north of Thailand. It has long been known by the local people and valuable in local markets. Fruits are eaten raw and could be utilized for making by-products. The fruit is considered to be a very rich source of vitamins, minerals and other bioactive compounds. It is also a fairly good source of essential fatty acids, which is fairly unusual for a fruit. It is being investigated
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
157
as a food that is capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and also as a means of halting or reversing the growth of cancers [5]. In recent years, Elaeagnus latifolia have declined rapidly in number of individuals and population and plants have disappeared from many locations. The risk of the occurrence can be caused by the plant as endemic species with restricted geographic distributions have become a central concern of biologists faced with the problem of preserving rare species endangered by habitat destruction and the fruits do not well known in the markets thus, the commercially fruit plants have been planted. Therefore, characterization of the genetic diversity of Elaeagnus latifolia is important for sustainable genetic conservation and increase use of plant genetic resources. The objectives were to characterize the morphological and botanical characteristics included physicochemical characters for assessment the genetic diversity and genetic conservation of Elaeagnus latifolia Linn. in the Upper North of Thailand. MATERIALS AND METHODS One hundred and ninety five accessions of Elaeagnus latifolia Linn. were surveyed and collected from eight provinces in the upper north of Thailand: Chiang Mai (CM), Chiang Rai (CR), Mae Hong Son (MH), Phrae (P), Nan (N), Phayao (PY), Lamphun (L) and Lampang (LP). Morphological characteristics (e.g. size, shape and color of fruits and leaf) were characterized [8]. Physicochemical characteristics of fruits were tested; fresh weight, titratable acidity (TA), Vitamin C content and total soluble solid content (TSS). Twenty mature fruits per accession were randomly selected for experimentations and the average values were calculated. The size was measured using a vernier caliper. Titratable acidity (TA) of the juice sample was titrated by using NaOH with phenolphthalein as an indicator. The results were converted to citric acid equivalence [2]. Total soluble solid (oBrix) was determined with a pocket refractometer (ATAGO PAL-1) and vitamin C content was determined by 2, 6-dichlorophenolindophenol method [8]. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The plant was scandent shrub. The surface of vegetative parts (e.g. stem, branch, leaf and fruit) densely covered with silvery brownish or golden-colored lepidote or peltate scales or stellate hairs, branches sometimes spiny. Figure 1 shows the leaf, flower and fruit characteristics of Elaeagnus latifolia. The leaf is simple, entire with dark green color on the upper blade and brownish on the lower blade. Two leaf shapes, oblanceolate or elliptic were found with a size of small to large. There were two characteristics of the leaf apex, cuspidate or acuminate while the leaf base was cuneate or obtuse. The plant flower was simple cyme in the inflorescences at leaf axil. Each flower was composed of four light green tubular petals, four yellow anthers and one yellow stigma. Characters of various parts of accessions were summarized in Table 1, 2 and 3. Fruit size was varied from small to large with dark red, red, red-orange and orange-yellow color groups in mature fruits (Table 1). Eight forms of fruit shape were found as elliptic, pyriform, obconical, highround, ovate, obovate, cylindrical and fusiform (Figure 2 and Table2). Out of 195 accessions, only 20.00 % were sweet and major fruit shape found to be elliptic form (40.00%) while, 1.03% was described as obovate form.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
158
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 1 Leaf, flower and fruits characteristics of Elaeagnus latifolia
Figure 1 Eight forms of fruit shape; elliptic (1), pyriform (2), ovate (3), obconical (4), cylindrical (5), obovate (6), highround (7) and fusiform (8).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
159
Table 1 The percentage of 195 accessions on size and color of mature fruits characteristics Size Group
Color Group
Large
Medium
Small
D. >2.5 cm.
D. 2-2.5 cm.
D. < 2 cm.
L. >3.5 cm.
L. 3-3.5 cm.
L. < 3 cm.
Dark-red
Red
Red-
Orange-
Orange
Yellow
32.31
43.59
24.10
33.85
47.69
17.95
0.51
Table 2 The percentage of 195 accessions on mature fruit shapes characteristics
Elliptic
Pyriform
Obconical
Highround
Ovate
Obovate
Cylindrical
Fusiform
40.00
14.36
6.15
6.15
21.02
1.03
8.21
3.08
Table 3 Physicochemical fruit characteristics of Elaeagnus latifolia Weight
TA
TSS
(g)
(%)
o
Vitamin C
( Brix)
(mg. /100 g.)
2.91-20.32
0.05-4.00
6.7-21.1
2.37-17.26
The physicochemical parameters evaluated from mature fruits was calculated (Table 3). Fruit weight was ranged from 2.91 to 20.32 g. This result was related to size of fruit (small to large size). Fruit weight was the most important of the fruit dimension, on which was dependent fruit value [9]. The titratable acid (TA) in mature fruits was ranged from 0.05% to 4.00%. Acid content was related to fruit shape, the difference in titratable acidity within the different portions of fruit was associated with citrus fruit shapes [2]. The total soluble solids content (TSS) was ranged from 6.7-21.1 ºBrix and vitamin C content was ranged from 2.37-17.26 mg. /100 g. fresh weights. This result revealed that vitamin C content was varied. Many pre-and postharvest factors influence the vitamin C content of horticulture crops. Large genotypic variation in vitamin content was reviewed. Other pre-harvest factors included climatic conditions and cultural practices. All these factors are responsible for the wide variation in vitamin C content of fruits at harvest. Maturity at harvest, harvesting method, and postharvest handing conditions also affected the vitamin C content of fruit [7].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
160
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
CONCLUSION One hundred and ninety five accessions were collected. Morphological and botanical characteristics included physicochemical characters were revealed that the plant was scandent shrub and branches often thorny or spiny. The vegetative parts densely covered with silvery brownish or golden-colored lepidote or peltate scales or stellate hairs. Leaf was simple, entire and estiputate. Fruit size was varied from small to large. Mature fruits had dark red, red, red-orange and orangeyellow color groups. Eight forms of fruit shapes were found as elliptic, pyriform, obconical, highround, ovate, obovate, cylindrical and fusiform. Sour and sweet tasted of the fruit plants were found to be 80.00% and 20.00%, respectively. The parameters evaluated from fruits were as follows: 2.91-20.32 g. fruit weight, 0.05-4.00 % titratable acid (TA), 6.7-21.1 oBrix total soluble solids content (TSS) and 2.37-17.26 mg/100 g vitamin C content. The tabulated data shows important applicable figures useful for assessment of genetic diversity, genetic conservation, selection and development program of Elaeagnus latifolia as a new commercial fruits in the future. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank Science and Technology Research Institute and Chiang Mai University for the financial support and research facility offered by the laboratory of Horticulture, Department of Plant Science and Natural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University. REFERENCES 1.
A. Ahmadiani, J. Hosseiny, S. Semnanian, M. Javan, F. Saeedi, M. Kamalinejad and S. Saremi, “Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Elaeagnus angustifolia fruit extract”, J. Ethnopharmacol., 2000, 72, 287-292. 2. D-G. Moon, and F. Mizutani, “Relationship between fruit shape and acid content in different parts of citrus fruits”, J. Japan. Soc. Hort. Sci., 2002, 71(1), 56-58. 3. F. Sakamura and T. Suga, “Changes in chemical components of ripening oleaster fruits” Phytochem, 1987, 26(9), 2481-2484. 4. K. Helrich, “Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analysis Chemists. Acidity of fruit products, Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in vitamin preparations and juices”, 15th Edn., The Association of Official Analysis Chemists Inc., Arlinton, 1990, pp. 2384-2387. 5. K. R. Patel, A. Singh, and C. B. Deka, “Soh-Shang (Elaeagnus latifolia): An under-utilized fruit of North East region needs domestication”, ENVIS Bulletin: Himalayan Eco., 2008, 16 (2), 1-2. 6. M. Ramezani, H. Hosseinzadeh and N. Daneshmand, “Antinociceptive effect of Elaeagnus angustifolia fruit seeds in mice”, Fitoterapia, 2001, 72, 255-262. 7. S, K. Lee and A. A. Kader, “Preharvest and postharvest factors influencing vitamin C content of horticultural crops”, Posthavest Biol Technol., 2000, 20, 207-220. 8. T. F. Stuessy, “Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data”, New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 221. 9. V. Usenik, D. Kastelec and F. Stampar, “Physicochemical changes of sweet cherry fruits related to application of gibberellic acid”, Food Chem., 2005, 90, 663-671. 10. W. D. Woodland, “Contemporary plant systematic”, 3rd Edn., Andrews University Press, Berrien Spring, Michigan, United State of America, 2000, pp.222.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠161
Label–Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor Watcharee Boonlue1, Nuntaree Chaichanawongsaroj2 and Mana Sriyudthsak1,3,*
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠162
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠163
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠164
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠165
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠166
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠167
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠168
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠169
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠170
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠171
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠172
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
٠The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks٠173
The article ’Label-Free Porcine DNA Detection by the LAMP Method and QCM Sensor’ is retracted from this page by mutual consent of the editors and the authors on ground of an administrative error.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 2, July-December 2013
174
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Effect of Harvesting Period on Quality Change and Shelf Life of Vietnamese Mango Fruits cv. Cat Hoa Loc Do-Chi Thinh1,2*, Adisak Joomwong3 and Jamnong Uthaibutra1,4 1
Post-Harvest Technology Research Institute, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand Department of Food Science, College of Food Industry, Da Nang, Vietnam 3 Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand 4 Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand 2
*
Corresponding author, email:
[email protected]
Abstract: Mango is a climacteric fruit and harvesting at mature green, which ripen during transport and storage. A becoming harvesting period should have the best quality for consumer because it affects to the physical-chemical characteristics of the mango fruit during ripening. Green mango fruits cv. Cat Hoa Loc marked by wrapping harvesting at 65-74, 75-84, and 85-94 days after fruit set (DAFS) was selected in uniform shape, colour and density then washing, drying after that storage at 140C, 240C and ambient temperature (29-330C) for ripening. The optimal harvesting period for ripening and shelf life of Vietnamese mango cv. Cat Hoa Loc were determined. Data was used Data Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with Completely Randomized Design (SPSS, IL, USA). The Tukey’s multiple-range test was used to test significant differences at the 95% confidence level of each variable. The results showed that the mango fruits harvesting at 75-84 DAFS (at 240C) had the highest scores for shriveling (4.9); visual colour (4.9); aroma (4.9); overall acceptability appearance (4.8); TSS (22.03%) and TA (0.12%). The fruits harvesting at 65-74 DAFS and storage at 140C had the longest shelf life (27.56 days), the highest starch content (2.30%) and the lower in TSS (14.39%) while the fruits harvesting at 85-94 DAFS and storage at 240C had the lowest weight loss (7.15%). Keywords: Harvesting, Quality, Shelf Life, Temperature, Vietnamese Mango INTRODUCTION Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is a major tropical fruit in both domestic and export markets of Vietnam. Among Vietnamese mango cultivars, Cat Hoa Loc mango is the most popular cultivar because of good appearance, texture, taste and flavour. Its production ranks the first among commercial mango cultivars in Vietnam. Therefore, the Vietnamese government now supports the expansion of the production area for Cat Hoa Loc mango. Surveys showed that the quality of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruit in the market were variations vastly, in which 56% of mangoes did not meet quality for consumer acceptance [1-2]. The qualities of mango fruits are contingent on varieties, cultivated conditions and density fruits. There is the correlation between density and harvesting period [2-4]. In these experiments, effects of harvesting period on ripening behavior and quality changes of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits were investigated.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
175
MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Material Mango fruits cv. Cat Hoa Loc from My Xuong Commune, Cao Lanh district, Dong Thap province were harvested at 65-74, 75-84 and 85-94 days after fruit set (DAFS) and transported to the Southern Horticultural Research Institute (SOFRI), Tien Giang province, (Vietnam) within 6 hours. At the SOFRI, uniform mango fruits in colour, shape, and weight (480-520g) were selected as described by Tai [2]. The fruits were held at room temperature–29-330C, 240C and 140C for storage until fruits were ripe and soft enough for eating or discarded due to shriveling or decay that fruits were not accepted by the five experts of the staff. Physical and Chemical Properties In each storage temperature, seven replicates of fruits were randomly sampled at the end of storage for the above assessments. Mango juice was extracted from the sample with a juice extractor, and clear juice was used for the analysis. The total soluble solid content (TSS) was determined at 22 oC, with a digital refractometer ATAGO, Model PAL-a (Japan) using 2 to 3 drops of juice obtained by squeezing the fruits [5]. Titratable acidity (TA) was analyzed by titration 10-ml of sample juice with 0.1 N NaOH to a pH 8.1 endpoint using an Orion 950 Titrator (Thermo Electron Corporation, Beverly, MA). The results were expressed as a percentage of citric acid presented in the samples. The pH was measured directly in the juice using a Corning Pinacle ® 530 pH meter. Weight loss of fruit was determined by using a digital balance, referencing to the initial and interval weights of the fruit. The result was reported in percentage of weight loss (AOAC, 1994). Starch content was determined according to Widdowson and McCance [10]. The mango flesh was cut up finely and well mixed. Portions of 100g were extracted with about 200 ml of cold 95% alcohol and stored overnight. The flesh was next extracted with 100 ml of 80% ethanol solutions at 75oC in a Soxhlet apparatus and stored for about 16 hours, and then the alcohol from the united extracts was evaporated off under reduced pressure at a temperature always below 30oC. The residue was made up to 200 ml in a graduated flask (solution A). 100 ml of solution A were measured into a graduated 500 ml flask, diluted with water, almost neutralized with N/10 NaOH and cleared with basic lead acetate and saturated sodium phosphate solutions [11]. The solution was made up to volume and filtered. Reducing sugars were determined in this cleared filtrate by Lane and Eynon [12] copper titration method, in which methylene blue was used as an internal indicator. Starch content was calculated by the following formula: Starch content (%) = Reducing sugars (%) * 0.9 Sensory Values and Shelf Life The shriveling of each mango was assessed by using a visual rating scale 1-5; where 1 = extreme shriveling, 2 = severe shriveling, 3 = moderate shriveling, 4 = minor signs of shriveling and 5 = none signs of shriveling [6]. The visual colour of each mango was assessed by using a visual rating scale based on 1-5; where 1 = fully green, 2 = 1-25% yellow of area skin, 3 = 26-50% yellow of area skin, 4 = 51-75% yellow of area skin and 5 = 76-100% yellow of area skin [7-8]. Flavour, aroma and overall acceptability of each mango were subjectively rated on a scale of 1–5, with 1 being poor and 5 being excellent for flavour, 1 being nondetectable and 5 being very strong for aroma, and 1 being dislike very much and 5 being like very much for overall acceptability.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
176
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
In each storage temperature, twenty-five replicates of fruits were randomly sampled at the end of storage for the above assessments. The shriveling score (SS), visual colour score (VS), flavour score (FS), aroma score (AS) and overall acceptability score (OS) were determined by multiplying the number of fruits in each category with their score, and then dividing this by the total number of fruit assessed [9]. Storage life was the period of storage that mango fruit still had the overall acceptability score not less than 3 [2-8]. Statistical Analysis A completely randomized design (CRD) was used, and the experimental data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS (SPSS, IL, USA). Tukey’s multiple-range test was used for significant differences test at the 95% confidence level of each variable. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Changes in Physical and Chemical Properties Harvesting time shows significant effects (p<0.05) TSS of mango fruits (Figure 1a). Regardless of storage temperature, the TSS of MS fruits were always higher than of ES fruits. These were 17.24, 22.05 and 20.96% in MS fruits comparison with 14.39, 16.47 and 17.23% in ES fruits. The TSS of LS fruits at 140C and 24oC were higher than that of ES fruits and MS fruits but at 29oC that were lower than of MS fruits. This is result of high respiration of fruits at high temperature. The conversion rate increased with the increasing temperature. The increase in TSS was the outcome of conversion of carbohydrates into simple sugars through a complex mechanism during the storage. The increase in TSS might be due to the alteration in cell wall structure and breakdown in the storage. Kittur et al. [3] considered this conversion was also one of the important indexes of the ripening process in mangoes and other climacteric fruits. After the TSS reaching the peak, it was reduced. Tai [2] showed that the TSS difference depends on the days after fruit set or density and temperature storage. In the case of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruit, the TSS at the ripening stage should be at least 20% to be accepted by the consumer [8-10].
Figure 1 Total soluble solid (a) and titratable acidity (b) of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits harvesting at different stages storage at different temperatures. Bars with different letters are significantly difference at
95% confidence level Titratable acidity (TA) of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits at ripening is presented in Figure 1b. At the end of the storage, the TA of ES fruits was higher than that of other fruits. At 14 oC, the highest amount of titratable acidity (0.65%) was measured in ES fruits followed by 0.46 in MS fruits while it was about 0.18% in LS fruits. The result also show that there was a significantly difference in TA
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
177
of different harvesting period at 24oC; it was 0.22, 0.12 and 0.09% in the fruits harvesting at 65-74, 75-84 and 85-94 DAFS respectively. The low-level titratable acidity of LS fruits was reported by Tai [2] and Le [4]. The decreasing trend of TA during the storage period might be due to the degradation of citric acid that could attribute to ripening and their further utilization in metabolic processes in the fruit. Temperature was also effect on TA of mango fruit in during storage. High acidity in ripened mango fruit ripened at low temperature has been reported by O'Hare [11] and Baloch et al [12]. Figure 2a shows percent weight loss of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits harvesting at different stages at different storage temperatures. Even with storage temperature, the weight loss of ES fruits was higher than of others stages. The highest percent of weight loss was 12.14 % in ES fruits at 29oC, and the lowest percent was 7.15% in LS fruits at 14 0C. The reduction in weight of fruits in storage due to respiration, transpiration and other biological changes that taking place in the fruit. These results were attributed to shriveling of fruits due to higher water loss of fruits stored at high temperature [13].
Figure 2 Weigh loss (a) and starch content (b) of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits harvesting at different stages storage at different temperatures. Bars with different letters are significantly difference at 95%
confidence level Starch content of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruit hydrolyzed during mango ripening and starch content of ripening mango fruits was different in all treatment. The variation of starch content was great in MS fruits and LS fruits while it was small in ES fruits (Figure 2b). At 24oC, it decreased from 11.55 or 12.03 down 0.01% (only traces) in MS fruits or LS fruits, but it decreased from 11.02 to 1.29% in ES fruits. The trend of variation in starch content of ES fruits occurred at different storage temperatures. These are result of starches converted into sugars and companied by the brake down of acids making the sweet taste. Change in starch content of the present study was similar to those obtained by Tai [2] and Hien [14]. The time required for ripening of the fruit obtained for different harvesting period concluded that the shelf life of mango fruits was the longest for sample harvesting at ES and storage at 14 oC (27.56 days) and the shortest for sample harvesting at LS and storage at 29-33oC (3.26 days) (Fig. 3). The trend explained in terms of LS and high storage temperature faster ripening up.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
178
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 3 Shelf life (days) of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits harvesting at different stages storage at different temperatures. Bars with different letters are significantly difference at 95% confidence level
Sensory Values Effect of harvesting period on shriveling score (SS), visual colour score (VS), flavour score (FS), aroma score (AS) and overall acceptability score (OA) of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits present in Table 1 Scores of sensory values of fruits harvesting at 75-84 DAFS (mature stage-MS) were always higher than of fruits harvesting at 65-74 DAFS (early stage-ES). At 24oC, the scores of SS, VS and OS of MS fruits were 4.9, 4.9 and 4.8 while that of ES fruits were 3.4, 4.1 and 3.2, respectively. At 24 oC and 29oC, the scores of sensory values of MS fruits were also higher than that of ES fruits, but these were almost lower than of fruits harvesting at 85-94 DAFS (later stage-LS) fruits. On the contrary, the scores of LS fruits at 14 oC were significant higher than that of MS fruits excepting the score of SS. Although ES fruits stored at 14oC could extend shelf life to 27 days, the quality of fruits was not meeting the consumer requirement. Table 1 Scores of shriveling score (SS), visual colour score (VS), flavour score (FS), aroma score (AS) and overall acceptability score (OA) of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits harvesting at the early stage, mature stage and later stage after storage in different temperatures (p< 0.05) Storage Temperature (0C)
0
29 C
0
24 C
0
14 C
DAFS (Days)
Sensory scores SS
VS
FS
AS
OS
65-74
3.4
3.8
4.1
3.2
3.9
75-84
4.9
4.1
4.9
4.2
4.6
85-94
4.0
4.3
4.6
3.9
4.2
65-74
3.4
4.1
3.5
3.4
3.2
75-84
4.9
4.9
4.7
4.9
4.8
85-94
4.7
4.9
4.4
4.9
4.5
65-74
3.6
3.8
3.1
3.2
2.9
75-84
4
3.8
3.6
3.9
3.8
85-94
4.8
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.1
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
179
CONCLUSION The results demonstrated the effect of harvesting period on shelf life and quality change of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits during storage. Fruits harvesting at the mature stage achieved the high quality scores (4.8 in overall acceptability at 24oC and 29-33oC). Depending on the market, Cat Hoa Loc mango fruits could be harvested at different stages, but the harvesting period must be more than 75 days after fruit set. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge funding from the Vietnam Government; research equipments from Southern Horticultural Research Institute (SOFRI), Vietnam and the Postharvest Technology Research Institute, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. REFERENCES 1. C. V. Hung, “Achievement on fruit plants, Report in Improving domestic market and export fruit in Vietnam through improved supply chain and postharvest technology”, 2008, MARD, Vietnam, pp. 47-58 (in Vietnamese). 2. N. T. Tai, "Applying density of fruit and ozone technology on stability quality of Cat Hoa Loc mango and Cat Chu mango fruit in postharvest", Ph.D. Thesis, 2008, Can Tho University, Vietnam (in Vietnamese). 3. F. S. Kittur, N. Saroja, Habibunnisa and R. N. Tharanathan, "Polysaccharide-based composite coating formulations for shelf-life extension of fresh banana and mango", Postharvest Biol. Tec., 2001, 213, 306-311. 4. P. T. M. Le, "Seting up a postharvest handing processing of Cat Hoa Loc mango fruit in Cai Be distric, Tien Giang province, Vietnam", M.S. Thesis, 2010, Can Tho University, Vietnam (in Vietnamese). 5. AOAC, “Official methods of analysis Association of Official Analytical Chemists”, Washington, DC, USA, 1994. 6. M. N. Nunes, M. C. Emond, J. P. Brecht, J. K. Dea and S. Proulx, "Quality curves for mango fruit (cv. Tommy Atkins and Palmer) stored at chilling and nonchilling temperatures", J. Food Qual. , 2007, 30, 104-120. 7. R. Anwar, A. U. Malik, M. Amin, A. Jabbar and B. A. Saleem, "Packaging material and ripening methods affect mango fruit quality", Int. J. Agr. Biol., 2008, 10, 34-45. 8. T. T. K. Ba, "Chemical treatment at the preharvest and postharvest period due to improve productivity, quality, and prolongation of Cat Hoa Loc mango", Ph.D. Thesis, 2007, Can Tho University, Vietnam (in Vietnamese). 9. C. Junmatong, J. Uthaibutra, D. Boonyakiat, B. Faiyue and K. Saengnil, "Reduction of chilling injury of ‘Nam Dok Mai no. 4’ mango fruit by treatments with salicylic acid and methyl jasmonate", J. Agr. Sci., 2012, 4, 126-136. 10. T. T. Hoa and D. M. Hien, “Effect of calcium treament on biochemical changes, quality and storage of Cat Hoa Loc mango”, in the annual report, 2001, SOFRI, Vietnam, pp.1-10 (in Vietnamese). 11. T. J. O'Hare, "Effect of ripening temperature on quality and compositional changes of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv. Kensington", Aust. J. Exp. Agric., 1995, 35, 259-263. 12. M. K. Baloch and F. Bibi, "Effect of harvesting and storage conditions on the post harvest quality and shelf life of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit", S. Afr. J. Bot., 2012, 83,109-116.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
180
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
13. H. A. Rathore, T. Masud, S. Sammi and A. H. Soomro, "Effect of storage on physico-chemical composition and sensory properties of mango (Mangifera indica L.) variety dosehari", Pak. J. Nutr., 2007, 6, 143-148. 14. T. X. Hien, "Seting up a quality assessment model on Cat Hoa Loc mango fruit in postharvest", M.S. Thesis, 2010, Can Tho University, Vietnam (in Vietnamese).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
181
Ethion Residue Reduction and Green Mold Disease Control of Tangerine cv. Sai Nam Pung Using Ozone Microbubbles and Ultrasonic Irradiation Nobchulee Nuanaon1,2, Hideki Aoyagi3, Jamnong Uthaibutra1,4 and Kanda Whangchai1,4,* 1
Postharvest Technology Research Institute, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200 / Postharvest Technology Innovation Center, Commission on Higher Education, Bangkok,10400 2 The Graduate School Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200 3 Life Science and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan 4 Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200 * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract : The effect of ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation on the reduction of ethion residue and green mold disease in tangerine cv. Sai Nam Pung at various times (15, 30, 45 and 60 min.) were investigated. The iodine liberation and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production were directly used to measure of oxidation reaction. The iodine liberation and H 2O2 production of all treatments increased with reaction times. The highest level of iodine liberation and H 2O2 production occurred at 60 min. Ethion residue on tangerine fruit was treated by ozone microbubbles water combined with ultrasonic irradiation (frequency 1000 kHz) at different times. The results showed that the percentage of ethion degradation increased as well as the rising of reaction time. Ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation showed the highest rate of reduction occurring within 15 min. Ethion was reduced 73% after ozone microbubbles treatment with ultrasonic irradiation for 60 min. The fruit were wound inoculated with Penicillium digitatum and then washed with ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation reactor for 15, 30, 45 and 60 min. The result showed that ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation reduced lesion diameter in inoculated fruit. The growth of lesion diameter on fruit delayed directly to the increasing of reaction time. Moreover, there were no significantly difference on fruit quality changes in all treatments after storage at room temperature (25 °C) for 7 days. Key word: Ozone Microbubbles, Ultrasonic Irradiation, Ethion, Penicillium digitatum INTRODUCTION Tangerine(Citrus reticulata) cv. Sai Nam Pung is one kind of the most popular cultivar in Northern Thailand. The main problems of cultivation are the invasion of insects and disease pathogens. Most of agriculturists use various pesticides to solve these problems. Ethion on organophosphate group inhibits cholinesterase enzyme in insect nervous system is used for growing tangerine. Also, they use some fungicides during growing and the process of postharvest treatment to control green mold disease caused by Penciliim digitatum. Both leads to pesticide residue in fruit
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
182
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
and environment. Krangkrai et al. (2009) reported that ethion residue was more than 1.0 mg/kg in tangerine fruit sold on shelf. Which was over than maximum residue limits (MRLs). Ozone microbubbles is a technology which converts ozone gas to the small size of bubbles (less than 10 m) in water. This small bubbles increase dissolved potential and expand oxidizing efficiency of ozone which help to collapse pesticide structure and microorganism. Ultrasonic Irradiation helps to decrease organic and inorganic residues (Weavers et al., 1998). Sonolysis of ultrasonic irradiation leads to produce radical species such as H, OH, OOH which directly destroy the chemical structure. Takahashi et al. (2007) reported Ozone Microbubbles generated more hydroxyl radical in water. This degraded polyvinyl alcohol and reduced fenitrothion residue in lettuce, cherry tomato and strawberry (Ikeura et al., 2011). As well as microorganism, Boonkorn et al. (2012) found that gaseous ozone inhibited the growth of green mold disease in tangerine during storage. While Cao et al. (2010) reported ultrasonic irradiation 40 kHz reduced percentage of disease growth in strawberry after harvested. Moreover, Zhang et al. (2006) reported ozone in combination with ultrasonic wave increased methyl orange destruction. Therefore, this research has an objective to study the effect of ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation on the reduction of ethion residue and green mold disease in tangerine cv. Sai Nam Pung. MATERIALS AND METHODS Oxidation Efficiency Potassium iodide (KI) 2 % was used to determine oxidation efficiency of ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation. The iodine liberation was observed by OD 354 nm for 15, 30, 45 and 60 min. While hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production was measured by GSI Method (2009). Ethion Residue Reduction on Tangerine cv. Sai Nam Pung Uniform tangerine (cv. Sai Nam Pung) fruits were dipped into 10 ppm ethion solution for 30 min then left to dry at room temperature. Thereafter, the fruits were washed in the bath tub with connected to ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation (frequency 1000 kHz). The samples were collected at 15, 30, 45 and 60 min washing time to determine the reduction percentage of pesticide residue by GT Test Kit method. Green Mold Disease Control on Tangerine cv. Sai Nam Pung Tangerine fruits were wound inoculated with Penicillium digitatum spore suspension then left at room temperature for 3 hours. After that the fruit were washed in the bath tub with connected to ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation (frequency 1000 kHz). The fruit samples were collected at the washing period of 15, 30, 45 and 60 min then were kept in sealed PE bag. All treatments were stored at room temperature (25 °C). The lesion diameters in all fruits were measured everyday for 3 days.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
183
Quality Changes During Storage Tangerine fruits were washed in the bath tub with connected to ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation (frequency 1000 kHz). The samples were collected at 15, 30, 45 and 60 min washing time then were kept in sealed PE bag. All treatments were stored at room temperature (25 °C) for 7 days to measure quality changes such as weight loss percentage, peel color change, total soluble solids (TSS) content, titratable acidity (TA), and ascorbic acid content. Statistic Analysis All experiments were replicated three times and evaluated with regression procedure using SPSS version 17. Differences among treatments performed using Dancan’s test (P < 0.05). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2 1.5
0.4
1 0.2
0.5
0
H2O2 concentration (mg/l)
Iodine production rate (absorbance of 354 nm)
0.6
0 0
15
30
45
60
Exposure time (min) H2O2Concentration concentration (mg/l) H2O2
iodine production (absorbance of 354 nm)
Figure 1 The iodine liberation rate and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production after exposed to ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation at different time.
Ethion degradation
100
MBO3+US
Control
80
60 40 20
0
0
15
30
45
60
Exposure time (min)
Figure 2 The percentage of ethion degradation in tangerine fruit using ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation washing (MBO3+US) with various time.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
184
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Lesion diameter
12
Control MBO3+US15 MBO3+US30 MBO3+US45 MBO3+US60
10 8 6 4 2 0
0
1
2
Days after storage
3
4
Figure 3 Lesion diameter on tangerine fruit after washing in ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation for 15 (MBO3+US15), 30 (MBO3+US30), 45 (MBO3+US45) and 60 (MBO3+US60) min. The iodine liberation by KI 2% and H2O2 production of all treatments increased with reaction times. The highest level of iodine liberation and H2O2 production occurred at 60 min. Ethion residue on tangerine fruit was releated to the treated period of ozone microbubbles water combined with ultrasonic irradiation at different times. The results showed that the percentage of ethion degradation increased as well as the rising of treated time. Ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation showed the high rate of reduction occurring within 15 min as 42%. Ethion was reduced 73% after ozone microbubbles treatment with ultrasonic irradiation for 60 min. Also, there is no significantly different in all treatments. The increasing of iodine liberation and H2O2 production promoted the rising of oxidation efficiency by the reaction time. This showed that there is hydroxyl radical production by ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation. The decreasing of ethion residue in tangerine fruit related to the increasing of washing time by ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation. The combination between ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation showed the synergetic effect of both technologies. Ultrasonic irradiation would help ozone better dissolved in water and expand oxidizing power by increasing hydroxyl radical production. Zhang et al. (2006) reported that the synergetic effect between ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation increased the degradation of methyl orange. Wang et al. (2012) also found that ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation raised up oxidation efficiency of ozone. This involved in the degradation of malachite green which ultrasonic increased dissolved potential of ozone in water (Zhou et al., 2013). While Pengphol et al. (2012) found that ultrasonic 1000 kHz together with ozone for 60 min could reduce 73.05% of chlopyrifos residue in bird chilli. As well as green mold disease control in tangerine, the results showed that ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic irradiation reduced lesion diameter in inoculated fruit. The growth of lesion diameter on fruit delayed directly to the increasing of treated time. The highest rate of lesion diameter control was observed as 2.25 cm. at 60 min. This related to the previous study. The hydroxyl radical produced by ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation effected to microorganism structure. Cao et al. (2010) reported ultrasonic 40 kHz reduced numbers of microorganism in strawberry during storage at 5°C without affecting the quality of fruit. While
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
185
Minas et al. (2010) reported that kiwi fruit exposed to continuous ozone could reduce Botrytis cineria disease in fruit during storage at 0 °C. As well as gaseous ozone inhibited the growth of green mold disease in tangerine during storage (Boonkorn et al., 2012)
weight loss (%)
1.2 1 0.8 0.6
0.4 0.2 0
0
15
30
45
60
Exposure time (min)
Figure 4 Changes of weight loss percentage in tangerine fruit after washing in ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic wave with various time before storage at room temperature for 7 days. Moreover, there were no significantly differences on fruit quality of all treatments after stored at room temperature (25 °C) for 7 days (Fig 5). There is no different of weight loss in all treatments. All treatments were stored at room temperature obviously lose weight more than stored at low temperature (Figure 4). Also, there is no significantly changes of TSS, TA, ascorbic acid content in all treatments. Tangerine is a non-climacteric fruit so most of chemical changes as TSS, TA and ascorbic acid contents occur during preharvest. While the peel color change in all treatments were measured by L*, a* and b* value. The results showed that all value has no significantly changes during storage. This because the fruits were kept at room temperature too short period to occur color change.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
186
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
30 20
A
10
TSS (%brix)
L* value
40
0
10
5
D
0
0
15
30
45
60
0
15
30
45
60
0
15
30
45
60
a* value
-2
B
-4 -6
TA (%)
0
-8
E
0
20
C
10 0
0
15
30
45
ascorbic acid content (mg/l)
30
b* value
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
60
15
30
45
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
60
F
0
15
30
45
60
Figure 5 Peel Color Changes L* value (A) Peel Color Changes a* value (B) Peel Color Changes b* value (C) TSS (D) TA (E) and ascorbic acid content (F) in tangerine fruit after washing in ozone microbubbles in combination with ultrasonic wave with various time after stored at room temperature for 7 days. The efficiency of ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation on the reduction of ethion residue and green mold disease control in tangerine cv. Sai Nam Pung is related directly to the increasing of reaction time. The best result on ethion residue reduction and green mold disease control in tangerine is combined treatment of ozone microbubbles and ultrasonic irradiation for 60 min. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been supported by Postharvest Technology Innovation Center, Commission on Higher Education, Bangkok, The Graduate School Chiang Mai University, Postharvest Technology Research Institute and Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
187
REFERENCES 1. H. Ikeura, F. Kobayashi and M. Tamaki, “Removal of residual pesticide, fenitrothion, in vegetables by using ozone microbubbles generated by different methods”, J. Food Eng., 2011, 103, 345-349. 2. H. Zhang, L. Duan and D. Zhang “Decolorization of methyl orange by ozonation in combination with ultrasonic irradiation”, J. Hazard. Mater., 2006, B138: 53-59 3. I. S. Minas, G. S. Karaoglanidis, G. A. Manganaris and M. Vasilakakis,” Effect of ozone application during cold storage of kiwi fruit on the development of stem-end rot caused by Botrytis cinerea”, Post. Bio. and Tech., 2010, 58: 203–210. 4. J. Krangkrai, S. Sarut, S. Srijamnam, S. Srikacha, M. Butsabong, M. Manus, P. Wipada and W. Wanapon, “Pest and Pesticide on Tangerine” Document of The Production Tangerine for Safety Environment Conference, Agricultural Research and Development Center, Chiang Mai, 2009 Fang District Chiangmai, Thailand. 5. L. K. Weavers, F. H. Ling and M. R. Hoffmann, “Aromatic compound degradation in water using a combination of sonolysis and ozonolysis”, Environ. Sci. Technol., 1998. 32)18(: 27272733. 6. M. Takahashi, K. Chiba and P. Li, “Formation of hydroxyl radicals by collapsing ozone microbubbles under strong acid conditions”, J. Phys. Chem., 2007. 111: 11443-11446. 7. P. Boonkorn, H. Gemma, S. Sugaya, S. Setha, J. Uthaibutra and K. Whangchai, “Impact of high-dose, short periods of ozone exposure on green mold and antioxidant enzyme activity of tangerine fruit”, Post. Bio. and Tech., 2012, 67: 25–28. 8. S. Cao, Z. Hu and B. Pang, “Optimization of postharvest ultrasonic treatment of strawberry fruit” Post. Bio. and Tech., 2010, 55: 150–153. 9. S. Pengphol, J. Uthaibutra, O.A. Arquero. N. Nomura and K. Whangchai, “Reduction of residual chlopyrifos on harvested bird chilies (Capsicum frutescens Linn.) using ultrasonic and ozonation”, Thai Jour. Of Agri. Sci., 2011, 44(5): 182-187. 10. X. J. Zhou, W.Q. Guo, S.S.Yang, H.S. Zheng and N.Q. Ren, “Ultrasonic-assisted ozone oxidation process of triphenylmethane dye degradation: evidence for the promotion effects of ultrasonic on malachite green decolorization and degradation mechanism”, Bioresour. Technol, 2013, 128: 827-830. 11. Y. Wang, H. Zhang, L. Chen, S. Wang and D. Zhang, “Ozonation combined with ultrasound for the degradation of tetracycline in a rectangular air-lift reactor”, Sep. Purif. Technol., 2012, 84:138-146.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
Social Science
190
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Northern Tertiary Educational Institutions’ Preparation for ASEAN Community Yuthasin Chumanee , Thipwan Sriprom , Utchara Sinchaikul and Tachasorn Sombatmai Institute for Research and Development, Chiang RaiRajabhat University, 80 Moo.9 Ban Doo, Muang, Chiang Rai, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The findings of the study revealed that the samples were lecturers (51%), as well as faculty deans and vice-deans (22.7%), working for governmental universities (40.9%), and specific universities such as Rajamankala universities of technology, nurse colleges, and physical education institutions, etc. (32.8%). In addition, the northern tertiary educational institutions’ preparation for the ASEAN community, with its percentage of 43.7, was respectively rated at a lower level in terms of their northern tertiary educational institutions’ overall organizational administration, their output of graduates, their research-conducting, their academic services, as well as their art and cultural managements. Keywords: ASEAN, Preparation, Educational Institution INTRODUCTION Office of the Education Council (2006) stated that the technological advancements of every country and neighboring countries, by its virtual globalization, have been faced with their infrastructural challenges. Besides, “education” regarded as one of major bases focusing on infrastructural growth developments, leads to one’s educational reforms, and international collaboration. However, every country’s global advancements on educational reforms occurred in Thailand as one of ASEAN membership, as well as Brunei, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam have increased drastically. According to the union of ASEAN community manipulated in the 2 nd fifteen-year long-term tertiary educational development framework of the year 2008 – 2022, educational staffs’ and graduates’ labor movements in relations to three main factors ofthe ASEAN community strengthening development supported for the output of well-organized graduates directly influenced on the tertiary educational institutions’ educational management. Most importantly, more than 80 governmental universities’ preparation for their ASEAN membership will not only be improved for upgrading the graduates’ required qualifications serving the ASEAN membership, as well as the effective management of Thai tertiary educational strategic policies but also, Thailand’s tertiary educational institutions’ awareness of their preparation for ASEAN community should be more
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
191
signified (Cited in News Center for Thailand’s Organizational Reform, via http://www.thaireform. in.th/news-highlight/item/6301-2011-08-23-04-14-36.html. 2554). In order to provide on-going strategies for effective working plans on the development of Thai graduates’ professional potentialities in preparation for ASEAN community in 2015 served for the Office of Higher Educational Commission, Ministry of Education and other tertiary educational institutions, therefore, research related to “Northern Tertiary Educational Institutions’ Preparation for ASEAN Community”will be investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS In research methodology, a constructed questionnaire related to “Northern Tertiary Educational Institutions’ Preparation for ASEAN Community in 2015” was divided into four aspects: output of graduates, research-conducting, academic services, as well as art and cultural managements. In addition, the preparation for ASEAN community was classified into five levels: 1. Non-performance policy 2. Non-progress 3. Under on-progress 4. During on-progress 5. Post- performance on-progress In order to create as well as to develop research tools carried out for data collection, the research methodology of the study was as follows: 1. Research journals, textbooks and related documents concerning the definition of required variables, were firstly investigated; 2. Variable analysis and question items-writing for each variable were both conductedfor creating a rating-scale-based questionnaire; 3. A constructed questionnaire, with its content validity, approved by 5 educational specialists was analyzed; 4. With its internal consistency of reliability, a questionnaire was not only tried out, but it was also figured out through using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient method. 5. In data collection, a completely constructed questionnaire was finally conducted with 335 respondents out of the 36 northern tertiary educational institutions. These included executive administrators, unit directors, and lecturers working for northern tertiary educational institutions. The data were statistically analyzed through the use of frequency distribution and percentagesand were then presented with narrative technique and figures. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The results of the study related to the northern tertiary educational institutions’ preparation for ASEAN community were divided into two aspects:
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
192
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
1. In terms of their personal backgrounds, it was cited that the samples were lecturers (51%), as well as faculty deans and vice-deans (22.7%), working for government universities (40.9%), and specialized universities such as Rajamankala universities of technology, nurse colleges, and physical education institutions, (32.8%), and private universities (12.8%); 2. The northern tertiary educational institutions’ preparation for their ASEAN community, was respectively rated at a lower level (43.7%) in terms of their overall organizational administration, output of graduates, research-conducting, and academic services as well as art and cultural management; moreover, these were found in under-progress level with details as follow: In terms of the output of graduates, it was stated that the curriculum design of inter-tertiary educational institutions in academic collaboration with ASEAN countries as well as their dualdegree conferment (34.4%) and ASEAN undergraduate admission (30.1 %), were found in the nonperformance level; otherwise, lecturers’ academic exchange programs with ASEAN countries (35.2%), tertiary educational institutions’ curriculum design in academic collaboration with ASEAN countries (34.9%) were found in the under-progress level. Also, the graduates’ improvements for English proficiency served for their future careers (46%), and undergraduates’ awareness and perception on ASEAN community membership (44.2%) were found in during onprogress level.Meanwhile, undergraduates’ improvements for ITC-based skills served for their ASEAN community, and Thai and English course-based instructional management (35.6%) were both found in the post- on-progress level. In terms of research-conducting, it was stated that recruitment of researchers specializing in engineering and medical sciences (39.1%), and lecturers’ research grants in academic collaboration with ASEAN countries (34.9%) were both found in the non-performance policy level whereas the promotion for senior university researchers’ well-organized research management in collaboration with ASEAN countries (32.5%), and research networking membership in academic collaboration with ASEAN countries (32.5%), were all found in the under-progress level. Also, research dissemination organized by ASEAN countries (31.6%) was found in the during progress level. In terms of academic services, it was stated that establishment of local museums and exhibition halls to be used as Asean Art and Cultural Indigenous Center (33.5%) was found in the non-progress level. On the other hand, development for both private sector and Thai labor professional potentials and marketing competition such as entrepreneurs and local people workshops, etc. (30.5%) were found in the under-progress level. Also, ITC-based public services as well as library and indigenous learning centers’ services support for undergraduates, non-academic staffs, and local people’s learning developments (35.6%), and mutual working plans and practical projects served for ASEAN community-related academic services (31.4%) were both found during on-progress level. In terms of art and cultural aspect, it was stated that workshops on art and cultural exchanges in collaboration with ASEAN membership (32.2%) were found in the non-progress level; otherwise, wellplanned preparations for art and cultural activities (36.2%) together with tertiary educational institutions’ establishment of regional service centers for ASEAN cultural studies such as ASEAN art
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
193
and cultural services centers (33.2%) were found during on-progress level. Also, the enhancement of graduates’ awareness, pride, and deeper understanding of the local and ASEAN cultures as well as local art and cultural databases (28.4%) were both found during on-progress level. DISCUSSIONS In terms of the northern tertiary educational institutions’ output of graduates in preparation for ASEAN community, it was stated that improvements for both graduates’ ITC-based skills and their Thai and English-taught instructional management leading to self-development on future career expectation and English communication skill proficiencies served for ASEAN countries’ labor forces and vacant employments, were not only consistent with the 1st Thai tertiary educational strategies in 2015 in preparation for ASEAN community related to qualified graduates’ professional potentials of English proficiency and required career qualification (cited in Office of Higher Educational Commission, 2010, page 67-72), but the findings of the study cited in OrawanSilawanich’s(2010) study on “Social Administration Major – Students’ Professional Preparation for ASEAN Community’s Labor Forces” also revealed that the undergraduates’ ITC skills-based trainings as well as improvements for English proficiencies were respectively rated at a higher level. In addition to Bandit Sriputthangkoon’s study on Ministry of Education’s Preparation for ASEAN Community (2015 cited in 2012), not only undergraduates’ English language proficiency but also other neighboring countries’ language competencies served for negotiation situations, were required for teachers’ enhancement of their children’s self confidence in effective communication skills. Also the undergraduates’ readiness on ASEAN membership and citizenship played significant roles in three main aspects, namely:the political security, economic, and socio cultural co-operations in accordance with the Office of Higher Educational Commission (2010 : 67 - 72) which noted that Thai tertiary educational strategies for preparing in ASEAN community in 2015, as well as the graduates’ standard professional potentials were all resulted from Thai undergraduates’ enhancements of providing their various activities, educational opportunities as well as building their awareness of ASEAN citizenship. In terms of the northern tertiary educational institutions’ research-conducting in preparation for ASEAN community, it was stated thataccessible disseminationof their ASEAN researches in networking collaboration with their neighboring countries as well as researchers’ implications of their research databases served for their further studies, were all enhanced for the tertiary educational institutions’ strategies for the ASEAN community strengthening development. Meanwhile, enhancement of both Thai and ASEAN academic specialists’ research dissemination was different from their specific researcher recruitment and networking collaboration with ASEAN countries in which northern tertiary educational institutions’ implementation of research dissemination have been rarely explored because of no academic programs as well as fewer
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
194
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
numbers of Thai – ASEAN lecturers’ research grants, and their non-participation in conducting ASEAN researches, as cited in the Office of Higher Education Commission (2010 : 67-72). According to the study mentioned above, it was suggested that the provisions for the enhancement of international conferences, innovation-transferred dissemination, and research participation which were all implemented with paradigm-shifts, organizational administration, and innovation-transfer methods, were all required for tertiary educational institutions’ effective organizational management as well as international conferences organized by the Ministry of Education and research networks with co-tertiary educational institutions which should also be supported. In terms of the northern tertiary educational institutions’ academic services cited in the Office of Higher Education Commission (2010 : 16 – 24), it was stated that not only rapidly-global changes were directly affected by IT with its easy-to-access negotiations, but also educational, socio-cultural, and economic significances as mentioned in the ASEAN charter: “to provide people’s educational and life-long learning opportunities, as well as to enhance ASEAN people’s sustainable community strengthening development on their potentialities of sciences and ITC-based insightful skills”. In addition to Ar-porn Kaenwong’s study (2011: 11-17), tertiary educational institutions’ application of information technology and communications (ITC) for their study as well as the promotion of ASEAN countries’ potentiality of trading competition were all served for their economic growth and economic cooperation. However, the tertiary educational institutions’ ASEAN studies-related work plans and academic services on ITC taken from their libraries and indigenous learning centers, were both facilitated while financial grant allocations for the establishment of ASEAN art and cultural museums and exhibition halls were also supported. In terms of the tertiary educational institutions’ cultural readiness, it was stated that the undergraduates’ better understandings and awareness of their local and ASEAN cultures and information services on ASEAN cultural studies, should be more promoted because of their content integrations with other ASEAN undergraduates cultural studies-related courses as well as the tertiary educational institutions’ additional international conferences and panel discussions on ASEAN cultural studies. It was also obvious that cultural exchanges with ASEAN countries were important for undergraduates’ better understandings of ASEAN cultural studies whereas additional financial support for ASEAN countries’ international conferences and panel discussions on ASEAN cultural perspectives, should also be pursued for an effective project management. As cited in PreongKitratporn’s study on “Rajabhat Universities’ Preparation for ASEAN Community in 2015” (2012), he revealed that no financial budget allocations supporting effective task management were mostly seen in terms of Rajabhat universities’ preparation for ASEAN Community in 2015. Like other tertiary educational institutions’ economic growth as well as their potentialsfor trading competition at other regional levels geared at managing their sustainable educational developments cited in the Office of Higher Education Commission (2009 : 24 – 40), it was, indicated that tertiary educational institutions’ potentials of sustainable educational management
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
195
with their other insightful social and economic benefits should be urgently implicated in their preparation for the ASEAN community. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Special thanks to Asst. Prof. Dr.Tosapon Areenich, Asst. Prof. Dr. Suchart Leetragul, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Somsak Phuvipadawat, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Kiatsuda Srisook, and Asst. Prof. Dr. Chatsiri Piyapimonsit for their research. My team and I would like to thank our executive administrators, unit administrators, and lecturers working for the northern tertiary educational institutions for their assistance, and our thanks also go to Chiang Rai Rajabhat University for thesubsidies granted in the year 2013. REFERENCES 1. Ar-porn Kaenwong. (2011). Ana Analysis of East-West Economic Corridor-BasedTertiary Educational Institutions’ Educational Management in Preparation for ASEAN Membershipin 2015. Bangkok : Ministry of Education. 2. Bandit Sriputthangkoon. (2012). Ministry of Education’s Preparation for ASEAN Community in 2015. Cited on September 25th, 2012, via http://www.sriputtangul.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=204&Itemid=9 6. 3. Office of the Education Council. (2010). A Comparative Study of Thailand’s Educational Reform and ASEAN Countries. Bangkok : Ministry of Education. 4. Office of Higher Education Commission. (2011). Thailand’s Tertiary Educational Strategies in Preparation for ASEAN Community in 2015. Bangkok :Bangkokblock Cooperation. 5. OrawanSilawanich. (2010). Social Administration Major – Students’ Professional Preparation for ASEAN Community’s Labor Forces. (Master of Labor Development and Social Welfares). Bangkok :Thammasart University. 6. PreongKitratporn. (2012). Rajabhat Universities’ Preparation for ASEAN Community in 2015. Cited on September 27th, 2012, via http://web62.sskru.ac.th/aseansskru/maxsite/?name=knowledge&file=readknowledge&id=9. 7. Thailand Reform News Center. (2011). Thai Tertiary Institutions’ Preparation for ASEAN Community. Cited on September 27th, 2012, via http://www.thaireform.in.th/news- highlight/item/6301-2011-08-23-04-14-36.html
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
196
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
The Time Equation and the Weak Points of the Theoretical Demand and the Supply Curves in Microeconomic Theory Poramest Boonsri Department of Economics, Faculty of Management Science, Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University. 1061 Soi Itsarapub 15, Itsarapub Rd., Hirunrugee, Thonburi, Bangkok, 10600. *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The objective of this study is to search for the new principle of time dimension in all kinds of lines or curves with mathematically proof. The results of this study are as the following; first, when a line or the curve is drawn, the time for drawing has to be spent. Second, the time is the dimension, which can link all dimensions together. Third, inside all kinds of the number line, there are many numbers, and mathematicians use the numbers to represent everything in the universe. Forth, there are the time values hiding themselves inside the numbers, the time values may be the same as the numbers or the difference as them, Fifth, the basic concept of Newton on the relation among the distance (S), the time (t), and the velocity (v), can be used for proving mathematically. Sixth, the positions of the time values hiding themselves in the number line can be calculated by the equation I call “time equation”. Seventh, the time equation consists of four main dimensions as the following; (7.1) the s represents any number which a time value is hiding in it, the number can be measured its distance from the origin to it, (7.2) v = ds/dt represents the change of the distance of a number with respect to the change of time with a unit. (in physics, this value is called the velocity, but in economics it is called “marginal”, (7.3) the t represents the time value hiding itself in a number in the number line, (7.4) the n represents the time of doing integral in the time equation. The equation can be used to show the weak points of the theoretical demand and the supply curves in microeconomics theory. Keywords: Time Equation, Missing Link, Weak Point, Demand Curve, The Supply Curve. INTRODUCTION Many kinds of lines and curves are being used to explain the details of many subjects that students and teachers are studying and teaching respectively. Mathematicians teach the theory of graph, physicists use the sine wave to teach on the nature of waves, neoclassical economists use the demand and supply curves to explain how the prices of all products occur. Most of the people have always forgotten that when they are drawing a line, they must spend the time to complete the drawing. The length of the line has been longer if the time is longer. What is another factor affecting the length? The other factor affecting the length of the line is the velocity which is used; if the drawer rushes to draw the line, the used velocity is very fast, and the length of the line will be longer as well. The physical Newton’s concept about relation among distance (S), velocity (v = dS/dt), and time (t) can be used to find out the principle of the time
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
197
dimension in all lines and curves. The knowledge on time dimension in all lines and curves may help many academic persons to get some new views about time, and the higher levels of academic subjects will be lifted because the time dimension is in all dimensions in the universe. In other words, the time dimension in all kinds of the number lines which mathematicians use to represent everything may open the new knowledge in the academic world. MATERIALS AND METHODS The kind of this study is pure research; as the result, the physical Newton’s concept on the relation among distance (S), velocity (v = dS/dt), and time (t), or S = vt, and derivative and integral mathematics were used to find out the principle of the time dimension in all lines and curves. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The hypothesis which the time dimension is in a number line has been proven mathematically. Prove S = vt dS dt
d vt dt
dS dt dS dt
vd t dt
given v = constant
dS
v1 t 0
=
vdt
dS S
tdv dt
v dt vt
c1
if t = 0, then S = 0 (When a line was not drawn, the distance of the line is zero) if t = 0 and S = 0 , then c1 = 0 S = vt
Sdt
vt dt
Sdt
v tdt 1 vt (1 1 1!
Sdt
1 vt 1 1 2!
Sdtdt
The time equation is
n
S dt
n
1 vt 1 1 n!
1)
2
n
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
198
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
The Characteristics of the Time Equation The “S” symbol represents as the distance we always measure from the origin to any number in which a time value is hiding in the number. The “v” or “dS/dt” symbol represents as the ratio between the change of two distances and the change of two time values with a unit of time. In physics, physicists call dS/dt as “velocity”, while in economics the economists call it as “marginal”. The “t” symbol represents as a time value, and the “n” represents as the amount of time which is used to do with integral method. If someone wants to know a time value which has hidden itself in a number called “the determined number” at any distance which he/she wants to know, then he/she needs to determine the three values first; (1) n which has been used to describe the number of times for doing integral, n will have been determined as 0 when the straight line has been drawn, and n will have been determined as 1 if the parabola has been drawn, (2) the velocity or dS/dt or the ratio between the changing distance respecting to a unit of time changing, suppose that dS/dt has been determined as 5/1, this means the used velocity to draw a line is 5 centimeters per 1 second. If comparing between dS/dt as 5/1 and 10/1 with the same unit of the length, the conclusion of the speed of 10/1 is faster than 5/1, and (3) S or some distances from the origin to the points that we want to know the time values in the points. For example 1, if n is 0 time or doing nothing for integral, dS/dt is 5 centimeters per 1 second, and S as 5, 10, 15, 20 centimeters are determined, as the result, the time values at the distances from the origin will be calculated as 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively. For example 2, if n is 0 time or doing nothing for using integral, dS/dt is 10 centimeters per 1 second, and the time values from the origin to some distances are determined as 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively, as the result, the distances will be calculated as 10, 20, 50, 500 centimeters. For example 3, if n is 0 time or doing nothing for using integral, the time values from the origin to some distances are determined as 1, 3, 5, 7 respectively, and the distances are determined as 100, 300, 500, 700 centimeters; as the result, dS/dt will be calculated as 100 centimeters per 1 second. For example 4, if dS/dt is 5 centimeters per 1 second, the time values from the origin to some distances are determined as 1, 2, 4, 6 respectively, and the distances are determined 5, 10, 20, 30 centimeters respectively; as the result, n will be calculated as 0 or doing nothing for integral.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
199
(t3, v1, S3=3,1,3)
S
(t2, v1, S2=2,1,2) 3
(t1,v1, S1=1,1,1) 2 The number line 1
v Determined numbers
t Figure 1 shows the three determined numbers 1, 2, and 3 are the same positions of the three time values 1, 2, and 3 respectively. The determined numbers are far from the origin 1, 2, and 3 inches long respectively. The positions of the time dimension can be pointed exactly where they are. The time values always hide themselves in the determined numbers on the number line. The Time Equation and the Weak Point in the Theoretical Demand and the Supply Curve The time dimension especially the time value on the demand curve and the supply curve can show us some weak point in the microeconomic theory. Normally, when we draw lines with the same speed of two drawing, the longer line is drawn, the longer time is spent as well. The fact can be calculated by the time equation, and it can be used as the criteria to judge what the weak point is in the demand curve and the supply curve in the price microeconomic present theory that are thought in universities around the world. First of all, having brought some data of the demand curve from the Table 4-1 of the text book named “Economics eleventh edition” written by Richard Lipsey and Paul N. Courant printed in 1996 with the page 68 for calculating what the time values in the curve are, we can find the time values are hiding inside the demanded quantities with the thousand tons per month as the unit while the average income of a household being 30,000 dollars per a year. See some part of the table 4-1 of the book. See the third column of the Table 1.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
200
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 1 the relation between prices, the theoretical demanded quantities in the first to third columns, the last column shows the demanded quantities which were written with the time equation. Price per ton ($)
The demanded quantities
The demanded quantities with the form of the time equation
(thousand tons per month)
u
20
110.0
v
40
90.0
90.0 =
w
60
77.5
77.5 =
x
80
67.5
67.5 =
y
100
62.5
62.5 =
z
120
60.0
60.0 =
110.0 =
1 110.0 1 1 0 1 0! 1 90.0 1 1 0 1 0! 1 77.5 1 1 0 1 0! 1 67.5 1 1 0 1 0! 1 62.5 1 1 0 1 0! 1 60.0 1 1 0 1 0!
If the symbol Qd is represented the demanded quantity, and the row “u” was chosen and the demanded quantity 110.0 was rewritten for showing the time dimension inside it; as the result, the equation we will get as the following; Qd t
110.0thousand tons 1month
…………………..(1)
The equation is rearranged as following; Qd = 0 + (110.0) t …………………..(2) The second equation is rearranged again in the form of the time equation; as the result, the equation we will get as the following; 1 110.0 1 1 0 …………………..(3) 110.0 = 0 + 1 0! After that the second and the third equations are compared to each other; as the result, the time value hiding itself in the Qd will appear. 1 110.0 1 1 0 110.0 = 0 + 1 0! S
= 0 +
1 1 n!
v
t1
n
..……………...(4)
The Qd 110.0 is the “S” in the time equation, the value at the right hand side of the third equation, 110.0, is the “v” in the time equation, the value 0 is the “n” in the time equation, and the value 1 is the “t” in the time equation.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
201
CONCLUSION Having rewritten the table 4-1 following the time equation, we will get the new view of the table with the time values inside these demanded quantities. See the last column of the Table 1. The time values in the demand curve are calculated, they show the strange values of the time dimension in the theoretical demand curve. The time dimension t = 1 in all of the demanded quantities has the only one value instead of six values. The theoretical demand curve was not normal like a number line. P
P D
D t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1
t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1
D
D Q
Figure 2 shows that the time in the demand curve is abnormal.
Q Figure 3 shows the meaning of the time value as t = 1. Every point has to occur simultaneously on the different number lines with the origin as the frame of reference. The demand “curve”
The meaning of the demand curve with the one value of the time dimension is that all points of the demanded quantities are made simultaneously. It is discontinuous. Because of the discontinuity, the demand curve should be called “the demand points” instead. All points of the demand “curve” are on the different number lines. The mainstream neoclassical economists have linked all of points together and gave its name “the demand curve”. The demand “curve”, in short, is a imaginary curve we can see while we are living on the earth. Not only the time equation can indicate the weak point in economic theory, but also the weak point in mathematics such as Minkowski’s 4D space-time and Minkowski ‘s light cone and the new knowledge in physics such as time dimension as a vector not a scalar can be proven in the next paper.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
202
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
REFERENCES 1. M. Kaku and J. Trainner, “Beyond Einstein: The Cosmic Quest for the Theory of the Universe”, Bantam Book, New York, 1987. 2. P. Boonsri, "Time equation", Proceedings of the Research for Thai Sustainable Development, 2012, Bangkok, Thailand, pp.123-134. 3. , “The mathematic proof of time dimension as a Vector”, The Journal of the Royal Institute of Thailand, 2002, 27(2), 399-408. 4. P. Davies, “About Time: Einstein’s Unfinished Revolution”, Simon & Schuster, Singapore, 1995. 5. R.G. Lipsey and P.N. Courant, “Economics”, 11th ed., Harper Collins College, New York, 1996. pp.64-84. 6. S.W. Hawking, “A Brief History of Time”, Bantam, New York, 1988.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
203
Appropriate Agricultural Strategies for Small Farmers in Bataan, Philippines to Enhance Rice Self-Reliance Mel S. Abas1,2*, Chalermchai Apichart Traisaeng4
Panyadee1, Somkid Kaewthip1, Methee Payomyong3, and
1
School of Administrative Studies, MaeJo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand College of Engineering & Architecture, Bataan Peninsula State University, Capitol Compound, Balanga City-2100, Bataan, Philippines 3 Office of the National Economic & Social Development Board, Thailand 4 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand 2
*Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract: Attainment of self-reliance in rice production is extremely an important goal that small farmers in every farm community should achieve to ensure food security, such that rice is always accessible and affordable to all. The farmers need to be self-reliant in their agricultural production, self-sufficient in their own consumption and way of living. The study was to formulate agricultural strategies that would assist small farmers to enhance their self-reliance to increase their productivity and profitability in the long run. The study was conducted in selected barangays of Bataan, Philippines with a total sample of 380 household-respondents selected through systematic random sampling. Primary data were collected through structured interview involving farmers’ characteristics and their level of practice of self-reliance; farmers’ adoption of rice crop management technologies; their perception towards farm system and their allocation of time to farm-work, off-farm work and leisure. Descriptive and multiple regression analyses were employed to analyze the collected quantitative data. Multiple regression analysis showed that farm work, educational attainment, household size, used of own seeds and number of crops were the factors related to self-reliance at p 0.05. Focus group discussion was conducted and SWOT matrix strategy analyses were prepared to show the internal and external aspects impacting rice production in Bataan from which agricultural strategies for small farmers were developed. The formulated agricultural strategies promoted an approach called self-reliance in rice production that utilizes resources from the farm rather than relying on purchased inputs. In other words, self-reliant rice farming had low external inputs but high adoption of environmentally sound management practices which emphasizes food security and a resilient agro system with inbuilt assurance against climate change. Keywords: Agricultural Strategies, Small Farmers, Rice Self-reliance INTRODUCTION Bataan is one of the provinces in Central Luzon which contributes almost 5% of the region total production of rice [1]. Despite of this short production level, most of its residents nonetheless are dependent on rice farming which serves as one of the chief sources of livelihood aside from fishing and fish processing.AlthoughBataan is considered the microcosm of Philippines society, it faces the worsening problem of rice deficiency and increasing prices [2]. The decreasing trend in rice yield from 2008 to 2012 both in irrigated and rain fed areas is due to uncertainties in production [3]. Problems concerning rice production such as climate change (wet and dry), biological (poor or
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
204
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
low quality seeds, weeds, pests and diseases), physical (soil nutrients and water availability), and socioeconomic constraints contribute to the yield gap between actual farm yield and attainable yield. Other problems include limited farmland, lack of rights to land cultivation, low price of rice, environmental and ecological degradation [4] as well as inadequate irrigation and post-harvest facilities [2]. Appropriate agricultural practices should be utilized by small farmers in Bataan to solve problems in rice production especially on a climate change. But according to Teoh [5] how does one define appropriate and inappropriate agricultural practices? While it may be rather difficult to have a precise definition of appropriate agricultural practices, such practices should have attributes that support the underlying principles for sustainable agriculture that contribute to the overall objectives of sustainable development – to meet the needs at present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.Marinova and Hossain[6] stressed that self-reliant living is a viable mean of caring for nature andother human beings, and hence, for sustainability.Selfreliance as defined by UNHCR [7] is the social and economic ability of an individual, household or community to meet basic needs in a sustainable manner and with dignity. It refers to developing and strengthening livelihood of persons concerned, and reducing their vulnerability and long-term reliance on humanitarian or external assistance. It is one of the bases of effective community development and is connected to related concepts like self-help, mutual-help, indigenous participation and rural development. It advocates the need for people to improve their condition using local initiatives and resources in their own hands [8–9] and offer ordinary citizens the opportunity to share in making important decisions about their living conditions [10]. The Principle of Self-Reliance emphasized that development of “Man” must be suitable to geographical and social conditions and that there must be proper promotion of knowledge and modern technology. The development must be based on the principles of sustainable conservation and the development of natural resources [11]. His Majesty King Bhumibolof the Kingdom of Thailand has recommended a secure balance in the aspects of state of mind, social affairs, technology management, natural resource management and economic affairs to achieve the principle of self-reliance [12]. Studies had shown that local communities are endowed with considerable skills and abilities and that, in many situations, local initiatives constitute the only means of survival for the poor and disadvantaged, highlighting the importance of increasing local control over local resources [13]. Scoones and Chibudu [14] stressed that adopting a self-reliant approaches, particularly in times of adversity, such as during droughts, can promote the diversification of survival strategies which drawn on local knowledge indigenous in the communities involved and for LEISA [15] indigenous knowledge promotes self-reliance. Inselfreliancefarming, food safety and the reduction of household expenditures shouldbe highlighted. In addition to the existing indigenous knowledge, the disseminationof new agricultural innovations and technologies should also be priorities, as farmersrequire such innovation in order to produce higher yields. Farm and householdaccounts should also be established, as they are necessary financial management tools [16].Even though the principle of self-reliance is based on indigenous control and initiatives, the role of external change agents should not be ignored. Self-reliant participatory development processes normally requires an external catalyst to facilitate the start of the process and to support the growth of the process in its early phases [17].While external inputs may be considered contradictory to self-reliance, carefully chosen external support may be useful to overcome severe resource constraints, and provide a protective political umbrella [13]. However, support should be of a short term nature and should not suppress local initiative, skill or control. Notions of bottom-up development, empowerment and more democratic approaches to development are gaining acceptance amongst government and aid agencies [18]. It is therefore the initiative task of the researcher to find out what are the agricultural strategies appropriate for small farmersto enhance self-reliance in rice production and attainment of Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
205
self-reliance in rice production is extremely an important goal that small farmers in every farm community should achieve to ensure food security, such that rice is always accessible and affordable to all. The farmers need to be self-reliant in their agricultural production, self-sufficient in their own consumption and way of living METHODOLOGY Research Design A descriptive research design was employed in the study intended to set out the underlying principle for a more explicit approach to evaluate the activities and management practices involved in rice farming in Bataan, Philippines, to be better understood. Sampling Procedure The study was conducted from June 2012 to December 2012 in Bataan, Philippines in which multi-stage random sampling was employed. Four municipalities: Dinalupihan, Pilar, Hermosa, and Abucay were selected in random during the first stage of sampling, then 5 barangays were randomly selected from each sample municipality. The last stage involved selection of 19 households though systematic random sampling from each of the chosen sample barangays thus making a total sample size of 380. Data Collection Data were collected through the use of face to face personal interviews with the aid of structured questionnaires. The questionnaires were consisted of closed-ended questions and were reviewed by experts in the Bataan Agriculture Office to establish content and face validity. The experts were requested to give their opinion and suggestion on relevancy, accuracy and appropriateness of the items. Questionnaires were improved, refined and modified before it was subjected to pretest to 30 farmers who were not part of the sample. Responses from the farmers during the try-out were used to determine the questionnaire reliability. The overall Cronbach’s alpha values for questionnaires involving farmers’ perception toward farm system and farmers’ level of self-reliance were above 0.90 implying that all items/questions in each case appeared to be worthy of retention indicating good internal consistency of the items/questions in the scale, thus the researcher considered and retained all items for the Likert-type scale. Focus group discussion was also conducted among small farmersto identify their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to rice farming activities during the harvest seasons of year 2011. Data Analysis The obtained data were analyzed based on the objectives of the study using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS version 11.5) software. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the data and multiple regression analysis was employed to determine the predictors (independent variables) related to self-reliance.The SWOT analysis was utilized to evaluate the inputs gathered from which strategies were formulated aimed at enhancing self-reliance in rice production for small farmers in Bataan, Philippines. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Farmers’ characteristics and present status of rice farming in Bataan, Philippines It was revealed that the majority of the respondents belonged to the age bracket of 41-50 indicating that they were in their productive years to do rice farming activities wherein male farmers
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
206
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
dominated females in the study area while educational attainment was generally high among the respondents They had fairly average household size wherein majority of them belonged to the low income group and they generally practiced multi cropping in which rice being the dominant crop cultivated. It was also revealed in the study that there was a high adoption of land preparation practices and technologies among the farmer respondents; low adoption on the used of own seeds; high adoption of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides; inadequate irrigation facilities and low adoption of harvest and post-harvest facilities. The respondents had moderate to higher rate of time allocation to farm work to do rice farming activities. Farmers’ level of self-reliance The overall mean score of the respondent level of self-reliance as shown Table 1 was 3.414 which means “high” degree and this implies that the majority of the small farmers in Bataan practiced their way of living in a state of self-reliant sustainability involving a natural simple lifestyle for their basic needs with a high degree of responsibility and believe in their own capability to do things successfully with morality and patience in solving their own problems. In addition, they had awareness in utilization and conservation of natural resources and technologies in rice farming activities and they possessed a moderate level of practicing cooperation with the application of local wisdom in rice farming activities to strengthen the community. Moreover, a large portion of the respondents had a fair sense of responsibility in choosing and using appropriate technologies that were environmentally sound for their self-reliant sustainability. They had a moderate sense of capability of taking the full accountability for the management of these technologies not only to operate them but also understand, adapt, and develop further according to their basic needs in rice farming activities. Table 1 Farmers’ Level of Self-Reliance
Aspect Mean Score Criteria ____________________________________________________________________________ State of Mind 3.858 High Social Affairs 3.603 High Technology Management 3.016 Moderate Natural Resource Management 3.056 Moderate Economic Affairs 3.540 High _______________________________________________________________________________ Overall Mean 3.414 High ________________________________________________________________________________ Factors Related to Self-Reliance Based on the multiple regression model as shown in Table 2, the regression coefficient (R) value of 0.977 or 97.7 % indicates very high relationship between the dependent variable (farmers’ level of self-reliance) and the five predictors of explanatory variables, such as farm work, educational attainment, household size, number of crops, and used of own seeds. Farm work was the highest predictor of Farmers’ level of self-reliance with standardized regression coefficient of 0.603, significant at p 0.05). The positive regression coefficient impliesthat farm work and farmers’ level of self-reliance are positively related. Increase in
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
207
allocation of time to farm work leads to self-reliance. A change of farm work time allocation by 1 per cent translates into a change in variance for self-reliance by 0.603. Number of crops of small farmer respondents had a standardized regression coefficient of 0.179, significant at p 0.05. The positive regression coefficient implies that the number of cropsby the respondents and their level of self-reliance are positively related. This implies that addition of one crop cultivated by the farmer aside from rice crop increases farmer’s level of self-reliance by 0.179.Educational attainment had a standardized regression coefficient of 0.103, significant at p 0.05. The positive regression coefficient implies that respondents’ educational level and their level of self-reliance are positively related. Increase in respondents’ educational attainment by one level translates into a change in variance for self-reliance by 0.103. Predictor “used own seeds” as respondents’ adoption of rice crop management technology/practice had a standardized regression coefficient of 0.015, significant at p 0.05. The positive regression coefficient implies that farmers’ adoption on “used of own seeds” in rice production and their level of self-reliance are positively related. Increase in the adoption of such rice crop management technology leads to an increase in farmers’ level of selfreliance. As Kundaji [19] stressed, if the integrity of farming is to be restored and preserved, it is crucial for farmers to resist the corporate grip over seeds and regain and retain self-reliance in this and other inputs. Predictor household size had a standardized regression coefficient of 0.031, significant at p 0.05. The positive regression coefficient of household size and the respondents’ level of self-reliance are positively related. This indicates that an additional of one household member leads to an increase in farmer’s level of self-reliance by 0.031. This is expected relationship because large household size should lead to high level of self-reliance due to availability of human labor.The rest of the predictors had p 0.05 which implies negative impact on the dependent variable. Therefore, the regression model can be written as follows: Y = 0.331 + 3.487 X3 + 2.33X7 + 5.734 X9 + 5.467 X13 + 2.107X14 + 7.956 X15 Where: Y = Farmers’ Level of Self-Reliance, X3 = used own seeds, X4 = farm work, X7 = educational attainment, X8 = household size, and X10 = number of crops.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
208
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 2 Factors Related to Self-Reliance Unstandardized Stdzd. Regression Significant Collinearity Coefficients Coefficient Coefficient Level Statistics Independent Variable Std. B Error Beta t-value (sig) Tolerance VIF ________________________________________________________________________________ Constant 0.165 0.499 0.331 0.741 Used recommended -7.689E-05 0.021 0.000 -0.004 0.997 0.602 1.660 variety of seeds in in the area Used certified seeds -6.974E-05 0.018 0.000 -0.004 0.947 0.503 1.987 Used own seeds 0.073 0.021 0.053 3.487 0.001** 0.550 1.817 Goals & values 0.011 0.022 0.010 0.500 0.617 0.319 3.134 subsystem Technical subsystem -0.031 0.032 -0.024 -0.967 0.334 0.200 5.000 Organizational -0.005 0.019 -0.004 -0.253 0.800 0.420 2.384 structural subsystem Managerial subsystem 0.040 0.017 0.039 2.333 0.020** 0.422 2.263 Informal structural 0.003 0.018 0.004 0.177 0.859 0.321 3.112 subsystem Farm work 0.034 0.006 0.603 5.734 0.000** 0.011 87.452 Off-farm work -0.002 0.005 -0.036 -0.411 0.682 0.036 60.079 Leisure -0.001 0.005 -0.010 -0.294 0.769 0.102 9.786 Educational attainment 0.019 0.003 0.103 5.467 0.000** 0.356 2.808 Household size 0.007 0.003 0.031 2.107 0.036** 0.575 1.738 Total annual income -7.689E-10 0.000 -0.011 -0.937 0.349 0.884 1.132 Number of crops 0.153 0.019 0.179 7.956 0.000** 0.250 4.001 ________________________________________________________________________________ Formulation of Agricultural Strategies Based on the identified strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats encountered by small farmer participants in rice farming activities as they revealed during focus group discussion, the researcher came up to a crucial analyses of the aforesaid aspects including the findings on the interview schedule concerning the respondents’ characteristics, their current status in rice farming activities, and the respondents’ level of self-reliance from which all of these were made as the bases in the formulation and development of agricultural strategies appropriate to their current needs in order to enhance their self-reliance in rice production. Thus, the SWOT Matrix Strategy Analyses are summarized as shown in Table 3 and 4.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
209
Table 3 S-O and S-T Matrix Strategy Analyses External
Internal STRENGHTS 1.High level of self-reliance 2.High adoption of land preparation 3.Committed support of government offices and officials 4.Optimized time allocation to farm work 5.Active farmers’ organization
OPPORTUNITIES 1.Availability of agricultural equipment for adoption 2. Increase seed production 3.Availability and accessibility to natural resources 4.Adequate and efficient irrigation facilities 1. Promote the use of own seed production considering the compatibility of the seeds with the farm conditions, like weather, soil, cropping system of the and marketability, like cooking properties, taste, and cultural factor. 2.Adoption of water-saving technologies 3. Improve efficiency of irrigation system a. Proper field leveling b. Furrow diking c. Residual management and conservation tillage 4. Practice of indigenous sustainable farming while having the access to natural resources 5.Strengthen farmers organization to provide assistance to farmer members
THREATS 1.Climate change due to global warming 2.Continuing increase in cost of farm inputs 3. Pests and diseases 4. Calamities 1.Raise awareness on climate change 1.1 Adaptation technologies andpractices for rice farming a. Increasing water/rainfall use efficiency b. Improve field management c. Increase resilience of the crop production system c.1 Adoption of organic agriculture c.2 soil and watersaving technologies c.3 adjustment of cropping calendar 1.2 Mitigation Strategies in rice farming a. Use rice varieties with low methane emission potential or indigenous rice varieties for climate change b.Improved rice crop management to increase soil carbon storage c.Improved rice-growing techniques to reduce methane emissions 2.Minimize consumption of farm inputs 3.Raise awareness on disaster risk reduction protocol.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
210
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 4 W-O and W-T Matrix Strategy Analyses External
Internal WEAKNESSES 1.Low production yield 2.High cost of production inputs 3.Low adoption of using own seeds 4.Low level of farm mechanization 5.Inadequate irrigation facilities 6. Burning of rice straw and indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides
OPPORTUNITIES
THREATS
1. Availability of agricultural equipment for adoption 2. Increase seed production 3. Availability and accessibility to natural resources 4. Adequate and efficient irrigation facilities 1. Adoption and utilization of more efficient post harvest facilities and other modern equipment based farming system/technology 2.Improve planting methods 3. Increase awareness on the importance of quality seed and promote the production of local rice with high quality varieties that are appropriate for the rice-growing ecology. 4. Improving soil fertility by using organic fertilizer 5. Promote a variety of approaches of attaining low external input and sustainable rice farming such as traditional, indigenous, organic, ecological, regenerative, and resource conserving agriculture. 6. Adoption of appropriate management strategies in natural resource conservation a. Balanced use of nutrients and organic matter b. Diversity of genetic resources c. Minimal negative environmental effects
1.Climate change due to global warming 2.Continuing increase in cost of farm inputs 3. Pests and diseases 4. Calamities 1. Use adaptation techniques in response to climatic stimuli involving changes in cropping patterns and cropping calendar, improved farm management and use of climate resilient crop varieties. 2. Farm waste and residues for conversion to organic fertilizer to minimize the cost of farm inputs. 3. Adoption of improved and sound natural practices or environmentally friendly methods for disease and pest management.
The aforesaid formulated agricultural strategies promote an approach called self-reliance in rice production because it uses resources from the farm itself rather than relying on purchased inputs which emphasizes food security and a resilient agro system with inbuilt assurance against climate change for sustainable green and organic agriculture. CONCLUSION The present investigation showed that farmers’ major concerns were the low production yield, high cost of production inputs, low adoption of using own seeds, low level of farm mechanization, inadequate irrigation facilities, and burning of rice straw and indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides. Calamities, continuous increase in farm inputs, pests and diseases, were the major constraint to rice farming activities which could be attributed by climate change. These
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
211
were made the bases to prepare a SWOT matrix analyses and developed appropriate agricultural strategies for small farmers an approach called self-reliance in rice production that had low external inputs but high internal regeneration of inputs and emphasized food security and a resilient agro system with inbuilt assurance against climate change. The formulated strategies could bring positive impact among small farmers in Bataan to improve their productivity and income in an ecologically sound way. Specifically, the following are the benefits the formulated strategies could provide the small farmers, the community, and the environment: 1) improving the ecological stability and overall productivity whilst reducing risks and making more efficient use of inputs; 2) achieving higher synergy whereby minimizing the use of external inputs that are environmentally unfriendly through enhanced self-reliant rice farming practices; 3) enhancing rice yield thus promoting food security and financial viability of the farmers by reducing costs; 4) reducing or excluding agro-chemicals and other external inputs that threatening agricultural sustainability; 5) reducing the vulnerability to climate change by reducing greenhouse gases emissions and reducing losses and waste in rice production; 6) building the community and improving the welfare and standard of living of the people; and 7) strengthening small farmers’ community-based organizations. Spreading the formulated agricultural strategies successfully requires the users; the small farmers themselves to be able to both discern the potential benefits of the technologies and develop a clear understanding of how to actually fully achieve the benefits. Training sessions and information campaigns therefore need to emphasize the benefits for farmers when introducing said agricultural strategies. Slowly shift the practice to self-reliant rice farming activities involving natural processes so that farmers will not experience a sudden and drastic drop on rice yield. Shifting immediately to organic fertilizer without certain soil conditioning will surely have a bad harvest. There should be a clean and comprehensive conservation policy on rice paddies and it is deemed to be incorporated in the municipal provision of Bataan on environmental protection on natural resources conservation. Ordinance on not burning of rice straw and other crop residues showed be introduced.Future research should be undertaken to further evaluate the ecological soundness, economic viability and social justice of the formulated agricultural strategies after one or two years of adoption. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The realization of this Ph.D. dissertation is made possible through the scholarship grants provided by Maejo University as part of the Memorandum of Agreement between MJU and Bataan Peninsula State University. Due and utmost recognition is conveyed to Dr. DelfinMagpantay, BPSU President for endorsing the author to avail said scholarship and to Dean Rodrigo Muñoz, for his recommendation. To Dr. ThepPhongparnich, former President of MJU for hispersistent help and support; to Dr. ChalermchaiPanyadee and the members of Ph.D. Committee for their untiring efforts and contributionsto finish this endeavor; to my wife and my children who serve as my inspirations and above all to Supreme Deity, the Almighty God for His guidance and countless blessings. REFERENCES 1. 2.
Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, Statistical Database Production of Rice in Central Luzon, www.bas.gov.ph 2011. Calderon R.P., Paguia H.M., and Flores R. C. Continuing Rice Deficiency: Pre-Condition for Food Crisis in the Philippines. Paper Presented to the Bataan Provincial Meeting-Bataan Rice
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
212
3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Forum held at Bulwaganng Kapayapan, Capitol Compound, Balanga City, Bataan on April 25, 2008 with original title of “Do We Have A Rice Crisis?”. Bataan Agricultural Office. Rice Production in Bataan Province. Current Data Taken at BAO, November 15, 2011. Philrice. Sources of Production Growth.ThePhilippine Rice Master Plan2009-2013.120p. 2009 Teoh, Cheng Hai. Appropriate Agricultural Practices for Environmental Sustainability: Lessons from the Oil Palm Industry. Paper Presented during the APO Seminar on Better Agricultural Practices for Environmental Sustainability, 6-13 August 2003, Japan Marinova, D. and Hossain, A. Principles for Self-Reliance and Sustainability: Case Study of Bangladesh. Proceedings of the Anti-Poverty Academic Conference with International Participation, Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy, MurdochUniversity, Perth. 2006. UNHCR.Promoting Livelihoods and Self-reliance Operational Guidance on Refugee Protection and Solutions in Urban Areas .UNHCR / R. Nuri / April 2009 Fonchingong, Charles C. and Fonjong, Lotsmart N. The Concept of Self-Reliance. Nordic Journal of African Studies. 2003. 12(2):196-219. Ghari, D. et al. The Basic Needs Approach to Development: Some Issues regarding Concepts & Methodology, Geneva: ILO Publication 1980. Galtung, J. et al (eds). Self-Reliance: A Strategy for Development. 1980. London: BogleL’Ouverture publications. ThaiEmbassy. Philosophy of Sufficiency Economy. www.thaiembassy.com. (June 13, 2011) UN ESCAP. Green Growth at a Glance: The Way Forward for Asia and Pacific, UNEP RRCAP Resources, 2006. Gooneratne, W., Mbilinyi, M., (Eds), Reviving Local Self-Reliance. United Nations Centre for Regional Development, 1992. Nagoya. Scoones, I and Chibudu, C. Hazards and Opportunities: Farming Livelihoods in Dryland Africa: Lessons from Zimbabwe, 1996, London; Zed LEISA.ILEIA Newsletter for Low External Input & Sustainable Agriculture. English Edition ISBN: 90-804349-1-4. 1997-1998. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. pp. 27-30. Pattanapant, Arpaphan and Shivakoti, Ganesh P. Opportunities and Constraints of Organic Agriculture in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Asia-Pacific Development Journal Vol. 16, No. 1, June 2009. Burkey, S. People First: A Guide to Self-Reliant, Partcipatory Rural Development. 1993. London:Zed Nel, E., T. Hill, & T. Binns. Development from Below in the New South Africa: The Case of Hertzog, Eastern Cape. 1997. Geog’l J. 163:57-64. Kundaji, Deepika.Farmers as seed breeders and custodians. Third World Resurgence. No. 230 ,October 2009.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
213
Conducive Business Environment: A Measurement of Local Authority Integrity Othman Mohd Yunus1*, HasnunAnip Bustaman1, Khalizani Khalid1 1
Universiti Teknologi MARA (Perak), Malaysia
* Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Being the lowest level in the system of government, the local authority or better known as the local government is vested with the power to plan, develop, and regulate businesses in the area within its jurisdiction. It plays a significant role in creating a conducive environment for businesses to grow and flourish. Discharging these responsibilities require a certain degree of integrity among its employees. This paper reports on a study that investigated integrity orientation among officers of the local authorities. A total of 100 employees of a local city council responded to a self-administered questionnaire on integrity. The results revealed that respondents scored a moderately high orientation on the integrity scale. The development of the integrity instrument is also discussed. Keywords: Integrity, Local Authority, Business Environment, Counterproductive Behavior
INTRODUCTION Public servants serve the governments both at the central or federal and local level. At the federal level, public servants play an important role in developing and executing policies concerning foreign relations, national defense and national economic policy. Public servants serving the local authority or local government at the local level, meanwhile play both mandatory and discretionary functions. The mandatory functions include all critical functions such as refuse collection, street lighting and activities pertaining to public health which include licensing of hawkers, stall holders, shop and business operators. Discretionary functions, on the other hand, include all development functions such as providing amenities, recreational parks, housing and commercial activities [1]. All these roles and functions played by public servants help shape a conducive environment for businesses to flourish. Conducive business environment is defined as a complex of policy, legal, institutional and regulatory conditions that govern business activities. It is a sub-set of the investment climate and includes the administration and enforcement mechanisms established to implement government policy, as well as the institutional arrangements that influence the way key actors (e.g., government agencies, regulatory authorities, business organizations, trade unions, etc.) operate [2]. The definition highlights the significant role played by the government and its agencies. All these activities require proper planning and execution of policies thus relying on the effective functioning of employees of local government i.e. the public servants.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
214
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Dissatisfaction among the public and businesses run high when they perceived local authorities’ performance were not up to their expectations. In the context of Malaysia, the public has, from time to time, made allegations of local government gross inefficiency, abuse of power, corrupt practices and poor planning which are highlighted in the local dailies [3-4]. Simply put it, the public expects integrity in local governments. Therefore, every effort and reform strategies must be directed to enhance their skills, competencies and attitude. These reform strategies are with the objective to enable civil servants through their work activities create a sustainable conducive business environment. Programs and training carried out must bring about changes in the attitude of the civil servants towards being more positive, innovative, disciplined, responsible, and efficient. Literature The literature shows that early development of integrity tests was for the practical purpose at reducing organizational issues of counterproductive and deviant workplace behaviors. Through assessment, organizations hoped to identify employees who pose a future risk to the organizations in the context of engaging in counterproductive workplace behaviors so that early intervention can be administered [5]. According to Ones and Viswesvaran [6], there are already in the market more than 40 published integrity tests. Nonetheless, there is still a need to develop one for the basic reason that integrity is culture-based – an outcome and reflection of society values and norms. Since between cultures there may exist some variation to the term “integrity” therefore, there is a need to develop a specific test to measure integrity as perceived by a particular group and in the context of this study on Malaysia’s local authorities. The aim of this study is to construct a test instrument that measures integrity and in the process gauge the integrity orientation among employees of the local authority. The level of integrity orientation among local authority employees in this study is achieved through the following question; # Do employees of local authority have high orientation towards integrity? This question is refined through the following hypothesis; ## There is a significant difference in the level of integrity among employees of local authority based on demographic factors. METHODOLOGY Using the convenience sampling technique, 100 employees of a local authority responded to the integrity test instrument developed. In general the test developed measures an employee’s attitude towards counterproductive behaviors at workplace; the results of which determine their orientation towards integrity. The final questionnaire was prepared bilingually (Malay and English). The survey instrument consists of two parts; Section A – the respondents’ demographic factors and Section B – integrity scale. All questionnaires returned were suitable to be used in the final analysis.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
215
Development of test instrument The development of the integrity test for this study was modeled from the work of Klockars, Ivkovich, Harver, and Haberfeld [7]. Within this model, key constructs of integrity were first identified followed with items that measure respondents’ attitude toward the constructs. It is important to identify the key constructs of integrity makeup in order to avoid confusion about what the test actually measures, thus, the need to define “integrity” clearly. Murphy [8] defines “integrity” as the extent to which a person lives up to his/her personal ideals and values. Coyne [9] however argues that looking at the definition alone is not sufficient to identify the key constructs of integrity. Researchers must also analyze the purpose of the test being developed or what the test aims to predict. Accordingly, an integrity test is an assessment of an individual’s disposition or attitude relating to counterproductive behavior in an organization. Counterproductive behavior, on the other hand, refers to “any act by a member of an organization that is likely to cause harm and bring no benefit to the organization and its members as a whole” [10]. Counterproductive work behavior is also referred to “any intentional behavior of a member viewed as contrary to legitimate interests of the organization” [11]. Counterproductive behaviors also include deviant work behavior of which Robinson and Bennet [12] defined as “voluntary behavior that violates organizational norms that threatens the wellbeing of an organization and its members”. Thus, an organization uses the integrity test to identify and reduce members’ “disruptive” behavior that runs contrary to the organization rules and regulations and which can cause harm to the organization and its members. Members so identified are considered as individual employees having low integrity. Results of Ones and Viswesvaran’s [13] study on 724,806 job applicants showed an interesting finding where women applicants were found to score higher on integrity tests than men while, on age differences, very small differences between older job applicants (40 years old and older) and younger job applicants (younger than 40) were found. Integrity as an organizational virtue distinguishes “right” and “wrong” workplace behaviors, and in the process set the parameter of the “dos” and don’ts”. Behaviors that breach the dos or displaying the don’ts are not warranted as they do not benefit the organization and also threaten the organization’s very own existence. Since this study tried to identify key constructs of integrity makeup for employees of the local authority who are also public servants in statutory body, the literature review on policies and directives that governed Malaysian public servants’ behavior was done with special emphasis on the Malaysia Public Officers (Conduct and Discipline) Regulations 1993 (General Orders) [14], Malaysia Anti-Corruption Act 1997 [15], and Malaysia Statutory Bodies (Discipline and Surcharge) Act 2000 (Act 605) [16]. The result of the review identified behaviors considered as counterproductive to the organization which ranged from abuse of work hours to misuse of position for personal gains. Altogether, 12 key constructs were identified. In order to conduct a survey on employees’ attitude towards these constructs, hypothetical scenarios were developed. Table 1 presents both key constructs of integrity makeup and hypothetical scenarios representing the constructs.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
216
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 1 Results of the part-whole correlations test of the Integrity Scale (N = 100) No 1
2 3
Key Integrity Constructs (Counterproductive Behaviors) Absence from duty. (A failure to be present for any length of time at a time and place where the employee is required to be present for the performance of his duties). Using one’s position as an employee for personal advantage.
5
Failure to exercise disciplinary control and supervision over subordinate, as an officer Involved in the activity of lending money at interest, either with or without security. Lack of efficiency or industry.
6
Being irresponsible.
7
Being dishonest or untrustworthy.
8
Bringing one’s private interests into conflict with one’s duty to the organization.
9
Using one’s position as an officer over his/her subordinates for personal advantage.
10
Insubordination of one’s duty to one’s private interests. (Taking part, either directly or indirectly, in the management or dealings of any commercial undertaking). Insubordination or conducting him/herself in any manner which can be reasonably construed as being insubordinate. Giving or accepting bribe.
4
11
12
Hypothetical Scenarios on Counterproductive Behavior. On an ordinary workday, a staff goes for a coffee break at 0900 hours before coming back to office at 1000 hours.
.233*
A staff takes home a few pencils and some A4 paper from the office for his or her children to do their homework. A supervisor lets an employee under his or her supervision to photocopy the latter’s child school workbook. Evaluate the supervisor’s behavior. A staff gives financial loans to the other staff in need at 7% interest.
.415**
A staff intentionally slows his daily task to enable him or her to get permission to work overtime on the excuse he or she has too many tasks and cannot complete them on time. A staff finds office tools and equipments lying unattended under the poor weather but leaves them as they are without any attempt to move/place the tools and equipments away from the weather. A staff on an outstation trip slept in his or her relative’s house but has asked a friend working in a hotel to issue a hotel billing for a room to enable him or her to claim for hotel allowance. A staff knows that his or her office is going to auction the office equipment and uses his or her friend’s company to bid for the equipment at a competitive price from his or her competitors. A supervisor gave to his or her subordinate a sum of money to buy lunch for him or her with the balance of the money for the staff to buy anything for his/her need. Evaluate the SUPERVISOR’S BEHAVIOUR. A staff enggaged in direct selling brings to office flyers of the company products to distribute them to other employees/staff who want to buy them.
.531**
A staff who attends a meeting on placement informed his or her office mates the outcome of the meeting immediately after he or she leaves the meeting.
.585**
A staff promises a treat to a colleague in-charge of overtime claim to help process his or her claim which have been overdue for 4 months
.437**
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
r
.453** .470**
.591**
.541**
.520**
.371**
.321**
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
217
Attitudinal scale as a measure of integrity Once the integrity constructs were identified and the hypothetical scenarios were developed, the next step was to develop a measure that could gauge the level of individual integrity. This study chose to focus on developing the attitude scale within the overt test. Being a culture-based concept, orientation towards integrity is best measured using attitudinal scale. The scale designed applied questions of facts and opinions directed at the respondents without arousing their resistance. This was made possible by applying non-threatening or non-provocative questions about respondents’ knowledge of their organizational rules and their opinions about the seriousness of particular violations, the punishment warranted for such violations, and their opinion on how willing employees are to report such misconducts. As such, attitudinal scale could easily measure the level of seriousness that organizational members regarded to behaviors as misconducts and how supportive they were towards the kind of punishment meted to offenders. The questions designed were as follow: 1. Is this behavior considred as going against your organization’s policy? 2. In your opinion, how serious an attention should be given to this behavior? 3. If your colleague engaged in this behavior and is caught, what would be the most appropriate diciplinary action imposed upon him/her? 4. Would you report your friend who engaged in this behavior? Using these questions and the Likert scale, respondents were asked to give their opinions related to the set of hypothetical counterproductive behaviors scenarios developed from the key constructs of integrity identified for local government employees. Since the measure of integrity is used to infer to the employees’ orientation those scoring high on integrity scale are less likely to engage in counterproductive workplace behavior. Reliability of test instrument In determining the reliability of the integrity test instrument developed, the Cronbach's coefficient alpha test which provides indicators of internal consistency, was employed. Since each of the 12 hypothetical scenarios that represented the 12 integrity constructs developed was measured using four attitude-related questions, all together the test instrument consists of 48 attitude-related questions. Analysis of these 48 attitude-related questions yielded a coefficient alpha of 0.91. The result thus found the test instrument developed to be highly reliable. According to Nunnally [17], an alpha value of 0.80 is sufficiently high for research purposes. For test of validity, a part-whole correlation analysis was used. This analysis was considered on the basis that integrity is a single construct (unidimensional) variable. The advantages of a partwhole correlation analysis are its ability to evaluate the construct and the adequacy of the test in measuring the construct. In performing a part-whole correlations test, the mean score of the attituderelated items that measures each of the key constructs of integrity was correlated against the overall mean score of the integrity constructs. The correlation results showed that 5 of the 12 key constructs of integrity as having correlation coefficient of .50; four having coefficients of .40; two with coefficients of .30, and one having coefficient of .20. The results presented in Table 1 show that except for item number 1, all other items correlated moderately with the overall score of the integrity constructs. All correlations are however significant. Therefore, it is concluded that all items served their function as a measure of integrity. All items were also accepted as measures of integrity on the basis that the correlation values would have increased if used on a larger sample
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
218
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
size. Overall, the findings of this research showed that the integrity test instrument developed is valid and reliable. In analyzing the research question and hypothesis the overall mean score was used as a basis to determine the level of integrity and to test the differences in the contexts of demographic factorsthe t-test and ANOVA analyses were used. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Since the integrity instrument consisted of twelve scenarios; with each having four attitudinal responses, the score when averaged yielded a summary score of between 48 and 240 hence, reflecting the respondents’ integrity level. In order to categorize the integrity level into low, moderate, and high, the scores were divided into three. A score of between 48 and 112 was considered as low integrity orientation; a score between 113 and 176 was categorized as moderate while a score between 177 and 240 was considered as high integrity orientations. Overall, the results of this study showed that respondents (n=100) recorded a moderately high means score of M=153.84 (SD = 18.69) on the integrity scale. Therefore, it can be concluded that the respondents’ orientation towards integrity was moderately high. In the context of gender differences, the results showed that both female and male respondents scored moderately high on the integrity scale; M=152.50 (SD=18.80) and M=156.69 (SD=18.42) respectively, but the differences were not significant [t(98) = 1.046, p=.29]. The differences between respondents who were single and those married were also not significant [t(98) = -1.841, p=.06] with both respondents scoring moderately high on the integrity scale [single mean score was M=149.30 (SD=19.20) and married mean score was M=156.69 (SD=18.05)]. In terms of academic qualifications, the results revealed that differences between respondents who had tertiary qualifications and those who had not were also not significant [t(98) = .808, p=.42]. Respondents with or without tertiary qualifications also equally scored moderately high on the integrity scale with mean score for tertiary at M=155.05 (SD=20.59) and for those without tertiary qualifications at M=151.95 (SD=15.33). In terms of age group differences, the results showed that the mean score for respondents in the age group below 30 years old was M=149.43 (SD=18.37), for the age group of 31-40 was M=156.00 (SD=20.17), and for those aged 41 and above was M=156.47 (SD=16.84). The orientations towards integrity among respondents based on their age group were thus considered moderately high. Results of the ANOVA test on the sample size (n=100) showed that no significant differences between the age groups on the integrity scale at [F(2, 97) = 1.52, p=.22]. In the context of job status, the results showed that the mean score for respondents in the Managerial group (M=153.17, SD=24.50), Supervisory group (M=154.21, SD=15.88), and Nonsupervisory group (M=153.89, SD=17.58) were also moderately high. Results of the ANOVA test on the sample size (n=100) also showed that there were no significant differences between respondents on the integrity scale based on job status category [F(2, 97) = .023,p=.98]. For length of service, the results also demonstrated no significant differences on the integrity scale [F(2, 97)=1.089, p=.34] between respondents whose services were less than 10 years, between 11 years and 20 years, and those whose services were more than 21 years. Respondents’ orientation towards integrity based on their length of service was also moderately high with the mean score for those in service for less than 10 years at M=151.31 (SD=17.33); between 11 years and 20 years at M=155.68 (SD=21.87);and those in service for more than 21 years, M=158.91 (SD=11.99). The results of this study thus revealed that there were no significant differences in the level of orientation towards integrity based on demographic factors of gender, age, academic qualification, age, position and tenure.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
219
In considering the outcome of this survey, the overriding factor that emerged was the tradeoff between job role and integrity on the job. According to Hogan and Hogan [18], a positive score on integrity tests should be considered in reference to job types. For jobs that require rule adherence and attention to procedures, candidates scoring high onintegrity scale should be considered as compared to jobs that require creativity, imaginative, and flexibleness. Organizations should therefore carefully avoid from falling into the trap in wishing for a highly moralistic and honest employees without giving consideration of what the organization actually need their employees to be in relation to the job itself. CONCLUSION This research focused on the development of an integrity test instrument. As integrity is a culture-based concept, it is important to develop one that suits the local culture and in the context of this study, the public servants serving the local authority in Malaysia. The use of attitudinal measure was relevant since it determined individuals’ behaviors and actions. While the results showed that the test instrument developed was valid and reliable, further test on the instrument using a larger and a more representative sample size is necessary to see whether the results of the current study hold. Finally, the exploration of integrity orientation among respondents who are employees in a local government in this study is intended only to reflect a general idea about their attitude and orientation towards integrity in their work environment. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) on Human Settlements, “Evolution of Local Government, its Legal and Political Background”, available at http://www.unescap.org/huset/lgstudy/country/malaysia/malaysia.html Donor Committee for Enterprise Development (DCED), “Supporting Business Environment Reforms: Practical Guidance for Development Agencies”, 2008Edition, available at http://rru.worldbank.org/documents/DonorGuidance.pdf N.A. Siddiquee, “Combating Corruption and Managing Integrity in Malaysia: A Critical Overview of Recent Strategies and Initiatives”, Public Organiz Rev, 2010, 10,153–171. N.A. Siddiquee and M.Z. Mohamed, “Paradox of public sector reforms in Malaysia: A good governance perspective”, Public Administration Quarterly. Randallstown, 2007, 31, Iss. 3, p. 284. P. R. Sackett, L. R. Burris and C. Callahan, “Integrity testing for personnel selection: An update”, Personnel Psychology, 1989, 42, 491-529. D. S. Ones and C. Viswesvaran, “Integrity Testing in Organizations”, in R. W. Griffin, A. O’Leary-Kelly, & J. M. Collins (Eds.), Dysfunctional behavior in organizations: Vol. 2, Nonviolent behaviors in organizations, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1998a. C.B. Klockars, S.K. Ivkovich, W.E. Harver, and M.R. Haberfeld, “The Measurement of Police Integrity”, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, 2000, National Institute of Justice. Available in: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/181465.pdf K. R. Murphy, “Honesty in the Workplace. Belmont”, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1993. I. Coyne, Integrity testing in organizational context, In M. Born, C.D. Foxcroft& R. Butter (Eds.), “Online Readings in Testing and Assessment, International Test Commission”, http://www.intestcom.org/Publications/ORTA.php
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
220
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
10.
B. Marcus, H. Schuler, P. Quell and G. Humpfner, “Measuring counter productivity: Development and initial validation of a German self-report questionnaire”, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 2002, 10, 18-35. M. L., Gruys and P. R. Sackett, “Investigating the dimensionality of counterproductive workplace behavior”, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 2003, 11, 30-42. S. L. Robinson and R. J. Bennet, “A typology of deviant workplace behaviours: A multidimensional scaling study”, Academy of Management Journal, 1995, 38, 555-572. D. S. Ones and C. Viswesvaran, “Gender, age, and race differences on overt integrity tests: Results across four large-scale job applicant datasets”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 1998b, 83(1), Feb, 35-42. Malaysia Public Officers (Conduct and Discipline) Regulations 1993 (General Orders). Malaysia Anti-Corruption Act 1997, (Act 575). Malaysia Statutory Bodies (Discipline and Surcharge) Act 2000, (Act 605). J. Nunnally, “Psychometric theory (2nd ed.)”, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. R. Hogan and J. Hogan, “Hogan Personality Inventory manual (2 nd ed.)”, Tulsa, OK: Hogan Assessment Systems, 1995.
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
221
Network Dynamics in the Organic Product Supply Chain of the Bicol Region, Philippines Ma Cresilda M. Caning College of Economics and Management, Central Bicol State University of Agriculture, Pili, Camarines Sur, Philippines *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Organic products are becoming one of the growing segments of the food market in Camarines Sur where the number of organic farmers and consumers are increasing. A parallel development in the industry is the noticeable increase in the number of organizations, both public and private, supporting organic farming. Organic farmers are starting to carve a niche for their products and a growing number of farm products are being produced organically. As the number of players and subsequent demand increase, it is causing a shift in the types and numbers of organic food retailers, manufacturers, and distributors in the region. In addition, there is a marked increase in the area allotted for organic farming and in the forms/types of products offered to the market. Hence, this research examined the recent changes taking place in the organic produce supply chain as well as provided an overview of the identified commodity supply chain. This is a collaborative research involving an academic institution, the Central Bicol State University of Agriculture, the Department of Agriculture and Intervida, a non-government organization. Specifically, it is the objective of the research to describe the dynamics in the industry chain by tracing the supply chain for the different organically produced products and analyzing specific activities and services provided by suppliers to the end customers, analyze the performance of particular supply chains by looking at the role and contributions of the existing supply chain networks and provide specific policy recommendations to improve the sector. Keywords: Organic Products, Supply Chain, Organic Product Networks INTRODUCTION The organic agriculture sector of the country may still be in “its embryonic phase when compared to agricultural sectors of other countries” (Abaygar, organic livestock & poultry sector, www.agribusinessweek.com) but it appears to be at a turning point in its development. As of 2008, the country’s organic industry was estimated at US$5.2 million, still relatively small, featuring mainly locally grown products that are limited in variety (IFOAM 2008). At present, in terms of trends and movements of consumer preferences, the market for products deemed healthy is increasing. It is even said that demand for organic product is growing at a pace where demand outstrips supply; is supply and not demand-constrained. It is estimated that demand for organic products will exceed the locally produced supply since consumers are becoming aware of organic food, need for a healthy lifestyle and have better access to them. In the region, the commonly produced organic products include rice, vegetables and fertilizers. Organic rice comes from the traditional rice seed varieties sown, reaped and stored using natural pest control measures and locally available organic or natural fertilizers. The organic vegetables are grown without the use of synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilizer. Most organic farmers in Camarines Sur and Norte, Bicol Region grow the following vegetables: lettuce, cucumber, squash, bitter gourd, bellpepper, eggplant, raddish, carrots, pole sitao, baguio beans,
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
222
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
white gourd, tomato, papaya, peanut. Organic fertilizer is made up animal manure, compost (grasses, weeds, rice hull, rice straw, leaves and other farm waste. It uses biodegrable farm wastes such as rice straw, gliricidia, papaya, corn cobs, weeds, vegetables leaves and stalks and fruits peeling as feeds for vermin. MATERIALS AND METHODS Respondents of the Study A total of 33 farmer respondents were interviewed in this study. The respondents were purposively selected based on those identified by the LGUs where the organic farmers/farms were located. Data Collection and Types of Data Gathered Both primary and secondary data were used. Primary data were used to generate production and marketing data for organic rice and vegetables while secondary data were used to generate information on the area planted and production levels for the different commodities by area. Data Analysis Supply Chain Mapping was done through identification of the players of the different supply chains and tracing the flow of products, information and payment from the farm to the consumer. Cost and return analysis on the production and marketing of organic products was done. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Philippines has been exporting organic products such as muscovado, fresh banana, banana chips, and dried banana leaves to Europe, Japan, the USA and Canada. The demand for organic products in these countries is growing rapidly. Market size is now estimated at around US$ 30 million. The export market shows a growing potential with market size estimated at over US$ 2 billion mainly in the US/Canada, EU (Germany, UK, France) and Japan (goorganic website). . Philippine Organic Product Situation Organic rice production in the country started in 1986 basically as a measure of poverty alleviation for small farms and to improve farm environment and farmers’ health. The total area of organic rice fields in the country as of 1999 was 17,165 and the total number of organic rice adopters was 18,605 (www.agribusinessweek.com). Fresh bananas, banana chips, virgin coconut oil and coconut chips, vinegar, muscovado sugar, coffee and asparagus are the major organic products exported by the big producers from Visayas and Mindanao. There is a relatively small domestic market for organic foods although consumers are now faced with the following organic products in the market: organic rice, vegetables and other food products in supermarkets and specialty shops.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
223
Supply Chain of Organic Products in the Bicol Region Organic Products Input Suppliers Some of the input used in the production activities includes organic seeds and organic fertilizers. The seeds were initially given free by some NGO’s or by the Department of Agriculture. The Pecuaria Development Cooperative Inc has been a source of organic rice seeds for some farmers. Cost of seed ranges from Php 25 – Php 28 /kilo. For the organic fertilizer production, some of the materials they need are sourced from local producers. Prices of the raw materials maybe subsidized. Production Capacity Average volume of rice production for the two provinces is from 70-100 cavans per cycle. Small farmers are usually formed into groups like RINCOMESA and CAANDUYOG and most are associated with NGO/PO - assisted social enterprises. Church-based social enterprises are growing in number like Socio-Pastoral Action Center Foundation Inc. (SPACFI) and Sta.Rita de Cassia who are involved in the production of agricultural inputs, organic animal (native pig), organic vegetables (bitter gourd, pole beans, carrots and lettuce and fishponds). Farm Prices According to the farmer-respondents, farm-gate and even wholesale prices of organic products, both for vegetables and rice are quite affordable for all types of buyers. The retailers normally follow the cost-plus pricing policy where an average of Php 5-20/kilo is added to the wholesale or farm-gate price. Market Performance and Geographic Flow of Organic Products from Production Area Market dualism seems to exist in the organic products industry where two groups of farmers exist, one group basically produce for their own consumption and another group produce for the market. For the organic rice sector, some 35% of the farmer-respondents cultivate organic rice just for home consumption. These are the farmers whose production ranges from 5-10 sacks per cropping cycle. As their volume of production increase, farmers start to sell their goods for the local market or deliver them to interested neighbors and/or consumers and to wholesalers. Organic vegetables are sold direct from the farmer-producers to wholesalers (normally represented by local markets) or industrial buyers like restaurants who are known for their organic products. Consumers sometimes go straight to the farmer-producers for their vegetable requirements. Organic Produce Middlemen For organic vegetables, the estimated average volume based on volume sold direct to consumer was about 58 percent in 2011. The estimated volume sold by producers through direct-toretail was about 25 percent. The estimated volume sold through wholesale market channels was 16 percent. The direct-to-retail category includes products sold through the Food Terminals in their respective municipalities as well as the Weekend Market. Observed Structural Changes in the Organic Product Sector Structural changes are manifesting itself in the agricultural sector where the organic produce middlemen are increasingly reducing their reliance on spot markets for their major input requirements. Vertical coordination between producers and other chain members is observed particularly because most of the farmers are members of industry associations or cooperatives. In
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
224
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
fact, even local parish churches are becoming active in the promotion of organic agriculture farming and are willing partners of local government units in the promotion of such an advocacy. Benefits Flow Production of organic rice can bring gross sales of around Php 140,000-Php 200,000 based on a yield of 70-100 cavan per hectare. Tomato, lettuce and eggplant appear to be the most profitable vegetable to grow turning in gross sales of Php 321,600, Php 104,000, and Php 61, 2000, respectively. Challenges and External Influences in the Sector Agricultural production is characterized by being highly seasonal, variable and is normally produced in small farm units. In Camarines Sur and Norte, the average farm size for rice production ranges from 5000 m2 – 3 hectares. However, other commodities are also planted in the said farm effectively reducing the space allotted for rice production. In reality, these characteristics pose certain challenges to the supply chain. On the supply side, it is important to note that organic farmers and farmers association espousing organic farming are on the rise. Even government organizations and local government units have joined the advocacy. As the organic food sector is becoming main stream, the proportion of organic farmers earning higher incomes has been rising. CONCLUSION Although demand for organic product seems to be increasing, the growth in organic sales might be dependent on the ability of the chain players to bring a consistent supply of the products to the market. The organic product supply chain is dynamic and is evolving given the rising concern for healthy products from consumers and following the passage of RA 10068 on Organic Act of the Philippines. This spurred the actors within the supply chain to become more integrated and aware of industry developments. Further, the development in the local organic product organic supply chain is being pushed further through the initiatives of GOs, LGUs, NGOs and Pos hence, we see increased concern for quality and certified products. However, there is a need to grow the supply base, strengthen brand and adopt strategies to access premium market and ensure affordable certification programs. REFERENCES 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Concepcion, Sylvia, Larry Digal, René Guarin, and Luis Hualda ), Keys to Inclusion of SmallScale Organic Rice Producers in Supermarkets: The Case of Upland Marketing Foundation Inc., Regoverning Markets Innovative Practice series, 2007, IIED, London http://organic-thoughts.hubpages.com http://www.ams.usda.gov Moving Toward Competitiveness: A Value Chain Approach, Foreign Investment Advisory Service (FIAS), August 2007 www.agribusinessweek.com
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
225
Motivational Factors and Level of Satisfaction of UPLB Students in Choosing Shakti as a Physical Activity Merites M. Buot1* and Rowena D.T. Baconguis2 1
Department of Human Kinetics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines 2 College of Public Affairsand Development, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines * Correspondingauthor, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The study sought to analyze motivational factors and level of satisfaction of students currently enrolled in Shakti physical education class offered by the Department of Human Kinetics (DHK) of the University of the Philippines. Understanding the motivation behind high enrolment in Shakti and level of satisfaction among students enrolled in the course is an important input in improving not only this course, but also in improving other physical activity course offerings. A questionnaire was distributed to a total of 25 randomly selected students currently enrolled in the class. Guided by the motivational theory of Vroom (1964), results show that students expect Shakti to improve body movements and fitness levels and at the same time reduce stress. Motivational factors include the desire to improve quality of work in class and belief that doing so will result to improving discipline in performing home work in various classes. Using Likert scale questionnaire, level of satisfaction is high in terms of choices of activities, learning and interaction with classmates. Suggestions to improve the class include adding more yoga activities which suggests that students are intrinsically motivated to increase physical strength and muscle endurance. Results imply that Physical Education courses should highlight more activities that increase bodily discipline and emphasize how students can use such activities to reduce stress, factors that are perceived important by students. Keywords: Attitude, Expectancy Theory, Instrumentality, Valence INTRODUCTION At the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), the Department of Human Kinetics (DHK) offers activities that address the students’ likes and conveniences. One of the numerous physical activities offered is Shakti, a physical conditioning that empowers the body by harnessing its energy thereby improving the core muscles and enhancing flexibility. For almost 10 semesters now Shakti classes are consistently full of enrollees. An analysis of the motivational factors leading students to choose Shakti as their physical activity using the Expectancy Theory of Vroom (1964) is the focus of this study Designing programs and curricula requires an understanding of how people are motivated (Knudson-Martin, 2011).In schools, student motivation has been given a central role in education as pointed out by Knudson-Martin (2011) which agreed with Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Several authorities acknowledged motivation as the key contributor to student achievement (Boaler 1999, Dewey 1913). Csikszentmihalyi (2011) accurately put it in few words that the “chief impediments to learning are not cognitive,” but rather the interests of the learner. Engaging in interests, according to Dewey (1913), is a lifelong pursuit and he describes interest as, “not just one thing; it is a name for the fact that a course of action, an occupation, or pursuit absorbs the powers of an individual in a
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
226
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
thorough-going way”. The interest of the learner could also be the student’s goals. The goal theory proposes that people are motivated to complete tasks by personal goals. Murphy and Alexander (2000) define motivation based on the goal theory as “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained”. They also added that student goals are, “what students generally want to achieve in their classes”. These goals may be social, academic, task specific, or likely a combination of all of these types of goals (Ames, 1992; Wentzel, 2000). The general objective of this study is to analyze the motivational factors of UPLB Shakti students in their choice of a physical activity. Specifically, it aims to characterize the students enrolled in Shakti; to identify student’s motivation in choosing Shakti, and to determine the level of satisfaction of students enrolled in Shakti. MATERIALS AND METHODS A questionnaire adapted after published literatures regarding Expectancy Theory (Chiang & Jang, 2008) was distributed to randomly selected UPLB students enrolled in Shakti class. Five male and twenty female of the fifty-six total population enrolled during this second semester 2012-2013 were the respondents and was evaluated by the Shapiro Wilk test for sample normality (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965). A face validity test was used to check reliability of the questionnaire by allowing a sample of population of Shakti students from previous semesters to view the questionnaire and commented whether the questions could be understood. There were few words being modified to clearly state the idea. Descriptive analysis was done for each item using the 7-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. Twelve measurement items were used to gauge the characteristics of the respondents. Expectancy used four measurement items, six items for instrumentality and seven measurement items for valence. While the level of satisfaction used seven items. A hierarchical cluster analysis, selecting the squared Euclidean distance as a similarity measure, was carried out in order to determine the clusters. Correlation analysis was done to show relationship between factors using STATA, version 11. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Expectancy Theory of motivation originally developed by Vroom (1964) explains the process individuals use to make decisions on various behavioural alternatives. It defines how decision comes about. Chiang and Jang (2008) considered expectancy theory as a process theory that serves as working models of the decision making process and determines whether the individuals will be motivated to pursue a certain activity and sustain a certain level of productivity. Characteristics of the Respondents There were twenty female and five male respondents of this study. Their current belief, experience, and knowledge regarding the physical activity they choose were analyzed using twelve items. It was a personal belief of each respondents that the activity help their fitness status improve and stress-felt be reduced asclearly shown in the data. Almost majority of the respondents chose strongly agree and agree that they need the workout. Most of the students believed that moving their bodies following a yoga routine helped them relax their muscles and brain. Shakti being a new program is not yet known to all, however, yoga being the basis of the workout has paved the way of easy internalization of the movements. The respondents’ experiences and knowledge of the workout was very limited. But this does not stop the students from enrolling the course. Figure 1 showed the enthusiasm of the respondents
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
227
Relevance to fitness level
Neither agree or disagree Agree
Somewhat agree Strongly Agree
Figure 7 Relevance of Shakti to fitness level of the respondents. The respondents believed in the positive effects of Shakti on their physical body and its psychological benefits being a de-stressor to them after the grueling academic rigors in the university. Hasmuk et al. (2010) advocated the yoga way of life in improving the emotional intelligence. The different yoga poses had numerous physical benefits specifically the increased upper body and trunk muscular endurance, flexibility and health perception that could be felt even in one and half months (Cowen and Adams, 2005). Pilates, another kind of workout forms part of the entire Shakti program enhances the lower back muscles and increase the strength of the hamstring muscles thereby reducing the pain felt after several hours sitting in the lecture halls (Buot and Calalo, 2011). Students’ Motivation Expectancy Choosing an option because of the belief that good things will occur measured the expectancy factor. There were four measurement items included in the questionnaire. The four statements focused on the fitness level of the individual and again the reduced feeling of stress. The data showed that the students expected that if they enroll in the class, their body improved and the stress level reduced. But it was also clear that if they opted to put more effort and it would result to fitness level being improved not only the physical aspect. Figure 2 clearly showed two clusters, one that agrees and the other that strongly agrees.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
228
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
0
1
2
3
Dendrogram for Level_of_Expectancy cluster analysis
12 20 2 6 5 10 11 15 9 21 1 3 4 8 17 18 13 14 16 19 7 22 23 24 25
* Strongly Agree that respondents expect to reduce stress and develop form & function & function
*Agree that respondents expect to reduce stress and develop form
Figure 2 Cluster analysis showing respondents’ expectations. Instrumentality Instrumentality is the belief that a greater reward can be received if performance is met. Six measurement items were included in the survey whose concentration was on good grades, praises from classmates and teacher and the feeling of accomplishment for oneself. Among the statements, the 5th and the 6th statements got the highest affirmation. Eighty-eight percent (88%) of the total respondents either agree or strongly agree that performing well usually result in having feelings of accomplishments and feeling good about oneself (Fig. 3). Students may engage in learning because they are interested in the topic and oftentimes they want to please somebody else but in the case of Shakti students it is different. They wanted to please themselves. Deci and Ryan (2000) espoused the self-determination theory that helped understand the process of motivation, cognition and affection of adolescents in PE. Performing well will result in having feelings of accomplishments
Neither agree or disagree Agree
Somewhat agree Strongly Agree
Figure 3 Eighty-eight percent of the respondents agree and strongly agree that performing well in the activity leads to feelings of accomplishments.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
229
Valence This refers to the value each respondents place on good grades, friends, greatbody and feeling of accomplishments. Most of the respondents rated statements 1-7 as strongly agree or agree (Table 1). This proved that students gave high value on the following items. Furthermore, this supported the concept that a strong expectancy and valence should first be present so that change in behavior may occur. Table 1 Value placed on each item. Statements
Median
Mode
1
Good grades
6
Agree
6
Agree
2
More friends
6
Agree
6
Agree
3
Great body
7
Strongly agree
7
Strongly agree
4
Great flexibility
7
Strongly agree
7
Strongly agree
5
Control over my body
7
Strongly agree
7
Strongly agree
6
Enhance my skills and abilities
7
Strongly agree
7
Strongly agree
7
Feeling of accomplishments
7
Strongly agree
7
Strongly agree
Level of Satisfaction of Students Determining the relationship between factors is essential to find out what factor needs to be given attention in order to improve the level of satisfaction of students. A strong positive linear relationship had been observed between expectation and the level of satisfaction (r= 0.6808) (Table 2). This clearly showed that what they expected to achieve had a strong connection whether the respondents were enjoying in the class. Form and function of the body to develop in Shakti was shown to be achieved at the same time their level of satisfaction went high because they liked the environment and the things being learned in the class. Table 2 Pairwise Correlation of the different factors. |Category :Expectancy:Instrumentality: Valence : Motivation :Level of Satisfaction ------ -------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Category | 1.0000 Expectancy | 0.2844 1.0000 Instrumentality 0.0555 0.4563* 1.0000 Valence | 0.0839 0.6150* 0.4498* 1.0000 Motivation | 0.0004 0.5563* 0.4687* 0.7222* 1.0000 Level of Satis| 0.2700 0.6808* 0.3395 0.7623* 0.6315* 1.0000 faction
(*) significant correlations at =0.05
Between instrumentality and motivation a moderate positive linear relationship was indicated (r= 0.4687). This just showed that the respondents did not think of good grades and praises only. They were more accomplished because they knew they were doing good for their body. Intrinsic motivation to enhance body fitness was the priority of the students in the Shakti class. The level of satisfaction would increase if respondents have done the activity not just for grades and praises but for more priority things such as enhancement of fitness. But a strong positive linear relationship were indicated between expectancy and level of satisfaction (r=0.6808) (Table 3/Fig. 4) and between valence and level of satisfaction (r= 0.7623) (Table 3, Fig.5). Students having real control of their body as being able to enhance it by doing
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
230
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
35
20
22
40
24
45
26
50
28
Shakti workout had more impact to their level of satisfaction because of the opportunity to test body’s potential. They found the activity to be fun and learning situations were higher thus increasing the satisfaction (Ryan and Deci, 2000).
35
40
Factor_F Fitted values
45
50
35
40
Factor_B
Factor_F Fitted values
45
50
Factor_D
Figure 4 Strong positive linear relationship Figure 5 Strong positive linear relationship between expectation and level of between valence and level of satisfaction. satisfaction. CONCLUSION The respondents were characterized according to their belief whether the activity can help improve their fitness status and reduce stress, their experiences in the past and the knowledge acquired through readings, videos and input from friends. Students’ motivation was affected by their expectancy to improve their body’s form and function and at the same reduce stress. Instrumentality being the belief that a greater reward can be received if performance was achieved resulted to most of the respondents (88%) agree strongly that feelings of accomplishment occurred. The respondents strongly agreed that control of their bodies as shown by being able to enhance it was more important than grades and getting approval. Since they were highly motivated, an improved quality of work in the class followed. The level of satisfaction was clearly shown to be closely related to the value placed on things the respondents hope to achieve. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are always grateful to Shakti students of UPLB. The Department of Human Kinetics, CAS, UPLB provided the necessary support. REFERENCES 1. Ames, C. 1999. Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271. 2. Boaler, J. 1999. Participation, knowledge, and beliefs: A community perspective on mathematics learning. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 40(3), 259-281. 3. Buot, M.M. and A.C. Calalo. 2011. Modifying pilates movement for a more enthusiastic fitness program. Journal of Nature Studies 9 (2)/10 (1):163-166. 4. Chiang, CF and SC Jang. 2008. An expectancy theory model for hotel employee motivation. International Journal of Hospitality Management 27:313-322.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
231
5. Cowen, VS and TB Adams. 2005. Physical and perceptual benefits of yoga asana practice: results of the pilot study. Journal of bodywork and Movement Therapies, 9 (3), 211-219. 6. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Literacy and intrinsic motivation. Daedalus, 119(2), 115-140. 7. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268. 8. Dewey, J. (1913). Interest and Effort in Education. Boston: University Press. 9. HasmukhAdia, HR Nagendra, B. Mahadevan. 2010. Impact of adoption of yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence of managers. Management Review. 22 (1-2), 32-41. 10. Knudson-Martin, J. 2011. A combined model for understandingmotivation.American International Journal of Contemporary Research.1 (2) 11-16. 11. Shapiro SS, Wilk MB. An analysis of variance test for normality. Biometrika 1965; 52(3):5919. 12. Vroom, V. 1964. Work and Motivation. http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/FIS/Courses/LIS1230/LIS1230sharma/motive6.htm. 13. Wentzel, K. R. (2000). What is it that I'm trying to achieve: Classroom goals from a content perspective.Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 105-115.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
232
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Super Mata Waste Management Service Delivery Campaign in Tiyani Elementary School, Calamba City, Province of Laguna Chrysanthemum Collado1*, Felino J. Gutierrez Jr.1,2, Christopher Mantillas1,3, Phairin Sohsai1, Vincent Soriano1, and Manolinh Thepkhamvong1 1
College of Public Affairs and Development, University of the Philippines, Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines 4031 2 College of Agriculture, Southern Luzon State University, Ayuti, Lucban, Quezon, Philippines 4328 3 School of Education Arts and Sciences, Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Calamba City, Laguna, Philippines *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Improper waste disposal resulting to flooding is one of the most pervasive social problems in the age of urbanization and modernization even with the legal framework towards waste management by the local government but the problem still persists in Calamba City. Thus, a service delivery campaign was designed to help mitigate it; and aimed to affect the behavioral changes among the students of Tiyani Elementary School, Barangay Sucol, Calamba City on their current waste management practices. The framework that justifies the strategic focus on children is anchored on the Social Learning Paradigm. The Super Mata campaign was designed to elementary students for easier understanding and the message was conveyed in a manner in which children could relate. The main instruments used were flyers, bookmarks, posters, streamers and ID badges featuring Super Mata, the superhero trademark icon of the entire campaign. The Super Mata campaign helped to increase the children’s awareness about the current status of the area with the recent flooding devastations that affected Calamba City.The Super Mata campaign can further improve the waste management behavior to prevent flooding in the enabling environment - Tiyani Elementary School and Calamba City as a whole, with appropriate and continuous support mechanism. Keywords: Waste Management, Flood Prevention, Public Service Delivery Campaign, Social Learning Paradigm, Super Mata INTRODUCTION Rationale One of the most pervasive social problems in this age of rapid urbanization and modernization is the improper waste disposal. To address this problem, the Philippine government enacted the Republic Act (RA) 9003, also known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. RA 9003 provides holistic approach on proper waste management. However, even after more than a decade since the law came into force the problem on waste management still persists in many cities like Calamba. In this regard, the Super Mata waste management service delivery campaign was designed to help mitigate the said problem by effecting behavioral changes among students. It is in recognition of the fact that waste management problems are not only technological, legal and financial issues but also a behavioral issue. The framework that justifies the strategic focus on the children is anchored on the Social Learning Paradigm (McLeod, 2011). It is designed where two critical elements in effecting behavioral changes among people are dealt with such as models and reinforcements. This paradigm
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
233
suggests that “we learn by imitating the behavior of our (1) models and/or receiving (2) positive or negative reinforcements after we acted in a certain way.” In lieu of this, a waste management service delivery campaign was launched in Tiyani Elementary School in Barangay Sucol, Calamba city that revolved around the concept of the “Super Mata” icon. It is basically an adaptation of the 1 Magic Eye campaign in Thailand during the 1990s. The Magic Eye concept revolves around two main themes: (1) people tend to throw their wastes indiscriminately when there are no one seeing them, and (2) children are easier to influence. It was considered a huge success because it resulted to significant changes in the behavior of the Thai children in Bangkok. More importantly, the Magic Eye campaign helped sustain the behavioral changes among these children. It also evolved to attract support from the different sectors such as the government and the civil society. Since Magic Eye became successful in Bangkok, same results are expected to be achieved in a relatively small city such as Calamba City. Statement of the Problem Despite the enactment of the RA 9003, the problems on waste management have continued to persist in many cities like Calamba. Thus, the “Super Mata” Campaign hopes to effect behavioral changes among the students in the Tyani Elementary School in Calamba City in an attempt to contribute in the proper management of solid wastes. Specifically, the study seeks to answer the following: 1. Does Calamba City statute provide an enabling environment in the implementation of proper solid waste management in schools? 2. Is the popularization of the “Super Mata” icon thru visual materials effective in encouraging the children to internalize the necessity of proper waste management? 3. Are there other available service delivery systems that can be adopted to sustain the behavioral changes of Tiyani Elementary School students? Objectives of the Project The project generally aims to provide insights, information and analysis of the effectiveness of the Super Mata campaign among students in Tiyani Elementary School in Calamba City in terms of change in their behavior and attitudes. The specific objectives are the following: 1. To assess the current service delivery of the waste management practices in Calamba City; 2. To identify and describe the school participation in its compliance with the city ordinances regarding waste management; 3. To evaluate the effectiveness of the “Super Mata” concept among the students; and 4. To provide suggestions on how to improve the current service delivery mechanism in waste management practices among the schools in Calamba City Significance of the Project Most existing waste management programs and policies deal with the technical aspect by focusing on investments on equipments and infrastructures. However, based on recent waste management studies, the problem lies largely in the behavior of people. With this, there have been initiatives that tap behavioral concerns in designing potential programs for waste management. 1
This strategy was done in Thailand during the 1990’s to great effect.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
234
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
The Super Mata campaign is a contribution in this effort and the children are the target audience because of their vulnerability to behavioral changes which can later on be transformed to positive practices in waste management. The project therefore can contribute on the following areas: On Waste Management The project employed the use of the “Super Mata” icon which easily attracted the attention of the children as the target audience. It thus provided an opportunity to determine the test themes and symbols that could be effective in changing the children’s behavior on waste management. This approach could also be replicated to other schools to improve the waste management in the City. On Service Delivery Mechanism The project explored the effectiveness of the existing policies and practices that deals with the behavior of the people. It also considered the satisfaction of the people with regards to the available facilities for effective waste management. In addition, the result of the campaign may be utilized for further innovations on the part of the government and other players in providing efficient service to the people. METHODOLOGY The Super Mata Campaign employed an outreach service delivery mechanism in order to effect behavioral changes among the Tiyani Elementary students towards proper waste management. Locale of the Project Tiyani Elementary School was chosen due to its multiple innovative programs initiated by its principal, Mr. Rey Borillo. The school and its community were submerged in water when the ‘Habagat’ (Southwest Monsoon Rain) hit the area. It was an ideal location to launch the campaign as it clearly highlighted the importance of proper waste management and its negative effects on the environment if not properly practiced. Data Gathering Primary data were gathered by interviewing the principal of Tiyani Elementary school and some key members of the school administration (Key Informant Interviews or KII). The purpose was to ascertain if the school has an enabling environment for the launching of the “Super Mata” Campaign. Secondary data were collected from published and unpublished documents of the school and the city. They are the school records and city ordinances related to waste management. They also served as references to substantiate the information gathered during KII.
Data Analysis and Presentation The data generated were analyzed by cross-examining, validating and integrating the secondary information as well as the perspectives of the key informants. On the other hand, the quantitative analysis employed in the study is limited to descriptive statistics procedures.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
235
Outreach as a Service Delivery Mechanism The project employed outreach as a mechanism of service delivery regarding waste management. It is basically a social marketing strategy that informs and entices the support of the people towards it. The project conceptualized “Super Mata”, a cartoon character who advocates proper waste management. Super Mata’s head has a big eye signifying omnipresence and that the children must always follow proper waste management practices because “Super Mata” can see them all the time. Flyers, bookmarks, streamers and other visual materials were distributed among students and placed in strategic locations inside the school. Programs, contests, lecture and dialogue with the president of the Parents Teachers Association (PTA) were also conducted. The “Super Mata” campaign also reached out to the residents outside of the school premises by distributing flyers about waste management. They are mostly the parents of the students. This was done to inform them about Super Mata and its concept. Selection of Student Participants Eighty students were selected by the principal and the teachers to participate during the launching and opening program of the Super Mata campaign. These students are from Grades 4, 5 and 6. They were considered because they are relatively more matured compared to those who are in the lower grades and they have a better understanding on what the entire concept was all about. The participants were granted “Super Mata” badges that symbolize their deputation as “Super Mata” officers. They are expected to help in disseminating what they learned to the other students. They are also expected to be role models for the other students to follow. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Calamba City Solid Waste Management Situation Calamba City is an important modern industrial center in the CALABARZON region as shown by the large number of industrial parks and business estates that are located in the city. It is considered to be one of the richest component cities in the country today and is capable of funding its own programs related to waste management. Calamba City had prior efforts in solving the waste management problems. The city’s Solid Waste Management Program includes: (1) Bote, Dyaryo, atbp which includes (a) Eco-Waste Sa Eskwela, (b) Subdivision’s Eco-Center, (c) Hospitals’ Eco-Center; (2) Bio-waste for Compost; (3) Let’s Talk (Tanggalin ang Lahat ng Kalat) at (Tangkilikin at Lingapin ang Kapaligiran Natin) that include street sweeping and efficient garbage collection and (4) the institutionalization of the City Solid Waste management Board. The city has formulated various ordinances that address particular issues pertaining to its garbage problems. At present, Calamba City is a plastic-free city due to City Ordinance 10-481 S.2010 that prohibits the use styrofoams and plastic bags for dry goods. Plastic bags are allowed for wet goods but they are highly regulated. Calamba city is reported to be producing an average of 200 tons of garbage on a daily basis or around 6,200 tons per month. The city’s garbage collection is being administered by the City Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO) thru its Waste Management Division headed by Mr. Nicanor Samson. The collection, hauling and disposal of the garbage collected are being serviced by various contractors depending on the area of operations. Various private contractors are serving private Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
236
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
subdivisions and companies. The main thoroughfares such as the city poblacion and barangays are being serviced since 2004 by the Pilotage Trading and Construction, a single proprietorship business established in December 2002. The main office is located in the neighboring city of Cabuyao, while the 12 hectare main facility is located in Barangay San Antonio, San Pedro, Laguna. It is also the waste contractor of other local government units (LGUs) in Laguna such as Sta. Rosa, Biñan and Los Baños. Waste Management at the Barangay Level Thirty four out of 54 barangays of Calamba City operate their respective material recovery facilities (MRFs) which were converted into Barangay Hall Eco-Centers (BHECs). These Ecocenters have additional facilities for the waste composting component which are absent in MRFs. Out of the 200 tons of garbage collected daily, an average of eight tons is from Barangay Sucol which is located in the eastern portion of the city. This coastal barangay has a population of 4,300 as of August 1, 2007 per data retrieved from the website of the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). Sucol is not included in the list barangays with existing MRFs. Two elf trucks are servicing the garbage collection needs of this barangay twice a week during weekends. Tiyani Elementary School Tiyani Elementary School, the site of the Super Mata awareness campaign, is located in Barangay Sucol. Total student population as of Academic Year 2012-2013 is 1,800. Based on the data gathered from the school administration, the dominant wastes are made of compostable or biodegradable materials with an average of 306.21 kilograms per month. This is being followed by paper material at 55 kilos per month, residuals at 24.32 and plastic and cartons at 7.5 apiece. Table 1 Solid Waste Management Collection Tally (in kilograms) in Tiyani Elementary School, Barangay Sucol, City of Calamba (August 2011 to February 2012)
Aug-11 Sep-11 Oct-11 Nov-11 Dec-11 Jan-12 Feb-12
Compostable / Biodegrable 461.00 338.25 295.50 296.25 130.00 314.50 308.00
Total
2143.50
52.50
52.50
277.50
107.50
Average/ month
306.21429
7.5
7.5
39.64
15.36
Month
47.75 32.00 20.00 21.00 19.00 12.50 18.00
TOTAL (solid wastes) 725.25 435.25 383.50 348.75 163.50 372.50 375.00
385.00
170.25
2803.75
55
24.32
400.55
Paper
Plastic Wastes
Cartons
11.00 13.00 8.50 5.00 2.00 5.00 8.00
33.50 0.00 6.00 2.00 1.00 3.50 6.50
White 121.00 41.50 28.50 19.50 9.00 30.00 28.00
Total (paper) Colored 51.00 172.00 10.50 52.00 25.00 53.50 5.00 24.50 2.50 11.50 7.00 37.00 6.50 34.50
Source: Ecowaste sa Eskwela Profile of Tiyani Elementary School, 2011-2012
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
Residua ls
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
237
Although the barangay where the school is located is not included among the 34 barangays with existing MRF or BHEC, the school already has its own existing solid waste management program that is being implemented. It has its own MRF and students can get incentives in exchange for their recyclable wastes that are deposited in the MRF. Moreover, the school is one of the six schools in Calamba City which serves as pilot testing area for the “Eco-waste sa Eskwela” project of the city. Clearly, the school is complying with the recognized proper solid waste management practices. However, despite its efforts, it is still affected by the mismanagement of solid wastes outside of the school perimeters. This mismanagement is contributing to the siltation of Laguna Lake which is serving as the catch basin of the area’s wastes. The Super Mata Campaign Planning Process The Tiyani Elementary School in Barangay Sucol, Calamba City was chosen as the location for the Super Mata campaign. A visit was set in August where the Super Mata campaign proposal was discussed with the Principal. During that time, the school was serving as the evacuation center for three weeks since most parts of the Barangay were submerged in flood waters due to monsoon rains. This provided a backdrop on the severity of the waste management problem in the area since improper waste disposal was pinpointed as one of the main reasons for the severe flooding around the Laguna Lake. The principal agreed in behalf of the school to adopt the Super Mata campaign principles. It was also suggested to include the community leaders and the PTA members because the solid waste problem transcend from the school vicinity to the adjacent community. Preparation Process The Super Mata icon was conceptualized and the Basura (Waste) Jingle was adapted from the internet to be used as the campaign song. Other materials used were tarpaulin posters, bookmarks and ID badges during the program launch held on September 17, 2012. An ocular visit was done prior to the launching date to confirm the details of the Super Mata campaign with the principal. The school has resumed classes by then since its evacuees have been transferred to a different location. Implementation of the Super Mata Campaign for three (3) days DAY 1: Super Mata Campaign Launching Day The launching of the campaign was held in the afternoon of September 17, 2012 since Grades 4, 5 and 6 pupils are scheduled for afternoon classes. The principal delivered the welcoming remarks. An icebreaker game was conducted for the campaign proponents to have an idea on the familiarity of the children in classifying wastes. They were tasked to classify the given wastes into biodegradable, non-biodegradable and residual. The Grade 4 Pupils won and garnered 11 out of 25 points then followed by Grade 5 and Grade 6 with 8 and 4 points respectively. A short lecture was also conducted using a PowerPoint presentation to further educate the children about the waste management situation and practices in the Philippines. The lecture featured images that reflect the severity of the issue and the reasons behind them. The students were also asked to participate during discussions and prizes were given to those who gave remarkable answers. The program ended with a pledge from the students, that as designated “Super Mata Officers,” they will help in implementing what they learned from the lecture and encourage fellow
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
238
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
classmates to do the same. The poster making contest was also announced so students can express their own concept in proper waste management. DAY 2: Classroom Approach and Bookmark Distribution The campaign proponents conducted more briefings about the Super Mata campaign by going in every classroom in the school. This was done to reach out to the rest of the students who were not part of the program launching. Posters were placed in every classroom for the children’s awareness. Bookmarks were also distributed among the children to help them be reminded of the Super Mata concept. Informative flyers were also distributed to the community thru the Barangay officials. This is to include the other members of the community in the awareness campaign. DAY 3: Closing Program An overview of what transpired during the previous days of the campaign was reviewed in the closing program on September 19, 2012. Same set of students who participated in the program launching were present. It reminded them of their duties and responsibilities as Super Mata Officers. The school also provided presentations on how they interpreted the campaign. The winners in the poster making contest were also announced. The first prize was for awarded P300, followed by P200 and P100 for the second and first prizes respectively. There are also six consolation prizes awarded for P50 each. The PTA President also gave a short talk about the current situation of Laguna Lake. As an active volunteer in the clean-up drive, he motivated and urged everyone to take their parts by being responsible with the wastes they generate. The principal ended the program by challenging the students to sustain the campaign by themselves, which in turn was accepted by the President of the Student Council in behalf of the students. The Super Mata campaign easily captured the interests of the children. It was designed for easier understanding and the message was conveyed in a manner in which children could easily relate with. The school also helped in sustaining the campaign to achieve a more favorable behavioral change among students towards waste management until they grow up through the enabling environment it is giving the Super Mata campaign. Continuing Service Delivery Mechanism A continuing support mechanism is important because it will have a long term impact on the behavior of the students of Tiyani Elementary School. The measure of the effectiveness of the Super Mata campaign is highly dependent on how Tiyani Elementary School will embrace the campaign on a long-term basis. Their commitment to continue the campaign is very crucial. On the other hand, the regular communication, monitoring and follow-up activities by the Super Mata project team under the guidance of the Institute of Governance and Rural Development (IGRD)College of Public Affairs and Development (CPAf) are very important mechanisms as well. For other schools in Calamba City, the potential expansion of Super Mata Model from Tiyani Elementary school to other schools is very possible because this concept was adapted from the "Magic Eye" campaign in Thailand. It was a huge success in that country since it manifested significant changes in the behavior of Thai children specifically in Bangkok. The Super Mata campaign is initiated at the time when waste management situation in Philippines needs to be disseminated to the public using very simple, easy to remember and “touching” information campaign.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
239
CONCLUSION There is now a legal framework that governs waste management in the country. Locally, not all barangays in Calamba City have existing BHEC or MRFs in compliance with RA 9003. In the City of Calamba, barangays are supposed to ask assistance but not all barangays are doing this. Based on the process of establishing a BHEC, barangays are encouraged to initiate the application of getting a BHEC thru the submission of various documents. To date, Sucol is yet to get its own MRF. On the other hand, the Tiyani Elementary School is maintaining an MRF which is for the exclusive utilization of the school. The presence of the MRF inside the school provides an enabling environment for the long-term success of the Super Mata campaign because the physical infrastructure and facilities are already in place to support the waste segregation efforts of the school. The Super Mata campaign was a success due to the active participation of the school administration and the faculty members. The school even prepared a program as the culminating activity of the project. The Barangay leaders, specifically the PTA President and Barangay officials were also supportive of the project objectives. The visible support provided by the key village leaders is a strong indication of the commitment of the barangay for a cleaner community especially that Barangay Sucol is located near Laguna de Bay. The bay is one of the Southeast Asia’s largest freshwater lakes and considered by environmentalists, researchers and policy-makers and implementers as a heavily silted body of water. Any successful waste segregation program in the areas around Laguna de Bay will greatly contribute to the recovery of the lake. The Super Mata campaign was implemented by the students from the “Delivery Systems for Public Services” (LGD211) class, of the CPAf, University of the Philippines at Los Banos (UPLB), as their class project requirement for the 1 st semester of Academic Year 2012-2013. It is the challenge of moving the Super Mata campaign beyond being a class project to an actual campaign in a typical public school. The goal is also to make it a successful project and adapt the Magic Eye campaign project in Thailand as one of the many inspirations in the preparation of this class project. Nevertheless, to ensure that this project will continue and expand to other schools successfully and effectively, it needs to consider some other recommendations such as: Effective Public Awareness Campaign: Expanding the Super Mata campaign using simple, easy to remember and touching contents can be an effective way in targeting schools and other institutions. It will be of great help though to use available media channels to make the campaign more popular. Participation of All Stakeholders: Expanding the campaign to other schools requires the active participation of all stakeholders such as the Government, private sector, Non-Government Organizations and the rest of the community. Financial Requirement: Access to funds to support the expansion of the Super Mata campaign project in other schools and to a wider number of persons and organization is necessary. It is a crucial factor in making the project a success. The process of identifying where and how to access such funds needs to be addressed. It is therefore strongly recommended that the project has sufficient budget sources. Schools and organizations can use their combined talents and meager resources to ensure the sustainability of the campaign by employing the help of NGOs that are working on environmental issues. The private sector can also be of help e.g., corporations are now using their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programs as their way of giving back to the community. Lastly, the schools can tap public resources (National and Local) to fund the continuation of the campaign. Legal Framework: Based on Republic Act 9003 or the Ecological Solid Wastes Management Act, there is already a key legal basis in solving the waste management problems
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
240
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
particularly waste generation, segregation and disposal in the City of Calamba and other urban cities. The establishment of MRFs or for that matter, Calamba’s BHECs significantly systematizes the garbage disposal situation in Barangay Sucol making it a cleaner barangay. The school, though with an existing MRF (ahead of the barangay itself) may further experience a significant drop in littering cases inside the school if the community where the students are mostly coming from will also have to learn the proper waste segregation. The Super Mata campaign is indeed a great help on this effort. Reward/Incentive: People who will get involved with the Super Mata campaign project such as the staff, community members and volunteers, project staff (if necessary) and others who are willing to work hard and understand the campaign concept as proven by Magic Eye campaign in Thailand can benefit because of the improved working/learning environment inside the school and by extension, the entire community. REFERENCES 1. ADB. (2004). The Garbage Book. Solid Waste Management in Metro Manila. Asian Development Bank, Ortigas Avenue, Pasig City, Philippines. 2. Atienza, Vella. (2008). Breakthroughs in Solid Waste Management Lessons from Selected Municipalities and Barangays in the Philippines. Asian Review of Public Administration (ARPA). Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration (EROPA). Quezon City. Vol. XX (1-2): 82-89. January to December 2008. 3. Baula, Enrico U. (2010). School-Based Waste Management Initiatives in the Philippines. Lessons and Experiences of the Toyota Auto Parts and Sta. Rosa City Philippines Partnership. Paper Presented on 4th Asian Rural Sociology Association (ARSA) International Conference. Legazpi City, Albay, Philippines. September 2010. 4. Calamba City. (2010). Resolution No. 211 Series of 2010- A Resolution Approving City Ordinance No. 10-481 Series of 2010-An Ordinance Prohibiting the Use of Plastic Bags on Dry Goods and Regulating its Utilization of Wet Goods and Prohibiting the Use of Styrofoam in City of Calamba and Prescribing Penalties therefore. 5. Calamba Municipality. (1990). Kautusang Bayan Bilang 03-1990-Isang Kautusang na Nagtatakda ng mga Alituntunin Hinggil sa Pagtatapon at Pangongolekta ng mga Basura at Anumang Uri ng Dumi sa Bayan ng Calamba. 6. Colegio de San Juan de Letran- Calamba, NSTP-CWTS 2 Accomplishment Report, August 2012. 7. DENR-UNDP. (2009). National State of Brown Environment Report (2005-2007). Retrieved October 6, 2010 from www.emb.gov.ph. 8. Macawile, Janet and Su, Glenn Sia. (2009). Local Government officials Perspectives and Attitudes toward Solid Waste Management in Dasmarinas, Cavite, Philippines. Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation Vol 4. No.1:63-69: January-April 2009. Department of Environmental Engineering. Jakarta, Indonesia. 9. McLeod, S. A. (2011). Bandura- Social Learning Theory. Retrieved September 8, 2012 from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html 10. Mercado, Elmer. (2006). Making RA 9003 Work: Putting Real Issues, Real Solutions in the Real World. A joint Policy Paper of League of Cities of the Philippines and League of the Municipalities in the Philippines. Retrieved September 10, 2012 from http://zunia.org/sites/default/files/media/nodefiles/ma/150867_Making%20RA%209003%20Work1.pdf
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
241
11. Navarro, Rhea Abegail. (2003). A Systems Approach on Solid Waste Management in Metro Manila, Philippines. Master’s Thesis in Lund University International Master’s Programs in Environmental Sciences, Lund University, Sweden. November 26, 2003. 12. NSCB Population of Calamba City. Retrieved October 6, 2012 from http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/municipality. 13. Ocenar, Remigio. (2001). Policy and Planning Responses to Solid Wastes Management Problem in two Municipalities in the Philippines: A Case Study. Theses/Dissertation. UP School of Urban and Regional Planning. 14. Philippine-Canada Local Government Support Program. (2003). Solid Waste Management: Mapping Out Solutions at the Local Level. LGSP. Ortigas Center, Pasig City, Philippines. 15. Tiyani Elementary School, 2011-2012 Eco-waste Sa Eskwela Profile.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
242
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Education and Training Cooperation Vietnam - Cambodia in the Current Period Hiep Xuan Tran* Duy Tan University – K7/25 Quang Trung, Da Nang, Vietnam * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Education cooperation between Vietnam and Cambodia in recent years gained great achievements, contributing to economic development - social of each country. In the trend of integration of the region and the world, where education becomes an important task of both countries, is the basis for both countries to promote industrialization and modernization in the new period. Cooperation education Vietnam - Cambodia focused on the areas of training students, technology transfer and exchange of experts. In the article content, the author focus on the achievements mainly of cooperation educational Vietnam-Cambodia and initially given some suggestive. Keywords: Education, Cooperation, Vietnam, Cambodia, Important. INTRODUCTION Education and Training is one of important fields to not only Vietnam and Cambodia but also all countries in the world. Therefore, Vietnam and Cambodia have soon cooperated with each other in this field in order to train and develop man resources serving the national industrialization, modernization and renovation. In the context of international and regional integration with rapid development of science and technology today, the cooperation between Vietnam and Cambodia in term of education and training has been increasingly cared and promoted in order to meet better the work of national construction and protection as well as strengthen traditional relationship between 2 nations. Preconditions of Education and Training Cooperation Between Vietnam and Cambodia Firstly, Vietnam and Cambodia are two countries having a long-standing historical tradition relationship, the similar culture and society. Besides, they are neighborly countries having the same border in the southwest. This creates the basic condition for Vietnam and Cambodia to cooperate about the training and education in order to develop more and be in-depth. Secondly, Vietnam and Cambodia is undertaking reforms to build the country, carry out comprehensive cooperation with 16- gold word motto “good neighborly cooperation, solidarity and traditional friendship, long-term stability”. To implement this mission, both two countries should have mutual co-ordination and help in all aspects, politics, economy, culture and society. At present, the socio-economic development and cooperation is the main mission of each country, at which Vietnam and Cambodia is no exception. However, to make sure that the process of the thoroughly economic relations, each country should deploy positively the proper strategies and policies in this relation, especially, both need to carry out all methods to make training and education become foundation and basic to impulse the development of economy and society. Therefore, the training and education cooperation between Vietnam and Cambodia during this period become more urgent in order to ensure firmly internal development and promote relations with external expansion. In
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
243
addition, cooperation in education and training contribute to enhance the overall relationship of Vietnam and Cambodia meeting people’s aspirations of each country. Thirdly, with the constant development of the region and globe, Asia-Pacific in general and South-East Asian in particular are going to confront with challenges and new difficulties. Education and training field of these regions are being expanded and seriously concerned, the whole countries have to raise the quality and quantity of high, trained workforce to ensure for their sustainable development in a more and more changing world. Due to the fact that, Vietnam and Cambodia need practicing comprehensively internal education and training policies as well as expand external relationship. Education cooperation between two countries is the first to be implanted globally and deeply to ensure the steadfastly socio-economic development of two countries as well as contribute to build a common wealth region. Besides, as developing countries, education and training cooperation is the necessary and indispensable condition to create the favorable condition to exchange and learn from each other, enhancing the intellectual standards of the people level, serving for renovation work and thriving of each country. The Reality of Education Cooperation between Vietnam and Cambodia Vietnam has given a lot of precious support to Cambodia in education since 70s of 20 th century. Especially after the genocidal regime of Polpot - IengSary was omitted and peaceful treaty of friendship and cooperation between Vietnam and Cambodia was signed on Feb 18 th 1979, Vietnam supported actively to Cambodia in training man resources and educational aids, which contributed greatly to the revival of the country in Kherme’s extremely difficult period. In particular, Vietnam focused on helping 2 main tasks: the first is to train hastily officers and teaching experts from primary to university level and the second is to be specialized in constructing and managing the education system from the central to local. By the efforts of both countries, in nearly 10 years (1979-1988), Vietnam helped Cambodia training more than 5,000 staffs in all careers and domains; sending ten thousand times of experts to teach in Cambodia in the period from 1 to 5 years training to help Cambodia train more than10,000 local technical staffs, nearly 6,000 staffs who had primary to university level [1]. Although the number of students and staffs who were trained are modest, Vietnam has greatly helped Cambodia with an initially intellectual force to serve the restoration and construction of its culture and social economy in condition of a country emerged from civil war, through which tighten the solidarity between Vietnam and Cambodia. On the basis of achievements in education of each country, the relationship between the education and training of Vietnam - Cambodia has taken steps in the right direction, creating a solid basis for Cambodia to form a team of relatively qualified teachers, restoring the educational system step by step in which the first thing is to train teachers, specialists and to open schools including regular universities and supplementing schools. It can be affirmed that Vietnam is one of the countries which Cambodia trust to send their children to train in a large number, only behind the Soviet Union and the Federal Republic of Germany. Cambodia’ trust and recommend in Vietnam during these difficult years has created an important foundation for two countries to promote exchanges and cooperation in term of education and training for the following years. In the context of international integration, cooperation in education and training of Cambodia has been increasingly consolidated, more practical, effective and comprehensive. Along with the efforts of the two nations’ governments and relevant departments, the Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Government of the Kingdom of Cambodia had conditions to sign the Agreement of training Cambodian staffs in Vietnam in 1994 and were added annually according to each country’s situations and actual conditions. The Agreement text is an important basis to decide the criteria of training Cambodian students with the long-term regular system in Vietnam. From 1995 onwards, the cooperation in
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
244
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
education and training of Vietnam - Cambodia has gained new achievements; especially Vietnam helped Cambodia to train thousands of students, staffs of college and university level, research students in most of the economy, culture, science-technology, medical... Specifically, in1995, there were105 Cambodian students sent to Vietnam to be trained, including 15 graduate students; 115 students in 1997, including 20 graduate students [2]. From 1998 onwards, Vietnam annually has trained for Cambodia 100 students per year, of which 20 students are post graduate. However, the fact shows that in late 90s of 20th century, especially when Cambodia became 10th member of the organization of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a number of Cambodian students who are sent to other countries such as France, Thailand, China, Singapore, Philippines, Italy keep increasing, so the number of students sent to Vietnam to be trained were reduced in compared with the previous years. By 2000, the education and training cooperation between the two countries have a significant change, the number of Cambodian students sent to Vietnam for training tends to rise again and prosper. The main causes of this, first of all, derived from the review of the Cambodian government which still sees Vietnam as a reliable training address, and continues to request the Government of Vietnam to create favorable conditions for them. Secondly, Vietnam and Cambodia has signed an agreement with the amendment of the Agreement of training Cambodian officials in Vietnam signed in 1994. Accordingly, Vietnam continues to help Cambodia in training staff and employees in different fields. Especially, since 2000, the relationship between Vietnam and Cambodia follows the 16-word motto “good neighborliness, traditional friendship, comprehensive cooperation, long-term sustainability” (6/1999); as the request of Cambodia, Vietnam agrees to receive 250 short-term training students /year in the military sector, security, tourism, and formerly, in 1999 Vietnam helped train Cambodian students in some branches such as aviation and tourism [3]. On the other hand, to create favorable conditions for Cambodian students while studying in Vietnam, the Government of Vietnam has had preferential policies and scholarships for Cambodian students, following the spirit of Agreement and Protocol on education and training which has been signed. Accordingly, on November 4th1996, Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Planning and Investment issued the Circular No. 68TC-KH& T assigning the rate of training for students from Cambodia. Moreover, in the regulation of foreigners studying in Vietnam dated August 25th1999 of the Ministry of Education and Training , Article 23, Chapter V: (duties and powers of the students’) assigns: “according to the agreement, students are awarded scholarships by Vietnamese currency, scholarship is given monthly to students since the date they come to Vietnam, including summer vacation and 1 month after graduation (from the date they protect the projects, thesis, dissertation, thesis or take the final exam), they are also arranged the accommodation in dormitory in accordance with the agreement signed between Vietnam and the sending training address”. This is a basic convenient factor for all the foreign students studying in Vietnam, including the Cambodian students. Besides, for Cambodian students, the Government of Vietnam has raised the scholarship for Cambodian students by 17-18% in comparison with the previous one. Especially, since 2006, the Government of Viet Nam has raised the amount of money for training students. According to which, “Cambodian students studying in Vietnam following the annual cooperation agreement of the two Governments are received directly monthly scholarship in Vietnamese currency from the first month in Vietnam to the end of the course for covering food, clothing and other subsistence allowances following these norms:
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
245
Unit: VND High school
Undergraduate Post-graduate Short- term university university 1.320.000 1.570.000 1.820.000 2.150.000 Source: The Ministry of Finance, No. 16/2006/TT-BTC: The Circular stipulating the training rate for Lao and Cambodian students studying in Vietnam, Hanoi, dated 7 March, 2006; p.2. In addition, “All the students studying, researching and practicing in Vietnam have equal duties and rights in education, research, practice and other activities" (Article 21). Moreover, they are respected and equally treated as Vietnamese citizens by department of education, students’ management and service; provided sufficient information for learning in accordance with the conditions of educational institutions; used equipment and facilities for activities such as learning, culture, sports of the department of education, students’ management, service; rewarded if they have excellent results in studying and research, got allowance for careers in accordance with the current regulations of Vietnamese Government” (Article 23) [4]. At the same time, the material facilities for teaching and learning was paid more attention; many dormitories for students were renovated, upgraded; teaching and learning equipment was invested in many school with the expenditure of 12 billion in 2010 [5]. Besides bilateral cooperation, Vietnam and Cambodia have strengthened the multilateral cooperation in education and training, the two countries, together with Laos, signed an agreement of equivalent qualifications, academic titles and degrees on March 16 th 1989 in Vientiane, Lao People's Democratic Republic. This Agreement has created very favorable conditions for students from Vietnam and Cambodia in specific and the three countries in general to study, research, and be equally and fairly treated after graduation. Most importantly, this agreement expands the cooperation opportunities in training and studying among three countries on the Indochinese peninsula. Based on great achievements gained in wholly cooperation between Vietnam - Cambodia, both governments created all possible conditions for children to learn, exchange and develop, contributing a motivation to build a high human resources. In previous years, If education and training cooperation between Cambodia and Vietnam was one-way cooperation, ie, Vietnam primarily helped training for Cambodia, from 1994 onwards, this cooperation is two-way and multiway one. In that spirit, on December 10th 2005, in Hanoi, Vietnam, Cambodia and Vietnam signed Education and Training Cooperation Protocol in the period 2006-2010 between Ministry of Education of Socialist Republic of Vietnam and Ministry of Youth and Sport of Kingdom of Cambodia with 21 articles. Accordingly, in Article 1 reads: “The Vietnamese side helps to train Cambodian students with non-refundable funds of the Vietnamese Government led by the Royal Government of Cambodia. The receiving of annual number of new students is 100 per capita per year (since the school year 2005-2006 at the time of September 2005). The above number can be changed to annually increase, decrease depending on the requirements of Cambodia and depending on the specific capacity to the Vietnam and will be adjusted in the next years, including the following subjects: university students, graduate students, research students and short-term training in the fields of economic, cultural, scientific, technical and professional proficient”(Article 1) [6]. Thanks to the efforts of both sides, the number of Cambodian students to study in Vietnam has gradually increased and Vietnam is the country receiving the largest Cambodian students in some countries with Cambodian students studying. If we do not count the number of students in the selfsufficiency of 25, and the number of students in the field of security and defense, training funding in 2010 for Cambodian students to study in Vietnam is 83.5 billion VND [5].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
246
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Also, according to the figure of the Ministry of Planning and Investment, the implementation of the commitments in the memorandum of understanding at the InterGovernmental Committee meeting every year, Vietnam aided to Cambodia from 2001 - 2010 is 618.897 VND billion, of which the period 2006 - 2010 is VND 464.397 billion, about three times over the period 2001 - 2005 and 12.67 times compared to the period 1996 - 2000. The number of non-refundable aid reserved for staff training and Cambodian students in Vietnam is 479.247 VND billion, accounting for 77.44% of total aid. The rest (22.56%) reserved for the program, cooperation projects and other unexpected requirements [7]. If before 2000, Vietnam just received annually 100 Cambodian students in college and graduate school in economics, culture, science and technology, then after 2000, other forms of short-term training and fostering are expanded in both size and diversity of its form, the field of training. Within five years, from 2006 to 2010, the institution of Vietnam has received a total of 1,167 Cambodian students to study, in Vietnamese, Foundation 519, the rest are 648 specialized students. The number of graduate students (Masters and PhD) accounts for about 20 - 25% of the total number of students. The majors attract more Cambodian students are medical pharmaceutical, agricultural, economic, architectural, and engineering and technology. In particular, the medical and pharmaceutical industry accounted for 47%, agriculture 11%, 10.8% economic; accounting for 8.8% of engineering, architecture and construction is 6.7%, the remaining other subjects [8]. Especially, “In 2010, Vietnam received 130 Cambodian students to study university degrees, postgraduate, practice, short-term training and research in the fields of science and technology, language preparation English to college and a number of other fields” [9] On the side of the school, as reported by the Ministry of Education and Training, in 10 years (1994 - 2003), Cambodia has sent to Vietnam 2091 students to train, including 1667 graduate, and 136 graduate students, which graduated 50 PhD students. All this after graduation were appointed to work in the Cambodian state agency and promote what has been learned. Mr. Sok Sopho An, the 2nd Minister, Embassy of Cambodia in Vietnam said: “Vietnam plays an important role in the training of human resources for Cambodia. The two countries have much in common, so there are a lot of advantages in students’ training when the country is going to be applied in the work and service of the country” [10]. Obviously, the education and training of Cambodia-Vietnam actually bring more effective and important contribution to promote comprehensive relationship between the two countries. At present, most of the main universities in Vietnam have Cambodian students to study. Specifically, the period 2006-2010, the number of Cambodian students to study in the field is: Hanoi University of Technology: Graduation 78, entry 32; Medical University has 20 students; Hanoi University of Architecture has 30 students, Thai Binh Medical University has 230 students; University Irrigation 5 students; University reserves the Ho Chi Minh city has 13 students; University of Medicine and pharmacy of Ho Chi Minh city has 77 students; University of agriculture and forestry in Ho Chi Minh city has 51 students; University of Architecture of Ho Chi Minh city has 30 students; An Giang University has 7 students. On the Cambodian side, although more difficult than Vietnam, the Cambodian government still preferred to spend scholarships for Vietnamese students to study in Cambodia under the Agreement, the decree signed between the two governments. Accordingly, since 1992, Vietnam began sending students to Cambodia, primarily to train the Khmer language and Cambodian culture and society in order to serve foreign, expand comprehensive cooperation between two countries. In the period 1992 - 2005 there were about 80 Vietnamese students trained in Cambodia. Currently, with the development of the socio-economic, security and political stability, the Government of Cambodia continues to provide scholarships for Vietnamese students to study in Cambodia, mainly in the Royal University of Cambodia. According to the Vietnamese Embassy in Cambodia, “In five years (2006 - 2010) there were 13 students enrolled in courses in the Kingdom of Cambodia (in the Royal University of Phnom Penh - Department of Khmer literature and class Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
247
two years for staff translator)”, “Total number of students in the fifth year is 167 students, in which students complete the course is 76 students, students studying in Cambodia” [11]. Besides, for living condition, Vietnamese students are arranged carefully about daily life, eating and living place in dormitory by Cambodia. In addition, Educational Ministry, Youth Ministry and Sports Ministry supply necessary equipment fully for Vietnamese students such as: blanket, pillow, gas stove, etc. Besides, for conducting agreement about education and training cooperation between two countries, annually Vietnamese Educational and Training Ministry and Cambodia Educational, Youth and Sports Ministry usually carry out arranging criteria about scholarship that two sides agreed to sign. Then, Cambodia had made considerable efforts, especially increasing amount of students (class for Khmer literature students from 10 students to 15 students per a year, class for staffs studying Khmer language in 2 years increases 30 students per year, increasing the monthly living fee for students from 70 dollars to 100 or 120 dollars at the present time). Until 2010, there are 75 students in Vietnam studying college in Cambodia University and 40 staffs studying Khmer language in 2 years in Cambodia. Especially, Cambodia agreed to give 10 longtime scholarships in all fields that Vietnam has needs and 20 short term scholarships in studying Khmer language in 2 years for Vietnamese staffs in Cambodia in 2010 [5-12]. With the training students and professional staffs, educational and training cooperation between Vietnam and Cambodia also wide under many different ways such as destructing program at college level for Vietnamese overseas students, cooperating to publish Vietnamese - Khmer dictionary, printing text books to serve teaching and studying, contacting and communicating, transforming science research topic, exchanging educational professors, encouraging to selfstudying. A typical example in process of cooperating entirely about education among two countries is that Vietnam with the ability had supported 16, 870 billion VND without repaying in order to build Mondulkiri high school and 14,997 billion VND to build Banlung high school in Rattanakiri with annual accepting about 300 students per year. Besides, Vietnam will finish constructing and giving the career teaching school with 150 students in Mondulkiri to Cambodia in I period, 2010. Also, provinces that are near the Cambodia border will have many effective methods to support education for Cambodia. For instance, Gia Lai Province helped Preach Vihear Province to build 12 classrooms at Hunsen natural village with 7 billion VND [4-13]. With many gained results, it is a clear evidence to prove for closeness and cooperation between Cambodia and Vietnam in the new period. CONCLUSION Education and training cooperation between Vietnam and Cambodia has made some suitable steps marking positive points, which enhance both quantity and training quality. It needs ,however, some awareness that training course for Cambodia students in Vietnam and vice versa has some great difficulties, especially in improving and considering about training Vietnamese and Cambodia for exchange student before studying at their neighbors. In addition, both countries should have plenty of conventions and protocols with high legal values in education and training cooperation in order to replace for some agreements, recorded reports. Thanks to these, the results and quality of exchange students are guaranteed. Finally, with a view to further strengthening the wholly education and training cooperation relationship between Vietnam-Cambodia, “two sides agree to seriously obey inspection and evaluation wholly education cooperation between two countries, offer some solutions to enhance the training quality” [4]. It is a great of importance condition for Cambodia and Vietnam to continue building the oncoming education and training relationship, especially, creating a favorable condition for two countries signing a protocol about education cooperation for the period 2011-2015 between two governing organizations.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
248
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
REFERENCES 1. Loan Tuyet Vu, “40-year Vietnam-Cambodia relations: look back and prospect”, Scientific conferences Vietnam-Cambodia relationship in new context: Global cooperation and development, Southest Asia- research institute, 2007, Hanoi, Vietnam, pp.1-12. 2. Reference document of Vietnam News Agency-46 (1523), 4 April, Hanoi, Vienam, 2011. 3. Ng c Quang Nguyen, “Education and Training Cooperation Vietnam-Cambodia”, Southeast Asia -research institute, 2003, Hanoi, Vietnam, pp. 1-21. 4. Mission Regulation for foreigner study in Vietnam - promulgate according to decision no 33/1999/Q -Education and Training Ministry August 25th 1999 of Minister of Ministry of Education and Training, Hanoi, Vietnam, 1999. 5. Ministry of Planning and Investigation of Vietnam Report on the status of implementing some agreements about economy, cultural and technology science cooperation with Cambodia in 2010 and cooperation planning in 2011, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2010. 6. Education and Training Cooperation Protocol in the Period 2006-2010 between Ministry of Education and Training of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Kingdome of Cambodia dated on December 2005, Hanoi, Vietnam 2005. 7. Ministry of Planning and Investigation Report on the cooperation status between Vietnam and Cambodia in the period 2001 - 2010 and some mentioned issues in the period 2011- 2020, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2010. 8. Department of International Cooperation - Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam: Education and Training Cooperation between Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam and Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of Cambodia in the period 2006-2010, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2005. 9. Cooperation Planning between Ministry of Education and Training of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Kingdom of Cambodia dated on 31 August, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2010. 10. Hai Thanh Nguyen, “Cambodia students in Vietnam”, Special publication of the World&Vietnam report, 2007, pp.66-67. 11. Vietnamese Embassy in Cambodia, Report on the life study status of students Vietnam in Cambodia; education cooperation results with Cambodia, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2010, pp.61-68. 12. Memorandum of understanding between the Kingdom of Cambodia Government and The government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on Economy, Culture, Technology and Science Cooperation in the 11th session of Cambodia - Vietnam Joint Committee dated on 3-4 December 2009, Preah Sihanouk, Campuchia, 2009. 13. The 6th Conference about cooperation and development Cambodia-Vietnamese border provinces: Report generally on cooperation status Cambodia-Vietnamese border provinces from the 5th conference until now dated on 2-3 March 2010, Phnom Penh, Campuchia, 2010.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
249
Adopting Blended Learning in Tourism Mass Communication: An Interdisciplinary Course in Tourism Development Program Paisarn Kanchanawong* School of Tourism Development, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand *Corresponding author, e-mail
[email protected],
[email protected] Abstract: Tourism has become an importance sector that impact on development of country economy. But tourism products are perishability, inseparability, variability, and intangibility.Tourists could not touch and see tourist attraction before travelling. How to boost the tourism? This paper presents a recent teaching and learning experience of an interdisciplinary course in Tourism Mass Communication (TMC) course, at Maejo University, focusing ontourism role, travelling intermediaries, which are an indispensable part in the distribution and destination marketing and tourism products.The TMCaims to deliver knowledge of three areas of study, e.g., tourism; communication; and technology;for students to the use ofthe appropriate media to promote and sale tourism products to tourist in global market. Several teaching approaches are applied to the coursework, e.g., cooperative learning;constructionist's approach; problem-based learning; projectbased learning; productivity-based learning; small group discussion; analytic thinking; creative thinking; cognitive-meta-cognitive process; and field trip; combined with newest media such as ebook, e-learning and computer laboratory.Three years learning output evaluated by online survey program “Performance Assess Learning and Teaching System: PALTS” indicates the raise of value of trend’s satisfaction score. Keywords: Blended Learning, Integrated Interdisciplinary Study and Teaching.
Learning,
Tourism
Mass
Communication,
INTRODUCTION “Tourism is one of the world’s top job creators and a lead exporter, especially for developing country. [4] The statement showed Tourism has become an important sector that has an impact on development of country economy. The more tourists come, the more income receives. Fortunately, Tourism industry products include national resources, natures, culture, tradition, sport, sand etc. does not require investment, but ready to sell.However, characteristics of tourism product are absolutely difference from other industry product. Tourism products are perishability, inseparability, variability, and intangibility especially for intangibility. Tourism products cannot touch if they do not travel [3]. Hence, one of the importancetourism’s roles is travel intermediarieswhich are essential part in the distribution and marketing of travel and tourism products. An information-supplying mediumis how to promote and sale tourism products to tourist by showing places and giving information of attraction destination to tourist for decision makingto buy the product. Consequently, communication arts and technology are very important in tourism industry.A tourist could get information and imagines destinationcorrectly, perfectly, and quickly before buying tourism products. School of Tourism Development, Maejo University, is one of faculty where provides tourism development program in undergraduate, master degree, and doctoral degree. For
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
250
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
undergraduate program, Tourism Mass Communication (TMC) courseis an interdisciplinary course which aims to deliver knowledge of three areas of study, Tourism, communication, and technology to students that could use appropriate media to promote and sale tourism products to tourist in the global.The main idea is to study communication theory, mass communication arts, public relations, and advertising by using appropriate technology and new media especially for the internet to promote and provide information to tourists at the global. Typical education for students is rigorous and boring while new teaching methods are more interesting, up-to-date to new technology, and meaningful. The author had taught TMC for 4 years and continuously transformed teaching approach to blended learning until today. MATERIALS AND METHODS Blended Learning methodhas been adopted and applied into the classroom since 2009. Eleven classrooms with average 40 students each were taught by blended learning increasingly. Until now newer teaching approach were used in the class room. Details of information are followed. Materials There are 4 materials to support blended learning-teaching approach which are: 1. Hand Book waswritten to support off-line learning. There are 7 modules which are: 1) Relationships between tourism and communication arts 2) Communication, Mass communication theory and applied 3) Public relationsconcept and applied 4) Advertising concept and applied 5) New media for promoting and selling tourism products6) Internet for tourism and 7) Apply communication arts to promote Tourism products. 2. E-Book: Online learning provided contents similar as hand book for supporting student on internet at URL: http://coursewares.mju.ac.th:81/TD335/index.htm. Students can access from anywhere at any time. 3. E-Learning: Online interactive learning consists of course outline, power point for each session, planning schedule, activity’s pictures, and other information at URL: http://td335.wordpress.com. 4. Computer Lab: wordpress.com was adopted and applied as website to promote tourism business or tourism destination. There are 50 sets of computers in computer room were provided for each students to learn how to develop website from wordpress.com. Students Most of the students are seniors of School of Tourism Development. There were 442 students in the classroom during 8 semesters since 2009 to 2012. The average number of studentsin a classroom is 40 students, the figure showed in table 1.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
251
Table 1 Number of students in classroom from year 2009 to year 2012 Year
Number of Students Number of Students Total Number
Total Number
in Semester 1
in Semester 2
of students
of classes
2009
38
99*
137
3
2010
33
97*
130
3
2011
32
76*
108
3
2012
27
40
67
2
Total
130
312
442
11
Average 40 students/class
* divided into 2 sections Methods The course was designed as a blended learning approach within eight modules of instructionwithin 15 sessions. The students and lecturer meet weekly facetoface. Lecturer briefs a short presentation and runs activities. The instructional materials were delivered to instructors and students using online e-learning course management via the Internet at URL: http://td335.wordpress.com
Cooperative learning
1. Communication
Constructivist’s approach
2. Mass Communication
Problem-based learning
TMC
Productivity-based learning
4. Advertising 5. Interesting topics from outside instructor
Small group discussion Analytic thinking
Students
Project-based learning
3. Public Relations
Creative thinking Cognitive process
6. Web development
Meta-cognitive process E-Learning
7. Student Presentation
Field trip Guest speakers
8. Field trip Figure 1 modules of learning and methods
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
252
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 2 Modules, approach and activities of blended learning in TMC Module
Teaching Approach
Activities
1. Course Introduction
Online course information from e-book and e-learning, Cooperative learning Face-to-Face small group discussion, analytic thinking Face-to-face small group discussion, problem-based learning, meta-cognitive process, Face-to-face small group discussion, project-based learning,metacognitive process Face-to-face
Announcementto learners.Planning scheduleby time frame, Assign project-based topic to student. Assign learning task. Short presentation about communication theory. Group activities on how to apply to tourism. Short presentation about Mass communication concept and media. Giving tourism situation to the group and discussion.
2. Communication Theory and apply to tourism 3. Mass Communication and apply to tourism
4. Public Relations and apply to promote tourism products 5. Advertising and apply to sale tourism products 6. Special issue
Analytic thinking, Creative thinking, Small group discussion Guest speakers
Short presentation about public relation concept,public relations planning process. Giving a project-based about tourism attraction to a group and presentation. Short presentation about advertising concept. Creative advertising assignment to group and presentation.
7. Web Development
Productivity-based learning, Practice in Computer Lab
8. Apply communication arts to promote Tourism products 9. Working experiences
project-based learning, self-study and presentation
Use experienced person in teaching a related topic such as Photography. Assign a tourism attraction to group. Developweb sites to promote tourism attractions using wordpress.com. Students present assignment topic in the classroom and discussion.
Field trip
One day to professional organization.
Instrument and learning assessment The instrument of learning assessment was online assessment survey namely “Performance Assess Learning and Teaching System: PALTS” at URL: http://www.assess.mju.ac.th. The system has been developed since 2010. Students have to loginto the system and answered ten items about learning and teaching’s performance. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION TMC has been transformed since 2009 while Learning-Teaching Techniques inTMC was continuously adopted. PALTS is used to evaluate learning and teaching performance of lecturer sinceyear 2010 to improve. An evaluation in the past fivesemesters isshowed in Figure 2. The value of trend’s satisfaction score isrising.It means that students are satisfied with blended learning.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
Satisfaction score
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
253
4.6 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 4 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6
1/2010
2/2010
1/2011 Semester
2/2011
1/2012
Figure 2 Satisfaction score from students in academic year 1/2010 to 1/2012 and trend [1]. Focusingon semester 1/2012, The result from satisfaction rating score of teaching performance showed the highest 4.63 score in item 9, There are a variety of teaching techniques to encourage critical thinking clear, easy to understand solutions to the system, followed bythe same 4.58 score in item 2, 4, 6, 7, and 10. Table 3 Satisfaction rating items and score of teaching performance in semester 1/2012 Satisfaction items
Score
1. Lecturer gives recommendations for further research sources 2. The quality of learning’s documentation 3. Opportunities to ask questions and consultation inside and outside the classroom 4. Opportunities for student to participate in the teaching 5. Teaching other skills is integral in the classroom 6. Promotion technologiesin the classroom 7. With delegation, research linking training bat, or both in a single additional job/group work 8. The moral is depictions. Ethics and social responsibility in the course 9. There are a variety of teaching techniques to encourage critical thinking clear, easy to understand solutions to the system 10. Teach the specified content and the course content up to date Total
4.54 4.58 4.54 4.58 4.46 4.58 4.58 4.38 4.63 4.58 4.55
Source:http://www.e-manage.mju.ac.th/assessMenuRptCourseForPerson.aspx?goID=11& year=2555&semeter=1. [2]
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
254
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
CONCLUSION TMC is an interdisciplinary course that integrated knowledge from three areas of study, tourism, communication, and technology for promoting tourism products which is intangible. To make it interesting, Lecturer use blended learning approach to teach students. For students, students are expected to know and be able to integrate knowledge of mass communication study, technology to be applied to the professional tourism development. From this approach, students could learn and develop thinking process, work in groups and collaborate with others. For lecturer, lecturercould gain more experiences in a variety of teaching techniques. Lecturer has to search more knowledge and prepare content before having a class. It improvesteaching’s performance and applies in the profession.For institute, graduates have professional skills such as thinking process, teamwork, technology, leadership, moral (ethics), responsible, assertive. However, blended learning approach needs more support from administrators and collaborate with other lecturers. Suggestions are:(1) Lecturer’s workload must be considered.Due to blended learning needs time in preparation. (2) Infrastructures, facility are necessary to help blended learning and teaching approach successful. (3) Blended learning involve technologytraining orworkshop on how to useappropriate technology in classroom which is essential for lecturer who has not experience with technology.And (4) A comparison of variety of teaching methods should be studied. The problems are: 1. Blended learning needs more time for preparing a media, contents in each session. A holistic planning is also very important. The lecturer has to evaluate learning situation to meet the objectives. In some semestersthe lecturer has no sufficient time from researching and outside academic services. 2. Blended learning needs more budgets in specific module such as inviting experts or field trip while School of Tourism Development has a limit budget. 3. Blended learning needs more knowledge about technology. Teacher should be acknowledged. 4. Blended learning needs more technical support through membership of a blended community of practice. 5. There are some students who do not understand the blended learning process. The comments from students were not focusing on learning and teaching approach but most of themrecommended to improve facility and learning environment for instance class room, video projector, microphone and toilets. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thankstooutside experts and students of School of Tourism Development in 2009/20012 academic year for their cooperation, the School of Tourism Development and Office of Academic Administration and Development, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
255
REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4.
Maejo University. “Performance Assess Learning and Teaching System”. [Online]. Available from http://www.assess.mju.ac.th/. 2013. (Feb 12, 2013) ______________. “Management Information System: E-manage”. [Online]. Available from http://www.e-manage.mju.ac.th/. 2013. (Feb 12,2013) Weaver, David B. Tourism Management. 2nd edition. Singapore : Kyodo Printing Co (S’pore) Ltd. 2000. pp. 206-209. UNWTO, “Tourism and Millennium development goals”, World Tourism Organization, 2010, pp. 4.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
256
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
The Bridge head Strategy in Yunnan Province P.R.China. as a Connecting Point to Other ASEAN Countries Piyaphong Supanyo* and Fang Zi Yu ASEAN School of Yunnan University of Finance and Economics, P.R.China *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract: This study is aimed to discuss about the concept of bridgehead strategy which is emerging and being developed in China. At this moment, the country had planned to assign Yunnan to be the bridgehead city as a connecting point to other ASEAN countries.The first part of this study is mentioned about Yunnan canton where it has such an outstanding geography. Since the area is neighbor to three ASEAN member countries namely Burma, Laos and Viet Nam. This section comes together the government plan known as “The Urgent plan of Building Yunnan Bridgehead Model Scheme” which the country had determined to open its south-west border within year 2011 to 2020. The second section is mentioned about the success that the Chinese Government have achieved from the previous scheme it had performed. Keywords: Bridgehead Strategy, China-ASEAN, Bridge head City The Origin of Bridgehead Strategy Bridgehead Strategy originated from the visit to Yunnan of the president Hu Jintao in year 2009. He discovered that Yunnan has a specific geography that connected to nearby Asian countries namely Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam. Therefore, Yunnan is the most suitable location as a bridge linking southern China to those nations and also southern Asia as well. This strategy had been planned in order to expand cooperation among neighbor countries to ease economic collaborations, trading and also seeking for sea outlet. On May, 6 th 2011, Chinese government had approved state council to encourage Yunnan to build Bridgehead city to open Southwestern China. This obviously indicated that China decided to enhance Bridgehead Strategy into a national strategy. There was a consolidation of conference held by the Government of Yunnan Province on May 30 th, 2011 in Ruili city, Dehong district which is the border area between China and Myanmar. Consequently, Yunnan’s master plan for building Yunnan bridgehead city to open Southwest China 2011- 2020 had been launched by Yunnan government. It is considerably appears that over the past few years, China, a country that has a number of Asian neighbor countries, is considering the impacts and importance of ASEAN community and trying to accomplish the participation of this matter. Due to the 19th conference of ASEAN-China senior officers held in Beijing which had the subject on the strategic partnership between China and ASEAN. This is lead to the peace, stability and development among China and other nearby Asian countries to confederate to one another. As well as this plan leads to the cooperation among countries to build route R3A connecting Kunming and Bangkok in order to increase the ease and ability of traffic among ASEAN countries.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
257
Figure 1 Map of Yunnan Province P.R.China and Nearby Area. Master Plan of Yunnan Bridgehead City 2011-2020 Master plan of Yunnan bridgehead city 2011-2020 is a moderate plan within10 years of operation which is divided into two phases comprising as following sections; During year 2011-2015 China planned to build route connections, increase the ease of customs formalities, construction of infrastructure at the border, natural gas pipeline at Kyaukpyu (Myanmar-Kunming), international logistic network and construction of sea port to open Yunnan to Indian Ocean. During year 2016-2020 Enhance the connection of road traffic, trains, water transportation and air traffic among four main cities which are Kunming, Qujing (Chang Jiang economic area), Dali (gateway to Myanmar) and Mengzi (gateway to Vietnam) and decentralization to these cities. Furthermore, Chinese government would focus on main important industries consist of petrol, natural gas, renewable energy, agriculture, mineral processing, biological or natural pharmaceutical drugs, tourism and culture, finance and transportation. The government emphasized on two more significant points, the first one is renewable energy especially water power, this water energy is the strength for Yunnan province to distribute electricity. The second is distinguishing mining industry, biological industry such as producing of tea, coffee, tobacco and herb and tourism industry. Eight Successes from Bridgehead City Strategy 1. The provincial and national awareness to the importance of bridgehead strategy and implementation among of such strategy together.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
258
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
2. The success of the first conference among various ministries in common development of the bridgehead strategy on June 12th, 2012 in Beijing. Yunnan is supported for implementation and troubleshooting from government. 3. Developed Ruili as a pilot border sites for opening up, there are a number of cooperation had invested in the area. 56 projects were signed agreement to invest in Ruili valued of 84,590 million RMB. and 14 of those had finished. These finished megaprojects are such as Longrui expressway, China-Myanmar natural gas pipeline. There are a number of jade and redwood exporting from Myanmar which yielded profit to Myanmar totally 2,500 Yuan for jade products and 2,000 Yuan for redwoods with the average of 32,000 travelers and 6,200 for vehicles per day. 4. The urge of megaprojects yielded investments in fixed assets in Yunnan increased dramatically up to 24% in the first quarter in 2012. These included; Highway networks, eight routes to domestic regions, four routes to neighbor countries had been in progress. 11 projects for railways are being developed, more than 1,500 km totally at present time. The prospect in year 2012 would gain 18,000 Yuan for investment in three Asian railroads; Yunnan-Hekou route is being constructed and will be opened in 2013 while the rest are expected to be finished in 2018. 12 Yunnan airports are accommodating for all Yunnan regions, Changshui had opened, Luguhu and Changyuan are being constructed and Honghe is approved and about to constructed. 5. The approval of the master plan of bridgehead strategy. 6. The urge of establishing Yunnan central economic zone (Kunming, Chuxiong, Qujing, Yuxi) covering ¼ of Yunnan province. These areas are the center of bridgehead city construction and those are one of the 18 main developing areas of China as well as a site for establishing central Yunnan industrial zone. 7.
The signed agreement among Yunnan government and 40 ministries, 10 financial institutions and 32 private companies yielded capital 1 billion Yuan from the Chinese government and 1 billion Yuan from private companies as well.
8. The distribution of all tasks to relevant departments at all levels has made the progress of the plan more rapidly.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Figure 2 Logistics Route and Trade Way
259
Figure 3 Pipeline Myanmar-China
In addition to these eight successes of the strategy, there are some more minor notable points; Yunnan central economic zone is the heart of bridgehead city where suitable for investment; this area is combining of Yunnan, Qujing, Yuxi and Chuxiong. The strength of each city is presented as following data. Table 1 Cities and its strength in Yunnan City Kunming
Qujing
Yuxi
Chuxiong
Strengths Hub of transportation, industry, trading, science, tourism and information technology Place of advanced technology, pharmaceutical and vulcanization Source of phosphorus which accumulated at 4,800 million tons, became the largest source of the country. Source of energy industry from coal, chemistry, metal and new materials. Abundant source of coal and iron ore. Hub of machinery industry & equipment and tobacco industry. Shanhu lake ecological zone as a tourist destination. Tourist destination for folk & cultural tourism, source for cattle, biological drugs and green food production. Source of salt with high quality.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
260
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Yunnan is one of western provinces of China while the economic growth is still inferior to other western provinces such as Sichuan, Shanxi, Guangxi and Chongqing. The Yunnan GDP. has ranked as the fifth of western region. Thus, Yunnan has to expedite its plan to develop transportation network among neighbor countries particularly the Pan-Asia railway network. As well as enhance the connection and customs formalities among nearby countries and restructure the industrial structure in Yunnan as the government had declared in 2012. This plan is aimed to proceeding the growth of industry rapidly within five years (2011-2015) as following data; Table 2 Outstanding Industry, Major Industry and Emerging Industry Outstanding Industry
Major Industry
Emerging Industry
Tobacco
Steel
Modern Biotechnology.
Electricity
Petrochemical
Alternative Technology
Metal
Phosphorus
Photoelectron
Biotechnology
Coal
High-end equipment manufacturing
n/a
Contraction materials and furniture
New Materials
n/a
Electronics and new materials
Energy saving and environmental protection
n/a
Equipment producing
n/a
Yunnan has invested to plant rubber and cassava as economic crops in Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam. Total area is more than 19 million square meters. This is the opportunity for nearby countries to associate the trading of economic crops. It may increase strength of one another countries by collaboration of such common industries such as tourism or agriculture or even integrated supply chain system to do compete the trade effectively.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
261
CONCLUSION From the bridgehead strategy in Yunnan Province, P.R. China, it is found that this project has a great impact on the international collaboration among Asian countries, especially ChinaASEAN. China has decided to apply a new plan for western China development instead of the previous on which had been used for the last 10 years. The campaign of the development can be explained as “two strengths and one stronghold”. Two strengths means create the advancement of Yunnan’s strengths which are Green City such as resources development (low carbon), ecotourism, green energy. The other strength to reserve and reintroduce is the culture as there are various types of tribal culture throughout Yunnan province. One stronghold means the bridgehead city which is now constructing its route connections to nearby provinces and countries. Therefore, the bridgehead strategy is crucial for driving Yunnan to gain benefits from opening borders and proceeding free trades or association with ASEAN neighbors stably. REFERENCES 1.
C.Wanling, H. Chuantian "China-ASEAN: A Strategy Based on the Blueprint of ASEAN Economic Community", AROUND SOUTHEAST ASIA no.1 /2013(p.25).
2.
L.Xu, H. Manshu "On China-ASEAN International and Regional CPA personnel Training Routes" AROUND SOUTHEAST ASIA no.1/2013(p.41). A.Phanishsarn, “China Railway Development for connecting to other ASEAN ” Thammasat University, Thailand. M.Yinan, "Regionalization of RMB in ASEAN ", AROUND SOUTHEAST ASIA no.1/2013(p.50). ThaiBiz in China Thailand Business Information Center in China/ www.thaibizchina.com MEKONG. An Authoritative Magazine in Thai.02 -2013,03-2013
3. 4. 5. 6.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
262
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Functional Framework: Determination of Causal Model of Work Attitude, Need for Achievement, Budgetary Participation, and Job Performance Kijpokin Kasemsap* Faculty of Management Sciences, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Bangkok, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Research objectives were to determine a functional framework and a causal model of work attitude, need for achievement, budgetary participation, and job performance of pharmaceutical company employees in Thailand. The study reported the responses of 583 operational employees from 39 pharmaceutical companies operating in different parts of Thailand. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics using SPSS (version 20) and assessed with confirmatory factor analysis to confirm the heterogeneity of all constructs and path analysis to test the cause and effect relationships among main constructs of the study using LISREL (version 8.8) on a structured questionnaire containing standard scales of work attitude, need for achievement, budgetary participation, and job performance to determine the relationships of work attitude, need for achievement, budgetary participation, and job performance. Research findings indicated that dimensions of work attitude, need for achievement, and budgetary participation have mediated positive effect on job performance. Budgetary participation positively mediate the relationships between work attitude and job performance and between need for achievement and job performance. Keywords: Budgetary Participation, Job Performance, Need for Achievement, Work Attitude. INTRODUCTION Previous studies of organizational dynamics have identified positive attitudes among employees and a need for achievement as being important elements in lowering turnover and improving performance [1] [2]. Empirical evidence on the relationship between budgetary participation and performance has been offered by several researchers [3]. Managers need to be motivated to perform better in budgetary activities, and that managers who have a greater need for achievement and certainty are self-motivated to participate more actively than those who have less need for achievement [4]. The two individual-level variables identified in the present study play significant roles in influencing employee participation in budgeting activities – because it is an important source of information [5]. From an organizational perspective, satisfying managers’ need for achievement has been shown to reduce employees’ lateness to work, absenteeism, and staff turnover rates [2]. There is a need that connects the design of accounting systems and overall organizational design to improve the organizational efficiency [6]. A sense of achievement promotes motivation and job performance [7]. An employee performs better if the perceived value can be achieved at a satisfactory level. The importance of a sense of achievement lies in the belief that one should work hard to accomplish difficult but challenging goals at work [8]. The need for achievement plays a significant role in motivating employees during budgetary participation because the results of job performance can be increased [9]. Persons with a high need for achievement are potentially useful members of an organization because they accept competitive
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
263
situations, tend to be independent, and have an interest in excellence [10]. Moreover, managers with high need for achievement set higher goals for themselves, and have higher expectations of performance than those with lower need for achievement [11-12]. Job performance is ofinterest to organizations because of the importance of high productivity in the workplace [13]. Job performance is the behavior with an evaluative aspect [14]. Job performance measures the level of achievement of business, social objectives, and responsibilities from the perspective of the judging party [15]. Job performance is behavior with an evaluative aspect [14]. This definition is consistent with the dominant methods used to measure job performance namely, performance ratings from supervisors and peers [16]. Job performance can be divided into two parts, namely task performance and contextual performance [17]. Task performance involves the effectiveness with which employees perform the activities that are formally part of their job and contribute to the organization’s technical core [17]. Contextual performance consists of organizational activities that are volitional, not prescribed by the job, and do not contribute directly to the technical core [18]. Contextual performance includes activities such as helping, cooperating with others, and volunteering, which are not formally part of the job but can be important for all jobs [17]. Work attitudes toward the job have been offered as an intervening factor that affects job performance when participating in budget activities. Several studies have proposed that budgetary participation is positively linked to employee performance [5]. Budgetary participation should relate to the involvement of managers in the budgetary process and their influence over the setting of budget targets [19]. The argument that managers’ participation in a budget setting affects job performance is based on two arguments. Firstly, psychological theory suggests that participation is related to performance through self-identification and ego-involvement with budget goals [20]. Secondly, participation is seen to improve the flow of information between subordinates and superiors, thus leading to the improved cognition and the enhanced decision-making [19]. As a result, participation can promote better performance through facilitation of learning and knowledge acquisition [21]. Research objectives were to determine a functional framework and a causal model of work attitude, need for achievement, budgetary participation, and job performance of pharmaceutical company employees in Thailand. MATERIALS AND METHODS Data for this study were collected from 583 operational employees out of 8,607 operational employees working in 39 pharmaceutical companies in Thailand by using Yamane’s formula [22] for a 96% confidence level with a 4% margin of error by proportional random sampling method. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics using SPSS (version 20) and assessed with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to confirm the heterogeneity of all constructs and path analysis [23] to detect the cause-effect relationships among various dimensions of main constructs of the study using LISREL (version 8.8) on a structured questionnaire containing standard scales of work attitude, need for achievement, budgetary participation, and job performance, besides some demographic details like age, education, and tenure with the organization. All the constructs were operationalized using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Work attitude toward specific jobs was measured by a 16-item instrument developed by [24]. Work attitude toward the company was measured by a 10-item instrument developed by [24]. The overall attitude (toward the job and toward the organization) was assessed by the sum of the scores [25]. Need for achievement was measured by an eight-item Manifest Needs Questionnaire developed by [26]. This instrument has previously been used by [27] and various modified versions have been widely adopted by other studies [28]. Budgetary participation was measured by a sixitem scale developed by [24].The objective of this instrument is to examine the level of managers’
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
264
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
participation and influence in core budgeting activities. Job performance was measured with a selfevaluation questionnaire developed by [29]. Respondents were required to rate their performance on eight dimensions, namelyplanning, investigating, coordinating, evaluating, supervising, staffing, negotiating, and representing. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A functional framework and a causal model were determined. Research findings indicated that dimensions of work attitude, need for achievement, and budgetary participation have mediated positive effect on job performance. Budgetary participation positively mediate the relationships between work attitude and job performance and between need for achievement and job performance.Regarding the functional framework, there are lots of researchers studying the relationships of work attitude, need for achievement, budgetary participation, and job performance in a wide variety of fields. The functional framework was positively compatible with the following research findings. Work attitude, need for achievement, and budgetary participation were positively linked to job performance. Job performance of employees could be enhanced by encouraging participation in budgetary activities. A need for achievement and a positive work attitude were the significant antecedents to budgetary participation – which, in turn, positively influence job performance. Management team could motivate subordinates to have better performance by giving them more opportunities to participate in the budget activities. High-budgetary participation should improve job performance only when participants have a good work attitude and a significant need for achievement. This suggests two significant managerial implications for budget-related matters. Firstly, the findings suggest that a positive work attitude can be fostered by providing employees with greater responsibility and decision-making autonomy in their budgetary participation. Employees are more likely to be motivated to participate in setting budgetary targets – which, in turn, enhances their work attitudes (to both their jobs and the organization). Such a positive work attitude can be enhanced by both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards [4]. For example, senior management team should demonstrate their respect for their employees, provide more opportunities to work independently, create more promotion prospects, pay more attention to their personal and career development, offer more compliments, and provide employees with feelings of security. Secondly, employees with a significant need for achievement tend to set and strive for challenging goals. If the employees have a significant sense of achievement, they are likely to seek greater participation in budgeting because it helps them to gain appropriate job-relevant information (which, in turn, helps in setting high, but achievable budgetary targets) [12].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
265
PN IV
CO
WA
EV
BP
JP SP
NA ST
NG
RP
Figure1 Functional Framework and Causal Model Key: WA = Work Attitude, NA = Need for Achievement, BP = Budgetary Participation, JP = Job Performance, PN = Planning, IV = Investigating, CO = Coordinating, EV = Evaluating, SP = Supervising, ST = Staffing, NG = Negotiating, RP = Representing CONCLUSION The purposes of this study were to determine a functional framework and a causal model of work attitude, need for achievement, budgetary participation, and job performance of pharmaceutical company employees in Thailand. The findings showed that the work attitude, need for achievement, and budgetary participation have the strength to mediate positive effect on job performance. In relation to the functional framework and the causal model, this result was the extent to which work attitude, need for achievement, and budgetary participation have mediated positive effect on job performance. Budgetary participation positively mediate the relationships between work attitude and job performance and between need for achievement and job performance. Senior management is likely to have significant influence on how the departments are managed. There may have been factors at work that are specific to the participating departments; caution is therefore required in generalizing the results. An organization is likely to be better off by improving employees’ attitudes and providing them with opportunities to achieve their goals; moreover, budgetary participation can provide employees the opportunity to take more responsibilities and setting their own goals for organization. As a result, job performance will be effectively improved. Work attitude and need for achievement help organizations move toward better job performance through budgetary participation. Organizations aiming to increase job performance and achieve business goals should focus on developing the work attitude, need for achievement, and budgetary participation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to express thanks for all the invaluable support obtained from the university lecturers at the Business Administration doctoral program in the Faculty of Management Sciences, SuanSunandhaRajabhat University.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
266
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
J. E. Mathieuand D. M. Zajac, “A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates, and consequence of organizational commitment”, Psychological Bulletin,1990, 108, 171-194. D. M. Randall, “The consequences of organizational commitment: Methodological investigation”, Journal of Organizational Behavior,1990, 11, 361-378. F. A. Gul, J. S.Tsui, S. C. Fong and H. Y. Kwok, “Decentralization as a moderating factor in the budgetary participation-performance relationship: Some Hong Kong evidence”, Accounting and Business Research,1995, 25, 107-113. P. Brownell and J. M. McInnes, “Budgetary participation, and managerial performance”, The Accounting Review,1986, 61, 587-600. P. Brownell, “The role of accounting data in performance evaluation, budgetary participation and organizational effectiveness”, Journal of Accounting Research,1982, 20, 12-27. G. Potterand R. S. Schidgall, “Hospitality management accounting: Current problems and future opportunities”, International Journal of Hospitality Management,1999, 18, 387-400. E. A. Locke, “The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,1991, 50, 288-299. J. Hoganand R. Hogan, “Motives, Value and Preferences Manual”, Hagan Assessment Systems, Tulsa, OK, 1996. E. C. Ravlinand B. M. Meglino, “Effect of values on perception and decision making: A study of alternative work values measures”, Journal of Applied Psychology,1987, 72, 666-673. E. A. Ward, “Generalizability of psychological research from undergraduates to employed adult”, Journal of Social Psychology,1993, 133, 513-519. E. A. Lockeand G. P. Latham, “A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance”,Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff, NJ, 1990. T. Matsui, A. Okada and T. Kakuyama, “Influence of achievement need on goal setting, pay and feedback effectiveness”, Journal of Applied Psychology,1982, 67, 645-648. J. E. Hunterand R. F. Hunter, “Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job performance”, Psychological Bulletin, 1984, 96, 72-98. S. J. Motowidlo, W. C. Bormanand M. J. Schmit, “A theory of individual differences in task and contextual performance”, Human Performance, 1997, 10, 71-83. P. Hersey and K. H. Blanchard, “Leadership Style: Attitudes and Behaviors”, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993. D. A. Newman, T. Kinney and J. L. Farr, “Job performance ratings”, in “Comprehensive Handbook of Psychological Assessment, Industrial and Organizational Assessment” (Ed. J. C. Thomas), John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2004. W. C. Bormanand S. J. Motowidlo, “Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance”, in “Personnel Selection in Organizations” (Ed. N. Schmitand W. C. Borman), Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, 1993. D. W. Organ, “Organizational citizenship behavior: It’s construct clean-up time”, Human Performance, 1997, 10, 85-97. M. Shieldsand S. M. Young, “Antecedents and consequences of participative budgeting: Evidence on the effects of asymmetrical information”, Journal of Management Accounting Research,1993, 5, 265-280. D. Murray, “The performance effects of participative budgeting: An integration of intervening and moderating variables”,Behaviorial Research in Accounting,1990, 2, 104-123. S. K. Parkersand T. D. Wall, “Job design in modern manufacturing”, in “Psychology at Work”(Ed. P. Wass),Penguin Books, London, UK, 1996. T. Yamane, “Statistics – An Introductory Analysis”,John Weatherhill, Tokyo, Japan, 1970.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
267
23. K. G. Joreskogand D. Sorbom, “LISREL 8: User’s Reference Guide”,Scientific Software International, Chicago, IL, 1993. 24. K. R. Milani, “The relationship of participation in budget-setting to industrial supervisor performance and attitudes: A field study”, The Accounting Review,1975, 50, 274-284. 25. M. E. Shawand J. M. Wright, “Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes”,McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1967. 26. R. M. Steersand D. N. Braunstein, “A behaviorally based measure of manifest needs in work settings”, Journal of Vocational Behavior,1976, 9, 251-266. 27. N. Subramaniam, L. McManusand L. Mia, “Enhancing hotel managers’s organizational commitment: An investigation of the impact of structure, need for achievement and participative budgeting”, Hospitality Management,2002, 21, 303-320. 28. W. D. Spangler, “Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of need for achievement: Two meta-analyses”, Psychological Bulletin,1992, 112, 140-152. 29. T. A. Mahoney, T. H. Jerdeeand S. J. Carroll, “Development of Managerial Performance: A Research Approach”, South-Western Publishing, Oklahoma, OK, 1963.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
268
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Unified Framework: Constructing a Causal Model of Six Sigma, Organizational Learning, Organizational Innovation, and Organizational Performance Kijpokin Kasemsap* Faculty of Management Sciences, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Bangkok, Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Research objectives were to construct the unified framework and a causal model of Six Sigma, organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance of glass manufacturing plant employees in Thailand. The study reported the responses of 539 operational employees from 19 glass manufacturing plant operating in different parts of Thailand. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics using SPSS (version 20) and assessed with confirmatory factor analysis to confirm the heterogeneity of all constructs and path analysis to test the cause and effect relationships among main constructs of the study using LISREL (version 8.8) on a structured questionnaire containing standard scales of Six Sigma, organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance to determine the relationships of Six Sigma, organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance. Research findings indicated that dimensions of Six Sigma, organizational learning, and organizational innovation have mediated positive effect on organizational performance. Organizational learning and innovation positively mediatethe relationship between Six Sigma and organizational performance.Furthermore, organizational learning was positively correlated with organizational innovation. Keywords: Organizational Innovation, Organizational Learning, Organizational Performance, Six Sigma. INTRODUCTION Six Sigma is a new approach to quality management [1-2]. Six Sigma has three components [3]: Six Sigma role structure (the organization uses a group of improvement specialists who are developed through Six Sigma training and certification programs and ranked based on their expertise); Six Sigma structured improvement (there is an emphasis on following a standardized procedure in planning and conducting improvement projects where teams apply the appropriate quality management tools and techniques as prescribed in each step of the structured procedure); and Six Sigma focus on metric (quantitative metrics are used to measure process performance and product quality performance and to set improvement goals. SixSigma presents an organized, parallel-meso structure to reduce variation in organizational processes by using improvement specialists, a structured method, and performance metrics with the aim of achieving strategic objectives [4]. Six Sigma focus on metric used to measure process performance and product quality performance, and to set improvement goals which also positively affect organizational innovativeness [5]. Six Sigma is positively related to organizational learning [6] and is increasingly being touted as the route to organizational excellence.But it must be noted that it is hardly a formula for creativity, breakthrough or entrepreneurship, hence a relevant point to be considered in support of this research [7]. Furthermore, Six Sigma is positively related to organizational learning [8-9].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
269
Organizational learning occurs when members use learning to solve a common problem they are facing [10]. Organizational learning has three components [11]: commitment to learning (organization regards learning as its most important basic value), shared vision (organization chiefs share future vision with its members) and open-mindedness (organization does not stick to its old way of thinking but embrace innovative ideas). Organizational innovation has two components [12]: administrative innovation (innovative operations with respect to planning, organization personnel, leadership, management, and service), and technical innovation (innovations with respect to products, manufacturing, and facilities). Organizational innovation combines the development and implementation of new ideas, systems, products, or technologies [13]. Consequently, organizational innovation often stems from knowledge absorption, the research and design, and other corporate units [14]. Organizational innovation can be considered as implementation of exploration and processes that is shaped with outcomes, products, and new systems [15]. The learning ability of employees enhances absorption and assimilation of internal information [16]. Promoting learning from a relationship with external partners, positively affects new product development and innovation [17]. Companies with learning orientation can scan the external environment for new technological paradigms that result in organizational innovation [11]. Organizational learning has the greatest positive relationship with process innovation in knowledge transfer to enhance organizational performance [18]. There is a more thorough assessment of the link between organizational learning and organizational performance [19]. Learning orientation and organizational memory are related to important organizational outcomes, not only when firms have different levels of environment turbulence but also when firms have the same level of environmental turbulence [20]. There are positive relationships between organizational learning and organizational innovation and between organizational innovation and organizational performance [21]. The top management may improve existing management systems through organizational learning practice, which ultimately increases organizational performance [22]. Recent research has shown a positive link between organizational learning capability and organizational performance, either focusing on general performance [23] or on specific organizational performance aspects like innovation performance [24-25]. Organizational learning capacity has a key role on increasing the performance and hence it should be developed to increase the firm performance [26-27]. It is obvious that the organizations create innovations depending on their learning [28]. The researchers studying on organizational learning specify that it is an ability that increases the firm’s performance with time [29-30]. Research objectives were to construct the unified framework and a causal model of Six Sigma, organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance of glass manufacturing plant employees in Thailand. MATERIALS AND METHODS Data of this study were collected from 539 operational employees out of 11,335 operational employees working in the 19 glass manufacturing plants in Thailand by using the Yamane formula [31] for a 96% confidence level with a 4% margin of error by proportional random sampling method. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics using SPSS (version 20) and assessed with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to confirm the heterogeneity of all constructs and path analysis [32] to detect the cause-effect relationships among various dimensions of main constructs of the study using LISREL (version 8.8) on a structured questionnaire containing standard scales of Six Sigma, organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance, besides some demographic details like age, education, and tenure with the organization. All the constructs
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
270
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
were operationalized using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Six Sigma was assessed using the questionnaire developed by [3] with 25 items of measuring three elements of Six Sigma role structure, Six Sigma structured improvement procedure, and Six Sigma focus on metric. Organizational learning was assessed using the questionnaire developed by [11] with 17 items of measuring three elements of commitment to learning, shared vision, and open-mindedness. Organizational innovation was assessed using the questionnaire developed by [22] with 8 items of two elements of technological innovation and administrative innovation. Organizational performance was assessed using the questionnaire developed by [33] with 25 items of measuring seven elements of product or service quality, product or service innovation, employee attraction, employee retention, customer satisfaction, management and employee relations, and employee relations RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A unified framework and a causal model were constructed. Research findings indicated that dimensions of Six Sigma, organizational learning, and organizational innovation have mediated positive effect on organizational performance. Organizational learning positively mediate the relationship between Six Sigma and organizational performance. Organizational innovations positively mediate the relationship between Six Sigma and organizational performance. Furthermore, organizational learning was positively correlated with organizational innovation. Regarding the unified framework and the causal model, there are lots of researchers studying about the relationships of Six Sigma, organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance in a wide variety of fields. The unified framework was positively compatible with the following research findings. Six Sigma, organizational learning, and organizational innovation are positively linked to organizational performance. When assessing and formulating measures like Six Sigma for promoting organizational innovation and organizational performance, organization should consider the mediated variable of organizational learning to avoid misjudgment and achieve better performance. Organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance promote organizational entrepreneurship and increase competitive advantages. An Organization must innovate as a necessary requisite to obtainhigh performance levels. Understanding and managing the organizational innovativeness and performance process becomes a vital capability that organizations must learn. When implementing Six Sigma in organizations, organizational learning processes must be carried out to provide firms with a series of mechanisms through which to achieve advantages that the competitors find difficult to imitate, thus generating higher performance.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
CL
SV
271
OM PSQ PSI
OL SRS
SIP
EAT
SS
JP
SFM
ERT
CSF
MER
OI
ERL
AI
TI
Figure 1: Unified Framework and Causal Model Key:SS = Six Sigma,SRS = Six Sigma Role Structure, SIP = Six Sigma Structured Improvement Procedure, SFM = Six Sigma Focus on Metric, OL = Organizational Learning, CL = Commitment to Learning, SV = Shared Vision, OM = Open-mindedness, OI = Organizational Innovation, AI = Administrative Innovation, TI = Technology Innovation,OP = Organizational Performance, PSQ = Product or Service Quality, PSI = Product or Service Innovation, EAT = Employee Attraction, ERT = Employee Retention, CSF = Customer Satisfaction, MER = Management and Employee Relations, ERL = Employee Relations
CONCLUSION The purposes of this study were to construct the unified framework and a causal model of Six Sigma, organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance of glass manufacturing plant employees in Thailand. The findings show that the Six Sigma, organizational learning, and organizational innovation have the strength to mediate positive effect on organizational performance. In relation to the unified framework and the causal model, that is the extent to which dimensions of Six Sigma, organizational learning, and organizational innovation have mediated positive effect on organizational performance. Organizational learning and organization innovation positively mediates the relationship between Six Sigma and organizational performance. Furthermore, organizational learning is positively correlated with organizational innovation. Managers will play an important role in linking the Six Sigma, organizational learning, organizational innovation, and organizational performance. Managersmust be ready to seize the opportunity for organizational innovativeness and organizational learning, and opportunity usually favors ready minds. Managers can do a lot to prepare the organization’s minds. Managerscan create a context that legitimates innovative behavior and allocates resources to innovation and learning, a
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
272
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
context whose structure nurtures the development and implementation of both capabilities. An organization that is inward-looking and unable to tackle changes proactively in the environment, due to Six Sigma implementation, would not survive, despite the sophisticated knowledge and technology it possesses. The managers’ proactivity perception of the environment will determine the organization’s innovation and learning behavior. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to express thanks for all the invaluable support obtained from the university lecturers at the Business Administration doctoral program in the Faculty of Management Sciences, SuanSunandhaRajabhat University. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
U. D. Kumar, D.Nowick, J. E. Ramirez-Marquezand D. Verma, “On the optimal selection of process alternatives in a Six Sigma implementation”, International Journal of Production Economics, 2008, 111, 456-467. C. T. Su, T. L. Chiang and C. M. Chang, “Improving service quality by capitalizing on an integrated lean Six Sigma methodology”, International Journal of Six Sigma and Competitive Advantage, 2006, 2, 1-22. X. Zu, T. L. Robbinsand L. D. Fredendall, “Mapping the critical links between organizational culture and TQM/Six Sigma practices”, International Journal of Production Economics,2010, 123, 86-106. R. G. Schroeder, K.Linderman, C.Liedtkeand A. S. Choo, “Six Sigma definition and underlying theory”, Journal of Operations Management, 2008, 26, 536-554. K. C. Desouza, C. Dombrowskiand Y. Awazu, “Crafting organizational innovation processes”, Innovation: Management, Policy & Practice, 2009, 11, 6-33. W. Hakan and S. W. Pia, “Widening the Six Sigma concept: An approach to improve organizational learning”, Total Quality Management, 2002, 13, 233-239. T. N. Goh, “A strategic assessment of Six Sigma”, Quarterly and Reliability Engineering International, 2002, 18, 403-410. J. G. Leopoldo, F. J. Llorens-Montesand O. F. Bustinza Sanchez, “Six Sigma: From a goaltheoretic perspective to shared-vision development”, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 2008, 29, 151-169. M. Rodneyand S. A. Hazlett, “An absorptive capacity interpretation of Six Sigma”, Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 2010, 21, 624-645. G. Morgan and R. Ramirez, “Action learning: A holographic metaphor for guiding change”, Human Relations, 1983, 37, 1-28. W. E. Bakerand J. M. Sinkula, “The synergistic effort of market orientation and learning orientation on organizational performance”, Academy of Marketing Science, 1999, 27, 411-427. R. L. Daft, “A dual-core model of organizational innovation”, Academy of Management Journal, 1982, 21, 193-210. F. Damanpour, “Organizational innovation: A meta-analysis of effects of determinants and moderators”, Academy of Management Journal, 1991, 34, 555-590. E. Mansfield, “Technological change and market structure: An empirical study”, The American Economic Review, 1983, 73, 205-211. M. Gloetand M. Terziovski, “Exploring the relationship between knowledge management practices and innovation performance”, Journal of Manufacturing TechnologyManagement, 2004, 15, 402-409.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
273
16. W. M. Cohenand D. A. Levinthal, “Absorptive capability: A new perspective on learning and innovation”, Administration Science Quarterly, 1990, 35, 128-152. 17. F. T. Rothaermeland D. L. Deeds, “Exploitation alliances in biotechnology: A system of new product development”, Strategic Management Journal, 2004, 25, 201-221. 18. J. Rhodes, P. Lok, R. Hungand S. Fang, “An integrative model of organizational learning and social capital on effective knowledge transfer and perceived organizational performance”, Journal of Workplace Learning, 2008, 20, 245-258. 19. C. Yang, Y. Wangand H. Niu, “Does industry matter in attributing organizational learning to its performance? Evidence from the Taiwanese economy”, Asia Pacific Business Review, 2007, 13, 547-563. 20. S. Hanvanich, K.Sivakumar, G. Tomas and M. Hult, “The relationship of learning and memory withorganizational performance: The moderating role of turbulence”, Journal of the Academy of MarketingScience, 2006, 34, 600-612. 21. V. Gracia-Morales, F.Llorens-Montesand A. Verdu-Jover, “Antecedents and consequences of organizational innovation and organizational learning in enterpreneurship”, Industrial Management & Data Systems, 2006, 106, 21-42. 22. A. Azadeh, S. F. Ghaderi, Y. P. Miran, V. Ebrahimipourand K. Suzuki, “An integrated framework for continuous assessment and improvement of manufacturing systems”, Applied Mathematics andComputation, 2007, 186, 1216-1233. 23. J. Campsand R. Luna-Arocas, “A matter of learning: How human resources affect organizational performance”, British Journal of Management,2012, 23, 1-21. 24. I. M. Arand B. Baki, “Antecedents and performance impacts of product versus process innovation”, European Journal of Innovation Management,2011, 14, 172-206. 25. S. Robinsonand H. A. Stubberud, “Sources of information and cooperation for innovation in Norway”, Journal of International Business Research,2011, 10, 91-102. 26. G. T. Hult, O. C.Ferrel and R. F. Hurley, “Global organizational learning effects on cycle time performance”, Journal of Business Research, 2002, 55, 377-387. 27. E. C. Nevis, A. J.DiBellaand J. M. Gould, “Understanding organizations as learning systems”, Sloan Management Review,1995, 36, 73-85. 28. M. L. Chenand K. J. Chen, “Relationships among organizational innovation, learning and knowledge management in the information technology industry”, African Journal of Business Management, 2010, 4, 3191-3200. 29. C. H. Fang, S. T. Changand G. L. Chen, “Organizational learning capability and organizational innovation: The moderating role of knowledge inertia”, Academy of Management Journal, 2010, 5, 1864-1870. 30. D. Ulrich, V. M. Glinow, T. Jick, A. K.Yeungand S. W. Nason, “Learning Organization, Culture Change, and Competitiveness: How Managers can Build Learning Capability”, The International Consolidation for Executive Development Research, Lexington, MA, 1994. 31. T. Yamane, “Statistics – An Introductory Analysis”, John Weatherhill, Tokyo, Japan, 1970. 32. K. G. Joreskogand D. Sorbom, “LISREL 8: User’s Reference Guide”, Scientific Software International, Chicago, IL, 1993. 33. J. T. Delaneyand M. A. Huselid, “The impact of human resource management practices on perceptions of organizational performance”, Academy of Management Journal, 1996, 39, 949969.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
274
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
A Stimulant of Information Technology Service Management in Hotel Management Niran Chawla 1,, Montri Wiboonrat 2* 1 2
Computer and Engineering Management, Assumption University, Bangkok, Thailand Khon Kaen University, Bangkok Campus, Thailand
* Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected] Abstract: In the extremely competition of hotel industry in the 21th century, revenues are driven by customer satisfaction and brand loyalty. The challenge of reduced operating costs and increasing sales volume while increasing customer’s satisfaction is the new stimulant for doing hotel business. This research question derived from a real case study of economic hotel chain, B2 hotel with 18 branches. In-depth interview with owner and 30% of hotel staffs were conducted to investigates and understand the existing problems, limitations, and exceed operation costs of information technology service management (ITSM) that deployed in 18 hotel branches. The interpretation and transformation of IT hotel management problems and constraints to new solutions have developed and modeled in the research framework. Feasibility of new centralized ITSM was developed and constructed conceptual model to deployment. The research results findings verified the return on investment (ROI) will play back within 4 years after systems deployment when compared with pursuing on existing legacy hotel operations. e-Money system will create more opportunities for new market segment and increase customer’s satisfactions. Keywords: Hotel Management, Ubiquitous Information Technology Infrastructure, Online Service Management, Information Technology Service Management. INTRODUCTION Globalization and increasingly competitive markets has driven both local and international hotels to develop their standards to ensure that they are ahead or at least keeping pace with their competitors. Many hotels have deployed IT to increase more customer expectation and competitive advantage. In the 21st century, IT investment in hotel industry has increased drastically. Emerging of electronic transactions over Internet fosters the competition among online booking hotel businesses. Online service system (OSS) has been generally deployment throughout hospitality industry. The hotel technology infrastructure must support advanced guest service applications, which equip front-line staff with the tools and capabilities that they need to anticipate guests' needs and deliver excellent service. Hotel infrastructure must also increase management efficiency [4], to help the hotel operate profitably in spite of rising utility, labour, medical, and other operational costs [2]. The third infrastructure requirement is that it enables the hotel to quickly and easily deploy new services-not only over the next few months or years, but in the future as new technologies and applications emerge. According to [1] research, conducted in the U.S.A. in year 2008, there are three main instances in which hotel management considers IT to be particularly beneficial to the hotel workplace: (1) the increase in customer satisfaction, (2) employee efficiency, and (3) increasing revenue. It is notable that hotel management holds no strong belief that IT can be used as a tool for
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
275
lowering expenses or improving the efficiency of their back-of-house (BOH) systems. More than half of the respondents considered IT an asset for enhancing the customer experience [3]. The hotel business challenge is how to design a cost effective communication infrastructure that delivers advanced customer services and helps hotel staffs exceed customer expectation and to build customer loyalty. In order to improve the IT criteria of the Thailand Hotels Standard (THS), this research aims to determine the level of knowledge of currently available on OSS and information technology infrastructure (ITI), to gauge hotelier’s understanding of future IT requirements in the hotel industry that can benefit hotel management professionals, and gain an understanding of the IT requirements of the hotel industry in the near future. This research develops a conceptual framework that explains the ubiquitous hotel services (UHS) impact of ITI and operating costs in semi-full service of economic hotel chain. It particularizes how IT and smart card (e-Money) technology would help such hotels to reduce total implementation costs by shortening develop period; minimize risk to construction for new branch hotel project by using stable and standard open platform; provide real time services to client at anytime, anywhere, and anyone; create competitive advantage among economic hotel chain [8][9]; easy to interface and connect with any other hotel chain; secure the foundation of UHS model in order to overseas expansion. Emerging of Technologies in Hotel Strategic Management Ubiquitous Information Technology Infrastructure (UITI) Communication technologies in the 21st Century are changing the ways we live forever. Anyone can keep connected through the world anytime and anyplace. A ubiquitous IT infrastructure (UITI) system consists of a heterogeneous set of IT devices; a set of supported activities; a set of network and communication systems; and some computing application systems the devices may rely on in order to carry out their business objectives. A ubiquitous network and communication systems can be described as follows [5]: (1) It is composed of a wide variety of networks that offer such attributes as broadband capabilities, mobile characteristics, and continuous dedicated access via any more or medium, such as stationary or mobile terminals, wired or wireless systems, and telecom or broadcasting, etc. (2) It is capable of supporting any IT devices, such as smart phone, personal digital assistants (PDAs), radio frequency identification (RFID) devices, car navigation devices, and consumer information appliances, over and above desktop computers and mobile PCs which are connected or networked with each other via a blockade-free interface. (3) It is created an environment in which digital data can be exchanged in an interactive and seamless manner, with more self-determination, security, and soothe than ever. UITI is concerning the development of application environment which is able to deal with mobility of both customers and IT devices. The vision of UITI relies on the existence of two environmental enrichments. First, by technologies which embedded computing equipment in every objects and able to sensor to catch up information and context or called electronic data capture (EDC) from objects. It is an important requirement for ubiquitous application to provide a support environment in which specialize computing instruments can be of assisted and integrated into existing application context and facility infrastructure. Second, by technology of ubiquitous networking systems is able to cultivate three strategic factors that would encourage a hospitality revolution. First, it is acted as information super highway for exchanging and sharing visible knowledge such as text messages, voice, visual images, and video. Second, it is increased strength of social interaction or cyber community such as Facebook, Line, Hi5, Myspace, Google+, etc [6].
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
276
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Third, technologies is expanded the capabilities of sensing and tracking objects such as navigator, find my location of Google Earth, find my iPhone, etc. Online Service System (OSS) OSS has been more and more admired and important IT strategy for all business segments, with growing demand on the availability and dependability of services provided by these systems. OSS has accustomed to express its provision of online access by customers to applications and data. OSS capabilities have been embedded into software hotel management such as MICROS-Fidelio, Abacre Hotel Management, UBICOMP System, etc. Continuous business operations is significant attempt to invest on IS/IT systems. To guarantee the customers can access information 24x7 hour, therefore, the system availability is required 100% operation uptime. This implies mean time to repair (MTTR) must be equal or limit to zero or system architecture must be fault tolerance designed to resist with any condition of equipment failures, planed downtime (annual maintenance), or human errors. In order to reduce MTTR, a basis practice is to restore the service by identifying root cause of the problem, immediate and appropriate reaction after the incidences. This called defensive action. This scenario has downtime costs in the form of financial penalty and non-financial such as reputation and customer’s trust which is hard to justify in value of money. This research is concentrated more on offensive scenario or preventive action. System fault tolerance is the key to design OSS for hotel strategic management. MATERIALS AND METHODS With the objective of analyzing the limitations of OSS in the hospitality industry in Thailand, a case study was conducted covering an economic hotel chain group to understand how the hospitality industry can solve the problems of the disintegration of information from the various deployment business applications. This research endeavoured to answer proposed problems, interpretations, through the systematic analysis and synthesis of primary and secondary data. Researcher collected data from stakeholder of B2 hotel chain by using a combination of semistructured interviews, site survey and observations of actual IS/IT systems operations. Primary data, Group I, collection were performed through in-depth interview 180 employees, three levels of hotel’s employees: management (40), back office (70), and front office (70), of 18 hotels from three star hotel chain. Group II, 50 MBA students from operations management class were interviewed subject to customers, prospected customer, and expected customer on the new OSS for the year 2020 hotel management. Hotel management structure and existing IT systems were examined expose to total cost of ownership (TCO). Secondary data were investigated and analysis from the existing research papers after the year 2001, hotel standards and best practice guidelines. The new emerging technologies of IT which applies through hotel service management are the main topic of this research conditional on impact to; customer satisfactions; faster, better, and cheaper; supporting staff operations; reduce operation costs; supporting management decision; and creating new ideas of the 2020 hotel management system. The research presented an interpretative approach from technology trend and service expectations from a group of stakeholder, including managers, IT directors, employees, and customers. In order to preserve the quality of the primary data, record on each interview were transcribed in documentations. These proof documents formed the raw material for a detailed analysis of the existing technologies, process problems, investment, customer’s expectation, etc, for research working improvement.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
277
Examination of Existing IS/IT Systems B2 hotel chain is defined as economic hotel and characterized as medium size hotel around 80-150 rooms. Right now, they have more than 18 hotel chain operations in all parts, provinces, of Thailand. During year 2005-2010, B2 have only 4 hotel operations which investment of each hotel in fix costs of IT system infrastructure is around $10,000 USD, $16,700 USD for hotel software management license (lifetime agreement with $1,670 USD MA per year), and around $15,000 USD for security systems. The total fix investment of IT infrastructure and ITSM is around $41,700 USD per hotel while the variable costs of operation will be $1,670 USD for maintenance agreement (MA) per year, and IT staffs $13,670 USD, and facility operations $10,000 USD. The total variable costs of IT infrastructure and ITSM is around $25,340 USD per year. During 2011-2012, B2 have built 15 hotels for investment and operations. The investment for IT infrastructure and ITSM was under the same condition of fix costs and available costs.
Figure 8 Silo information of hotel management by each department In 2006, B2 have problems with information integration and distribution among department. Many documents created and keep in their own department. It will take more time to transfer, by manual, from one to the others. Figure 1 is described the silo information management of each department of front office and back office before applying to ITSM within the same year. Function Requirements of IS/IT Systems These are norm features of online booking engine software [7]. Consumer tested usability, 3-step booking process, flexible filters and search parameters. Mobile and social media enabled - mobile version of booking engine expands distribution; SMS (text messaging) marketing keeps you connected to your guests. Promotional pricing including strike through pricing, deep-linked multi-media and total pricing. Cross sell opportunities - by offering alternate destinations, properties or even dates Itinerary and multi-room functionality - makes it simple for guests to book rooms with no limits on number of room types or bookings in a single transaction Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
278
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Payment Card Industry (PCI) compliance Room images with detailed descriptions in pop-up windows. Multi-images and virtual tours for each room type. Multiple templates with functionality and layouts that match your website and your brand standards Advanced-pourchasse rates Last minute rate distribution Detail pricing by day Embedded packages as part of the room sale Detaille guets information Details on guest privacy and online security Detailed summary of reservation and detailed confirmation Design templates offered to best match your hotel’s positioning, and website presence to give your hotel a unique booking engine in comparison with your competitors Available in over 29 different languages. It is gave your guests the convenience of booking in their native language and currency Integration to PMS - 2 way interfaces between guests connect and dozens of property management systems mean single image of inventory and less worries about managing separate systems Integrate payement procession Working for individual hotels, chains and groups Analysis Emerging of OSS Integration of multi technologies and software applications is the key of creating new services and markets for hotel industry. Online booking through online travel agencies (OTA) is one of new market opportunities for economic hotel. Moreover, it helps to compare price and the best location of the hotel before booking. Online payment helps customer save more time on reserve and cancel. They are not only needed to go to bank to transfer money but also they can access information of the hotel services and entertainment offer or discount before making decision. Social network helps ideas and commends from the prior visitors on each hotel services and ambiance comparing with value of money. Website of the hotel can display pictures of the room and decoration style, service function and entertainment, interested places, direction, etc. e-Money is the new option that offers one stop service and privilege for member card. Back office operations are required system integration throughout from the process of booing, check-in, using services and entertainment, and check-out till all transactions settlement. Figure 2 is illustrated the OSS architecture for the strategic management of economic hotel chain.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
279
Service Portals UITI
e-Money Card System e-Key Card
Back Office Servers
Share Point (All Documents, Information, Directory) Online Booking (OTA, BookingB2.com, BookingB2Hotel.com) Customers
Central Purchasing
OSS Networking and Communication
Convergence Applications and Data Accquisition
Call Center
Application Servers & Data Based Servers
Back Office Operations
Support Facility Infrastructure
Central Inventory Management Room Servies HRD and Payroll Marketing, CRM, CSR Financial and Accounting
AAA
Food and Beverage Conventional
KIOS
Figure 2 Online service management architecture SURVEY RESULTS The result from MBA student group shown 60% they need to know the hotel first via website, who’s comments, price per night, location; 40% would like to know payment systems and must be online; 30% would like to know services that hotel provide such as free Wi-Fi, breakfast, pickup at airport, etc. All management staffs, 100%, are believed IT will increase sale volume and created competitive advantage over other hotel competitors. Front office and back office employees, more that 70%, are concerned about loss their jobs when IT system coming. Moreover, 50% of front office and back office employees are believed IT systems help hotel reduce operation costs, increase customer satisfaction, and improve working conditions. December is the highest occupancy rate of the year more 90%. The lowest occupancy rate of the year is during May to September. The occupancy rate is around 70%. Booking from agency is around 10%; booking online or by phone/fax is around 40%; walk in is around 40%; and the rest is etc. Room rate is start from $14USD during low season at Standard B2 hotel and $24USD at high season. For Premium B2, room rate is start from $40USD during low season till $114USD at high season. All rooms provide Fi-Wi services for free. Pickup and delivery to airport is required advance booking fee at $5USD per/trip. MODEL CONSTRUCTION This new model was constructed and modified from the past 10 years history investigation by interviews and in-group benchmarking 3 star hotels. Synthesis by rule of the best in class of 3 star hotel strategies, each the best strategy was assimilated through this model construction. Refer to hotel chain strategy of 3 star hotels, if the hotel strategic plans to enhance the operational productivities. The hotel can adopt ITSM in three directions. First, the process control of food and beverage department IT equipments are necessitated. Second, the deployment of in room IT and function room embedded equipment is required. Third, online information and booking are needed to broad and wide advertising on website by supporting from local and international agency and social network. When the aim of hotel strategy is to improve the customer satisfaction and operation productivity, it is potential to deploy IT equipment and ITSM software in two level
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
280
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
approaches. First, UITI level is working to facilitate EDC for all transactions and communications among hotels, agencies, customers, supplier, and regulators. Second, ITSM level is supporting in human interaction among hotels, agencies, customers, supplier, and regulators through web applications and/or social network applications. Smart Card or Integrated Circuit (IC) Card or e-Money Card Smart card has a multi-application loading platform, and multi-industry applications accomplished via banking IC card, guarantees the industry card financial risk avoiding and fulfills the special business requirements in the industry. The benefits of e-Money cards can provide identification, authentication, data storage, and application processing. e-Money cards might provide strong security authentication for single sign-on (SSO) within large organizations. As a special consuming group, campus is a typical application for the banking IC card developed in multiply industries. The benefit functions of e-Money card are not only applying to customers but also to hotel employees. 1. Convenience: e-purse in the card can be used for various purchase environments, very convenient. 2. Contactless card, easy payment 3. Integrate banking function, citizen card and campus card etc. into one-card, the card can be used in campus, public transport, micro payment, purchase, utility service, check in key, identify member club, etc. 4. Customize design and application download 5. Adopt up-dated financial standards and be compatible other industries standards
Number of e-Money cards/accounts * 40,000,000 35,000,000 30,000,000 25,000,000 20,000,000 15,000,000 10,000,000 5,000,000 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2011 2011 2011 Number of e-Money cards/accounts * * e-Money Statistic, Bang of Thailand, April 2013.
Figure 3 Number of e-Money cards/account Hotel e-Service management solution design purposes a guideline of OSS integration among emerging technologies such as UITI, Wi-Fi, RFID, smart card, etc. 1. Using the smartcard to establish the hotel chain one-card application, recharge the card via E-money and transfer machine.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
281
2. Hotel chain: provide application identifier (AID) and master control key ( leaded in by mother card or plaintext) for the hotel group one-card system, the application file of hotel system defines e-purse, identification etc. functions; achieve the e-money transferred to hotel e-purse, accomplish transaction verification and hotel funds settlement. 3. Hotel e-Card check-in: the cryptographic key system of hotel check-in application platform creates application keys via the master control key offered by hotel chain; the hotel application platform issues the e-Card on top of e-Money for the and creates subapplications and one-card system files structure under the hotel management system, installs relevant operating keys and fulfills the check-in e-Card.
Value of payment transactions (million baht) 9,000.00 8,000.00 7,000.00 6,000.00 5,000.00 4,000.00 3,000.00 2,000.00
1,000.00 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2011 2011 2011 value of payment transactions (million baht)** ** e-Money payment transaction, Bang of Thailand, April 2013.
Figure 4 Value of payment transactions Customers can transfer the banking card amount in the e-Money card into the e-purse of eMoney card via self-service transfer machine, and accomplish purchases at front desk, for employees can apply for time & attendance, access controlling, etc. via the terminals inside the hotel. Store-and-forward (SnF) e-Money topology, the most common form of electronic card, offers several potential advantages over traditional payment. It has the ability to lower the cost of legacy hotel payment transactions, increase customer access information, and facilitate hotel operations and management. However, potential hotel implementer can find it difficult to select and SnF appropriate application to their specific needs, therefore research recommended B2 takeover a small hotel Software Company to develop and maintain software SnF efficiency. These efficiency and effectiveness of takeover a small hotel Software Company will derive in financial analysis section.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
282
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Rewrite
B2 Hotel Chain Branches
Online and Offline Customers
Electronic Money Electronic Key
Member Club
Offline Mode (SnF)
Online Mode
HQ B2 Hotel Core Network Interface (UITI)
Keep contact and inform customers via social network/ e-mails/ SMS/ etc.
Figure 5 e-Money architecture The operational modes on e-Money card are designed for online and offline modes or called robust system. With the typical prepaid card, the money is moved from a bank account to an eMoney card and taken to a store to pay for goods e-Money corporate cards reduce the amount of money handled and lost purchasing opportunities. However, it is easy to store customer information and follow the flow of money. In other words, anonymity is low. For this reason, the electronic money settlements must finish immediately. One Stop on Me (OSOM) System OSOM is working as a core value of OSS. The researches were working on two groups for analysis primary data (MBA students and hotel staffs); with MBA student group regarding what is the information that you need before and during on travel and; with hotel staff group regarding what are the popular questions on your duty from customers. The Figure 2 describes all possible functions of e-Service management or online service system (OSS), over the layer of UITI, before, during, and after service management lifecycle.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
283
Figure 6 Functions of OSOM There are three concern points from management level. First, the investment on software license, B2 needs to pay $16,700 USD each time for open new hotel and 10% or $1,670 USD of software MA each year. Second, each software hotel is running on standalone mode. They are not design for cartelized management. Third, theory is not open for third party to integrate new features or upgrade any applications. Therefore, after 2013, the new solution of OSOM is purposed. The new solution is shown in Figure 3. The integration technologies and applications of online booking, e-Money for check-in and payment for rooms and services, ubiquitous customer access, and centralized management. These new solution needs $333,400 USD for hardware and infrastructure, $66,700 USD for lifetime software license and centralized management.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
284
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Hotel e-Money Branch 1
Local Application Server and Data Storage
Hotel e-Money Branch 2
e-Money
Hotel e-Money Branch 3
Local Application Server Local Application Server and Data Storage and Data Storage
Hotel Branch N
Local Application Server and Data Storage
Internet Online booking
HQ Gateway
Firewall and IDS Website
Room Division
Food & Beverages
Minor Department
Back Office
AP
AAA
Application Server A
Display Monitor
HQ Data Storage
Application Server B
e-Money
Figure 7 Hotel e-Service management (OSOM) UHS provides internet and transactions throughout UITI network service and entertainment areas by high speed wireless (Wi-Fi, 2.4 GHz, 802.11n, at data rate 100Mbits/s.) which customers can take pleasure in surfing internet for information, entertainment, and businesses. All expenses are integrated through e-Money account and cut-off after check out. Safety level of e-Money amount can set by smartcard holder to charging terminal. E-Money card can activate as key card to access room, private lounge, or coupon breakfast. Moreover, e-Money can apply throughout 18 branches of B2 hotel chain with the same services and quality. Forward marketing and promotion can be done to member account likes cash back to e-Money directly every time they purchase to B2 services and entertainment. Moreover, social network and e-mail is the IT channels to get direct to member about Thai’s festivals or special events. These are the ways to keep customer in touch everyone, every time, and everywhere with cheaper transaction. Concept of the OSS e-Money is issued by a B2 company in the forms of, for instance, a prepaid card or a local currency. From the viewpoint of controlling the money supply and payment security, these e-Money systems are suitable for small settlements. The B2 hotel strategic management on e-Money through one function of OSS is how to handling of electronic money by a shop and a user must be simple and lead to a shop reducing its costs. The electronic cash systems are categorized from several viewpoints, one of which is hardware classifying the electronic money. B2 e-Money defines as hybrid system that combines the IC cards (offline mode) and online network (online mode). It is working under condition of SnF topology. For online mode, this is normal mode (active) of eMoney operations which require OSS support and verify value of money on e-Money card from
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
285
central server every transactions. The security of the system is guaranteed by 256 bit encryption mechanism and the certified agent. For offline mode, this mode is activated when lost online communication or when cannot find server, the e-Money reader will read money value direct from e-Money card and deduct the purchasing amount every time back to e-Money card. Whenever the next time of using e-Money it will verify and compare the latest amount between on card and on server and update money value. An approach that does not depend on an e-Money card is desirable from the standpoint of flexibility of settlement and forgery prevention. Another standpoint is the currency of the cash flow. B2 designs e-Money system on closed loop concept only for only B2 hotel chain then the recipient of the money cannot transfer it to a third party. The received money must be returned to its issuer. The condition of B2 payment can be classified into 3 scenarios. The payment mechanism is the timing in which the settlement is completed. Pay before: The settlement is completed before a transaction, such as when do online booking and get discount 5%. Pay now: The settlement is completed instantaneously such as when using entertainment, shopping, or hotel services. Pay later: The settlement is completed after a transaction, such as check out. Financial Analysis of Investment in OSS Decentralized IT management was applied since the beginning of B2 operation in 2006. Each B2 hotel has unique IT infrastructure because the sizing of each B2 hotel is not the same room number, layout design, and room decoration. Every B2 hotel has the same platform of software hotel management system one time deployment for lifetime operation fix rate at $16,700 USD and $1,670 USD each year management free. The software license and management free after B2 operation since 2006 till 2012 are demonstrated in Table 1. Each year of new hotels coming B2 needs to pay more on fix costs and available costs. In 2012, B2 needs to pay fix costs at $750,600 USD and accumulation variable costs at $900,160 USD. Table 1 The compare between old IT system and new OSS: year by year Fix Costs ($ US) Year Operations
New No. Hotel
2006 1 2007 1 2008 2 2009 1 2010 1 2011 5 2012 7 Cut over old systems 2013 3 2014 4 2015 4
Sum No. Hotels
IT Infrastucture
Security
Variable Costs ($ US) per Year
Software Licence
1 2 4 5 6 11 18
10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
16,700 16,700 16,700 16,700 16,700 16,700 16,700
21 25 29
343,300 10,000 10,000
15,000 15,000 15,000
66,700 -
Total Fix Costs 41,700 41,700 83,400 41,700 41,700 208,500 291,900 750,600 455,000 100,000 100,000
Staff
SW-MA
Facility
13,670 13,670 13,670 13,670 13,670 13,670 13,670
1,670 1,670 1,670 1,670 1,670 1,670 1,670
340 680 1,360 1,700 2,040 3,740 6,120
13,670 13,670 13,670
21,670 21,670 21,670
7,140 8,500 9,860
Total Variable Costs 15,680 32,040 66,800 85,200 104,280 209,880 386,280 900,160 42,480 43,840 45,200
Total Costs per Year 57,380 73,740 150,200 126,900 145,980 418,380 678,180 497,480 143,840 145,200
The new centralized OSS-OSOM needs to resolve fix costs and operation costs, new customer services, tracking customer’s behaviour, and central management system. IT System and IT infrastructure analysis has been made and conducted proposal according project feasibility study. The result comes up with positive return on investment (ROI). The second part of Table I illustrated after cut –over old system, fix costs of hardware and software license need to pay only one time for lifetime operation at $455,000 USD, this investment include e-Money and OSOM systems, with around $45,000 USD for annual operation costs at maximum 30 hotels. Moreover, the capability system of e-Money cards can provide up to 10,000,000 card holders. The forecasting ROI in Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
286
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
condition of B2 build 3-4 hotels per year within year 2017 the new e-Money and OSAM systems will break even. RISK MANAGEMENT OVER UITI AND OSS Risk management for hotel operations on this research is derived from 3 star hotel chain requirements; customer complaints; and complaint from hotel staffs about not reliable power systems. How to run hotel operations without interruption? The concept idea resolves from business continuity management (BCM) model or ISO 22301: 2012 [10]. The minimum exposure to unforeseen risks on this research can be classified into 3 levels to deal with limited investment concept (Level 1 is the highest risk free rate but is the most expensive investment). The total risk of hotel operations can calculate inform of equation (1). Level 1: Load balance online information: electronic data capture (EDC) mode (fault tolerance operations) Level II: Store and forward mode (increase of telecommunication system failure) Level III: Overwrite mode (increase of electrical interruption or IT equipment failure) n
R
m
f ( xi )Pf ( xi ) * i
Notification: R Pf f(x) i g(x) j
g ( yi )Pf ( yi )
(1)
j
total risks of hotel operations Probability failure of each equipment or system by (0 summarized risks of UITI number of IT equipment (n) summarized risks of OSS number of software operations (m)
Pf
1)
However, the system fault tolerance design for OSOM is embedded into system operations. Normally OSOM is going to run on Level I, when system failure from any minor incidence such as telecommunication off line or telecommunication system failure the OSOM system will step down to operate on Level II. However, if in case of major incidence such as power system blackout, software error, and hardware failure, the OSOM system must be run by manual on paper and key in after systems came back. CONCLUSION Emerging of ITSM in hotel management is reinforcement mechanism to sustain hospitality industry. Many hotels are change the way human doing business to IT doing business. The research results shown new centralized OSS-OSOM helps reduce long-term investment in hardware infrastructure and yearly operation costs. Moreover, it is not only created new market service for customers such as e-Money but also improve hotel operation efficiency. Ubiquitous hotel services (UHS) is not longer limited in only hotel area anymore. Customer can book, change schedule, payment, and shopping within hotel chain through e-Money systems. We cannot avoid that the emerging of OSS in economic hotel services in year 2020 will change the way we live and journey forever.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
287
REFERENCES 1.
B. Pearl et al, “Current and future technology use in the hospitality industry,” American Hotel & Lodging Association, 2008. 2. K. C. Prakash, “The impact of information technology on hotel operation, service management and transaction costs: A conceptual framework for full-service hotel firms,” Interational Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp.395-408, 2007. 3. G. K. Tae, H. L. Jae, and L. Rob, “An empirical examination of the acceptance behavior of hotel front office systems: An extended technology acceptance model,” Tourism Management, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 500-513, 2008. 4. A. Akarapong and K. Mingsarn, “The change in managerial efficiency of hotels in Chiang mai, Thailand,” Thammasat Economic Journal, Vol.27, No.3, 2009. 5. M. Kitamura, “Using ubiquitous networks to create new services based on the commercial and public infrastructure,” Nomura Research Institute, Ltd., NRI paper No. 54, 2002. 6. S. Sirirak and N. Islam, “Relationship between information and communication technology (ICT) adoption and hotel productivity: An empirical study of the hotels in Phuket, Thailand,” Technology Management for Global Economic Growth (PICMET), pp. 1-9, 18-22 July 2010. 7. MAiS, Fidelity Banquet & Event Management System, MAiS Informaton System INC., www.fidelity-mais.com, 2013. 8. L. Yonghan and X. Yang, “A study of competitive advantage on services package-based economy hotel: 7 Days Inn as a case,” International Conference on Management and Services Science (MASS), pp.1-4, 2011. 9. A. Berislav, “Competitive advantages of the adoption and use of technological systems in hospitality marketing: The case study of Croatia,” The 6 th Intenational Conference Symposium on Parallel Computing in Electrical Engineering, pp.139-144, 2011. 10. ISO 22301, ISO 22301: 2012 Societal security-Business contituity management systemsRequirement, ISO, 15 May 2012, www.iso.com
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
288
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Indigenous Knowledge for In-kind contribution in Myanmar: A case study of Exodus Non-profit Organization (ENO) in Hlaingtharyar Township, Yangon City, Yangon Division, Myanmar Cung Khin Dim 3rd Floor, Graduate School Academic Building, KhonKaen University, 40002 ,Thailand, 773, Minkyawswar 10th Street, 20 Ward, Part 6, Hlangtharyar Township, Yangon City, Yangon Division, Myanmar. *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected] Abstract: The basic component of any country’s knowledge system is its Indigenous Knowledge (IK). This paper presents an overview of IK by picturing of Exodus Non-profit Organization in Hlaingtharyar Township, Yangon City, Yangon Division, Myanmarwhere is the study area for this paper with a case study. This paper also discusses the income generation projects, products and Indigenous Knowledge for In-kind contribution for running non-profit projects, Child Care Home, Nursery School and many more. Non-participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups were used to collect primary data from small-scale members in the selected study area. A total of 28 members participated in the semi-structured interviews, where the respondents ranged between 3 and 17 in the organization. Eight focus group discussions were conducted in the selected Township. The study revealed that IK was acquired and shared within a small, weak and spontaneous network, and thus knowledge loss was prevalent in the surveyed communities. This paper will show how many products they can produce, how they get in-kind contributions and how many people participate in this non-profit project. The paper concludes with recommendations for the application of KM approaches for the management of IK and its integration with other knowledge systems for community development in Myanmarand other developing countries. Keywords : Indigenous Knowledge (IK), In-kind Contribution, Exodus Non-profit Organization INTRODCTION Indigenous Knowledge (IK) has many benefits. It is socio-economically viable and effective, involves minimum risk to rural people and is an important asset to their livelihood and conserves natural resources.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
289
Myanmar is a country which is full of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) and Indigenous Technology (IT) is prevalent.It is a constitutional republic in the northeast region of Southeast Asia. The country is divided into states, divisions, townships, wards and villages. Exodus Non-profit Organization (hereafter referred to as Exodus), the subject of this case study, is located in Hlaingtharyar Township, Yangon City. Yangon is a former capital of Myanmar (previously known as Burma)and the capital of Yangon Region.HlaingtharyarTownship is located in the western part of Yangon, Myanmar. The township comprises 20 ward and nine village tracts. The target area is located in the last part of Hlaingtharyar. This part of Hlaingtharyaris multicultural and multiethnic and relatively poor. Most people work for daily wages and some are government servants. Young girls work in factories. Married women wash laundry by hand or sell vegetables. The average of one family’s daily income is less than USD 1.00 – defined as“extreme poverty” in international guidelines.Poverty contributes to a high crime rate. The indigenous knowledge identified in this paper is originally from Chin State located in western Myanmar, where the Chin ethnic group constitutes a majority of the state's 500,000 people. It is a mountainous region with few transportation links, sparsely populated and one of the least developed areas of the country. Exodus Non-profit Organization (ENO), established in 2008 in HlaingthayarTownship, is a volunteer – philanthropic, non-profit, non-political – organization with educational development and promotion activities in the area. Exodus’ educational development programs (including free classes and tuition) can continue at current levels with little external financial support because they are run by highly motivated, volunteer teachers. Without additional funding, Exodus is unable to expand programs to include more children. The significance of this study becomes evident as the data shows that the Indigenous Knowledge (IK) that Exodus needs for its survival is being lost as volunteers come and go. There appears to be inadequate mechanisms for ensuring the maintenance of the knowledge base. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study is based on observations and primary data collected by the researcher over three years from 2010 to 2012. Key people working with Exodus during this time included: Director Mrs. Lian Shin Cin Program Manager Mr. Dim Go Mang Academic Dean Miss Lydia Man ShianHuai Consultant Lawyer Miss BeldyZa Len Iang Head Teacher Miss Mary Shwe Shin Kyaw The researcher used discussion oriented interviews (structured and unstructured) with openended questions. The interviews were conducted in either Burmese, Myanmar’s official language, or Chin, the local language, according to the preference of the interviewees.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
290
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Organizational Profile Exodus is a non-profit and non-political volunteer organization established in 2008 in Hlaingthayar Township. After May 2008 cyclone, code-namedNargis, left an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma) and up to a million homeless, Exodus started helping children get back to school. They provided children with textbooks, notebooks, pens, and pencils, and assisted with school registration fees. In 2009, Exodus began offering an Educational Development Program – an annual summer program of private tuition, from the first week of March to the last week of May – that aims to help orphaned children, and children living in poverty. Although Exodus was not a registered NGO, the local community recognized its legitimacy, and local donors provided occasional support In order to support more children and provide programs of excellent quality, the leaders are continually looking for new ways to raise funds. And that’s where products derived from Indigenous Knowledge play a key role. Organization Logo
Main Activities Exodus’ programs are delivered through several different organizational structures, including: a child care home, nursery school, tuition center, community development workshop. Exodus makes use of Indigenous Knowledge for in-kind contributions and income generation products such as home-made grape wine, liquid soap, and traditional jewelry including ear-rings, rings, purses, bracelets, phone chains and key chains. They also produce music CDs, VCD and locally published books. Funding There is no support from government and other funding sources but we have income generation products as Indigenous Knowledge (IK) for in-kind contributions to run all these activities.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
291
Capital ENO got the idea to do this kind of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) to sustain with all these activities after ENO received the capital from anonymous/individual donor. Financial Report (2010-2012) Capital
Income 2010
200 $ = 160,000 Kyat 1$=800 Kyat 1 Baht = 30 Kyat 1
2011
1
36,000 Kyat/month 432,000 Kyat a year 2 2,000 Kyat/month 24,000 Kyat a year 3 80,000 Kyat/month 960,000 Kyat a year
Grape-wine 2Liquid Soap chains, key chains
1
2012
40,000 Kyat/month 480,000 Kyat a year 2 3,000 Kyat/month 36,000 Kyat a year 3 96,000 Kyat/month 1,052,000 Kyat a year
1
50,000 Kyat/month 600,000 Kyat a year 2 4,000 Kyat/month 48,000 Kyat a year 3 108,000 Kyat/month 1,296,000 Kyat a year
3
Traditional jewelries: earrings, rings, purses, bracelets, phone
Music CDs, VCD and Locally Published Books For these income generation products, the capital is so big not enough to cover by all these IK products. So Exodus got some loan from rich friends without interest and received back money two times of the capital in making music videos and publishing books with IK person within ENO to national level marketing after paying back the capital to rich friends. CONCLUSION The study findings showed that the in-kind contributions that are from IK products are less than the expenses for all activities that ENO has. The study findings illustrated that the organization needs market so that the products can be able to display and for sale to the customers who love IK or hand-made accessories. This knowledge needs to be recognized and incorporated in our general efforts to formulate a comprehensive and holistic approach to IK management in Myanmar and elsewhere in the world. This indigenous knowledge appears small, but they could make a big difference to the peoples’ spirits, pride and nationhood. This IK is a tool for survival and for in-kind contributions from who want to make charity to the people who are in need; heritage preservation is the final output.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
292
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Much of the information provided in this paper was collected in February, 2012 by researcher herself. The author gratefully acknowledged the support provided by Exodus Non-profit Organization (ENO). Article is proudly submitted to International Conference on Interdisciplinary Research and Developmentin ASEAN Universities after assuring the prior informed consent from the knowledge holders of Exodus community. REFERENCES 1. Soh, Che, Bin, Mazlan and Omar, Korota’aini, Siti, “Small is Big: The Charms of Indigenous K nowledge for Sustainable Livelihood,” 2011, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 36 (201 2) 602 – 610. 2. Lwoga, Tandi, Edda, Ngulube, Patrick and Stilwell, Christine, “Managing indigenous knowledg e for sustainableagricultural development in developing countries:Knowledge management appr oaches in the social context,” The International Information & Library Review (2010) 42, 174e1 85 3. Joranson, Kate, “Indigenous knowledge and the knowledge commons,” University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, USA, The International Information & Library Review (2008) 40, 64–72. 4. Jha, Vanya and Jha, Ajeya, “Traditional Knowledge on Disaster Management: A Preliminary St udy of the LepchaCommunity of Sikkim, India,” Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, Vol. 10 (1), January 2011, pp 173-182.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Locating Participation in a Resources Management Project
Community-Based
293
Forest
Eileen Lorena, Rowena Baconguis, Jose Medina and Maria Rowena * University of the Philippines-Los Banos, Philippines * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The study investigates people’s participation in a community based forest resources management project. Interviews and secondary data analysis were used to gather data on participation. Using Pretty’s (1994) typology, people’s participation was analyzed leading to a model that reflects the nature of community member’s participation in the project stages. People’s participation was facilitated through capacity building interventions, technical and financial support. However, the lack of opportunities to earn sustainably may lead to extractive activities when funding is stopped. Sustaining people’s participation in forest management would require enhancing capacities to produce and market environmentally friendly agri-based livelihood projects, educating the younger generation about forest management through improved knowledge management strategies and enhancing people’s capacities to engage with the local government units and other stakeholders. Keywords: Participation, Forest Resources Management, Sustainable Livelihood INTRODUCTION Estimates show that of the 6.5 million hectares of degraded lands in the Philippines, only 10% were rehabilitated between the years 1988 and 2000 (Pasicolan in Lasco and Flor, 2007). The extent of the damage coupled with the focus on replanting activities and the continuous influx of people in forested areas contribute to the poor rehabilitation of degraded forest lands. Forest resources management is the “process of ensuring that a forest ecosystem and its values are maintained and improved to provide continuous benefit for society and the climate.” It involves planning, taking decisions and implementing projects to maintain and improve forests. (http://www.paceproject.net). The Philippine government has a long history of forest programs that spans 3 decades starting with the focus on settling shifting cultivators in the 1970’s to contract reforestation in mid-1980’s and the current thrust for community forestry program which started in the late 80’s (Harrison, et al, 2004). Despite the optimism for the participation of local communities and people’s organization, low income among these local stakeholders and shortage of
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
294
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
funds from the government sector are among the major constraints of community-based resources management (Harrison et al, 2004). This paper investigates people’s participation in a forest resources management project implemented by the Multi-Sectoral Alliance for Development –Negros (MUAD) and FPE-USAID in the third district of North Negros Natural Park (NNNP). The Park is home to many endemic trees, fauna, bird species and endangered animals such as Philippine spotted deer and the Philippine warty pig. In 2003, it was estimated that 48 percent of the total land area is occupied, with agricultural lands planted mainly with sugar cane (Denis, 2006). The paper seeks to document the nature of participation, the facilitating and constraining factors in participation and propose recommendations to improve the strategy on community-based forest resources management. MATERIALS AND METHODS This case study focuses on a portion of the third district of NNNP and covers a total land area of 35,287 hectares with two (2) cities and three towns. Members and officers of the three (3) people’s organizations (Pos) organized and federated by MUAD were interviewed. Officers from the federation - Third District Development Alliance of Resource Managers, Inc (TDDARMI), and the executive director and extension workers of MUAD were likewise interviewed. Site visits were also conducted. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Cornwall (2002) argues that literature on participation focuses largely on methodologies to encourage involvement and less on what actually happens. Less attention is given to who participates, how one participates and with what resources. Project Initiation In the MUAD project, the first stage in initiating participation is externally or intentionally instigated by project implementers. This stage is crucial for project implementers to gauge receptiveness and support to project goals which may or may not have been articulated by the local people but may have considered relevant and important. In this stage, decisions about the project have been made, targets have been set and people evaluate the project based on its merits using criteria such as relevance and utility. While decision making and power obviously rests with the project implementers, this stage is seen as a determinant for further possible engagements between project implementers and community members.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
295
The second step was determining the viability of the area as possible project site and understanding of the history, strengths and weaknesses of the community through key informant interviews. This stage in people’s participation is what is classified as “information giving”. The third step is consultation among community members to ensure commonality of understanding of the proposed project and consensus on project implementation. Noticeably, at this stage, control of the process and knowledge regarding what should be done rests with the project implementers. This level is akin to the first level of typology of participation by Pretty (1994) referred to as “passive participation. Capacity Building MUAD’s strategy banks on enhancing participation of the local people’s organization by strengthening organizational capacities and expanding sources of income through agro-forestry, agricultural production and development of agri-based livelihood enterprises. Experiential processes were used to maximize skills development. Capacity building is a prerequisite for active engagement. From the point of view of the project implementers, this phase is a means to attain efficiency and effectiveness in project implementation. From the point of view of community members, this phase opens up stages for active deliberation of strategies in project implementation, an important precondition in community development Forest Resources Management This phase involves identification of groups to assume responsibilities and agreeing on the responsibilities of parties. For forest protection, community-based forest volunteers, called Bantay Bukid Brigade (BBB), conduct foot patrol and reconnaissance operations. Biodiversity Monitoring and Evaluation (BIOME) teams were organized to monitor increase in flora and fauna. In project implementation, the people’s organization takes the lead role as it plans for the projects, sets-up, implements and monitors project undertaking while MUAD assumes a facilitating role. The reversal in roles is illustrated in Table 1.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
296
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 1 Role of People’s Organizations in Project Implementation Activities Reforestation:
Role of MUAD
Role of PO Members
Nursery Establishment
Provision of cash for labor, tools to be used in establishment of nursery, technical supervision Supervision
Establishment of Nursery: Collection of endemic seedlings, Care of seedlings in nursery
Tree planting
Planting, monitoring, re-planting
II. Forest protection and conservation BBB and Biome Agro-forest trees production
Provision of logistical support
Monitoring
Supervision
Agreement on common and individual area planting
CONCLUSIONS Participation is both a means and an end. It is a means as it improves effectiveness of a project. More importantly, it is an end in itself as people exercise reflexivity in determining future actions. In this project, the facilitating factors for participation include the capability building activities, technical and financial support while the disabling factors include poor technical skills development on managing agri-based livelihood activities and the limitations on the scope of educational interventions to primarily reforestation among adults. In this project, forest reforestation is the more dominant activities given the need to meet project targets in terms of land space reforested. Based on the analysis, participation can be divided into three stages: Pag-inganyo or Initiating, Pag upuray or Strengthening and Pag-Padayon or Sustaining a shown in the model below:
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
297
Figure 2 Participation model of people's organization in forest Focusing on educating the youth on forest resources management is important especially because almost all of the members of the organizations are above forty years old. Future activities include not only expansion of rainforestation sites but more importantly, enhancing capacities to generate income from agri-based livelihood activities in zones appropriated for such use. People who are able to earn from activities that do not deplete their natural base are in a better position to actively protect and rehabilitate the forest. These two important educational needs, when not addressed, may prove counter to the success of forest resources management. Principles and strategies to further enhance participation include partnership building, improving knowledge management practices and improving livelihood opportunities. Equal importance should be given to the pillars in a forest resources management which are forest protection, reforestation, conservation and sustainable livelihood development. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank FPE USAID for making this research possible, MUAD officials for providing critical information and facilitating the interviews and members of the people’s organizations who selflessly shared valuable information.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
298
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
REFERENCES 1. A. Cornwall, “IDS Making Spaces, Changing Places: Situating Participation in Development”, 2002 Retrieved from: http://www.drc-citizenship.org/system/assets/1052734369/ original/1052734369-cornwall.2002-making.pdf?1289311080 2. A. Cornwall, “Unpacking Participation: Models, Meanings and Practices”, Community Development Journal. 2008 Vol. 43 No. pp 269-283. 3. A. Denis, “Landslide Susceptibility Zonation in case of deforestation in Northern Negros Natural Park (NNNP) – Philippines”, Masters' thesis, 2006, Université catholique de Louvain. Retrieved from: http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/33068 4. S.R.Harrison, N.F. Emtage, and B.E. Nasayao, “Past and Present Forestry Support Programs in the Philippines and Lessons for the Future in Small-scale Forest Economics”, Management and Policy, 2004 3(3):303-317. 5. Pan African Concervation Education Project (PACE). n.d. Action Sheet 47. Forest Resource Management. Retrieved from: http://www.paceproject.net/UserFiles/File/Forests/ forest%20resource%20man.pdf. 6. P.N. Pasicolan, “Farm Forestry and Agro-forestry Options, Local Benefits and Impacts in Agroforestry and Land Use in the Philippines” (eds.) R. Lasco and A. Flor, 2007, World Agroforestry Center, Bogor, Indonesia. 7. J.N. Pretty, Alternative Systems of Inquiry for Sustainable Agriculture. IDS Bulletin, 1994, 25: 37-48.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
299
Enhancing English Speaking Skills of Graduate Students At King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang Pattaraporn Thampradit Department of Applied Arts, Faculty of Industrial Education, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand 10520 *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: The purpose of this research was to study the enhancing English Speaking Skills of Graduate Students at King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (KMITL). By using Simple Random Sampling Method, the sample of this study were 35 KMITL graduate students having low ability in English speaking skills and enrolling the course entitled “English for Academic Speaking Skills” during the second semester of the 2011 academic year. The research instruments used for collecting data were lesson plan, oral communicative activities model, student’s self assessment form, and the Pre and Post Tests for evaluating student’s speaking skill. The data were analyzed using statistics programs. The statistics used were percentage, arithmetic means ( X ), t-test for Dependent Sample, and One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The hypothesis testing was set at the 0.05 level of significance. The results were as follows: (1) All 35 graduate students have statistically significant differences in an increase of their English speaking skills at the 0.05 level. (2) The findings from the analysis of the students’ self assessment form also support the findings of the students’ Pre-Post tests that they have better speaking skills after the course. Keywords: English Speaking Skills, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang INTRODUCTION English has been used to communicate, exchange knowledge, thoughts, cultures and traditions, and gain advanced technologies. It also has been used as a significant tool to compete in world markets and businesses, to negotiate either in political and social issues, to get better understanding and have mutual corroboration among countries. Seeing how essential English is, Thai government has authorized English as the first and foremost foreign language taught in primary schools, secondary schools and university levels [1-2]. For university levels, English speaking plays an incredibly significant role in teaching and learning activities. Particularly, now Thailand is the member of not only Asian Economics Community (AEC), but also the World Trade Organization (WTO); therefore, the more advanced English speaking abilities students have, the more opportunities they can get better jobs and be successful in their career. Thus, English speaking is now seen to be more than just a tool to graduate or gain access to modern technology; it is a crucial key to professional success [3-4]. However, the researcher thinks that most students, especially low English speaking skill students, seem to be far-off the target. They don’t want to speak English because they find the subject matter boring and also teaching materials in the classroom are not interesting [5]. They also lack of confidence to speak and pronounce words. Nevertheless, speaking skills can be trained and it doesn’t depend on the talent [6]. To the researcher knowledge and experience, what teacher should do is providing tools: designing
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
300
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
materials that matches students’ need and interest, and giving more opportunity, inspiration and endorsement to expand their practices. With these tools, low speaking students should get better speaking skills and move forward to their success in study, career, and their future life. Therefore, the present study was designed to investigate the enhancing English speaking skills of KMITL graduate students having low English speaking level, using oral communicative activities model. Additionally, since having more practice leads to better success in communication [7-10] another goal of this study was to compare English speaking skills of these students before and after studying whether they appear to have statistically significant differences in English speaking skills or not. Research Questions 1. Does studying English through oral communicative activities model improve students’ English speaking skills? 2. Do students have statistically significant differences in an increase of their English speaking skills after studying? MATERIALS AND METHODS Research Instruments The research instruments used for collecting data were (1) Lesson plan with oral communicative activities model, using the conceptual framework of Scrivener [11], (2) Pre and Post Tests for evaluating student’s speaking skills, (3) Criteria for evaluating students’ speaking skills, and (4) Student’s self assessment form. Procedure The lesson plan was designed according to the curriculum’s objectives and scopes of its course description. It consisted of five processes [12]: (1) Lead-in: having questions according to provided situations and pictures, for preparing and motivating students to the lesson, (2) Setting up Activity: having aims, instructions, and directions for students to do designed activities, (3) Run the Activity: providing students’ opportunities to do activities freely. Teacher’s role was like an observer or a mentor, helping students only in need, (4) Close the Activity: having sign to students in preparation for finishing activities, and judging/summarizing students’ communication/activities, and (5) Post Activity: having students’ discussion, comment and feedback after finishing activities. The Pre and Post Tests for evaluating student’s speaking skills were designed by adapting the six categories framework of Harris [13]: (1) Having Right Pronunciation, (2) Using Suitable Vocabulary (3) Having Grammatical Competence, (4) Having Comprehensibility, (5) Having Fluency in Speaking, and (6) Having Appropriate Speaking Styles. The tests are parallel test: both concerned with getting information from interviewing, and having role-play on provided situations. Both tests also have similarity in level of difficulty [14-15]. The reliability of the tests is 86.01%. Additionally, the five Likert scales [16-17], from “1” (lowest) to “5” (highest) were used as the criteria for evaluating students’ speaking skills in all categories. The Student’s Self Assessment Form was designed for students to evaluate themselves before and after study. It consisted of 2 sections: (1) personal information: sex, age, field of study, faculty, undergraduate grades in English subjects, (2) nine questions: eight close-ended questions with five Likert scales, from “1” (lowest) to “5” (highest) for students to evaluate their speaking skills, and one open-ended question for students to give comment/indicate obstacles while doing the activities.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
301
The Criteria for Evaluating Students’ Speaking Skills were designed and used to interpret variables: Mean Score and Total Mean Score [18] as follows: Mean Score/Total Mean Score 4.21-5.00 means 3.41-4.20 means 2.61-3.40 means 1.81-2.60 means 1.00-1.80 means
Level of students’ English Speaking Skill highest high moderate low lowest
Data Analysis The statistics used were (1) Descriptive Statistics: percentage, and arithmetic means. (2) Inferential Statistics: One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and t-test. The hypothesis testing was set at the 0.05 level of significance. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Results of Subjects’ Personal Data The results of subjects’ detailed information were analyzed in Table 1: Table 1 Subjects’ Information Students’ Personal Data
Numbers of Sts
%
17 18 35 5 (for each faculty)
48.6 51.4 100.00
Sex Male Female Total Faculty CAM AgT Arch Eng IdEd IndAg Sc Total
14.3 (for each faculty)
35 CAM = College of Administration and Management AgT = Agricultural Technology Eng = Engineering Arch = Architecture IdEd = Industrial Education
100.00 IndAg = Industrial Agriculture Sc = Science
The study indicated that 48.6% of the subject (35 graduate students with low English skills) was male while 51.4% was female. There were seven faculties that the subject enrolled in: College of Administration and Management, Agricultural Technology, Architecture, Engineering, Industrial Education, Industrial Agriculture, and Science. The percentages of the sample group from each faculty were 14.3% (5 persons each). The Results of Research Questions 1
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
302
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 2 Results of Students’ Speaking Skills: Before and After Studying Categories for English Speaking Skills
Before Studying Means
S.D.
Levels of English
After Studying Means
S.D.
Levels of English
Speaking
Speaking
Skills
Skills
Right Pronunciation
2.60
0.50
Low
3.43
0.50
High
Suitable Vocabulary
2.71
0.62
Moderate
3.54
0.56
High
Grammatical Competence
2.74
0.66
Moderate
3.23
0.55
Moderate
Fluency in Speaking
2.66
0.54
Moderate
3.66
0.48
High
Comprehensibility
2.60
0.50
Low
3.23
0.55
Moderate
Appropriate Speaking Styles.
2.29
0.67
Low
3.23
0.55
Moderate
Total Mean
2.60
Low
3.38
Moderate
Table 2 revealed that the subjects generally had low speaking skills before studying (total mean =2.60), but had moderate speaking skills after studying (total mean =3.38). Interestingly, in the categories of having right pronunciation, the students had low speaking skills before studying (means =2.60), but they had high speaking skills after studying (means = 3.43). Similarly, in the categories of using suitable vocabulary, and having fluency in Speaking, they had moderate speaking skills before studying (means = 2.71, 2.66 respectively), but they had high speaking skills after studying (means = 3.54, 3.66 respectively).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
303
The Results of Research Questions 2 Table3 Analysis of Students’ Self-Assessment: Before and After Studying Levels of English Speaking Skills
Categories for English Speaking Skills
Before Studying
After Studying
Means
Level
Means
Level
Have Right Pronunciation
2.31
Low
3.03
Moderate
Use Suitable Vocabulary
2.31
Low
2.69
Moderate
Obtain Grammatical Competence
2.25
Low
2.71
Moderate
Achieve Comprehensibility
2.46
Low
2.91
Moderate
Have Fluency in Speaking
2.49
Low
2.69
Moderate
Have Appropriate Speaking Styles.
2.46
Low
3.31
Moderate
Hold Smooth Conversation
2.29
Low
2.71
Moderate
Have Confidence
2.23
Low
2.60
Low
Total Mean
2.31
Low
2.83
Moderate
Table 3 revealed the analysis of students’ self-assessment that students generally had low English speaking skills before studying (total mean =2.31) but they had moderate English speaking skills after studying (total mean =2.83). Interestingly, they also revealed that they had better speaking skills in all six categories: having Right Pronunciation, using Suitable Vocabulary, having Grammatical Competence, having Comprehensibility, having Fluency in Speaking, and having Appropriate Speaking Styles. Furthermore, they also evaluated themselves that even though they had low confidence, they still got better ability in holding smooth conversation.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
304
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 4 Comparison of Students’ English Speaking Skills Before and After Studying: Overview Results of Tests
Overview
Before Studying
After Studying
Means
S.D.
Means
S.D.
15.60
2.81
20.31
2.45
t
P value
-22.31
0.00*
*p < 0.05
Table 5 Comparison of Students’ English Speaking Skills Before and After Studying: All 6 Categories Categories for English Speaking
Before Studying
After Studying
t
P value
Skills Means
S.D.
Means
S.D.
Right Pronunciation
2.60
0.50
3.43
0.50
-12.82
0.00*
Suitable Vocabulary
2.71
0.62
3.54
0.56
-10.83
0.00*
Grammatical Competence
2.74
0.66
3.23
0.55
-5.7
0.00*
Fluency in Speaking
2.66
0.54
3.66
0.48
-14.08
0.00*
Comprehensibility
2.60
0.50
3.23
0.55
-7.59
0.00*
Appropriate Speaking Styles
2.29
0.67
3.23
0.55
-11.59
0.00*
*p < 0.05
From Table 4-5, the results apparently showed that students, in general, have statistically significant differences in an increase of their English speaking skills before and after studying at the 0.05 level (p = 0.00 < 0.05). Additionally, there were statistically significant differences in an increase of their English speaking skills in all categories at the 0.05 level (p = 0.00 < 0.05). CONCLUSION Undoubtedly, we can see that studying English through oral communicative activities model can improve all 35 graduate students’ English speaking skills. The students had low speaking skills before studying, but they had moderate speaking skills after studying (total mean =2.60 vs. total mean =3.38, see: Table 2). Interestingly, the progress in their speaking skills after studying can be found in all categories (See: Table 2): the categories of right pronunciation, (means = 2.60 vs. means = 3.43), the categories of using suitable vocabulary, and having fluency in Speaking (means = 2.71 vs. 3.54 and means = 2.66 vs. 3.66 respectively), the categories of comprehensibility and appropriate speaking styles (means = 2.60 vs. 3.23 and means = 2.29 vs. 3.23 respectively), This study also emphasized that all 35 graduate students with low English speaking skills have statistically significant differences in an increase of their English speaking skills after studying, either in the overview or in all categories of English speaking skills (See: Table 4-5). That is, the designed oral communicative activities model: the role-play activities that students had to
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
305
take part, and all designed steps during the course, appeared to influence the subjects’ English speaking skills. Interestingly, the findings from the analysis of the students’ self assessment form also support the findings of the students’ Pre-Post tests that they have better speaking skill after the course (See: Table 3). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am tremendously grateful to Faculty of Industrial Education, KMITL for supporting this research fund. Without the support, this study would not have been feasible. I would like to extend my gratitude to Asst. Prof. Worasiri Thampradit for her valuable assistance, caring, and supportive comments. I would also like to thank all students who participated in this study. Their time and efforts are always appreciated. Special appreciation and thanks are also extended to my daughter, Rapeepan Maitree, who have provided inexhaustible support and shown implausible patience throughout my study. Finally, I would like to dedicate this study to the memory of my beloved mother who would have been so proud. REFERENCES 1. National Institute for Educational Research (NIER). Foreign/Second Language Education in Asia and the Pacific (Report of a Regional Seminar, 22 June-8 July 1994). Tokyo: NIER. 1994. 2. Office of the Higher Education Commission. Education Ministry’s Notification Regarding High Education Standard, 2010. 3. Office of the Education Council. Educational Development Framework During Tenth National Economic and Social Development Plan (2007-2011) Consistent with the National Education Plan (2002-2016). Bangkok,Chulalongkorn Printing House, 2008. 4. Widdowson, H.G. Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. 5. Punthumasen, P. International Program for Teacher Education: An Approach to Tackling Problems of English Education in Thailand. The 11th UNESCO-APEID international conference, 2007. Retrieved from http://www.worldreform.com/pub/paperies13dec07.pdf. 6. Wongsuwana, T. Speech could be trained. Thailand Education Journal, 21, 44-50, 2006. 7. Brown, D.H. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New Jersy: Prentice Hall Inc. 1994. 8. Carroll, Brenda Joseph. Testing Communication Performance. London. Pergamon Press, 1982. 9. Renard, P. The speech during the closing ceremony of the Forty-sixth Session of the International Conference on Education. Geneva, 5-8 September 2001. Educational Innovation and Information, 109, 1-7, 2001. 10.Strevens, P. Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford: Pergamon, .1980 11-12. Scrivener, Jim. Learning Teaching: A Devision of Herineman Publishers. England. Oxford, 1994. 13. Harris D.P. Testing English as a Second Language. New York: McGraw Hill, 1990. 14.Wonsothorn, A.“Trend in Designing Tests”(in Thai). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Printing Press, 2000. 15.Wonsothorn, A. “The Development of Designing Standard English Tests” (in Thai). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Printing Press, 1995.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
306
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
16. Likert, R. "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes". Archives of Psychology 140: 1–55, 1932. 17. Trochim, William M "Likert Scaling". Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd Edition. 2006. Retrieved April 30, 2009. 18. Suttanu, S. “Crucial indicators for evaluating teaching performance of student teachers of the Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University”, 1997. Proceedings of the 35th Kasetsart University Annual Conference: Fisheries, Science, Engineering, Environmental Management, Home Economics, Education and Economics, Bangkok (Thailand), p. 689-699
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
307
A Survey of Internet Utilization and Impacts of Internet Utilization on Studentsof Boromarajonnani College of Nursing, Chiang Mai Waraporn Wanchaitanawong and Kesaraporn Choopun* Boromarajonnani College of Nursing, Chiang Mai, 201 Moo 4 T. Donkeaw, AumphurMearim, Chiang Mai, 50180 Thailand * Corresponding author, e-mail: KesarapornChoopun,
[email protected] Abstract: Empirical studies suggest that some Internet users are becoming addicted to the Internet, causing academic, social and relationship problems. This new emergence appears to be occurring worldwide, including Thailand, where Internet use has increased dramatically. The objectives of this study were: 1) to examine Internet utilization behaviours; 2) to identify the prevalence of Internet addiction; 3) to examine impacts of Internet use of students of Boromarajonnani College of Nursing, Chiang Mai (BCNC); and 4) to identify potential strategies for harm minimization. An online survey and Internet Addiction Scale (IA Scale) were used with 426 students of BCNC. Descriptive statistics were performed on quantitative data. The qualitative data were analysed using content analysis. The majority of participants (82.28%) have personal computer with Internet access. The average time spent on the Internet was 4.86±3.61 hours per day on weekdays and 7.10±4.61 hours per day on weekend. The three most popular activities on the Internet were reported: joining Facebook (92.27%); listening to music (94.92%); and surfing for school work (89.06%). Using the IA Scale, approximately 2.3% of participants were classified as addictive Internet users. School problems and physical and mental health problems were reported as being negative impacts of Internet use. Moreover, it is suggested that 54.3% of this population could be at risk of Internet addiction. While a student’s education must proceed using the most up to date and appropriate technology available, the harm of this technology must be recognized and intervention developed to maximize the utility. Educational program about safe Internet use, harm minimization, and recovery center should be activated to the emergence of Internet addiction. Keywords: Internet Utilization, Impacts, Internet Addiction INTRODUCTION Excessive use of the Internet has the potential to become an addiction and empirical research suggests that some students have already become addicted [1-4].Problems of the excessive Internet use become visible worldwide, as well as in Thailand. It is a particularly common problem among students as found several relevant studies from different countries [3-5].Boromarajonnani College of Nursing, Chiang Mai, an educational institute producing register nurses to serve ministry of public health, Thailand, has provided computer and Internet access on campus and dormitory to support learning and teaching activities. This study aimed to: 1) examine Internet utilization behaviors of BCNC’s students; 2) identify the prevalence of Internet addiction; 3) examine impacts of Internet use; and 4) identify potential strategies for harm minimization.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
308
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
MATERIALS AND METHODS An exploratory research utilizing an online survey questionnaire was employed.The setting for this study was Boromarajonnani College of Nursing, Chiang Mai (BCNC). The participants for the survey was 426 secondary school students, studying in nursing program and emergency medical technique program in academic year 2011 at BCNC. Instruments An electronic survey was constructed based on information derived from the literature, comprising of 4 sections: 1) demographic informationincluded age, gender, level of education; 2) patterns of Internet useincluded ownership of computer and Internet, place and time of Internet use, duration of Internet use, and purpose of Internet use; 3) Internet Addiction Test[6]; and 4) strategies to prevent IA.The Internet Addiction Test [6] was employed to identify Internet addictive behaviors. Procedures Director, standing instead of parental consent, was asked to give statutory consent for student participation in the study. All students will have the opportunity to refuse participation in the survey. The survey questionnaire was posted on BCNC’s website (www.bcnc.ac.th). Individual PINs to enable access to the survey were sent to students after having been assured of, and accepted the researcher’s promise of confidentiality and anonymity. A reminder email was sent to participants who had not yet responded by week two. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) were conducted on the quantitative data. The parametric procedures were employed as the data of this study was normally distributed. The Internet Addiction Test [6] was employed to identify Internet addictive behaviors. The respondents were asked to answer the questions in terms of how often they did or did not perform the activity by rating their use on a 5-point Likert scale: Never = 1, Rarely = 2, Occasionally = 3, Often = 4, and Always = 5. Each response was added together for a total score ranging from 20 to 100 points. This study distinguished addictive Internet use from normal use by using a cut-off point at 70% of a total IA score. Therefore, individuals who had above a score of 70 were classified as ‘addictive Internet use’, those who had a total IA score 40-69 were classified as ‘over Internet use’, and individuals who had less than 40 were classified as ‘normal Internet use’.The qualitative data were analysed using content and thematic analysis procedures. Cronbach's was used to measure the internal consistency among items of the IA scale [7]. It was found that the IA scale has a high internal consistency ( = 0.923). Ethical Considerations This research proposal was submitted to the Research Ethics Committee of BCNC prior to implementation. Assurances were made in the research study information sheet provided to all potential study respondents in all stages of the data collection that participation in the study was voluntary and that the identities of the respondents would be kept confidential. Participants were informed that they could refuse or withdraw at any stage of the study with no associated risks attached to withdrawal. In addition, contact information for the researchers was provided in case any of the participants had questions about the study. All communication with participants was in Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
309
Thai language. All questionnaires were de-identified to ensure confidentiality. The list of prospective participants was kept at a location separate from the online survey questionnaires. Research records and raw data were stored in a locked-cabinet at BCNC, to which only the researchers have access. Completed questionnaires and electronic data and all findings will be destroyed five years after completion of the study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Initially, some 426 students were recruited to participate in the electronic survey with only 256 returned completed indicating the respondent desired to be positively involved: the response rate was 60.69 per cent. Demographic Characteristics The respondents aged between 18 to 24 years old. The mean age of respondents was 20 (SD=1.36) years of age. The majority of respondents (85.2%) were female and 14.8% were male. The majority of respondents (78.1%) accessed Internet from campus as shown in Table 1. Internet Utilization Behaviors Time Spent on the Internet The majority of respondents (88.28%) reported having a personal computer with Internet access. The results from this study show that the time Thai secondary school students spent on the Internet ranged from 1-24 hours per day both weekdays and weekend day. An average time spent on the Internet on weekday was 4.86 hours per day (SD = 3.61). The respondents reported staying online longer on weekend day (M=7.10, SD= 4.61). The amount of time spent on the Internet has been reported to be an influencing factor for IA. Several studies reported Internet addicts tended to spend at least twice the amount of time online as did non-addicts [8-9].However, the majority of respondents (94.1%) reported having a break while using Internet for long session (e.g., longer than 3 hours). The majority of respondents (96.1%) reported being online after school hour until late at night (61.7% being online between 21-24 p.m.; and 34.4% being online between 16-21 p.m.). Types of Online Activities The types of activities that students engage in when using the Internet were shown to be important influences on IA. The literature reported Internet addicts tended to use interactive applications, such as chat rooms or online games, whereas non-addicts use the informationgathering functions of the Internet [8-10]. The findings from this study identified the types of online activities students used when on the Internet (see Figure 1). The three most popular activities reported: joining Facebook (100%); listening to music (94.92%); and surfing for school work (89.06%).
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
310
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Table 1 Demographic data Demographic Data Gender Male Female Age 18 Years old 19 Years old 20 Years old 21 Years old 22 Years old 23 Years old 24 Years old Level of Education Nursing Year 1 Nursing Year 2 Nursing Year 3 Nursing Year 4 Emergency Technic Year 1 Emergency Technic Year 2 Place of Internet Use College House Dormitory Other e.g., Internet cafe
Figure 1 Internet activities (%) used by students
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
N
%
38 218
14.8 85.2
17 75 69 40 40 14 1
6.6 29.3 27 15.6 15.6 5.5 0.4
79 29 39 50 41 18
30.9 11.3 15.2 19.5 16.0 7.0
189 47 10 10
73.8 18.4 3.9 3.9
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
311
Negative Impacts of Internet Use
Despite the benefits of Internet use, survey respondents also reported possible negative impacts of Internet use on student’s life including: physical health problems and mental health problems.Respondents were asked to choose any physical and mental health problem they had experienced from the list of potential physical impactsderived from the literature that can result from Internet over-use. They were also provided with the opportunity to identify other problems they may have had at time they completed the survey. Physical Health Impacts Students reported experiencing a number of physical symptoms, including: eye strain (66.80%), back pain (55.47%), and headache (32.81%) (see Figure 2). This study found physical health problems caused by Internet use similar to those found in the literature [8-9, 11-12]. Mental Health Impacts Respondents were asked to identify their feelings when using the Internet from the given list and were also provided the opportunity to identify other feelings they may have had while using the Internet. The majority of respondents (69.14%) reported they felt at ease and in control while using the Internet, while approximately 45.70% of respondents also reported being very happy and excited. In contrast, Internet use caused some students to be irritated (40.63%), and lose track of time (23.83%) (see Figure 3). Physical health impacts of Internet use 100% 55.47%66.80%
32.81%
0%
Figure 2 Physical health problems caused by internet use
70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
69.14% 45.70%
40.63% 23.83%
Figure 3 Mental health problems caused by internet use
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
312
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Prevalence of Internet Addiction
As can be seen in Figure 4, approximately 44.3% of respondents were classified as normal Internet users, whereas 2.3% of respondents were classified as addictive Internet users using the 70% cut off criteria. This study found that the prevalence of Internet Addiction (2.3%) among Thai nursing students is comparable with the national study reporting 3.7% in Thai students [6] as well as the international literature reporting Internet Addiction prevalence ranging from a low of 1% in Greece [13] to a high of 36.7% in Italy [14]. In addition, 54.3% of respondents were classified as over users.
60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
54.3%
43.4% 2.3% Normal users
Over users
Addictive users
Figure 4 Types of Internet users classified by a total IA score Intervention Strategies for Harm Minimization The survey respondents were asked to identify significant authority figures who they thought could help students, like themselves, prevent or minimize harms caused by Internet use. Respondents suggested a number of key strategies that could help in preventing and minimizing the harm from Internet over use. Students should participate in other creative activities; students should manage time effectively; and teacher should make classroom more interesting. CONCLUSION The first challenge of this study was to distinguish addictive Internet use from normal use. This study found that 2.3% of students of BCNC could be classified as addicted. The Internet Addiction rate is reflective of worldwide addiction rates in the literature [13-14]. However, because there is no consensus in the literature concerning the accuracy of differing cut off points for the various IA scales used, important psychometric work still needs to be conducted on the IA scale. Finally, because this study was exploratory and conducted in only one nursing college in Thailand, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Future research is needed to replicate this study to determine if the results from Chiang Mai are representative of other parts of Thai society. Potential negative impacts of Internet use on students’ life should be considered more seriously in the Thai context. Although the Internet Addiction rate was only 2.3%, those students who were classified as addictive Internet users reported having difficulties with school work, having physical and mental health problems, and having relationship problems. While a student’s education must proceed using the most up to date and appropriate technology available, the harm of this technology must be recognized and intervention developed to maximize the utility. Educational program about safe Internet use, harm minimization, and recovery center should be activated to the emergence of Internet addiction.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
313
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful acknowledgement is made for financial support by Boromarajonnani College of Nursing, Chiang Mai. Many students gave up their valuable time in allowing us to gather the data. Their anonymity masks the significance of their contribution to this study. We have furthermore to thank our colleagues at the BCNC for all their help, support, interest and valuable hints. REFERENCES 1. Griffiths, M. “Does Internet and Computer "Addiction" Exist? Some Case Study Evidence”. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 2000, 3(2), 211-218. 2. Young, K. “Internet Addiction: A new clinical phenomenon and its consequences”. American Behavioral Scientist, 2004, 48(4), 402-415. 3. Zboralski, K., Orzechowska, A., Talarowska, M., Darmosz, A., Janiak, A., Janiak, M., et al. “The prevalence of computer and Internet addiction among pupils”. PostepyHig Med Dosw (Online), 2009, 2(63), 8-12. 4. Milani, L., Di Blasio, P., &Osualdella, D. “Quality of interpersonal relationships and problematic Internet use in adolescence”. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 2009, 12(6), 681-684. 5. Thomas, N. J., & Martin, F. H. “Video-arcade game, computer game and Internet activities of Australian students: Participation habits and prevalence of addiction”. Australian Journal of Psychology, 2010, 62(2), 59-66. 6. Wanajak, K. "Internet use and its impact on secondary school students in Chiang Mai, Thailand". 2011. Theses: Doctorates and Masters. Paper 394. http://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/394 7. Cronbach, L. J. “Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests”. Psychometrika, 1951, 16(3), 297-334. 8. Chou, C., & Hsiao, M. C. “Internet addiction, usage, gratification, and pleasure experience: the Taiwan college students”. Computers and Education, 2000, 35, 65-80. 9. Young, K. “Caught in the net: How to recognize the signs of internet addiction and a winning strategy for recovery”. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1998. 10. Kandell, J. J. “Internet addiction on campus: the vulnerability of college students”. CyberPsychology and Behaviour, 1998, 1(1), 11-17. 11. Kautiainen, S., Koivusilta, L., Lintonen, T., Virtanen, S. M., &Rimpelä, A. “Use of information and communication technology and prevalence of overweight and obesity among adolescents”. International Journal of Obesity, 2005, 29(8), 925-933. 12. Ng, B. D., &Wiemer-Hastings, P. “Addiction to the Internet and online gaming”. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 2005, 8(2), 110-113. 13. Tsitsika, A., Critselis, E., Kormas, G., Filippopoulou, A., Tounissidou, D., Freskou, A., et al. “Internet use and misuse: a multivariate regression analysis of the predictive factors of internet use among Greek adolescents”. European Journal of Pediatrics, 2009, 168(6), 655-665. 14. Milani, L., Di Blasio, P., &Osualdella, D. “Quality of interpersonal relationships and problematic Internet use in adolescence”. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 2009, 12(6), 681-684.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
314
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
Promotion and Adoption of Organic Farming in Bicol, Philippines Georgina J. Bordado, DBM* College of Economics and Management, Central Bicol State University of Agriculture, Pili, Camarines Sur, Philippines *Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Organic farming is generally promoted as to its environmental soundness and benefits to human health in Bicol. Promotion is basically done more for rice, the staple food, then vegetables and recently for livestock. This was initiated in 1997 by a private company and Irrigators Associations in Camarines Sur; by parish-based association, NGOs, and farmer cooperatives with environmental/sustainable agriculture/organic farming advocacies in 2007; by some private entrepreneurs in 2009; and the academe and local government units (LGUs) in 2010 with the passage of RA 10068 (Organic Agriculture Act of 2010). Promotion of organic farming were done through seminars/trainings, information and education communication (IEC) materials, techno demo farms, trade fairs, organic conferences, website and week-end market. The academe integrated the subject matter of organic farming under sustainable development in their curriculum and the establishment of organic techno-demo farms like the case of the Central Bicol State University of Agriculture. Organic Agriculture Development is one of the Department of Agriculture’s banner programs, aside from rice, corn and high value crop development programs. LGUs are mandated to localize organic agriculture (OA) in their development plans and conduct more promotional activities on organic farming in their localities. The production of organic fertilizers, conduct of Farmers Field Schools and distribution of IEC materials on organic farming are the major promotion activities of LGUs. Generally, adoption and diffusion of organic farming are still considered few and slow because of the following issues: lack of raw materials for making organic fertilizers used primarily for rice and making vermi compost for vegetables; lack of capital to venture on organic fertilizer production and vermi composting; labor intensive production; lack of knowledge on organic farming for other commodities, for rice and livestock integration/diversified farming; and expensive/tedious OA accreditation process; and inadequate knowledge on market and marketing facilities. Keywords: Organic Farming, Promotion of Organic Farming, Adoption of Organic Farming INTRODUCTION A remarkable increase in the number of organic practitioners, kinds of organic products produced and area devoted to organic agriculture has been recorded from 2004 to 2007 (Colting and Tagarino, 2007). This trend was also coupled with the observation that issues raised in organic agriculture regarding human resource development, technology generation, organic production and processing received concerted efforts from both the government and non-government organizations including some universities. It was concluded that the organic agriculture industry in the Philippines has tremendous agribusiness potentials considering the proven assurance of higher income than the conventional agriculture (chemical-based farming), strong policy support from the
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
315
government, increasing portion of the population shifting to a healthier lifestyle and increasing awareness on the irreversible ill-effects of chemical-based agriculture on the environment. The signing of the Organic Agriculture Act of 2010 (RA 10068) bolstered the support of the government to “…promote, propagate, develop further and implement the practice of organic agriculture in the Philippines…” The LGUs in particular will play a tremendous role in this regard with the help of other line agencies and the universities to ensure the efficiency and effectiveness in the use of scarce government resources. The issues on higher productivity in organic farming still bring some doubts to a large portion of the Bicolano farmers because very few farms can really demonstrate a successful organic farming approach which may be better than the conventional farms. Specifically, the study aimed to determine the programs and activities/modalities of the LGUs, government line agencies, non- government organizations, and the academe in the promotion of organic agriculture; identify the information and technology sources of adopters of organic farming; and determine the problems/issues/constraints in the promotion and adoption of organic farming. These information can serve as bases for the preparation of strategic communication or promotion/extension programs to further support organic agriculture development in the Bicol Region. MATERIALS AND METHODS The sample respondents of the study were 27 farmers practicing organic farming in or before 2008 to date and those agencies/institutions with existing programs/projects in organic agriculture/farming. There were 13 adopters of organic rice farming (diversified) technologies, mostly women, in Camarines Sur ; and 11 male farmers in Camarines Norte (usually rice mono cropping practiced), and 3 male farmers into organic vegetable farming. They were personally interviewed and their farm activities directly observed. In addition, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and Key Informant Interviews were also done. The secondary data were generated from the Department of Agriculture, Department of Trade and Industry, Cooperatives/Associations, NGOs, and the Academe with programs/projects/activities in organic agriculture through document analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Promotion of Organic Farming Programs/Activities to Promote Organic Agriculture/Farming Various government and non-government groups contributed to the promotion of organic farming in Bicol. As early as 1995, Shell Foundation which is based in Bombon, Camarines Sur was already advocating organic vegetable farming and use of organic fertilizer as part of their advocacy on sustainable agriculture. They have their own farms and training center where they give both lecture and hands-on what sustainable agriculture is. Irrigator associations were also into organic rice farming practice/advocacy in 1995 in Camarines Sur. In addition, there existed a development council in Camarines Sur on organic agriculture as early as 1995. Then, in 2007 parish-based NGO, an NGO, Farmer Multipurpose Cooperative and Irrigators Association started advocating sustainable agriculture, natural farming and organic farming in Camarines Sur. This was followed suit in 2009 by a multipurpose cooperative, irrigators association, farmer association, palay seed grower, academe, organic producers and sugar miller. During the same year, in Camarines Norte, organic farming advocacy came in the form of organic fertilizer production by a farmer association and organic producers cooperative. Moreover, the Central Bicol State University of Agriculture in San Jose, Pili, Camarines Sur launched in 2009 Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
316
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
its Organic Agriculture Development Program (OADP). An organic farming technology demonstration site was established within the campus frequently visited by other schools, entrepreneurs and farmer groups. It will be further developed into an agri-ecotourism destination by considering the 4A’s of tourism (attractions, activities, authentic rural food and amenities). This is the University’s own way of promoting organic agriculture in the region through its organically grown vegetables for salad, herbs, native chicken and natural pig. In 2010, irrigators’ association continued to advocate/practice organic farming, a development foundation, rice farmer association, LGU, parish based organization, vegetable association of traders, multipurpose cooperative, Gawad Kalinga, and MASIPAG-Luzon added to the increasing advocates on sustainable agriculture, organic farming and natural farming system. In addition, during the same year, in Camarines Norte, organic farming advocacy came in the form of organic fertilizer production which was usually applied to rice and vegetables. In Albay, there were dealers and manufacturers of organic fertilizers in 2010 that served the needs of the adopters of organic rice and vegetable farming. While in Catanduanes, communitybased organic composting facilities were established to support a growing need for organic fertilizers as inputs to organic farming. Moreover, prior to the approval of RA 10068-Organic Agriculture Act of 2010, there were at least 22 LGUs in the Bicol region who focused on the production of organic fertilizers such as vermi compost and Bio N , set up community based composting facility (Catanduanes), and established trial demo farm on organic rice, corn and vegetable farming. These activities increased in 2010. The availability of organic fertilizer is critical as an input to organic rice farming. Organic Agriculture as a national program is included in Department of Agriculture Regional Field Unit-5 as one of its five banner programs (rice, corn, high value commercial crops, livestock, Promotion and Development of Organic Agriculture) with total budget allocation of Php 29,348,000.00 in 2011 and Php 19,804,000.00 in 2012 all for miscellaneous and other operations expenses (MOOE). The program was carried down to the provincial LGU level particularly in Camarines Sur and Albay. The LGUs promoted organic agriculture mostly through conducting of farmer meeting and distribution of printed materials on organic farming and the least through the mass media (television and radio) as validated from the 340 farmer respondents from 17 LGUs (Lasala, 2012). Training programs conducted by the LGUs included the topic on the fundamentals of organic agriculture and capped with hands-on on organic fertilizer making and botanical pesticides production. Other forms of promotional activities on organic agriculture conducted by the 17 LGUs and availed of by the farmers were the distribution of organic inputs such as organic seeds, botanical pesticides, and organic fertilizer. Some of the organic products produced by farmers as a result of trainings availed were Organic Herbal Nutrient (OHN) and EM-1 Concentrate and Bio N Fertilizer. Other organic products produced in 82 % of the LGUs was organic rice by 36% of the farmers; organic corn in all LGUs by 21% of the farmers; organic vegetables in 76% of the LGUs by 24% of the farmers, and organic animals in 41% of the LGUs by 4% of the farmers. The adopters of organic farming themselves served as promoters. In Camarines Sur, the Pecuarua Development Cooperative Inc. (PDCI) established its own Organic Display Center along the highway. The place is very accessible and strategically located. It carries all their wellpackaged organic rice products and those of other organic goods. Some of the organic farming adopters were invited as resource speakers during seminars and conferences; they also provided farm products to visitors; developed their own website and joined search for outstanding rural women who were into organic farming. An adopter of vegetable organic farming published his own organic magazine while other adopters offered organic vegetarian cuisine in their restaurants/cafés. All these activities helped promote organic rice and vegetable farming in Camarines Sur.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
317
Sources of Information on Organic Farming Organic farming among the adopters basically meant the non-application of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the rice and vegetable crops (lettuce, eggplant, squash, tomato, baguio beans, ampalaya, bell pepper, cucumber). It also meant employing the traditional rice varieties (M29-2, Binulugan, brown rice, pink rice, red rice, Pecuaria Selection 1 and 2, Glutinous red rice, Mindoro 5 and Pinatampo, to name a few). The majority of organic rice farmers rely on their own insights of what organic farming is. It was their practice long time before the concept became in vogue. However, in Camarines Sur, at least 42% of the organic rice farming adopters got the information through trainings given by the Department of Agriculture, 38% of the adopters learned it from MASIPAG, an NGO advocating organic farming, while the rest of them learned organic farming from the PDCI, the first accredited cooperative for organic rice production in Camarines Sur. Meanwhile, in Camarines Norte, organic rice adopters learned it from a church-based NGO advocating environment and sustainable development. Other sources of information on organic farming were other NGOs, the internet, academe, organic week-end market, trade fairs and conferences. Attendance to trainings and seminars was the most important source of information on organic rice and vegetable farming. There were at least 12 production and marketing topics covered in DA trainings that were given to farmers; 1 generic organic farming topic from PDCI; 7 production, processing and organizational aspects from CARITAS; and 11 production and organizational topics from MASIPAG. The aspects covered ranged from production, post-harvest, GAD issues, leadership, advocacy, project development, organizational development, and processing. Lectures given on organic farming were usually followed by hands-on training. Adoption of Organic Farming Trend in the Adoption of Organic Farming The highest recorded adopters from 1991 to 2011 was for organic rice farming in Camarines Sur, followed by Camarines Norte then Masbate. Organic rice and vegetable farming were adopted since 1991 and livestock and corn in 2007 in Camarines Sur. In Albay, adoption of organic rice farming was recorded in 2005 and for vegetables in 2000. Rincomesa adopted diversified organic rice farming since 2000. Meanwhile, in Masbate, organic rice, vegetable and corn farming adoption was registered in 2006. The highest number of adopters was recorded in 2009 for rice in Camarines Sur and for organic fertilizer production in Camarines Norte. In 2010, Albay showed the highest number of organic fertilizer adopters. Organic rice and vegetable farming were both amenable to female and male farmers. In Camarines Sur, the majority of early adopters of organic rice farming were female. The nonapplication of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to rice production were much easier for them since it was their practice even before. Hence, organic rice farming that basically entails the application of organic fertilizer was more amenable to them. Issues and Problems in the Promotion and Adoption of Organic Farming In general, the adoption and diffusion of organic farming is still considered few and slow because of the following issues: lack of raw materials for making organic fertilizers used primarily for rice and making vermi compost for vegetables; lack of capital to venture on organic fertilizer production and vermi composting among the organized groups ; labor intensive production of organic fertilizers ; lack of knowledge on organic farming for other commodities such as rice and
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
318
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
livestock integration/diversified farming; expensive/tedious OA accreditation process; and inadequate knowledge on market for organic products and lack of marketing facilities such as display centers and farm-to-market roads. These are the challenges that the LGUs, the academe, partner NGOs/Civil Society/peoples’ organizations can help farmers address these problems. CONCLUSION Promotion is basically done more for rice, the staple food, then vegetables and recently for livestock, basically incorporating the use of organic fertilizers for crops and natural farming for animals. In Camarines Sur and Camarines Norte, organized groups/cooperatives and church-based organizations/NGOs usually spearheaded the promotion and adoption of organic rice and vegetable farming. Organized groups were also the usual priority clients of government and non-government organizations in promoting organic farming for administrative and financial considerations. Nongovernment organizations were also able to readily access financial support intended for advocating organic farming from international funding agencies. Modalities of promoting organic farming generally came in the form of seminars/trainings with IEC materials distributed, complemented with the establishment of techno demo farms, holding of trade fairs back to back with organic conferences/congress, through the website, and operating a week-end market. The academe, with instruction, research and extension functions can help much by integrating the subject matter of organic farming under sustainable development in their curriculum and further enhance school-based organic techno-demo farms just like the case of the Central Bicol State University of Agriculture. The Department of Agriculture Regional Field Unit can further allocate budget in support of Organic Agriculture Development as one of its banner programs, aside from rice, corn and high value crop development programs. However, standardized teaching materials on production technologies on Organic Agriculture must be made as well as include topics on marketing organic products. Women farmers must be given more chances to be trained on OA since they were those who mostly adopted organic farming. LGUs are mandated to localize OA in their development plans and conduct more promotional activities on organic farming in their localities. Production of organic fertilizers, conduct of Farmers Field Schools and distribution of IEC materials on organic farming were major promotion activities of LGUs that must be supported further. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to the Department of Agriculture-RFU-5, Intervida Philippines and CBSUA for the funding and other logistical support in the conduct of this study; and to the farmer respondents and agency heads and staff for the secondary data provided.
REFERENCES 1. Department of Agriculture RFU-5, Inventory of Organic Producers in the Bicol Region, 2012.
2. G. Lasala, " Capability Assessment of Selected Local Government Units in Camarines Sur in the Implementation of Organic Agriculture Act of 2010", Unpublished MS Thesis. 2012. Central Bicol State University of Agriculture, Pili, Camarines Sur 3. Legislative Manual, House of Representatives of the Philippines, 2010. 4. R. Colting, D. Tagarino, “Status of Organic Agriculture and its Agribusiness Potentials in The Philippines” 2007. J. ISSAAS Vol. 13, No. 2: 92-125
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
319
How Do People’s Participation on Public Health Policy Development in Local Administration? Sinth Sarobol, Ph.D.* Assistant Professor of Development Administration at School of Administrative Studies, Maejo University, San Sai, Chiang Mai, Thailand. * Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract: Various researches have shown that the occurrence of non-communicable diseases (NCD) has been increasing nowadays with negative impact on society than other types of diseases. Many NCD are related to health risks such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and obesity. These factors are closely related to the lifestyle of food intake, diet and physical activities and are considered the major cause of death of people in most parts of the world, including Thailand. Public health policy development supporting with physical activities is consequently a management tool in order to solve the aforementioned issues. This research project was intended to develop public health policies on physical activities as well as to provide a model for developing public health policies by the local community. The project was conducted in two municipalities in Chiang Mai province namely Muang Kaen Pattana and Mae Jo municipalities. The participatory action research methodology was employed in all aspects of the research process by local community and local government officers. Research findings revealed that the NCD that occurred as experienced by working and elderly people in both Muang Kaen Pattana and Mae Jo municipalities were high blood pressure, cholesterol, fat, obesity and lack of physical activities and stress-related due to existing problems, NCD public health policy development is needed. The research also found that the process of public health policy for physical activities was composed of five steps; first, determine the problems arise from NCD data for policy identification. Second, development of NCD alternative policy through the recommendations of municipality council representatives to solve existing issues related to NCD. Third, declaration of policy through proper dissemination within the community to increase peoples’ awareness on NCD. Fourth, implementation of NCD policy through various recommended projects and applied physical activities to achieve NCD policy. Finally, evaluation of policy through questionnaires and focus group discussions vis-à-vis the behavior change of NCD in the community. Keywords: Public health policy development, Participatory public policy development, Local administration, Non-communicable diseases. INTRODUCTION
At present, non communicable disease [NCD] is seriously the main cause of death of people in the world population which challenges the World Health Organization. Therefore, WHO realized this problem and created world food, physical activities and health strategic plan. This strategic plan focuses on the significant factors related to non communicable disease such as food and physical activities which caused high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and obesity. These diseases resulted from lack of physical activities and malnutrition causing handicap and high death rates. For this reason, conceptualization of health should put emphasis on the attribute of “Well-Being” comprising the dimensions of physical, mind, wisdom, including the community. Thus, health
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
320
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
expands the scope of its meaning more than disease or illness. Moreover, the strategic plan in this research focuses on participation of people in public health policy development in local areas because health management should be realized on many aspects more than just simple health management. Furthermore, public policy is a process as a guiding principle or strategy more so than simply declaration. Good public policy resulted from participation of many groups or organizations of people in the community or in a society involving exchange of viable information, data, and knowledge. Also public policy involves the process of assessing situations, defining problems, clarifying values and goals, developing and recommending options, and implementing and/or evaluating outcomes to come up with better solutions in relation to some issue or problem. On the other hand, decentralization supports local communities by providing citizens or their elected representatives at the local level with more power in decision making and supports democratization by giving them more influence in the formulation and implementation of policies. The decentralization empower local government to make a decision in natural resource management, fiscal, technology which are suitable in each local community but foremost significant are cooperation and responsibility in states, sub district administrative, and communities. However at present, it is created by strong communities in management competency and with efficiency. Therefore, this participatory action research aimed to develop public health policy involving physical activities in local level in Chiang Mai province which stimulates local communities and local government participation to become the role model for other local communities and local governments. Therefore, to strengthen the public health policy development in local administration, the objectives of the study endeavored to answer three vital questions: first, how does non communicable disease [NCD] situation be described on working age and senior individuals in local communities. Second, how may participatory public health policy be developed involving physical activities, and lastly, how may participatory physical activity projects be developed with the objective of solving NCD problems on working age and senior individuals in local communities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Healthy public policy in Thailand According to Rasanathan, Posayanonda, Birmingham and Tangcharoensathien (2012), Thailand has had a strong movement to build healthy public policy since the mid-1980s through the Basic Minimum Needs and Quality of Life approach. However, this has been mainly government driven. Improvements in participation and intersectoral action in health began with political reform in the mid-1990s with the new 1997 Thai constitution emphasizing participatory democracy and decentralization. Other related drivers for health systems reform in Thailand included persisting unequal access to essential health care services and fragmentation of the health care system witch focus on health facility-based curative care, neglecting health promotion, disease prevention and inter-sectoral action. The establishment of the Thai Health Promotion Fund in 2002, funded by a 2% additional levy on excise of tobacco and alcoholic beverages, has resulted in increased public resources to strengthen the role of civil society and the community in intersectoral action, health promotion and healthy public policy in Thailand. The Fund has actively sponsored civil society groups to build capacity for Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
321
health promotion activities. The National Health Systems Reform Committee convened its first national health assembly in 2001, with the aim of establishing a clear mechanism to promote active multi-sectoral involvement in the formulation of healthy public policy. Five further assemblies were convened by 2006. However, the assemblies were successful in mobilizing strong civil society participation, but other state actors such as government agencies and the private sector were not actively engaged, partly because of the absence of a strong legal mandate and infrastructure. These assemblies also lacked systematic processes of preparation (such as technical analysis using available evidence) to underpin policy discussion and to help build consensus. Health Public Policy Public Health Policy is one of the key health promotion actions. Advancement of Healthy Public Policy requires that the health consequences of policy should be correctly foreseen and that the policy process should be influenced so that those health consequences are considered. The Ottawa Charter (WHO, 1986) identified Public Health Policy as one of five key health promotion actions. However, Public Health Policy is a policy that enhances the health and well-being of the individuals and communities. Milio (1986) argued that public policy should set a framework within which individuals and communities were enabled to take control of their own health and well-being. Public Health Policy might be conceived of as favorably influencing the determinants of health at the higher levels as described by Whitehead (1995). These levels are general socio-economic, cultural and environmental conditions, living and working conditions, and social and community influences. Individual lifestyle factors together with age, sex and heredity also determine health but are less important than the higher level determinants (Evans et al., 1994; Marmot, 1998). Health services, while important in determining the outcome of episodes of illness, are relatively unimportant in determining population health. It follows that virtually all aspects of public policy impact on health, and it is self-evidently desirable that all public policy should be Public Health Policy. Regarding to the notion of health, promoted by advocates of Public Health Policy, is a broad one. Both equity and sustainability would be regarded as necessary conditions for health. Inequity is both bad per se and is a mechanism through which the health of individuals and communities is damaged. It is therefore appropriate that reduction of health inequalities is advocated as an essential feature of Public Health Policy in WHO Health 21 targets number 1 and 2 (WHO Regional Office for Europe, 1999). Sustainability may be defined as ‘meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1988). Since Public Health Policy is concerned with the health of future, as well as present generations, it must be concerned with sustaining ecosystems, which support the well-being of human populations (Coles et al., 1999). Therefore, public health policies should be improved the conditions under which people live: secure, safe, adequate, and sustainable livelihoods, lifestyles, and environments, including housing, education, nutrition, information exchange, child care, transportation, and necessary community and personal social and health services. Policy adequacy may be measured by its impact on population health. Research Methodologies The research methodology comprised of three parts 1) evaluation of non communicable disease situation on two population groups that comprised of the working age and the elderly in local area by questionnaires and focus group discussions; 2) public health policy development through participatory action research involving physical activities and participatory learning; and 3) development of participatory physical activities policy pattern for both experimental sample
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
322
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
populations. The research areas constituted 27 and 19 communities in Moung Kaen Municipality and Maejo Municipality, respectively both located in Chiang Mai Province. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The research findings from Maejo municipality data revealed that female dominated the male population as well as senior population with average working age of 47 years old while in Moung Kaen Municipality, the average age was found to be 48 years old and the average age among elderly participants was 70 years old. Also both municipality and experimental population who are Buddhists acquired only elementary level of education. In the aspect of well-being, both municipalities, male and female working age were found to have good rate while senior participants had fair rate in both municipalities. Moreover, both municipalities and experimental population usually engaged in farm work such in rice field, orchard, and also doing some household chores as part of their daily life physical activities but seemed to have had lack of support from municipalities. Therefore, development of physical activities policy deemed to be essential to have especial facilities in their communities. The research findings also disclosed that high blood pressure, cholesterol, fat, obesity and lack of physical activities and stress-related due to existing problems were the types of noncommunicable diseases that working age and elderly people usually experienced and had occurred both in Muang Kaen Pattana and Maejo municipalities, thus NCD public health policy development indeed, should be needed. The findings also found that the process of health policy for physical activities consisted of five steps: first, determination of the problems obtained from NCD data for policy identification. Second, development of NCD alternative policy through the recommendations of municipality council representatives to solve existing issues related to NCD. Third, announcement of NCD policy through proper dissemination to all individuals within the community. Fourth, implementation of NCD policy through various recommended projects and applied physical activities to achieve NCD policy. Finally, evaluation of policy through questionnaires and focus group discussions vis-à-vis the behavior change of NCD in the community.
NCD policy declaration
NCD alternative policy development
Process of Healthy Public Policy for Physical Activity
Identify the problem from NCD survey data
NCD policy implementation by recommend various project
NCD policy evaluation
Figure 9 Process of healthy public policy for physical activity
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
323
However, local government managed participatory physical activities did not have a clear and comprehensive physical activities participation policy. Hence, this research was undertaken to investigate and created participatory action research on public health policy development involving projects for physical activities in both municipalities. Therefore, physical activities development process plan (Figure 1) and public policy should give corresponding feedback to communities by rethinking and reflecting on the problems with people’s participation to analyze such problems, causes, and condition in each community and also SWOT analysis was carried out to create health care strategic plan. After conducting participatory research process, the findings in this case showed that Maejo municipality had 25 projects to name a few such as organic vegetables plan, aerobic dance activity, and natural fertilizer making. On the other hand, Moung Kaen Municipality came up to 30 projects like Hula Hoop activity, cycling on culture heritage road, learning old wisdom, building field physical activities, and happy dancing project. Finally, this research made a space for civil society to create the “Health Civil Society” which is the proclamation of “Physical activities policy” and made a knowledge-base for communities and other local governments. Therefore, according to the research studies, it made both Maejo and Moung Kaen municipalities to be the role models on participatory action research on public health policy development for physical activities in local administration. Regarding public health policy development, the research findings also found that the process of public health policy for physical activities was composed of five steps: first, determine the problems arise from NCD data for policy identification. Second, development of NCD alternative policy through the recommendations of municipality council representatives to solve existing issues related to NCD. Third is the announcement of the formulated policy through proper dissemination among the people within the community to increase their awareness on noncommunicable diseases. Fourth, implementation of NCD policy through various recommended projects and applied physical activities to achieve NCD policy. Finally, evaluation of policy through questionnaires and focus group discussions vis-à-vis the behavior change of NCD in the community. CONCLUSION
Non-communicable diseases (NCD) of working and elderly people in rural research sites were high blood pressure, high cholesterol, obesity and lack of physical activity. Recommended information was sent to municipality’s representative council concerning health policy development for physical activities in five steps by: identification, alternative development; declaration, implementation as well as evaluation of public health policy. However, public health policy development for physical activity is a management tool for enhancing and solving NCD problems of rural people. Various physical activities projects have been activated after policy declaration and evaluation for its sustainability.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is substantial revision of a research project on “Public Health Policy Development of Physical Activity in Local Organization Administration, Chiang Mai, Thailand.” The research project was supported by the Thai Health Promotion Foundation from 2010-2012. This paper also first given at the Thailand’s First International Conference on Public Management and Public Affairs: Challenges and Prospects in ASEAN and Beyond; August 30-31, 2012 at
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
324
The Journal of Interdisciplinary Networks
BITEC, Bangkok, THAILAND and the 4th International Congress on Physical Activity and Public Health (ICPAPH), October 30-November 4, 2012 at Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The author would like to acknowledge the research done through the cooperation of elderly and working people in the research sites; member of municipality representative as well as Mayor of both Maejo and Moung Kaen municipalities for their support to this research endeavor. REFERENCES
1. Cole, D. C., Eyles, J., Gibson, B. L. and Ross, N. (1999) Links between humans and ecosystems: the implications of framing for health promotion strategies. Health Promotion International, 14, 65–72. 2. Donev, D., Pavlekovic, G., Kragelj, L.Z., (2007) Health Promotion and Disease Prevention: A handbook for Teachers, Researchers, Health Professor and Decision Makers. Hans Jacobs Publishing Company, Germany. 3. Evans, R. G., Barer, M. and Marmor, T. R. (1994) Why are some People Healthy and Others not—the Determinants of Health of Populations. Aldine de Gruyter, New York, NY. 4. Rasanathan, K., Posayanonda ,T., Birmingham, M., and Tangcharoensathien, V., Innovation and participation for healthy public policy: the first National Health Assembly in Thailand, Health Expectations, Volume 15, Issue 1, pages 87–96, March 2012. 5. Marmot, M. G. (1998) Improvement of social environment to improve health. Lancet, 351, 57–60. 6. Milio, N. (1986) Promoting health through public policy. Canadian Public Health Association, Ottawa. 7. Milio, N. (1988) Making healthy public policy; developing the science by learning the art: an ecological framework for policy studies. Health Promotion, 2, 263–274. 8. Ontario Health Promotion Resource System. Policy development. Available from: http://www.ohprs.ca/ hp101/mod5/module5c20.htm (Accessed: August 19, 2007). 9. Sinth Sarobol, Healthy Public Policy for Physical Activities: Concept, Process and Lesson learned from Local Organization Administration. Chiang Mai: School of Administrative Studies, Mae Jo University, 2012. 10. Whitehead, M. ( ) Tackling inequalities a review of policy initiatives. In Benzeval, M., Judge, K. and Whitehead, M. (eds.) Tackling Inequalities in Health, Chapter . King's Fund, London, United Kingdom. 11. World Health Organisation Regional Office for Europe (1999) Health 21—Health for All in the 21st century (European Health for All Series No 6). WHO, Copenhagen, Denmark. 12. World Health Organisation (1986) The Ottawa Charter of Health Promotion. Health Promotion, i–v. 13. World Commission on Environment and Development (1988) Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Research and Development in ASEAN Universities Volume 2 (Special Issue), Number 1, January-June 2013
