Volume 5, Issue 8(5), August 2016
International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email:
[email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev
Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco
Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai
Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University
Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan
Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam
Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam
Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam
Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria
Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia
Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia
Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A
Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram
Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi
I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia
Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA
Dr. N.S. Dhanam Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Dr.B.S.N.Murthy
Dr.T.V.Ramana
Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University Visakhapatnam
Department of Economics Andhra University Campus, Kakinada
Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao
Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi
Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam
Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science
Dr.S.Kannan
University of Pune,Pune
Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram
Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic
Dr. B. Venkataswamy
Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia
H.O.D., & Associate Professor Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India
Prof. Shobha V Huilgol
Dr.E. Ashok Kumar
Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar
Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur
Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong
Dr.K.Chaitanya
Department of English GITAM University Hyderabad
Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China
Prof.Francesco Massoni
Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam
Al-Mustansiriyah University College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq
Dr. Bipasha Sinha
Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado
Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome
Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya
S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta
Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh
Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V
Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir
Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
Librarian Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
CONTENTS Volume 5
Issue 8(5)
August 2016
S. No
Page No
1.
The Positions of Balinese Women Working on Cruise Ships I Made Darma Oka
1
2.
“Bio-Cultural Dimensions of Aids” among CrossCultural Society’s Children of TirupatiAn Anthropological Study Sundaram Dinakaran and A.B.Subhashini
10
3.
The Impact 0f Human Capital Formation on Economic Growth in Ethiopia Neduri Suryanarayana and Gemedo Berisa
38
4.
Primitive Tribal Groups in Andhra Pradesh(A Study of their Problems in West Godavari District) G.Sunitha
56
5.
Bharati Mukherjee’s ‘Passing Way of Life’ Through Her “Tiger’s Daughter” Singuru Mohan Kumar
78
6.
Development and Implement of Soft Skills and Life Skills: Through Teacher Education Programme P.Manohar
95
7.
105 G.Madhubabu
8.
Preparing Teachers for Inclusive Education P.Sharath Babu
112
9.
tSoizkS|ksfxdh dh mi;ksfxrk
118 Sunila Ekka
10.
Expenditure Management and Control in Ilu Ababor Zone(The Case of Selected Woredas) Geda Misganu and Sekata Kenea
122
11.
British Rajatte Aabivakta Sundarboner Artha-Samajik Rupantar Sujit Mandal
140
12.
Manjula Padmanabhan’s Kleptomania: “A Multifaceted Mania” Padma Rampalli
149
13.
izxfr’khy lekt ds fuek.kZ esa v/;kid f’k{k.k&izf’k{k.k esa Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk }kjk iznr funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dh mi;ksfxrk dk ,d foospukRed v/;;u^^
157
14.
Techniques for Creative Teaching and Learning in Teacher Education Soma Sekhar
173
15.
Sex Workers in 21st Century World
182
izseizdk’k iqjksfgr
N.Kiran Chandra 16.
Importance of the Problem of Value
207 P.G.Jyothi
17.
Impact of Entrepreneurship on Empowerment of Rural Women- A Select Study Srinivasa Rao Chintala
213
18.
Religious Conversion and its Historical Impact Jhumu Saha
229
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor :3.318(2015) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16
Editorial…… You will be happy to know that we have entered the fifth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it. We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharitha Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor –in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW
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THE POSITIONS OF BALINESE WOMEN WORKING ON CRUISE SHIPS I Made Darma Oka Tourism Department Bali State Polytechnic Bali, Indonesia Nowadays the Balinese people trend to choose working on the cruise ship. The fact can be seen from the increasing number of those who work in cruise ships in the last four years. Balinese labor had seen the fact that workers who work in the cruise ships have changed their standard of living and that of their families. This is evidenced by the fact that working in a cruise ship, they could meet their primary, secondary and tertiary needs more feasibly by building a more permanent home or buying a car. They realize that working on a cruise ship in addition to getting greater income than working in home country, they can travel out of the country, and are able to open their horizons. It is seems unique since working there does not only attract Balinese men as happened in the past but also the Balinese women. This study is to analyze those women seen from their position on the cruise ships. To obtain data concerning the position of the Balinese women in the industry, an accidental sampling method is used in which 200 respondents are chosen. The result of the study shows, the position the Balinese women get in the cruise ship industry is that of lower into middle management, especially as workingwomen. Based on the descriptive analysis, empowering the Balinese women in the industry is to give them related professional education, training, and counseling programs, so that they can take advantage of the existing opportunities they have in the cruise ship industry. Keywords: The Positions, Balinese Women, Cruise Ship.
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INTRODUCTION Nowadays the Balinese people trend to choose working on the cruise ship. The fact shows them that those who work on the cruise ship have been able to improve their standard of living. The fact that they have been able to satisfy their primary, secondary, and tertiary needs prove this. They, for example, have been able to build more permanent houses and buy cars. They recognize that they earn much more than they do if they work in Indonesia. In addition, they can widen their insight and become familiar with the other parts of the world. Such facts have motivated others to work on the cruise ship. However, several unexpected things have also happened to the Balinese people who work on the cruise ship. One was involved in maltreatment and raping, and some others died. From 2010 to 2014 the number of the Balinese people who worked on the cruise ship increased dramatically. Similarly, the percentage of the Balinese women who are employed in the cruise line has also increased, although the degree of their participation is less than 10% than that of the men (BP3TKI, 2015). Based on the facts, empowering the Balinese women in the cruise ship is to give them related professional education and training, so that they can take advantage of the existing opportunities they have in the cruise ship. Working on the cruise ship needs both adequate hard skill and soft skill; in other words, working on the cruise ship needs the qualification of being competent. Competence means the ability which every individual has; it includes knowledge, skill, and being prepared to do what is supposed to do in accordance with the standard already determined. Hard skill is the competence in knowledge and expertise which an individual should have when doing what is supposed to do such as serving tourists. Soft skill refers to the appearance and working attitude which an individual should have when serving visitors. Apart from that, Sadia and Oka (2012) state that the characteristic of the www.ijmer.in
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employment in the cruise ship requires tight discipline and strong physical endurance. In relation to that, this article is intended to analyze the existence of the Balinese women who are employed on the cruise ship from the aspects of the position, weakness, strength and opportunity they have, and from the aspect of the threat they may face. METHODOLOGY From the aspect of their position, the existence of the Balinese women who are employed on the cruise ship is analyzed using the descriptive and qualitative method. The position they have in the cruise line is described descriptively and quantitatively in the form of a table. The levels of positions in an industry, according to Fayol (in Handayaningrat, 1990: 13), can be classified into the crew/staff, the lower management, the middle management, and the top management. The data which were collected through this present study are then systematically narrated in order to ease the understanding of the existence of the Balinese women employed on the cruise ship. DISCUSSION A cruise ship refers to a type of accommodation using a boat/ship which is commercially managed, prepares the facilities and services an accommodation has, serves foods and beverages, and the other services provided to the tourists staying there for a particular period of time. A cruise ship is identical with a luxurious hotel which can be found on the sea/ocean; therefore, it frequently referred to as a cruiser or floating hotel. Perwani (1997: 6) states that a cruise ship is a form of accommodation which can be found in a river, canal or sea with specific features such as using a boat or ship to sail from one place to another, and having a number of guests
for a journey already determined.
Furthermore, Bagyono (2012: 65) states that a cruise ship is a floating hotel which prepares rooms, restaurants and bars as a star hotel has, meaning that the services provided to the guests staying on the cruise www.ijmer.in
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ship are not so different from those provided at the star hotels located in the mainland. The reinforcement of the Balinese women employed on the cruise ship is interesting to be explored, as the tourism sector is the public one in which, traditionally (the gender-based division of employment), the only men are employed. In other words, females are supposed to do the activities in the domestic sector such as household chores, washing, and cooking. Sukeni (2006) states that, in spite of such conventional division of employment, the fact shows that the Balinese women, in particular, have been participating in the public sector such as being employed in the tourism industry since the modern tourism was developed in Bali; in other words, they have not only participated in the domestic sector but also in the public sector. Furthermore, it is stated that tourism has contributed to the equality of gender. The reason is that the conventional division of employment in which the husbands should work in the public sector and the wives should do the domestic jobs has not been strictly applicable. There has not been any strict partition between what is supposed to be done by the husbands and what is supposed to be done by the wives. Their family situation and condition, environment and awareness that their families and society should be in harmony have been responsible for this. Statistically, the number of females in Bali is almost equal to the number of males. Females total 1,780,878 (49.85%) and males total 1,791,953 (50.15%) (BPS Bali, 2012). However, the number of the employed females is lower than the number of the employed males. The ratio is 1,014,052 (44.60%) to 1,259,845 (55.40%) (Disnakertrans Bali, 2013). This means that the tourism in Bali should be developed with an orientation towards gender equality and justice. In other words, the tourism in Bali should be developed by taking the men’s and women’s rights and obligations equally, proportionately equitably into account. In the Act No. 13/2003, Chapter III, Articles 5-6 concerning www.ijmer.in
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Manpower, it is stated that everybody has the same opportunity; nobody can be discriminated from any job opportunity, and everybody should be equally treated by the employer. In relation to that, Suryani (2003: 41) states that normatively the nation has guaranteed that men and women have the same rights, one of which is participating in the development including the development in tourism. The Balinese women should struggle for their rights to being equally treated so they can participate more actively in tourism by working on the cruise ship. In this present study, the Balinese women refer to those who belong to the Balinese ethnic group, who are Hindus and still employed or have been employed on the cruise ship. They keep struggling for justice and equality in their daily role in tourism. Triguna (2002: 32) states that such a struggle is a challenge for the Balinese Hindu women in the future. Their failure does not only result from their inability but also from their social condition. They should accept their failure. Therefore, the Balinese women keep struggling for their rights so that they will be equal to men in tourism including on the cruise ship. Professional human resources are needed to operate a cruise ship. In other words, human resources strategically determine the existence of the tourism industry in general and the cruise line in particular. Therefore, the competence of the Balinese women who are employed on the cruise ship should be so internationally standard that they will be able to compete with the human resources coming from other countries. The existence of the Balinese women on the cruise ship can be identified from the positions which they have been able to hold such as the top manager, the middle manager, the lower manager or the crew. In the present study, 200 respondents were used, 193 (96.50%) of them were the crew. Only five (2.50%) were lower managers and two were middle managers (1.00%) (Table 1).
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Table 1. Positions Occupied by the Balinese Women on the Cruise Ships No
Level
1 Top Manager
2 Middle Manager 3 Lower Manager 4 Crew
Position General Manager, FO Manager, FB Manager, Housekepeer, Chef) Supervisor, Head Waiter Bar Secretary, Butler Restaurant/cocktail waitress Cook Housemaid Stateroom stewardess Total
Tota l 0
Percentag e 0
2 5 83 18 27 65 200
1.00 2,50 41,50 9.00 13,50 32,50 100,00
Their current positions have allowed the Balinese women to increase their income as an attempt to meet both ends meet. Their duties and responsibilities on the cruise ship are not so heavy. Such positions are possibly chosen due to the multiple roles played the Balinese women; on one hand, they have to be in charge of their families; on the other hand, they have to work for their families. It can be understood that the roles played by the Balinese women in the globalized era are not easy, as they cannot separate themselves from the household chores. Such a condition has caused them to compete with men or the other women in order to achieve what they have dreamed of. During such a process conflicts cannot be avoided. At least they have two choices; taking care of their households or being employed outside their households such as becoming private employees, civil servants or entrepreneurs. This is justified by Srinadi et al. (2006) who states that satisfying one of the multiple roles will cause women to have difficulty in satisfying another role, meaning that overcoming one conflict may lead to another conflict. There are several factors which make fulfilling the multiple roles difficult; they are 1) the women’s role as housewives is so strong; 2) there is a demand for being perfect in www.ijmer.in
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every role; and 3) there is a high commitment to their jobs and households. The table above shows that the higher the levels of positions which are available on the cruise ship, the fewer the women who are involved in such positions. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the Balinese women’s skills in order to be able to hold the higher positions on the cruise ship. The table also shows that most Balinese women dominantly work as bar/restaurant/cocktail waitresses on the cruise ship, totaling 83 or 41.50%. Those who work as housemaids total 27 or 13.50%; those who work as cooks total 18 or 9.00%; those who work as stateroom stewardesses total 65 or 32.50%. Such a condition also shows that many Balinese women are employed in the food and beverages department and housekeeping department. Therefore, the Balinese women’s competence needs improving in order to be able to compete with those coming from other countries. The result of the present study is supported by the studies previously conducted (Tim Peneliti Unud, 2001; Mudita, 2003; Oka, 2006; Sunarsa, 2011). It is stated that most of the Balinese people who work in the tourism sector are crews. The reason is that their conceptual, managerial, and business abilities are not so good. In addition, Karmini (2011) stated that the Balinese are not so motivated to hold important positions. They feel that working as crews are enough. They think that occupying higher positions means that they have heavier responsibilities, meaning that they need more time to do what they are supposed to do in relation to their positions. They are happy working as staff as they have fewer responsibilities. And then Oka et.al (2015) state the strengths the Balinese workingwomen have are their friendly attitude and being honest, diligent, obedient, full of smile, and responsible for their high scale skills. The weaknesses include low motivation to occupy a certain position, poor English proficiency, lack of self confidence, and less managerial skills. www.ijmer.in
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CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of the study, the conclusions can be drawn as follows that the most of the Balinese women who are employed on the cruise ship are crews. It’s hapend because the Balinese women include being friendly, easily smiling, being honest, being persistent, being faithful, they are also highly competent and responsible but being less motivated to hold higher positions, being less self confident, and having inadequate managerial aspect. The elucidation, educational, and training programs that career, mentality, being able to communicate in English, and managerial aspect are important should be provided. It is suggested that the government and the tourism agents should synergize to implement effectively the rules regulating manpower. And then to the Balinese women who would like to work in the cruise line, it is suggested that they should prepare their soft and hard skills maturely so that they will be able to win every competitor. Acknowledgments I am thankful to respondens to for providing me information and kind support throughout the research work. I am also thankful to the God. Bibliography 1.
Bagyono. 2012. Pariwisata dan Perhotelan. Bandung: Penerbit Alfabeta.
2.
Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) Prov. Bali. 2013. Bali dalam Angka - Bali in Figure 2012. Denpasar.
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Balai Pelayanan Penempatan dan Perlindungan Tenaga Kerja Indonesia (BP3TKI). 2015. Penempatan TKI Tahun 2014. Denpasar.
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Dinas Tenaga Kerja dan Transmigrasi Prov. Bali (Disnakertrans). 2013. Profil Ketenagakerjaan dan Transmigrasi Daerah Tahun 2013. Denpasar.
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Handayaningrat, S., 1990, Pengantar Studi Ilmu Administrasi dan Manajemen, Jakarta: CV. Haji Masagung.
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Hartono, S. 2012. Bekerja di Kapal Pesiar “Panduan Praktis Mengawali Karier di Kapal Pesiar” Solo: Cet. 1.
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Karmini, N. W. 2011. Keterpinggiran Perempuan Hindu Pekerja Hotel Berbintang Lima di Kawasan Sanur, Denpasar Selatan, Kota Denpasar (disertasi). Denpasar: PPS UNUD.
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Mudita, 2003. Faktor Sosial, Ekonomi dan Budaya yang Memotivasi Sumber Daya Manusia Bali Bekerja di Sektor Pariwisata (tesis). Denpasar: PPS UNUD.
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Oka, I M. D., M. Antara, I G. Mudana. 2015. The Opportunities and threats of Balinese Women Working on Cruise Ships. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER). Vol. 4 (9), 35-45.
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Oka, I M. D. 2006. Eksistensi Tenaga Kerja Perempuan pada Hotel Bintang di Kota Denpasar. Jurnal Dinamika Kebudayaan. VIII (2).
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Perwani, Y.B. 1997. Teori dan Petunjuk Praktek Housekeeping untuk Akademi Perhotelan. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
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Sadia, I K. dan I M. D. Oka. 2012. Motivasi Tenaga Kerja Bali Bekerja di Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC). Jurnal Sosial Humaniora. 2 (3), 221-236.
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Sunarsa, I W. 2011. Faktor Penentu Kepuasan Kerja Tenaga Kerja Bali yang Bekerja di Kapal Pesiar (Kasus: Carnival Cruise Line). Jurnal Hospitaliti & Manajemen. 1 (1), 58-81.
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Suryani, L. K. 2003. Perempuan Bali Kini. Denpasar: Bali Post.
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Tim Peneliti Unud. 2001. Studi Keunggulan Sumber Daya Manusia Bali di Bidang Pariwisata. Denpasar.
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Triguna, I B. G. Y. 2000. Mengenal Teori-Teori Pembangunan. Denpasar: Widya Dharma. Ed. 1. Cet. 1.
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“BIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF AIDS” AMONG CROSSCULTURAL SOCIETY’S CHILDREN OF TIRUPATI A ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY Sundaram Dinakaran Ph.D Scholar Dept. of Anthropology S.V.University Tirupati
Dr.A.B.Subhashini Dept. of Anthropology S.V.University Tirupati
INTRODUCTION Biological anthropologists have covered many populations by studying their demographic, bio-demographic and genetic demographic to understand the evolutionary prospects of them. However, in the recent past they are showing interest on disease epidemiological studies, such as CHD (Coronary Heart disease), Diabetes, hipid profiles and their distribution, and how on HIV, to understand the diabetes dimensions of the disease. HIV and AIDS epidemic has emerged as a serious challenge having grave implications for the future socio-economic development of our country. HIV and AIDS is a development issue, not just a health issue. Its impact extends well beyond typical health indicators to key development indicators. Recognizing the devastating nature of HIV, effective measures are being taken to contain the spread of HIV and AIDS by involving all the departments of the Government and non Government, private and civil society. The AIDS epidemic is one of the greatest development challenges facing the world. Increasingly the negative impact of the epidemic is clearly visible on the poverty and socio-economic development levels, and the human development indicators. The
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epidemic is now perceived more a development issue than a health issue. India has had a sharp increase in the estimated number of HIV infections, from a few thousands in the early 1990s to around 5.1 million children and adults living with HIV and AIDS in 2005. The spread of HIV within the country is as diverse as the societal patterns between its different regions, states and metropolitan areas. The epidemic varies from state to state with mainly heterosexual transmission of HIV in some states and injecting drug use is the main route of HIV transmission in other states. India has a large population and population density, low literacy levels and consequently low levels of awareness. The high HIV prevalence states in India are – Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Nagaland and Manipur. In 2012 as per the estimates of UNAIDS, out of 3.2 crore people living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHA) in the world, around 51 lakh PLWHAs are in India, and of these around 10 lakh are in Andhra Pradesh. HIV epidemic poses a serious threat to the development of Andhra Pradesh. The state has the highest prevalence rate of HIV and AIDS in the country having recorded 2% prevalence in the low risk general adult population, represented by women attending antenatal clinics (Urban) and 22.8% in the high risk population, represented by patients at STI clinics. HIV has now become a generalized epidemic in the state – it is no longer restricted to people with high risk behavior. 92% of infections are group of 15-49 years. As the people in this age group are also the most economic productive group of the population, HIV has severe economic repercussions if not controlled and allowed to spread at the existing pace. It adversely affects he economic, social, psychological and health status of infected individuals and their families. www.ijmer.in
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The study of AIDS includes two dimensions one. The bio-logical component, the second the cultural reaction to the disease. Theses a very important essyes anthropological because both bio-cultural dimensions can be attempted and studied, either in a population or crass cultural population. What is HIV?
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
HIV virus causes AIDS
HIV by itself is not an illness and does not instantly lead to AIDS
An HIV infected person can lead a healthy life for several years before he/she develops AIDS
HIV is found only in human beings and not in any other living organism
The person infected with HIV is said to be ‘HIV+’ or ‘HIV positive’
What is AIDS? The first case of AIDS reported in India was in 1986. today, 5.7 million people in India are living with HIV/AIDS, and all but 500,000 of those are 15-49 years old. A few global NGO’s are stepping forward to help stem the tide. The Kaiser Family Foundation reports that India, the world’s second most populated country, is at a critical point in this epidemic. HIV could explode, but if large-scale prevention and other interventions are implemented, the expansion could be curtailed. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation report that multiple issues make the India epidemic unique: multiple local epidemics, high risk behavior groups are dispersed and mobile and an environment of apathy and denial make a publicly coordinated approach to prevention challenging. www.ijmer.in
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UNAIDS in India has coordinated an interagency action plan and reports progress in prevention as a result of building a comprehensive, multi0faced response. One third of India’s HIV/AIDS cases are women, and the predominant route of transmission in India is via unprotected heterosexual sex. One third of India’s HIV/AIDS victims are under the age of 30. Both the Kaiser Family Foundation and the Gates Foundations Avahana Program has partnered with Heroes in Action, a national initiative seeking to decrease the stigma and silence of AIDS and increase education and awareness. Banning HIV positive children from school is just one problem they have reported. AIDS is an acronym for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome A inherited
Stands for ACQUIRED i.e., contracted not generic or
I
-
Stands for IMMUNE, i.e., power to resist disease
D
-
Stands for DEFICIENCY, i.e., insufficiency
S Stands for SYNDROME, i.e., a number of complaints and signs indicative of a particular disease.
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) – a health condition in which a person is affected by a series of diseases because of poor immunity
HIV attacks the human body by breaking down its immune system that is meant to fight diseases
Over a period of time, the immune system weakens and the body loses its natural ability to fight diseases. At this stage various diseases affect the infected person
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Types of HIV There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV-2. both types are transmitted by unsafe sexual contact, through HIV infected blood, and from HIV infected mother to child, and they appear to cause clinically indistinguishable AIDS. However, it seems that HIV-2 is less easily transmitted, and the period between initial infection and illness is longer in the case of HIV-2. HIV-2 is prevalent only in Western Africa. Worldwide, the predominant virus is HIV-1, and generally when people refer to HIV without specifying the type of virus they will be referring to HIV-1. Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 cause the body to produce antibodies within three to six months, although the period between initial infection and illness may be longer in the case of HIV-2. Modes of HIV Transmission A person can get infected with HIV through the following routes: Unprotected sex: If a person engages in sexual intercourse with an HIV infected person without using a condom, he/she can get infected. The sexual act can be both vaginal and anal. Theoretically oral sex without condom (on men) or barriers like dental dam, vaginal dams or plastic wrap (on women) can also transmit the infection. Sharing of improperly sterilized needles & hospital tools: If surgical devices like syringes and scalpels, or even certain instruments, used on an infected person, are used on another person without proper sterilization, they can transmit the infection. Unsafe blood transfusion: A person can get the infection, if he/she is given blood transfusion of HIV infected blood.
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Infected Parent to Child: An HIV positive mother can transmit the cirus to child during pregnancy or at birth. Breast milk can also act as a transmission-medium. How HIV cannot be transmitted
Shaking hands
Eating along with the HIV infected person
Light kiss
Through air or by coughing and sneezing
Through food or water
Through sweat and tears
By sharing cups, plates, and utensils with an infected person
By touching, hugging an infected person
By sharing clothes with an infected person
By sharing toilets and bathrooms with an infected person
By living with an infected person
By mosquitoes, fleas, or other insects
Myths and Misconceptions about HIV and AIDS People with HIV look just like everybody else. Around the world, there are a number of different myths about HIV and AIDS. ‘You would have to drink a bucket of infected saliva to become infected yourself-‘Yuck! This is a typical myth. HIV is found in saliva, but in quantities too small to infect someone. If you drink a bucket of saliva from a positive person, you won’t become infected. ‘Sex with a virgin can cure HIV’: This myth is common in some parts of Africa, and it is totally untrue. The myth has resulted in many www.ijmer.in
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rapes of young girls and children by HIV+ men, who often infect the victims. Rape won’t cure anything – and is a serious crime all around the world. ‘It only happens to gay men/black people/young people, etc’This myth is false. Most people who become infected with HIV didn’t think it’d happen to the, and were wrong. ‘HIV can pass through latex’ Rumors were spread, that the HIV virus is so small that it can pass though ‘holes’ in latex used to make condoms. This is untrue-latex blocks HIV, as well as sperm-preventing pregnancy, too. It is restricted to high risk behavior groups- such as sex workers, intravenous drug users, men having sex with HIV, if esposed to the above mentioned modes of transmission. At the same time every body can protect themselves from getting infected with HIV and AIDS. Frequently Asked Questions What are the main routes of HIV transmission? Following are the main ways in which someone can become infected with HIV:
Unprotected penetrative intercourse with someone who is HIV infected
Injection or transfusion of HIV contaminated blood or blood products, donations of semen (artificial insemination), skin grafts and organ transplants taken from someone who is HIV infected
From a mother who is infected to her bady, this may be during the course of pregnancy, at birth and through breast-feeding Sharing unsterilised injection equipment that has been previously used by someone who is HIV infected.
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The proposed study bio-social dimensions among cross-cultural children’s is taken up n direction through understand the biological nature of the disease and the cultural responds to eradicative it. The study has been taken up with the following objectives. Objectives The study has taken by in this discussion with the following objectivities. 1. To study Bio-Social aspects of HIVs & AIDS 2. To identify the affected are their societal affiliation. 3. People’s awareness and reaction to the affliction. 4. To their a solution to AIDS as its eradication. 5. To decipher the role people in tacking AIDS or HIVS. Review of Literature A Lot of literature is already added in the HIV or AIDS (UNAIDS 2002 NTOZL, James, 1997. Many studies have covered African continent followed by all undeveloped countries. Now attention is also given to India, the developing nation, as it takes the 2nd place in the world scenario of disease. David Bishai et al, David Bishai, El Daw Suliman, Heena Brahmbhatt, Fred Wabwire-Mangen, Godfrey Kigizi, Nelson Sewankambo, David Serwadda, Maria Wawer, Ron Gray in their study, Does biological relatedness affect survival have covered many aspects of the disease bio-culturally. The results of the study shows the presence of both parents in the household increased the odds of survival by 28%. After controlling for the endogenous of child placement decisions in a multivariate model we found that lower biological relatedness of a child was associated with statistically significant reductions in child survival. The effects of biological www.ijmer.in
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relatedness on child survival tend to be stronger for both HIV– and HIV+ children of HIV+ mothers. Other studies covering AIDS have come out with the following results. Consideration of the dead parent’s productive capacity (Over, Ellis, Huber, and Solon 1992) and the need to provide orphans financial security despite the loss of a parent. However there is a growing realization that the prevalent African tradition of child fostering might be sufficient to offset the financial predicament of orphanhood (Foster, Shakespeare, Chinemana, Jackson, Gregson, Marange, and Mashumba 1995; Kamali, Seeley, Nunn, Kengeya-Kayondo, Ruberantwari, and Mulder 1996; Urassa, Boerma, Ng’weshemi, Isingo, Schapink, and Kumogola 1997). Earlier observations on the wide prevalence of child fostering in West Africa (Bledsoe and Brandon 1987; Isiugo-Abanihe 1985) were reinforced by data showing that 14% of Northwestern Tanzanian households (Urassa et al. 1997) and 19% of Southern Ugandan households fostered orphan children (Nalugoda, Wawer, Konde-Lula, Menon, Gray, Serwadda, Sewankambo, and Li 1997). The extended family has been a traditional source of financial security and could be a very successful coping strategy. Yet financial security and caring by foster families may not be able to replace lost parents. Nalugoda et al. (1997) found in rakai that 56% of orphans and 64% fonon-orphans were enrolled in school. Ainsworth and Rwegarulira (1992) found that in Kagera roughly 65% of teenage orphans were enrolled in school and 75% of corresponding non-orphans. In contrast to these optimistic views, Sengendi and Nambi (1997) noted severe psychological effects related to bereavement in both orphaned children and their foster parents in Rakai. In focus groups conducted in Uganda, Ntozi and Mukiza-Gapere (1995) uncovered widespread reports of orphans being dispossessed and stigmatized for fear of AIDS. Lack of money affected 58% of Ugandan orphans (Ntozi 1997). The www.ijmer.in
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Kagera data show that mother’s deaths (but not father’s deaths) are followed by child stunting (Ainsworth and Semali 1998). This would indicate that while widowed and foster families are able to buffer the child’s health from the devastating loss of a father’s resources and protection, they cannot insulate the child from the loss of a mother. Ntozi (1997) concludes that. It is therefore recommended that the family’s weak financial capacity to cope with the orphan problem should be countered by external assistance. There are 42 million people living with HIV/AIDS world-wide. 38 these are adults, 19.2 million are women and 3.2 million are child the age of 15. Five million new infections with HIV occurred in 200 4.2 million were adults and 2 million of them were women. A total million people died of HIV/AIDS related causes in 2002. Securing the future – advocating for children : Across the world, significant progress is being made in the response to AIDS – political and financial commitment is higher than ever before and in more and more countries effective HIV prevention and treatment programmes are being made more widely available. But all too often, children are still missing out. Despite the beginnings of progress, children still remain largely absent from national and international political responses to the AIDS pandemic. According to latest estimations, every day there are nearly 1,800 new HIV infections in children under 15 and more than 6,000 young people aged 15-24 are newly infected with HIV. And every day 1,400 children under 15 of AIDS-related illnesses. In response to the urgent need to step up action for children and young people, the UNAIDS Secretariat and cosponsor UNICEF recently joined a group of 40 advocates and activists representing national and global organizations, campaigns, networks, and coalitions in Brussels, www.ijmer.in
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Belgium, to define a platform for joint advocacy towards the goal of achieving the first-ever “AIDS Free Generation”. Brining together perspectives from around the world – and from the grassroots to the global arena-the group shared a deep concern that the lives, rights, and potential of millions of the world’s children are being severely eroded by the devastating impact of HIV. Over the course of three days, the group worked together to define a framework for political change and mobilization for the interests of children in a world living with HIV. Education, HIV prevention, treatment, social protection and financing were identified as five necessary components of the platform for effective advocacy around children and HIV. On education, the group outlined the need to advocate for access to free, safe, comprehensive and quality basic education for all children, paying particular attention to the needs of girls, and ensuring that schools can play an effective role in HIV prevention and the protection and care of children in AIDS-affected societies. To prevent new infections, among young people and children, the group stressed the urgent and rapid need to advocate for the increase of youth and child-specific HIV prevention programmes, with a focus on ensuring access to comprehensive sexual education, empowering girls and promoting gender equality. A comprehensive, family-centered approach to care and treatment, and the provision of affordable medicines, diagnostics and health services were underlined as central to the goal of preventing HIV infection in children and ensuring treatment of all children living with HIV. To move towards comprehensive social protection for AIDSaffected and other vulnerable children, the group stressed that advocacy should focus on preventing stigma and discrimination, www.ijmer.in
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providing families and communities with the resources needed to protect children’s well-being, and ensuring access to essential services and care for all orphans and vulnerable children. For all programmes and action focused on children and young people, the group underlined the fundamental need for full and sustainable financing. Advocacy will be key to help ensure specific funding allocations within national and international development and AIDS budgets and to help ensure that funds are utilized effectively to reach the children and young people most in need. Underlined as central to all advocacy action towards an ‘AIDS Free Generation’ was the active involvement of young people themselves, to build wider alliances, and to inspire others. Participants in the Summit were engaged, energized, and excited to advocate for an AIDS Free generation,” said Jennifer Delaney, Executive Director of the Global Action for Children. “This was the first step in engaging advocates, governments, the public sector and civil society in realizing this critical goal.” The advocacy group is now developing a cohesive strategy on the five main action areas, which forms the basis for a social movement to better support children affected by HIV. The strategy will include political actions which can be implemented at the national, regional and international levels. Material and Methods The materials of the present study are the children (sample 30), who have been associated with AIDS. The samples are found to be from different societies / populations, hence the title of the topic is put as “Cross cultural population” The subjects are randomly chosen, from respective houses, orphaned NGO homes, railway stations, bus station abandoned. There www.ijmer.in
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could be many cases all round Tirupati un noticed, and the prevalence of the disease appears to be alarming. Most of the subjects who are included in the present study are from backward castes and also Scheduled Casts besides subjects from other religions such has Muslims (3 in number). The backward casts are, Madiga, Mala, Vadde, Achari, yadava, Balija and yerukula). Most of the above castes including Muslims are found to be socio-economicaly backward and they ekeout their lives through labour works and other low paid salary categories. They live in unhygienic environments / slum areas and are ignorant about health and disease. Hence, the disease prevalence more among these populations. Locale : Tirupati is a piligrim as well commercial centre of Chittoor District and as such people from different and distant areas are visiting this temple city every day and the heavy influx of other populations itself is a sign for all infections and communicable diseases. However, the city accommodates all types of people and is a shelter for all abandoned and orphaned children. The T.T.D. maintains its own orphanage centers besides many NGOs (RASS, PASS, WINS). For the purpose of the present study many samples and drawn from these organizations. The method used for the present study is purposive as samples are restricted to only AIDS. Appropriate statistical methods such as frequencies, percentages, and means are used for the interpretation of the data. A standard questionnaire is circulated among the AIDS patients and taken information of all kinds like society economic conditions, food nutrition and other life matters.
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When to declare HIV positive? In voluntary counseling and testing centers the following procedures should be practiced. The serum sample is first tested with one ELISA or Simple/Rapid assay any reactive sample is retested using a different assay serum found reactive on the second assay is repeated for the third test. Serum found reactive on all he three tests is considered HIV antibody positive. Indeterminant result-serum that remains discordant in the second assay or reactive on the first and second test but nonreactive on the third test is considered to be indeterminate. In such cases, the person must be asked to report for a re-test after a minimum period of two weeks and if still indeterminate may be subjected to a confirmatory assay like Western Blot or Line immunoassay. In some cases the person may be followed up for 3,6 or 9 months. Counseling Process The VCCTC process consists of the following:
Pre test Counseling
Post test Counseling
Follow-up Counseling
Results & Discussion The results of the present study are presented in 10 tables, categorizing the sample according to their local occupation, extended retaliation centers (Govt, NGO etc), drug / medicine and food in take of the patients, and their playful activities in the day AIDS abundant orphaned children, caste affiliations, occupation of parents of the officiated and person frequencies of the sample. The tables are arranged from 1-10.
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A survey of all the tables from 1-9 brings out the following results, and appropriate discussion is made over these observation 9 tables. 1.
Out of 30 samples, the distribution of suffers is equal in terms of genders (50% males and 50% females). These samples are belonging to the caste groups of SCs and STs and BCs. It is found that 43% of the affected are in SC, 34% from BC, 10% from ST, and other’s include 13%.
2.
The study shows that the infected children are less in number (15%) than the affected (85%) it means that the affected children are belonging to the HIV+ parents, while the infected children are thrown to streets or taken care by the NGO’s and Govt. agencies.
3.
Through the above information confirms that the prevalence of AIDS is more among background communities., who are socioeconomically background communities about the actiology of the disease by the educators, voluntary and Government agencies.
4.
The photographs of the infected children are shown separately.
5.
The infected children are getting proper treatment at the NGO (or) Government agencies. But children who are treated at homes are not regularly using the medicines.
6.
The affected children who are born to HIV positives are thrown to dust because either of the infected parents died or run away from the houses, hence the affected children are taken to streets. Thus this is big problem that the society facing today.
7.
The children are more affected to AIDS of the elder’s. The elders when tested positive are becoming burden not only for the family bat for the society. The elder’s are elusive of the disease and are realizing only when they are proved positive. This leads abandoning the family by way of shedding the responsibility out of fear.
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S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Area Name Malla Palli Perumal Palli Gandhi Road Driver Colony Magiga Colony Jeeva kona Jeeva kona VenuGopal Puram indira Nagar STV Nagar Balaji Colony Bairagipatteda indira Nagar Jeeva kona Madiga kalava Jeeva kona indira Nagar Bairagipatteda Jeeva kona Muthyalamma Gudi Veedi Jeeva kona Bairagipatteda Jeeva kona Ambedkar Colony Bairagipatteda S.T.V. Nagar, Tirupathi Rly Station,Tirupathi Rly Station,Tirupathi Rly Station,Tirupathi Bus Station,Tirupathi
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Age 6 14 10 14 10 7 6 7 13 14 12 10 13 8 7 6 14 8 10 12 14 7 10 6 4 12 14 10 13 14
Table No. 1 Details sex caste M SC F BC M Muslim F SC M SC F BC F SC F SC F Bc F SC M Bc M SC M ST F Sc M Sc M Bc M ST F Sc M Bc M OC F BC F SC F ST M Sc F BC M Minaruty M BC M Oc M SC F BC
of Subjects Sub-caste Care extended by Madiga Mother Vadda Guardian Minority Mother Madiga Guardian Mala NGO Vadda NGO Madiga Ngo Madiga NGo Achari Mother Madiga Mother Achari NGO Madia Ngo Errikula NGO Malla Ngo Madiga Ngo Vaddi NGo Errikula Mother Madiga Mother Achari Ngo Reddy Mother Achari NGO Madiga NGO Errikula NGO Mala NGO Balija Mother Muslim Mother Balliga Street Base Street Base Mala Street Base Street Base
AIDS Status Positive Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Positive Negarive Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Positive Negative Negative Negative Negative Positive Positive Negative Negative Negative Negative
Sample Status Household Household Household Household Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Household Household Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Household Household Abandoned Household Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Household Auto Driver Orphaned Orphaned Orphaned Orphaned
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Table 2 Details of Occupation and food Patterns S.No
Occupation of Parent
Income
Breakfast Quality
Qnty.
Lunch
Dinner
Tea & Snaks
1 Saree Business
2,000.00
A
5
A
Dinner
No
2 Stone Smith
5,000.00
A
6
A,C
B
No
3 Auto Driver
5,000.00
A
3
E
B,C
No
4 Auto Driver
7,000.00
A,F
4
A,B,C
B,C,E
No
5 Mestri
5,000.00
A
5
A,B,C
B,E
No
6 Brick Worker
2,000.00
A
5
A,B,C,E
B,C
No
7 Driver
3,000.00
A
5
A,B,C
B,C
Yes
8 Auto Driver
5,000.00
A,B,C
7
A,B,E
B,E
Yes
9 Labour
1,500.00
B,E
3
B,E
B,C
No
10 Fruit Business
3,000.00
B,E
3
A,B,C
B,E
No
11 Construction Labour
2,000.00 A,C,D,F
4
A,B,C
E
No
12 Auto Driver
3,000.00
5
A,,B,C
E
No
13 Auto Driver
2,000.00 A,B,D,F
3
A,B,C
B,E
Yes
14 Mestri
2,000.00
A
5
A,B,C
B,C
Yes
15 Labour Contractor
3,000.00
A
4
A,B,E
B
Yes
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A,B,F
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16 Idli Shop
1,500.00
A
4
B,C,E
A,B,C
Yes
17 Auto Driver
1,500.00
A
5
A,B
B,C,E
Yes
18 Fruit Business
2,000.00
A
3
B,C,E
B,E
Yes
19 Wood Worker
3,000.00
A,B,D
4
B,C
B
No
20 Bakschar
5,000.00
A,B,D
4
A,B,C
B,C,E
Yes
21 Wood Worker
2,500.00
A
3
E
E
Yes
22 Shoe Maker
3,000.00
D
4
A,C
D,C,E
No
23 Basket Maker
2,000.00
B
4
A,C
D,C,E
Yes
24 Auto Driver
1,500.00
A,F
5
A,B,C
B,C
Yes
25 Labour Contractor
5,000.00
A,F
4
E,F
E
Yes
26 Street Base
-
A
4
B
B,C
Yes
27 Street Base
-
B
2
A
C
Yes
28 Street Base
-
B
2
A
B
No
29 Street Base
-
D
1
A
A
Yes
30 Street Base
-
A
5
B
B,C
Yes
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Table 3 Details of Treatment taken by AIDS Patient S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Suffering Cough, Decently, Fever Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Cough, Decently, Fever Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy Healthy
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Dress School Runnin Treatment Victam of Treatment wearing Bed Time going g Taken/Not Parent Taken place Days Children Status Yes No No No No
NGO -
2 3 1 1 2
7:00 PM 8.30 PM 9:00 PM 6.30 PM 9:00 PM
No Yes Yes Yes Yes
No Yes Yes No Yes
No No No No No No
Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother Father, Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother
-
1 1 2 1 1 1
6:00 PM 7:00 PM 8:00 PM 7:00 PM 8:00 PM 6.30 PM
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes No No No No No No
Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother
SVRR -
1 2 1 1 2 1 1
6:00 PM 8:00 PM 8:00 PM 7:00 PM 10:00 PM 9:00 PM 9:00 PM
No No No No No No No
No No No No No No No
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19 Healthy Cough, Jondies, 20 Fever 21 Healthy
No
22 Healthy 23 Healthy 24 Healthy Cough, Fever, 25 Decently Cough, Fever, 26 Decently 27 Healthy 28 Healthy 29 Healthy 30 Healthy
No No No
Mother Father, Mother Mother Father, Mother Mother Mother
Yes Yes No No No No
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Yes No
-
1
9:00 PM
No
No
NGO -
2 1
9:00 PM 9.30 PM
No Yes
No Yes
-
1 1 1
6.30 PM 8.30 PM 9.30 PM
Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes
Mother
NGO
1
6.30 PM
Yes
No
Mother -
SVRR -
2 3 2 3 2
6.30 PM 7.30 PM 9:00 PM 10:00 PM 9.30 PM
Yes No No No No
No Yes Yes Yes Yes
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Table 4 Details Infected Cases INFECTED CHILDREN S.No Sex Cast Age Treatment Taken Victum of Parent 1 Male SC 6 Yes Mother 12 Female SC 10 Yes Mother 20 Male OC 4 Yes Mother 25 Male BC 4 Yes Father 26 Male Muslim 3 Yes Mother Table 5 AIDS PATIENTS ARE THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH PARENTS
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S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Parent Mother Mother Father Other Father Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother Mother
13
Mother
14
Mother
15
Mother
16
Mother
17
Mother
18
Mother
19
Mother
20
Father
21
Mother
22
Other
23
Mother
24
Mother
25
Mother
26
Mother
27
Mother
28
Don’t Know
29
Don’t Know
30
Mother
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Table no. 6 Details of Age and Community of AIDS Patient Age group Oc Bc Sc St Minority S.No 1 1-4 1 2 5-8 2 8 3 9-12 1 3 2 1 2 4 13-14 5 3 2 Total 30 1 10 13 3 3 Table no. 7 Details of AIDS Patients and their abounded Status S.No Resting Place 5-8 NGO(SSS) 11 NGO (SSS) 12-16 NGO (SSS) 21-24 NGO (SSS) 27-30 Orphan House (PASS) Table no. 8 Percentage Distribution of Age Patients Affected and Infected Sample Studied = 30 Infected =05 Effected S.No 1 2 3 4 5
= 25
Cast No. Of Subjects Oc Bc 10 Sc 13 St 3 Others 3
S.No 1 2 3 4 5 Total
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Percentage 3% 34% 43% 10% 10%
Infecting 1 3 2 1
Effected 7 11 3 2
Table No. 9, Details Caste wise Distribution Caste Male Female OC 1 BC 4 6 SC 6 7 ST 2 1 Other 3 5 16 14
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SUMMARY A Survey on “Bio-Cultural dimensions of AIDS” is studied among cross-cultural societies children of Tirupati through an anthropological approach. The study covers a sample of 30 subjects in which 5 are infected and the rest 25 are affected. The biological components of the disease is studied and its cultural response is documented. The sample is purposive as subjects suffering from AID are taken and the others whose either of parents were positive for HIV. The study covers cross-cultural populations as it includes all backward caste populations and SC & ST populations. One the subjects belongs to Muslims, a minority religions community. The subjects are categorized according to caste, age, nature of their community and their care takers. The major results of the study are as follows: 1. The infected cases, 5 in number, and the affected cases of 25 in number, belong to backward communities. All the cases are in the age group of 5 – 15 years of age. The AIDS problem in particular is seen among only backward communities of Tirupati populations. It is estimated that in total there are 300 cases of AIDS in Tirupati Town. This corroborates with other studies as the disease is prevalent in underdeveloped countries, especially African. 2. The biology of AIDS is as evident of the name itself that victim affected with it have reduced immunities and they develop all sorts of viral and other bacterial infections and make them weak. As these patients are mostly not cared, quite often abandoned, the patients quickly do as they are often abandoned by parents as well community. They are either adopted by voluntary agencies such as WINS, PASS or other Government sponsored bodies.
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3. The AIDS patients have the problem of society, the cultural stress, as they are often treated at par with leprosy patients, they are quite often abandoned. At the same time the society has what is called, “Cultural Ignorance” of the actiology of the disease itself. Now the common knowledge of AIDS among the general public is that it is some what contagions transmitted through sex, syringes and blood transfusions. Through their knowledge is somewhat nearer to scientific truth, yet, the society itself has no norm of controlling it excepting maintaining distance with infected and affected with a fear that they too get it, if they are associated with them. 4. The social conditions of the infected or affected are poor as they have no education and many are illiterates. They depend on mostly “Social exchange of talks” and are poor in understanding the scientific analysis of the disease as such. The economic conditions of them is also in a poor state as such they are driven to unhealthy and unhygienic activities, there-by invite all problems of health. 5. The study finds not only the ways of getting the disease but finds ways to mitigate the spread of the disease. It envisages a closer contact with the community as that of ‘participant – observation’ the main anthropological approach in tracking down the disease spread in the community and assuring people about the way the disease has to be tackled. Only when such confidence is filled in the community and its members then the people participate in the programme openly and extend cooperation. Otherwise, it is difficult for the Government agencies or private NGOS to tackle the disease at the gross root level.
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6. The study observes that females are to be more educated about the disease so that they strictly keep watch on men who are the real carries of the virus. The study finds that women are also more responsible than their center parts, males, and they extend their sincere co-operation. The males on the contrary are not dependant and responsible as they feel basic ‘made arrogance”. Hence there is greater need to educate females more in tackling the epidemic AIDS. Solutions to the AIDS eradication in Tirupati In Tirupati peoples are living areas mainly slum, modrate official areas. The density of population of living in slum areas only. Then they are with less fecility and low literacy lives poor knowledge, in these people. So the people of the slum area wants to develop their literacy as specially females. Because ladies are community gatherers for the shake of to drawing drinking water in municipal taps meanwhile they are getting quarrels each other. In these session they are advising each others in the name of disease. Then there also gathering in the SHG to their area in this place blaming each other by these disease. So the female awareness literacy are necessary in Tirupati slum areas. Then males are working group labours mean while in working tie illegal contracts are occurred between opposite sexes, so labour awareness in work spouse was also emenged to prevent AIDS males. Then high percent of males of males are drinkers hear mean while in sedation they went to participate in sex with kee population (K.P) because his wife contacts are restricted, by the family size was big and house was small so no chance to participate sex with his wife. So family producers are wants to continue. Then the less economic problem leads the STD patients from Government hospitals their low qualitative medicines was to prolong www.ijmer.in
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the disease until civiler. Same way hospitals are wants to use disposable injection set. Then the moderate people are mostly low graded employees and labors. But they have little knowledge even though they are obtaining AIDS, because their job based migrates. So some are came singly out of couples. So he wants to fulfill his sexual desire through broker houses or hot spots. So that the government and take action on broker housed and hot spots as well as minimum salary of private employees to leave their couple life in town expenses. Then women illness leads to middles into the males to hot spots. In official people that the couples are devided by their employmentry in distant places. So males are approaching unsafe sex to other women’s. so that the couples employmetry wants to modified in one place. Conclusions 1. The samples of the present study are found to belong to backward populations such as BCs, SCs and the notion that AIDS disease is wide prevalent among backward population is found to be correct. 2. The socially economically backward populations, are also part of wider society and as such these backward populations are ignorant of the biological nature of the disease. These populations are found to be in an uneasy situation by not only sharing about their suffering with disease. Hence more interaction is required from the health agencies. 3. The females are the worst sufferers to the disease and they are the silent carriers of the disease, and more so many of the females are illiterates and do not want to the admit that they are the AIDS sufferers even at the cost of the death.
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4. The study concludes that the males who mainly propagate the disease are not taking proper responsibility. Hence they need more attention and education than females. 5. The affected are more in number than the infected and thus a big social problem for not understanding the nature of the disease properly. References 1. Ainsworth, M and D Filmer. 2002. “Poverty, AIDS AND Children’s Schooling : A Targeting Dilemama.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2885. 2. Ainsworth, Martha and Innocent Semali. 1998. “The Impact of Adult Deaths on the Nutritional Status of Children.” In Workship on the Consequences of Maternal Morbidity and Mortality. Committee on Population, National Research Council. 3. Bledoe, Carolien and Anastasia Brandon. 1987. “Child Fostering and Child Mortality in sub-saharan Africa: Some Preliminary Questions and Answer.” Pp: 287-302 in Mortality and Society in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by E. van de Walle, G. Pison, and M. Sala-Diakanda. New York: Oxford Press. 4. Case, Anne, Cristina Paxson, and Joseph Albleidinger. 2002. “Orphans in Africa.” NBER Working Paper Series Working Paper 9213. 5. M.S. Esther Valentina , Ms. Kalamani “The service Available for PLWHAS in the district of Chittoor2007” 6. Filmer, Deon and Lantpritchett. 2001. “Estimating Wealth Effects without Expenditure data-or Tears: An Application to Educational Enrollments in States of India.” Demography 38:115-132. 7. Foster, G., R. Shakespere, F Chinemana, H. Jackson, S. Gregson, C Marange, and S. Mashumba. 1995. “Orphan Prevalence and Extended family Care in a Peri-Urban Community in Zimbabwe.” AIDS Care 7:3-17. 8. Gray, R. H., M. J. Wawer, d. Serrwadda, N. Sewankambo, C. Li, F. Wabwire-Mangen, L. Paxton, N. Kiwanuka, G. Kigozi, J. Konde-Lule, T.C. Quinn, C.A. Gaydos, and D. McNairn. 1998. “Population-based study of fertility in women with HIV-1 infection in Uganda.” Lancet 251:98-103. 9. Greene, William. 2000. Econometric Analysis. New York: MacMillan. 10. Hamilton, W.D. 1964. “The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II.” Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:17-52. 11. Isiugo-abanihe, uche. 1985. “Child fosterage in West Africa.” Population and development Review 11.
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12. JC. Jones, MARN, “The team at Healthline musings on Healthcare, Policy and Search 2007” 13. Kamali, A., J.a. Seeley, J.F. Nunn, A Kengeya-Kayondo, A. Ruberantwari, and D.W. Mulder. 1996. “The Orphan Problem: Experience of a subSaharan Africa rural population in the AIDS epidemic.” AIDS care 8:509515. 14. Mukiza-gapere, Jackson and James P.M. Ntozi. 1995. “Impact of AIDS on the Family and Mortality in Uganda. “Health Transition Review 5: 191200. 15. Nalugoda, Fred, Maria J. Wawer, Joseph K. Konde-Lula, Rekha Menon, Ronald H. Gray, david Serwadda, Nelson K. Sewankambo, and Chuanjuna Li. 1997. “HIV Infection in Rural Households, Raai District, uganda. “Health Transition Review 7:127-140. 16. Ntozi, James P.M. 1997. “Effects of AIDS or Children: The Problem of Orphans in Uganda. “Health Transition Review 7:23-40. 17. Over, Mead, Randall P. Ellis, Joyce H. huber, and Orville Solon. 1992. ‘The Consequences of Adult Ill Health.” pp: 161-199 in The Health of Adults in the Developign Worked, edited by R.G.A. Feachem, T. Kjellstrom, C.J.l. Murray, M. over, and M. Phillips. Washington, DC: World Bank. 18. Sear, R., F. Steele, I.A. McGregor, and R. Mace. 2002. “The effects of kin on child mortality in rural Gambia. “Demography 39:43-63. 19. Shea, John. 1996. “Instrument Relevance in Multivariate Linear Models: A Simple Measure.” National Bureau of Economic Research, New York. 20. UNAIDS. 2002. AIDS Epidemic update: Decmber 2002. Geneva: UNAIDS. 21. Urassa, Mark, J.Ties Boerma, Japheth Z.L. Ng’ weshemi, Raphael Isingo, Dick Schapink, and Yusufu Kumogola. 1997. “Orphanhood, Child Fostering and the AIDS Epidemic in Rural Tanzania.” Health transition Review 7:141-153. 22. Wawer, M.J., D. Serwadda, S.D. Musgrave, J.K. Konde-Lule, M. Musagara, and N. K. Sewankambo. 1991. “dynamics of spread of HIV-I infection in a rural district of Uganda.” BMJ 303:1303-6. 23. WHO. 1993. “Use of a simple anthropometric measurement to predict birth weight. WHO Collaborative Study of Birth Weight Surrogates.” Bull World Health Organ 71:157-63.
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THE IMPACT 0F HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION ON ECONOMIC GROWTH IN ETHIOPIA
Prof.Neduri Suryanarayana Professor Dept of Agriculture Economics Dilla University Ethiopia
Gemedo Berisa Project coordinator USAID Grant project in Bale Pastoral Areas Ethiopia
Abstract The study has investigated the role of human capital on economic growth in Ethiopia over the sample period of 1973 to 2014 using ARDL to Co-integration Error Correction Model from macroeconomic evidences. It showed that human capital variable in the form of investment on education and health plays significant role on the level of output through various analyses with respect to educational attainment and community health investment in Ethiopia. To achieve the objective, the study used the long run and short run role of human capital on economic growth using real GDP per capita, as a proxy for economic growth; and human capital indicators education and health variables. The results of Bounds test showed that there is a stable long run relationship between real GDP per capita, net enrollment rate of primary, secondary, and tertiary education; and percentage share real GDP spend on health, labor force, gross physical capital formation and life expectancy rate. The estimated long run model reveals that human capital in the form of health expenditure is the main contributor to real GDP per capita rise followed by education human capital. The findings are also consistent with the endogenous growth theories which argue that an improvement in human capital improves productivity. In the short run, the coefficient of error correction term is found to be -0.84 suggesting about 84% annual adjustment towards long run equilibrium. This is another proof for the existence of a stable long run relationship www.ijmer.in
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among the variables. The estimated coefficients of the short-run model indicate that education is the main contributor to real GDP per capita change followed by gross capital formation and government expenditure. On the other hand, unlike its long run impact, health variables have insignificant short run effect on the economy due to the elasticity close to zero. Keywords: Human Capital, Economic Growth, Education, Health, ARDL, Eviews, Microfit, ECM INTRODUCTION Background of the study By African standards, Ethiopia is a potentially wealthy country, with fertile soil and relatively good rainfall over large regions. The main stay of the economy is still agriculture with rapidly growing human capital. Unlike most sub-Saharan African countries, Ethiopia’s human resources have enabled the country to maintain contacts with the outside world for centuries. Despite warm greetings and many riches, Ethiopia had never become good trading nation and Greece, Armenian, and Arab traders became the economic intermediaries between Ethiopia and the outside world partly because of underdevelopment of human capital. Between 1960 and 1970, the country enjoyed an annual average growth rate in per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of 4.4%. The l974 revolution that resulted in the nationalization and restructuring of the economy was marked by internal political upheaval, armed conflict, and radical institutional reform. Government’s nationalization measures and the highly unstable political climate caused economic dislocation and the military budget consumed a substantial portion of the nation's resources. As a result of these problems, GDP increased at an average annual rate of only 0.4%. In the second phase (1978-80), the economy began to recover as the government consolidated power and www.ijmer.in
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implemented institutional reforms and development through Cooperation Campaign, GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.7% once again. Then it experienced a setback and GDP declined, (World Bank, 2013). In the process of economic growth, physical capital alone cannot fully explain economic relationship and this insufficiency of the physical capital has led to new pursuits recently; and the human capital, which has left at the background for various reasons, is in a position to take its well-deserved place. The most effective instrumental variables for the human capital are the ones meant to increase the life standards of the citizens (the investments made in humans), and therefore, generally related to education and health in endogenous growth theory. Educational expenses, rate of literacy, can represent the instrumental variables related to education whereas health costs (public and private), life expectancy rate, and the number of doctors are among the instrumental variable related to health, (Jhingan, 2005). In modern theory of economic growth, human capital indicators, especially education and health have significant role on achieving economic growth, (Gyimah-Brempong and Wilson 2005). It is difficult to separate education and health taking one as more important than the other as a more educated individual, who is ill, is as inefficient as an illiterate person. Human capital is therefore, a broad concept which is identified as characters that can be acquired and used in increasing income. So, health and education are described as components of human capital that are augmenting one another in the contribution to economic growth and welfare. Development which is the next step to growth refers to the capacity of a nation to generate and sustain an annual increase in its GNP of 5% or more(1950’s) and or is the reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within the context of a growing economy(1970’s), or it is all about improving the quality of life www.ijmer.in
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involving among the many higher incomes, better education, higher standards of health and nutrition, a cleaner environment, more equality of opportunities, greater individual freedom, and a richer cultural life (1990’s). But hand capped by scarcity- unbalance between capacity of the economy and unlimited wants of the society, and efficiency -getting the most from the scarce resources, so that society cannot produce all the goods and services people wish to have. Endogenous growth theories emphasized that in the process of economic growth, health care and education expenditures play an important role in the formation of human capital with significant contribution to sustainable economic growth in the long- run. The indicators of human capital are taken as public expenditures on education and health which are much broader than conventional literacy rate, average number of schooling and health facilities. Better education, particularly higher education may create greater tax revenue, boost savings and investment, and lead to a more entrepreneurial civic society. It can also improve nation’s health, contributing to reduced population growth, improved technology, and strengthen governance (Ferid and Zefer, 2013) in (Tewodros, 2014). Statement of the problem Arguments like whether human resource growth generates positive influences on economic growth have important theoretical and policy implications for the modern-day economies, especially for developing countries like Ethiopia. Human capital generation is one of the necessary conditions for all kinds of growths, (De Pleijt, A.M2011). It is obvious for many of us to imagine that changes in the resources devoted to human capital accumulation may lead to large changes in output per worker (Productivity. For that matter serious investigation of the impact of human capital on economic growth needs explicit empirical evidence based on the theory growth. As parts of these
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efforts, there was a conference on "human capital formation” jointly organized by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) and the Kiel Institute of World Economics (KIWE) in Singapore considering it as an engine of growth to justify the EastAsian experience for empirical research on the determinants of economic growth using long lists of explanatory variables, (Levine and Zervos, 1993). This paper, the author intended to include primary, secondary and tertiary school enrollment rates( grosses and nets) ,percentage of certified primary and secondary school teachers, pupil-teacher and section ratios, and three types of expenditures on education- % share of GDP , share of total government expenditure (capital and recurrent) on education as a proxy for education- HC ; and the share of GDP spend on health and nutrition and percentage of health service coverage as a proxy for health -HC using ARDL to Co integration approach and Error Correction Method (ECM) to provide valid empirical macroeconomic evidence on the impact of HC on EG ; and moreover, expansion of HC stock has not been matched by a proportionate rise in physical capital and as a result there has been low growth of incomes and low returns to the educational investment in Ethiopia (Kidanemariam 2013). Empirical evidence is necessary to support the belief in the central role of human capital formation in economic growth without compromising the underlying realities since statistical correlations alone will not always suffice to establish a convincing result as very often correlations between measures of HC and economic growth turn out to be statistically insignificant. This paper therefore, provided an overview of Ethiopian achievement in the formation of HC al, and its impact on economic growth. Actually, to internalize and establish the concept that healthy human capital is important in explaining EG, using actual data analysis on the long list of variables in the economy. Although there are many variables that can represent human capital and health conditions of the people, to www.ijmer.in
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keep the analysis simple and capture the basic broad trust of the two indicators of HC, adult literacy rate, human development indices and, life expectancy at birth are included in the sample. Objectives of the study The main objective of the study is to explore the impact of HC on EG in Ethiopia, The specific objectives are; 1. To empirically test the causal and co-integration relationships between HC and EG 2. To examine the short run and long run impacts HC on EG Methodology Endogenous growth theories lay foundation for human capital formation and consider it as a factor which explains differences in growth performance of the economy both in the under developed and developed nations (Rebelo, 1991). The impact of alternative measures of human capital can be seen in the long run growth models over the period of a given time for a nation with required data on growth, school attainment, and achievement. The first column relates growth to initial levels of GDP and to HC as measured by school attainment. This basic model shows a significant relationship between school attainment and growth and explains onequarter of the national variation in growth rates. The second column substitutes the direct measure of skills derived from national mathematics and science tests scores for school attainment (Hanushek and Wosmann, 2012a). Though their conclusions are controversial, different scholars have also tried to analyze the relationship between HC and EG using crosscountry regression analysis, and have shown that HC difference is one www.ijmer.in
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of the reasons for income variation across countries. That means they found a positive and significant correlation between HC and per capita GDP growth (Mankiw, Romer and Weil, 1992). Economic growth is the increase in the total output of the economy measured by GDP per capita. One of the driving forces of economic growth is human capital growth leading to change in GDP per capita which in turn determines social welfare (Appleton and Teal, 1998). Figure 1 represents conceptual framework between HC, PC and EG.
Human Capital as a stock variable is a multifaceted and includes a complex set of human attributes; the stock of human capital held by individuals is hard to measure with precision in a quantitative form (Barro and Lee, 2000). In order to capture the relationship between human capital and economic outcome variables, there have been a number of attempts. The early contributions to the literature specified the stock of human capital in the labor force by proxies such as adult www.ijmer.in
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literacy rates and school enrollment ratios (GER, NER, AIR, and NIR). These were not suitable for the theoretical concept at hand, and empirical analysis usually miss out most of the investments made in human capital and only reflect the very small parts of these investments. Any educational investment e.g., the acquisition of numeracy, logical and analytical reasoning, and scientific and technical knowledge are obviously neglected in this measurement. School enrollment ratios are also poor proxy for the measure of the stock of human capital for various reasons. For one thing, they are flow variables, and the children currently enrolled in schools are by definition not yet a part of the labor force, so that the education they are currently acquiring cannot yet be used in production. It seems reasonable to use the accumulated educational investment embodied in the existing labor force. One can also recognize Effect of Schooling on National Income in a Mixed Economy like that of Ethiopia using the following diagram.
Figure 2 represents the direct and indirect effects of schooling investment on national out put i.e increase GDP directly and enhances HC formation that affect output . www.ijmer.in
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Source and type of data The data used in this study can be obtained from many sources; mainly National Bank of Ethiopia(NBE), World Bank(WB), United nation Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD) Ministry of education (MoE), Ministry of Health(MoH), Ministry of Finance and Economic Development(MoFED), and Central Statistical Authority(CSA) of Ethiopia . Description of the data is based on the definition given by WB. The growth accounting procedure starts with a basic Cobb- Douglas production function such that; GDP at constant prices: (Yt) = (Kt)α(Ht)β (A L)t 1-α-β -----------------------------------------------------(1) Where Y is real output (or Gross Domestic Product at constant prices), A is total factor productivity (TFP), K is physical capital, L is labour. α, β and are elasticities of output with respect to physical capital, labor, and human capital respectively. It is assumed that the sum of input elasticity (i.e. α+β) equals one, so that total the production function exhibits constant returns to scale. Equation (3.8) needs to be transformed into an output growth equation by taking natural logarithms of variables in both sides and differentiating them with respect to time (t) to get the following expressions: Where gY is the output growth rate, gA is the total factor productivity growth rate, gK is the physical capital growth rate, and gL is the labor growth rate, and gHis the human capital growth. In order to capture the measure of total factor productivity and the long run growth implications of the Solow exogenous growth model, and analyzed as follows;
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Where, A0 is the initial “stock” of knowledge and technology. At is assumed to grow at a rate λt per period. Let’s assume Sk and Sh share of output devoted to physical capital and human capital respectively. The investment in physical capital and human capital given by; Ikt = SkYt and Iht = ShYt k = K/AL (PC Stock per effective labour), h =H/AL (HC. Stock per effective labour), and y = Y/AL (output per effective labour). It is also associated with n, λ, and growth rate of labour, technical progress and depreciation respectively. For this study the focus is on human capital and therefore visualized as follows for comparison with physical capital. ∂k/∂t = SkYt – (n + λ +) Kt ------------------------------------------------------(2) ∂h/∂t = ShYt-(n + λ +Kt ---------------------------------------------------------(3) Assuming α +β<1(decreasing returns to scale, it is used to obtain steady state values of k and h which are given by; k* = (Sk1-βShβ)/ n +λ +1/1-α-β ---------------------------------------------(4) The long run growth implications of the model can be derived from the above and reformulating the production function in Equation (3.8) by assuming that the stock of knowledge grows at constant rate of λt per period. Therefore, Yt = A0eλtKtα Htβ Lt (1-α-β ) ---------------------------------------------------- (5) According to Lau and Park (2003), two important assumptions holds about technological change in equations (3.8) and (3.12) and it deserves further explanation. These are nothing but Hicks- neutrality and exogeneity. Hicks-neutral technological change has the effect of increasing the efficiency of all other factors so that production becomes more efficient in such a way that the capital labor ratios remain constant. Technological change is exogenous when its occurrence isThe www.ijmer.in
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long run growth implications of the model can be derived from the above and reformulating the production function in Equation (3.8) by assuming that the stock of knowledge grows at constant rate of λt per period. Therefore, Yt = A0eλtKtα Htβ Lt (1-α-β ) -----------------------------------------------------(6) According to Lau and Park (2003), two important assumptions holds about technological change in equations (3.8) and (3.12) and it deserves further explanation. These are nothing but Hicks- neutrality and exogeneity. Hicks-neutral technological change has the effect of increasing the efficiency of all other factors so that production becomes more efficient in such a way that the capital labor ratios remain constant. Technological change is exogenous when its occurrence isindependent of the variables in the growth model and time remains the only variant factor. With assumption, equations (3.9) and (3.10) can then be adjusted as follows: lnYt = lnA0 + λt + αlnKt +βlnHt + (1-α-β) lnLt ----------------------------(7) gy = a + λt + α gK + β gH +(1-α-β)gL-------------------------------------------(8) Model Specification Based on framework of theoretical relationship between the study variables, it is necessary to ensure that some tests are carried out to make adequate allowance for the dynamic relationship, nonstationarity and avoid spurious regression problems (a situation in which there appears to be a statistically significant relationship between variables when they are unrelated). Long -run model: lnrgdppct=β0 +β1lnrgdppct-i +β2lngerpt-i +……+β21t+β22Pt+β23Dt+Ut ------------ (9)
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Short-run model: It is to estimate the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) that indicates the short run dynamic parameters (adjustment parameters that measure the speed of correction to long-run equilibrium after a short-run disturbance). The standard ECM is estimated as follows; lnrgdppct = λ0 + λ1lnrgdppct-i + λ2lngerpt-i +…….+ECTt1+Ut -----------(10) Econometric Analysis It is advisable; to plot the data under study prior to pursuing formal tests for stationarity for it gives the likely nature of the time series data and use natural logarithms while plotting regression variables (Gujarati 2003, p.807). Test for Co integration The decision of the tests is based on critical values and lag length determined by Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) while testing the stationarity of all the variables (MacKinnon 1996). The ***, ** and * marks indicate the rejection of the null hypothesis of non-stationarity at 1%, 5% and 10% significant level respectively. The test results identify that, with intercept and trend, some of the variables could be of I (0) and others still I (1). Such results of mixed stationarity would not allow the application of Johansen’s approach of co-integration and it is in this kind of series the application of ARDL (bounds test approach of co integration) is called for (Pesaran, Shin, and Smith 2001). If a group of time series variables are individually integrated of the same order and at least one linear combination of these variables is stationary, then the variables are said to be co-integrated This means there could be a long-run equilibrium relationship between these variables(Harris, 1999) and (Enders, 2004). Testing for co integration implies testing for the existence of such a long-run relationship between economic www.ijmer.in
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variables. This test could be done through the Engle-Granger procedure, the Johansen’s procedure, and Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) methods of co integration. Engle-Granger Approach, although widely used tests of Co integration, it require the all variables to be integrated of same order. However, the variables of interest in this paper could have mixed stationarity and hence may render the use of this procedure inappropriate. Johansen maximum Likelihood co integration method is also one of the techniques that can solve the shortcomings of Engle-Granger procedure (Ibid, 1988). It may also fail when the underlying regressors have different order of integration, especially when some of the variables are I (0). That means the trace and maximum eigenvalue tests may lead to erroneous co-integrating relations with other variables in the model when they are present in the system and also require large data sample, (Harris 1999). So, use of this technique is not reliable when the variables have mixed type of integration and small sample size. Conclusion The study focused on empirical analysis of the impact of HC formation on EG in Ethiopia over the sample period of 1973 to 2014 using aggregate Cobb-Douglas production function. It is estimated in terms of intensive form with constant and time trend to capture the rate of technical progress within the context of co-integration framework. Two dummies are introduced to explain the impact of the presence or absence of appropriate policy environment and recurrent Constant returns to scale is imagined and production estimated using OLS after being subjected to various stationarity to avoid spurious results. Log linear forms of the
drought. function tests of variables
are used and hence the regression coefficients are elasticity of the dependent variable with respect to human capital proxies.
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Exponential growth rate of real GDP per capita, HC and log labor force participation rates are computed for the observation periods of 1973 to 1992 and moreover, in the presence of a stagnant demand for labor, a rise in the supply of educated labor could only lead to a decline in the returns to education and in this regard ,the study questioned the impacts of the economic policy directions and associated institutional settings, which could have been misrepresenting the contribution to EG that might have been obtained from expansion of investment in education . The key economic policy implication that emanates from this result is that the provision of educational services needs to be geared towards meeting broad socioeconomic objectives with emphasis on quality. In the absence of appropriate market, governmental institutions, and suitable policy environment in the labor market and other economic sectors, more schooling might not yield EG i.e. Schooling may not be sufficient engine of growth by itself. The estimated parameters and coefficients of technological advancement are used to explain the impact of HC development on EG for the two prominent sample periods in Ethiopia. Residual adjusted sources of growth also examined and showed that HC accumulated in the form of level of literacy rate, increased percentage of certified first and second cycle’s primary school teachers, reduced pupil-section ratios, and increased capital expenditure on education and health. The share of labor force and technological progress were 0.46% and 0.09% respectively. Specifically, when net enrolment rate of secondary school increased by one percent, real gross domestic product changed by 19.5% and a one percent increase in tertiary school gross enrolment is found to be less than secondary school gross enrolment and is only about 0.08%. The same percentage change in one period lagged value of enrolments has resulted in about 0.81% rise in real GDP per capita. The health component of human capital has long run significant impact, rather www.ijmer.in
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than short run impact on the economy. For instance its one period lag has showed a significant and positive impact on the economy. This could be attributed to the reason that health expenditure may have big impact on those people who have positive impact on the economy. The relationship between levels of literacy and real GDP per capita, during the sample period is also positive and significant with one percent increase in level of literacy has led to 8.17percent increase in real GDP per capita, though there are regional variations and this result is highly consistent with previous finding (Seid, 2000). A causality test result indicates that there is a uni-directional relationship from health human capital to real GDP per capita; and statistically insignificant. This reminds us that there is poor allocation and utilization of public spending on health; while a bi-directional relationship is observed between real GDP per capita and HC education. On the other hand, when the lag length of the variables increases to two, there is causality between real GDP per capita and HC proxies. Tertiary gross enrolment rate has highly significant and negative impact on the economy and this analysis revealed that a 1% increase in gross enrolment rate lead to 11.07% decline in per capita GDP with 0.005 p-value. The estimated lag Error Correction Term (ECT) is negative and significant pointing to the fact that error correction term exists in the model and the feedback coefficient is found to be -0.843 telling that on average 84.3 % of deviation from previous year is adjusted in the current period. In other words, it takes approximately 3 years for any deviation from long –run equilibrium between HC variables and per capita GDP after changes in investment on HC. Recommendation As the study focused on the impact HC on EG, in Ethiopia, its results have significant policy implications. The bounds testing analysis has www.ijmer.in
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indicated the existence of co-integration between variables of EG and HC indicators in ARDL and the long-run model estimation showed that the majority of HC indicators had positive impact on EG during the sample periods; however, their roles were largely statistically insignificant. Further evidences indicated that equilibrium is fully restored for distortions in the short-run. On the basis of these emanating findings, this study preferred the need for the of Ethiopian government to invest more in HC enhancement and endeavors prioritization for health and education sectors and pay greater attention to future endeavors of the issue of quality than mere participation. Specifically, there is an insignificant uni-directional causal relationship between percentage share of health expenditure and real per capita GDP at lag length one and none at lag length two and percentage share of investment on health causes per capita GDP and statistical insignificance reminds us that there is poor allocation and utilization of public spending on health and the result coincides with the finding that there is a bilateral causality and long-run relationship between EG and Public spending on health (Wubet 2006) and it reminds policy makers and planners, suspect the intervening dominance of the unproductive and inefficient spending and to bring about any value add to the economy, expenditures on HC need to be productive. In general, in this study the two components of HC (education and health) aspects are found to have significant impact on HC productivity which in turn leads to improved national output per capita. In order to promote economic growth, investment on HC generation needs to be more prioritized towards the basic HC indicators; education and health services. The study results showed that there is strong and positive relationship between capital expenditure on education and real GDP per capita and to make use of such significant relations, more resources should be devoted to capital expenditure. www.ijmer.in
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In other words, as more citizens become educated and healthy, there is no doubt that their productivity increases in the long run. In this paper, it is learned that one of the ways through which education and health affects economic wellbeing is their spillover effects that enhance productivity in the long run. Hence policy makers and / or the government need to work hard to build institutional capacity that enhances literacy level and quality of education at all levels, particularly primary school enrolment with quality and improving basic health service is crucial. That means, the policy makers and the government should center on securing more resources and supporting structures that are essential and appropriate for better school enrolment and improved basic health services provision. Such measures should also focus on strengthening and changing the existing institutional setups of the education and health sectors of Ethiopia to produce quality manpower. In addition, the government should also continue its leadership role in creating enabling environment that encourage better investment in education and health by the private sector. Because, healthier participation of the private sector in the education and health sectors can speed up the creation of HC. Last but not least, further research is quite important to fill some other issues that are not covered by this Paper. References 1. Appleton, S. and F. Teal (1998).Human Capital and Economic Development. A Background Paper Development Report.
Prepared for the African
2. Banerjee, A., Dolado, J., Galbraith, J., and D. Hendry (2003).Cointegration, Error Correction, and the Econometric Analysis of Non-stationary Data: Advanced Text in Econometrics. New York: Oxford university press.
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3. De Pleijt, A.M (2011). The Role of Human Capital in the Process of Economic Development: The Case of England. Center for Global Economic History Working Paper Series No 21: Center for Global Economic History. 4. Hanushek, E and L. Wobmann (2007).The Role of Education Quality in Economic Growth. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4122. 5. Kendrick, J.W (1976).The Formation and Stocks of Total Capital. National Bureau of Economic Research No 100. New York and London: NBER Inc. 6. Oumer, J. (2007). The Challenges of Free Primary Education in Ethiopia. International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), Paris, France. 7. Teshome, K. (2006). The impact of government spending on economic growth: the case of Ethiopia: unpublished thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 8. Umaru, A. (2011). Human Capital: Education and Health in Economic Growth and Development of the Nigerian. British Journal of Economics, Finance and Management Sciences, 2(1): 22-36.
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PRIMITIVE TRIBAL GROUPS IN ANDHRA PRADESH (A STUDY OF THEIR PROBLEMS IN WEST GODAVARI DISTRICT) Dr.G.Sunitha Assistant Professor Dept. of Physical Education Sri Vishnu Engineering College for Women Bhimavaram
The Scheduled Tribes also referred to as STs/Tribals who suffer as a group due to their social and economic backwardness and relative isolation. According to the 1991 Census they account for 67.76 million and represent 8.08 per cent of the country's total population. Of these, 1.32 million (1.95 per cent) belong to the Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) whose conditions are even worse than those of the rest of the tribal’s. As per the 2001 census the population of tribal’s in India is 835.80 lakhs, representing 8.10 per cent to total population in India. (Census of India, 2001) Scheduled Tribes are inhabited in all the states except Haryana, Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry. While the highest concentration of the ST population is found in the North Eastern states of Mizoram (94.5 per cent); Nagaland (88.9 per cent); Meghalaya (85.90 per cent); Arunachal Pradesh (64.2 per cent); and Dadra and Nagar Haveli (63.20 per cent). There are also high concentrations in the states of Madhya Pradesh (20.3 per cent); Orissa (22.1 per cent); Gujarat (14.8 per cent); Assam (12.4 per cent); Rajasthan (12.6 per cent); Maharashtra (8.9 per cent); and Andhra Pradesh (6.6 per cent) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (8.3 per cent). Constitutional Safeguards for the S.Ts : Recognising the special needs of STs, the Constitution of India made certain special safeguards to protect these communities from all the www.ijmer.in
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possible exploitation and thus, ensure social justice. While Article 14 confers equal rights and opportunities to all, Article 15 prohibits discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of sex, religion, race, caste etc; Article 15(4) enjoins upon the State to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes; Article 16(4) empowers the State to make provisions for reservation in appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens, which in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State; Article 46 enjoins upon the State to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, .. the STs and promises to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. Further, while Article 275(1) promises grant-in-aid for promoting the welfare of STs and for raising the level of administration of the Scheduled Areas, Articles 330, 332 and 335 stipulate reservation of seats for STs in the Lok Sabha and in the State Legislative Assemblies and in services. Further, the Constitution also empowers the State to appoint a Commission to investigate the conditions of the socially and educationally backward classes (Article 340) and to specify those Tribes or Tribal Communities deemed to be as STs(Article 342). Besides the Fifth Schedule to the Indian Constitution lays down certain prescriptions about the Scheduled Areas as well as the Scheduled Tribes in states other than Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram by ensuring submission of Annual Reports by the Governors to the President of India regarding the Administration of the Scheduled Areas and setting up of Tribal Advisory Councils to advise on matters pertaining to the welfare and advancement of the STs (Article 244(1)). Similarly, the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution also refers to the administration of Tribal Areas in the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram by designating certain tribal areas www.ijmer.in
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as Autonomous Regions and also by constituting District Council and Regional Councils (Article 244(2)). To ensure effective participation of the tribals in the process of planning and decision-making, the 73`d and 74th Amendments of the Constitution are being extended to the Scheduled Areas through the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996. Policies and Programmes of Tribal Development in India : A review Recognising the special needs and problems of tribals, a special niche was accorded to tribal development in the country's development agenda from the very beginning of the First Five year plan. Some important land marks in the Tribal development in India are as below:
(1951) Programmes were designed with a special focus on STs.
(1956) Adoption of `Panchsheel' — the five guiding principles of the process of Tribal development.
(1961) Opening of Multi-Purpose Tribal Development Blocks for intensified development of STs.
(1974) Introduction of special strategies of Tribal Sub Plan and Special Central Assistance to TSP to ensure flow of populationproportionate funds from other developmental sectors for tribals.
(1985) Poverty alleviation programmes for atleast 50 per cent of tribal families to cross poverty line and expansion of infrastructural facilites in tribal areas.
(1987) Setting up of special financial institutions viz. Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation and National Scheduled.
(1989) Castes and Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation.
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(1993) Ensure participatory development of STs at the grass root levels involving Panchayathi Raj Institutions and Gram Sabhas as per the 73rd and 74th Amendment of the Constitution.
(1996) The Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) PESA Act.
(1997) A major shift in the approach from 'W elfare' t o `Development' and to 'Empowerment of Tribals' setting up of an exclusive Ministry.
(1999) Tribal Affairs and instituting a separate National Scheduled.
(2001) Tribes Finance and Development Corporation.
Five year plans and development of S.Ts. The Constitutional commitments, referred to above, prompted the policy-makers and the planners to accord high priority to the welfare and development of STs right from the beginning of country's developmental planning, launched in 1951. Accordingly, the First Five year Plan (1951-56) clearly laid down the principle stating that the general development programmes should be so designed to cater adequately to the backward classes and special provisions should be used for securing additional and more intensified development for STs. Unfortunately, the same could not take place. The Second Plan (1956-61), which laid emphasis on economic development, gave a special focus on reducing economic inequalities in the society. Further, development programmes for STs have been planned for, based on respect and understanding of their culture and traditions and with an appreciation of their social, psychological and economic problems. In fact, the same was planned in tune with `Panchsheel'- the philosophy of tribal development as enunciated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of the country. www.ijmer.in
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An important landmark during the Second Five year plan was the second five year plan was the opening of 43 special multi purpose tribal blocks, later termed as tribal Development Blocks (TDBs). Each TDB was planned for about 25,000 people as against 65,000 in a normal Block. The Third Plan (1961-66) continued with the very same principle of advocating reduction in inequalities through various policies and programmes to provide equality of opportunity to STs. The Fourth Plan (1969-74) proclaimed that the 'basic goal was to realize a rapid increase in the standard of living of the people through measures which also promote equality and social justice'. An important step in this direction was setting up of six pilot projects in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa in 1971-72 with a separate Tribal Development Agency for each project. The Fifth Plan (1974-78) marked a shift in approach towards inter develop as reflected in the launching of the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) for the direct benefit of the development of tribals. The TSP stipulated that funds of centre and the states should be quantified on the population proportion basis with budgetary mechanisms to ensure accountability, non-divertability and utilization for the welfare and development of STs. The Sixth Plan (1980-85) sought to ensure a higher degree of devolution of funds so that at least 50 per cent of tribal families could be there was substantial increase in the flow of funds for the development of STs resulting in the expansion of infrastructural facilities and provided assistance to cross the poverty line. In the Seventh Plan (1985-90),enlargement of coverage. Emphasis was laid on the educational development of STs. For the economic development of STs., two national-level institutions were set up viz.(i) Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation (TRIFED) in 1987 as an apex body for State Tribal Development Cooperative www.ijmer.in
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Corporations, and (ii) National Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC) in 1989. The former was assigned to provide remunerative prices for the forest and agriculture produce of tribals, while the latter was intended to provide credit support for employment generation. In the Eighth Five year plan (1992-97), efforts were intensified to bridge the gap between the levels of development of STs and the other sections of the society. The Plan not only emphasized elimination of exploitation, but also paid attention to the special problems of suppression of rights, land alienation, non-payment of minimum wages and restrictions on the right to collect minor forest produce etc. However, attention on priority basis, was continued to be paid on the socio-economic upliftment of STs. The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) aimed to empower STs by creating an I- sibling environment conducive for them to exercise their rights freely, enjoy their privileges and lead a life of self-confidence and dignity, on par with the rest of society. This process essentially encompassed three vital components, viz. i) Social Empowerment; ii) Economic Empowerment; and iii) Social Justice. To this effect, while STrelated line Ministries/ Departments implement general development policies and programmes, the nodal Ministry of Tribal Affairs implements certain ST-specific innovative programmes. Education and Literacy: The special commitment of the National Policy on Education, 1986 (revised in 1992) to improve the educational status of STs continues to be the major
strength
in
launching
special
interventions
and
incentives to improve the accessibility for the tribals who live in the far-flung remote areas and remain isolated. Therefore,
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efforts for universalizing primary education continued, especially through the programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. One of the special features of this programme is the participation of ST parents/guardians in the activities of schools, which ensures ownership of the programme, even by the most disadvantaged. The National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education or the Mid-Day Meals acts as a support service to increase retention rates. In the field of higher and technical education, special provisions such as reservation of seats, relaxation in minimum qualifying cut-off percentages, remedial coaching and scholarships were being extended by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education. Similar concessions were also given to ST students for improving their skills in the up-coming/modern trades which have better employability. Health & Family Welfare: The National Health Policy, 1983 categorically emphasizes the urgent need for improving the tribal health especially through detection and treatment of endemic and other diseases specific to tribals. In pursuance of the policy commitments, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare continued to give focused attention to improve the health conditions of STs by implementing various health care programmes besides relaxing norms with a major objective to attend to the health needs of STs. A separate Tribal Development Planning Cell has been functioning under the Ministry since 1981 to co-ordinate the policy, planning, monitoring and evaluation of the health care schemes for the welfare and development of STs. Keeping in view that most of the tribal habitations are concentrated in far-flung areas, forest land, hills and remote villages, the population coverage norms have been relaxed as www.ijmer.in
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i)
For a Sub-Centre, the average norm for Hilly/Tribal areas has been fixed at 3,000 as against 5,000 for plains;
ii)
For Primary Health Centre (PHC) 20,000 coverage norms is fixed for Hill/Tribal areas as against 30,000 for plains; and
iii)
The norm of Community Health Centres (CHCs) is fixed at 80,000 for Hilly/Tribal areas as against 1,20,000 for plains. Similarly, Multipurpose Workers are appointed for 3,000
population in tribal areas as against the norm of 5,000 population for general. Under the Minimum Needs Programme, 20,769 Sub-Centres, 3,286 PHCs and 541 Community Health Centres (CHCs) had been set up by June 1999 in tribal areas. Also, the State Governments have been advised to introduce schemes for compulsory annual medical examination of ST population in rural areas. Under these schemes, Mobile health Checkup Teams are deputed to villages according to a schedule drawn up annually. In case of a need for further investigation or treatment, tribal patients are entitled to avail of free facilities in Government/ Referral hospitals. To reach the health-care services to STs especially those living in the most backward remote areas, 52 districts in 13 states (Andhra Pradesh-6, Bihar-6, Gujarat-3, Kerala-5, Madhya Pradesh-4, Maharashtra-6, Manipur-4, Orissa-8, Rajasthan-2, Tamil Nadu-2, Tripura-4, Uttar Pradesh-1 and West Bengal-1) were identified by the Central Planning Committee. The State Governments were also asked to take special steps to check deaths of children due to malnutrition, epidemics etc. in identified areas by the Central Planning Committee during summer/monsoon seasons by establishing adequate number of SubCentres, PHCs and CHCs as per the relaxed norms in tribal areas. Besides, a focused attention was also paid to the deployment of medical and paramedical personnel in line with the recommended staffing pattern ad regular field visits by them, stocking of essential medicines/drugs,
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provision of Mobile Health Units where feasible, spraying of DDT and chlorination of wells, etc. Along with the National Malaria Eradication Programme, the other programmes to control Filaria, Japanese Encephalitis and Kala-azar were also implemented by States/UTs with 50 per cent central assistance for spraying insecticides, supply of Anti-Malaria drugs etc. in tribal areas. The 100 hard-core identified tribal districts in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Rajasthan were also covered under the enhanced Malaria Control Project with World Bank support. In order to address the problem of high incidence of Leprosy amongst tribals, the National Leprosy Eradication programme was implemented with 100 per cent central assistance for detection and treatment of leprosy cases especially covering the entire tribal population. Similarly, the National Tuberculosis Control Programme was also implemented with 100 per cent central assistance for the supply of anti TB drugs, equipment etc. in tribal areas. Amongst the tribals, PTGs and the nomadic groups are passing through the most fragile health conditions, when compared to the others. Therefore, a new scheme called 'Medical care for Remote and Marginalised and Nomadic Communities' was launched during the Ninth Five year Plan with an approved outlay of Rs.5 crore. Under this Scheme, the following projects were taken up towards —i) Prevention and control of hepatitis '13' infection amongst the PTGs of Andaman & Nicobar Islands; ii) Intervention for hereditary common haemolytic disorders amongst tribals of Sundergarh district in Orissa; iii) Intervention programme for Cholera and Parasiptism, Vitamin 'A' deficiency
disorders
among
some
PTGs
of
Orissa;
and
iv)Intervention programme for Nutritional Anaemia a n d Haemoglobinopathies amongst primitive tribal population. The nodal Ministry of Tribal Affaris laid greater emphasis in the Ninth Plan www.ijmer.in
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on the educational and economic development of Scheduled Tribes. The scheme of `Post-Matric Scholarships' (PMS) continued to be an =portant centrally sponsored scheme to promote higher education among STs. Under this, scholarships are extended to all the eligible ST students who pursue post-matriculation courses in recognized institutions within the Country. The scheme was revised in 1997-98 for extending some additional benefits to persons with disabilities amongst STs and the ceiling of income limits of parents etc. The Ninth Plan saw an impressive increase in the allocation of funds for scholarships awarded to STs, when compared to the previous Plans. Under PMS, a total expenditure of Rs. 176.56 crore was incurred to benefit around 5.31 lakh ST students. The scheme of Book Banks facilitates easy access to the prescribed text-books to ST students who are pursuing professional/technical courses like medical, veterinary science, agriculture, polytechnic, engineering, biosciences, law, chartered accountancy, business administration etc. and cannot afford to purchase costly professional books. The scheme of 'Upgradation of Merit of ST Students' extends special coaching to ST students of classes IX to XII. The other scheme of 'Coaching and Allied Scheme for STs' also extends special coaching to ST students to help them appear in competitive examinations. The scheme of 'Hostels for ST Girls and Boys', being one of th major support services, aims to reduce the present high drop-out rates and increase the retention rates at the middle/higher level education amongst STs. The res,:e of progress of this scheme has been very slow during the Ninth Plan as there was no encouraging response from the state/UTs due to the financial zrisi s. The scheme of Ashram Schools, was launched in 1990-91, with an objective of extending educational facilities to ST boys and girls through residential schools with conducive environment to their learning. A review of the functioning of the Ashram Schools has revealed that most of them are very badly maintained and do not have www.ijmer.in
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even the basic facilities. Against the ninth Plan allocation of Rs. 44.86 crore for opening 250 Ashram Schools, the expenditure was Rs. 23.97 crore to construct 294 Ashram Schools to 3C commodate around 14,310 ST students. The scheme of Educational Complexes in low-literacy pockets has been launched with a specific objective of promoting education amongst ST girls. The scheme imparts education to tribal girls, especially those belonging to primitive tribes, in 134 districts in 11 states where the literacy rate amongst the ST women is less than 10 per cent as per the 1991 Census. With an expenditure of Rs. 11.71 aore against an outlay of Rs.23.20 crore, 306 complexes were established by the end of Ninth Plan. In addition, coaching facilities are being extended ID ST students through PreExamination Training Centres to enable them to compete with others in various competitive examinations. Vocational Training Centres (VTCs) is yet another scheme which aims to impart vocational training to ST students to increase their employability. Against the Ninth Plan outlay of Rs. 30.25 crore, an expenditure of Rs. 16.78 crore was incurred to establish 235 VTCs. In the sphere of economic development, NSFDC continued to function as a catalytic agent for financing, facilitating and mobilizing funds imp various sources for promoting economic development activities of STs Swing below 'double the poverty' line through 47 State Channelising Agencies, of which 19 were working exclusively for STs. Financial assistance at concessional rate of interest is extended to STs for taking up technically feasible and financially viable income-generating self-employment activities. In order to give focused attention to STs, the NSFDC was bifurcated, to set up an exclusive Corporation for STs in April, 2001 with an authorized share capital of Rs. 500 crore. Through the combined NSFDC, a sum of Rs. 379.75 crore has been www.ijmer.in
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invested in 934 income-generation projects benefiting 38,436 STs. The State ST Development Corporations (STDCs) function as channelising agencies in identifying eligible families and extending financial aid and other assistance to help undertake income-generation projects through credit support. Another national-level organization viz. TRIFED continues to offer remunerative prices for Minor Forest Produce (MFP) collected and the surplus agricultural items produced by the tribals, besides protecting them from exploitation by middlemen. Further, Grant-in-Aid to State Tribal Development Cooperative Corporations (STDCCs) is provided for strengthening their share capital base. This would help increase the volume of procurement of MFP from tribals at remunerative prices, construction of warehouses/godowns, establishing processing industries and research and development activities of the 16 STDCCs. Present Status of the Scheduled Tribes : Efforts made from the beginning of the planned era (1951) through various developmental plans, policies, special strategies and programmes, have registered a definite quantifiable improvement in the socio-economic status of the tribals. However, the progress made by them could not bring them anywhere nearer to the mainstream society as the gap in their socioeconomic status continued to prevail, not only as a matter of prime concern, but also as a task to accomplish during the Tenth Plan. Achievements and the persisting gaps under the three core sectors of education, health and economic development are detailed below: Percentage of ST population has increased from 6.9 per cent in 1971 8.6 per cent in 2001. While the ST population as a whole maintains a positive growth rate, the population of certain Primitive Tribes like the Great Andamanese and Sentinelese of the Andaman & Nocobar Islands are imported to be declining.
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Although, the sex ratio of 972 amongst STs in 1991 was much higher than that of the general population, which was 927, yet it started showing a declining trend. This adverse sex ratio, and its decline from 982 in 1971 in 1991 could be attributed to higher mortality amongst females and their limited access to health services. This calls for a deeper analysis of gender issues amongst STs. Educational Status: Although, there has been a substantial increase in the literacy rates of STs. During the last three developmental decades, the gap between the literacy rates of STs and those of the general population is not only persisting, but also found to be widening. Adding to this, are the problems of intra and inter-state/district variations in the literacy rates amongst STs. The progress made by STs in comparison to the general population indicates that the most discouraging sign was the increasing gap between the literacy es of STs and of the general categories between 1971 and 1991. While the literacy rate for the general population including STs stood at 52.21 per cent, the same for STs was 29.60 per cent in 1991. Contrary to the efforts of reducing the existing gaps/disparities between STs and the rest of the society, that although the female literacy rate, which is an important indicator in the field of education, amongst STs has increased substantially from 4.85 per cent in 1971 to 18.19 per cent in 1991, but the gap between ST females and the general population has also been widening during the same period, though with a slight decrease between 1981 and 1991. While considerable progress has been registered in the literacy rates amongst STs, their enrolment ratios when compared to the total population present a mixed picture. The pace of progress of enrolment of both ST boys and girls at the middle level between 1990-91 and 1999-2000 has been quite impressive, as compared to that of the total population. What is worth noting is that the ST girls maintained a good pace, especially at the middle www.ijmer.in
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level. However, the enrolment ratio of ST girls both at primary and middle levels was lower than that of the total population in both the years. The drop-out rate, which is another crucial indicator in the field of educational development also shows that there has been a steady decline in respect of both general and ST categories. The problem of dropouts happens to be a common feature for both general and ST students. While both the categories have been showing a decreasing trend during 1990-91 to 199899, the problem still appears to be the worst with regard to STs, as they hold very high drop-out rates of 57.36 in classes I to V, 72.80 in classes I to VIII and 82.96 in classes Ito X during 1998-99. The strategy of promoting employment-cum-income generating activities to alleviate poverty amongst STs has proved to be effective in raising a large number of ST families above the Poverty Line during the period between 1993-94 and 1999-2000. Along with the general population, the percentage of ST families living below the poverty line has also shown a declining trend between 1993-94 and 1999-2000. However, it is discouraging to note that the rate of decline in respect of STs is much lover than that of the general population. Also, the gap between the poverty rates of the general population and of the STs has increased during the same period. Further, the incidence of poverty amongst STs still continues to be very high with 45.86 and 34.75 per cent living below the poverty line in rural and urban areas respectively when compared to the figures of 27.09 and 23.62 per cent, in respect of general population in 1999-2000. This is primarily because a large number of STs rare landless with no productive assets and with no access to sustainable employment and minimum wages. The ST women suffer from the added disadvantage of being denied of both equal and minimum wages. Participation of STs in administration is another indicator of positive impact of developmental planning on the status of STs. The www.ijmer.in
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representation of STs in the All India Services of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), Indian Police Service (IPS) and Indian Forest Service (IFS) and other categories Indicate that the total representation of STs in services covering A to D Groups has risen from 2.81 per cent in 1974 to 6.17 per cent in 1999, they are yet to reach their expected level. A similar situation exists with regard to their representation in the All India Services of IAS, IPS and IFS also. However, the increasing participation of STs in Group 'A' Services, that is from a mere 0.46 per cent in 1974 to 3.39 per cent in 1999 reflects the impact of various affirmative measures taken in bringing them into the mainstream. At the same time, the data also reveal the big gaps that need to be bridged with more effective interventions, if STs have to be brought on par with the general population, especially in respect of Group A posts, the level at which decisionmaking takes place. Political : Affirmative discrimination through reservation for STs in the Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies and in the Panchayat Raj Institution has established the growing strength of STs not only in terms of their participation in the democratic processes of the country since independence, but also in their representation in the political decision-making institutions, i.e. Parliament, Legislative Assemblies and in the grass root democratic institutions viz., Panchayats and Local bodies. The whole, representation of STs in the political decisionmaking institutions at various levels has been quite impressive, as they are holding seats more than their due share, except in Panchayat Samitis. While the share of STs in the PRIs stood at 9.0 per cent in 2001, their share in State legislative Assemblies was 13 per cent in 2000. In Lok Sabha, however, their share was only 7.5 per cent. While the number of STs in the Central Council of Ministers
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remained the same between 1991 and 1999, their representation as a percentage of the total has declined from 5.3 per cent to 4.1 per cent over the same period. Unresolved Issues and Persisting Problems of the tribes: Tribal communities continue to be vulnerable even today, not because they are poor, asset-less and illiterate compared to the general population; but often their distinct vulnerability arises from their inability to negotiate and cope with the consequences of their integration with the mainstream economy, society, cultural and political systems, from all of which they were historically protected by their relative isolation. The requirements of planned development brought with them the dams, mines, industries and roads, all located on tribal lands. With these came the concomitant processes of displacement followed by a conflict between development and protection of tribal rights and interests. Tribal institutions and practices were forced into uneasy co-existence, which paved the way to market or formal State institutions. Also, the tribals found themselves at a great disadvantage in the face of an influx of better equipped outsiders into tribal areas. The repercussions for the already fragile socio-economic sustenance base of the tribals were devastation — ranging from the loss of livelihoods and land alienation on a vast scale to hereditary bondage. As the tribals grapple with these tragic consequences, a small clutch of bureaucratic programmes could do little to resist the precipitous pauperization, exploitation and disintegration of tribal communities. As a result of this, the tribals continue to suffer and bear with a number of `Unresolved Issues' and 'Persisting Problems', which require immediate attention of the Government. The following paragraphs explain the seriousness of some of the unresolved issues and persisting problems:
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Shifting Cultivation: Shifting Cultivation, which is not ecologically sound, is still being practiced by the tribals living on the higher slopes of hilly areas of the country. As estimated, more than 6 lakh tribal families in the North Eastern states, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh practice shifting cultivation on a continuous basis. This shifting cultivation is integrally linked to the tribal economy in the areas where it is practiced and their social and economic activities and rituals are also centred around this practice. The problem of shifting cultivation is a very complex one, involving economic, social and psychological aspects of the tribal communities. Although shifting cultivation is one of the prime sources of living for the tribals, yet the same has been severely restricted. The Ministry of Agriculture has been implementing a scheme for control and transformation of Shifting Cultivation in the North Eastern states, but the pace of its implementation has been very slow. Low Literacy and High Drop-Out Rates : Despite the programme of Universalisation of Primary Education, which has been in effective operation since 1986, the literacy rate of STs remained as low as 29.6 per cent, while the general literacy rate reached 52.2 per cent in 1991. Similarly, the female literacy rate of STs stood at 18.2 per cent which is also much lower in comparison with 39.3 per cent in respect of general category. As the 1991 Census data reveals, there are tribal districts like Koraput in Orissa where the literacy rate of STs is as low as 8.9 per cent, while there are districts like Aizawl in Mizoram with as high as 88.8 per cent. Similarly, there are districts like Jalor in Rajasthan with as low as 0.6 per cent of ST female literacy rate, while Aizawl in Mizoram has female literacy rate as high as 85.7 per cent. Further, the gap between the general population and that of STs was also found to have widened www.ijmer.in
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from 19.9 per cent to 22.6 per cent between 1981 and 1991, as discussed earlier. Adding to this are the problems of intra and inter-state/district and inter-community variations in the literacy rates of STs. Inadequate and Inaccessible Health Services: Although the National Health Policy, 1983 accords high priority to extending organized services to those residing in the tribal, hilly and backward areas as well as to the detection and treatment of endemic diseases affecting tribals, yet the tribals continue to be one of the fragile population, mainly due to their poor health and nutritional status. Tribal health is one of the important areas for action in the health sector. The major contributors to the increased disease risk amongst tribal communities include.
i)
Poverty and consequent under-nutrition;
ii)
Poor environmental sanitation, poor hygiene and lack of safe drinking water leading to increased morbidity from water and vector-borne infections;
iii)
Lack of access to health care facilities resulting in the increased severity and duration of illnesses;
iv)
Vulnerability to specific diseases like G-6 PD deficiency, Yaws, and other endemic diseases like malaria etc. Also, the tribal population, being heterogeneous, there are wide variations in their health status, access to and utlisation of health services.
v) Nutritional Deficiencies and Diseases: Mainutrition is fairly common amongst the tribals, especially the children and women, debilitiating their physical condition and lowering their resistance to disease, leading at times even to permanent brain impairment. As most tribal women suffer from www.ijmer.in
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anaemia which lowers resistance to fatigue, this affects their working capacity and increases susceptibility to disease particularly for those having closely-spaced frequent pregnancies. The nutritional status of tribal women directly influences their reproductive performances and the birth weight of their children, which is crucial to the infant's chances of survival, growth and development. Almost all the tribals in the country do not have a satisfactory dietary pattern as their diets are frequently deficient in calcium, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Riboflavin and animal protein. The tribals are thus caught in a vicious cycle of malnutrition and ill-health. Crimes/Atrocities Against STs: per the National Crimes Record Bureau, New Delhi, the number of crimes against STs indicated a decline from 4,644 in 1997 to 4,450 in 1999. However, although the share of crimes committed against STs remained the same in1997 and 1998 at 0.07 per cent, yet, it showed a contrary trend with an increase to 0.09 per cent in 1999. The number of crimes as per the provisions of Special Legislations of the Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) Act, 1955 and the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) (POA) Act, 1989 has shown an increase from 731 in 1997 to 759 in 1998 and a decline to 619 in 1999. Further, though there was a decline in the number of crimes committed against STs in 1999. The number of violent crimes viz., murder, rape, hurt, dacoit, robbery, arson etc. have registered a steady increase from 491 in 1997 to 511 in 1998 and to 577 in 1999. The increase in the number of crimes against STs has been continuing, despite effective enforcement of Special Legislations and existence of 118 Special Courts in 12 states to deal with the cases exclusively related to STs.
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Neglect of Forest Villages: As the 5,000 identified forest villages are located in the remote interiors, and are declared revenue villages, the 2.5 lakh families who inhabit these villages are deprived of even the basic minimum services available to residents of revenue villages. While the forest resource base, on which inhabitants traditionally depended, is fast eroding and adversely affecting the very survival of the tribals, alternative sources of income extended through the implementation of various social forestry activities by the Department of Forests are also not ensured throughout the year. Some of the major problems faced by the forest villages include lack of infrastructure facilities viz. approach roads, electricity, drinking water, schools, hospitals, and irrigation tanks; lack of fair price/food-grain shops; lack of stable land tenure system; and lack of proper credit facilities and bank loands as the villagers do not have the papers related to the land has the status of Reserved Forests attractin g the I ndia n Fo rest Ac t, 1 92 7 and esp ecia lly th e Fo rest (Conservation)Act, 1980; and the departmental rivalry between the Forest and Revenue Departments resulting in the exploitation and negligence of Forest Villages. Suggestions: On the basis of the study conducted on the primitive tribal groups in four villages of West Godavari district, the following suggestions are offered. As most of these tribal groups are primitive and still dependent on podu cultivation, alternative sources of livelihood patterns such as training in the development of minor forest produce, improved agricultural practices and the marketing facilities for their products can be improved. Employment generation for these tribal people is essential, as most of them are leading their lives in absolute poverty.
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Potable water is a major problem in some of these villages. Hence, the government can take steps in providing drinking water especially during summer seasons. The feasibility of laying or formation of roads or approach roads can be worked out as most of them have expressed this as one of the major problems. Provision of health facilities such as starting of dispensary and other supporting staff can be appointed as most of them have been suffering from health problems. Focus should also be given in improving their traditional health care practices of these tribal groups. As most of them are not aware of the programmes being implemented by the government, there is a need for awareness generation programmes on the activities of the government. Non governmental organizations (NGOs) can also take part in designing and implementing the programmes for PTGs, as the government cannot alone implement the programmes effectively. Though a number of NGOs have been working, adequate focus on PTGs is not given so far. Hence, the role of NGOs is immense in further development of PTGs. Apart from the NGOs, disciplines such as social work, sociology, anthropology, economics should give much focus on tribals, especially of primitive tribal groups. Case studies, in-depth studies, qualitative studies on the PTGs is the need of the hour. Studies on PTGs are limited, therefore, there is need to take up studies extensively on large samples so as to devise policies for the development of PTGs at National level. Draft National policy on tribes should consider this as an area of intervention.
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There should be a combined effort in improving the educational status of the PTGs which is the major hurdle in their development, NGOs, ITDA, TRIs, Academic and research institutions, Central and State government, public sector undertakings should join their hands for the development of primitive tribal groups. References: 1. Government of India (2005). Annual report (2004-2005) Ministry of Tribal affairs, New Delhi. 2. Gurumurthy, G., Naidu and V. Nagraja (1990). Demographic and health determinats of infant deaths among Sugalis-a study in Andhra Pradesh. In National Seminar on population programme towards 201. Vol.II 23-25 Aug 1990 8 pp. 3. http://www.apnic.in/apforest/JFM 4. Madan, T.N. (1951). Education of tribal India. Eastern Anthropologist Vol. V (4) pp.179-82. 5. National Sample Survey organization, Government of India (1991). A report on living conditions of Tribals in Non-tribal Areas, No.380. 6. N-Iegional Medical Research Centre for tribal health (ICMR (1992). Tribal Health Bulletin Vol. 1 No.4 Jabalpur. 7. Sinha, U.P. (1990). Demographic profile of tribal population in India. In Demography of Tribal Development (eds. Bose et al.) B.R. Publishing corporation, Delhi.
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BHARATI MUKHERJEE’S ‘PASSING WAY OF LIFE’ THROUGH HER “TIGER’S DAUGHTER” Singuru Mohan Kumar Associate Professor Dept. of English and Humanities MVGR College of Engineering Vizianagaram (A.P) Lead me from ignorance to knowledge. Lead me from darkness to light. Lead me from death to immortality (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad —1-3. 28) India is the soil of sanctity and serenity. Since time immemorial it has been the provider of comfort and consolation to the depressed and disillusioned people. The essence of all religions is found in the country. It is the beacon of light in darkness; it’s like a light-house that guides the ships on the seas. The warmth and affection one can find here are unconditional and wholehearted. Instead of realizing it, one goes for others is in vain. Those who have gone in search of greener pastures, look forward to coming to the mother land to get recharged with ebullient people over here. Materially well-off nations can afford to give their people physical comforts. But there will be hypocrisy and monotony as the people are more concerned with their own-selves only. Even though an American, Antonia Whitehead: At fifteen, had become a missing person, had found herself first in San Francisco, later in Arizona, still later in Singapore and finally in Calcutta, which she said she wanted to call home (p.l65) And Reena understands it well. She explains Pronob when he asks Whitehead what prompted her to come over to India, "Oh, Pronob, what a silly question! Reena exploded. Of course we know she's here to seek peace and real happiness! Everyone comes here for that." (p.165). www.ijmer.in
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The plight of a sensitive young Bengali lady and her sense of 'belonging nowhere' when she returns to India from North America after a break of seven years is portrayed by Bharati Mukherjee in her first novel “The Tiger’ Daughter” (1971). Bharati Mukherjee's novels reflect her personal experiences. As she herself is caught between two cultures, in her protagonist one finds a lady who dwindles between two cultures. “The Tiger’ Daughter” ‘centered on the violent passing of an era----and the characters were intended to be fleshed out abstractions’1 It is all about the plight of Tara - a sensitive young Indian - born and brought up in Calcutta, spent seven years in America and who after returning to India couldn't place herself in a secured place and craves for her identity. She realizes that she can't feel at ease with American culture but at the same time she no longer derives sustenance from the values and mores of her native land. When Harilal, the great-grand father of Tara performs the marriage of his daughters, his friends do not like the concept of a threat to their stability as they are very conservative and "The shadows of a suicide or exile, of Bengali soil sectioned and ceded, of workers rising against their bosses"2. The novel bears witness to this: An imprisoned and gigantic spirit had begun to move and all things on its body - towns, buildings, men - were slowly altering their shapes. The alterations were not yet impressive; none suspected they might be fatal (p.9) And really the changes are fatal to the serene world of Harilal and his pals. Harilal is stabbed to death when he tries to stop a feud and consequent upon his death the family loses hold of Pachapara. The Royal Bengal Tiger is the National Animal of India for its majestic stature, undaunted courage, valour and dignity. It does not
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lose its magnificence against any odds. It preserves its cool and composed state of mind and with a meticulous planning gets its prey. Tara's father, the Bengal Tiger is unshaken by any incident and has commanding power. He tries to get solutions to every problem but his daughter can't analyse what she really wants. Despite the fact that Tara is the daughter of a Bengal Tiger she has no strength. Bharati Mukherjee portrays the firmness of the Tiger's character: Now in these times of disorder, Calcutta has to admit that Bengal Tiger Banerjee was not like other men. A strong man is a mediator between divine and mortal fates. While the restive city forced weak men to turn into fanatical defiants or dishonesty, the Bengal Tiger remained powerful, just and fearless (p.9) Mukherjee portrays the dilemma of Tara in going back to America after she comes to India. Some of her experiences are actual reflections of the author's reactions upon returning home. Mukherjee remarks, "There were just so many aspects of India that I disliked by then. So a lot of my stories are really about transformation, especially among women".3 But forgetting the roots is not so easy. At the same time, getting fully absorbed into another is also equally difficult. The immigrants who have been to North America found themselves between the devil and the deep sea as they could not cope with the materialistic life style of the new continent. As George Steiner describes the expatriate writer as "the contemporary everyman"4, back at home too, the expatriates feel themselves in a fix as they struggle hard to strike a balance between the two cultures i.e. those of America and India. They belong to nowhere. Tracing similar reflections in Bharati Mukherjee as an expatriate writer, Prof. T. Padma throws light on the plight of the www.ijmer.in
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female protagonist of “The Tiger’s Daughter” stating that, "Tara's predicament is that of a divided self-suspended between two worlds and rooted in neither".5 Tara's father is a practical man, having a composed mind. He does not lose his cool despite the disturbing circumstances prevailing in Calcutta. As the denizens of Calcutta react to the sullenness of the city with anger and threats, he keeps himself busily occupied with his duties, business and charities as well. Further, he expands his business firm. In spite of containing equilibrium of mind and cool disposition, he was worried about his daughter to send her out of India: Beneath that stern affability, however, there must have run a deep suspicion or pain which had urged the Bengal Tiger to send his only child, a girl of fifteen, out of India for college (p.9) To receive a better education Tara goes to Poughkeepsie, Vassar. This is the result of the apprehension of her father about the state of the affairs of the country. But as she is still young and attached to home, she feels homesick and takes refuge in her memories of the happy times she had spent with her old friends, the Camac Street girls. Now that she is in an entirely new environment she finds herself bewildered but the new classmates at Vassar try their best to make her feel at home by lending her their books, records and hand lotions unasked. But like many Indians she feels bothered about issues of less imporatnce . The things that seem to be casual when looked at from a general perspective manifest themselves into bigger issues for Tara as she falsely assumes that she is discriminated against when her room-mates do not share with her the mango chutney. She defends her family and her country vehemently. The new people and their culture have driven her to despair, "On days when she had thought she could
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not possibly survive, she had shaken out all her silk scarves, ironed them and hung them to make the apartment more Indian" (p.34). Thus in an alien land, amidst strangers she has spent seven years only too longing to go back to her native land India to get some solace and respite from all this confusion. She earnestly hopes that all the apprehensions, tensions, confusion, and fears on that land where she feels herself as 'other' will be quietened and soothed if only she could return home to Calcutta. She realises that 'swapping cultures is not easy" and so returns to Calcutta hoping to see it of her childhood days. But she is utterly disappointed to find it completely changed and this changing scenario frightens her. Further she feels alienated even among her own friends who treat her as an expelled one for marrying a foreigner. She thinks that she has 'slipped out of their circle' by marrying an outsider. She has been in the process of evolving into a full being. But unfortunately her search to find her true self is not fulfilled. She is docile and vulnerable. She is an expatriate in America and an alien in her motherland - India because of her marriage to an American. She longs to have the glimpses of the children running through cool green places, aristocrats despairing in music rooms of empty palaces. But unfortunately, she faces a new, changed and restive Calcutta, a city that compels the weak to become defiant or dishonest. The city is losing its memories in a bonfire of effigies, buses and trams. It has become a general phenomenon that: ...tragedy was not uncommon in Calcutta. The newspapers were full of epidemics, collusions, fatal quarrels and starvation, stretching before her was the vision of modern India (p. 117)
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Back at home, Tara notices a lot of change in her friends during these seven years. She cannot think of Pronob being a big industrialist. She is unable to tolerate his fatness and ill-tempered nature whom she had seen as a sensitive and poetic young man. Now and then her friends and relatives make her feel guilty for marrying an American, "In India she felt she was not married to a person but to a foreigner, and this foreignness was a burden" (p.62). Though she writes to her husband David regularly, she fails to communicate her feelings towards him, because, "it was hard to tell a foreigner that she loved him very much . . ." (p.63). For David she is a foreigner and for her Indian friends and relatives she is a sinner who has defiled herself by marrying a 'mlechcha ' (outcaste). Prof. M. Sivarama Krishna blames her American husband and western education for her feelings of rootlessness and lack of identity: Tara in The Tiger’s Daughter finds it difficult to relate herself to her family, city, culture in general since her marriage to an American, her western education are enough signs to brand her as an 'alienated' westernized woman. The implicit logic is that since she is exposed to the West and has absorbed its values she must be necessarily alienated. Therefore, even when she tries to 'voice' her continuing attachment for and identity with India, the voice does not carry conviction for it is at variance with the usual stance – of indifference and arrogance - one generally associates with the 'westernized' (exiled) Indian6.
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When Tara arrives in Bombay, her relatives give her a grand welcome as they greet her with garlands, sweet meats and take her to their apartment on Marine Drive. Seven years ago she liked that place but now their shabbiness horrifies her. As her father lives in Calcutta, Tara sets out for Calcutta alone on a train. She feels uncomfortable with her co-passengers. She meets a Nepali and a Marwari, Tuntunwala who, later, creates havoc in her life. Her admiration towards India also changed. Looking outside of the windows of the train, she thinks, "I have returned to dry holes by the sides of railway tracks,...to brown fields like excavations for a thousand houses. I have returned to India." (p.21) This act symbolizes her self-analysis. She feels that after coming to India she can forget her fears and hesitations but contrary to this she is driven to feel that: ...so far the return had brought only wounds. First the corrosive hours on Marine drive, then deformed beggars in the railway station and now the inexorable train ride undid what strength she had held in reserve. She was an embittered woman, she now thought old and cynical at twenty-two and quick to take offence (p.25) Tara's parents' house on Camac Street is modeled on Victorian style that makes her recollect how she has taken out her scarves and hung them around the apartment in New York, America to make herself feel at home as the new atmosphere 'had driven her to despair' at times. She is very sensitive and feels offended with small incidents and takes to heart. When David's health was upset with the experimental 'hamburger' she had prepared, she burnt incense that prompted her
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neighbours to think about her. It was some sort of struggle for recognition. Tara now feels comfortable at home in India. But, the squalor and disturbance at Howrah station enrage her. Even though she feels her father as the real and unchanged she thinks in her absence he too has moved of the private world of filial affection and seems to have become a symbol of the outside world. To the observant Tara, all Calcutta seemed 'touched by rages and ideals' (p.29). She understands her vacation would not be an easy one. Tara's reaction on her- return-toIndia is just that of her creator's. Mukherjee feels, "There were just so many aspects of India that I disliked by then. So a lot of my stories are really about transformation, especially among women".7 When Tara visits her Aunt Jharna, she understands that the latter's daughter had some problem with her leg. She enquires whether they have tried plaster casts and special shoes. Aunt Jharna reacted with unexpected violence: You think you are too educated for this, don't you? You have come back to make fun of us, haven't you? What gives you the right? Your American money? Your mleccha husband? (p.37) Tara wonders at her foreignness and she thinks whether this foreignness of spirit has started right in Calcutta with the Belgium nuns at St. Blaises or at Vasar or at Madison. Many of her friends talk to Tara. They are all highly charged with extra-ordinary emotions. They observe her keenly: Tara was startled at their tremendous capacity of surfaces.. She sat in their midst, cowed and nervous
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while her silence drove them to more indelicate, more damaging remarks about her appearance (p.42) When they talk about Calcutta Tara cannot respond to them. She felt they were odd and could not feel comfortable. Seven years ago she played with them, but now, "She fears their tone, their omissions, and their aristocratic oneness" (p.43). They talk about the things which she has brought but never ask about her husband and it pricks her. She has become an outsider and rootless and out of place both in India and America. Prof. Siva Rama Krishna remarks, "This home may have proved soothing to Tara, but it could not insulate her from the short circuits of external reality". Tara is apprehensive as she is married to a foreigner. She may not be allowed to enter puja room but her mother offers her to bathe Shiva lingam. She feels comfortable but as she forgets the ritual process she fears, "It was not a simple loss... this forgetting of prescribed of actions; it was a little death, a hardening of the heart, a cracking of axis and centre" ( p.51 ). Many parties are arranged on her return but the people who feel themselves westernised also disapprove of her marriage. Tara fears a lot as she cannot visualize her husband's face clearly may be because of a long gap. One can also attribute this to her becoming alienated from her husband on the psychological plane. When she learns that her husband has bought a book on India she is aghast as she develops a guilty consciousness for not making her foreign husband understand India. She tries to write a letter to her husband but cannot express her feelings as:
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Her voice in these letters was insipid or shrill, and she tore them up, twinging at the waste of seventy five naya paise for each mistake. She felt there was no way she could describe in an aerogramme the endless conversations at the Catelli-Continental, or the strange old man in a blazer who tried to catch her eye in the cafe, or the hatred of Aunt Jharna or the bitterness of slogans scrawled on walls of stores and hotels, (p.63) Prof. Shiva Rama Krishna observes that "Mukherjee's protagonists are the victims of a life which is visionless because it is voiceless".9 Tara's meeting of Tuntunwala at a charity carnival is the event which turned her life to a miserable position. Tara is attracted to him even though he is ugly and looked like a spider in her view. She is impressed by his ease and mastery. He shows her his stall of textile. At his stall he shows a gesture to join the group photograph as posing nymphs. Despite her dislike of his gesture, she obeys him without questioning. She feels that he can create any type of havoc he needs. When she goes alone to read newspapers and magazine at Catelli she meets Joyonto and they start for a ride, she feels as if she is doing an adventure. In her bi-weekly letters, she informs David that she may have an adventure. When Joyonto shows her a funeral, they meet a tantric suddenly and she is shocked. She runs away and feels sick. She shouts at his Chauffer, "Do something. What's the matter with your sahib? He is dying or something." (p.83) She repents later at her act. She has left an old man alone by the funeral pyres and repents later. She resembles Epimetheus as she always does something and repents later. When Reena talks about a guest Mc Dowell and says about her mother's fear, that following Tara
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she may marry a 'mleccha' Tara shouts at her in anger as she never feels David as 'mlechcha'. She muses often: It was useless to pursue this anger. Reena and others were surrounded by an impregnable wall of selfconfidence. Through some weakness or fault Tara had slipped outside and re-entry was barred (pp. 109-110) She feels bad on hearing that a girl married to a Nigerian is dismissed with contempt. Tara feels that they all have racial prejudices. It's really ironical as: They liked foreigners in movie magazines. They loved Englishmen like Worthington at the British council. But they did not approve of foreign marriage. She had expected admiration from these friends. She had wanted them to consider her marriage an emancipated gesture. But emancipation bondage... (p.86)
was
suspicious.
It
presupposed
While Tara and Reena are talking about the preparation of her family's welcome for a foreigner, Joyonto asks for a ride. Even though Reena refuses the invitation, Tara accepts it. When they approach Joyonto's compound they are shocked by the dirt and squalor. If Tara had anticipated it before, she would have rejected the invitation. After the sight-seeing, while they are returning, a girl with bleeding sores on her feet and hands approaches them. The girl touches Tara expecting that type of sari for her. Tara behaves hysterically tearing at the place where the girl had touched and shouts at her. But Reena is a very practical girl with a presence of mind. She assures her that the girl has no leprosy. Tara regrets her action later as usual. Because of her heavy fears and apprehensions she behaves so. Tara feels, "it was vague, so pointless, so diffuse thing, trip home to India" (p. 130). www.ijmer.in
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Tara's feelings were conveyed to her husband through bi-weekly letters, he accuses her of 'stupid inanities and callousness'. She feels hurt and decides not to share her feelings with him. Tara's admiration toward Tuntunwala increases and she meets him at Dhakuria Club, where a rally is held for him. In this context Manju Sharma remarks, "The change is not arrived at by petulant challenge of tradition but by deliberately putting the self at risk abroad and at home." 10 Though Sanjay admires him as a hero and the saviour of Calcutta Pronob doesn't comment. At the rally chaos prevails when a bomb goes off. When a suspected journalist is caught by the Police and is being taken into custody, Tuntunwala slaps the handcuffed journalist. Then Tara spots a chameleon in him and laments: When it was time for the arrival of the American Exchange students Reena's family is shocked by knowing that Mc Dowell is a black. An upset Reena's mother wants to cancel the whole thing. Mc Dowell's appearance shocks them as he is a tall man. He is a high school basketball star. He has long hair and wide halo around his face. He calls Reena's parents 'mom' and 'pop'. When a small riot is going on Mc Dowell gets out and shakes hands with the youngsters in the mob. He teaches them to say 'Brown is beautiful'. Tara plays the role of a mediator to convey his speech. She feels him as more an American than her husband but Mc Dowell feels her as another Indian. A white girl and an old English man joined when Tara and her friends go to Darjeeling in the airlines Limousine. They all stayed at Kanchan Janga hotel. When they see Neelima talking to a young man they greet her but she feigns ignorance. Dejected Tara is astonished at her queer behaviour. Reena responds, "she is embarrassed by you, not me, my dear... probably thinks that little man will run away if he finds out one of her friends arranged her own marriage" (p. 165).
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For Tara there's no wrong in choosing a husband of her choice as she has to live with him all her remaining life. Fortunately or unfortunately she married Mr. Cartwright out of her own accord and freedom of choice that was available in America. Instead of bowing her head before a stranger she has chosen one whom she knows well and loves her. The novelist makes sarcastic remarks on the brutality of the existing system of arranged marriages. She writes: when the choice is made and the bargaining over furniture, ornaments, number of towels to be given, sheets and pillow-cases, under-wear for the groom, cloths for the female relatives, all settled with maximum discontent,...then the groom takes his bride, a total stranger, and rapes her on a brand new flower-decked bed (p.125) But Tara gradually realises the ' security of a traditional marriage' (p. 126) as she feels that she is a 'victim of a love match' (p. 125) . She laments that 'the power and goodness of the Bengal Tiger' (p. 126) could not be explained to her husband David Cartwright. When Tara, along with her mother, Pronob and Antonia goes to a local shrine, she is frightened at the sight of the temple priest Chela because of his skin disease. But she forgets all in that serene atmosphere; moves towards her mother, even towards the Priest and other worshippers shouting 'Ma! Mata. '. When the mothers are sprucing up their daughters for the beauty contest Antonia and Pronob go for a horse-ride. Some rogues start taking photographs of Tara and hurl rude comments. When Tara shouts, 'they can't take my picture!' (p.179) they start teasing her and try to snatch the reins from www.ijmer.in
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her hand. She kicks one in the stomach. They swear revenge. Pronob charges in their midst and the men flee. Antonia feels that Tara has made the situation disgraceful. Pronob is sympathetic towards her. When the situation is conveyed back at home, the men are enraged. But the women folk show no sympathy but remarked, "Well! She made a love match. Surely she can look after herself. (p. 180) At the beauty contest Neelima's mother has spruced her up and made her sit on a stool so that parents of eligible bachelors can see her. When Arati tells her that it was wrong, the caustic remark of Reena's mother, "well, you didn't have to worry about such problems!" (p. 182), shows her disapproval of Tara’s marriage. Tara’s father comes to his wife's rescue and says David is a brilliant and lovable man. After returning from Darjeeling, Tara's mother plans a trip to Nayapur but because of busy schedule Tara's father cannot come and Arati cancels her plan of Nayapur and accompanies him to make arrangements for Tara’s aunt Jharna to move onto Camac Street for a week. Tara and her friends go to Nayapur. As she is the married one in the group she is the chaperon looking after all unmarried girls. At Nayapur they see Tuntunwala and he offers Tara to show the countryside. When they return Tara finds that all her friends have gone to watch a movie. Tuntunwala questions, "They have left you alone to cope with my wiles, Mrs.Cartwright?" (p.195) Tara replies him that she is there to escort the young women so there was no danger to her reputation. While dining, his speed of eating makes her sick. He takes her on the pretext of giving her some medicine for her temporary illness. It is interesting to note the remarks of the author when she says, "Headaches were the plague of Camac Street Society." (p. 145) Her maid is ordered to wait outside in the verandah. His voice is so authoritative that the maid doesn't protest. Tara doesn't protest www.ijmer.in
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either. If she were a more aggressive woman like Antonia Whitehead, she knew she would walk out of the suite with her maid. But she is neither forceful nor impulsive. At that moment, "the Marwari appears to her as strong, sensible and curiously akin to the Bengal Tiger and Harilal Banerjee" (p. 197). He offers her to apply Vicks Vaporub and expresses his amorous feelings towards her. When she rejects him he starts showing his true colours by saying that there is no way out. Tara neither protests nor resists in order protecting her. After seduction, Tuntunwala, without even formally apologising himself, invites her to tea and goes to the adjoining room to talk with his men. Such thing wouldn't have happened in another Calcutta. The Newsweek Review comments on this episode as follows: Tara's familiar; like so many heroines in the fiction of feminine and vaguely British orientation she is bright, elegant, alert and ironic - and with much to learn. Above all, she is vulnerable, not because she is stupid or vulgar or imperceptive that because she finds herself alienated from naiveté and callousness of those she loves."11 She thinks of informing Sanjay and Pronob of the atrocity committed by Tuntunwala but she tries to suppress her anger because being a female she cannot tell such things to friends since, "In a land where a friendly smile, an accidental brush of fingers, can ignite rumours - even law suits- how is one to speak of Tuntunwala's violence?" (p.l99) After this incident Tara feels like going back to David. The parents, not aware of her anguish, want her to stay for long. They arrange pastimes like poetry reading sessions and visit to St. Blaises but for Tara these people appear to be people in a snapshot, yellow and faded. Tara's friends have only bookish knowledge of Calcutta and www.ijmer.in
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about them Joyonto feels as of 'trapped gazelles' though they were confident and handsome. Joyonto thinks: The real Calcutta, the thick laughter of brutal men, open dust bins, warm and dark where carcasses were sometimes discarded, did not exist (for them). He knew Calcutta would not be as kind to them as it had been to him (p.41) Tara informs Pronob, Reena and Sanjay about her departure. but as Tuntunwala starts a riot to claim the hotel at Catelli, Joyonto the older man protest against this. The men of Tuntunwala throw him out and rough him up. Unable to forbear all this Pronob faces the mob. Someone beats him on the head with a soda bottle and is punched all over. A Police Constable, Reena’s cousin’s friend saves Joyonto but Pronob succumbs to his injuries. The story ends abruptly as Tara thinks whether her love for David will ever be known to him. Mukherjee’s protagonist Tara is the most vulnerable character who can’t decide what she really wants. In the novel the writer comments that Tara is “A perfect instrument for recording the mutations of her time: sensitive, observant and almost sponge-like in relation to experience. She is one of those to whom the things happen.” (p.19) Thus it can be said that The Tiger’s Daughter is a realistic novel of “contemporary India seen through the eyes of a sensitive and confused daughter of Bengali Brahmins” (p.3) is nothing but Bharati Mukherjee’s a passing way of life. References 1. Geoff Hancock interview with Bharati Mukherjee 2. Bharati Mukherjee. Days and Nights in Calcutta. New York: Doubleday, 1997.
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3. Bharati Mukherjee quoted by Brinda Bose. "The Question of Identity” Bharati Mukherjee, Critical Perspectives 4. Christine Gomez. The On-Going Quest of Bharati Mukherjee from Expatriation to Immigration in R.K Dhawan(ed) Indian Women Novelists, Vol. 3 Delhi:Prestige, 1995. 5. Prof. T. Padma. Diaspora, Multiple Identities- Issues and Images: Studies in Indian English Literature - A Miscellany. Vissakhapatnam: Vagdevi Publishers, 1993. 6. Prof. M. Sivaramakrishna. Bharati Mukhrjee. M.S.Prasad, (ed) Indian English Novelists. New Delhi : Sterling, 1982. 7. Bharati Mukherjee quoted by Brinda Bose, The Question of Identity. BharatiMukherjee. Critical Perspectives 8. M. Sivaramakrishna. Bharati Mukhrjee in M.S.Prasad, (ed) Indian English Novelists. New Delhi, Sterling, 1982. 9. …………………………………..Bharati Mukhrjee in M.S.Prasad, (ed) Indian English Novelists. New Delhii : Sterling, 1982. 10. Maya Manju Sharma. The Inner World of Bharati Mukherjee: From Expatriate to Immigrant. Bharati Mukherjee: Critical Perspectives. Ed. Emmanuel Nelson. New York: Garland Publishers, 1993. 11. Review of The Tiger’s Daughter in Newsweek, January 17, 1972. p 53
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DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENT OF SOFT SKILLS AND LIFE SKILLS: THROUGH TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME P.Manohar Teaching Assistant Department of Education Rayalaseema University, Kurnool Abstract The teaching and learning processes in institutions of teacher education should be capable to provide such knowledge and skills to perspective teachers. The challenge of globalization which is in line with the era of information economy, the strength of a nation is strongly dependent on the ability of its citizen to be highly intellectual, skilful and it can be applied in life skill. The development of human capital is thus important and necessary since it drives the nation to the envision vision and mission. Without a quality human capital, a nation will be weak as there is no human factor that is capable to embark on new initiatives and perspectives. A quality human capital comes from a quality education process. A carefully designed and well planned education system is critical to developing such human capital. Institutions of teacher education playa very important role to produce a human capital that is highly knowledgeable and skilful with life skill oriented to meet the demand and expectations of many people. The curriculum process of the teacher education should be capable of providing some knowledge and skills and life skill programme for teacher education in conceptual and soft skills apart from hard skill. Infusing the soft skills in the curriculum of teacher education is the need of the profession for it to be successful. This article enhances the method of life skill and soft skill how to inculcate in or teacher education programme. Keywords:
Life Skill, Soft Skill Teacher Education, Policies,
Education Implications, Curriculum
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INTRODUCTION Life skill the reorientation of education which is one trust of education for sustainability also relates the importance of these so-called soft skills. Life skills may be viewed as a range of psycho-social and cognitive abilities that equip children to make informed decisions and choices, manage their emotional well-being, and communicate effectively. Soft and life skills are personal attributes that enhance an individual’s interactions, job performance and career prospects and hard skills which tend to be specific to a certain type of task or activity. We could say that soft skills refer to personality traits, social gracefulness, and fluency in language, personal habits, friendliness and optimism that mark to varying degrees. Objective To enhance the life skill pogramme in Teacher Education Curriculum. To enhance the Soft kill programme in Teacher Education Curriculum. To be highly intellectual, skilful and it can be applied in life skill. To help students acquire the soft skills those are associated with academic matters. To produce quality teachers who are equally intelligent posses’ excellent attitude, high ethical and moral values. Need for the Study This paper aims to synthesis and contribute to the growing discussion around the development of life skills education in India. It proposes that life skills should be explicitly woven into school education by exploring evidence on why such skills matter and which skills ae important for learning and future outcomes. www.ijmer.in
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Defining Life Skills Life skills may be viewed as a range of psycho-social and cognitive abilities that equip children to make informed decisions and choices, manage their emotional well-being, and communicate effectively. Efforts to address the achievement gap have typically focused on secondary to achieving basic literacy and numeracy, only if resources are available. Research, however, unequivocally shows that students who develop social-emotional skills and academic mindsets are better equipped to succeed in school and are able to transfer theoretical concepts to real-life situations early on. 1 We will explore evidence on this need for life skills education in more detail in Section 2. Categorizing Life Skills Life skills encompass a wide-ranging and often unstructured set of skills and attitudes that is difficult to rigidly define and that has not been officially codified or categorized. A number of related terms are used in this context; some of these include: Life skills 21st century skills Non-cognitive skills Non-academic skills Character skills Soft skills Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Life Skills Education Policies in India An effective life skills approach is driven by multiple aspects: Programme
Content:
Developing
relevant
information,
attitudes, and skills. www.ijmer.in
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Mechanisms:
Implementing participatory teaching practices,
modeling of skills and reinforcement. Teacher training: Building teachers’ belief in the potential and capacity in delivery of life skills education. Commitment:
Advocating for the integration of life skills
education in school curriculum. Difficulties Moving life skills from the margins (i.e. extracurricular or as passive ‘values education’) to the centre of schooling and crating multiple learning opportunities or reinforcement within schools. Introducing a learner-centric pedagogy, not solely reliant multiple learning opportunities reinforcement within schools. Building a school culture toward life-skills based education. Improving the capacity of teachers to development life skills into their classroom practice. Life skills and employment:
Life skills education in schools
clearly needs place in the context of broader education system reforms. To be effective, life skills ultimately need to be age-aligned, and inculcated in. Life skills are imparted as part of training programmes building secondary school students’ employability skills. Along with investing in technical skills such programmes address skills and mindsets such as taking responsibility, adaptability entrepreneurship, effective communication, decision-making, leadership and teamwork. The aim is to equip children with technical knowledge as well as the soft skills required to succeed in the workplace, thereby directly translating their education into a source of livelihood. Examples in India include In Open (life skills education as part of computer literacy programmes)’ IGNIS Careers (English language learning), Medha (Soft skills for the workplace}, and Lend a Hand India (vocational education). www.ijmer.in
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Life skills and values education: Existing policy in India, by a large measure, tends to focus on inculcating such skills through values-based education. However, unless well existing syllabus pressure. Examples of schools that have integrated holistic development as part of their pedagogy include the Don Bosco School network. Early childhood education: Early childhood interventions lay strong foundations for children during the most critical development phase of their lives, i.e. from ages 3-6 years. Such interventions explicitly target a wide range of cognitive, language, emotional and social skills from communication, self-regulation, conflict resolution skills, etc. Examples include Sesame Workshop India and Bodh Shiksha Samiti. Life skills and child right: Within India, there are several interventions that work on building life skills as part of larger programme of child rights and empowerment. Such organizations address target mindsets and abilities such as self-awareness, leadership, and social influence, through their broader goals of tackling gender disparity, violence health etc. Higher order thinking skills: Many life skills programmes (of which a large number are for profit provider) are increasingly catering to imparting 21st century skills. Such programmes, which have accelerated in light of increasing advocacy for a shift for rote learning, support inquire-based learning by building critical thinking and creative problem solving skills. Soft Skills Soft skills are personal attributes that enhance and individual’s interactions, job performance and career prospects and hard skills which tend to be specific to a certain type to task or activity. We could say that soft skills refer to personality traits, social gracefulness, and fluency in language, personal habits, friendliness and optimism that mark to www.ijmer.in
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varying degrees. Soft skills complement hard skills which are the technical requirements of profession. It can also be an important part of the organization especially if the organization is dealing with people face to face. The reorientation of education which is one trust of education for sustainability also relates the importance of these so-called soft skills. Models for implementing soft skills in Higher Education A holistic approach is used to plan and implement the soft skills among students of teacher education programme. This approach is based on the combination of several programs and main activities; formal teaching and learning activities (include all curricular and cocurricular elements); support programs (academic and non-academic). Figure (1) shows the framework for implementing soft skills among students of higher institutions. In general, the development of soft skills among the students via the formal teaching and learning activities takes two models: (i) stand alone and (ii) embedded. Stand Alone Subject Model This model uses the approach of training and providing opportunities to students to develop soft skills through specific courses that are carefully planned for this purpose. Usually, these subjects are offered as university course (such as English language, entrepreneurship, etc) and elective courses (such as pubic speaking, critical thinking, etc). The courses in this category are often a part of the overall requirements that make up the program. The number of courses and credits in this category depends on the curriculum design and the requirements of the program. The stand along subject model can also be initiated by encouraging students to sign-up several additional courses which can be accumulated to be a minor course which is different from the initial program signed-up. For example, a student who is pursuing a teacher education program is encouraged to take www.ijmer.in
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minor courses in management or mass communication. However, such an approach will require an increase in the number of credits and time spent for the particular program. Embedded Model This model uses the approach of embedding the soft skills in the teaching and learning activities across the curriculum. It does not require the student to take special courses as in the stand alone subject mode. Instead the students are trained to master the soft skills through various formal teaching and learning activities that are planned and carried out using specific strategies and methods. In this way, the content and learning outcomes to be achieved for the respective courses are maintained. The learning outcome related to the soft skills will be integrated and be part of the learning outcomes of the respective courses. This is the suggested model to be implemented in all the courses for the different programs in institutions of teacher education. Each element of soft skills is spelled out in the learning outcomes and then translated into the instructional plan for the semester. This is followed by implementing several teaching and learning activities such as questioning, class discussion, brain storming team work, presentation, role play and simulation, task/project, field work and site visits. In general, the development of soft skills using the embedded model requires the expertise of the lecturers to use the various teaching strategies and methods that are entirely student-centred. It also involves active teaching and learning and students should participate actively in the activities. Some of the appropriate strategies and methods that are practical include (i) learning by questioning, (ii) Cooperative Learning, (iii) Problem-Based Learning (PBL), (iv) e-learning. (v) Combination of Stand Alone Subject Model and Embedded Model Each of the respective www.ijmer.in
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models described above as its weaknesses and strengths. From the framework, planning, implementing and assessment, the stand alone model is definitely at an advantage. This is because the course or subject is specially developed to assist students to acquire the soft skills. However, this model lacked the opportunity for students to develop and acquire soft skills as integrated with other knowledge and skills in the major discipline studied. The existing number of credits for the respective program is also a constraint for students to sign-up for additional courses on soft skills. On the contrary, the framework, planning, implementing and assessment of the embedded model are more challenging than the stand alone model. This model requires the lecturers to master specific teaching and learning skills and then apply these skills in the teaching the respective core courses for the specific program. However, when carefully planned and used the appropriate teaching and learning strategies, this model is more effective in developing and acquiring the soft skills as integration with the other knowledge and skills in the program. In addition, this model does not require any additional courses to the already existing courses of the respective program. Based on the weaknesses and strengths discussed, the teacher education institutes are encouraged to use the embedded model i tri compared to the stand alone model. This is because the embedded model focus on student centered learning such experiential learning, problem-based learning and gives students the practical experience as well. Development of soft skills through support programs This involves programs and activities that are created, developed and used to support soft skills either directly or indirectly. In general, the program and activity can be divided into two: (i) Academic support and (ii) Non-Academic support program.
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The academic support program is to help students acquire the soft skills that are associated with academic matters. As for the nonacademic support program, it assists students to acquire the soft skills that are not related to academic matters but more of personality and professional development of the students. Most of the programs and activities are in the form of co-curriculum and extra co curriculum. The fundamental courses are most important for teacher trainees to inculcate the soft skills however the ideas expressed by educational thinkers in fundamental courses, such as Gandhi, Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Sousseau, John Deway and others including various psychologists and sociologists are often studied in a piecemeal manner. The hard skills are most visible and tangible an relatively easy to tech capable of being measured and therefore evaluated. Soft skills are interpersonal and human relations skills in other words “people skills” which include social, psychological and communicational skills. Hence, reorientation of teacher education curriculum should concentrate on infusing soft skills related aspects to meet the needs of society. So teacher education progammes have to make a conscious effort in designing courses that generate deeper understanding of three skills viz., hard skills, soft skills and conceptual skills. Educational implications: The role of Soft Skill and Life Skill factors and improving school performance remains a critical and relatively unexplored area in Indian schools. Education potentially today depends upon to only technical skills but also the social ability to work effectively, and interpersonal, cooperation, communication and creative skills. CONCLUSION The institutions of the teacher education are urged to produce quality teachers who are equally intelligent possess excellent attitude, www.ijmer.in
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high ethical and moral values. Reorientation of teacher education curriculum should concentrate on infusing soft skills, life skill related aspects to make a conscious effort in designing courses that generate deeper understanding of these two skills namely soft skills and life skills. The research studies have also indentified some of the weaknesses among the teachers produced by the teacher education institutions. They are not so sound and lack the so-called soft skills demanded by the society. In general, the development of soft skills using the embedded model requires the expertise of the lecturers to use the various teaching strategies and methods that are entirely student-centered. It also involves active teaching and learning and students should participate actively in the activities. Hence, the institutions of the teacher education are urged to produce quality teachers who are equally intelligent posses’ excellent attitude, high ethical and moral values. References 1. NCERT (2005). Draft, curriculum framework. 2. Digvijay Pachauri, Aruna Yadav. Importance of Soft Skills in Teacher Education Programme. Int. J.Educat. Res. Technol. Vol 5 (1) March 2014.22-25. 3. http://soeagra.com/ijert/ijertmarch2014/5.pdf 4. http://www.centralsquarefoundation.org/wpcontent/uploads/2016/01/Life-Skills-Education-in-India.pdf
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PREPARING TEACHERS FOR INCLUSIVE EDUCATION P.Sharath Babu Lecturer St.Joseph’s College of Education Dam, Garladinne,Ananthapur Abstract An attempt has been made regarding the awareness of preparing the teachers for inclusive education.
The paper discusses Preparing
teachers for Inclusive Education. Every teacher handles their student in different way but what a student needs is understood by only few teachers. The one who is less able in the classroom is ignored or not nourished according to his ability so it's necessary to prepare the teachers to manage diverse groups of learners. This paper reports regarding the initial stage of learning the basic education, how a teacher has to come up with the problems. The best use of already what they have experienced has to be brought under limelight so that they knew learners difficulty. Improving confidence and decreasing stress as well as beneficial environment should be considered as main theme of inclusive education. New technique for teacher's preparation course should be applied; interesting ways of learning should be adopted like instead of classroom all the time for a change field experience should be included. The teachers has to work with two kinds of student one is the successful and the other who is in the pitfall so that the comparative study will help them to understand. KeyWords: Inclusive Education, Teacher-Preparation, New Techniques and Quality Research. INTRODUCTION Preparing the teachers for Inclusive Education is the task which shows the impact of classroom, teacher's education programme has made an attempt to cooperate and accept new techniques. The Inclusive
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Education is required for change in the role of teacher and educational policies. The Institutions play an important role in preparing the teachers with knowledge, skill, attitudes to successfully manage diverse groups of learners. Wide range of challenges is met by the teachers while coming across these inclusive education skills. At the end of the task they come up with different themes and approach which they apply for their students to understand the difficulties they are facing in everyday life. Objectives of the Study
To bring out the positive impact of teachers through Inclusive Education.
To study the problems faced by diverse students, solve them according to their needs.
To provide valuable suggestion related to the study and explain the need of different innovative techniques.
To encouraged Creative and Innovative ideas of the students.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This paper is an attempt to study the innovate requirements of the teachers to study the problems faced by the students. The teachers are prepared for inclusive education on the bases of suitable environment, Innovative techniques and field work is also part of education which helps the student to interact with their teachers without fear. Positive impact can be created through different skills. QUALITIES OF TEACHERS: The teacher play an important role in the development of the student, they are the knowledge provider and skill developer as well as they nourish the personality and attitude in a positive way so that their impact should not affect the society but it should give best example of www.ijmer.in
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role models for others who are new beginners and stepping their life towards a new start. Quality education must be provided by the teachers and interaction with the students should be part of it, each time the techniques be changed according to the needs of the students. Creative and innovative ideas of the students must be encouraged as everyone has different way of thinking ability. Knowledge has to be acquired by experience and within inner self experiment are part of learning new things and exploring them under lime light to acquire the changes and accept as well as add new opinion and make unique. The teachers have to prepare their students in such a way that they should feel free to discuss their area of problems without hesitations. The teacher has to get opportunities to tackle with varieties of student under different circumstance so that they can handle any kind of student. They should prepare everyone emotionally strong so that they don't bond any differences between themselves and have no line of differences among them so that they can build up inner strength. On the basis of time management the teacher has to handle their class so they have to be prepared according to the give time so that they can teach them and give valuable education accordingly without wasting the time. Proper utilization among the teacher and student must be cooperated. IMPACT OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION: • • • • •
Enhances the personality and attitude of the student. The students can meet their needs and come out with requirements as well as reason for lacking in their field. Interaction is a useful method which includes face to face communication to discuss their disability among themselves. Friendly environment is common technique to understand the problem of student. Innovative technique like field work introduction can give peace of mind to student to reinvent their ideas.
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•
Positive thinking and encouraging for counseling to increase confidence level. In recent studies it has been seen that these impact of inclusive
education has given new innovate ideas for the teachers to interact with their students. The teacher has to focus with so many problems of the students like their mental disability, behavioral problems, remedial teaching and peripatetic teaching. Classrooms are the same old techniques of the teacher which is the old tradition from the past generation to teach under a roof in closed walls, after adopting field work teaching has created enthusiasm among the students and it has build eagerness of learning in new ways. Practical knowledge has given thinking ability among them. Every teacher should have the ability to counsel their students, next to parents the role of the teachers takes place they are the one who spend much of the time with students continuously and understand their weakness and strength along with studies. The teachers are the only hopes of every parent in India. As they are the one whom the children are introduced from initial stage to the professional stage. Behind every successful person the scolding and love of their teachers is found. The pride of our success goes to the knowledge provider. The confidence level of the students has been increased after adopting these new innovative ideas. METHODS TO BE USED IN INCLUSIVE EDUCATION • Role play in teams. • Audio and video techniques to make the study simple. • Group discussions to make the students comfortable among each other. • Remove the diversity problem among students. • Small group review sessions. • Participation of student for extracurricular activities. www.ijmer.in
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The teacher has to know their students well, so they have to follow role play method in teams which takes approximately 15-20 minutes to interact with each through this method the students feel comfortable and start their discussions without fear. This way they can come out of their feeling of insecurity consciousness. Audio and video technique make the education learn and understand easily it is quick way to understand things and hold attention. listening is the common technique which is used from generation but seeing and learning thing is something new but a new born child doesn't learn things by himself but by living and implement them in his daily activities he improves his self knowledge. Most common problem is diversity of caste, religion, and status issues which lead a depressed state of mind its major issue for some of the student who suffer from such kind of feeling. Observation activities make the mind sharper and catch hold of things faster. Small group discussion helps the student to improve their language and correct of usage among themselves. They discuss their views and explore their ideas too. Along with studies they should also participate in extracurricular activities to enrich their personality development to make them able to face in the entire field. The consciousness of equality when automatically is created then they feel secured and happy, their minds will remove evil thought to fight against their self. PROBLEMS OF TEACHERS • • •
Large and increasing number of students need. It's difficult to handle disability student due to change in the environment. To capture the focus of the student is difficult due to huge strength in class.
• •
Syllabus and evaluation techniques are old. Parents force on students to achieve the target.
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The teachers along with the student have heavy pressure on them; the main issue is the strength of the classroom which makes the teacher to distract the focus of students. Sometimes it's hard to handle the disable student due to their level of understanding due few reasons they don't come up with their fear. The tension of the syllabus makes the student into a pressure full environment at the last moment as the parents force them to reach goal. The percentage doesn't judge the quantity of the student it judges the quality education he gained out of his syllabus. CONCLUSION The future of education has to be brighter as it creates new role models for other newcomers; the concept of inclusive education among the teachers brings new technology in the teaching field by following new learning process. The teacher has to focus on the present and future of the student to enhance them in right direction. Special programmes have to be encouraged to hold the interest of the student and interaction among themselves should also be use to them so that the fear gets eradicated out of their mind. Every successful student's role model in their initial stage is their teacher; the present teacher has to be prepared for today's reality classroom. Reference 1. Wade, Suzanne E. (2008) Preparing Teachers for Inclusive Education: Case Pedagogies and Curricula for teacher educators. Taylor and Francis e -library, 2008. 2. Atay, D. Beginning (2007)Teacher efficacy and the practicum in an EFL context. Teacher Development, 11(2), 203-219.2007. 3. Beninghof, A. M., & Singer, A. L.(1995),Ideas for inclusion. The school administrator's guide. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.1995. 4. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.1983. www.ijmer.in
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EXPENDITURE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL IN ILU ABABOR ZONE (THE CASE OF SELECTED WOREDAS) Geda Misganu Management Department Business and Economics Faculty Mettu University, Ethiopia
Sekata Kenea PhD Scholar Accounting and Finance Department Business and Economics Faculty Mettu University, Ethiopia
Abstract This study focuses on assessing Expenditure Management and Control in selected Woredas in IluAbaboor zone and is aimed at identifying problems related to budget preparation, implementation and control. Five Woredas of the zone as samples of the study: namely, Bedele, Chora, Yayo, Hurumu, and Mettu Woredas were selected by the researchers to obtain, assess, and analyze publicly available data on the budget management and control of selected Woredas of Ilu Ababor Zone as well as to locate the key problem areas that seek attention and improvement. These Woredas were purposely selected to easily manage data collection while doing other personal and office duties. The sample size contained 510 respondents. Among these 500 were selected for filling questionnaire through the help of enumerators and 10 of them were selected for interview. questionnaire was fair 482(96.4%) and for the Both primary and secondary sources of data gather relevant data and descriptive statistics
The response rate for interview were 8(80%). were used in order to were used for analysis.
Finally, it was identified that there were many problems related to budget preparation, implementation and control in the Woredas. Problems such as inadequate number of professionals in the offices, shortage of skilled personnel power to prepare budget in accordance with planned activities, lack of reliable data and estimate for budget, overestimation of budget, frequent request for budget transfer www.ijmer.in
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and supplementary budget, budget evaluation against main activities, huge expenditure at the end of the budget years, facing budget shortage before year end, budget documentation problem, expenditure budget was not accurately charged to the appropriate budget period or budget year. The researchers forwarded the following recommendations thinking that the problems could be solved if the concerned bodies take action, adequate number and quality of professionals on planning and budget of the zone, adequate expenditure monitoring and control techniques should be applied, Performance audit should be functional, regular independent audit should be applied. Index Terms- Expenditure, Management, and Control I.
INTRODUCTION
There is a general consensus in developing countries that economic development is an urgent priority. But the task to bring about this development has remained an elusive and difficult one. This is so partly due to inadequate financial resources and low level of investment in these countries. The financial resources are in scarce supply to meet ever-increasing social needs and population growth. The availability of financial resource is constrained by difficulty of generating the required level of saving out of low level of per capita income and economic growth. Therefore, in view of limited resources and increasing demands, there is a need to improve resource allocation through proper economic policy and expenditure planning. Ethiopia was the first country in Africa to formulate and launch national development plans in 1950s and 1960s (Dejene, 1996). The government has launched three consecutive Five-YearDevelopment Plans, (1957-61, 1963-67, 1968-73) to promote economic growth and improve the living standard of the population. The objectives of these development plans and programs were to mobilize www.ijmer.in
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domestic and external resources in order to allocate into priority areas. In pre 1974, the role of Ethiopian government had been mostly limited to the allocation of resources, economic stabilization and economic growth. After 1974, the government followed a central planned economy where the government was involved and expanded in productive and distributive areas (Teshome, 1993). Government massive expansion in the economic and service sectors was achieved through nationalization of large-scale private enterprises and at the same time by the establishment of new state owned enterprises. The allocations of scarce resources were used to strengthen these sectors under the process of central planning. This kind of economic policy required a lot of resources from the
state
to
finance
public
enterprises, which were the causes for growing budget deficit (Jammal, 1996). After the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, the Government of Ethiopia initiated a broad spectrum of economic reforms. The reform programs include reorienting the economy from command to market economy, rationalizing the role of the state, creating policy environment to enhance private sector investment, the adoption of Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI), Structural Adjustment process (SAP), Civil Service Reform, reorientation of government budget towards to poverty oriented sectors (MoFED, 2002). Although substantial policy changes have been undertaken to improve resource allocation in the public sector more remains to be done to strengthen the process of expenditure planning and budget allocation. In view of limited resource and increasing demands, there is a need to strengthen expenditure planning and budget allocation processes, so as to promote efficiency and sustainability of public investment program. Contemporary studies show that governments which have effective fiscal rules have stronger budget www.ijmer.in
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discipline. These rules focus on formal and informal procedures for preparing, adopting, and implementing the budget (Schick, 2007). The bigger the budget, the more important it is that strict accounting discipline is adhered to. Otherwise massive waste and fraud will be a likely outcome. Competent financial management practices do not ensure that everything is fine, just that the major flaws can be found (Chan, 2008). In light of this information, this research has tried to investigate how the selected Woredas in the zone manage and control their budget by their respective units as elaborated in the next problem statements. Statement of the Problem In developing countries, it has become increasingly complex to manage public expenditure allocation because the roles of the government have been expanded and financial resources are in scarce supply to meet this ever-increasing social needs and population growth. Due to inadequate financial resources as opposed to an increasing demand for public services, there is a need to improve resource allocation through proper economic policy and expenditure planning. Premchand (1983) apply summarizes that the main roles of public expenditure planning and management as follows: a) Relate expenditure decisions to specified policy objectives and resources; b) Relate all major decisions to the state of the national economy; c) Ensure efficiency and effectiveness in the implementation of government programs; and d) Facilitate legislative control over the various phases of the budgetary process.
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An institution sustains for a lengthy period of time so long as it accomplishes its activities in accordance with stated missions. In order to achieve these missions and objectives, the organization must build a strategy according to the existing situations. It should also prepare annual plan and budget based on the strategy. One of the responsibilities of budget users is controlling costs and constantly improving the ways of doing things. However, at the same time several problems remain unsolved with regard to the budget preparation, execution, and control in various budgetary units. Therefore, this paper will focus on investigating the gaps in budget management and control of Woredas’ budgetary units. In many of the budget users, gaps are observed in organizing their plans as per the strategy of the government;
and
in
preparing
budget
without
submission
of
annual work plan. Even the proposed budget is inconsistent with fiscal calendar and not in line with the real existing situation. Besides, accumulation of huge amount of cash, i.e. idle cash, is observed that can be used for other developmental activities. On the other hand, the Planning and Budget Department, which controls budget of the Woredas’ has a lion’s share role to follow-up the implementation of their budget whether it is utilized for the intended purpose or not. In this regard, some people say that the problems resulted from the budget users are due to weak budget management of this department. In brief, the paper focused on the following main research questions. 1. What are the causes for mismatch between plan and budget in the Woredas? 2. What weaknesses are observed in budget execution? 3. Are there suitable control mechanisms for budget execution? www.ijmer.in
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4. What deviations are observed in budgetary records compared to the country’s rules and regulations? 5. Is there performance auditing practice to evaluate effectiveness and efficiency of the Woredas’ budget utilization?
the
Therefore, this research paper has tried to address the above critical issues to improve the Woredas’ budget management and control mechanisms. Objective of the Study General objective The general objective of the study was to obtain, assess, and analyze publicly available data on the budget management and control of selected Woredas of Ilu Ababor Zone as well as to locate the key Problem areas that seek attention and improvement. The specific objectives are: 1. To assess the treatment of the relationship between plan and budget; 2. To identify the causes of mismatch between plan and budget; 3. To review mechanisms used to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of budget utilization in the Planning and Budget Department and users; 4. To identify budget control gaps and budgetary record departures; 5. To indicate whether there is performance audit practice as a means to control budget; and 6. To suggest possible recommendations on the observed problems and gaps.
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II. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Research Design Based on the objective of the study, the research was designed to include questionnaires and interview. The questionnaires were composed of close-ended questions. They were filled by budget users, Woredas Planning and Budget Department, and Woredas audit experts. In addition, interview questions were used to expand clear data which were not explained in the structured questionnaires. Population and Sample of the Study The population of the study was all Woredas of Ilu Ababor Zone. There are 22 (twenty two) Woredas and two city administrations in the zone with finance and economic development offices as budget holder in each of them. It was not possible to consider all budget holders in the sample due to the spread and remoteness of the population. Thus, the study focused on purposefully selected part of the population. Moreover, most of the budget users were homogeneous in nature except the proportion of budget allotted to them. Accordingly, the sample will be selected by purposive sampling method. Among these budget holders, five Woredas namely: Bedele, Yayo, Chora, Hurumu and Mettu Woredas were taken as samples with a total of 510 respondents. Besides, one of each Woredas’ Planning and Budget expert and audit professional were selected by lottery method; the sample size has been 5 (five) budget experts and 5 (five) audit professionals. Similarly, 100 budget users were selected from each Woredas by using the same method. In addition, interview was conducted with either Woredas administrators or finance and economic development office heads of each of the Woredas to get additional information.
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Sources and Instruments of Data Collection Once the total sample size from each population was determined, possible techniques were employed, that are both primary and secondary sources in order to gather relevant data. The primary data were collected through structured questionnaire filled in the form of schedule by enumerators to be employed at each of the selected Woredas as well as personal interview. The schedule was presented to 500 budget users. Personal interview was conducted with the higher officials of the Woredas, specifically; the Woredas Administrator or the finance and economic development office head who was available. Documents have also been reviewed at each of the Woredas. The study schedule contained general information, questions related to planning, budget preparation, implementation, control and records. Most of the questions were designed to be closed-ended. Likert scales of questionnaire data were applied to collect the data from all respondents. The scale was labeled as: “Strongly Agree”, Agree”, “Neutral”, “Disagree”, and “Strongly Disagree”. The secondary data were collected from books, internet (i.e., e-journals, web articles), manuals, audited annual reports, proclamations, and regulations. Methods of Data Analysis and Interpretation The type of data collection method is of great value to interpret them properly. The data that were gathered from primary and secondary sources have been analyzed using both mixed data analysis methods. The data collected in the course of questionnaire were analyzed and presented using SPSS application and descriptive statistics such as tables, graphs, and percentages. Qualitative method of data analysis has been employed for feedbacks obtained using open-ended questionnaires, and interviews. The literature review was entirely from secondary sources whereas; the analysis part relied on primary data that was collected through structured www.ijmer.in
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questionnaire and personal interview. It also depended on secondary data which were collected from budgetary documents of the selected Woredas. II.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this chapter the data collected from different Woredas of the zone is analyzed and interpreted. As indicated in the introductory part of the paper SPSS application has been applied to analyze the data. The descriptive analyses were also supported by the open ended responses given by the respondents during the collection of data, interview responses, reports and reviewed literatures. Chart 3.1 Office plans linkage to the annual budget
According to chart 3.1, more than half of the respondents (55%) replied that they disagree with the idea that plans of their office are systematically linked to the annual budget, 2.1% of them agree with the idea and the rest 42.9% of the respondents strongly agree that plans of www.ijmer.in
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the office are systematically linked to the annual budget. This implies that, even though the number of people who believe that there is a systematic linkage between plans of the office and the annual budget is not less, the number of people who believe that there is no systematic linkage between the two is moderately higher, which may led to the generalization that there is few/no systematic relationship between the two. Chart 3.2 There is problem of matching plan with budget in your office
As it is demonstrated by chart 3.2, almost all (38.4% and 58.5% of the population agree and strongly agree) with the idea respectively. Very few portions of the respondents (3.1%) disagree with this idea. This reveals that there is a significant mismatch between plan and budget in the zone. www.ijmer.in
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Table 3.1 Office utilizes the approved budget based on its plan.
Frequency Percent Valid
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Disagree
265
55.0
55.0
55.0
Agree
6
1.2
1.2
56.2
Strongly agree
211
43.8
43.8
100.0
Total
482
100.0
100.0
According to table 3.11 above, majority of the respondents disagree with the idea that their office utilized the approved budget based on its plan. The rest 1.2% and 43.8% of the respondents agree and strongly agree with the statement. In this case the portion of respondents who responded that the budget is not utilized based on plan is moderately higher than those who responded budget utilization was based on the plan. This means that utilization of budget is not in accordance with the plan. Chart 3.3 There are strong budget control mechanisms.
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It can be observed from chart 3.3 that 265(55%) of the respondents disagree that their office has strong budget control mechanism. However, 217(45%) of them strongly agree that their office has strong budget control mechanism. From this, one can conclude that many offices in the selected Woredas do not have strong budget control mechanism. Chart 3.4 The current budget implementation and control of your office is sufficient.
From chart 3.4, one can see that 265(55%) of the respondents strongly disagree that the current budget implementation and control of their office is sufficient. On the contrary, 192(39.8%) of them strongly agree that the current budget implementation and control of their office is sufficient. Therefore, it can be concluded that the current implementation and control of budget in the offices is not sufficient in many of the study areas.
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Chart 3.5 There is underutilization of budget in your office
As it can be understood from chart 3.5, most of the respondents, 265(55%) of the respondents didn’t suggest whether there is underutilization of budget in their office or not. Never the less, 188(39%) and 4(0.8%) of them agree and strongly agree that there is underutilization of budget while 25(5.2%) disagree that there is underutilization of budget. From this, one can conclude that there was under-utilization of budget in some of the offices in the study areas. Chart 3.6 Office keeps complete budgetary records in accordance with the country’s financial administration proclamation and regulations.
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As it is documented by chart 3.6, 265(55%) and 217(45%) of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed that their office keeps complete budgetary records as per the financial administration proclamation of the country. One can understand from this data that the offices in the study area keep budgetary records in accordance with budgetary records in accordance with budgetary and financial administration proclamation of the country. Chart 3.7 The financial statement of your office is audited regularly by an independent auditor
Chart 3.7 shows that 214(44.4%) of the respondents strongly agreed that the financial statements of their offices were audited by an independent auditor regularly. However, only 3(0.6%) of them disagreed with this idea; whereas 265(55%) of them were neutral. This shows that many of budget users do not know whether budget was being audited by independent auditor or not.
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Table 3.2 Performance audit is conducted in your office.
Frequency Percent
Valid
Cumulative
Percent
Percent
Valid Disagree
268
55.6
55.6
55.6
Strongly agree
214
44.4
44.4
100.0
Total
482
100.0
100.0
One can see from table 3.1 that 268(55.6%) of the respondents disagreed that performance audit was being conducted in their office. On the other hand, 214(44.4%) of the respondents strongly agreed with the idea that performance audit is conducted. From this data, one can conclude that performance audit was not being conducted in the offices which are found in the study area. To conclude this section, three basic problems were identified. The first is lack of consistency of budget reports with plans and the second is independent audit problems while the last is lack of performance audit. These all problems are interrelated. That is if performance audit were in place reports would be forced to be consistent with plans. Similarly, if independent auditors regularly performed all the types of audits, they would recommend ways of improvement. III.
CONCLUSION
From the data, it was identified that there were many problems related to budget preparation, implementation and control in the Woredas. As it was understood from the data, there is shortage of skilled personnel power to prepare budget in accordance with planned activities. There, weaknesses directly relate to usage of appropriate data and estimate while preparing budget. Utilizing data appropriately and www.ijmer.in
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forecasting budget based on planned activities needs higher level of expertise. Therefore, since there was no adequate number of professionals, one cannot expect reliable use of data and estimates for forecasting. The data also revealed the same. It demonstrated that there was no adequate use of reliable data and estimate in the offices under study. The other related weaknesses found in the analysis were overestimation of budget. Since there were problems of appropriate use of reliable data and estimate and the number of professionals was adequate, it is expected that there could not be good estimation of budget because it needs expertise. The analysis showed the same; the budget estimated for each program was over estimated. Still, the other related problem is problem of matching plan with budget since this also asks for professional expertise. In this regard, the budget utilization was not as per he planned activities. There were problems identified in relation to expenditure budget implementation and control. Some of them include preparation of monthly cash flow demand, frequent request for budget transfer and supplementary budget, budget evaluation against main activities, huge expenditure at the end of the budget years, facing budget shortage before year end, weak budget control mechanism, and frequent request for budget adjustments after budget approval and overspending of budget. It was also identified that there were under utilization and weak budget control. Similarly, it was seen that there were problems regarding expenditure reporting for each period. It was identified that although better expenditure budget documentation, expenditure budget was not accurately charged to the appropriate budget period or budget year.
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IV.
RECOMMENDATION
Based on the conclusion given above, the researchers forwarded the following recommendations thinking that the problems could be solved if the concerned bodies take action based on the recommendations. The number of professionals of plan and budget should be improved. The root cause for many of the problems identified was lack of adequate and appropriate professionals in the field of planning and budgeting. Many problems like lack of budget estimation based on reliable data, frequent request for budget transfers and supplementary budget, etc. can be solved by improving the number and the quality of professionals through hiring new and training the existing experts. There should be adequate expenditure monitoring and control. The higher officials should strictly follow up the implementation of expenditure to avoid underutilization of budget while the need of using is not satisfied. Performance audit should be functional in all Woredas of the zone. Since performance audit is a remedy for efficiency and effectiveness, it should be executed in all Woredas of the zone. There should be regular independent (external) audit of expenditure management. The recommendations of external auditors are key ideas for an organization to come out of incorrect trends. Therefore, it is highly recommended that external auditors ought to make overall all audit activities at least once a year and their recommendations shall be implemented every year they suggest so that improvement can be seen from year to year. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Thanking the almighty God before all, we are heartily thankful to Mettu University, particularly Research Directorate for financing and for making remarkable and relentless cooperation from the beginning to the end of this research work. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to each individual who gave us excellent and constructive ideas with tireless assistance as well as encouragement, guidance and www.ijmer.in
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support from the initial to the final level. Thirdly we would like to appreciate the data collectors and lastly, we offer our regards and blessings to all respondents who provided appropriate information for their invaluable assistance. REFERENCES [1]
Chan, K 2008, Financial management in the department of defence, available at
, viewed on December 10, 2009.
[2]
Dejene Aredo (1996). Ethiopian Resaerch,vol.18 No. 2, Addis Ababa.
Journal
of
Development
[3]
Jammal Mohommed (1996). Adustment in Ethiopa: Lessons from the Road , Edited by Taddesse Abadi and Takie Alemu, Addis Ababa
[4]
MoFED (2002). Ethiopia: Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program. Ministry of Finance and Economic Development. Addis Ababa
[5]
Premchand, A. (1983). Government Budgeting and Expenditure Control: Theory and Pracitce. Washington.
[6]
Schick, A. (1969). The road to PPB: The stages of budget reform”, in James W. Davis, Jr. (ed). Politics, Programs and Budgets. Cliffs, New Jursey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
[7]
Teshome Mulat (1993). Trends in Government Expenditure Finance, Ethiopian Journal of
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MANJULA PADMANABHAN’S KLEPTOMANIA: “A MULTIFACETED MANIA” Padma Rampalli Ph.D Research scholar Sri Krishna University Machilipatnam,Andhra Pradesh Abstract Literature is a form of compulsive stealing where writers use their families’, friend’s real-life issues in their writings to make their work interesting. The dictionary defines Kleptomania as a recurrent urge to steal, typically without regard for need or profit. Kleptomania is also the title of a short story in Manjula Padmanabhan’s anthology entitled, Kleptomania. Manjula focuses on talking about writers and how they find their subjects. This Paper studies Manjula’s style of taking real-life issues through ways in which she plunders the lives of those around her in the pursuit of the art. The writer explains the attitude of people in facing real issues and the inability to tell the truth. She voices through the characters that people must fight against illegal issues and need dare to question those people who hinder the growth of society. Key words: Kleptomania, Illegal Issues, Real-Life issues. Introduction Delhi born Manjula Padmanabhan in 1953, successfully tried her hand at all types of literature. It includes plays, travelogues, comic strips, short stories, novels and children’s books and additionally she is an artist, cartoonist and illustrator before entering in the area of literature.All her works have versatile themes ranging from mystery to science fiction. Padmanabhan’s first play Lights Out (1984) has been performed on stage and on television. She has illustrated 21 children’s books. And her collection of short stories, Kleptomania and Three Virgins was published in 2004 and2013. She has also written novels www.ijmer.in
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Getting there, 2000,Escape, 2008and The Island of lost girls, 2013.Padmanabhan as an Illustrator,produced
The
Enchanted
Jungle (1979), A visit to cityMarket (1986),Unprincess(2005),I am different! Can you find me? (2011).Through her Onassis award winning play, Harvest, 1997,Padmanabhan makes a successful attempt at a science fiction on stage for the first time in India. Kleptomania is defined as recurrent compulsion to steal without regard to the value or use of the objects stolen. In kleptomania, Manjula Padmanabhan showcases her style of taking real-life issues through ways in which she plunders the lives of those around her in the pursuit of the art. “What he says is certainly true of me: ultimately, in various disguises and shadowy references, it is my family, my friends and the locales in which I have lived or grown up in, that appear repeatedly in what I write”. (Xi-klp) The title, kleptomania striked to Manjula Padmanabhan while taking a gander at a book representation and outline - publicizing in vogue minimal sixties boutique in London, in which a female snatching a precious trinket from the shop while the owner yells after her “Kleptomania!”-that was the name of the shop.This leads to her imagination enough to write a story about people who have compulsive need to rob others in different means and ways! Her friend tells her of an incident involving her mother’s collection of perfumes; it gives her the kernel of truth around which shefashioned other characters. This leads kelptomania as semi-fictional story. Manjula accepts to make a story fascinating; an author must incorporate genuine issues and concerns along with imagination. Manjula has chosen very apt title “Kleptomania” which acclimates us with the subtleties of the words. "All writers are kleptomaniacs" and the thought that there is an impulse among the high society people to steal from hosts at parties to a socially relevant www.ijmer.in
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“powerful bureaucrats in our country and all compulsive looters and thieves”! (Article) There is a systematized thievishness of debasement in the story. Yet the last turn takes the word, Kleptomania to its freak amazing and is exasperating and shocking. Such tearing remark is a trademark of Manjula Padmanabhan's style. Kleptomania features with seven characters and a couple with their handsome teenage son. Sheila,Bhasho and their son Kamal host the party, where Russi,Ruby, Siddharth(sid), Mrs.Billimoria, Misty aunty , Mr.Vakil and Mrs.Vakil are guests. The story opens with a discussion over a dining table on Russi’s generation of authors. Russi asks a question for which Shiela is about to answer but notices a flicker of movement through the plateglass top of her dining table, Mrs.vakil keeps something in her vanity pouch and exclaims with unexpected force, the word “kleptomania”!Padmanabhan describes Russi in a cartoonist satirical skill:“His eyebrows are like twin caterpillars, black and woolly, perched on the faintly sweating expanse of his forehead. They reared up together now, in pained surprise”. (3) Russi Billamoria worries for the word ‘kleptomania’ and demands Sheila to explain the word kleptomania.Ruby, sister of Russi is the new consultant of Bhasho’s firm and in her honour the dinner has been arranged by Sheila and Bhasho. Ruby admits that literature is a form of compulsive stealingwhere writers uses their families’, friend’s real-life issues in their writings to make their work interesting. Ruby exclaims that the writers really don’t know that they do it when they are consciously writing about their own families and they don’t realize how expensive it is for the victims, socially.Mother of Ruby and Russi,Mrs.Billimoria conforms that Russi writes about their family and secretsin his stories. Ruby and Mrs.Billimoria never mind for that and helps him whatever he needs. But few might object that as Ruby says about Misty Aunty, whom Russi includes in his writings. Mrs.Vakil andRuby’s fiance’ www.ijmer.in
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Siddhartha called as Sid, express anyone should mind stories which are not real. Some people like Mrs. Vakil never mind what writers take from the real life. “I read them today and forget them tomorrow.”(6) Middle-aged, Mrs.Vakil is the wife of a wealthy man and a mother of three children. Kleptomania is not only stealing of other lifeissues or situations but also there are many forms according to Manjula, Mrs. Vakil is a “Maniac”!The vanity pouch in Mrs.Vakil’s lap distracts the attention of Sheila as she wants to penetrate it with sharp vision to identify the thing stolen. As Sheila is the hostess of the party, she is in bondage of constraints, feels her spirit flinging itself in futile rage against the fine, invisible bars of her cage. She re-enters the conversation in order to maintain the civilities. Shiela makes a point that poets are less to include real life issues in their works. But Sid exclaims that poets are not kleptomaniacs as they don’t actually remove anything – they borrow and transform. Russi interrupts the conversation by saying poets are looters of the first degree!“They aim their attention at all the warm, fuzzy balloons people cushion their lives with, and they puncture them. They reach into the lives of their friends and lovers, they skim away whatever is of interest, to use it in their own work.” (7) Sid believes that kleptomaniacs, typically doesn’t take things of real value. It is not what they take that matters, but that they’re compulsive about it, they can’t help themselves. This is obvious in Mrs. Vakil’s disorder of stealing things despite her richness.Sheila wants to stop the conversation to announce that there is kleptomania in their very midst that is Mrs. Vakil. Sheila looks pointedly in Mrs.Vakils’s direction and recollects about her aunt’s party in which a guest steals perfumes of her aunt and she fails to stop as she is the hostess of the party. Sheila plays a role of good hostess and not in a position to ask guests to return the item.
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Manjula focuses on talking about writers and how they find their subjects. She voices through Sheila in the story that no one can ever be that sure unless they catch a person red-handed. And she believes kleptomaniacs are known to be quite cunning in their way.Mrs.Billimoria rasps it as ridiculous and that if she is the hostess of the party, she would have been let the thief go out of the house until she gets her things back and won’t hesitate to do a body search to find her things. As Russi contemplates that the topic is tremendously diverting, he breaks new ground that in India the average person would rather cutoff his own feet than be caught saying something blunt and honest. As a reflexive, intuitive patriot Bhashoo ripostes that Indians are too polite and maintain basic values. And in rampant jingoist mode,he views that in Indian culture hosts honour the guests as a social contract and the obligations of hospitality over mere possessions. Mrs.Vakil’s husband, Mr.Vakhil who is Bhasho’s second-in-command at the office, intervene and contemplates that the nature of the theft would be determined by the nature of the item. Suddenly Kamal who sits between Mr.Vakil and Russi interjects and utters painfully blooming quality that kleptomaniacs don’t usually take such things! Everyone at the table flinches at the sound of adolescent voice. Sid supports Kamal and remarks that kleptomaniacs take odd things-precious but not usually significant in the national security sense. Bhasho enquires Kamal, where does he encounter Kelptomania term. In response Kamal answers: “English class”, said Kamal, his voice continuing to scrape its way through the air. ‘Discussing prefixes to the word “mania”. I chose this one. Lookedit up on the net’. (13) And exclaims that kleptomania is common amongst females andit is not stealing things at home but something else!Sheila observes an adolescent curious expression in kamal’s eyes. She feels that her son is obviously heartstopping handsome. It disconcerts her, feels as if he is a stranger to her and through his looks she notices www.ijmer.in
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unfathomable expression and exclaims : “They take things they want, mostly even things they don’t need- and they can’t help themselves”.(14) In responseto sheila’s statement, Russi exclaimsthat “art cannot control itself”, compulsively it must take whatever its attention fastens onto, if not it isn’t an art!Everyone in the party is enjoying with delicious food and drinks except the one, whose thing is stolen! Sheila desperately wants to get her thing back from Mrs. Vakil. In that context sheila questions Russi: “Whatwould you do, for instance, if you knew someone at your table had stolen something?” He disregards her question and diverts it to other sort of things like the “Tehelka scam”. He exclaimsthat nobody even talks about it! People usually never dare to face real issues as they feel,it is not good to go against powerful opponents, simply it ends in gossip. And it shows the inability to face or tell the truth and the willingness to hide behind excuses. Manjula explains the attitude of people in facing real issues and the inability to tell the truth and voices that people must fight against illegal issues and need dare to question those people who hinders the growth of society. Manjula Padmanabhan voices through sid that powerful bureaucrats in our country are all compulsive looters and thieves and we are unable to confront them:The frenzy to keep up appearances at any cost, while the vandals and culprits still walk the streets with garlands around their necks,the people who tried to expose them are hiding in the bushes like hunted animals.(klp16) Kleptomania is multifaceted; it might be in the form of many ways. It is the natural human condition!People never realize the shades of meaning it could have and consider this in some form or another! We in our culture do not believe in the possessive urge. The material spirit doesn’t interest us. Perhaps that is why such terms come to us from the WEST!! Padmanabhan voices throughMr.Vakil that if we lose something today, we do not mind it so much and feel www.ijmer.in
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that it is only one more illusion in the grand illusion. Mrs.vakil admits that pleasure in stealing is compulsive that it is not in one’s control. Unlike his wife, he suggests saying“adieu” to those perfumes and forget, to Shiela. Russi frowns for Mr.Vakil’s view about materialistic possessions and he raises a doubt that if the people are sufficiently attached to their possessions why they feel worth stealing from others? Whence does the pleasure arise? (18) Bhashoo states that one nation is unwilling to expose wrong doers and it has to be done discretely and nothing can be achieved from being vindictive for those people,it’s crude and unreasonable. It happens due to lack of self control. Russi condemns Bashoo’s thoughts and says self control is appropriate when the occasion is gentle. But if the nature of a crime is extreme in the deepest nature-uncontrolled corruption, state –sponsored programs, murder, all comes under institutionalized kleptomania.Corruption has become prevalent aspect of Indian society, also has become an increasingly important part of life and deeply rooted at all levels. It is major hurdle for the economic development of society. In all sectors people are accustomed for bribes whether they belong to politics or bureaucracy.Indian economic policies are promoting the opportunity for public resources for private benefit. After dinner every guest at Sheila’s house wants to relax. Russi asks for Kamal’s room as he wants to use his toilet. Sheila advised to escort Russi to her personal room to use toilet. Sheila’s mind is on Mrs.Vakils pouch and the thing in the pouch. Sheila marvels that she doesn’t know what thing is stolen. She glances her drawing room to find the missing thing but she couldn’t trace it as the things are very huge to fit in the vanity pouch. In India, Manjula is one of the few women writers who can narrate sex and sexulaity honestly, cleverly, and in a way that is impactful, however never whiz kid. Russi enters the room along with
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Kamal,nobody recognizes his lust for Kamal! In a helpless condition,Kamal caught in the hands of Russi. He satisfied with his emotions towards Kamal and comes out of the room in a casual manner as nothing has happened!As Sheila gets doubt by seeing the closeness between Russi and Ruby and exclaims for their unhealthy behaviour and doubts whether they are really siblings!Sheila doubts Russi for his abnormality and becomes panic and searches for her son. She realizes that her child is a victim in the hands of Russi.Sheila collapses for Russi’s brazen behaviour towards Kamal and shouts in anger for his disgusting behaviour. “Shiela said,“Supposing it was the most…’ She paused to catch her breath and to stop herself from crying out loud, ‘… precious thing you ever had”? (27) Russi answers that life is an impregnable fortress which nothing of real can be taken. Nothing can be done to undo the harm and the fact is that even one thing can be taken against, weakens hold on every other thing in life. Even, if one tries to get the objects back, the complacence is gone forever. He says that if anyone complains him in return, he might tear limb from limb. His complex layered contempt tone makes Sheila passive and remains helpless. No otherin the party is aware of the scene between Russi and Sheila! “He whispers in her ears: you, your son, me, this party, all attachments, all love-illusions!Loss is one thing no one can steal from you. Ever. Loss is forever. Hold on to it .Cherish it”. (29) Works cited: 1. Padmanabhan Manjula, Kleptomania-ten stories, Penguin Books India, New Delhi,2004. 2. http://www.researchinsight.co.in–Vol.1,Issue 1,July 2014-- Dr.Pra d ny a shailee Sawai’s Article. 3. http://www.sawnet.org/books/reviews.php?kleptomania 4. http://www.hindu.com/lr/2004/06/06/stories/2004060600080100.htm www.ijmer.in
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jgh lkekftd] lkaLd`frd] jktuhfrd] ,oa euksoSKkfud leL;k;sa Lor% gh gy gks tk;sxhaA izLrkouk% fdlh Hkh lekt ds fuekZ.k esa f’k{kd dh vge~ Hkwfedk gksrh gS blfy, f’k{kd dks ges’kk mPp vknZ’kksZ]uohu ewY;ksa rFkk oSKkfud n`f”Vdks.k ds lkFk gh ,d mPp dksfV dk nk’kZfud gksuk vfr vko’;d gS A rHkh og vius fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks orZeku oSf’od izfrLinkZ esa lQy cukus ds fy, O;kolkf;d dkS’kyks ds lkFk&lkFk thou izfdz;k esa lekt }kjk fu/kkZfjr ewY;ksa dks fl[kk ldrs gSaA D;kasfd lekt dk vPNk ukxfjd dh vPNk lekt lsod TkSls MkDVj]bathfu;j]usrk ]vfHkusrk] fdlku vkSj vU; O;olk;h cu ldrk gS A bl fy, izR;sd f’k{kd dks loZ izFke vius iwokZxzgksa dks R;kx dj Nqnz vko’;drkvksa dh iwfrZ ls Åij mB dj lEiw.kZ ekuo dY;k.k dh Hkkouk ls vius dk;Z esa vuklDr deZ djuk vko’;d gSA blds fy, uohu Kku ds lkFk izkphu Kku dh iw.kZ tkudkjh j[kuh vfuok;Z gSA orZeku le; esa lEiw.kZ lekt esa cgq la[;d O;fDr tkfrokn]{ks=okn]UkLyokn]O;fDrokn esa fleV dj jg x;k gSA ftlls lEiw.kZ ekuo lekt esa ekuoh; fj’rksa ,oa i;kZoj.k esa yxkrkj lEcU/k [kRe gksrs fn[kk;h ns jgk gSA O;fDr Lo;a dh mUufr ds fy, uhfr fu;eksa dk mYya?ku dj vius ls detksj yksxksa dk ‘kks”k.k dj UkSfrd iru ds dxkj ij gSA ,sls esa f’k{kd gh lekt esa ,d u;h fn’kk iznku dj ldrk gSA blds fy, f’k{kdksa dks izf’k{k.k nsrs le; funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ nsuk vfr vko’;d gS ftlls os f’k{k.k dks lekt dk lcls mrjnk;h dk;Z le>dj vius drZO; dk fuoZgu Lo;a dj ldsxsa vkSj vius O;ogkj ,oa f’k{k.k vf/kxe izfdz;k ls lekt esa ifjorZu ykus dk iz;kl djsxsaA rHkh lEiw.kZ jk”V ,oa ekuo lekt dk fodkl lEHko gSA pawfd Hkkjrh; ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa izR;sd f’k{kd izf’k{k.k laLFkkuksa]fo’o fo|ky;ksa]egkfo|ky;ksa esa v/;kid izf’k{k.kkfFkZ;ksa dks funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dh O;oLFkk djuk dfBu gSA D;ksfd orZeku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ iz.kkyh tfVy ,oa vfFkZd n`f”V ls Hkh vf/kd ewY;oku gSA Hkkjr tSls ns’k esa tgkWa vkt Hkh yksx jksth&jksVh ds fy, f’k{kd cuuk pgrsa gSa ogka izR;sd izf’k{k.kkFkhZ dks funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dh O;oLFkk djuk dsoy dksjh dYiuk gksxhA ysfdu fcuk funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ ds ;ksX; f’k{kd cu gh ugha ldrsa gSA blfy, ‘kks/kkFkhZ }kjk izkphu Hkkjrh f’k{kk O;oLFkk ds Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk ls funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ iz.kkyh dks lHkh f’k{kd izf’k{k.k laLFkkuksa esa nsus dk lq>ko fn;k gSA www.ijmer.in
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fo|;eku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk egkHkkjr ds ;q) esa txrxq: ;ksx’oj d`”.k }kj vtqZu dks fufer ekudj lEiw.kZ ekuo tkfr ds dY;k.k gsrq funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ fn;k x;k gSA ftlesa euq”; ds tUe ls ysdj e`R;q ds Ik’pkr rd ds ckjs esa crk;k x;k gSA fd euq”; dSls viuk m)kj Lo;a dj ldsA deksZ dk Qy D;k gS\ mls vius lekt ds lkFk dSls lkeatL; LFkkfir djukA D;kasfd orZeku le; eas HkkSfrd ,oa miHkksDrkoknh laLd`fr us euq”; dks vusd euksjksxksa ls xzfLkr dj fn;k gSA gekjk thou ekufld nckoksa o ruko ls Hkjk iMk gS ;g ihMk] O;Fkk] fo’kkn] Dys’k bR;kfn ls vkØkUr gaS] fdlh Hkh ijh{kk dh ?kMh esa ge fojks/kh vkosxksa ds e/; yM[kMk tkrs gSa vkSj ;g fu’p; ugha dj ikrs fd dkSu lk ekxZ viuk;sa vFkok D;k djsa \ okLro esa euq”; dh leL;k ;g gS fd tc ijLij fojks/kh vkosx gekjs leLr iz;Ruksa dks xfrghu o v’kDr dj nsa vkSj ge vius vki dks iw.kZ vfuf’pr dh fLFkfr esa ik;s arks ml voLFkk esa larqfyr thou dSls fcrk;s \ dSls viuh cqf) o ekufld ‘kkafr dks cuk;s j[ks \ ’kksd vkSj ihMk dks fdl izdkj ‘kkafriwoZd lgu dj ijh{kk ds {k.kksa esa fdl izdkj ldkjkRed fopkjks ls var%dj.k dh vkokt ds vuqdwy dk;Z djsaA vtqZu dks Hkh ;q) ds eSnku esa eksg dh fLFkfr gqbZ FkhA vtqZu dh ;g fLFkfr vk/;kRetxr esa vkRek ds va/kdkj dh fLFkfr dgh tkrh gSA Jhd`”.k vtqZu dh bl fLFkfr dks ns[kdj mls ;q) djus dks funsZ’k nsrs gSaA os dgrs gSa %& loZ /kekZu ifjR;T; ekesd ‘kj.ka ozt A vga Roa ikisH;ksa eks{kf;”;kfe ek ‘kqp%AA lHkh iwokZxzg dks R;kxdj gs ikFkZ! rw esjh ‘kj.k esa vkA eSa rw>s lHkh ikiksa ls eqDr dj nwaxkA xhrk dk ;g lans’k lkoZHkkSfed gSA ;g gekjs thou esa ge lcds ân; esa ?kfVr gksus okyk ;q) gh gSA vkt izR;sd O;fDr thou esa }U} dh fLFkfr esa gSA oLrqr% Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk euq”; ds thou dks ,d ldkjkRed fn’kk fn[kkrh gSa vkSj y{; Hksnu esa ekxZ izLkLr djrh gSA egkRek xkWa/kh th dgk djrs Fks ^^tc eSa fujk’kk ls f?kj tkrk gw¡ ml le; eq>s dksbZ vk’kk dh fdj.k ugha fn[kkbZ nsrk rks eSa xhrk dh ‘kj.k eaS tkrk g¡w mlls eq>s dksbZ u dksbZ ,slh fdj.k fey tkrh gS tks esjs thou dks izdk’k iznku djrk gSA**xka/kh th tSls egku f’k{kkfon]nk’kZfud]fpUrd us xhrk ls izsj.kk ysdj fczfV’k ‘kklu ds lkFk vfgalkRe ;q) dj fot; izkIr dh A blh RkF; dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, ‘kks/kkFkhZ us lEiw.kZ f’k{kdks gsrq Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fo|eku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dh vko’;drk dks le>h gSA
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
lEiw.kZ xhrk esa d`”.k vkSj vtqZu ds chp funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dh izfdz;k 18 v/;k; vkSj 700 ‘yksdksa esa gSaA ftlesa ‘kks/kkFkhZ us funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ okys ‘yksdksa dks vyx fpfUgr dj orZeku fUknsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ iz.kkyh dh mi;ksxhrk gsrq foospuk gsrq [kkst fudkyus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA funsZ’ku funsZ’ku fdlh leL;k dk lek/kku djus dh ;ksX;rk gSA funsZ’ku O;fDRk dh cqf)erkiw.kZ p;u ,oa lek;kstu ds fy, nh x;h bl izdkj dh lgk;rk gSA ftlds QyLo:Ik O;fDr vius O;fDrRo] {kerk] ;ksX;rk vkSj ekufld Lrj dk Kku izkIr djrk gSA lkFk gh lkekftd laxBuks dh egŸkk dh tkudkjh izkIr dj ldsa] fd la;qDr ifjokj dk gekjs fodkl ij D;k izHkko iMrk gS vkSj euq"; dks lkekftd izk.kh cukus esa rFkk mudk uSfrd] laosfxd] ’kkjhfjd rFkk ckSf)d fodkl esa iFk&izn’kZu djuk lekt dk mŸkjnkf;Ro gSA bl n`f"V ls f’k{kk esa funsZ’ku dk ?kfu"B lEcU/k gSA funsZ’ku dh izfØ;k fodklkRed vk;ke ds :Ik esa gh iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS D;ksafd fof’k”V lsok ds :Ik esa ;g izfØ;k le:Ik dsfUnzr gksus ds lkFk lsokFkhZ dsfUnzr vf/kd gksrh gSA Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa izR;sd ekuo dks funsZ’ku fn;k x;k gS fd mls viuh :fp ds vuqlkj deZ dks viukdj vuklDr gksdj deZ esa dq’kyrk izkIr djuk pkfg,A D;kasfd lalkj ds lHkh Js”B oLrqvksa] xq.kksa esa bZ’oj fo|eku gksrs gSaA bl fy, izR;sd ekuo dks Lo;a gh viuk KkukRed] HkkokRed] fØ;kRed fodkl ds fy, Kku;ksx] HkfDr;ksx] deZ;ksx ds }kjk mPp ls mPp in izkIr djuk pkfg, rHkh O;fDr gh eks{k rd izkIr dj ldrs gaSA D;ksfd izR;sd O;fDr viuk fodkl Lo;a djrk gS A Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk ekuo thou fodkl gsrq funsZ’ku fn;k x;k gS fd izR;sd O;fDr dks viuk m)kj Lo;a djuk gS m)jsnkReukRekua ukRekueolkn;sr vkReSo ãkReuks cU/kqjkREkSo fjiqjkReu%AA 6@5 euq"; Hkolkxj ls viuk m)kj Lo;a djs vkSj viuh v/kksxfr u gksus nsaA D;ksafd euq"; Lo;a gh viuk fe= vkSj Lo;a viuk 'k=q gSA euq"; dh HkykbZ vkSj cqjkbZ djus okyk lalkj esa dksbZ nwljk O;fDr ;k nsork ugha gSA cfYd euq"; Lo;a gh gS vU; yksx mldh HkykbZ rc djrs gSa tc og viuh
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
HkykbZ pkgdj Lo;a Js"B dk;Z djrk gS lq[k&nq%[k gSA
ds fy, euq"; Lo;a mRkjnk;h
cU/kqjkRekReuLrL;k ;sukReSokReuk ftr% vukReuLrq 'k=qRos orsZrkReSo 'k=qor
6@6
ftlus Lo;a dks thr fy;k gS og O;fDr Lo;a gh viuk cU/kq gS ftlus Lo;a dks ugha thrk gS og Lo;a gh viuk 'k=q gSA lekt ds izR;sd v/;kid dks nk’kZfud] euksoSKkfud] lkekftd ,o 'kSf{kd n`f"V ls funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ fn;k tk;sxk rks rHkh jk”Vª ds izR;sd O;fDr dsO;fDrRo dk iw.kZ fodkl gks ldrk gSA ijke’kZ ijke'kZ lsok O;fDr dh lq/kkjkRed izfdz;k gS blesa ijke'kZnkrk }kjk ijke'kZ izkFkhZ dks y{; izkIr djus esa lgk;rk nh tkrh gS funsZ’ku ls lEcfU/kr bu lsokvksa ds vUrxZr ijke’kZ lsok dk lokZf/kd egRoiw.kZ LFkku gSA izkphu le; esa ijke’kZ lsok orZeku dh vis{kk lgt FkhA fo|ky; ds f’k{kdksa ;k lekt ds izfrf”Br O;fDRk }kjk ijke’kZ iznku fd;k tkrk FkkA D;ksafd lekt ds IkzR;sd O;fDr ,d&nwljs ij iwjk fo’okl fd;k djrs FksA ijUrq orZeku le; esa lekt dk Lo:Ik vR;Ur tfVy gks pqdk gSA vkt ix&ix ij izR;sd O;fDr ds le{k vusd leL;k,a gaSA bu leL;kvksa dk lek/kku Hkh ,d tfVy izfØ;k gS] blfy, izf’k{kr O;fDr }kjk gh ijke’kZ fn;k tkuk pkfg,A blds fy, ckyd dks thou dh izkjfEHkd voLFkk ls gh funsZ’ku ds lkFk ijke’kZ dh vR;f/kd vko’;drk gSA rHkh ckyd dh ftKklk ‘kkar dh tk ldrh vkSj mlesa rdZ ‘kfDr dh vknrksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA bUgh vknrksa ls O;fDr ds O;fDrRo dk fuekZ.k gksrk gS A ijke’kZ esa O;fDRk dh leL;k O;fDRkxr gksrh gS] izkFkhZ ekufld :Ik ls LoLF; ugha gksrk gSA blfy, og fu.kZ; ysus esa vleFkZ gksrk TkSls egkHkkjr ds ;q) esa vtqZu dks vius lxs lEcfU/k;ksa dks ;q) Hkwfe esa ns[kdj eksg ¼ekufld jksx½ gks x;k vkSj vius lkjFkh Jhd`”.k ls dgus yxs & ^^dki.kZ.;nks”kksa igrLoHkko% i`PNkfe Roka /keZlEew
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
f’k”;Lrs∙ga ‘kkf/k eka Roka iziUue**AA 2@7 dk;jrk :Ik nks”k ls migr gq, LoHkko okyk rFkk /keZ ds fo”k; esa eksfgr fpr gqvk eSa vtqZu vkils iwNrk gwWa fd tks lk/ku fuf’pr dY;k.k dkjd gks mls eq>s dfg;sA D;ksafd eSa vkidk f’k”; g¡w blfy, vkids ‘kj.k vk;k gw¡] eq>dks f’k{kk nhft;sxkA fQj Jhd`”.k vtqZu dks ijke’kZ nsrs gSaA fopkj&foe’kZ] okrkZyki rFkk lkSgknZiw.kZ rdZ&fordZ ls vtqZu ds eksg ls eqDr djrs gSa vkSj {kf=; /keZ dh tkudkjh nsrs gaSA fd ,d {k=h dks /keZ ;q) djuk gS rFkk ;q) ls Hkkxuk dk;jrk gSA bfrgkl rqEgsa dk;j dgsxk ;g rqEgsa Lohdkj gSA vtqZu dgrk gS ;g Lohdkj ugha gS rc fu.kZ; yhft;s ;q) djuk gSA ,sls gh f’k{kd izf’k{k.k dky esa izf’k{k.kkFkhZ vius izk/;kidksa ls ijke’kZ ysdj lkekftd]vkfFkZd]euksoSKkfud ,oa nk’kZfud leL;kvksa dks gy dj vius deZ ds ekxZ esa vkus okyh leL;kvksa dks gy dj ldrs gSaA bl izdkj vtqZu &d`”.k ls dgrs gSa& Uk”Vks eksg% Le`fryZC/kk RoRizlknkUe;kP;qr A
fLFkrks∙fLe xrlUnsg% dfj”;s opua roAA 18@73 vtqZu cksys gs&vP;qr! vkidh d`ik ls esjk eksg u”V gks x;k gS vkSj eSaus Le`fr izkIr dj yh gSA vc eSa la’k; jfgr gksdj fLFkj gw¡ vr% vkidh vkKk dk ikyu d:¡xkA orZeku le; esa dksbZ f’k{kd ckj&ckj vius y{; dks ikus esa vlQy gksrk gS rks og ekufld :Ik ls vLoLFk gksdj nk’kZfudksa lh Hkk”kk cksyus yxrk gS vkSj Lo;a vius dŸkZO; ls iyk;u djus dh lksprk gS ftlls vusd lkekftd] vkfFkZd] euksoSKkfud leL;kvksa ls xzfLr gks tkrk gSA ,sls le; esa Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fo|eku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ ds rRoksa dk mi;ksx dj] lalkj dk gj izfr;ksxh iqu% vius y{; izkfIr ds fy, iwjh lkeF;Z ls dk;Z dj ldrk gSA ijke’kZ dh izfØ;k %& ijke’kZ dh izfØ;k esa ijke’kZnkrk tks fd izkFkhZ ds mn~ns’; izkfIr gsrq ijke’kZ fn;k tkrk gSA bl fy, ijke’kZ ,d f=/kzqoh; izfØ;k gSA ftlds rhu vax gS A 1-
ijke’kZ ds y{;
2-
izzkFkhZ ¼micks/;½
3-
ijke’kZnkrk ¼micks/kd½
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
ijke’kZ dh izfØ;k dk loZizFke egRoiw.kZ ?kVd gS y{; dks fu/kkZfjr djukA bu y{;ksa dks izkFkhZ ,oa ijke’kZnkrk ds okrkoj.k ,oa lekt ds vuq:Ik gh fu/kkZfjr fd;k tkrk gSA y{;ksa ds fu/kkZj.k esa lsokFkhZ dh :fp;ksa] vko’;drkvksa ,oa okrkoj.k dk Hkh /;ku j[kuk iMrk gSA ,d izdkj ls ijke’kZ dk y{;] lsokFkhZ dks ewY;ksa ds iqu% vUos”k.k esa lgk;rk iznku djuk gksrk gSA ijke’kZ dk eq[; mn~ns’; lsokFkhZ esa rhu xq.kksa dk fodkl djuk gS ;Fkk %& 1- vkRe&Kku 2- vkRe&Lohd`fr 3- lkekftd lkeatL; vkRe Kku %& izR;sd O;fDr dks Lo;a dh ‘kkfDr] {kerk] ;ksX;rk ,oa lEHkkoukvksa dh tkudkjh gksuh vko’;d gSA ftlls O;fDr xyr ekxZ ls fopfyr ugha gksrk gSA blds fy, izR;sd O;fDr dks Lo;a dh vUrj&vkRek dh vkokt lqudj fu.kZ; ysus esa l{ke gks ldsA blds fy, ijke’kZnkrk }kjk izkFkhZ dh lgk;rk dh tkrh gSA bl lEcU/k esa lhrkjke t;loky us fy[kk gS ^^ijke’kZ ,d izdkj ls ml T;ksfr ds leku gS] ftlds mi;ksx ls O;fDr dks Lo;a ds vUnj o ckã Lo:Ik dks ifgpkuus esa lgk;rk izkIr gksrh gSA** vkRe&Lohd`fr %& vkRe&Lohd`fr ls vk’k; O;fDr }kjk Lo;a ds O;fDrRo ;k izfrfcEc dks Lohdkj djuk gS vkSj Lo;a ds ckjs esa mfpr n`f”Vdks.k j[kukA ,sls vusd O;fDr gksrs gSa tks Lo;a ds ckjs esa mfpr n`f”Vdks.k ugha cuk ikrs] dksbZ fu.kZ; ugha ys ikrsA ,sls O;fDr ges’kk nwljksa ls Lohd`fr dh vis{kk djrs gSaA blfy, izR;sd O;fDr dks viuh lhekvksa rFkk U;wurkvksa dk Kku gksuk vko’;d gS] blds vHkko esa O;fDr Lo;a ds ckjs esa vuqfpr /kkj.kk fodflr dj fujk’kk] grk’kk ,oa vlQyrk dk lkeuk djrs gSaA lkekftd&lkeatL; %& lekt esa vusd izdkj ds yksx gksrs gSa blds fy, vko’;d gS fd izR;sd O;fDr dks nwljs ds lkFk lkeatL; LFkkfir djukA D;ksafd O;fDr ds le{k fofHkUu leL;kvksa dk tUe lkekftd&lek;kstu u dj ikus ds dkj.k gksrk gSA blds fy, O;fDr dks ladh.kZ fpUr ls eqDr gksuk gksrk gS vkSj thou ds vUr e`R;q ds Ik’pkr deZQy rd dk Kku gksuk vko’;d gSA rHkh O;fDr tkfr] /keZ] fyax] jax vkSj fopkj/kkjk ds vk/kkj ij ,d nwljs ds lkFk dHkh Hkh fdlh izdkj dk HksnHkko ugha djsxsaA
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
izLrqr ‘kks/k esa lekt ds lHkh Lrj ds izfr;ksfx;ksa dks vius dk;Z esa dq’kyrk izkIr djus ,oa thou esa vkus okyh gj pqukSfr;kas dk lkeuk djus ds lEcU/k esa funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ fn;k x;k gSA vtqZu dks fufer ekudj Jhd`”.k }kjk funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ fn;k x;k gS fd thou ds izfrdwy ijfLFkfr;ksa esa ‘kjhfjd rFkk ekufLkd :i fcekj gks rks Hkh O;fDRk dks vius O;olk; ls dHkh Hkh iyk;u ugha djuk] cfYd vuklDr deZ djrs gq, deZ esa dq’kyrk izkIr dj HkxoRo ¼[kq’kgkyh½ izkIr djus dk iz;kl fujUrj djrs jguk pkfg,A vko’;drk ,oa egRo % ;fn lkekt ds lHkh f’k{kd iw.kZ lei.kZ ds lkFk Kku;ksx]HkfDr;ksx rFkk deZ;ksx ls f’k{k.k dk;Z lEiUu djrs gSa rks lEiw.kZ jk”Vª ds ukxfjd pfj=oku laLdkjoku cu ldrs gSaA lkFk gh os vius O;olk; f’k{kk ds dkS’kyksa dks orZeku foKku ,oa rduhdh ls lh[k ldrs gSa lkFk gh izkphu f’k{kd&Nk= lEcU/kksa ls izsj.kk ysdj ekuoh; ewY;ksa dk laj{k.k dj ldrs gSaA rHkh lEiw.kZ jk”Vª ds yksxksa Js”Brk o ghurk ds vykok Hkksx]Hk; tSls euksjksxksa ls eqfDr ikdj lerkewyd lekt ds fuekZ.k esa viuh Hkwfedk lgh
Lkjdkjh fu;eksa dk lgh
vi;kZIr osru
O;olkf;d lqj{kk dk vHkko
vf/kd dk;Z Hkkj
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fo|eku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ f'k{kk ls lalkj ds dbZ egkiq#"kksa us vuqdwy ,oa izfrdwy ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa iszj.kk ysdj vius O;olk; esa Js"Brk izkIr dh gSA orZeku oSf'od ifjizs{k esa Xykscy izfr;ksfxrk f’k{kd ,oa f’kf{kdk dks vius O;olk; esa dq'ky gksus ds fy, nk'kZfud] euksoSKkfud] lkekftd] funsZ'ku ,oa ijke'kZ dh vko';drk gS blds fy, Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fo|eku funsZ'ku ,oa ijke'kZ lcls mi;ksxh gSA fdUrq blesa 'kks/kksa dk vHkko gksus ds dkj.k 'kks/kkFkhZ }kjk Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa pk:y] ,e0ds0 % ^^Hkxon~xhrk dk ‘kSf{kd n’kZu** ih0,p0Mh0 f’k{kk ‘kkL= ¼1971½A nkl ]ds0%^^lka[;;ksx ,oa xhrk es O;fDrRo dh vko/kkj.kk** ih0& ,p0Mh ¼1975½A ds’kj] ,p0% ^^vk/kqfud f’k{kk ds lanHkZ esa xhrk ,d vf/kxe dh izfØ;k ds leku gS**ih0&,p0Mh0 f’k{kk ‘kkL=¼1986½] ‘kekZ]vkn’kZ %Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa O;fDrRo dh izd`fr ,oa fodkl% ^^vk/kqfud lekt esa ‘kSf{kd vuq:irk** ¼1990)A f'kU?ky]vkjrh^^vk/kqfud Hkkjrh; ifjizs{; esa Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk dk 'kS{kf.kd fufgrkFkZ ,oa mldh izklafxdrk dk ,d vkykspukRed v/;;u**¼2005&06½ cqansy[k.M] ik.Ms] fotsUnzukFk ^^orZeku ifjos'k esa xhrk n'kZu ds 'kSf{kd fufgrkFkksZa dk lekykspukRed v/;;u** 2007 A dksVukyk cqf)izdk'k ^^lka[; n'kZu esa izfrikfnr euksoSKkfud i{kksa dk foospukRed v/;;u** ¼2009½ RkFkk funsZ'ku ,oa ijke'kZ essa okfy;k Mh0%^^izfrHkk'kkyh fd'kksjksa ,oa muds vkRecks/k dk v/;;u**] ¼1973½ A izhfr]JhokLro%^^funsZf’kr ,oa vfunsZf’kr ek/;fed fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh ‘kSf{kd miyfC/k&vkRecks/k ,oa O;fDrRo dk rqyukRed v/;;u** ¼2000) ]flag] ,l0 ¼1985½ ^^mÙkj izns’k ds nfjnz ?kjksa esa fuokl dj jgs ckydksa dh funsZ’ku vko’;drk;sa** ‘kh”kZd ls fd;s x;s 'kks/kksa ,oa Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fy[kh x;h iqLrdksa ,oa fVdkvksa dk v/;;u djds izLrqr 'kks/k mn~ns’;ksa dks vk/kkj cuk;k x;kA leL;k dFku% izLrqr v/;;u dk ‘kh”kZd fuEu gS %& izxfr’khy lekt ds fuek.kZ esa v/;kid f’k{kd izf’k{k.k esa JhenHkxonxhrk }kjk iznr funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dh mi;ksfxrk dk ,d foospukRed v/;;u** leL;k dk ifjHkk”khdj.k % izLrqr ‘kks/k izcU/k gsrq p;u fd;s x;s ‘kh”kZd ds izeq[k rF;ksa dks fuEu izdkj ls ifjHkkf”kr fd;k x;k gSA
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izxfr’khy lekt% og lekt ftlesa :f
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
fd;k x;k gSA leLr ‘kks/k rdZ ,oa foospuk ij vk/kkfjr gSA ewyr% ekuo dY;k.k gsrq izsj.kklzksr fcUnqvksa dks izLrqr ‘kks/k esa ladfyr fd;k x;k gSA ‘kks/k iz;ksx ij vk/kkfjr ugha gSA ;g foospuk rdZ ,oa lwpukvksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa ekuo dY;k.k ,oa ckydksa ds O;fDrRo fodkl gsrq fofHkUu izdkj ds fo"k;ksa dks Jhd`”.k&vtqZu laokn }kjk le>kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA mn~ns’;% 1 v/;kidksa esa vius dk;Z izfr leiZ.k gsrq vuklfDr deZ dh izsj.kk ysdj vius O;olk; ds izfr larks”k ,oa mrjnkf;Ro dh Hkkouk fodflr djukA 2 O;fDrRo fodkl gsrq euksoSKkfud ,oa nk’kZfud fpUru dk tUe fodflr djukA 3 v/;kidksa esa mPp vkn’kZ ,oa uSfrd ewY;ksa dks fodflr djukA 4 lekt esa O;kIr cqjkbZ;ksa dks lekIr djus esa lr~r iz;kl djus gsrq izd`fr ls izsj.kk ysukA 5 uohu Kku izkIr djus dh ftKklk ds lkFk&lkFk izkphu ekuoh; ewY;ksa dk laj{k.k djukA 6 orZekuk oS’ohdj.k ,oa futhdj.k ds nkSj esa v/;kid dh xfjek dks Js”B cukuk vkSj lEiw.kZ ekuo lekt esa olqnSo dqVqEcde~ dh Hkkouk dk fodkl djuk A v/;;u dh fof/k izLrqr v/;;u esa nk’kZfud ,oa rkfdZd fof/k;ksa dks eq[; vk/kkj cuk;k x;k gSA ;g ‘kks/k iz;ksxksa ij vk/kkfjr ugha gS] vfirq foospu] rdZ ,oa ladyu ij vk/kkfjr gSA vr% izLrqr ‘kks/k dk Lo:I lkfgfR;d foospukRed rFkk iqLrdh; gksxkA izLrqr v/;;u egkHkkjr ds Hkh”e ioZ esa fLFkr xhrk Kku dh ewy jpuk ds vykok fofHkUu fo}kuksa }kjk fyf[kr Vhdkvksa iqLrdksa ds fo’ys”k.k v/;;u ij vk/kkfjr gSA eq[; lzksr %& egkHkkjr rFkk Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk dh ewy fdrkcsa rFkk funsZ’ku rFkk ijke’kZ]v/;kid f’k{kd]f’k{kk euksfoKku]f’k{kk rduhdh] lekt’kkL=] n’kZu’kkL= dh iqLrdksa dk fo’ys”k.kkRed v/;;uA xkS.k lzksr %& i=&if=dk,a] iqLrdksa esa ladfyr lwpukvksa dk laxzgA ifjdYiuk %& ifjdYiuk dk iz;ksx eq[; :Ik ls lakf[;dh v/;;uksa ds {ks= eas vf/kd fd;k tkrk gS izzLrqr ‘kks/k dk;Z ‘kSf{kd ,oa nk’kZfud fopkjksa ij vk/kkfjr
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gSA fopkjksa Hkkoukvksa dk ijh{k.k ,oa ewY;kadu oLrqfu”B ,oa iz;ksx ds vk/kkj ij leqfpr ugha gSA v/;;u dk fu”d”kZ 21oha ‘knh esa izR;sd ekuo dk lEiw.kZ fodkl gsrq euksoSKkfud iz;ksxksa] ijh{k.kksa ds vkykok lkekftd ,oa nk’kZfud fof/k ls funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ nsuk Hkh vko;’;d gSA ftlls og Lo;a rFkk lekt dk iw.kZ fodkl dj lEiw.kZ ekuo tkfr ds fy, jpukRed :Ik ls mi;ksxh dk;Z dj ldsA ‘kks/k esa ‘kks/kkFkhZ }kjk fu/kZkfjr fd;s x;s mn~ns’;ksa dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fufgr rRoksa ds orZeku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ iz.kkyh ds ‘kSf{kd Lo:Ik dh foospuk djus ij fuEufyf[kr fu”d”kZ fudys gSaA 1 v/;kidks dks izf’k{k.k ds nkSjku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dh lewfpr O;oLFkk djus ij muesa vius O;oLkk; esa vuklDr deZ djds deZ esa dq’kyrk izkIr gksxh vkSj mUgs vius dk;Z esa larks”k rFkk lqj{kk dh Hkkouk gksxh ftlls os lekt fuekZ.k ,oa ekuo dY;k, gsrq fujUr KkuktZu djus dh ftKklk gksxhA 2 nk’kZfud]lkekftd ,oa euksoSKkfud :Ik ls funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ izkIr djus ds Ik’pkr v/;kidksa ds O;fDrRo dk iw.kZ fodkl gksxkA 3 Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk }kjk fn;s x;s funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ ls f’k{kd izf’k{kkFkhZ;ksa esa mPPk vkn’kZ]uSfrd fodkl ,oa ekuo thou dh lkFkZdrk dk fodkl gksxkA 4 Nk=k/;ki@Nk=k/;kfidk xhrk n’kZu dks vius thou esa vkRe’kkr djus ij fdlh izdkj Hkh Hk;xzflr ugha gksxsa vkSj thou&Ik;ZUr lekt esa O;kIr cqjkbZ;ksa dks lekIr djus dk iz;kl djsxsaA 5 Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fon~;eku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dks lgk;rk ls f’k{kd ges’kk izkphu vkn’kksZ ijEijkvksa]ekU;rkvksa vkSj ewY;ksa dk lEeku djrsa gq, u;s&u;s Kku izkIr djus dh ftKklk j[ksaxs vkSj vius deZ {ks= esa vk’kkoknh n`f”Vdks.k fodflr dj vius Nk=ksa esa HkkSfrd Kku ds lkFk vk/;kfRed O;ogkj fodflr dj muesa jpukRed dk;ksZa dks djus dh vknr fodflr djsxsaA 6orZeku oSf’od ,oa HkkSfrd ;qx esa f’k{kd O;olk; dh fxjrh xfjek dks ouk;s j[kus ds fy, f’k{kd vius O;ogkj ,oa dk;Z ls lkekt esa ifjorZu ykdj lekt esa fuEu vkSj mPp dk Hkko feVkdj Nk=ksa ds vUrj fufgr ‘kfDr;ksa dk fodkl dj muds O;fDrRo dks Js”B cukus dk iz;kl vuklDr :Ik ls djsxsa A www.ijmer.in
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
‘kks/k dh mikns;rk vk/kqfud f’k{kk iz.kkyh esa funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ rFkk izkphu funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dh fo'ys"k.kkRed v/;;u ls izkIr fu”d”kksZa dks f’k{kd&izf’k{k.k ds {ks= esa iz;ksx djds lEiw.kZ jk”Vª ds ekuo tkfr dks izxfr’khyrk] jpukRedrk ,oa lektksi;ksxh cuk;k tk ldrk gSA izLrqr ‘kks/k ds ek/;e ls Hkkjrh; laaLd`fr ds ewy Lo:Ik dks tkuus esa en~r fey ldrh gSA le; vkSj ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fufgr funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dks vk/kqfud lekt dh vko’;drkvksa ,oa vkdak{kkvks dh iwfrZZ djus esa lgk;d fl) gksxh vkSj iqu% Hkkjr dks txr xq: cukus esa lgk;d fLk) gksxhA blds vykok vU; {ks= TkSls Hkkjr dh [kks;h gqqbZ psruk dks txkuk] lkekftd ,drk] jk”Vhª; ,drk] Hkkjrh; laLd`fr dk lao/kZu djuk] f’k{kk esa funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ ds fof/k;ksa] izfof/k;ksa dks izkphu ,oa vk/kqfud nksukas izdkj ls nsuk bR;kfn vusd oSpkfjd fcUnqvksa ij Hkh bl ‘kks/k dh mikns;rk fl) gksxh gSA czãfo|k dk lEcU/k iw.kZ fo|k ls gSA ftls izkIr djuk izR;sd f’k{kd ds fy, vko’;d gSA blds fy, Jhen~Hkkxon~xhrk lcls mi;ksxh iqLrd gSA orZeku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ iz.kkyh esa bldh mikns;rk lcls vf/kd gSA D;ksafd orZeku le; esa ekuo dk HkkSfrd fodkl gksus ds dkj.k ekuo esa vusdkus ekufld] ‘kkjhfjd ,oa euksoSKkfud jksx mRiUu gks jgs gaSA ftl dkj.k ekuo dke] Øks/k] en] eksg] yksHk tSls vxq.kksa ds dkj.k IkzR;sd {ks= esa va/k&izfr;ksfxrk dj jgk gSA tc fd czãfo|k ekuo dks Lo;a ls gh yxkrkj Js”Brk gsrq] izfr;ksfxrk djus dk funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ nsrh gSA ckyd&ckfydkvksa dk fodkl ges’kk ldkjkRedrk] lgu’khyrk] ifo=rk] vHk;] mRlkg] meax ds lkFk Kku] HkfDr] deZ dh Js”Brk dh Hkkouk f’k{kk ds ek/;e ls nh tk ldrh gSA mDr leLr rF;ksa dks izdk’k esa ykus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA bl izdkj Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fufgr rRoksa dk orZeku esa funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ iz.kkyh esa mi;ksfxrk ds fl)kUrkas ,oa vkn’kksZa dk orZeku ifjizs{; esa ikyu fd;k tk;sxk rks lekt esa uSfrdrk] lekurk ,oa mPp vkn’kksZ dh LFkkiuk djus esa lgk;rk feysxhA xhrk esa fon~;eku funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ dks O;fDr ds iw.kZ fodkl gsrq O;ogkfjd :Ik fn;k tk;sxk rks lEiw.kZ lekt esa izR;sd O;fDr ,d vkn’kZ ,oa mÙke ukxfjd cusxkA ftlls lEiw.kZ fo’o esa mRiUu gks jgh lkekftd] lkaLd`frd] jktuhfrd] ,oa euksoSKkfud leL;k;sa Lor% gh gy gks tk;sxhaA fQj lEiw.kZ ekuo lekt esa lerkewyd gksdj izR;sd O;fDr ekuo dY;k.k gsrq HkkSfrd ,oa vk/;kfRed :Ik ls jpukRed ,oa l`tukRed dk;Z dj izxrhf'ky lekt dk www.ijmer.in
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
fuekZ.k dk;Z djsxkA vr%f’k{kdksa ,oa ckyd&ckfydkvksa ds fodkl ges’kk ldkjkRedrk] lgu’khyrk] ifo=rk] vHk;] mRlkg] meax ds lkFk Kku] HkfDr] deZ dh Js”Brk dh Hkkouk f’k{kk ds ek/;e ls nh tk ldrh gSA bl izdkj izxfr’khy lekt ds fuekZ.k esa v/;kid f’k{k.k&izf’k{k.k esa Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk esa fufgr rRoksa dk orZeku esa funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZ iz.kkyh esa mi;ksfxrk ds fl)kUrkas ,oa vkn’kksZa dk orZeku ifjizs{; esa ikyu fd;k tk;sxk rks lekt esa uSfrdrk] lekurk ,oa mPp vkn’kksZ dh LFkkiuk djus esa lgk;rk feysxhA rks fQj lEiw.kZ ekuo lekt lerkewyd gksdj izR;sd O;fDr ekuo dY;k.k gsrq HkkSfrd ,oa vk/;kfRed :Ik ls jpukRed ,oa l`tukRed dk;Z dj izxrhf'ky lekt dk fuekZ.k gksxk vkSj lEiw.kZ lalkj esa olqnSo dqVqEcda dh Hkkouk fodflr gksxhA laUnHkZ xzUFk lwph vxzoky]ch0oh0 % ^^vk/kqfud Hkkjrh; f'k{kk vkSj leL;k,Wa]**osnkUr ifCyds'kUl lkglh ekxZ]y[kuÅA dqIiq Lokeh] ch % ßlekt eukoSKkfud ds ewy rRoÞ &fodkl ifCyf'kax gkml izk0fy0 ubZ fnYyh] fgUnh vuqoknd JhdkUr O;kl 1975A tk;loky] lhrkjke % ßf’k{kk esa funsZ’ku ,oa ijke’kZÞ &fouksn iqLrd eafnj vkxjkA nqcs] jkekdkUr % ß’kSf{kd ,oa O;kolkf;d funsZ’ku ds ewy vk/kkjÞ &jkts’k ifCyf’kax gkml] esjBA ik.Ms;]jke'kdy % ^^f'k{kk vkSj n'kZu]** fouksn iqLrd eafnj MkWa jkaxso jk/ko ekxZ]vkxjkA ik.Ms;]jke'kdy % ^^mn~nh;eku Hkkjrh; lekt esa f'k{kd**] fouksn iqLrd eafnj vkxjkA ik.Ms;]jke'kdy % ^^ fo'o ds loZJs"B f'k{kk 'kkL=h**] fouksn iqLrd eafnj vkxjkA ik.Ms;]jke'kdy % ^^ f'k{kk ds nk'kZfud ,oa lekt 'kkL=h; i`"BHkwfe** fouksn iqLrd eafnj vkxjkA ik.Ms;]jke'kdy % f'k{kk n'kZu vkSj f'k[kk 'kkL=h]** fouksn iqLrd eafnj vkxjkA ik.Ms;]jke'kdy % ^^ewY; f'k{kk]** fouksn iqLrd eafnj vkxjkA www.ijmer.in
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ik.Ms;]jke'kdy %
^^ik'pkR; rFkk Hkkjrh; f'k{kk n'kZu** fouksn iqLrd eafnj vkxjkA
ik.Ms;]jke'kdy % ^^/keZ n'kZu vkSj f'k{kk** fouksn iqLrd eafnj vkxjkA ikBd]ih0Mh0 % ^^Hkkjrh; f'k{kk vkSj mldh leL;k,Wa**osnkUr ifCyds'kUl]lkguh ekxZ]y[kuÅA izseukFk % ^^ f'k{kk ds fl)kUr]**yksd Hkkjrh; izdk'ku**] bykgkckn1969A ik.Ms;] ds0ih0 % ß’kSf{kd rFkk O;kolkf;d funsZ’ku ds vk/kkjÞ &vferk’k izdk'ku fnYyhA nso]ds’ko % ßxhrk uouhrÞ nks [k.Mks esa] fnO; thou lkfgR; izdk’kd ikf.Mpsjh 1974A nso]ds’ko % ßxhrk foKku **fnO; thou lkfgR; ikf.Mpsjh A xk¡/kh] ,e0ds0 % ßvuklfDr ;ksxÞ & lLrk lkfgR; eaMy fnYyhA xk¡/kh] ,e0ds0 % ßxhrk cks/kÞ & tuthou izdk’ku eafnj vgenkoknA xks;Undk] t;nyky %^^xhrk rRo foospuh** &xhrk izsl xksj[kiqj2057A xks;Undk] t;nyky % ßlaf{kIr egkHkkjrÞ &xhrk izsl xksj[kiqjA ?kks”k ]vjfoUn % ß,lsr vku nh xhrkÞ & vk;Z ifCyf’kax gkml dydrkA Mksaxjs]jkepUnz % ^^Jhen~Hkxon~ jgL;** lnfopkj ifjokj vgenkckn&1 t;n;ky] xks;Undk % ßJhenHkxon~xhrk rRo foospukÞ &xksj[kiqj izslA tkykuk]eksrhyky%
^^JhenHkxon xhrk Hkk"kk** xhrk izsl xksj[kiqj laor~&2032A
txr xq#] ‘kadjkpk;Z % ßJhenHkxon~xhrkÞ & xhrk izsl xksj[kiqjA fryd] xaaxk/kj % ßxhrk jgL; Þ &deZ;ksx ‘kkL=A ukjk;.k lsB fryd eafnj iwukA nkl] jke lq[k % ßJhenHkxon~xhrkÞ & Mk;e.M ikdsV cqDl nfj;kxatA fnus’k] nhukukFk % ßgfjxhrkÞ ekuo /keZ dk;kZy; fnYyhA
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TECHNIQUES FOR CREACTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING IN TEACHER EDUCATION Soma Sekhar Principal Sri Sai College of Education Nandikotkur, Kurnool Abstract Creative thinking techniques were culled from the Internet and summarized Innovation, and Leadership Development, to help your organization succeed at innovation. Business success resides in the ability to lead creatively and innovate. Here are several approaches or techniques for teaching creatively, both general and specific to certain fields. More examples of field – specific approaches or techniques appear in the Creative teachers section. The Creative Education Foundation (CEF) is a Non-profit organization that mobilizes leaders in the field of creative theory and practice. We develop the next generation of creative thinkers and innovators, unlocking their unlimited potential to improve that the world. Our mission is to teach both adults and children how to use Creative Problem Solving to develop new ideas, solve problems and implement solutions. Creativity does not arise in a vacuum, it requires a certain degree of both general knowledge and field-specific knowledge. This is clearly true if we think of creativity as a form of innovation - we cannot know what is novel without a sense of what is already known in any area. Creativity at Work provides Training, Coaching and Consulting in Creativity, Role plays should give the students an opportunity to practice what they have learned and should intersect the student. Provide concrete information and clear role descriptions so that students can play their roles with confidence. Key Words: Think Creatively, Innovation, Learning Environment and Teaching Techniques.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(5), AUGUST 2016
INTRODUCTION Our mission is to teach both adults and children how to use Creative Problem Solving to develop new ideas, solve problems and implement solutions. Elena Karpova and Sara Marcketti have been teaching researching on creativity in their field of Textiles and Clothing. They receive a grant from the Papp john Center on “Lecturer to Think like an Entrepreneur; Development of Creativity Modules for Experiential Classrooms. The creativity course was taught in 2003 by Dan Rice, Administrative Advisor in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. Here Dan shares his syllabus. The Creative Education Foundation (CEF) is a non-profit organization that mobilizes leaders in the field of creative theory and practice. We develop the next generation of creative thinkers and innovators, unlocking their unlimited potential to improve that the world. “Elena and Sara also presented their findings at a CELT workshop. Barriers to creativity can be cultural (Am I supposed to stick my neck out”), emotional (Perhaps I can’t do this), or related to language and field (we don’t use metaphors here, we use data). Heuristics, or techniques for thinking, can offer ways around these barriers. CREATIVE TEACHING In order to teach creativity, one must teach creatively, that is, it will take a great deal of creative effort to bring out the most creative thinking in your classes. Of course, creativity is not the only required element for creative instructors. They must also know their fields and know how to create an appropriate learning environment. When will it be most important for you to offer direct instruction? When is discovery most important? What are your expectations and www.ijmer.in
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how can you best communicate them? Because answers to these questions are so diverse - even for individual instruction teaching different courses or at various times of the semester - no one technique will fit all needs. Here are several approaches or techniques for teaching creatively, both general and specific to certain fields. More examples of field – specific approaches or techniques appear in the Creative teachers section. GENERAL TECHNIQUES These creative thinking techniques were culled from the Internet and summarized by Yao Lu, a graduate student in AESHM (Apparel, Educational studies, and hospitality Management). Some of the techniques listed below are used in business training or in K-12 settings but can easily be adapted for college students. DEFINING CREATIVITY That teachable skill, creativity, has been defined in many ways. It has been called
A “mental activity performed in situations where there is no prior correct solution or answer” (Encyclopedia of Creativity, vol.2, “Teaching Creativity”)
A “process of developing new, uncommon, or unique ideas”
The “generation of novel, useful ideas”
No one idea of creativity fits all fields endeavor. Creativity calls on cognitive and non-cognitive skills, curiosity, intuition, and doggedness. Creative solutions can be created or discovered, in a flash or over a period of decades. At one time creativity was thought of as culture - changing product of genius like Thomas Edison, Marie Curie, or Steve Jobs. Over the past several year,s however emphasis on such phenomena, sometimes called www.ijmer.in
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“Big-C” creativity, has given way to an interest in what is called “littlec” or everyday creativity, a process in which many can and do participate. Creativity does not arise in a vacuum, it requires a certain degree of both general knowledge and field-specific knowledge. This is clearly true if we think of creativity as a form of innovation – we cannot know what is novel without a sense of what is already known in any area. Creativity at Work provides Training, Coaching and Consulting in Creativity, Innovation, and Leadership Development, to help your organization succeed at innovation. Business success resides in the ability to lead creatively and innovate. RESEARCHERS Who have attempted to measure creativity or creative aptitude use similar terms to describe it, including: ●
Fluency (number of ideas generated)
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Originality and imagination (unusual, unique, novel ideas)
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Elaboration (ability to explain ideas in detail)
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Flexibility curiosity, resistance to closure (ability to generate multiple solutions)
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Risk taking (willingness to be wrong and to admit it)
Barriers to creativity can be cultural (Am I supposed to stick my neck out”), emotional (Perhaps I can’t do this), or related to language and field (we don’t use metaphors here, we use data). Heuristics, or techniques for thinking, can offer ways around these barriers.
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CREATIVE TEAHERS ON CAMPUS Among Iowa State’s most well-known creative teachers is Bill Boon, Emeritus Professor of Landscape Architecture. For many years Bill taught Design Studies 129, Introduction to Creativity, which focused on “creativity and humor in the problem solving process” and the “use of lateral thinking for developing new ideas.” The creativity course was taught in 2003 by Dan Rice, Administrative Advisor in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. Here Dan shares his syllabus. A lecturer in the Greenlee School of Journalism and Communication, John Thomas, has shared his love of creativity with students in JL MC 497, Special Topics in Communications. Here are his syllabus for JL MC 497, and a sample activity. Students participating in activities, developed by Elena Karpova and Sara Marketti, designed to foster student creative problem-solving skill and hon-traditional thinking patterns. Elena Karpova and Sara Marcketti have been teaching researching on creativity in their field of Textiles and Clothing. They receive a grant from the Papp john Center on “Lecturer to Think like an Entrepreneur; Development of Creativity Modules for Experiential Classrooms. “Elena and Sara also presented their findings at a CELT workshop. CREATIVE INNOVATE THINKERS The Creative Education Foundation (CEF) is a non-profit organization that mobilizes leaders in the field of creative theory and practice. We develop the next generation of creative thinkers and innovators, unlocking their unlimited potential to improve that the world. Our mission is to teach both adults and children how to use Creative Problem Solving to develop new ideas, solve problems and implement solutions.
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LEARN- CREATE- INNOVATE Creativity at Work provides Training, Coaching and Consulting in Creativity, Innovation, and Leadership Development, to help your organization succeed at innovation. Business success resides in the ability to lead creatively and innovate. The problem is, very few leader know how to cultivate creativity in the workplace. We provide an integrative, whole-brain approach to developing creativity, leadership and innovation in organizations. ROLE PLAYING In most role-playing exercises, each student takes the role of a person affected by an issue and studies an issue or events from the perspective of that person. Role plays should give the students an opportunity to practice what they have learned and should intersect the student. Provide concrete information and clear role descriptions so that students can play their roles with confidence. Once the role play is finished, spend some time on debriefing. It accelerates and strengthens one’s natural creative problem-solving ability and to stimulate a large number of good, diverse ideas. When time allows, students can take advantage of incubation (unconscious thinking) and research processes. BRAINSTROMING Brainstorming, a useful tool to develop creative solutions to a problem, is a lateral thinking process by which students are asked to develop ideas or thought that may seem crazy or shocking at first. Participants can then change and improve them into original and useful ideas. Brainstorming can help define an issue, diagnose a problem, or possible solutions and resistance to proposed solutions. Define the problem clearly lay out any criteria to be met. Keep the session focused o the problem, but be sure that no one criticizes or www.ijmer.in
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evaluates ideas during the session, even if they are clearly impractical, criticism dampens creativity in the initial stages of a brainstorming session. Ideas should be listed, rather than developed deeply on the spot; the idea is to generate possibilities. Accordingly, participant should be encouraged to pick up on idea offered to create new ones. One person should be appointed as note-taker, and ideas should be studied and evaluated after the session. SLIP WRITING This method can gather ideal from large groups, numbering from the dozens of the hundreds. Participants are given slips of paper and asked to write down ideas which are discussed or evaluated. It collects a large number of ideas swiftly and creates a sense of participation or ownership at the same time. Each student is given a stack or note-pad of at least 25 small slips of paper. The pads can contain idea-jogging graphics or be designed so that ideas can be sorted and separated easily. A question or problem is read to the group (e.g., “How do we”? or “What would it take to?”). Students write down one idea per sheet, in any order. When writing begins to slow down, collect pads from students and offer quick feedback in the form of examples. If the group is very large, present examples from a limited sample of booklets. After the early feedback, analysis and evaluation can continue at a steadier pace to identify the most useful ideas and develop them into practicable proposals. FISH BONE - TECHNIQUES The fishbone techniques use a visual organizer to identify the possible causes of a problem. This technique discourages partial or premature solutions and demonstrates the relative importance of, and interactions between, different parts of a problem. On a broad sheet of paper, draw a long arrow horizontally across the middle of the page pointing to the right. Label the arrowhead with the title of the issue of www.ijmer.in
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be explained. This is the “backbone” of the “fish” “Draw” Spurs” from this “backbone” at about 45 degrees, one for every likely cause of the problem that the group can think of and label each, Sub-spurs can represent subsidiary causes. The group considers each spur/sub-spur, taking the simplest first, partly for clarity but also because a simple explanation may make more complex ones unnecessary. Ideally, the fishbone is redrawn so that position along the backbone reflects the relative importance of the different parts of the problem, with the most important at the head. CONCLUSIONS In order to teach creativity, one must teach creatively, that is, it will take a great deal of creative effort to bring out the most creative thinking in your classes. Moreover creativity is not the only required element for creative instructors. They must also know their fields and know how to create an appropriate learning environment. When will it be most important for a teach to offer direct instruction? What are the expectations of that particular subject/topic to implement creative methodology in order to communicate the concept in the best way. But it is sure that no one technique will fit all needs. References 1. Brookfield, Stephen D. and Stephen Preskill (1999), Discussion as a Way to Teaching Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. 2. San Francisco; Joscy-Bass, Finkel, Donal L (2000). Teaching with Your Mouth Shut. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton Cook. McEachic. Wilbert J. (1999). Teaching Tips, 10th od, and Boston. Houghton Mifflin. 3. Louise Hayward, Nicki Hedge (2005). Travelling towards change in assessment: policy, practice and research in education. Assessment in Education, 12,1 55-70. www.ijmer.in
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4. Neil Jones (2006). Assessment for Learning: the challenge for an examination board. 5. Excellence in Assessment: assessment for learning, Cambridge September 2006. 6. Caroline Gipps and Gordon Stobart (2007) Alternative Assessment. In: T Kellaghan & D L Stufflebeam (eds) International Handbook of Educational Evaluation.
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SEX WORKERS IN 21ST CENTURY WORLD Dr.N.Kiran Chandra Assistant Professor Dept. of Social Work Adikavi Nannaya University Rajamahendravaram 1. Introduction: The individuals are expected to conform to social standards under all conditions. When they conform social standards then they are regarded normal. But if the individuals do not conform to the norms which they are expected to, they are not regarded normal. In the condition of social disorganization characterized by norm less culture conflict or breakdown of rules, the individuals do not have any set of norms to follow or fail to observe any definite set of norms and as a result, their behaviour goes berserk. In such a situation, their personal organization collapses and they become personally disorganized and indulge in socially disapproved, deviant conduct. The sex workers existed in some form as long as society has attempted to regulate and control sex relationships through the institution of marriage and the family. Society has not recognized the ‘sex work’ because it brings in its train not only the personal disorganization of the persons concerned, but also affects the life organization of the family and the community at large. The Internet and the very handy cell-phones has added a new dimension globally to the sex industry and turned it into a multi-billion dollar industry. Its growth in the Indian and global market cannot be merely wished away, for it is the demand that creates the supply. Currently the demand supply-chain is so obvious that doing a simple Internet search can yield results on sex tourism and advice. For the vast majority of the world's prostituted women and children, www.ijmer.in
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prostitution is a nightmarish experience of being hunted, dominated, harassed and assaulted that leaves them battered physically, mentally and emotionally, despite the numerous forums and manifestoes drawn up to improve their situation. The Union health ministry reported to the supreme court that there are 6,88,751 "registered" sex workers. NACO estimates their population to be 12.63 lakh. Andhra Pradesh leads the list with more than one lakh registered female sex workers while Karnataka has 79,000. These two states are followed by Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and West Bengal. Among the metros, Delhi leads the list with 37,900 sex workers1. However, there are number of factors that the females who in the absence of any other means of support for herself or for her children resorts to sex work. The Cheating by the males in the name of “Love”, the desire to lead luxury life, the lack of family support and social control, lack of moral teachings, insistence of the family members, more contacts between men and women during employment, commercialized reaction including mass media, drinking and late marriages to keep higher standard of livings etc., are some of the recognized causes for this deviant conduct. This sort of deviation leads to the development of Sex Industry. There is a swift growth and development in the beginning of new millennium not only in the technology but also in the lives of persons in the modern society. This technology had impact on the sex workers also. In the last millennium sex worker were brother based, street based, madams, etc. with advancement of technology specially the Mobile Phone has changed the old models.
1
Times of India, 15th February 2011
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Now they are mobile based. These Commercial Sex Workers (CSWs) are now part-timers and are usually literates also; they are now carrying cell-phones, well dressed and are well groomed and cannot be compared to those who were lived in brothels. They have more mobility, earn higher incomes and have some freedom in choosing their clients who are mostly from the middle and upper classes of society. II. Review of Literature There are a number of authors who studied about the commercial sex workers and their health. Among them some studied about diseases of sex workers, some studied about the economic conditions. Health conditions were studied by some other authors. The present topic is not merely a Physical Health Topic alone. The other dimension of the health such as mental, social and cultural dimensions should also be considered. At this junction, the literature on the Health problems of commercial sex workers is very scarce. The trainee social worker has under gone the review of the literature. This chapter runs on the review of literature relating to the current study. Nithya Sambasivan2 (2011) The mobile phone penetration among the Urban Sex Workers (USWs) was 97%, which is an unusually high number for both: a developing nation population (the average wireless tele-density in India is 55.14% as of July, 2010 and women (who are 37% less likely to own a mobile phone in South Asia, as of February, 2010). Menorca Chaturvedi3 (2010) writes that it would rarely come across any woman who has taken up this profession by choice. Lack of
2
“Mobile remainders for Urban Sex Workers in India” http://www.mo bileactive.org/mobiles-and-urban-sex-workers-india enabled on 4-3-2011 3 Menorca Chaturvedi (2010), “Conditions of Sex Workers in India”, http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2010/01/conditions-of-sex-workers-in-india/ enabled on 04-03-2011
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employment, the realization of being unwanted at home, the hopelessness often force them to take such a drastic step. While some might have been sold into this trade by their husbands, or fathers, others might have been born into it, thus having no other option. Aravinda Gauda4(2010) They are the most derided sections of the society. Shunned by family and friends, they hug the darkness and disappear at the first light of dawn. Welcome to the world of sex workers. Efforts have been made to integrate them into the society. Road shows, art campaigns, seminars and rallies have tried to portray their plight. Jacobo Schifter and Felicity Thomas5 (2010) studied the migrated sex workers in Costa Rica in search of improved social and economic opportunities. Almost two-thirds of the sex workers who are from Costa Rica have also migrated, in this case from rural areas to urban centres such as San Jose. Importantly, migration, particularly for those coming from abroad, allows mothers, wives, girlfriends, or daughters a high degree of anonymity and protection from discrimination at home while also protecting their family from being associated with a loose woman. However, rather than being forced into sex work through poverty, many come from low-middle class backgrounds and have some secondary education. For some women, the appeal of raisin large sum of money in a relatively short period of time through sex work often underlies a move into the trade. The women in Costa Rica work in the sex industry primarily for the money, it is not usually because they have no money, 4
Aravinda Gauda, 2010, “Sex workers' eatery overcomes stigma”, India Today Magazine , Mysore, March 28, 2010 5 Jacono Schifter and Felicty Thomas, Mobility, Sexuality and AIDS, Chapter-9 titled “Fantasies, dependency and denial HIV and the sex industry in Costa Rica” Routledge, Oxon, ISBN 0-203-86914-1 Master e-book ISBN
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in the first place .Most of the women are already own a colour TV, washing machine and a refrigerator. Some now want the latest mobile phone, a Gucci purse or a trip to Miami. Anthony Elliott and John Urry6 (2010) Women released from traditional constraints, feel freer to engage in conventionally masculinized forms of sex, while men affected by the premium placed on open communication, now respond to the need for intimacy and affection in developing sexual relations. The ‘masculinization of sex’ and the ‘feminization of love’ which have adultery more frequent and more likely to be part of portable personhood in the context when multiple mobilises generate opportunities outside neighbourhood surveillance and regulation. Baliga, Linah (2010)7
There's a marked change in the
attitude and behaviourial patterns of
female sex workers in
Maharashtra towards condoms. They now insist on consistent use of condoms to prevent HIV transmission. In Maharashtra, condom use amongst brothel-based female sex workers (BB FSW) is as high as 98% in the case of paying clients. With non-paying partners, though, its use falls drastically to 54%. This difference shows up that faith in a partner-usually a spouse or a boyfriend- determines condom use amongst the surveyed sex workers. "This BSS report indicates that there is a definite change in the attitude of high risk groups (HRG) in safe sex practices, as far as the use of male and female condoms is concerned. But, the most important finding is that female sex workers do not use condoms with their trusted or regular partners. That's because they believe that their trusted or regular partners don't engage in sexual relations with any 6
Anthony Elliott, John Urry, Mobile Lives, Chapter-4, “The Globles and their mobilities”, P.103, Taylor & Francis, Oxon 7 Baliga, Linah, “98% of sex workers insist on condoms” Times of India, Mumbai, Oct 13, 2010
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other partner. This is a wrong notion," warned Dr S Kudalkar, project director, Mumbai District AIDS Control Society. In contrast, approximately 91% of non-brothel based female sex workers (NBB FSWs) reported consistent condom use with regular paying clients, while 94.5% used condoms consistently with occasional paying clients. Of those women who used protection, 68.2% used free condoms, 20.2% used branded condoms while only 5.7% reported using socially marketed condoms. Swendeman D, Basu I, Das S, Jana S, Rotheram-Borus 8
MJ. (2009) studied about the Sonagachi model which is now broadly diffused evidence-based empowerment program. They previously demonstrated significant condom use increases among female sex workers in a 16 month replication trial of the Sonagachi empowerment intervention (n=110) compared to a control community (n=106) receiving standard care of STD clinic, condom promotion, and peer education in two randomly assigned rural towns in West Bengal, India (Basu et al., 2004). The intervention's impacts on 21 measured variables reflecting five common factors of effective HIV/STD prevention programs to estimate the impact of empowerment strategies on HIV/STD prevention program goals. The intervention which was conducted in 2000-2001 significantly they found that 1) improved knowledge of STDs and condom protection from STD and HIV, and maintained STD/HIV risk perceptions despite treatment; 2) provided a frame to motivate change based on reframing sex work as valid work, increasing disclosure of profession, and instilling a hopeful future orientation reflected in desire for more education or training; 3) improved skills in sexual and workplace negotiations reflected in increased refusal, condom decision-making, and ability to change work 8 Swendeman D, Basu I, Das S, Jana S, Rotheram-Borus MJ (2009), “Empowering sex workers in India to reduce vulnerability to HIV and sexually transmitted diseases”. Center for Community Health, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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contract, but not ability to take leave; 4) built social support by increasing social interactions outside work, social function participation, and helping other sex workers; and 5) addressed environmental barriers of economic vulnerabilities by increasing savings and alternative income, but not working in other locations, nor reduced loan taking, and did not increase voting to build social capital. This study's results demonstrate that, compared to narrowcast clinical and prevention services alone, empowerment strategies can significantly impact a broader range of factors to reduce vulnerability to HIV/STDs. Satinder Bains(2009)9 Indian Govt. has failed to prevent the exploitation of sex workers in the country. Keeping this fact in mind, Apex court of the country has advised for legalization of sex work in India. More than 30 million sex workers in India are living in apathetic conditions, totally deprived of health security and social recognition. It is a need to under stand that urge for sex is as natural as desire for food and water. If it is not possible to quench it with in the formal framework, the natural alternative may be to find a voluntary medically fit sex worker. Increasing incidents of sex related crimes and women trafficking warrant that time has come when we must think of regularization and legalization of sex work in India, despite all odds. Vijayakumar G, Mabude Z, Smit J, Beksinska M, Lurie M (2006).10: Found out Of the four RCTs that evaluated male and female condom use, all found consistent or exclusive female-condom use much lower than consistent or exclusive male-condom use, between 5% and 13%. However, inconsistent use was often much higher for female than male condoms, because many women alternated between the male and 9
Satinder Bains (2009) “Legalizing Sex Work in India - A Dilemma”, Punjab News, Friday, 18 December 2009 10 A Review of Female-Condom Effectiveness: Patterns of Use and Impact on Protected Sex Acts and STI Incidence. Int J STD AIDS. 2006 Oct;17(10):652-9.
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female condoms. Of the four RCTs that measured Sexually Transmitted Infections incidence, two found lower STI incidences in the study arm that included the female condom, although both results were statistically insignificant. The one study that assessed STI prevalence found no reduction in prevalence between the control and interventions group. There was no consensus between the studies as to the demographic predictors of female-condom use. The authors concluded that considerable evidence exists to suggest that the female condom is effective both in increasing protected sex acts and possibly in reducing STI incidence. Manda Aufochs Gillespie (2005)11: states as “With the advent of the AIDS crisis and the significant public attention to that STD, condom use has been on the rise. As more people rely on condoms, not just for protection against unwanted pregnancy, but, also, for protection against unwanted diseases, there has not been a proportionate increase in effectiveness of condoms against disease. In fact, there has been remarkably little research on condoms and STDs at all”. Madan Mohan. M12 (2005): The sex workers are allowed to stay for a maximum of 15 days in dhabas if they happen to come from the neighbourhood. As much as 24 per cent of the sex workers and 14 per cent of the clients visit a doctor with at least one symptom of STI within three months and 57 per cent of the sex workers and 73 per cent of the clients are not aware of any method to protect themselves from STI. G.S.K. Velu13
(2005) (managing director of Metropolis
diagnostics chain): Most brides-to-be still shy away from seeking a pre11
fnewsmagazine: “STDs and Condoms: Are You Really Safe?” P.5. February 2005 The Hindu: Wednesday. May 25, 2005 13 “ Stigma bogs down pre-marital HIV screening”, The Hindu : Wednesday, Dec 28, 2005 P.1 12
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marital health screening of their suitors for HIV/AIDS, despite growing evidence about women being infected by their spouses. A strong undercurrent of stigma and little power to decide about their life are preventing young women from insisting on a health report of the prospective groom before agreeing for marriage India now has an estimated 5.1 million population living with HIV. A significant proportion of new infections are occurring in women who married men who had turned HIV positive from visits to Commercial Sex Workers. The HIV/AIDS prevalence in India is around one per cent among pregnant women. In the absence of HIV prevention measures, about 35 per cent of children born to HIV-infected women contract the virus. Although levels of HIV infection appear to have stabilised in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra, the trends are pushing upwards in high-risk groups in most other States. Durbar Mahila Samanvaya Committee (2005):
Women
take up prostitution for the same reason as they take up any other livelihood option available to them. Our stories are not fundamentally different from the labourer from Bihar who pulls a rickshaw in Calcutta, or the worker from Calcutta who works part-time in a factory in Bombay. Some of the sex workers get sold into the industry. After being bonded to the madam who has bought the sex worker for some years, the sex worker gain a degree of independence within the sex industry. Most of the sex workers end up in the sex trade after going through many experiences, often unwillingly, without fully understanding all the implications of being a prostitute. But when do women have access to choice within or outside the family? Do sex workers become casual or domestic labourers willingly? Do sex workers have a choice about who they want to marry and when? The choice is www.ijmer.in
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rarely real for most women, particularly poor women. Why do they end up staying in prostitution? It is, after all, a very tough occupation. The physical labour involved in providing sexual services to multiple clients in a working day is no less intense or rigorous than ploughing a field or working in a factory. There are occupational hazards such as unwanted pregnancy, painful abortions, and risk of sexually transmitted diseases. In almost all red light areas, housing and sanitation facilities are abysmal, the localities are crowded, most sex workers are quite poor, and there is constant police harassment and violence from local thugs. Moreover, to add to the material condition of deprivation and distress, we have to take on stigmatisation and marginalisation, the social indignity of being ‘sinful’, being mothers of illegitimate children, being the target of those children’s frustrations and anger14. K. Venugopala Rao (2005), (chairman, Foundation for Rural and Social Development (FRSD)) had conducted a study on `Sexual behaviour and vulnerability of highway sex workers to HIV/AIDS in Andhra Pradesh' has found a high 30 per cent of them to be HIV positive and 40 per cent afflicted by Sexually Transmitted Diseases, who led the study team. The study's results were presented by him at the seventh International conference on HIV /AIDS in Asia and Pacific held at Japan. Those surveyed indulged in sexual activities on the National Highway 7, National Highway 5, Guntur-Vijayawada and Rajahmundry highways. A majority (75 per cent) of the sex workers earned a meagre Rs.1,000 a month. They are not covered by any Government scheme and only 25 per cent are members of Self Help Groups. Their average family size is four and most of them have girl children. Twenty-five per
14
“Sex Workers Manifesto” Sarai Reader, 2005. Durbar Mahila Samanvaya Committee
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cent of these children go to school but the dropout rate is a high 50 per cent. The sex workers are fully aware of HIV/AIDS and supplied condoms to clients. They also know sexually transmitted infections are curable but complained of spending up to Rs. 400 a month on treatment. Among the problems faced in the profession, they single out "harassment by police15." Sangita Tej and Tejaskar Pamdey(2004): Experience of different countries has shown that although intelligent laws, effective and honest enforcement machinery and public vigilance can go a long way to control commercialised prostitution, legal measures alone are not able to check its many shapes and forms. Thus, the role of voluntary organisations in the prevention and control of prostitution and rehabilitations of prostitutes becomes very trivial. The involvement of community also becomes necessary because prostitution is basically a social problem16. Ward H, Day S, Green A, Cooper K, Weber JN. (2004)17 explained that the Condom use with clients for vaginal sex is almost universal, and has been since 1990 (98%), condom use for anal sex with clients has risen to 94%, systematic condom use with non-commercial partners has increased to 44%26-27. In contrast, there has been a significant reduction in condom use for oral sex. H.G. Thakor, J.K. Kosambiya, D.N. Umrigar, V.K. Desai (2004): Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) including HIV continue to present major health, social and economical problems in the developing world, leading to considerable morbidity, mortality and
15
The Hindu, English News Daily, Wednesday, Aug 10, 2005 ‘Lectures on Social Work” Jubilee’H’ Foundation, 2004 Dalibagh, Lucknow P. B-48. 17 Sex Transm Infect 2004,80:374–6.)
16
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stigma. The prevalence rates apparently are far higher in developing countries where STD treatments is less accessible. Strong epidemiological association between HIV and other STDs is noted in epidemiological studies. The annual incidence os STDs in India is estimated at 5 per cent18, which indicates the approximately 40 million new infections occur ever year. Marked variation has been observed among the studies that have been conducted so far in terms of patterns and levels or morbidity. Mr. Khairati Lal Bhola (2004) (President, Bhartiya Patita Uddhar Sabha (BPUS) NGO),: Stated that there is No change in sex workers' living conditions. Nearly a decade after rehabilitation work was initiated in the G.B. Road area of the Capital, the condition of the 4,500 permanent and 1,000 floating population of sex workers and their children here is yet to improve. Claiming that the benefits of the health schemes started in the area has not improved the condition of workers, The NGO working in the field for providing care and support to the workers, has written to the State Health Minister requesting him to look into the matter, threatening to go to court if conditions did not improve soon. The Organisation is protesting against the lack of medical care provided to the sex workers and their children. According to him, the problems in the area are many and the women are not equipped to fight them. As a result, one of the major causalities is the free condom distribution programme started by the Government some time back. "While the programme was started with much fanfare, the Government has failed to maintain its tempo. After having got over the initial hitch of supplying sub-standard condoms, the department has stopped supplying them at all,'' pointed out Mr. Bhola . 18
“Prevalence of Sexually Transmitted Infections in Sex worker of Surat City”, Indian Journal of Community Medicine, Vol. XXIX. No.3, July-September 2004.
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But the short supply of condoms is just one part of the story. The Central and State Government along with the Delhi AIDS Control Society has been active in the G.B. Road area in an effort to maintain the medical health of the workers. Aimed at improving the condition of women several plans have been chalked out including preparing health cards for workers, providing them accessible health check-up camps and allocating a maternity hospital to take care of their needs. They have, however, failed to provide any real medical assistance. Mr. Bhola explained that "We have been writing to the health departments asking them for assistance to maintain a healthy population in the area. One of our long standing demands has been to either provide a dispensary for sex workers and their children in the red light area or provide them medical health cards so that they can visit Government hospitals for free treatment and check-ups,'' He claims that a family health clinic was started at Mrs. Girdhar Lal Maternity Hospital to cater to the health needs of the G.B. Road population in general with special attention to commercial sex workers and a mobile dispensary was also provided in the area but no real help has reached the workers yet. For one the mobile dispensary is for only two hours a day and the service provided to the women at the hospital is also not satisfactory. "We have written several times to various authorities but the situation has only gone from bad to worse. And the little that is being done in the area is not enough for the large high-risk group population that exists here. The fact that these women have no health card and no maintained records adds to the non-accounted high risk population,'' says Mr. Bhola19.
19
The Hindu, English New Daily, Monday, Jan 19, 2004
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Desai VK, Kosambiya JK, Thakor HG, Umrigar DD, Khandwala BR, Bhuyan KK20 (2003): The authors studied and found that the performance of Indian recommended treatment guidelines for Vaginal Discharge Syndrome and Genital Ulcer Syndrome compared to laboratory diagnosis was poor. Syndromic case management missed a large number of asymptomatic cases and provided treatment in the absence of infection. Desai VK, Kosambiya JK, Thakor HG, Umrigar DD, Khandwala BR, Bhuyan KK. (Sex Transm Infect. 2003; 79:111115.): Concluded that The performance of Indian recommended treatment guidelines for vaginal discharge syndrome and genital ulcer syndrome compared to laboratory diagnosis was poor. Syndromic case management missed a large number of asymptomatic cases and provided treatment in the absence of infection. Geetanjali
Gangoli21(2002):
She
expressed
that
the
overwhelming focus on STDs and AIDS prevention in red light areas ignores other serious health needs of sex workers. Sex workers share with other members of the urban poor, a deep distrust of the medical profession. she looks at laws and policies that attempt to redress the situation, often unsuccessfully. Among the more significant health needs of sex workers are reliable health care systems for themselves and their children, dependable contraception, protection from sexual violence within the profession, and from STDs and AIDS. As a report by National Commission for Women (NCW) recognizes, “No woman suffers more
20
Sexually Transmitted Infections 2003;79:111-115 Geetanjali Gangoli (2002), “Unmet Needs: Reproductive Health Needs, Sex Work and Sex Workers”, Vol. 30, No. 5/6 (May - Jun., 2002), pp. 79-102, Social Scientist, New Delhi
21
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discrimination in access to services, whether for health care, fertility regulations or safe abortions as much as women in sex work.” Primary health centres in red light areas are, however, ill equipped with essential drugs. Sex workers point out that the staff does not come to work regularly. Often, sex workers are forced to pay ‘donations’ or to have sex with the doctors or social workers to get access to some services. The timings are not convenient, as they are not open in the afternoon.. Sex workers have a host of reproductive tract infections. Seventy five per cent of women practicing the sex trade have some form of STD. White discharge and burning with urination are common health problems, as is TB. There is a high incidence of skin infections, such as scabies, and illnesses like Hepatitis B. In addition, women and children in prostitution are vulnerable to depression, malnutrition and TB. Indian government expenditure on health is only three per cent of the GDP. This is inadequate. So NGOs are forced to take up the burden. The state has a responsibility towards its citizens, and is accountable to them. If its role is declining in the important area of health care, it can only weaken the access of the poor. This gets magnified when it comes to sex workers, who are anyway marginalized socially and legally. Valera, Sawyer, and Schiraldi(2001): They found that “42% of the [100] prostitutes interviewed met the DSM-IV criteria for diagnosis of PTSD”22. Jay
G.
Silverman,
Dharmadhikari, and Anita Raj
Jhumka 23
Gupta,
Ashwin
(June 2000): In their research
22
Valera RJ, Sawyer RG, and Schiraldi GR. Perceived health needs of inner-city street prostitutes: a preliminary study. Am J Health Behav. 2001. Jan/Feb; 25:(1):55.
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found that HIV-infected sex-trafficking victims are more likely to be infected with other STIs, specifically syphilis and hepatitis B, than those not infected with HIV. Current evidence of HIV and STI coinfection implies a need to strengthen clinical practice among providers caring for persons at risk for HIV or other STIs, particularly high-risk populations such as those trafficked for sexual exploitation or otherwise exposed to commercial sex work. Their research strongly indicates the need for syphilis and hepatitis B screening for HIV-infected persons and HIV screening for syphilis- and hepatitis B-infected persons. Burgos (1999)24: He studied the health needs of seventy-eight street-based adolescent sex workers in Puerto Rico. Using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, they found that “64 percent had a high level of depressive symptoms”. El-Bassel25 (1997). States that Assessed levels of psychological distress in a sample of poor, inner city women from Harlem. Of the 346 women interviewed, 176 were classified as sex traders (those who had traded sex for money or drugs within the 30 days prior to the interview) and 170 as non-sex traders (women who had never traded sex for money or drugs or who had not done so in the 30 days prior to the interview). The authors found that more sex traders than non-sex traders were homeless and had been raped within the past year. The former group also had significantly higher mean scores of psychological distress (e.g., anxiety, depression, hostility) as measured by the Brief Symptom Inventory subscales and the General Severity Index.
23
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: journal Volume 14, Number 6–June 2008 24 Burgos M, Richter DL, Reininger B, Coker AL, Saunders R, Alegria M, and Vera M. Street-based female adolescent Puerto Rican sex workers: contextual issues and health needs. Fam Community Health. 1999. Jul; 22:(2):59–71. 25 El-Bassel N, Schilling RF, Irwin KL, Faruque S, Gilbert L, Von Bargen J, Serrano Y, and Edlin BR. Sex trading and psychological distress among women recruited from the streets of Harlem. Am J Public Health. 1997. Jan; 87:(1):66–70.
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Weiner (1996): studied the social and medical needs of 1,963 streetwalking sex workers in New York. Using an ex-post facto design, she analyzed sex workers' responses on a two-page questionnaire that gathered information about demographics, sex and drug practices, risk reduction, and health history. Gonorrhea, syphilis, tuberculosis, and hepatitis were the diseases mentioned by the women26. As much as 23 per cent of the sex workers have been beaten or harassed by the police and 29 per cent of them pay money. The mutually beneficial arrangements include monthly bribes, free sex and alcohol and prior intimation about the raids by the police. III. Methodology: Purpose of the Study: In the light of above context there is a need to study if any changes occurred in the sex workers about their base, usage of condoms, number of clients they serve and reasons for being a sex worker etc., The type of Sample: Purposive Sampling Frame: A Field study was conducted to know the latest developments took place in the sex industry and the observations are recorded. The present study consisting of 69 sex workers, in Bhimavaram Town of West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh. Specific homes of different areas of Bhimavaram town are covered during afternoons, evenings, or late evenings. The Action For Development (AFD) is an NGO and has been providing service for approximately 9 years, many commercial sex workers are familiar with
26 Weiner A. Understanding the social needs of streetwalking prostitutes. Soc Work. 1996. Jan; 41:(1):97–105. [PubMed].
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the Organization. The sample is arbitrarily selected, because, the characteristics which they possess are deemed important for the research. All female sex workers who interacted were given their free consent and mentioned items were included in the study. The size of the sample: 69 Geographical Area: Bhimavaram, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh Primary Data Collection: After ensuring participants’ free and informed consent, the researcher conducted structured interviews with the sex workers in their houses. The Interview Schedule domains included demographics; age, caste, education etc., sex work history and; condom use; and other related issues. Schedules lasted an average of 30 minutes. Secondary Data Collection The secondary data is collected from various books, magazines, reports both published and unpublished, New Paper articles. Limitations: 1. Thus is based on the information provided by 69 female sex workers only. 2. The study was confirmed to Bhimavaram town only 3. Only female sex workers under AFD was studied and other sex workers in Bhimavaram town was not covered under the study IV. Study: Study Area and Profile: Bhimavaram is a town and mandal (tehsil ) in the West Godavari District in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India. It is located 455 kilometres east of state capital, Hyderabad 270 Kms from www.ijmer.in
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Vishakhapatnam. National High Way 214 (Kathipudi to Pamarru) passes through this town. Bhimavaram is also called the "Second Bardoli of India". Mahatma Gandhi coined the name when he visited the town during the freedom movement in India. It is one of the Pancharamas in AP state, as it has Someswara Swami temple. The northern part of Bhimavaram is known as "One and three town" and the southern part of Bhimavaram is known as "Two and fourth Town". According to the 2001 Indian Census, Bhimavaram has a population of 142,064 with 32,682 households, 71,929 are male and 70,135 are female. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY: AGE: Age is a continuous variable in the human life. In the sex trade Age plays a key role in the sex industry. The younger age is a demand in the sex industry. Table-1: Age of the Sex Workers Age (in Years) No. of Respondents 25-30 36 18-25 19 Above 30 10 14-18 4 Total 69 Source: Field Study
% 52 28 14 6 100
The table information shows that a majority (52 %) of sex workers are in the age group of 25-30 year of age. There are 28 per cent of them are in the age group of 18-25 years of age and 14 per cent of them belongs to above thirty year of age. The age entry of sex work begins from 14
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year of age. There are 6 per cent of the sex worker belongs to 14-18 years of age. CASTE Society is a combination of different castes. The following table gives the different classes of the sex workers Table-2: Caste of Sex worker Caste No. of Respondent % OC 21 30 BC 19 28 Muslim Minority 16 23 SC/ST 13 19 Total 69 100 Source: Field Study Table information shows that there is a spread of sex worker in all castes. However, 30 per cent of them belongs to OC category followed by 28 per cent belongs to BC category. Remarkably there is a presence of Muslim category (about 23 %) followed by SC/ST 19 per cent. MARITAL STATUS: Table-3: Marital Status of the Sex Workers Status No. of respondents % Separated/Divorced 30 43 Unmarried 19 28 Married with 1 or 2 children 11 16 Married but No children 9 13 Total 69 100 Source: Field Study Table information reveals the fact that about 43 per cent of the respondents are separated or divorced. About 28 per cent of the respondents are unmarried. There are respondents (16 %) married with 1 or 2 children others (13 %) belongs to married but no children.
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CAUSES: Table-4: Causes for Doing Sex Work Cause No. or % Respondents (rounded) To earn money and to live like rich 29 42 family Cheated by means of Love 19 28 (left the family with out informing parent) Marriage against the will 8 12 Insisted by family 7 10 On willing 5 7 Impotency of husband 1 1 Total 69 100 Source: Field Study Table information ascertains different reasons for being a sex worker. The majority (42 %) respondents are to earn money to live like rich family There are (28 per cent) respondent selected this work because they were cheated by their ‘lovers’; as their lovers did not marry them as they promised. They trusted their lovers and went to some other place without informing to anybody in the family or friends. After some days their lovers left them alone and went off without marriage or with a drama marriage. They returned back to their homes but they were not allowed by their own parents and family members. When enquired deeply the (12 %) respondents stated that they had marriages with out their wish and will. Some of them stated that they married with their cousins and can not view them as their husbands or husbands said that they can not view them as their wife. Surprisingly there is a presence (10 %) of respondents who were insisted by their husbands, family members to do sex work.
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Quite surprisingly there are (7 %) of the sex workers who selected this field as on their will. There is a negligible per cent (1 %) of the respondents selected sex work as their husbands are impotents. EDUCATION Table: Educational Levels of Sex Workers Education No. of respondents % Illiterate 19 28 Literate 23 33 High School standard 18 26 Intermediate pass/fail 5 7 Degree pass/fail 4 6 Total 69 100 Source: Field Study From table information it is found that illiteracy among the respondents are 28 per cent. The rest of the respondents (33 %) are literates, High School Standard (26 %), Inter pass/fail (7% ) and Degree pass/fail (6 %) candidates. NUMBER OF CLIENTS PER DAY AGAINST AGE: Table-6: Number of Clients/customers they serve Number of Clients Per day No. of respondents Age Group 1-2 43 25-30 0-4 12 > 30 1-2 9 18-25 1-2 5 14-18 Total 69
% 63 17 13 7 100
Table-6 is presents information of clients against their age per day. From the table it is clear that a majority (63 %) of the respondents generally 1-2 customers/clients per day and they belongs 25-30 years of age group. However, 17 per cent of the respondents may have 0 to 4 customers/clients per day and they belong to more than thirty years of
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age. The 13 per cent have 1-2 clients and age group is 18-25 years followed by 7 per cent age group is 14 to 18 years. MAJOR SPENDING OF EARNING The study reveals the fact that a majority (84 %) of the sex workers earning are spent of their rich maintenance to exhibit that they belongs to rich status in the society. They said that they wanted to appear that they have a house, a comfortable life style, with an LCD TV, Refrigerator etc., in her residence with money she earned They spent this money for purchasing dresses, cosmetics, mobile phones, ornaments, alcohol etc., there few respondents (16 %) spent their money for family needs. SAVINGS: When asked how much do you save so far, they state that they did not save anything. They are enjoying their life by means of purchasing what ever they want. When inquired with some senior sex workers (3 not included in the sample) about the saving they states that they saved a small and gradually they spend the same for their habits, health needs etc. They stated that it is very difficult to save. USAGE OF CONDOM A remarkable out come of the study is that all the sex workers are using condoms. Among them (51 %) of the respondents are insisting their customers to use male condoms and the rest (49 %) respondents are using female condoms. The respondents felt that the female condoms give them more protection than the male condoms. THREATS WITH THE CLIENTS: The respondents stated that they have formed a network and get help from them to protect when some body harassed them physically. www.ijmer.in
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POLICE: Since it is mobile based and the place of sex work is not constant the can not be caught by the police men. TYPE OF SEX WORKER The significant out come of the study is that the sex workers in the study area are no more like that of Home based, street based or call girls. Now they are mobile based. They choose their clients. They give their mobile number to the client and attend for the call. All the respondents are mobile based. To make it confirm an inquiry is made in the Bhimavaram town about brothel houses. It is found that there are no brother houses in the town. V. Conclusion: The study shows that many commercial sex workers now a days are driven to this type of life style that capitalizes on the body factor are due to the influence of attractions and imaginations, some of them were cheated by males by means of love and marriage; resulted lack of family support and inability to provide for themselves. With the advancement of technology and imitating culture, they want to appear that they have a house, a comfortable life style, TV, Refrigerator etc., and choose sex work as the easiest and immediate way to earn. The present day sex workers are aware of using condoms and following safe sex methods. Most of them are literates and having minimum educational levels. They are failing to save their earnings. They know how to protect from the threats during their work. However, it can be noted that as long as the socio-economic factors are left unattended by the society the problem remains the same. For as long as people want to buy sex, this will be considered ‘normal’ and will
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continue to succeed. It was a saying that ‘As long as there are men in the world -Sex will always sell. The only development in the society from the last millennium to the new millennium is that there is a transformation of the type of sex worker from the traditional based to the modern mobile based sex worker. It is not possible to eliminate the sex work in the society as along as the society exists. It will remain in any of the form by means of changing the type and style with a modification.
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IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM OF VALUE P.G.Jyothi Research Scholar Dept.of English S.V.University, Tirupati The problem of value has in recent times entered the foreground of human interest. Even amongst the scientific writers on facts and phenomena the consciousness of value is gradually gaining its legitimate ground; they are beginning to think of things and events not wholly in terms of colourless facts, but largely in terms of values. They are gradually discovering that all our estimations are after all evaluations. Value and evaluation are not foreign to facts, but rather facts reoriented imply values. As Eddington puts it, “We can only speak speculatively of that which I have called the ‘background of the pointer-readings’; but it would at least seem plausible that if the values which give the light and shade of the world are absolute, they must belong to the background, unrecognized in physics, because they are not in the pointer-readings but recognized by consciousness which has its roots in the background.1 Reality is ideality, existence is worth, only from a different outlook, and one is really inseparable from the other. There can be no existence without value and no value without existence.2 Reality is not exclusively psychical, nor exclusively physical, but a realm in which thought and thing, fact and value, are continuous and inseparable, neither having any being apart from its correlate. This is coming to be realised by most varied shades of philosophical thinking, by Pragmatism, by Idealism, both subjective and objective, and even by some forms of Realism. The growing value-consciousness of to-day, however, is no innovation into philosophic consciousness, but only a legitimate and inevitable development of our estimation of things. So www.ijmer.in
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long as the fact was there, there was the value by implication, only that the value was not discernible equally clearly in all ages and by all minds. To quote Professor Munster berg, “Through the world of things shimmered first weakly, and then even more clearly the world of values”3 The concept of value, therefore, is only the fuller stature of our philosophic consciousness developing in its proper environment and direction within the scheme of our estimation of life and the universse.4 Plato, the father of Western Idealism, was indeed the first promulgator of value-philosophy in so far as he made his Idea of the Good, the unity and organization of Ideas, which supplied the value-frame of the universe and which not only created but also teleological tended the universe towards them. But the emergence of the problem of values as a distinct problem for modern philosophy was due to Kant5 and since then it has acquired such a great importance that it may be said to have leavened the whole range of modern thought. “The problem of value up to this day is a growing problem in the West, but it has ever been the settled and central problem in Indian Philosophy. Western thought traces its historical beginning; in India it is coeval with Philosophy. As it is a growing problem in the West, as value is sought somewhere in the circumference of the everwidening circle of life, there has been a considerable groping about it simply to make it all the more elusive; for the Indian mind it is at the very centre of life’s circle and is therefore all the more deep and intricate in conception. Difference in the perspective in which an object of investigation is viewed makes difference in approach as well as in achievement. And such a difference is conspicuous in the view-point, approach and achievement of the Western and Indian thoughts so far as the value-problem is concerned. It is also true that in the systems of Indian thought there is hardly any clear-cut and well defined philosophy of value, though Indian philosophic literature abounds in reference to value in almost all its varied bearings. The reason for this apparently is that the Indian mind www.ijmer.in
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ever takes a synthetic view of Life and the Universe in which problems never fall into water-tight compartments”. “Hence there seems to be as much truth in saying that in one sense there is in Indian systems of thought no distinct Philosophy of Value, as in saying that in another sense all Indian Philosophy is after all Value-Philosophy. And it is perhaps because of this that we do not find in the history of Indian thought, as we do in that of the Western, emergence, at a particular stage and with the rise of a particular philosophic geneius, of a new arena of thought-activities heralding the Philosophy of value, as distinct from philosophy itself”. “The value problem is so vital and engaging to the Indian mind, that instead of forming an appendix or after-thought as in the philosophy of the West in general, it has exercised and marshaled all its thought-energies so as to make them converge to its development into being the central problem of Life and Philosophy”6 What is Value? Though the term ‘value’ is of very common use in recent philosophy no less than in other spheres of our everyday life, yet it is one of those terms which have been the source of much misunderstanding. The reason is that value is of such a nature that any outlook on life and the universe involves some phase of it. Value from the realistic outlook will be different from value which either the empirical or the idealistic outlook will mean by it. Again, the economist will take an entirely different view. In philosophic literature we come across other terms like ‘worth’, ‘good’, ‘excellence’, ‘perfection’, but to avoid confusion we deem it wise to prefer the term ‘value’ to cover ‘worth’ and ‘good’, and reserve the term ‘perfection’ to mean consummation of all values. The Latin valeo originally meant ‘strength’ and also ‘health’ which is associated with strength, and then by natural transition it www.ijmer.in
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came to mean ‘being effective and adequate’. In French the term valeur means ‘excellence’. In Italian valore has an honorific significance and valuta means price. The Greek agathos originally meant ‘men of valour’. The German wert corresponds to the English word ‘value’, and Meinong uses it in the sense of ‘dignity’ or ‘nobility’.7 But over and above these literal meanings of the term value, it will be seen, it has acquired far different connotations at the hands of different schools of thought, and for all practical purposes, the concept of value has so permeated the philosophical positions of the recent thinkers that it may be said to have been responsible for the ‘Great Divide’ in philosophy between Realism and Idealism. In the meanwhile we would like to point out that the term value has been used sometimes to mean among other things ‘self-maintaining order’ of things without reference to any consciousness, sometimes to mean subjective appreciation without any objective reality of its own, and some-times to mean to objective reality which makes a thing valuable independently of subjective appreciation, because value is the very framework of the world. Fact and Value : The distinction between fact and value has a great bearing upon our explanation of life and the universe. We may look upon the universe as the realm of things and events as they are, or, we may look upon it not simply as it is, but we may find that it has a reference to an ideal which is not simply a matter of our choice, so that we may or may not think of it in terms of the ideal; but rather that the ideal is embedded in its nature and in fact determines it. Positive sciences remain satisfied with considering things as they naturally and normally are, and many of the realistic writers think that philosophy to be scientific and rational, must study things in their positive character alone. Facts and phenomena have no ulterior significance beyond what they present to us in external experience. To introduce any such www.ijmer.in
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ulterior significance is to indulge in mysticism which philosophy as a purely rational and logical analysis of things cannot allow. Russell, for instance, is averse to any ideals or values which he suspects as extralogical or mystical elements marring the bare, colourless character of things with which philosophy is really concerned. But we all know that there are normative considerations of things which our philosophic consciousness demands, Things and events do not exhaust their character merely by being what they are, but suggest ideals or norms or values for their fuller comprehension. The normative sciences like ethics, aesthetics, politics and even logic which Russell and others cannot ignore, are indicative of the fact that behind their actuality, things and events of the world have, over and above their mechanical framework constituted by matter, force, space, time and causality, an ideal framework or a value-constitution without which they cannot be fully explained. The realms of life and mind convince us more effectively that there is a dimension of their being more consonant with the values than with mere mechanical facts.
References 1)
Eddington: The Nature of the Physical World, p.330.
2)
Cf. W.M.Urban: An article on Value, Logic and Reality, in the Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Philosophy.
3)
Quoted in Philosophy To-day by Schaub and others.
4)
Cf. The writer’s article on Values and Personalityh in his studies in Philosophy (1933).
5)
Kant’s Critigue of Pure Reason (p.lvi).
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6)
The Author’s Presidential Address to the Section of Indian Philosophy in the Proceedings of the Indian Philosophical Congress, 1939, pp.1-3.
7)
Cf. John Laird : The Idea of Value, pp.xiii-xvi.
8)
Whitehead : Religion in the Making, p.90.
9)
Cf. Sceince and the Modern World.
10)
Knight: The Philosophy of the Beautiful, Parti II, p.8.
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IMPACT OF ENTREPRENUERSHIP ON EMPOWERMENT OF RURAL WOMEN- A SELECT STUDY Srinivasa Rao Chintala Research Scholar Department of Economics Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Abstract The study examines the empowerment of rural women through entrepreneurial activities and examines the concept of empowerment under social and economic dimensions. The study was conducted on rural self employed women of Guntur district in the state of Andhra Pradesh. The sample size was 135. Descriptive research design was adopted utilizing both primary and secondary data. Statistical tools like chi-square test was applied to test the statistical significance of the proposed hypothesis. The study revealed that there is a significant relationship between the aspects of income, expenditure and saving levels of the respondents before and after starting the entrepreneurial activities. The implications of this findings and the importance of this study are discussed. Keywords:
Entrepreneurship, Economic Empowerment, Social
Empowerment, Rural Women. INTRODUCTION Despite progress made, rural women persist with low levels of income, sparse access to education and health services, limited job security as well as limited land and inheritance rights. Again and again, their needs as well as their contributions are relegated to the margins of policy development and budgetary considerations. In addition to the entrenched patterns of discrimination, unsustainable development practices, climate change, and violence against women intensify the burden placed on women and their families. www.ijmer.in
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When viewed in the broader context, the situation of rural women is but one of the symptoms of a social order characterized by inequity, violence and insecurity. As such, the vision of women’s empowerment must go beyond making room for women to participate in society within the present social order, as this will not suffice to end the marginalization of rural populations and the entrenched patterns of discrimination against women. The empowerment of women requires profound changes in the minds and hearts of people and in the very structures of society. It begins with the understanding that the equality of women and men is more than a desired condition to be achieved for the common good; it is a dimension of human reality. In those aspects that make human beings human, women and men are fundamentally equal. The goal at hand, then, is not only the empowerment of women for the advancement of agriculture and rural life; it is the full engagement of women with men in the construction of a new social order. Though marginalized by present-day economic and development frameworks, women are neither victims nor simply under-resourced members of society. In fact, they represent the greatest source of untapped potential in the global effort to eradicate poverty and advance collective prosperity. Women entrepreneurship has been recognised as an important source of economic growth. Women entrepreneurs create new jobs for themselves and others and also provide society with different solutions to management, organisation and business problems. However, they still represent a minority of all entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurs often face gender-based barriers to starting and growing their businesses, like discriminatory property, matrimonial and inheritance laws and/or cultural practices; lack of access to formal finance mechanisms; limited mobility and access to information and networks, etc.
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Women’s entrepreneurship can make a particularly strong contribution to the economic well-being of the family and communities, poverty reduction and women’s empowerment, thus contributing to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Thus, governments across the world as well as various developmental organizations are actively undertaking promotion of women entrepreneurs through various schemes, incentives and promotional measures. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The study aims at assessing the aspect of women empowerment by self employment of rural women. The study covers the aspect of women empowerment by equating the factors of socio-economic nature and there by measures the extent of empowerment process and verifies the empowerment Index of rural women entrepreneurs in the study area. For the purpose of present study, the rural areas identified in the Guntur district of the Andhra Pradesh state were selected. Women entrepreneurs in the select rural areas were interviewed and their responses were recorded through which the present study reveals the empirical findings based on primary data. The study brings out the socio-economic conditions of the women entrepreneurs, improvement in their status before and after starting the enterprise and the study tests the relationship between the factors of income, expenditure and savings. The study further depicts the empowerment index of rural women entrepreneurs by analyzing the various dimensions of social empowerment. REVIEW OF LITERATURE V. Krishnamoorthy and R. Balasubramani (April 2014), identified the important women entrepreneurial motivation factors and its impact on entrepreneurial success. The study identified ambition, skills and knowledge, family support, market opportunities, independence, government subsidy and satisfaction are the important entrepreneurial www.ijmer.in
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motivational factors. The study also concluded that ambition, knowledge, skill and independence are the important dimensions of entrepreneurship. Motivation has significant impact on entrepreneurial success. G. Palaniappan, C. S. Ramanigopal, A. Mani (19 March 2012) in their article analyzed that women have been successful in breaking their barriers within the limits of their homes by entering into varied kinds of professions and services. Skill, knowledge and adaptability in businessare the main reaso ns for women to emerge into business ventures. This study had also been carried out to analyze the motivational factors and other factors that influence women to become entrepreneurs, the major strength and weakness of women entrepreneurs and the environmental opportunities and threats which promote the entrepreneurship, and to offer suggestions to promote women entrepreneurship of selected districts in Tamilnadu. This study concluded that due to lack of training and education they are not able to survive in the market. Finance is also the major problem for women entrepreneurs.. Anita TripathyLal‘s(November 15, 2012)main objective of this research was to study the significant rise of Women Entrepreneurs in India and how it has evolved since the pre-independence days (before 1947),during the British colonial days. The study also analyzed the reasons that have prompted the women entrepreneurs to unleash their entrepreneurial energies into start-ups. Based on both qualitative and quantitative analyses the growth of women entrepreneurship in India have been studied into four different periods - Pre-Independence Period (before
1947),
Post-Independence
Period
(after
1947),
Post-
Liberalization Period (after1991) and Post -Global Recession period (2008 onwards). The study finally concluded to what extent the various
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support systems in India can further foster a conducive ecosystem for the Women Entrepreneurs inIndia.4. Cohoon, Wadhwa and Mitchell (2010) presented a detailed exploration of men & women entrepreneur‘s motivations, background and experiences. This study identified top five financial and psychological factors motivating women to become entrepreneurs. These are desire to build the wealth, the wish to capitalize own business ideas they had, the appeal of startup culture, a long standing desire to own their own company and working with someone else did not appeal them. The study concluded that the women are very much concerned about protecting intellectual capital than their counterpart. Mentoring is very important to women, which provides encouragement & financial support of business partners, experiences & well developed professional network OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. To study the demographic and the business profile of the rural women entrepreneurs ( self – employed women) . 2. To analyse the socio-economic empowerment of rural women entrepreneurs. 3. To offer suggestions based on the empirical findings of the study. HYPOTHESIS Ho (Null Hypothesis): There is no significant relationship that exists between income and expenditure , Income and savings and expenditure and savings of the respondents before and after self employment.
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Ha(Alternate Hypothesis): There is a significant relationship that exists between income and expenditure, income and savings and expenditure and savings of the respondents before and after self employment. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY For the purpose of present study, descriptive research design was adopted. The study utilized both primary and secondary data. Data was collected through schedule method ( interview + Questionnaire ) and the respondents from rural areas of Guntur district were selected for the study. The sample size was 135. Statistical tools like percentage analysis, ranking technique and chi-square test were used to validate the empirical findings.
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DATA ANALYSIS AND INTREPRETATION Table 1 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS Dimension Socio –Economic Profile No. of Respondents Percentage Below 30 30 22.22 30 -40 48 35.56 Age ( in years) 40 – 50 39 28.89 50 and above 18 13.33 Illiterate 8 5.56 Primary 13 10 Educational Qualification Secondary 24 17.78 Higher Secondary 63 46.67 Graduate and above 27 20 Unmarried 32 23.7 Married 103 76.3 Marital Status Widow 0 0 Divorce 0 0 Nuclear 120 88.88 Type of family Joint 15 11.12 Less than 3 25 18.51 No.of Members 3- 5 90 66.66 5 and above 20 14.83
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The table no.1 presents the demographic profile of the respondents. It shows that majority of the respondents are with in the age group of 30-40 years comprising 35.56% of the total respondents. The table further shows that majority of the respondents have the education qualification with higher secondary level comprising 46.67% of the total respondents. The table depicts that majority of the respondents are married comprising 76.3% of the total respondents and majority of the respondents have nuclear type of family structure comprising 88.88% of the total respondents and the majority of the respondents have the family members with 3-5 in number comprising 66.66% of the total respondents.
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Table 2 Dimension
Business Profile No. of Respondents Percentage vendors 26 19.26 Shop owners 17 12.60 Tailoring 35 25.92 Nature of Hotel/Restaurant 14 10.37 Self-employment Services 6 4.45 Food preparations & Processing 9 6.66 Others 28 20.74 Yes 22 16.30 Previous Experience No 113 83.70 Yes 40 29.62 Skill Oriented Training No 95 70.38 Less than 2500 60 44.44 2500 – 5000 43 31.85 Amount Invested in Rs 5000 – 7500 30 22.22 7500 and above 2 1.49 Less than 5 17 12.59 Business Lifetime 5 – 10 82 60.74 10 and more 36 26.67 Less than 4 5 3.71 No.of hours devoted for business 4- 6 71 52.59 More than 6 59 43.70 BUSINESS PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS www.ijmer.in
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The table no.2 presents the business profile of the respondents. It depicts that with regard to the nature of self employment, majority of the respondents belong to tailoring activities comprising 25.92% of the total respondents, with regard to the previous experience, majority of the respondents do not have any previous experience comprising 83.70% of the total respondents, with regard to skill oriented training, majority of the respondents did not received such training comprising 70.38% of the total respondents. The table further shows that with regard to the amount invested in the business activity shows that majority of the respondents had invested less than Rs.2500 comprising 44.44% of the total respondents and majority of the business lifetime is
5-10 years
respondents’
comprising 60.74% of the total
respondents and with regard to the no.of hours devoted for business activities by the majority of the respondents are 4-6 hours comprising 52.59% of the total respondents.
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Table 3 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE RESPONDENTS Economic Conditions Less than 2000 2000 – 3000 Monthly Family 3000 – 4000 Income 4000 – 5000 (in Rs.) 5000 and above Less than 1500 1500 – 2000 Expenditure 2000 – 2500 (in Rs) 2500 – 3000 3000 and above Less than 500 500 – 1000 Savings 1000 – 1500 ( in Rs.) 1500 – 2000 2000 and above Source : Primary Data
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Before Self Employment No. of Percentage Respondents 33 24.44 55 40.74 29 21.48 11 8.14 7
5.10
19 53 35 15 13 7 70 38 14 6
14.07 39.25 25.92 11.11 9.65 5.18 51.85 28.14 10.37 4.46
After Self Employment No. of Percentage Respondents 8 5.92 50 37.03 43 31.85 22 16.29 12 5.91 16 42 39 21 17 4 53 45 21 12
11.85 31.12 28.88 15.55 12.60 2.96 39.25 33.33 15.55 8.91
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The table no.3 shows the economic conditions of the respondents in the select study area. It shows the improvement of economic conditions before and after commencement of the self employment. With regard to the aspect the monthly family income, before the commencement of self employment the respondents with 3000-4000 rupees income group were 21.48% and after the commencement of self employment the percentage has increased to 31.85%, before the commencement of self employment the respondents with 4000-5000 rupees income group were 8.14% and after the commencement of the self employment the percentage increased to 16.29%. Likewise , the respondents in the
5000 rupees and above
category were 5.10% previously and after the commencement of self employment they had increased to 5.91%. Similarly the expenditure patterns before and self employment program had also increased to a sizable extent. With regard to the aspect of savings , the respondents in 1000-1500 rupees category were 28.14% before self employment and after the self employment they had increased to 33.33%. The respondents in the 1500-2000 rupees category had increased from 10.37% to 15.55%. and the respondents in the 2000 rupees and above category had increased from 4.46% to 8.91%. This clearly shows that the economic conditions of the respondents after the commencement of self employment program had increased to an notable extent.
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Table 4 IMPROVEMENT IN ECONOMIC CONDITIONS Improved Factors
Not Improved
Total No. of No.of Percentage Percentage Respondents Respondents
Income
107
79.25
28
20.75
135
Expenditure
113
83.70
22
16.30
135
Savings
87
64.44
48
35.56
135
Source : Primary Data The table no.4 shows the improvement in economic conditions of the respondents. With regard to aspect of income, 79.25% of the respondents had agreed that there income level was increased and with regard to the aspect of expenditure 83.70% of the respondents had agreed that their expenditure patterns were changed and 64.44% of the total respondents had agreed that their saving levels were increased.
Table 5 RESULT OF CHI-SQUARE TEST Between
2
Table value @ 5% Level
Inference
Income & Expenditure
9.183
0.025
Significant
Income & Savings
7.532
0.052
Significant
Expenditure & Savings
4.716
0.178
Significant
Source : Computed Data.
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The table no.5 shows the association between the factors of income, expenditure and savings before and after self employment programs. The chi-square test result shows that there is a significant association between income and expenditure, income and savings and expenditure and savings and they are statistically significant. Therefore income, expenditure and savings of the respondents before and after starting their own enterprise differ significant. Thus the Null hypothesis(Ho) was rejected and alternate hypothesis (Ha) was accepted.
Table 6 Empowerment Index Social Empowerment
No.of Respondents
Total
Total
Rank
Score
SA
A
N
D
SDA
Status
48
38
24
17
8
135
548
IV
Independence and Autonomy
45
56
26
8
0
135
585
III
Confidence
68
40
12
7
8
135
601
I
Decision Making
39
18
7
43
28
135
443
V
Self Determination
62
59
6
5
3
135
598
II
Source: Computed Data The table no.6 shows the empowerment index of the
rural
women entrepreneurs. It shows that the aspects like confidence level , self determination, independence and autonomy, status and decision making among them had increased to a greater extent paving the way for women empowerment.
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CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Rural India plays an important role in raising the economic status of the individual the nation, wherein the aspect of rural entrepreneurship has a significant role in generating rural employment and promoting the living conditions of the people in the society. The concept of women empowerment is an never ending debate as the status of women in any society is an index of its civilization. But, women have not been allowed to actively participated in the main stream of the development even though they represent equal proportion of the population and labour force. Thus, a change has to be brought about not only in the status of women but in the attitude of the society toward them. Basically , the rural women are having basic indigenous knowledge, skill, potential and resources to establish an enterprise. The results from the study had clearly indicated the fact that the aspect of entrepreneurship among the rural women had clearly changed their income, expenditure and saving levels. Thus in order to empower the rural women further it is suggested that the literacy levels among the rural women should be increased and awareness levels among them are to be increased by way of training on self employment and vocational training to acquire practical knowledge and the rural women entrepreneurs are to be provided better loans and assistance in acquiring raw materials and marketing their products. These acts if followed will certainly lead to the effective women empowerment in the society. References 1. V.Krishnamoorthy and R. Balasubramani Motivational factors among women.
(April
2014)-
2. G.Palaniappan, C.S. Ramanigopal, A Mani (19, March 2012) – A study on problem and prospects of women entrepreneurs with
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special reference to erode district, International journal of physical and social sciences, vol.2, issue 3, issn.2249-5894. 3. Anita Tripathy lal (Nov. 15,2012)- Women Entrepreneurs in India Over the years, Fore School of Management. 4. Cohon Wadhwa & Mitchell (2010) – The Anantomy of an Entrepreneur – Are successful women entrepreneurs different from men? Kauffman, The Foundation of entrepreneurship.
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RELIGIOUS CONVERSION AND ITS HISTORICAL IMPACT Jhumu Saha Ph. D. Research Scholar Department of Philosophy Raiganj University Raiganj, West Bengal, India Men are religious by birth. A man can live without the help of science, but he cannot live or survive without religion. In this regard religion is sui-genesis to man. Historically the concept of religion had taken various forms. At the initial stage religion was full of myths, dogmas and prejudices. The Ghost theory of Herbert Spencer was a case in point. However, over the course of history and also with the development of science and technology, religion and religious beliefs of men had been refined and rectified. Religion has extended enough with the advent of scientific outlook. Religion then appeared as national religion and then universal religion. Contemporary Indian thinkers, such as, Vivekananda, Tagore, Gandhi, Radhakrishnan were in favor of universal religion. Each of them has claimed that true and real Hindu religion is universal in nature. However, Ambedkar, being a leading social reformer expresses, serious reservation regarding the universal nature of Hinduism. Born in a Mahar community, Ambedkar had been treated as an untouchable. He was the victim of untouchability. He said that Hinduism being a religion fails to offer equal justice, liberty and equality in terms of religion. Thus, unlike other religions, Hinduism had been treated as anarchism. Instead of unity, Hinduism creates division among Indians. Ambedkar confesses that every man is religious by birth. Religion is a must for man. He was born as a Hindu, but due to caste system division has been created in Hinduism. The division has been made not on the basis of the quality of man rather on the basis of Varna-system or caste –system. On the basis of caste
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system, a lower caste had been treated inhumanly and all sorts of opportunity have been robbed from them. Ambedkar throughout his life has struggled with Hinduism. He has tried his level best to modify the laws of Hinduism. In this regard, he finds serious defaults of Hindu religion in Manu. He was against Manu Laws about Hindu religion. He sought the help from Gandhi because he realized that without Gandhi’s help Hindu religion cannot be rectified in the desired sense. Gandhi did not agree with Ambedkar regarding the default of Hindu religion. Ambedkar expressed serious dissatisfaction about the role of Gandhi of Hindu laws. He realized that it would not possible for him to modify Hindu laws. To express his dissatisfaction, he has burned some selected portion of Manusmriti. At the end of his life he made up his mind to converse Hindu religion. He then studied different religions and eventually decided that it is Buddhism that alone ensures social and religious justice, equality and liberty of all. Finally, he along with five millions of downtrodden oppressed untouchables took religious conversion from Hinduism to Buddhism. The historical impact of such religious conversion is colossal. This paper will address on the historical impact of the religious conversion led by Ambedkar. It should be kept in mind that from historical perspective, religious conversion is not something new. History witnesses many religious conversions. Sometimes religious conversion happened because of religious conflicts; some other cases people were willingly taking religious conversion. Having said this, the religious conversion led by Ambedkar was revolutionary because it had compressed Hinduism and strengthened Buddhism. According to Ambedkar, liberty, equality and fraternity are the trio-concepts of justice. He realized that neither of these can be ensured in Hinduism. Accordingly, to leave it was thus the only means to attain liberty. In fact, Ambedkar’s first reference to conversion to another religion dates back to 1927. A www.ijmer.in
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conference was held in Mahad in which he said, “We want equal rights in society. We will achieve them as far as possible while remaining within the Hindu fold or, if necessary by kicking away worthless Hindu identity. And if it becomes necessary to give up Hinduism it would no longer be necessary for us to bother about temples.”1 The pertinent question that comes before us: whether religious conversion has been a strategy of social emancipation to Ambedkar? There is no question of doubt that Ambedkar was in favor of religious conversion for achieving greater equality. As a social reformer, he was in favor of greater equality and for which he intended to leave the Hindu fold. He announced his decision to convert in Buddhism which for him a failure on his part. As a disgrace he remarks, “The disabilities we have suffered, and the indignities we had to put up with, were the result of our being the members of the Hindu community. Will it not be better for us to leave that fold and embrace a new faith that would give us equal status, a secure position and rightful treatment? I advise you to severe your connection with Hinduism and to embrace any other religion. But in doing so, be careful in choosing the new faith and see that equality of treatment, status and opportunities will be guaranteed to you unreservedly. Unfortunately for me I was born a Hindu Untouchable. It was beyond my power to prevent that, but I declare that it is within my power to refuse to live under ignoble and humiliating conditions. I solemnly assure that I will not die a Hindu”.2 In May 31, 1936, Ambedkar organized in Bombay a new meeting in favor of conversion and accordingly he called for the abandonment of the Hindu religion. His main contention of religious conversation is to acquire freedom because he thinks that acquiring freedom by conversion would be a better option instead of shouldering the responsibility of the reform of Hindu religion. Thus, the objective of religious conversion is to have liberation from Hinduism instead of reforming Hinduism. The aim of our movement from historical www.ijmer.in
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perspective is to achieve freedom, social, economic and religious for Untouchables. Ambedkar says, “So far as Untouchables are concerned, this freedom cannot be achieved except through conversion.”3 We think that from historical, economical and philosophical perspective the comparison Ambedkar made in Bombay speech deserves special attention. According to Ambedkar, the problem with Hinduism is that it cannot destroy its caste system without destroying its religion. Hinduism being a religion implied hierarchy whereas other religions authorize equality. As far as religious conversion is concerned, Ambedkar set out the choice of conversion between three religions, namely, Islam, Christianity and Sikhism each of which has different advantages. Islam offers the depressed classes all that they need economically, politically and socially. Christianity is equally attractive because it has backed up by the Government. Compared to Christianity and Islam, Sikhism was a small community and was financially weak. As a result of that Sikhs can give no social support to the depressed. Having said this, Sikhism has a distinctive advantage from political point of view. Ambedkar felt that conversion to Islam or Christianity would denationalize the Depressed Classes and it would eventually be a national threat. Conversion to Sikhism would not create a national threat. It would not be denationalized. On the contrary, they will help in the political advantage of the country. This philosophical and pragmatic approach of Ambedkar has historical significance as well. He was not a blind believer of religious conversion, but side by side he was very conscious about national integrity and harmony. He does not think that conversion eventually would create a national threat. From historical point of view, he was a true national leader. He was the architect of Indian constitution. The conversion actually began during November 1935 where 800 Depressed Classes youth from the Village in Nasik district firmly reaffirmed their will to leave Hinduism. They had burnt the Manu www.ijmer.in
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Smriti and also passed a resolution asking untouchables not to participate in Hindu yatras (pilgrimages), visit Hindu holy places, give money to Hindu priests or observe Hindu festivities. In May 1936, a meeting of Mahars in Bombay passed three resolutions as a new strategy of Ambedkar. It has been resolved that conversion is a means through which Mahars may achieve freedom and equality; it equally states that Mahars are ready to convert en masse and more importantly, Mahars will refrain from worshipping Hindu deities, observing Hindu holidays and also refraining from Hindu sacred sites.4 Even though a resolution in favor of conversion was made as a strategy, but the process of religious conversion was not smooth from historical perspective. Religion is culture. A man born as a Hindu is deeply associated with Hindu culture. Thus, in a sense religious conversion is a cultural conversion because in such a case the person who takes conversion has to adjust with new religion and new culture. Adjustment with new religion and new culture is very difficult. As a result of that history witnesses reactions, counter-offensive and divisions among Untouchables as far as conversion is concerned. Various religious constrains and restrictions were created even by the other religious community. Thus from historical perspective the process of religious conversion was not smooth enough. Within the mayhem of religion conversion, Ambedkar prefers to embrace Buddhism because Buddhists leaders were more welcoming. The then secretary of the Mahabodhi society of Vananasi welcomed Untouchables through his Yeola speech. He also denied any caste-based distinctions or divisions within Buddhism. He then says, “We guarantee an equal status of all converts.”5 The same type of welcomed came from Islam as well as from Sikhs as well. Besides Buddhism, other religions equally realized that the conversion of Untouchables would make a religion stronger than its present form. Even it created a fear to Hindu priests as well. The Hindu Mahasabha feared that by converting www.ijmer.in
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to another religion, Untouchables would weaken the majority community demographically and also electorally. They further realized that such massive conversion might lead to a convergence of Untouchables with India’s religious minorities. Being a prudent visionary, Ambedkar created socio-religious-political pressure to the leaders of Hindus by way of organizing a numbers of conferences where other religious leaders were invited. This had created extra fear to the leaders of Hindu religions. Thus, from historical perspective, it can be said that through conversion Ambedkar had consolidated the foothold of religious conversion at the expense of Hinduism. The historical implication is revolutionary, because it gave a lesson to the religious leaders that religious anarchism did not last in religion. The feared of Hindu Mahasabha appeared public when a delegation of Hindu Sabha of Bombay met Ambedka. Ambedkar assured them that before making any final decision he would confer with the leaders of Hindu Mahasabha and also other Hindu organizations. In fact, from historical perspective such initiation taken by Hindu Mahasabha was too late. In fact, the revival of the movement for mass conversions of Mahars debated at the meeting in Bombay in 1936 was indeed a cause of great concern to the Hindu Mahasabha. Gandhi and Ambedkar were disagreed regarding Hindu religion and untouchables. Gandhi was against religious conversion. Even after Ambedkar’s speech at the Yeola conference, Gandhi had set himself against the idea of mass conversion of Untouchables. In this regard, Gandhi had pointed two key arguments. First, he asserted that Untouchabilityhad begun to wither away. The activities of reformers would be demoralized by such conversions. Secondly, religion being a spiritual matter cannot be changed overnight just like the same way that one can purchase a new coat by way of replacing the existing one. Religious conversion does not bear any sense.6 The same issues were raised by other Untouchable leaders as well. They did not agree with www.ijmer.in
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Ambedkar’s vision of religious conversion. In this regard, Gavai had criticized Ambedkar for his indifference to the spiritual dimension of Hinduism. Ambedkar does not have any faith in God or in religion. Instead, he sought religious equality and justice by way of changing one religion to another. Even many Untouchable leaders spoke against Ambedkar. For them, Hinduism is our religion and it is sacred to us. Therefore, it is our duty to preserve it and purify it. We do not want to cut away from the Hindu fold. We must stay and live within the fold of Hinduism. We want to seize a better recognition7 – recognition that we are men equally lives with the caste-Hindus. Concluding remarks On the basis of the above consideration we may conclude by saying that religious conversion is more a complex issue. Religious conversion was happened many times in the past. It is happening even today’s social structure. However, the religious conversion associated with Ambedkar’s has a greater historical implication. Is there any wrong in Hinduism? Every religion has its own mission and vision. Spiritualism is the foundation of Hindu religion. There are some stringent sacred rules and principles in Hindu religion. They are needed for purification of the soul. However, Hindu religion over the course of history had been dominated by Hindu priest. Accordingly, it might have been the case that Hindu religion had been misinterpreted by the Hindu priests. We think Hinduism as a religion is good. There is nothing wrong in Hinduism. Otherwise, great contemporary Indian thinkers were not predisposed or inclined towards Hinduism. Thus from historical and philosophical perspective, we can say that conversion is not the only way to solve the problem of Untouchability. Rather one has to realize the genesis of religion. There is something wrong in somewhere. A man should not be treated inhumanly in the name of religion. This is not true Hinduism, true Hindu religion. The Hindu religion as conceived by Tagore, Gandhi, Vivekananda and www.ijmer.in
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Radhakrishnan is universal in nature where universal brotherhood can be established. Untouchability is a created concept. It has no scientific ground. It is misnomer in the 21st century.
Notes & References: 1
Gore, M. S. The Social Contact of an Ideology: Ambedkar’s Political and Social Thought, , New Delhi: Sage, 1993, p. 91. 2
Das, Bhagawan(ed.), Thus Spoke Ambedkar, Bangalore: Ambedkar Sahithya Prakashna, vol.4. p. 98. 3
Ibid, p. 47
4
See Indian Annual Register, 1935, vol.2, Calcutta, 1935, pp.32-33.
5
Keer, D., Dr. Ambedkar, p.254.
6
Das, Bhagawan, (ed.) Thus Spoke Ambedkar, op. cit. p.310.
7
Ibid, p.149
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