ILCC 2013 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR COMMUNICATION CONFERENCE
1
ILCC 2013
PROCEEDINGS OF ILCC 2013 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR COMMUNICATION CONFERENCE 2013 Engaging Global Community: Breaking the barriers to effective communication 23rd – 25th August 2013
First published 2013 Disclaimer : The organizer of ILCC 2013 is not responsible or liable for any mistake and opinion presented in this proceeding. e-ISBN: 978-967-418-297-7
Organiser : Kulliyyah of Languages and Management (KLM), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) Published by : IIUM Press International Islamic University Malaysia
2
Table of Contents: No . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Title
Page No.
Designing an interactive program in learning Arabic language for non-native speakers via Virtual Tutor ® by Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud et. al. Students’ attitudes towards university-required English Language instruction : A Comparison between Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) and Universiti T eknologi Mara (UiTM) by Salinayanti Salim The Problems of Learning the Arabic Verbal System among the Malay learners in Malaysian Universities” by Asem Shehadeh Ali Arabic Broadcasting as a potential tool of National Integration: Nigerian Experi ence by Tajudeen Adebayo Gender Issues in al-Hilali and Khan’s English translation of the Qur’an : An I nvestigation by Zakariyau I. Oseni The English Block of Words as an Innovative Approach in Teaching English Grammar by Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo, Mutiara Andrianti Suta rno and Rohandi Latif Study of language use of Indonesian proclamation speech by Soekarno (Pragm atics and Discourse analysis) by La Ode Nggawu Common grammatical structures and their role in achieving linguistic oral co mmunication by Khalid Osman Yousif, Abdul Elaziz M. Haroun and Maryam A bdul Rahman The Study of Language Styles Used by The Members of Tonymacx86 Online Fo rum: How People Engage Themselves through Language by Alfian Cahyo Budi ardi and Baity Anggraeni Motivation and E-learning: the Experience of Blended Learning by Kristina Mu llamaa Structured Learning Technique: Effort in Promoting Malay Language to Intern ational Students by Mardian Shah Omar and Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia Comprehension and Ability to Use Word Order by International Students in As pectof Writing Malay Language by Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia and Mardian Sh ah Omar Language Planning and Terminology: An Insight of the Mak Yong Terminology by Puteri Roslina Abdul Wahid, Salinah Jaafar and Tengku Intan Marlina Ten gku Ali English Song as an Asset to Improve Middle-aged EL Learner’s Listening Skill by Masoome Noori and Alireza Jamshidi
6
Exploration of Cohesive Devices of English to streamline Arabic Communicatio n Skills by Yahya Toyin Muritala Multi Traditional Cultural Exposure Approach in EFLClassroom; Engaging Go od Appreciation and Communication in Diversity By:Dian KaryaniAstuti Humor in Chinese Language Classroom-The ‘Cream’ of language teacher’s spe ech art. By Angus AngThiahHuat Culture and Language Use by Yuko Hoshino The Impact of Indirect Feedback on L2’ Learners in Learning English Languag e by NazifahHamidun, ZalizaZubir and Nur Farhinaa Othman The Impact of Using a repetitive question system of teaching on comprehensi on of Arabic syntax in universities (A case study of Insaniah University Colege by Abdul GaniyLuqmanOlowonjaye and ElsayedMakkiElbishrAli Hassan Islamic Principles to enhance Effective Communication in Distant Education B y HasinaBanu Shirin and Mohammad Serazul Islam A pragmatic study of media war against military rule in Nigeria (1989-1999) b y Mahfouz A. Adedimeji Improving Young Learners Vocabulary using “Benteng-bentengan” by Nisrin A delyna Darayani Master of teacher website (MOTWEB): E-learning based application as a syste m to improve teachers’ compentency to develop teachers quality in Indonesia b
19 29 44 56 61 66 77 84 93 100 109 115 127 132 141 147 154 159 164 169 176 189 196
ILCC 2013 y Tika Novita Sari, Wahyu Andi Saputra and Tri Hardiyanti 25
ENHANCING LITERACY SKILLS IN HIGHER EDUCATION THROUGH DI GITAL STORYTELLING by Leela Chakrabarty
205
26
Linguistic Argumentation and Logic: An Alternative Method Approach in Arabi c Grammar by Solehah Yaacob “Fun Lyrics” as An English Learning Media Software for Elementary School St udent via Music Lyric by Wahyu Andi Saputra and Tika Novita Sari. Instructional Methods on vocabulary acquisition among EFL language learner s by Azadeh Asgari Language and Communication Skills (LCS) of Leadership in Educational Mana gement by Safrat Folake Adelakun Psychometric Analysis of The Self-Efficacy Encouragement in The University E nvironment: A Chinese Version Lexical Borrowing from the Arabic Language in an Islamic Course Conducted i n English by Nurul-Ikhlas Arshad and Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah English Language Teaching Challenges in Malaysia: Polytechnic Lecturers’ Ex perience By Suhaily Abdullah and Faizah Abd Majid Mobilizing People’s Support to Combat Demonstration: (De)legitimization Strat egy in Arab Spring Political Discourse by Abdul Kadir Sulaiman Penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahas a arab dalam kalangan pelajar melayu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Oleh Mastura bin ti Arshad Peminjaman bahasa Sanskrit dalam dialek Melayu Patani dan bahasa Thai: Sumber Persamaan demi menyelesaikan konflik di Selatan Thai Oleh: Abdonloh Khreeda-oh Analisis strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan oleh: Nasihah Hashim dan Indirawati Zahid Mengajar Prinsip Kesantunan Linguistik Dalam Budaya Melayu Kepada Pelaj ar Asing. Oleh: Zaitul Azma Binti Zainon Hamzah dan Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassa n. Serangga dalam peribahasa melayu sebagai pelengkap kehidupan. Oleh Ahma d Fuad Mat Hassan dan Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah Analisis Kesalahan Umum Struktur Ayat Majmuk oleh Pelajar Asing
216
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
تصور مقرتح لبناء درس إلكرتوين يف تعليم العربيَّة للنَّاطقني بغريها يف ضوء املدخل ّ عبد الرمحن بن شيك وحممد فهام حممد غالب ورمي عادل الرتك: إعداد.االتصايل
240 253 261 273 285 302 312 319 331 342 357 364 371 395
41
تأرجح اللغة العربية االتصالية بني التأصيل واالستئصال احلاجة امللحة إيل حممد يوسف:إعداد.الكفاءةِ الذاتية
415
42
األول مبركز اللغات باجلام َّ أثر برنامج اللغة العربيَّة التفاعليَّة يف تطوير مهارات اللغة العربية لدى طالب املستوى إبراهيم سليمان أمحد وزكريا عمر: إعداد.عة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا
432
43
سورة البقرة،دور فقه اللغة يف "ضياء التأويل يف معاين التنزيل" لعبد هللا النيجريي (دراسة حتليلية منهجية زبري أبو بكر ماداكي:منوذجا) إعداد
455
44
تناول كنز العال للربدة ما بني التناص والسرقة الشعرية يوس نظرية عبدهللا ونور احلنيلة حممد عصمت:إعداد
466
45
فاطمة: إعداد. دراسة حتليلية تقابلية:الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغتني العربية والصينية سو يان مي وزاليكا بنت آدم ونور احلنيلة بنت حممد عصمت
482
46
أمحد ياين وخالد عثمان: إعداد.اللغوي األساسيّة كيفية اكتساب مهارات التّواصل ّ
940
4
يوسف 605
واقع اللغة العربية يف األنظمة التعلمية ؛ نيجرييا منوذجا :دراسة حتليلية .إعداد :شيخ أمحد بن عبدالسالم
47
615
ختلف املسلمة النيجريية عن حقل التعليم العريب احلديث :أسباب وحلول .إعداد: موسى عبدالسالم مصطفى أبيكن
48
625
أمهية تفعيل بعض طرق تدريس اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية يف جنوب شرقي آسيا. إعداد :حممد أمحد صاحل
49
660
احلكم واألمثال يف املقصورة الدريدية:دراسة أدبية .إعداد :موسى عبدالسالم مصطفى أبيكن
50
655
أمنوذجا .إعداد :نور احلنيلة بنت حتليل التعبريات اجملازية القرآنية على ضوء أبعاد نظرية التلقي ،سورة يوسف ً حممد عصمت ،يوس نظرية ،زاليكا بنت آدم ،وفاطمة سو يان مي.
51
675
غوي الشفوي الرتاكيب النّحويّة ّ ّ الشائعة ودورها يف حتقيق التّواصل اللّ ّ
52
601
حتديات السياسية واالقتصادية للدراسات العربية يف نيجرييا .إعداد :ألفا حممد الثالث ،الدكتور ثالث أبوبكر عبد هللا ،علي عبد الواحد أديبسي
53
612
Colonial impact on the socio-communicative functions of arabic language in nigeria: an overview by Alfa Muhammed Salisu et. al.
54
621 631
Code Switching to English in Malayalam Literary Texts by Tania Mary Vivera Cross-linguistic and Cross-disciplinary Variation of Lexical bundles in Academic Writing by Hadi Kashiha et. al. Subset-principle, Positive Linguistic Data and a Good Cue by Maryam Jalalifarahani and Mohammadali Ghovehnodoushan
55 56
637
57
ILCC 2013
6
Designing an interactive program in learning Arabic language for non-native speakers via Virtual Tutor ® Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud1, Muhammad Sabri Sahrir2, Rahmah bt Ahmad H. Osman3 1
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, IIUM 2 Kulliyyah of Languages and Management, IIUM 3 Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, IIUM ______________________________________________________________________________ Corresponding Author:
[email protected], Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge
and Human S
ciences, International Islamic University Malaysia Abstract This research presents the design framework of an interactive program specifically dedicated in teac hing Arabic language to the non-native speakers. This program is established based on the complete awareness of the language contents and its four study levels (phonological, morphological, syntacti cal and semantic) with distinct focus on prominent foundations and theories concerned with academ ic accomplishment as derived from the e-learning data system. The research is established on textu al and phonological database involving vocabulary comprehension and its manners of pronunciation and inferring to the most highly expected errors from the non-native speakers of Arabic. More than 120 users have participated in the process, under the supervision of a specialized teamwork between the administrative, linguistic, educational and engineering departments. The tentative results have s tatistically reflected the program’s efficiency and its distinctive role in prompting the academic proc ess and the increase in the cognitive outcome among the students specimen assigned as the experim ental sample group in comparison to the results of the realizable control sample from the similar co nventional education. This program garners practical and academic features ensuring more worth in studying it as to the other e-learning programs. Virtual Tutor does not only embody theoretical foun dations supported with modern methodological designs as it simultaneously ensures efficient partici patory role of the users involved. Keywords: design framework, Arabic language learning, interactive program, non-native speakers, design and development. Introduction This universe is especially unique in its established diversity of tongues and different languages. Th e difference in world languages should not, however, present an obstacle that seeks to separate one nation from another. This study is aimed at effectively contributing in bridging the cultural gap betw een multi-tongued people of different nations through the introduction of an interactive program th at contributes to a major development in Arabic language teaching for the non-native speakers. The effort is not dependent upon the linguistics and educational sectors per se as it fuses available tech nical tools and applications into the Arabic and Islamic environments upon believing that the moder n technology is an indispensable aspect of the educational process. The research addresses the issue s of the importance of learning Arabic among non-native speakers, purposes of learning, and learnin g tools and aids from the western perspectives. The use of technology and literacy among people is often described in relation to one another and which are specifically known as information literacy a nd multimedia literacy (Warschauer, 2006).
Computer applications in teaching and learning of the Arabic language The earlier Islamic nation was very much concerned with the spread of the Arabic language. The lin guistics sciences then in turn has come around to preserve and safeguard the Arabic language from e rrors and distortions by describing its linguistics theoretical concepts beginning with el-Khalil bin A hmed el-Faraheedi in his theory of “the overview” to Sibawayh in his theory of “the complete mode l” as discussed in “the book” and finally to Ibn Jinny in his theory of “theoretical concepts consisten cy of Arabic language sciences” as mentioned in his books “the secret of syntax” and “the propertie s” (Ragheb-a, 2011). The spread of Islam all over the world also encourages the spreading of the Ar abic language; the language of the holy Quran and its prophetic texts. Thus, the Arabic language has been learnt and taught by different races and tribes from all over the world involving various teachi ng and learning methods including computational technologies. In the case of Africa, the spread of I slam also encourages the mastery of the Arabic language because it is considered a sacred language in order to understand the Holy Qur’an for fear of subtracting from or adding to the sacred original t ext (Adewuni Salawu, 2007). Nowadays the use of computer and its applications have invaded and became an integral part of the modern societies’ life. Changes within the different aspects of life ha ppen in a record time and it is the duty of every society to keep up with the information era especiall y in embracing the computer and its applications which would then see them qualified and well-arm ed in bracing the rapid changes of this era (al-Harak, 2003). Learning through multimedia is then on becoming the focus of researchers in computer-assisted language learning in order to enhance the e ffectiveness of learning process. The term ‘multimedia learning’ can be defined as the presentation of material using both words and pictures (Mayer, 2001). In addition, Mayer & Mereno (1998) foun d that the learner’s understanding while watching animated images of a certain phenomenon (the lig htning phenomenon) accompanied with an auditory explanation is much better than the learner’s un derstanding of the similar animated images while verbally reading an onscreen-text explanation. T hese technical developments are now synchronized within the stages of self-learning development. This involved the use of multi-medias and computer-assisted learning method which increasingly a ctivated the role of computer in language learning as also specifically seen in the Arabic language. Based on Mohd Feham and Isarji (2000), Mohd Feham (2006), Ashinida, et al. (2004) and Zawawi ( 2008), there is still a lack of use of computer-assisted technology in the Arabic language teaching an d learning. Furthermore, Mohd Feham (2006) mentioned that there are few inventions and innovatio ns available in the field of Arabic language learning, due to several reasons that pose a limit to the n umber of Arabic language educational software and courseware. The majority of Arabic language te achers were also found to be incompetent in using the computer and courseware in the teaching pro cess due to poor computer literacy especially among the senior generations (Zawawi, 2008) and als o lacking computer training (Ashinida et al., 2004). In addition, the technological production of mac hinery for Arabic language teaching and learning is also being dominated by the American-English l anguage, be it in terms of software or hardware as pointed out by Ditter (2006). Thus, this paper por trays the process of designing an interactive computer-assisted Arabic language teaching and learnin g web-based courseware that is to be used as complementary learning aids for traditional Arabic tex tbooks. Studies have reiterated that multimedia applications have the ability in assisting the process of teaching in the classroom in enabling more flexibility and effectiveness (Zamri & Nur Aisyah, 2 011) as well as in providing better learning experience compared to the face-to-face environment (V incent, Lee, Tan and Syukery, 2005). A particular study in learning Arabic using multimedia found t hat the audio with images mode was an important aid to learning as compared to text with images m ode (Aldadalah, Fong & Ababneh, 2010). Integration of technology and traditional textbook towards the design framework The acquisition of a foreign language – or any language – is a process that is extremely complex be cause of its relation to cognitive, cultural and psychological factors. With the growing interest in tea ching foreign languages specially the Arabic language. Concerned institutions start to take an intere st in this field by developing various learning aids such as readable books, audio tapes, CDs or spec
ILCC 2013
8
ialized sites on the internet. For instance, there are educational online games that have been specific ally developed as the instructional aids for the traditional textbook by Muhammad Sabri and Ghazal i (2012) based on the front-end analysis of the needs of learners, teachers, educational institutions a nd information technology (IT) facilities (Muhammad Sabri & Nor Aziah, 2011) using the design an d development research methods and approaches (Muhammad Sabri, Nor Aziah, Zawawi and Nurul huda, 2012). A similar attempt at integrating educational technology tools in supporting an online ac ademic reading environment was conducted by Noorizah et. al. (2011), in the design of a prototype known as Interactive English Language Literacy System (i-ELLS). In addition, the use of traditional textbook in classroom is undergoing a transformation of becoming digital textbook and courseware due to widespread computer applications among the digital generation (Lewin, 2009). In this paper, every one of the Arabic language courses presents the linguistic subject that the student needs to ac quire through a pre-determined method. The courses have been considered as the real embodiment o f the Arabic academic program and are regarded as the most important courses developed until now and are widely used to teach the Arabic language for the non-native speakers such as: ( كتاب العربية للناشئينThe arabic language book for the youth) – (Siniy, 1983) ( سلسلة أحب العربيةThe series of “I love Arabic”) – (Siniy, 1980) ( سلسلة تعليم اللغة العربية للناطقين بغيرهاSeries of “teaching the Arabic language for the non-native speaker s”) – (Group of Authors, 1980) ( العربية بين يديكThe Arabic language in your hands) – (Al-Fawzan, et. al., 2004) a) The Arabic language book for the youth ()كتاب العربية للناشئين This book provides an overview of the language and presented it in an integrated way with the Arab ic sounds for example not separated from the language levels. The Arabic sounds are presented in n ormal speech of different contexts. This book also does not present the entire vocabulary lesson at o ne go but in a sequence of connected groups for the purpose of use and not for mere conservation or memorization. One of the most important features of this book is the creation of an effective way f or studying the syntax based on the functional approach, it does not depend on analysis or the synta ctic terminologies; but it processes the four essential linguistic skills equally, believing that languag e learning and a progress in it is achieved by an awareness of continuous training. Its effectiveness i s also attributed to the teacher-student relationship as well as between the student and his classmates . Therefore this book functions as the suitable ground for this connection to enhance the student’s p articipation in the learning process and increase his opportunities in using language. The book is als o concerned with the language of living and depends on the direct approach and it does not use an i ntermediary language. The book gives a special attention to the pictures, explaining and illustrating the different situations – in the lessons’ texts and exercises – to assist the teacher in the explanation and also help the student to understand. The book handles ten major educational topics that reflect the interest and love of the youth with a g oal for the students to learn the language structures and vocabularies. These topics are presented thr ough 30 conversational texts and 8 reading texts that contain 110 of the basic structures of the Arabi c grammar and 445 of the vocabularies and real expressions. The topics include a systematic and co ntinuous study that spreads the spirit of joy and happiness among students and allows them a chanc e to express their ideas and interests in Arabic as they would express it in their native language. The situations present in the book have an important and relevant connection to their lives in the school and the home by providing them with a fair group of vocabularies and linguistic patterns that would assist them in expressing themselves. b) The series of “I love Arabic” ()سلسلة أحب العربية This series is dedicated to young students, and it presents the classical Arabic language to enable the students the use of oral and written communication Arabic. It is aimed for the use of Arabic in the c ommunication and real educational situations, and prepares students for further study of the Arabic language subjects. The series is composed of four stages, each stage consisting of a book for the stu
dent, a book of exercises, a book for the teacher, with a number of audio recording aids and visual a ids to be used with the book including cue cards, paintings, records and a manual for the teacher. Its approach enables the learner to practice the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) equally and provides training of the language elements such as phonemes, vocabularies and structur es. The series’ topics are based on the Arabic Islamic culture and the world cultures and it is also co ncerned with the child’s world and his interests such as: hobbies, play time, life at home and school, relationships with relatives, friends and neighbours; it discusses the world of animals and plants, an d the external universe through various modes such as in conversations, stories, songs, narrations, li nguistic games, and meaningful entertainment to state the etiquette and basic scientific facts. The le ssons are linked with linguistics exercises and physical and mental activities, individual tasks such a s in drawing and painting, or group tasks. The series contains approximately 1500 words spread acr oss the four levels; the basic Arabic vocabularies are concentrated in the first two books also contain ing the Arabic phonetic system with all its different phenomena. The new vocabularies introduced i n each lesson are specifically chosen to suit the student’s expected progress with some words repeat ed from one lesson to another to ensure familiarity of the words. c) The series of teaching Arabic for the non-native speakers (سلسلة تعليم اللغة العربية للناطقين بغي )رها This series is published under the supervision of the institution for Arabic language education in the Islamic university of Imam Muhammad bin Saud; this series is considered as a complete course to t each Arabic and the concepts of the Islamic science. More than fifty teachers, experts and specialist s have contributed in writing this series composing of a definitional introduction and thirty seven te xts for the learner with five manuals for the teachers and eight lexicons. This series is an encycloped ic work involving a big team of specialists. The book is made up of levels beginning from the prima ry introduction of the language and its letters to the linguistics descriptions. The book aimed to qual ify the learner to join Arabic universities in studying the Islamic law ‘sharia’, Arabic language, and t he literature. d) The Arabic language in your hands ()العربية بين يديك This series come in seven books; three of them meant for students in three varying levels; beginner, intermediate, and advanced. This series too does not ignore the teacher’s role so that it includes thre e books containing the structures and guidelines in teaching language for the non-native speakers. T he seventh book is, however, considered as the lexicon of vocabularies used in the book with an add ition of about eight hours of phonetic appendix for each of the student’s three books. Research process, participants and milestone More than 120 users have participated in the research under the supervision of specialized administr ative, linguistic, educational and engineering teamwork. The details can be viewed at the URL: http: //www.rdi-eg.com/projects/VirtualTutor.htm. The tentative results have statistically reflected the pro gram’s efficiency and its distinctive role in prompting the academic process and the increase in the c ognitive outcome for the students subjected as the experimental sample as compared to the results o f the realizable control sample that went through the similar conventional education. Methods of teaching the Arabic language and samples of interactive learning programs There are several ways practiced in teaching the foreign languages, and the methods have been deve loped because of the continuous growth in the need to learn the foreign languages. The need to learn and study foreign languages have increased especially among those whose nature lives requires the learning of these languages as well as other diverse needs or purposes in learning a non-native langu age such as for travelling, work, and studying. Al-Khuliy (1989) mentioned several Arabic language teaching methods practised as listed below: a) The traditional way or also known as “grammar and translation”. b) The communicative way. c) The direct way. d) The audio oral way. e) The selective way.
ILCC 2013
10
It is apparently noticeable that all previously mentioned series vary among themselves in interests, a ims and the ways the courses are presented. Concerns in teaching Arabic for non-native speakers are not only addressed in educational books but also available in designated sites on the internet. Amon g the most important sites are: 1- http://www.rosettastone.com 2- http://afl.ajeeb.com 3- http://www.arabicsp.com 4- http://www.horoof.com However, all the previously discussed methods existed without accurate and specialized electronic t echniques to ease the learning and ensure the learners’ continuity in the learning process. It is sugge sted for teachers to search for a program based in specialized techniques that help to achieve the exp ected aims through quick, attractive and simple manner. Formulating a theoretical framework in developing an interactive Arabic learning program The summarized idea of this paper is to present a sample of an Arabic computational mechanism in teaching Arabic language to the non-native speakers through a rich and attractive course that emplo ys specialized techniques in its educational production. This course adopted an advanced electronic format enabling activities through the internet and laser cylinders and reinforcing it with the differe nt learning mediums to ease the learning process and elicit great results on the learner. This was po ssible due to the experience of the specialized team in educational projects and their in-depth knowl edge of modern techniques for teaching. The role of this team is not only restricted to the linguistic, administrative, engineering and technical work but also in deciding on the educational strength of th e course and its appropriateness to the age of the learners. The technical models and rephrasing tak e into consideration the psychological side and the educational dimension of the learner resulting in a mixed group of methods for evaluation and available correct answers. These characteristics are in accordance to the most highlighted modern educational theories (Ragheb-a, 2011, Ragheb-b, 2011). a) The goals of the program Among the major goals of the program are in its aims in: i) The employment of modern techniques in teaching that would have impact on the non-nativ e learner’s emotion, involving the processes of search, uploading, analysis, and connection of mech anisms. ii) The flexibility in using this program for persons, associations, or universities from all over t he world.iii) Extending cultural connections and civilized communication with persons of the non -Arab institutions. iv)Enabling the learners to acquire the linguistic, communicative, and cultural aspects efficiently. v) Spreading the Arab culture through the objective processing of the course. vi)Strengthening the connection between people of the world. b) The technical specifications: The program presents two levels of Arabic learning: i) The basic level : The level contains 16 units, each unit composes of 6 lessons, so the level co ntains 96 lessons. The units’ is as the followings: a) The first lesson: interactive conversations b) The second lesson: vocabularies c) The third lesson: syntactic structures d) The fourth lesson: listening and comprehension e) The fifth lesson: speech f) The sixth lesson: reading and writing g) Four general tests are available for each level.
ii) The advanced level : The level contains 18 units, each unit composes of 6 lessons, so the lev el contains 108 lessons. The unit’s design is as the followings: a) The first lesson: conversation + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + sounds + syntacti c notice + audio comprehension + speech. b) The second lesson: listen and read + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + syntactic not ice. c) The third lesson: interactive conversation+ comprehension excersies + vocabularies + sound s + syntactic notice + listen and comprehend + speech. d) The fourth lesson: listen and read + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + syntactic noti ce. e) The fifth lesson: directed writing + calligraphy + dictation. f) The sixth lesson: free reading + comprehension excersies + vocabularies excersies. g) Four general tests are available for each level. iii) Ways and method of presentation for the basic level: 1Interactive dialogues The program presents a collection of dialogues that aims to equip the beginner with a group of basic everyday expressions. The dialogues are presented in full animation between two parties having a conversation. The user is able to listen to the whole dialogue and imagine the real situation as perfo rmed by the two parties. The subtitles are shown in a clear diacritized font and the speech sound of each party is distinct. The user could benefit from listening to the dialogues and enhanced the abilit y to listen to new words and other benefits include: a) Listening to the dialogue phrases discontinuously (phrase by phrase) with the ability to repe at and move to the next or the previous phrase, the goal of this ability is to enable the user to listen, and examine every phrase well and also get used to hear it. b) Students are also able to choose one particular party from the two dialogue parties to listen t o (individual listening) aiming at deepening the user’s awareness of the expressions he is receiving, and to increase the ability to simulate and discriminate between the parties’ roles and to develop the ability of role playing as the receiver end of a conversation. 2Audio training tools There are two ways in training the user to practice the expressions he have listened to : a) The first way: recording the pronunciation of Arabic letters and words and the program assu mes the teacher’s role in correcting the user’s pronunciation (speech verification). b) The second way: recording the different phrases and expressions and the ability to replay the recording to compare between the model dialogues and user’s accomplishment (user’s progress and ability in using the new expressions (Ragheb, 2007). 3The visual-audio presentation of the vocabularies: The program presents a collection of simple words that the learner could utilise in daily life accordi ng to the attempted level. The program begins with the presentation of a collection of photos ; a click on the photos would pro duce the audio expression of the photos. 4The audio training for the vocabularies The student is able to record the vocabularies he learned and listen to them in his own voice as the p rogram is able to correct his pronunciation in order to allow the user to keep track of his pronunciat ion level and learning achievement. 5Vocabulary bank The excellent language user or user desiring to learn more vocabularies could be exposed to other w ords that do not exist in the lesson (but belonging to the same level of the words) by developing larg e groups of different vocabularies. This vocabulary bank could also facilitate user’s cognition , achi eve the reality , or be able to understand the lesson’s vocabularies as the countries’ names could be l inked with the world map and highlighting the desired country on the map (Yaseen, et. al, 2006).
ILCC 2013
12
6Vocabulary training The training is one of the effective ways that increases the interactive value of the program and mea sures the learner’s success in the learnt or acquired concepts. This training is also concerned with vo cabularies learnt from the previous presentations. At the beginning of the training session, two phot os would appear on the screen with one word pronounced and the user would have to decide and ch oose the correct photo described. In the case of a wrong choice a mark (x) appears with a voice message to notify that the user’s choi ce is wrong. A right choice would display a mark () appearing with a message to indicate correct a nswer. The training presentation is done in an enjoyable manner that is hoped to entertain the user a nd motivates him to continue the exercises. 7The writing training through writing verification The writing verification is one of the specialized techniques under the development of a group of A rab institutions. The technique works through a device called the Tablet PC using the Touch screen pen that the learner could use for training in writing Arabic letters and words. Another method avail able in mastering Arabic writing is through printing out some exercises and practicing writing the m. In the case of operating the program through LMS, the user will enter the papers through the opti cal scanner and send to the supervising teacher through the internet to correct these papers and to re turn to the user with notes and feedback. c) Ways and methods of presentation for the advanced level There are several presentation methods used for the advanced levels such as: 1Readable texts : The program displays the reading texts in order to teach the reading skill, in crease vocabularies and also provide a scientific benefit. The texts are presented in the following ma nner: a) The user could listen to the text and controls the volume. b) The complete text appears in a clear font and with full diacritics. 2The lexicon service : The user enjoys the benefit of a prepared lexicon by just a right click at the mouse on the word and the lexicon displays the following options (Attia, et. al., 2008) : a) The meaning of the proposed words b) The root word c) Prefixes d) Suffixes e) The morphological form of the word. 3Advanced explanation of the grammatical rules The program presents grammar lessons through animated cartoon followed by a voice explanation f lash tutorial of the grammatical rules. The user has control to re-play, pause or stop the tutorial. 4The advanced search a) The user could conduct a search under the following characteristics: b) The search scope is extended to all the vocabularies of a single level. 5The user could choose different types of search as the following: a) on the order of all the words b) on all the words within the same sentences c) on all the words within the same page 6Connection services: The user could be connected to a number of additional services throug h the “assisted vocabularies” icon. The services are: a) Additional vocabularies. b) The unit’s vocabulary bank. c) The world map. 7The interactive exercises and tests: An audio message would play with the right or wrong sy mbols to indicate the right and wrong answers. The user is also allowed access to the accumulated g rade at the end of the exercises. An audio message accompanied the exercises to create an interactio
n between the user and the presented material. A timer is made available for a more interactive envi ronment presenting the user a real educational mood and to complete the exercises well. 7-The writing training through writing verification: as mentioned in the basic level discussion. 8-Text to speech service: This is one of the distinguished techniques that enable the learner to enter any text and read it automatically. 9The training of right pronunciation: As mentioned in the audio training tools section for the basic level. 10Supporting options This program presents the methods that allow the user to learn without any teacher assistance. The help and also the questions’ headers in the first level are in English (or any other language) and in th e future may provide more than one language option. The advanced level uses only the Arabic langu age for the help option. The help icon is available to demonstrate the tasks to the user. Some of these services could be hidd en or be made to appear for the advanced levels depending on the user’s necessities. Phases and stages of development of the interactive Arabic learning program The program is developed according to the following phases and stages as shown in Figure 1 : مراحل إنتاج المشروع إعداد السيناريوهات تصميم البرنامج
تصميم شاشات
رسم الشخصيات والخلفيات
إدخال النصوص والسيناريوهات
تسجيل النص صوتيا
معالجةتقطيع الصوت
تحريك الرسوم وتركيب الصوت
تطوير الدروس وتحويلها إلى
قاعدة بيانات مولدات البرامج 1 اختبار تعديل 2 اختبار
Scorm
إعداد شجرة الموضوعات
رسم و اعداد الشاشات تحويل إلى Scorm
Q.C نسخة نهائية
عمليات م راجعة
Figure 1 : Development Phases and Stages for Virtual Tutor ® Interactivity and technical features in the interactive learning program 1Arabic derivational search mechanism The search of three million words takes a part of second on a windows operating PC with 128 mega bit internal memory. This technique is implemented completely by using (ANSI C++) that could be prepared to work easily with any operating system (Microsoft windows, UNIX, mac, or etc.) The a bility to index all the texts needed to be searched for at one time (total indexing) plus the ability to a dd or delete any pages from the already prepared index (Differential Indexing). 2Text to speech mechanism T.T.S. (Arabic Text-to-Speech (TTS) This Arabic TTS from RDI has a hybrid concatenated/parametric speech synthesizer which affords a compact system within few tens of megabytes of space. Moreover, RDI's automatic large-scale Ar abic phonetic transcriptor (diacretizer) is the other distinctive corner stone of ArabTalk©. Along wit h several discretization options, many speech effects in both male and female voices are available fo r flexibility and high performance in real-time. SDK's for desktop applications, web services, as we ll as client-server applications are also available for developers. Moreover, male/female Arabic TTS speaker data bases can be built for certain real-speakers chosen. For more detailed information: htt p://www.rdi-eg.com/technologies/speech.htm. A high quality TTS is almost similar to the natural hu man voice. It contains a discretization application to adjust the Arabic text. It consists of high speed speech generation similar to the speed of the natural human pronunciation and can work with any c
ILCC 2013
14
omputer operating system easily. It is also found to be functioning well on mobile applications (Hif ny, et. al., 2004). 3Automatic writing (writing verification) The Tablet PC device enables the learner to use this training technique in the writing style of the Ar abic letters and words. 4Speech verification mechanism It is an automatic system that easily and promptly recognizes the phonetic properties of the new lear ner (Speaker adaptation). It provides instant response to the learner in discovering his mistakes in re ading and clarifying the mistakesin detail. This new technique was developed to completely work with the different and diverse Arabic dialects. It also adapts well to all types of computer operating system. 5The lexicon service for the Arabic words The lexical semantic analysis of the Arabic words offers many applications such as searching by sy nonyms or antonyms, the generation of semantic fields, or general semantic analysis in the text (Atti a, et. al., 2008). The sample of screenshot for this interactive learning program in Arabic is shown in Figure 2 below:
Figure 2 : Sample of interface screenshot for Virtual Tutor ® Results and findings: The tentative results of this project have statistically reflected the program’s efficiency and its distin ctive role in prompting the academic process and the increase in the cognitive outcome among the st udents specimen assigned as the experimental sample group in comparison to the results of the reali zable control sample group from the similar conventional education. The study result confirms the f easibility of technical programs in rapidly teaching the Arabic language; that poses a significant imp act on achieving better results for special language teachings as seen through the following: a) The students’ results showed an improvement for both the traditional method and the experiment al groups. The group that utilised the program showed a percentage of improvement of 17% and 46 %and as shown in the following Table 1, Table 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 of results from the experim ental and control groups: Table 1: Results for experimental group Written Listening Oral Total % Preflight averages 9.00 23.00 27.50 59.50 59.50% 45% 77% 55% 60%
Final test averages Rate of improvement
18.33 92% 104%
29.50 98% 28%
39.17 78% 42%
87.00 87% 46%
Table 2: Results for control group Written Listening Oral Total Preflight averages 13.33 20.50 31.67 65.50 67% 68% 63% 66% Final test averages 15.67 24.00 37.00 76.67 78% 80% 74% 77% Rate of improvement 18% 17% 17% 17%
87.00%
% 65.50% 76.67%
Figure 3 : Demonstration of the high index level of the experimental sample control
Figure 4 : Illustration compares the percentage of improvement between technology and the t raditional way b) Technology tools are the current attraction especially in an era with information and communicati on technology as the common denominator among its members. c) The realization of the principle of equal opportunities which arise from varying levels of Languag e Learners. d) To address the problems caused by individual differences that force teachers to accommodate to t he needs of some learners while unintentionally neglecting other participants, but with this software the student has the opportunity to learn well either in the classroom or from home. e) Greater opportunity to communicate with supervisors and parents to report on students, improve ments especially with the installation of case management system , Learning Management System ( LMS) and linked to a central server for the educational center. Conclusion
ILCC 2013
16
This paper discussed and presented the developmental stages of an interactive Arabic learning progr am, the Virtual Tutor. It featured an integration of learning contents into several traditional and cont emporary text books with several open source web-based applications as a proposed theoretical and practical sample of design framework. This design framework may be useful in designing interactiv e Arabic a-learning tools in other educational settings and environment. Its benefits include in contri buting towards increasing the motivation and positive perception among non-native speakers in lear ning Arabic. References Adewuni Salawu, (2007). Journal of Translation, Volume 3, Number 2. Retrieved on Nov 13, 2012 from www.sil.org/siljot/2007/2/49509/siljot2007-2-03.pdf Al-‘Ani, Salman (1970) Arabic Phonology: An Acoustical and Physiological Investigation. The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton and Co, “Janua Linguarum” practical series 61. Aldalalah, O, Fong, S.F. & Ababneh, W.Z. (2010). Effects of multimedia-based instructional designs for Arabic language learning among pupils of different achievement levels. International Journal of Human and Social Sciences 5:5 2010. Retrieved from https://www.waset.org/journals/ijhss/v5/v5-5-45.pdf Al-Fawzan, Abdulrahman bin Ibrahim et. al, (2004). Al-Arabia Bayna Yadaika - Arabic for all Press, First edition. Al-Harak, Hesham Muhammed. (2003). Internet in education - E-school project. Informatics network news - Thursday, 17/7/2003, http://www.annabaa.org/nbanews/24/096.htm Al-Khuliy, Mohammad Ali (1989). Methods of teaching Arabic Language. 3rd edition, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Ashinida Aladdin, Afendi Hamat & Mohd. Shabri Yusof (2004). Penggunaan PBBK(Pembelajaran bahasa berbantukan komputer) dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa asing: Satu tinjauan awal. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 4(1) 2004. Attia, M., et. al. (2008). A Compact Arabic Lexical Semantics Language Resource Based on the Theory of Semantic Fields. LREC2008 conference http://www.lrec- conf.org/lrec2008, Marrakech-Morocco, May 2008. Ditter, E. (2006). Technologies for Arabic language teaching and learning. In K. M. Wahba, Z. A. Taha & L. England (Ed.), Handbook for Arabic language teaching professionals in the 21st century (pp. 239-252). New Jersey, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Group of Authors, (1994). Ta’lim Al-Arabia. Institute for Arabic Language Teaching, University of Imam Muhammad bin Saud, First edition. Hifny, Y., and et. al. (2004). ArabTalk®: An Implementation for Arabic Text To Speech System. The proceedings of the 4th Conference on Language Engineering;
CLE’2003, Sept. 2004, the Egyptian Society of Language Engineering (ESLE), and re-published also in the News Letter of Evaluation of Language Resources and Distribution Agency (ELDA), France, May 2004 issue. Lewin, T. (2009). In a Digital Future, Textbooks Are History. Online article in The New York Times on the Web Learning Network. Retrieved on Nov 13, 2012 from http://www.nytimes.com/learning/teachers/featured_articles/20090831monday.html
Mayer, R. Moreno, A (1998). Split-attention effect in multimedia learning: evidence for dual processing systems in working memory. Journal of Educational Psychology 90 , 312–320. Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning (9th edition). New York, United States: Cambridge University Press. Mohd Feham Mohd Ghalib & Isarji Sarudin (2000). On-line Arabic: Challenges, limitations and recommendations. Proceedings of National Conference on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Kedah, pp. 231-239. Mohd Feham Mohd Ghalib (2006). The design, development and testing on the efficacy of a pedagogical agent on the performance and program rating scores among students learning Arabic. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Muhammad Sabri, Sahrir & Nor Aziah, Alias (2011). A study on Malaysian language learners’ perception towards learning Arabic via online games. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, ISSN 1675-8021, Volume 11 (3), pp. 129-145. Muhammad Sabri Sahrir & Ghazali Yusri Abd Rahman (2012). Online Vocabulary Games For Teaching And Learning Arabic. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 3 (12), pp. 961-977 Muhammad Sabri Sahrir, Nor Aziah Alias, Zawawi Ismail & Nurulhuda Osman (2012). Employing Design and Development Research (DDR) Approaches in the Design and Development of Online Arabic Vocabulary Learning Games Prototype. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), ISSN: Old (1303 – 6521), New: (2146-7242)., VOL. 11, issue 2, pp. 108-119. Noorizah, Mohd Noor, Hazita, Azman, Nor Fariza, Mohd Nor, Afendi, Hamat & Nadzrah, Abu Bakar (2011). Development and evaluation of the Interactive English Language Literacy System (i-ELLS) for online reading comprehension. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies – Vol 17(Special Issue): 19 – 30.
R.RK. Hartmann and F.C. Stark, (1973). Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, London. Ragheb, A. (2007). Phonetic Accompaniment and its Semantic Reflections on the Holy Qur’an; a Computational Phonological Study. (long Arabic essay), Symposium on Information Technology and Arabic & Jurisprudent Sciences, College of Computer and Information Sciences, University of Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Sa’ud; http://www.imamu.edu.sa/ccsi/arabic/a-home.htm, Riyadh-KSA, Mar. 2007.
ILCC 2013
18
Ragheb, Ahmed (2011). Phonetic Study between Theory and Practice. Copy Express Press. Ragheb, Ahmed (2011). Program for teaching Arabic language. International Journal Al- Madinah, MEDIU. Siniy, Mahmoud Ismae’l, et. al. (1980). Uhibbu Al- Arabia. Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States, First edition. Siniy, Mahmoud Ismae’l, et. al. (1983). Al-Arabia Lil-nashie’n, The Saudi Ministry of Education, First edition. Vincent, Pang, Lee, Kean Wah, Tan Choon Keong and Syukery, Mohamed (2005). E-learning initiatives in e-ducating student teachers. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 5 (2), pp. 15-27. Warschauer, M. (2006). Literacy and technology: Bridging the divide. In D. Gibbs and K.-L. Krause (Eds.), Cyberlines 2: Languages and cultures of the Internet (pp. 163-174). Albert Park, Australia: James Nicholas. Yaseen, M., et. al. (2006). Building Annotated Written and Spoken Arabic LR ’s in NEMLAR Project, LREC2006 conference http://www.lrec-conf.org/lrec2006, Genoa-Italy, May 2006. Zamri, Mahamod & Nur Aisyah, Mohamad Noor (2011). Persepsi Guru Tentang Penggunaan Aplikasi Multimedia Dalam Pengajaran Komponen Sastera Bahasa Melayu. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 3 (11), pp. 163-177. Zawawi Ismail (2008). Penilaian pelaksanaan kurikulum kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab komunikasi di Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama. – Evaluation of implemented curriculum of speaking skill in Arabic communicative subjects in religious secondary schools. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
About the authors Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud (Ph.D) is currently an academic staff at the Department of Ara bic Language and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). His resea rch interests are computational linguistics, educational technology, research methodology, and teach ing Arabic as a second language. Muhammad Sabri Sahrir (Ph.D) is currently an academic staff at the Department of Arabic Langu age and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). His research intere sts are curriculum development and evaluation, educational technology, and teaching Arabic as a for eign language Rahmah bt Ahmad H. Osman (Ph.D) is currently an Associate Professor and academic staff at the Department of Arabic Language and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysi a (IIUM). Her research interests are curriculum development and evaluation, educational technolog y, Arabic and Malay literature and teaching Arabic as a foreign languag
STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS UNIVERSITY-REQUIRED ENGLISH LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION: A Comparison between Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) and Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Salinayanti Salim Albukhary International University, Alor Setar, Kedah, Malaysia.
[email protected]
Abstract.
This study assesses students’ attitudes to University-required English language instruction in Brunei and Malaysia. The main focus of this study is to investigate the similarities and differences in the students’ attitudes towards the English language instruction in Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD), Brunei and Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia with the secondary focus investigating the probable factors that may have caused such attitudes among English learners in both countries. These factors may be internal, arising from the students themselves, or external, that may come from their home, school and also society. Data from both universities were collected using a process of triangulation through semi-structured interview, classroom observation and student journal entry and the data was analysed qualitatively. The findings reveal a generally positive attitude from the participants from both universities with some significant attitudinal differences to specific English language contexts and that imply the participants from UBD and UiTM are motivated learners despite their different background in terms of English language learning and use.
Keywords: Attitudes, English language instruction, Second language learning (SL), Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD)
Introduction Malaysia was a British colony and that was how English came to have influence in the country even until present. Even though the government wants to preserve Malay by making it a medium of instruction in schools, they have been unable to stop the growth of English where it is a language for international communication. So, with Malay still being the Official language of Malaysia, there are no constraints for Malaysians to acquire English. However, given its volatile history with the British colonial powers, it is believed that there are certain groups who are uncomfortable to see English being well accepted in Malaysia and this will be discussed in detail throughout this study. Brunei on the other hand, was one of the British protectorate countries from 1888 until 1984 when it regained its independence. Even though Malay is the Official language of Brunei, English is widely-used and well-accepted in the country, owing much the cordial relationship between the two countries. It would be interesting to see whether the nature of Brunei and Malaysia’s relationship with Britain would have any bearings on their general attitudes towards the language of their once colonial masters.
ILCC 2013
20
Statement of Problem The main subject of discussion in this study is the similarities and differences in attitude of university students towards English language instruction, the possible reasons for any visible patterns in these attitudes and any identifiable implications they may have on learning outcomes and related issues. In particular, this study looks at two leading universities in Malaysia and Brunei; Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) and Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD).
Research Questions 1. What are the learners’ attitudes towards English in general? 2. What are the learners’ attitudes towards learning English language instruction in universities in Malaysia and Brunei? 2.1 Have these attitudes changed since entering university? 2.2 If these attitudes have changed since entering university, how or why have they changed? 3. What are the factors that led to the attitudes held towards English among Malaysian and Bruneian students?
Literature Review Learners’ attitudes towards a language have a significant effect on second language learning. Gardner (1985) mentioned that unlike other subjects such as History, Mathematics and Geography which are close to the learners’ culture, a new language is totally from an external cultural community. The definition of attitude, Allport (1954:45 as cited in Gardner, 1985) states that, ‘an attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related’. There have been a number of studies and research done in other countries on attitudes of learners towards the English language. In Nigeria, English enjoys a higher standing with locals than does their own language, Yoruba, due to the educational codes of the colonial administration (Adegbija, 1994). Teachers seem to focus more on English and it influences students’ attitudes to favour English rather than Yoruba. In Swaziland, there was a favourable attitude towards having English as part of education. However, Gardner (1982) found that ethnic identity does affect learners’ attitudes of SL learning. Among French-speaking students, their English performance was low due to their belief that learning English could be a threat to their society. Amongst the important factors that contribute to learners’ attitudes towards L2, social contexts and learning contexts play important roles (Yashima et al., 2004). It is believed that support and encouragement from family, friends, teachers as well as society can help L2 learners gain higher self-esteem with frequent communication in their target language. The attitudes of parents are important especially for learners who are in the early phase of primary socialization. Flowerdew et al (1998) assert that parents in Hong Kong want their children to learn English in order to maximize their career prospects. Parents who have positive attitudes towards English will likely influence their children to favour the language as well. In a study on Malaysian education
policy, Kow (2007) found that regardless of new methods are being created by the Education Department for better education, it is still up to the teachers how they conduct their classrooms, and how they interact with the learners who have different levels of proficiency. The fact is that sometimes the teachers do not explain enough, leaving students confused and lost. Moreover, SL learners are often afraid of making mistakes in class because they feel incompetent and embarrassed. As stated by Horwitz et al (1991), SL students may skip classes or taking part in classroom activities in order to avoid being evaluated negatively by their peers. Interestingly, according to a study by Atef and Munir (2009), the results indicated that a high number of students showed their interest in the culture of the English speaking world as represented by English-language films. Flowerdew et al (1998) found a similar result where mass media is a significant tool that can shape learners’ attitudes to favour English by publicizing items addressing English standards and quoting statements made by academics, the government, and business leaders. Another factor that is believed to have a significant influence in shaping learners’ attitudes towards English is self-perception (Mohd Zulkanain (2008). Students who realize the importance of English would have motivation to learn it because they know, with English; they would be able to interact with people from different linguistic background. In the Malaysian context, English is only a subject in primary and secondary schools whereas the other subjects are taught in Malay. Since class time for learning English is limited, the teachers tend to focus on teaching students to pass examinations. This has led to Malaysian students viewing learning English with instrumental orientation and that they need to get good grades in order to enter universities. Kaur (1995), in her study on English language functions among Malaysian schoolchildren, found that young Malaysian students perceive English to be more important for their personal and academic needs than their social needs. At the tertiary level, according to Samsiah et al (2009), diploma students at UiTM Kedah have shown a lack of interest in learning English. This has become a major concern among English language lecturers because the students are supposed to excel in this subject since English is UiTM’s medium of instruction. However, a study done by Mostafizar (2008) at Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, showed learners’ positive attitudes towards English as a second language. As for Brunei, Jones (2007) argues that Bruneians have accepted English for a better future and better education, yet at the same time, they preserve the Malay language. English, as stated by Ozog (1996), has been used in Brunei for official matters such as in government business, education and trading since 1959. This reflects the Bruneians’ attitudes towards a foreign language; they are more open and willing to accept a language other than Malay for the sake of the country’s development. However, a survey of six local technical and vocational institutions in Brunei by Rasidah (2009) found that students lack interest in learning English because they have low selfesteem and they are afraid of making mistakes in the language. This consequently results in negative attitudes and perceptions towards English as a second language. Even though it is not as obvious issue as in Malaysia, it is undeniable that there are some students in Brunei who do feel uncomfortable learning and using English despite knowing its importance. Methodology This research is qualitative in terms of the nature of the data used. Any study on attitudes needs to have more than one standpoint for validity and therefore, in this study, three qualitative research instruments were employed. The validity of this study is thus enhanced by a process of triangulation through three data sources: semi-structured interview, classroom observation and student journal-entry. The instruments used to collect data were Focus-group interviews, Classroom observations and Student journal-entry. A form of non-probability sampling called purposive sampling was used to select cases for the study. The cases were selected from a variety of studies in two different universities in two
ILCC 2013
22
different countries. The population make-up of both universities is diverse given that they attract qualified students from all parts of Malaysia and Brunei respectively. This study adopted the objectivist grounded theory approach where, according to Charmaz (2002: 677), the researcher derives meaning form the data; meaning inheres in the data and the grounded theorist discovers it. The method of analysis of this research therefore involved the researcher reviewing the responses to each question and identifying primary themes that emerge from the data that were felt to be potentially significant.
Discussion of Main Findings This study intended to explore students’ attitudes towards English in Malaysia and Brunei without any anticipation of what patterns or themes might emerge from the data. The themes for the data emerged only after the fieldwork was completed and the data was analysed according to the themes. This study investigated university students’ attitudes towards English in general and as a required subject in universities in Malaysia and Brunei. The results show that students from both universities are motivated learners. They recognized the social values of English and the importance of English for individuals as well as their country’s future development as evidently shown below:
UiTM Participant 1 [UiTM:P1] ...it would be embarrassing if we meet some tourists and we do not know how to speak English. [Translated] UBD Participant 1 [UBD:P1] Generally speaking, English is an international language. We can meet people from different views. Such behaviour shows that the participants in this study generally have positive attitudes towards English. The participants also realised that English is not only used in educational settings but is also very important when they are outside the classroom. Hence, it is obvious that the sociolinguistic environment and the attitudes of learners are very much interconnected. Regardless of their different levels of proficiency in English, the participants agreed that their English Language classes were very important and they would still take the classes even if they were not a university requirement. Again, this demonstrated favourable attitudes towards English in the educational environment. Even though there were a few participants from both UiTM and UBD who would be reluctant to take the English classes if given the choice, they admitted the classes had been very helpful in their studies. As for the participants from UiTM, they all agreed that English classes had taught them a lot and their English skills had been improved. There would appear to be a similar attitude between students of both UiTM and UBD towards university-required English language instruction. While most students are favourable towards it, there are several in both universities who resent it, but for quite different reasons: UiTM
students resent having to take up English language lessons because of a lack of practice and confidence in the language due to a lack of opportunity during their pre-university study; while UBD students dislike having to do English language classes at university because they feel they have had more than adequate training and competence in English, having learnt and used it throughout their education prior to joining university. In other words it could be argued that the Malaysian students demonstrated "a sense of inadequacy and anxiety" while their Bruneian counterparts displayed a degree of "self-satisfaction and complacency". The participants from UBD and UiTM seemed to have different opinions on the factors that influenced their attitudes and perceptions towards the English language. The majority of the participants believed that self-perception is the biggest factor that would determine one’s attitudes towards learning English. Other than that, the Malaysians believed that parents have the most responsibilities in shaping their children’s attitudes towards English and if they expose their children enough to it, the children will have positive attitudes and be motivated to continue learning in school and universities. The Bruneians, on the other hand, believed that school is the place where they learn and improve their English. Response to Research Questions In response to Research Question 1 regarding the students’ attitudes towards English in general, the evidence shows that participants from both UiTM and UBD have desirable attitudes towards the English language. The participants were aware that English is highly demanded in many sectors and industries, in education fields, as well as for intercultural communication. [UiTM:P2] English is important especially during the interview for any jobs which might be conducted in English. [Trans] [UBD:P2] In Brunei, we need English for both private and government sectors because mostly...what the higher authorities want is English so we want to survive for that. Apart from that, the participants believed that English is necessary even in their own country as they might come across tourists who only understand English and they will only be able to help if they can speak English well. In addition, as claimed by some participants, there are a lot of books and magazines written in English which can easily be bought in their country, even in rural areas that could help in their English language improvement. The results however is contradictory to Siti Norliana’s (2008) finding that students who live in urban areas have more favourable attitudes towards English than students in rural areas because they have more reading materials and positive influences from their parents or siblings who may also speak English at home. According to Nielsen (2003), people learn English not just for employment, advancement in the workplace and academic purposes, but also as it gives access to different media and other English materials like books and magazines. Hence, it can be said that English cannot be avoided nowadays because of its status as an international language. Everyone seems to have their own reasons to learn the language. Apart from that, the study also compared the results retrieved from the fieldwork from both universities. The Malaysian participants hoped to use fluent and accurate English and most of them understood that their cultural identity as Malays would not be threatened. Nevertheless, one participant from UiTM appears to be a bit more nationalistic and feels uneasy seeing the English language being the priority language in Malaysia. Beyond that, this study has shown that the participants from Malaysia are eager to improve their English communication skills. The Bruneians,
ILCC 2013
24
however, are not as eager as the Malaysians due to sufficient exposure to English from a young age and also the fact that the Bruneians use English more frequently. This could be the result of Malaysia’s education policy deciding the English language is only taught as a subject in both primary and secondary schools. In Brunei, English has been the medium of education in school since 1985 when the government came up with the bilingual system of education. [UBD:P1] In Brunei, from primary (school), we are obligated somehow by the government to study the second language from kindergarten till even A- level (Form 6). Significantly, this has led to different perceptions between participants from UiTM and UBD where the Bruneians are more accepting of non-native speakers speaking in English as compared to the Malaysians. The Bruneians are so accustomed to English that it has become their daily language along with Malay. Conversely, in Malaysia, English is not as widely used and communicating in English in public is less acceptable. Research Question 2 considers the learners’ attitudes towards learning English in universities in UBD and UiTM. There are favourable attitudes towards English Language instruction among the majority of the participants in this study from both universities. This positive behaviour was expressed through their confession of willingness to take the English classes even if the classes had not been compulsory for their course. [UiTM:P3] As for me, I would like to learn English even if it is not compulsory here because in the future, we never know what is going to happen or what kind of people we have to meet. [Trans] [UBD:P3] Because you know during our English back then, form five, this LC class, the content is very good because I did not know how to write essays back then. But in this class, it really explains. They seemed to recognize the advantages of taking those classes either in their current study or for their future development. However, there were a few students from both universities who admitted they would not take the English classes for different reasons. The participant from Malaysia was rather nationalistic and claimed that learning English might be seen as an act of betrayal to the country. [UiTM:P6] I would have not taken the subject because I just don’t see why we need to be proud of using the foreign language when we have our own language to be proud of. We can take Japan as an example, they clearly do not depend on English and yet they have their own influence all over the world, why can’t we be like Japan?[Trans]
The participants from Brunei who were confident with their English skills did not feel the need to re-learn certain lessons which had already been taught in school. Regardless, all participants from both universities agreed that the English classes were very useful. This research has also revealed that some students from both universities are very anxious of their English speaking ability thus it makes them nervous whenever they are in English classes. [UiTM:P5] Some really had questions to ask, but since the questions had to be in English, they were reluctant to ask their questions. [Trans] The inability to express themselves in English and a lack of vocabulary seemed to be the main reasons for the UiTM participants’ reluctance to take part in activities in their English classes. However, the participants from UBD who tended to be better English speakers also did not participate as much in English classes because they were very concerned about others’ reactions when they spoke in class. They did not want to stand out from the crowd because of their English. Similarly, Price (1991) revealed that most SL learners refuse to practice the target language because they have had unpleasant experiences of being teased and by other students. [UiTM:P2] The thing about Brunei, you know there’s a word ‘pengucapan’, mean judgemental. We have, you know, when it comes to people, we talk about other people, especially in class.
As for Research Questions 2.1 and 2.2, which ask if the students’ attitudes have changed since entering university, and how or why, the results indeed showed a change in the attitudes of the students from Malaysia from when they were in secondary school to when they were in university. There is a positive change in these students’ attitudes towards English maybe because of their new environment that encourages them to learn English and they seem to realize that English is important for their future development. [UiTM:P1] I felt English was not important back in the day, but when I entered the university and I saw all the books were in English, I realised I had to like English somehow. [Trans]. The finding was similar to Choy & Troudi (2006: 129) which stated that student attitudes towards learning English seemed to be more positive when they were in college most probably due to environments that encouraged and required the use of English for communication and learning. Despite the fact that English classes made some students uncomfortable, they appeared to have increased their self-esteem and gained more confidence with their English skills. In addition, the use of English in social settings was more acceptable to the students UiTM. The result from UBD on the other hand, showed no changes in the students’ attitudes towards English as the Bruneian students generally have a positive attitude towards English from the time they enter primary and secondary school which could be a reflection of the views held by the larger Bruneian population.
ILCC 2013
26
In response to Research Question 3 which asks about the factors that might have influenced learners’ attitudes towards English, the answers varied with each participant. Each participant from both UiTM and UBD personally stated more than one factor that might have an influence on attitudes towards English, but all of them seemed to agree that personal motivation is the most important factor that will determine their attitudes towards English. They believe if a person has strong determination to learn English, he or she will have an effort to overcome any difficulty. [UITM: P4] It doesn’t matter where we are or with whom we hang out, it really depends on ourselves to learn the language. [Trans] [UBD: P1] I believe it depend on one’s determination whether or not to learn English.
Other significant factor which most participants from UiTM agreed on is parental involvement; where parents are believed to play a big role in influencing learners’ attitudes towards English. Malaysian students would depend on their parents to buy sufficient English language reading materials such as books and magazines so the learners would have enough exposure to English, given the fact the students do not get enough exposure to English in primary and secondary school. On the other hand, the UBD participants believed that after personal motivation, school and friends are the next important factors that are responsible in shaping learners’ attitudes towards English. This is again not shocking because the Bruneian bilingual education policy established in 1985 increased exposure to English because most of the subjects in school were taught in English as claimed by one of the UBD participants: [UBD: P4] By right, we talk (spoke) English from the British rule...protectorate. So we have good opportunity to learn English because we have English schools. We have good impressions in terms of encouraging students to talk, speak in English until university level, they do have English.
Living in an English-speaking environment, as suggested by some participants from both universities, is also a factor that can create a favourable attitude towards the language because they believed it is necessary to have some pressure in learning it. According to Gonzales and Bautista’s (1986) assertion, the best way to learn a language is to live in a place with people who use that language, which would help learners acquire it faster for the sake of survival. Media was also suggested by several participants from UiTM and UBD as a factor in determining one’s attitudes towards English. With all the unlimited English programmes on television nowadays which can give sufficient exposure to English, media is seen as another important factor that would generate positive attitudes towards English. Conclusion
It had been assumed that due to geographical, sociocultural and sociolinguistic proximity and parallels between Brunei and Malaysia, a comparative study could be a futile attempt and nothing new would be learnt. However, as this study progressed, those similarities began to appear increasingly superficial only and proved to be deceptive. Indeed lessons were learnt in that attitudes can differ between groups despite all circumstantial equalities and relative parallels, such that seemingly minor differences can have exponential permutations.
References Adegbija, E. (1994). Language attitudes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A sociolinguistics overview. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Atef Al-Tamimi & Munir Shuib (2009). Motivation and attitudes towards learning English: a study of Petroleum Engineering undergraduates at Hadhramout University of Science and Technology. GEMA online journal of language studies, 9(2), 29-55. Charmaz, K. (2002). Qualitative interviewing and grounded theory analysis. In Gubrium, J. F. & Holstein, J. A. (Eds.), Handbook of interview research: context and method, (pp. 675-694). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Choy, S. C & Troudi, S. (2006). An investigation into the changes in perceptions of and attitudes towards learning English in a Malaysian college. International journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 18(2), 120-130. Flowerdew, J., Li, D. & Miller, L. (1998). Attitudes towards English and Cantonese among Hong Kong Chinese university lecturers. TESOL Quarterly, 32(2), 201-231. Gardner, R. C. (1982). Language attitudes and language learning. In Ellen. B. R. & Howard. G. (Eds), Attitudes towards language variation: Social and applied contexts, (pp. 132-147). London: Edward Arnold. Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: the role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold. Gonzalez, A. B & Bautista, ML. S. (1986). Language surveys; Sociolinguistics; Philippines. De La Salle University Press: Manila. Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. A. (1991). Foreign language anxiety. In E.K. Horwitz & D. Young (Eds), Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications (pp. 27-36). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Jones, G. M. (2007). 20 years of bilingual education: then and now. In David. P (Ed.), English in Southeast Asia varieties, literacies and literatures (pp. 246-258). Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Kaur, K. (1995). Why they need English in Malaysia: A survey. World Englishes, 14(2), 223230.
ILCC 2013
28
Kow, K. Y C. (2007). English in Malaysia: heritage and identity. In D. Prescott, A. Kirkpatrick, Azirah Hashim & I. Martin (Eds) , English in Southeast Asia varieties, literacies and literatures (pp. 203-223). Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Mohd Zulkanain Mamat (2008). SPM English literature component and students’ perception. In Mohd Nordin Mohd Abdullah, Alias Ghani & Mohammad Mahdi Abas (Eds.), Titian, (pp. 49-55). Kuala Terengganu: Penerbit UMT. Mostafizar Rahman. (2008). Strength for today and bright hope for tomorrow. Retrieved on 13 September 2009, from http://www.languageinindia.com/feb2008/malayenglishattitude.html. Nielsen, P.M. (2003). English in Argentina: a sociolinguistic profile. World Englishes, 22(2), 199-209. Ozog, A. C. K. (1996). The unplanned use of English: the case of Brunei Darussalam. In P. W. Martin, C. Ozog, & G. Poedjosoedarmo (Eds.), Language use and language change in Brunei Darussalam, (pp. 156-166). Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies. Price, M. L. (1991). The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews with highly anxious students. In Elaine. K. H. & Dolly. J. Y (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications, (pp. 101-108). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Rashidah Hab. (2009, July 2). Lack of interest hampering learning of English language. The Brunei Times. Samsiah Bidin, Kamaruzaman Jusoff, Nurazila Abdul Aziz, Musdiana Mohamad Salleh, Taniza Tajudin. (2009). Motivation and Attitude in Learning English among UiTM Students in the Northern Region of Malaysia. Retrieved on 13 September 2009, from http://ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/article/view/2357 Siti Norliana Ghazali. (2008). Learner background and their attitudes towards studying literature. Retrieved on 14 September 2009, from www.melta.org.my Yashima, T., Zenuk-Nishide, L. & Shimizu, K. (2004). The influence of attitudes and affect on willingness to communicate and second language communication. Language Learning, 54 (1), 119-152.
“The Problems of Learning the Arabic Verbal System among the Malay learners in Malaysian Universities”
Associate Professor Dr. Asem Shehadeh Ali, Arabic Language and Literature Department Kulliyyah of revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia Abstract. This study attempts to look into and analyze through Error Analysis the occurrences of linguistic errors among Malay students of Arabic in the use of the verbal system of Arabic. The Introduction highlights some issues and concepts pertinent to second/foreign language learning acquisition, as well as their implications to teaching. This study analyzes through Error Analysis the identified errors committed by a group of Malay learners of Arabic. Interferences from the mother tongue are also analyzed. The conclusion and recommendations are made based on the findings of this study with the aim of helping students in the learning of the target language. Keywords: The Subjects, the Test, Analysis, Summary. Introduction The main objective of the error analysis is to identify areas of difficulty as encountered by the respondents, after which, a comparison will be made through the procedures of error analysis.A study of the learner's errors is important due to its pedagogical significance and its theoretical value in providing for a better comprehension of second language acquisition. There is, however, a need initially to undertake a study on the nature of the errors occurring in specific learning situations. According to Corder, "Until we are able to give a Linguistic explanation of the nature of a learner's errors we can neither propose pedagogical measures to deal with them nor infer from them anything about the processes of learning" (Corder,1974:205). With regard to adults, error analysis studies have revealed that some errors committed by second language learns can be attributed in interference from the mother tongue, while many other errors result from strategies such as overgeneralization and simplification which are common to children acquiring their first language. (Coole.1973; B.Taylor, 1975; Richards, 1971; Hanannia and Gradman, 1977). On the significance of learners’ errors, Corder further writes: "A learner's errors are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that they will tell him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn. Second, they provide the researcher with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third, they are indispensable to the learner himself, because we can regard the making of errors as a device the learner uses in orders to learn. It is a way the learner has of testing his hypothesis about the nature of the language he is learning. The making of errors then is a strategy employed by both children acquiring their mother tongue and by those learning a second language" (Corder, 1967:167). One of the features of most versions of the communicative approach is the toleration of mistakes or 'errors' produced by learners. Traditionally, errors were considered negative aspects and had to be eradicated. The more recent acceptance of errors in learners' language is based on a fundamental shift in perspective from the more traditional view of how second languages are acquired. In Corder's own words (In Richards, 1974: 25), "we must therefore make a distinction between those errors which are the product of such chance circumstances and those which reveal his knowledge of the language to date, or, as we may call it, his transitional competence". To Corder mistakes are not significant to the process of language learning. Corder (1967) introduces an important distinction between'errors' and 'mistakes'. Mistakes are due to performance factors such as memory limitation, spelling pronunciations, fatigue, emotional strain, etc.
ILCC 2013
30
Errors, on the other hand, are systematic and consistent deviances which characterize the learner's linguistic system at a given stage of learning. A learner's errors provides evidence of the system of the language that he is using at a particular point in the course and it must be repeated that he is using same system, although it is not yet the right system. The learners test their hypotheses about the nature of the language they are learning. The making of errors, then, is a strategy employed both by children acquiring their mother tongue and by those learning a second language. The Malay students’ failure to learn correct Arabic could be looked upon as an indication of the actual acquisition process in action. An 'error', then, is not something which hinders a student's progress, but is probably a clue to the active learning progress being made by a student as he tries out strategies of communication in the new language. Just as children acquiring their L1 produce certain ungrammatical forms in the acquisition process, so we might expect the L2 learner to produce overgeneralizations at certain stages.Perhaps the task of the second language learner is a simple one, that the only hypotheses he needs to test is: 'Are the systems of the new language the same or different from those languages that I know? And if different, what is their nature? The evidence for this is that a large number of the learner’s errors are related to the system of his mother tongue. These are ascribed to interference from the habits of the mother tongue. 2. The Subjects
The subjects of this study are selected from undergraduate students of the International Islamic University in Malaysia. The total sample comprises 56 students picked at random from the Foundation Centre - International Islamic University in Malaysia, as well as the University in the main campus of which 36 were female and 20 were male students.The range of the learners' ages was from 18-23 which is identified by the code. The Quranic Language Programme ranges from level one to level six in the Foundation Centre as well as in the main campus.The learners are placed in different levels based on their performance in the placement tests which are held at the Foundation Centre or at the University. All the subjects were Malay native speakers who were learning Arabic and had completed level six (Intermediate Quranic for HsVI- Old Code: LQ 2046, new code: Quranic Language for Hs VLQ2426). The duration for each level is one semester. The number of contact hours per semester is 84 hours. Usually a beginner needs to complete a course of six semesters to fulfill his Quranic Language programme requirement, which means 126 hours contact hours. The instruction time is spent on reading and discussing topics from a chosen textbook as well as extracts from authentic Arabic texts for the purpose of developing and increasing reading proficiency, vocabulary and comprehension.
2.1 The Test
The test which was administered contained one hundred questions. The emphasis of this test is on the correct usage of the verbal system in Arabic. This means that Malay learners of Arabic, towards the end of the Arabic course, should be able to correctly use aspects of the verbal system in Arabic. The test questions were answered within a 2-hour period and were supervised by the class lecturer. Controlled responses were employed to get the learners to reveal some specific aspects of their interlanguage. Elicited response, as a method for data collection, was employed in the study of certain aspects of language acquisition strategies. The administered test has the advantages of: "(1) forcing the experimental subject to form a desired target language structure, and (2) assuring that the subject understands the semantics of the structure which he/she is required to produce. Moreover, by forcing a subject to form a structure which he has not completely mastered, the investigation can gain insights into how the subject understands language operation and how he organizes new constructions in his
interlanguage". (Corder, 1973:13) At the end of the allocated time, the 56 assignments were collected. Data analysis was undertaken through stages as suggested by Corder (1974). These stages which involve error analysis comprise the recognition, description and explanation of errors. 2.2 Analysis of the Results After approximately 3 semesters (Advanced level from Level 4-6), the respondents should have acquired the competence and knowledge covered by the scope of the test, that is, the conjugation and functions of Arabic verbs. The following types of verbs are tested: Application of the Perfect verb, Imperfective verbs; Verb categories. In the analysis of the results of the test, emphasis is focused on the verbs. The emphasis is on the students' knowledge of various verbal conjugations and their distinct uses in Arabic. The errors will be presented and discussed one by one, that is from number 1, down to the last item. The Arabic sentence will be stated with its corresponding English translation. The students’ incorrect responses are marked by an asterisk (*). Comments on the possible source of errors(s) will be made at the end of each corresponding number in question. Comments shall still be made for items where no errors occur. Test. Part 1: Underline the “correct verb” fiʿl ṣaḥīḥ فعل صحيحand “week verb” fiʿlmuʿtal فعل معتلin the following: Lexical error/ meaning: The word Ṣaḥā صحاand yastaiyqiżu , يستيقظrespectively, have the same meaning. The students’ perhaps thought that the meaning of the word Ṣaḥā ' صحاto wake up' when used before the subject 'tariq' was acceptable in Arabic. The response yastaiyqiżu 'to wake up' is similar in meaning to the verb ṣaḥā. In the second response : fiʿil saḥīḥ فعل صحيح, the students were not cognizant of the rules of the 'weak verb' fiʿl muʿtal فعل معتلwhich includes those forms in which one of the two glides (i,e. 'waw' and 'ya') formulates one of their radicals. Part 2: Fill in the blank with the suitable verb fiʿl mahmūz ' فعل مهموزhamzated verb'. Lexical error/meaning. Form: The learner uses the verb yaṭlub ' يطلبto require, to ask' which, in Malay is minta 'to ask'. This is probably an error due to mother-tongue interference. The majority of students gave the correct response. This may be attributed to the fact that they were cognizant of the word lā ' الnever', 'not to' which was a clue for the use of the verb ta'kul 'to eat'. In another response, 2 students used the verbs: yaʿmal ' يعملto do’; yufakkir ' يُف ّكرto think'. The learners understood the meaning of the sentence with regard to the context of the sentence which could be acceptable in Arabic if the learners had used yaṭlub ' يطلبto require'. Part 3: Fill each blank with the suitable verb fiʿl muḍa‘af ' فعل مضعفdouble verb'. Lexical error/ meaning .form: Some responses show that the students failed to choose a 'double verb' that’s second and third radicals are identical. One learner, perhaps, thinking that any verb with two identical radicals can be the answer, used farraḥa فَر َحwhich is a derived verb formulated from the simple active stem fariḥa ' فَ ِر َحto be happy' by interjecting various affixes to express modified implications relative to the original conjecture which is denoted by the stem word. Another response َ َ' اِست َيقto wake up', where the learner used the verb to complete the meaning because he is istayiqaża ظ could not apply the rule of 'double verb' in Arabic. Part 4: Choose the correct verb al-fiʿil al-mithāl ‘ الفعل المثالweak verb' in the following passage, and identify the verb.
ILCC 2013
32
Lexical error/meaning.form: The majority of the students gave the correct answer. Some learners chose the 'weak verb' but they could not identify the verb. Perhaps these students could not apply or recognize the rules of the weak verb, or could not express themselves in the response. Part 5: Fill each gap with the suitable verb. Lexical error/meaning .form: In general the learners used verbs which are not suitable at the lexical level. The verb yadhhabu ُ' يذهبto go' must be followed by the preposition ʾila ' إلىto' not min ِمن 'from'. One learner used the verb daʿā ' دعاto call; to invite'. He used a deviant structure. Lexical errors/meaning: Most of the learners could not recognize a suitable fiʿil mithāl 'assimilated verb'. Mother tongue interference is apparent in the use the of verb yaṭlubaَ ' يطلبto request' which is similar in meaning to the Malay word meminta 'to request' or yaṭlubu ُ يطلبin Arabic. Part 6: Fill each gap with the suitable verb fiʿl ʾajwaf ' فعل أجوفhollow verb'. Lexical error/meaning: The learners responses include dhahaba ذهب 'to go' perfective, yadhhab َ ' يذهبto go’ imperfective, dhihābu ' ذِهابgoing' are influenced by their mother tongue 'Malay' when they assumed that all these verbs dahaba , dhihāb , yadhhab give the semantic equivalent. In Malay the verb pergi 'to go' can be used in the sentence as in the following: “Tariq pergi ke sekolah sains” where the learner uses the verb pergi which is similar in meaning to the Arabic: yadhhab, dhahaba, dhihāb. The learners were not cognizant of the hollow verb in Arabic, which is one with a glide for its second radical. Part 7: Fill each gap with the suitable verb fiʿil nāqiṣ ( فعل ناقصdefective verb). Lexical error/form: The learners used the verb bāraka ' باركto bless'; ṣadaqa ' صدقto say the truth' ; kasiba ' كسِبto gain'. These words are acceptable in the context of the sentence. The other response, biʾidhni بإذن (which is said whenever one refers to the future), is a contracted form of the phrase ِ biʾdhni followed by the name of Allah, which is an expression referring to the future. The learner used the same technique. The other response, malaʾa َ ' مألto fill', dakhala ' دخَلto enter' are not acceptable because these verbs must be followed by the preposition bi ' بـin’ “with” for the verb malaʾa. Another response, dakhala 'to enter'. The learner thought perhaps that this verb is intransitive as it is followed by an object. They could not differentiate between the verb ʾadkhala ' أدخ َلto increase his heart with faith' which an intransitive verb. The learners could not create any verb that followed the rule of fiʿil nāqiṣ, (defective verb). Part 8: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fiʿl mujarrad مجرد ّ ( فعلnaked or stripped verb). Lexical error/form: The learners were not cognizant of the derived verb which is formulated from the simple active stem shakka ّ' شكto doubt' by interjecting various affixes (i.e. prefixes, infixes, and suffixes) to express modified implications relative to the original conjecture which is denoted by the stem word.
Part 9: Put each word in brackets in the correct tense. All the learners provided the correct tense for the verbs in sentences (24, 25, 26), where they could formulate a verb connected with the pronouns ʾanta َ‘أنتyou’; ʾantuma ‘ أنتماyou’ dual. This shows
that the learners were cognizant of the rules of fiʿl maḍī ( فعل ماضيperfective verb), connected with pronouns where the verb must be changed according to the nominative case-ending. Part 10: Form a nominal phrase from the following sentences: Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The learners’ responses show that they could not formulate a nominal sentence which begins with the subject (substantive and pronoun), where the following word is an adjective, a preposition, a prepositional phrase, or a verb. The learners used a verb which must follow the subject which is a substantive (Noun-plural-female). The verb must be yu'didna, َ' يُعددنto prepare' (they). We can add the suffix 'na' pronoun (female-plural) to the verb yu'did يُعدِدwhich is the root. We do not combine the radical 'da' in one letter. This is because in Malay, the verbal system is characterized by the use of prefixes. However, the sentence can be translated as in the following: In Malay when the verb begins with s, the prefix me- is modified to meny- and the initial phoneme of a verb beginning with s is dropped: me + sedia + Kan --> menyediakan “to prepare”. The Malay learner, assuming that the verb yu'idu does not need any change in its radicals because in Malay the verb menyediakan 'to prepare' can be used for all the subjects that predicate it (singular, plural). In Arabic, the verb must be joined with a pronoun that refers to the subject. There is subject-verb agreement. Similar linguistic errors are found in items (28, 29), as stated and analyzed earlier. Again, this particular structure, among other syntactic errors, contains similar areas of difficulty, in so far as the right application of Arabic verbs is concerned: the use of the verb with the predicate nouns and pronouns. The problem of the application of the rule of agreement between the subject and the verb in number and in person seems to be the biggest difficulty the learners face. In order that the learners use the appropriate verbs, they have to be familiar with the various uses of the verbs especially when those verbs are preceded by particles. Part 11: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense (fiʿl ʾajwaf ‘ فعل أجوفhollow verb'). Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The responses show that most of the learners are not cognizant of the root of the verb, because they think that the verb fuzna َ فُزنwhich consists of the form fuz + na, where the learner considered the root as fuz فُزand the suffix as na. In another response one learner mentioned the same verb without recognizing the root. Part 12: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense (fil maḍī) 'perfect verb'. Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The responses show that most of the students could not use the verb qāla ‘ قالto say' when it was joined with the pronoun huma 'they' (dual). When we add the glide ā ‘ اrefers to the dual' 35. * qulī, * قوليtaqul, * تقُلyaqul يقل Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The learners use the verbs; qulī ' قليyou (male, single) say', taqul ' تقلshe says', yaqul ‘يقلhe says' It is possible that learners thought that the verb qulī قليwas the answer where the glide 'wa' وshould be added after the letter q. The verb qāla ‘ قا َلto say', when it is joined with the pronoun ʾanti ت ِ ‘ أنyou (female, singul.), the glide ' ā' اmust be omitted. We can replace it with the glide 'wa' و. The prefix 'ī' يis added to qul to indicate that the verb is an imperative verb which requires the pronoun 'ī'. Otherwise, in Arabic, a subject (noun or pronoun) and a verb form must agree in person and number. By person is meant 1st, 2nd or 3rd; by number is meant singular or plural. In addition to pronouns as subjects, nouns are also used as subjects. Any noun – whether common (al-rajul ‘الرجلthe man'; almarrʾatu ‘ المرأةthe woman'; al-ṭāwilatu ‘ الطاولةthe table') or proper (Zainab زينب, Ali علي, Malaysia ماليزيا, etc.), is always in the 3rd person, either singular or plural. This particular syntactic feature is pertinent to Arabic due to its verbal changes which are unknown in Malay. Thus, a Malay learner of
ILCC 2013
34
Arabic has to be initially familiar with the different endings (conjugations) of the verb (in any tense), a part from the task of being able to correctly identify the correct person and number of the subject. In this rule agreement seems to be elementary but which learners of Arabic are too often oblivious of or careless about. In Malay, the pronouns dia, kami, beliau, kita, awak semua, engkau semua, kamu semua, anda sekelian, and mereka apply to either male or female speakers. (Liaw. 1996:54) Arabic shows gender distinction in the 3rd person singular (huwa 'he', hiya 'she') and in all its plural forms 'naḥnu' ‘ نحنwe’, ʾantum ‘ أنتمyou all', hum ‘ همthey’ (masculine), and hunna ‘ هنthey’ (feminine). These gender aspects when attached to a verb will change morphological features. Part 13: Rewrite the verb based on the pronoun ḍamīr ضميرin brackets. Grammatical error/agreement in number: The learners could not use the verb when it is attached with the pronoun because, as mentioned before, this particular syntactic feature is pertinent to Arabic due to its verbal change which is unknown in Malay, e.g. a. Mereka balik lewat. They (masculine, feminine) - came back late' b. Dia balik lewat. 'She/he came back late' It is noticeable in Malay sentences that there is no verbal change in the verb balik ‘to come back'. In Arabic, note the verbal changes as in the following: a) Mereka balik (v) lewat. Hum همʿādū عادوا They (m) came/they b) Dia balik lewat. Hiya adat mutaʾkhiratan She came/she late It is observed that the verb ʿādā 'to come back' has verbal changes; Humawa ʿādā (he), hiya هي ّ ʿādat (she), hum همʿādū عادوا 'they' (masculine), hunna هن ʿudna َعُدن 'they' (feminine), huma هماʿādā ' عاداthey' (masculine - dual), huma هماʿādatā عادتاthey' (feminine - dual). Grammatical error/agreement in number: It is noticeable from the responses above, that the learners could not make suitable conjugations for the verb when it was joined with the pronoun (plural, singular, dual). The Malay verbal system, in most cases, is characterized by the use of prefixes or suffixes and its reliance upon modal auxiliaries (Hj Omar. Asmah & Ramah. 1985: 7). In Malay there is no change in the conjugation of a verb e.g.: ٍ بصوʿālin عا ٍل 39. - ṣiḥna صْ ِْحن َ biṣawtin ت We cried with a loud voice (Malay) - Kami menjerit dengan kuat. The verbs jerit 'to cry' ada 'to be here' balik 'to come back' do not undergo changes in their forms. Part 14 : Form a nominal phrase from the verbal phrase. Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: In the responses mentioned above, it is noticeable that the learners could not apply the rule on subject - verb agreement, where the subject noun or pronoun agrees with the verb in number (singular or plural, or dual). This particular feature is, as mentioned before, pertinent to Arabic due to its verbal inflection e.g. when the subject is plural/feminine or masculine the conjugation of the verb must be changed according to the subject. The Malay learners did not use the verb with its verbal inflection may be because their mother tongue verbal system, in
most cases, is characterized by the use of prefixes or suffixes and its reliance upon modal auxiliaries or he did not know the rules of Subject-verb agreement. Part 15: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fiʿl nāqiṣ ( فعل ناقصdefective verb) and omit the pronoun ḍamīru al-rafʿ.ضمير الرفع ُ Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: Some responses show that the learners could not use the correct tense fiʿil nāqiṣ فعل ناقصwhen joined with the pronoun, because the verb inflection in Arabic requires a change in the conjugation of the verb. It is possible that the learners thought that any verb ending with the glide 'aa' was 'a defective verb' (fiʿil nāqiṣ )فعل ناقص. They could not apply the rule of fiʿil nāqiṣ فعل ناقصwhich is formed from the root verb. Part 16: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fiʿil nāqiṣ ' فعل ناقصdefective verb'. Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: It is noticeable from the responses above that most mistakes were in the application of the perfective verb when joined with the pronouns. When we use the defective verb raḍiya ' رضيto accept'; ʾaʿṭā ' أعطىto give' the perfective of the verb is changed by ّ adding a pronoun at the end of verb when the verb is preceded by the pronoun hunna 'هنthey (female)' and the pronoun ʾanta َ‘ أنتyou (sing.mascl.) Part 17: Form a nominal phrase from the following sentence. Part 18: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fiʿil nāqiṣ ( فعل ناقصdefective verb). Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that the rule of adding a pronoun to al- fiʿil nāqiṣ ' الفعل الناقصdefective verb' is missed by the learners. They used verbs which have no syntactic features like ʾakhfaytu, أخفيتkhifti.ِ خفتWhere the learners could not use the conjugation of the verb ʾakhfā, أخفىwhen joined with the pronoun ت ِ ( أنyou.female, sing) the glide ii is placed before the letter’t’ which refers to the pronoun ʾanti.ِأنت In another response, bakaw ‘ بكواthey’, bakahum َبكَهم, it is clear that the learner could not apply the rule correctly. In the other responses, rumna, ُرمناramatnā, َرمتناthe learners also could not apply the rule of adding the pronoun to the defective verb which requires us to add the glide ‘wā’ وto refer to the pronoun. Part 19: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fiʿl mabni lilmajhūl ( فعل مبني للمجهولPassive verb). Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that they could not formulate the perfective forms of the verbs qara'a 'to read', farada ِْ فرض ‘to commend' sharaḥa شر َح َ 'to explain' by changing the vowels that are interlaced between the characters of the involved root. Where the passive voice of the verbs above, can be triconsonantal or quadri-consonantal, it is morphologically formed according to the fixed patterns of : fuʿila فُ ِع َلlike qurriʾa ئ َ قُر, furriḍa ض َ فُ ِر, sharriḥa شرح ّ ِ , which respectively mean, 'to be read', 'to be commanded', and 'to be explained'. The imperfective passive of the verbs yushāhidu يُشاهد, yaḥtarimu يحترم, made in compatibility with the paradigm yufāʿilu يفاعلas yushāhadu ُ( يشاهدpassive), yaḥtarimu ( يحتر ُمpassive). The learners used the verb qaraʾat قرأت, qurriaري َ ُ ق, qurriʾa . قُرئاPerhaps they think that the verb qaraʾat قرأتis a passive verb but they make an orthographic mistake. They must write the verb as kurri'at. In another response, the learner did use the verb correctly (agreement-verb). The 'pro-agent' alqiṣatu ‘القصةthe story' is 'a feminine’; therefore the verb must agree with al-qiṣatu. In the next ُ when there must be verb agreement response, the learner uses the verb shuriḥat al-darrsu الدرس ش ِرحت ُ
ILCC 2013
36
because the (pro-agent) naʾib al-fāʿil نائب الفاعلis a noun (dual). In the nominative case the noun must be al-darsān. We add the glide ā ( اdual) at the end of the word al-dars الدرسto become al-darsān , الدرسانwhich is in the accusative case. This is because the student ignored the syntactical restriction in the sentence. Some students could not use the rule for the passive verb in Arabic. In Malay the passive voice is different. For example: the item (56) quriʾat al-kiṣṣatu ُقُْ رئت القصة ِ ' The story is read' passive. In Malay the active sentence is changed into the passive by making the direct object the subject, (2) the subject is made the agent (expressed) or (implied) which may be preceded by the preposition 'by' oleh, and (3) placing the verb in the passive form. (Hj Omar. Asmah & Rama. 1989:45) Part 20: Rewrite the following sentence using the Particles 'adawātu al-naṣb (أدوات النصبnegative Imperfective). dhahaba ذهبal-talāmīdhu التالميذʾila إلىal-mukhtabari المختبرlilʾistimāʿ لالستماعʾila إلىal-ddarsi الدرس 'The students went to the lab to listen to lesson' Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense :The responses above show that the learners could not apply the rule of the subjunctive when used with these particles (kay, كيli,ِ لـlikay, لكيlau, لوḥatta )حتّىwhich if employed can indicate explicitly a kind of conjecture or projection. These responses or mistakes occur because in Malay the particles kay, li, ḥatta, likay can precede the verb, when there is no verbal change. Examples: It is noticeable that the particle untuk 'for' when it precedes the verbs belajar 'to study', berjumpa 'to meet', yastami'u 'to listen', there is no verbal change. This causes the learner to be unable to apply the rule of the negative imperfective ʾadawāt-al-naṣb.أدوات النصب Part 21: Answer the following questions using the particle lan ‘ لنwill not'. Grammatical error/subject-verb agreement: The learners' responses show that they are influenced by their mother language (MALAY) where they used the future particle akan 'will' prior to verbs; tanam ' تنامto sleep', takhruju ' تخرجواto go out', yaḥḍuruُ ' يحضرto attend; because the Arabic sentences (64, 65, 66) could be translated into Malay as shown below: It is noticeable from the examples above, that the learners translated the phrase tidak akan tidur or keluar or hadir; into the Arabic language using the future particle sa 'will' preceding verbs. This because the learners are influenced by his/her mother language (Malay), where he/she assumed tidak akan tidur (will not sleep) to mean * lan satanam لن ستنامor * lan satakhruj; لن ستخرجor * lan saʾaḥḍur, لن سأحضرwhich are unacceptable in Arabic grammar. At the same time, the learners responses also show that the students fail to apply the rule on subject verb agreement. The subject altiflataan is dual, and therefore requires the corresponding 2nd person singular verbal form. Similar linguistic errors are found to have been committed for the above structure (64, 65, 66), as stated and analyzed earlier. Part 22: Answer the following questions using the particle lam ‘ لمwill not'. Begin the answer with the words in brackets. Grammatical error/subject-verb agreement :The responses above show the learners' failure to apply the rule of the particle lam لم, literally 'not', which structurally represents the negation of Arabic Perfective. This particle lam has the force of syntactically converting the Indicative verbs yusāidān
, يساعدانyanfaʿu, ينف ُعand taʿṣiyān تعصيانwhich are incorporated in (67, 68, and 69) above, into the Jussive mood. The learners use the verbs yusaʿidu ُ يساعد, sāʿadū ساعدوا, yusāʿid يساعد, and sāʿada َ ساعد, They could not use the verb following lam in the jussive mood, which requires the rule on subject-verb agreement. The students could not apply the rule of agreement, where the verb yusāʿid يساعد, when prior to lam لم 'particle negation', the subject al-ʾabawain ' األبوينparents' (dual) requires the corresponding 2nd person singular verbal form yusāʿida يساعد. Examples. 67.a. al-'abawāni lam yusāʿida ibnahum األبوان/ لم/ يساعدان/ ابنهم Parents (dual) not help both b. Ibu-bapa tidak menolong anaknya.Or mereka (plural) tidak menolong anaknya. Or dia (she/he) tidak menolong anaknya.Or kamu tidak menolong anaknya. It is observable from the above that menolong does not change; and there is no subject-verb agreement. Similar linguistic errors are found in the responses (68, 69), where these syntactic errors, exemplify a similar area of error. Part 23: Fill in the blank with the suitable verb fiʿl muḍāriʿ (فعل مضارعImperfective verb), use the negativizer 'lā' ‘ الnot’. Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: Some responses show the students' failure to apply the rule with the Imperfective Jussive when preceded by the negativizer lā 'not'. The learners use the verbs in deviant conjugations the verbs kharaja ( خرجperfective), Yakhruju ( يخرجimperfective). The learners seem to have failed to learn the correct conjugation of the imperfective jussive when it is preceded by the negativizer lā 'not', where the verb must change into the jussive which requires alsukūn السكونat the end of it. The learner must use the verbs; lā takhruj , ال تخرجlā taʿbas, ال تعبسand lā tayʾas,ال تيأس Part 24: Put the following phrases in the correct tense as shown in the example. Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that they could not apply the rule of the Imperative in Arabic; which is formed by omitting the pronominal prefix of the Jussive and replacing it with an 'alif'. In the response (73) the learners use the verb lā taʿmal ال تعمل, which is the Imperative form (male, sing), and the verb litaṭlub ( لتطلبmale, sing), this is because in Malay there is no verbal change, or no different conjugation with regard to the order for the person reference. There is no pronoun-verb - agreement in Malay. The Malay verb exhibits no verbal change. The other responses (74, 75) are similar, where the students make use of the same form. These errors, appear perhaps, because the learners could not apply the rule of the Imperative verb in Arabic. Part 25: Underline the inchoative verb (fiʿl nāsikh ) فعل ناسخand classify its type. Lexical error/form: In this part of the test most of the learners could not differentiate the types of inchoative verb fiʿl nāsikh, which is classified into the verb of initiative fiʿl al-shurūʿ فعل شروع, verb of hope fiʿl rajāʾ فعل رجاء, verb of approximation fiʿl muqārabah فعل مقاربة. This shows that the learner failed to learn the fil naasikh 'inchoative verb' which the learner must learn to use with each verb in context. Part 26: Complete the sentence with the suitable verb fil al-sharṭ ( فعل الشرطthe protasis). Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense : The learners responses show that they use the verb in the conditional sentence when the verb follows the conditional particles which, if used, would require both the Protasis and the Apodosis.The learners use the perfective "qaraʾa" قرأinstead of taqraʾ تقرأ (Jussive verb- imperfective), this is because in Malay the protasis may be isolated from the Apodosis.
ILCC 2013
38
The learner, perhaps, thinks that the perfect verb qaraʾa is acceptable because in Malay the verb can be Perfect in the protasis, and imperfective in Apodosis. Another response shows that the learner follows the rule in Malay, where the conditional sentence begins with a pronoun, e.g. 83.a. mahma (taqraʾu) yazidka maʿrifatan wa thaqāfatan. مهما/ ) (تقرأ/ يزدك / معرفة / و/ ثقافةb. (Apa) saja yang kamu baca, kamu akan tambah ilmu. The response in (84) shows that the learners make the same mistakes as in item (83), where he/she uses the noun عاملāmal, and the perfective ʿamala عمل. Part 27: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil mujarrad ( فعل مجردnaked or stripped verb). All the students gave the correct response. This may be attributed to the fact that they are cognizant of the naked verb dafaa 'to push' or jadda ‘ جدto be active'. Part 28: Fill each gap with a suitable verb fil mujarrad (naked or stripped verbs) Lexical error/form: The students' responses show that they could not use the suitable verb. They use deviant form which is unacceptable in Arabic because the meaning of the verb they used makes the sentence contextually ungrammatical. This mistake happens perhaps, because the learner lacks the necessary vocabulary. Part 29: Fill in the blank with a suitable verb fil mazīd ' فعل مزيدtrilaterals verb' Lexical error/form & meaning: The responses above show that the learners use trilateral verbs, thus indicating lack of knowledge of certain lexicon in the TL. The verbs inkasara, انكسرʾakhraja, أخرجare lexically unacceptable in TL. The appropriate verb for the above structure is ʾaghlaqa ‘ أغلقto close'. It is similar in the items (94, 95), where the learners' responses indicate a lack of knowledge of certain lexicon in the TL. The verbs istaqbala; استقبلijtamaʿu, اجتماعqubbala قبّل, and ʾakhraja, أخرجare trilateral verbs. These verbs cannot be used in item (94) where the appropriate verb for the above items is sayajtamiʿu .سيجتمع Part 30: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil l mazīd ‘ فعل مزيدtriliteral verb'. Lexical error/form & meaning: The learners' responses show that they could not use the prefixes in the Arabic verb according to the context. They used the deviant structures like ʾanhaytu, أنهيتintihāʾ , انتهاءand nahaytu . نهيتThey have to put the letters 'i',’t’ in first and third place in the word. The verb intaha ‘ انتهىto finish', is the correct one. According to the responses, the learners lack knowledge of Arabic verbs. Similar mistakes in items (97, 98) are found. Part 31: Fill in the blank with the suitable clause fiʿl al-sharti ( فعل الشرطif clause). Grammatical error/wrong choice of verb:The learners' responses show that the students failed to recognize fiʿl al-sharṭ ' فعل الشرطif clause verb'. This is because in Malay, the item (99) can be translated as following: 99. a. In ... (Jussive) aliun ghadan 'ukrimka (Jussive) إن/ .... / علي/ ً غدا/ أكرمك In Malay b. Jika Ali datang esok, saya akan meraikan dia.
It is clear from sentence (b) above that the 'if' clause in Malay is a nominal sentence. The learners use the nouns Allah , al-muslim المسلمbecause he was influenced by his mother language and he could not apply the rule of the conditional sentences in Arabic. Another response shows that the students have a lack of knowledge in the TL. The learners used the verb tushāhid ‘ تشاهدto see' kāna ‘ كانto be’. They could not use the suitable verb lexically, or they did not understand the context of the sentence which requires the Imperfective verb (Jussive). 3. Summary of finding The lexical error/meaning has the highest percentage of lexical error of 86% (ranked first). The lexical error/form 14% (ranked second). This means the learners have a problem the meaning in context. For instance, the learners may not know how to use a particular lexical item, yet by chance, he/she may also produce sentence which are well formed but when considered in context, may not be plausibly interpretable at all. Thus, such sentences are clearly erroneous. The recognition of errors depended upon the researcher making a correct interpretation of the learner's intended meaning in the context. This means the learners have a problem in the meaning in context. The subject-verb agreement category ranks second, with 45% which means more than two out of every four respondents are likely to commit this kind of error. Since the category on subject-verb agreement in person and number is one of the most difficult to observe and apply, the data merely confirms the presence of such errors. Under "Grammatical errors' the learners produce deviant sentences involving the subject agreement, etc., as well as ambiguous errors whose deviancy is characterized by clusters of ideas expressed in a combination of unrelated grammatical structures, thus contributing to the illogical relationship of words. Almost all the linguistic forms utilized in the sentences containing this category of error were deviant and needed complete recasting of the grammatical structures of the sentences to make the meaning clear. The learners seemed to be so preoccupied with their communicative intentions that they paid less attention to or were merely not fully aware of the unacceptability of their linguistic forms, as could be seen in the following structures: * al-ummahātu األمهاتtuʿiddūna تعدونal-ṭaʿāma الطعام. 'Mothers prepare the food', * al-mudarisātu المدرسات ّ taqussunaتقصن baaʿḍa بعضal-qasasi القصصʿala علىal-tilmidhāti, ' التلميذاتThe lady teachers are telling their students some stories' to a certain extent, the learners follow norms concern the relationship of the elements of a sentence: a subject, a verb, and predicate (object). However, in their efforts to put the meaning across, they failed to appropriately apply the operational components of the particular rule involved. It is the incomplete application of the operating TL rule as well as the ignorance of rule restriction which caused them to commit errors of subject-verb agreement in person and number. Many items of the test are designed to look further into the elements of the Arabic verbal system which Malay learners seem to have difficulty regarding their usage. Some items are more of a verbal type, that is, the learners were simply asked to fill in the blanks with the appropriate verbal forms in Arabic. In order for the learners to get the right answer for every item of the verbal forms mentioned in the test, he/she needs to consider the following suggestions or guidelines: a) Knowledge of lexical items of the target language, b) Awareness of the syntactic rule on the agreement between the subject and the verb in person and number, c) Familiarity with the distinctiveness of verbs, especially in common idiomatic expressions, and d) Mastery of the conjugations of the verb and the tenses involved. The students may have devised ways and means to get to their own answers, but all of the above suggestions certainly will help facilitate the learner's ease in coming up with the appropriate responses. The learners have to look for the subject (either a noun or a pronoun) and analyze this in terms of person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular or plural). Certainly, at this stage, the learner should be familiar with the position of 'subjects' in the sentence (Subject + verb + object). For declarative; there are twenty three (23) items for these parts, the test is presented with the appropriate answers, with the
ILCC 2013
40
students' incorrect response in brackets, followed by an analysis. For the (23) items were answered incorrectly by majority of students. Item 5, 6, 7 involve the use of 'hamzated verb' in this particular structure, the verb used in the expression yaʾmur ' يأمرcommanded' ʾkhadha ‘ أخذtook’, taʾkul ‘ تأكلto eat', following this answer for the rest of the items, the learner did not get the right answer as in items (8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20), although they knew what verb to use. This may be attributed to their ability to identify the weak verbs. There are (29) items for these parts, the test is presented with the appropriate answers, with the students' incorrect response followed by an analysis. For declarative, in items (27, 28, 29) the majority of the students did not get the right answer. Their errors '* tyuḍym تيضم * taquṣṣunna ص ّن ّ تق, * shakka ّ شكwere caused by their failure to recognize the right verb in person and number, thinking that the verbs tuʿiddu ّ تعد, taquṣṣunna ص ّن ّ تق, shakka ّ شكas shown in their responses. Certainly, tuʿiddu, taquṣṣunna, shakka cannot be verbs which must follow the subject which is substantive (Noun-plural-female or male). This linguistic error due to incomplete application of rules. In this case, it is not sufficient that the learners know the uses of the subject or what subject to use, but they also need to consider other concepts, like the syntactic rule on the subject-verb agreement, in order to come up with the appropriate answers. Falling under the same category of linguistic error committed by the learners as in item 27, are structures in items 28 and 29 which involve the learners' failure to recognize and analyze the subject, in order to get the right verbal form. The analysis of the subjects (person and number) with the corresponding required verb to conform to the syntactic rule on subject-verb agreement. It is interesting to further analyze items 29 has al-mudarrisātu for the subject. The learner's answer * taquṣṣunnaص ّن ّ تقmay be attributed to his having considered al-mudarrisātu (3rd pl.) as subject, ignoring that fact that this subject (3rd pl.fem.) requires a verb in 3rd person plural: taquṣṣunna. This holds true for item 27, 28 where the learner considered al-mudarrisātu (3rd.fem.) as the subject, which requires a 3rd pl. verb taqsuṣṣnnaص ّن ّ تقinstead of * taquṣṣuuna صون ّ تق, item 3 has a subject Aḥmad أحمدwā وḤasan ( حسن2nd pl.) which requires a 2nd person pl. verb yaṣūmān يصومان instead of * yaṣum يصم. While difficulty was encountered by the learners in applying the syntactic rule on agreement between the subject and the verb in person and number, the initial problem, however, and one which is very basic, is their inability to identify the correct verb to be used. Indeed, they may be able to get the right conjugation of any given verb, but prior to this, there is a need to be able to single out the verb to use in a given particular structure. This is seen for items 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20. In all the above sentences the learner can use any choice of assimilated verb which its initial character is 'waw' واor 'ya' ياor the hollow verb which is one having a glide for its second radical or defective verb for instance, the word ʾakhalat ' أكلتto eat' ʾakhadhat ' أخذتto take' (13) jāʾa ' جاءcome' (17) waṣala ' وصلarrived'. At this point, the learner needs to analyze the structure further by way of looking into the other lexical items that world help him make the right choice of verb. The subject-verb agreement is required in the process for some items. Following the process of agreement will be of great help to the learners. Failure to consider the above suggested guidelines will create difficulties and problems on the part of the learner, considering the fact that his answers will be dependent of his knowledge and ability to apply these rules to this particular exercise or test. In the test question, what is crucial for Malay learners of Arabic is the ability to recognize the right verb and subsequently the use of the appropriate verbal form which agrees with the subject in number and person. Below are the results of the subjectverb agreement as summarized. Recognition of errors was based on whether the lexical items were correct and appropriate. Words which were structurally deviant were considered erroneous immediately. These were called covert errors. Covert errors on the other hand were structurally wellformed but did not convey the meaning the learner intended. These were considered erroneous because they were not used in the appropriate context. Description of errors was based on whether the words were overtly or covertly erroneous.In general, errors were divided into 2 board categories using the source of errorsas the basis for classification. "These two board categories are interlingual errors
may be said to occur as a result of negative transfer from the mother tongue. On the other hand, intralingual errors appear to occur as a result of the difficulties found within the target language itself". (Tan, Po Li. 1994:101) It is noticeable that the errors due to MT influence are translation errors. In this case, the subjects resorted to their mother tongue to translate word-for-word to Malay. Translation is used because many subjects when they response they did not think in Arabic. They faced difficulty expressing themselves in Arabic, they response according to their mother tongue (Malay) and try to come up with equivalent words or phrases. They would then translate the Malay words to Arabic, thus producing 'non-Arabic' form or deviant forms. Examples of such literal translation are shown in the following: a)* al-mudaribūna المدربون lan لنsayaḥḍuru سيحضرواb.* al-mudaribūna المدربونlan لنsayaḥḍurūna َ سيحضرون. b.* al-ʾusratu األسرةlan لنsatakhruju ستخر ُج. Al-usratu lan satakhrujū ستخرجواc.* al-ṭiflatāni الطفلتانlan لنsatanāmu ستنا ُم. * Al-ṭiflatāni ان ِ ِ الطفلتlan لنsatanām ستنام. In examples (a, b, c) the literal translation strategy appear to be very comfortable employed by the Malay learners of Arabic. This may be to the lack of a close relationship between Arabic and Malay.A.Intralingual Errors. Wrong selection of a word or phrase: The selection of inappropriate words or phrase for a particular context may lead to deviant lexical words or phrase. This category of errors account for (19) per cent of all the errors identified. 3.1 Over Use of Subordinate Terms The use of subordinate terms is one of the lexical simplification strategies used by the second language learners. "As the second language learners do not have enough active vocabulary stored in the mental lexicon (Palmbery, 1990) they tend to use subordinate terms rather than appropriate hyponyms. Hyponymy is defined by Crystal (1985:150) as "the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter (i.e. is the hyponym of' the latter". For example 'cat' is a hyponym of 'animals'; 'flute' of 'instrument'; 'chair' of 'furniture' and so on. In this case, 'animal', 'instrument', and 'furniture' are supordinate terms, or sometimes called hypernyms with reference to which the subordinate term can be defined as is the usual practice in dictionary definitions ('a cat is a type of animal'). The percentage of errors approximately (13) per cent. It is interesting to note that many of the supordinate terms used by the subject appear to be deviant verbs. This may be related to the fact that many learners use other strategies such as paraphrasing or coining new words when they face difficulties in using naked verb or assimilated verb, the learners might opt for the simplification strategy and come up with supordinate terms which they are already familiar with. Error produced as a result of 'wrong selection of words' or 'overuse of subordinate terms may be explained in terms of over generalization'. Over generalization is evident when the learner learns a word and applies it in context which is inappropriate, for example: the verb nazalat نزلتwhich is hyponym of al-ʾamṭāru 'األمطارrains', the verb ʾistayqaẓat ' استيقظتwoke up' which is a hyponym of ُ the word mubakiran ً ‘ مبكراearly’ and the verb taʾkulu ‘ تأكلto eat' which is a hyponym of ً ' مبكراthe table'. The above examples show that the learners has learned the verbs nazala ' نزلfall down', ʾistayqaẓa َ ' استيقto woke up' and taʾkulu ' تأكلto eat' but has extended its use to an inappropriate context. ظ 3. 2 Overlaporation About '22' per cent of the total number of errors is made up of this type of errors. These may be classified as covert errors as they are usually syntactically well-formed but inappropriate in the context. For example, a.* ʾghalaqa أغلقjarasa جرس al-bābi ب lifatḥihī.لفتح ِه ِ الباfadhahaba فذهب َ َ b.* ʿāda عادal-muslimūna المسلمونli aʿmālihim ألعما ِلهمal-ʿaẓīmati العظيمة. c.* qaraʾa قرأsālimu سال ُمal-fuqarāʾa الفقرا َءmimma مماʾaʿṭāhu ُ أعطاهallāhu هللا.
ILCC 2013
42
The learners did not realize that the verbs chosen and uses inappropriate in context, inspite they are well-formed. 2.5.3 Semantic confusion. The errors recorded in this category represented about (31) per cent of the total number of errors. Semantic confusion may reflect the confusion between and among lexical items in the second language itself. As Arabic is a complex language, it is inevitable that second language learners of Arabic produce erroneous forms as a result of subtable differences found between words in Arabic, for example, a.ʿala علىal-muslimi المسلم ʾan أنyadʿū يدعوbilmaʿrūfi بالمعروف. b. ʿala علىal-muslimi المسلم ʾan ِ ِ ِ أنyaʾmura يأمر bilmaʿrūfi بالمعروف. c.ʾadkhala أدخ َلallāhu هللاqalbahu ُ قلبهʾila إلىal-ʾiimāni اإليمان ِ ُ ِ . d.hadā هدىallāhu هللاqalbahu ُ قلبهʾila إلىal-ʾiimāniاإليمان . The errors in example (a,c) is common in ِ the data. It indicates confusion over the Arabic word ʾadkhala ' أدخ َلto convert' hadā ' هدىto convert'. Even though they are semantically related, subtable differences exist between them. Second language learners who are not able to differentiate between these words might produce deviant forms On the contrary, MT influence could also account for the errors in example (c). In Malay the word masuk 'to convert' can be used to mean ʾadkhala ' أدخ َلto enter', 'to convert'. Because the multifaceted use of the word (c), it is not surprising that Malay learners of Arabic face difficulty in differentiate between words like 'hada' هدى, 'ʾadkhala' أدخلin example (c,d), could also be traced to mother tongue influence, in Malay the word masuk is used to mean 'yadkhul, يدخلyahdī' يهديis used 'to convert'. Error analysis and interlanguage analysis emerged as a reaction to the view of second language learning proposed by the contrastive analysis theory, which deemed language transfer as a central process involved in second-and foreign language learning. Error of incorrect conjugation may cause developmentally or by morphological under differentiation of the mother tongue, as in item (40) * “ʿāshu عاشواsaʿīdan” ‘ سعيدانHe lives a happy life’ and item (39) * “ṣaḥanan صحنَنbiṣawtin ٍ بصوʿālin” ‘ عا ٍلHe cried in a loud voice[‘. ت 4. Conclustion It is noticed that the source-language may operate as a psychological force to reinforce the learner’s tendency to reduce complexity of TL code to a simpler one, hence resulting in errors, as mentioned by M.Shmitz (1991) accordingly.The result of (EA) shows that there are noticeable patterns in the occurrence of errors. The main problems of the language learner in this chapter was wrong choice of tense, it was observed that the students could not meaningfully operate the concepts of the verbs in past, and present within the verb structure. Redundancy errors were most significant in concord. While students could see number in the subject, they could not introduce the correct verb forms to reflect agreement in the verb structure. This problem was accentuated by the difficulty in using the correct. It was also found that the learners had difficulty internalising the verb structure forms. This difficulty was especially evident when they used the subject-verb agreement in person and number, the use of the correct determiner before the noun. If learners could learn the formal nature of the verb structures many of the errors could be reduced. In terms of the categories of errors that were inditified, the most problematic areas are: Wrong choice of tense; subject-verb agreement; Conditional sentence; Imperfective jussive; Imperative; the passive form and Imperative negative. Under tenses, the most difficult are correct tense ‘fiʿl nāqis ; فعل ناقصthe perfective verb when joined with pronoun; the conjucation of the verb when it is placed after the subject, imperfective jussive, the imperative and verb in the conditional tense. The differences between the Malay and Arabic verbal systems identify problem areas for language learners or translators. Interference from the source language "can be viewed as resulting from the conflict set up between the mental organisational demands of the L2". (James. 1980:179).
Citation: Cook, V.J. "The Comparison of language Development in Native Children and Foreign Adults", IRAL, Vol.II, No (1), (1973). Coorder, Pit, S. (1973). Introduction Applied Linguistics. Middlesex, England: Penguin Education. Corder, Pit, S. (1967). The significance of Learners' Errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics. Crystal, D. (1985). Dictionary of Language and Languages. Penguin Books Ltd. Cambridge University. Hanamnnia, E. and H.L. Gradman. "Acquisition of English Structures: A Case study of and Adult Native speaker of Arabic in English speaking Environment", Language Learning, Vol.27, No (7), (1977). Hj Omar, Asmah & Ramah.(1985). Introduction to Malay Grammar. Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. James, Carl. (1980). Contrastive Analysis. Longman. London. Liaw, Yock Fang. (1996). Standard Malay Made Simple. Times Editions Pte. Ltd. Palmbery, Rolf. (1990). “Improving Foreign Language Learners”. Vocabullary Skills, RELC Journal, Vol (21), No (1-9). Richards & Jack C. "A Non-Contrastive approach to Error Analysis". ELT, Vol (25), (1971). Richards & Jack C. (1974). The language Teaching Matrix. Cambridge University Press. Schmitz, Michael Johannes. (1991). Problems of Source Language Interference With Malay Learners of German. Kuala Lumpur : University of Malaya (Unpublished Ph.D dissertation), Kuala Lumpur. Tan, Po Li. (1994). A Study of Lexical Errors Produced by Malay. ESL Learners of English Master's thesis, University Malaya. Taylor, B. "The Use of Overgeneralization and Transfer Learning Strategies by Elementary and Intermediate Students in ESL". Language Learning, Vol. 25, No (1), (1975).
ILCC 2013
44
ARABIC BROADCASTING AS A POTENTIAL TOOL OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION: NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE Tajudeen Adebayo, PhD Assistant Chief Producer Voice of Nigeria, Lagos Abstract Essence of effective Communication in a given country cannot be over-emphasized. It plays a great role in orientating the populace and engendering peace and security in a nation. Language is a veritable tool of communication as it occupies a crucial position in information dissemination especially through the media. Nations choose to broadcast in a particular language, especially in its external broadcast outfits, for various reasons. However, choice of broadcast language in local languages depends largely on availability of audience within that country. This paper attempts to trace the history of Arabic in Nigeria with a view to highlighting its importance in Nigerian broadcast industry. Even though, Nigeria is seen from the surface as an Anglophone country, its contact with Arabic is as old as the emergence of Islam in the region. Arabic was very relevant in the pre-colonial, colonial and post colonial eras. The language has rendered unparallel service to the preservation of Nigerian history in particular and the West African history as a whole. It has great influences on its local languages such as Hausa, Fulfulde, Kanuri and Yoruba. In addition to that, the existence of Shuwa Arabs in Borno State of Nigeria is enough reason to categorize Arabic as an indigenous language in Nigeria. The language was introduced to Nigerian external broadcasting on Voice of Nigeria as early as 1963 initially to provide correct and adequate information to the Arab world, but later became so relevant even in internal broadcasting. The paper concludes that the Arabic language in Nigeria has unexploited potentials for the promotion and fostering of national integration. Introduction Nigeria is recognized as the most populous country in Africa. The country is known for having a high proportion of languages in comparison to other African countries. The names of the three main tribal groups in Nigeria (the Hausa, the Igbo (or Ibo), and the Yoruba) correspond to the languages spoken by those peoples. The national government has been active in broadcasting since 1957, when a chain of radio stations was established. In 1976 the Federal government established control over all television stations, placing them under the Nigerian Television Authority. However, the privatization policy of the Federal Government of Nigeria in the 90’s led to issuance of several licenses to private radio and television operators in the country. Radio and television programmes are broadcast in English and the major Nigerian languages.1
1.1- Status of the Arabic language in Nigeria 1.1.1-In the pre-colonial era Before the advent of Islam in Africa, there had been trade relations between the Arabs and the Africans. Trading, as we know, requires conversation between the seller and buyer. The Arabic language, which was more advanced than local languages, was adopted for the purpose. It was this trade relation that sowed the seed of Arabic in Africa, though its scope was limited to commercial centers and names of items that were not known to Africans.2
The main factor responsible for the spread of Arabic to areas outside the Arabian Peninsula was Islam. Being the language of the Qur'an and Islamic branches of knowledge, Arabic has inevitably been interwoven with Islam.3 In all the communities that have embraced Islam, the history of Arabic is traceable to the advent of Islam in such communities.4 Nigeria is not an exception. This is because Muslim must learn and commit some chapters of the Qur'an to memory for observing their daily Salat and other religious duties and the fact that Islam encourages learning. While describing this, Ogunbiyi I.A. says: In response to this religious inclination, one finds all over the country, especially in the Northern and South-western parts, traditional Qur'anic schools known as Ile-Kewu in the Yoruba-speaking areas of Nigeria, in virtually every quarter of urban centres, in villages and hamlets where there is a large concentration of Muslims for the propagation of the knowledge of Arabic among the young and the old.5 With the advent of the popular Sokoto Jihad, the Arabic language became the lingua franca of the state. It was often the only means of communication between the communities of Tuareg, Kanuri, Hausa, Fulani, Nupe or Yoruba.6. It played a vital role in politics, economy, social and judicial sectors. This was evident in the numerous works left by the Sokoto scholars before the invasion of the colonialists. 1.1.2 -In the colonial era. Despite the hatred harboured by the colonialists for Islam and its language they, nonetheless, benefited immensely from its civilization. They met an organized administrative structure in Northern Nigeria that prompted them to introduce indirect rule. In addition to that, literacy in Arabic has been deep-rooted among the Nigerian Muslims before the advent of the Western education. They used to document events in their local languages using Arabic Scripts. This was known as ‘Ajami and it was the only form of literacy available to them. Thus, Arabic helped in the preservation of African heritage for the upcoming researchers. This was because the scholars and traders who were the disseminators of Islamic religion became not only teachers but were also in good standing with local chiefs and rulers for whom they sometimes acted as scribes.7 Hodgkin has this to say: “for the Hausa past before 1500 we are wholly dependent upon local chronicles composed in Arabic and relatively late in date even though based upon earlier records of which the Kano Chronicle is much the fullest and most informative.8 Furthermore, in an attempt to develop a standard Yoruba orthography, Arabic scripts was part of the options considered by the missionaries as reported by Samuel Johnson: The earliest attempt to reduce this language into writing was in the early forties of the last century, when the Church Missionary Society… organized a mission to the Yoruba country… After several fruitless efforts had been made either to invent new characters, or adapt the Arabic, which was already known to Moslem Yorubas, the Roman character was naturally adopted.9 The impacts of the Arabic language are still evident on the Nigerian currencies that bear Hausa languages written with Arabic inscriptions. In later days, this historic legacy came under criticism. Stephen Irinyemi said in an article titled: "Arabic Inscriptions on the Naira: For several years now, the Nigerian naira notes of N5, N10, N20, N50, N100, N200 and the newest of them- N500, have been carrying Arabic inscriptions, which cannot be read or interpreted by most Nigerians. It is my opinion that, the silence over this is not healthy for
ILCC 2013
46
us as a federation or secular state… Today, in Nigeria, English Language is the official communication medium amongst all Nigerians…Arabic on the other hand is not our national communication medium; therefore, it should not appear on what concerns the entire nation…I think this is wrong and should be corrected immediately if there is truly no hidden material fact tied to the Arabic writing on these notes, which has been the case for a long while now10. In a rejoinder to that article, Dr. Robert Sanda wrote: …Stephen, the words with the Arabic alphabets on the Naira are, in fact, in Hausa language and not Arabic at all. The use of Arabic letters in other languages is not new. Farsi, Pashtun, Urdu are among languages that use Arabic letters but are themselves quite unintelligible to an Arab unless he or she is educated in the said languages. Similarly, your article and mine written in Latin based letters do not qualify for Latin. The words in Arabic letters you find so offensive on the naira, in transliteration, read; naira biyar (five naira), naira goma (ten naira), naira ishirin (twenty naira), etc11. The colonial masters also recognized the importance of the Arabic language in Nigeria as a medium to reach the masses. In order to carry along Nigerians in northern part of the country, the subsequent Government inscribes Hausa languages using Arabic scripts (‘ajami) on our currency. Hence you find on Five Naira ( )نير بيرand Ten Naira ( )نير غوماand this cut across all the currencies for a long period. However, the currency notes released to circulation by the Olusegun Obasanjo regime (1999 – 2007) now bear the three major languages in Nigeria; Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba excluding the Arabic script. This leads us to examine the status of Arabic language after the independence of Nigeria. 1.1.3- In the post-Independent era Despite the efforts of the colonialists to substitute all Arabic traces with Western ideologies during their era, Arabic started to regain its status shortly before Nigeria attained its independence in 1960. As soon as Nigeria became a sovereign state, Arab countries started opening their Consular offices and Embassies in Lagos, the then Nigerian Capital. As a sovereign nation, Nigeria also reciprocated the kind gesture by opening her embassies in such Arab countries. Relationship of Nigeria with most of the nations in the North and North East of Africa at levels of diplomacy, education, commerce and culture cannot be over emphasized. This includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Libya, Egypt and Sudan. Nigeria maintains diplomatic relationship with those countries in the Middle East such as: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar and Syria which all have Arabic as their lingua franca. The membership of Nigeria to International Organizations such as U.N, African Union, OPEC and UNESCO makes it imperative for Nigerian Government to train its core citizens in other languages beside English and French. It was in recognition of this fact that General Yakubu Gowon (19661975) sent a delegate to Egypt to learn professional Arabic translation12. As a corollary to that, Nigeria established an external broadcasting service to make its views known, as a sovereign nation, to the international community especially the Arabs. Thus Arabic became also relevant in broadcasting. Up till the present moment, experience shows that the Arabic language is widely used as a medium of communication in the Northern States of Nigeria more than English. In other words, a man who is only literate in English becomes illiterate most of the time in the North. To buttress this point, Ayo Bamgbose remarks thus:
The case for English has always been overstated. It is true that English in Nigeria is a common language, but only for educated elites. Perhaps as many as 90 per cent of our people in both urban and rural areas are untouched by its alleged communicative role.13 In the South west of nowadays, many Muslims parents prefer their wards to be learned in Arabic as well as English. Many of these Nigerians attended numerous Arabic schools in Nigeria. Some travel to Arab world to further their Arabic studies while others acquired their degrees in Nigerian Institutions. In addition to that is the existence of an ethnic group called "Shuwa Arabs in Borno State of Nigeria whose mother tongue is Arabic. R.D. Abubakre, who conducted a field research to the area, revealed that Shuwa Arabic, which is the language of Dikwa, Gwanboru, Ngala, Ran and Gajibo of Borno State, is close to the Standard Arabic unlike the dialect of the Tripolitarian Arab settlers in Kano and elsewhere. 14 The Arabic language has rendered an unprecedented service to the preservation of the African History. This a known fact that even non Muslim Historians such as late K.O. Dike, a former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Ibadan attested to15. Therefore, Arabic Scholars argued that Arabic is more or less a Nigerian language. In the epilogue of his inaugural lecture titled: "Of Non-Muslim cultivators and propagators of the Arabic Language”, Professor Isaac A. Ogunbiyi submits as follows: That of all the non-Nigerian languages; none has more claims to our attention and recognition than Arabic language. That the Arabic language is unparalleled by any other language in its role as a written medium in which much of the Nigerian, nay, the African past is recorded. That the past thus preserved in this written medium is a national, common heritage, not a sectoral one. That the Arabic language has influenced and permeated into much of the everyday language of communication of Muslim and nonMuslim Nigerians, especially those from the Hausa and Yoruba-speaking areas and other Nigerian languages related to, or influenced by, these two languages. That consequent upon the foregoing submissions, the Arabic language in Nigeria has an unexploited potential for the promotion and fostering of national integration.16 Reference to Arabic as one of the non-Nigerian languages, in the above submission, might not be unconnected with the fact that the existence of the Shuwa Arabs, whose mother tongue is Arabic, as Nigerian citizens in Borno State, had not been established when the lecture was written. The influence of Arabic on various other languages would be examined below. 1.2. Influence of Arabic on some other languages. Arabic language has great influence on languages of the Muslims all over the world. In Asia, Persian, Turkish, Urdu and Malay are amongst the languages that have been tremendously influenced by Arabic.17 Even English language had earlier benefited from the generosity of the Arabic language considering the information made available on line and is quoted below: Arabic has contributed many words to the English language, many of them beginning with the Arabic definite article al-. These include algebra, alcohol, alchemy, alkali, alcove, alfalfa, and albatross. Others are mosque, minaret, sultan, elixir, harem, giraffe, gazelle, cotton, amber, sofa, mattress, tariff, magazine, arsenal, syrup, sherbet, and artichoke. Coffee is also an Arabic word, which entered English by way of Turkish and Italian. The word assassin comes from a similar Arabic word meaning "hashish addicts."18 In Africa too, Somali, Swahili, Madinka, Wolof, Hausa, Fulfulde, Kanuri and Yoruba have acquired loans from Arabic words and expressions19. Thus Arabic has enriched these languages with thousands of religious, political, legal and commercial words and expressions20. Scholars have written so much about the Arabic loan words in Hausa, Fulfulde, Yoruba, Swahili and other
ILCC 2013
48
languages. In an article entitled "Arabic loan words in Hausa; Goerner, Salman and Armitage, Ogunbiyi wrote: Many of the words in the Hausa language have Arabic origins. If any one doubts the importance of these words, he would find it interesting to venture into a Hausa speaking Community with an Arabic speaker. Using only Arabic, such a speaker has been found to establish a far degree of communication with the people. Some would attribute this understanding of Arabic to the omnipresence of the Koranic Schools. However, experience has shown that a Hausa speaker untrained in Koranic Arabic understands conversational Arabic as well as the average Koranic Student. They recognize the Arabic loan words without knowing their derivation and grasp the meaning expressed. 21 Abubakar cited about 1,500 frequently used words of Arabic origin in Hausa language22. He also identified other aspects of borrowing besides the lexical/semantic level such as pronominal suffixes for first and second persons for both masculine and feminie23. Ogunbiyi, on the other hand, identified eight subject matters in which the Yoruba language has borrowed words and expressions from the Arabic language24. Malik further cited examples of Arabic loan words to Swahili, Hausa and Yoruba languages25. In his article titled "The Impact of Arabic on the linguistic and cultural life of Yoruba People" he also provides a list of common Arabic loan words that have come into Yoruba usage. The said list has formed the basis of examples given in this work while the researcher found their equivalence in Swahili, Hausa, and Fulfulde languages with some additional examples. It is interesting to note that some of these Arabic words have common meaning in many African languages. That is an indication that the Arabic language can serve as a unifying factor in Africa. At times the equivalence of such Arabic words had sometimes become unknown in the borrowing languages. Below is a list of common Arabic loan words to Swahili, Hausa, Fulfulde and Yoruba:
Arabic Source Meaning Swahili Hausa Fulfulde Yoruba 1.( الدعاءad-du'ā) Prayer Adua Addu'a Do'a Àdura/Àdua 2.( األحدal-Ahd) Sunday Àlάadi 3.( العافيةal-'ăfiyah) Good health Afya lafiya Àlaafia 4.( الخميسal-Khamis) Thursday Alhamisi Alhamis Alhamisa Àlamisi 5. ( األمرal-'amr) matter amara al'amari Umri (v) Àlamori 6.( األربعاءAl-'arbi'a) Wednesday laraba Alarba Àlaruba 8. ( الخبرal-Khabar) news Habari labarai Habaru Labaari 9.( الوقتal-waqt) Time Wakati Wakkati Wakati 10. ّْ( الجنal-jinn) jinn/spirit Jini jinnu ginnaaji Àlujonnu 11.( البركةal-barakah) blessing Baraka albarka Barka Àlubarika 12. ( البصلal-basal) Onion albasa Àlubosa 13.( النيةani-niyyah) intention Ania (v) niyya Àniyan 14.( العقلal-’aql) intelligence Hakali Hankali Hakkilo ankali/laakaye 15.الرزق (ar-rizq) provision Riziki Arziqi Risku Àrisiki ّ 16. السر (as-sirr) Secret Siri Siri Sirii Àsiri ّ 17.( اإلثنينal-ithnain) Monday litinin Altine Àtinii 18. ( الثالثاءal-Thulatha) Tuesday talata salaasa Àtalaata 19. ( الحاجal-haj) male pilgrim Alhaji Alhaji Àlaaji 20. ( الحاجةal-haajah) female pilgrim hajiya Hajia Àlaaja 21. ( العصرal-'asr) Afternoon Alasiri la'asar assiri Àlaasare
22.( الفجرal-fajr) Daybreak Alfajiri alf'ijir fijir Àlufajari 23. ( الجنةal-jannah) Paradise Aljanna Aljanna Àlujonna 24. ( النبيan-nabiyy) Prophet Nabii annabi Ànabi 25. ( بلغbalagha) to be of age Balehe balaga balaga 26.( إبليسIblis) devil/SataN ibilisi Ibilishi Ibliisu biliisi 27. ( دبرdabbara) to plan dabira 28. ( دنياdun'ya) this world Duniya Duniyaaru duniyan 29. ( الفحشاءal-fahsaha) vile deed alfasha alufansa 30.( الفخرfakhr) pride alfahari faari 31. ( فتنةfitnah) worry/trouble fitina fitina fitina fitina 26 32. ( غفرghafara) to forgive gafarta yaafuao gaafara 33. ( هلكhalaka) to destroy Hiliki Halaka Halaka Halaka 34. ( حرامharam) forbidden Haramu Haram Harmi Haramu 35. ( جماعةjama'ah) Congregation taronjamaah Ummatoon27 Jonmoo 36. ( جمعةjum'ah) Friday Juma'a Jumbaare Jimoo 37. ( قدرQadar) Destiny Kadiri Kaddara Hoddirori Kadara 38. ( قلمQalam) Pen alkalami Kalamu 39. ( كافرKafir). Unbeliever Kafiri Kafiri Keefeero Keferi 40.( ضروريDaruri) Necessity Larura Laluri 41. ( مكروهmakruh) dishonest act Makuruhi Makaruhi Makaruru 42. ( مصيبةmusibah) misfortune Masifa Masiibo Musiiba 43. ( مالئكةmala'ika) angel malaika malaika malaaikajo maleeka 44.( معلّمmua'llim) Teacher Mwalimu Malam Mallumjo Malimu 45. ربا (riba) Usury Riba Riba Riba Riba 46. ( ساعةSa'ah) hour/time Saa Sa'a Saa'a Saa 47. ( سببSabab) Cause/reason Sababu Dalili28 Sababu Sababi 48 .( زمانZaman) Era Zamani Zamani Zamanu Samaani 49. ( سماءSama') Sky, heaven Samawati (pl) Sama Asama Sanma 50.( شريعةShari'ah) Islamic Law Sheria Sharia Shea Seria 51. ( صورةSurah) Picture/form Sura Sura Suura 52. ( سنةSunnah) Tradition Suna Sunna Sunna Suna 53. ( زناZina) Adultery Zina Zina Sina 54. ( تابTabah) to repent Tubu Tuba Tubuki Tuuba 55. ( وعظWa'z) Sermon waadhi wa'azi Waaju Waasu 56. ( وليWali) Saint Walii Wali Waloojo Wolii 57. ( عبادةIbadah) act of worship Ibada Ibada Ibaada 57. ( صدقةSadaqah) alms Sadaka Sadaka Saara 58.) علمil’m) Knowledge Elimu Ilimi Imo 59. ( جنابةJanaba) Impurity Janaba Janaba Jannaba 60. ( أبداAbadan) Never/ever Abadan Har Abadan faabada 61. ( النيةAn niyyah) Intention Ania (v) Niyya Àniyan 62. ( خليفةKhalifah) Caliph Kalifa Àleefa 63. ( العصرAl-a'sr) afternoon Alasiri La'asar Assiri Àlaasare 64. ( الفجرAl-fajr) daybreak alfajiri alf'ijir fijiri Àlufajari 65. ( المسكAl-misk) Musk alamsiki Almiski Àlimisiki 66. ( خسارةKhasara) damage/loss Hasara asara Àsaara 67. ( خطبةKhut'bah) sermon Hutuba Huduba Hud'ba Utuba 68. ( حاللHalal) Lawful Halali Halal Àlaali 69. ( مؤذنMuadhin) Announcer Mwadhini Ladan Ladan Ladaan Of hour of Prayer 70. ( مؤمنMu'min) Believer Mumiani Mumini Mumini
ILCC 2013 71. ( القاضيAl-Qadi) Judge 72. ( حقيقةHaqiqah) Reality
Kadhi Hakika29
50
Alkali Alkaali31 Àlikaali 30 Hakika Àkiika32
If Arabic should have such wide influence on many African languages, it is not surprising to have it as language used by the media in many countries of the continent. Even, if the Arabic language is not fully understood by all, some Africans can still pick one or two words, which are already borrowed in their native languages. Hence, Arabic is a qualified language of mass communication. 1.3. Arabic as a language of mass communication Students of Communication do not agree on how to define what it is they study33 the reason for this is that it is usually quite difficult to formulate a satisfactory definition of any term which is used to name an enormously complex set of ideas34. Mass communication, according to DeFleur and Dennis, is defined as a device for moving messages across distance or time to accomplish mass communication35. If this definition is anything to go by, a language that is widely spoken is inevitable to accomplish this mission. The following quotation will give us an insight into areas where Arabic is used across the globe. Arabic is one of the world major languages. It is spoken in a broad belt extending from the Arabian Peninsula across the Fertile Crescent and on to the Atlantic Ocean. It is the official language of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, United Arab Emirate, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar to mention but few. It is also the lingua franca in North African countries such as Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Algeria and Morocco. This has made Arabic the mother tongue of about two hundred and fifteen million people.36 In addition to that, Arabic is being used on daily basis by many millions of Muslims in other countries in their devotional activities. It is also used as a medium of instruction in Islamic Schools in the Muslim world. In sub-Sahara Africa, Arabic is a medium of expression in Government Radio broadcast in Chad, Cameroon, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Guinea-Conakry, Malagasy, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria and Sudan.37 In 1974, Arabic was made the sixth official language of the United Nation. Arabic has two characteristics that distinguish it from other languages. It is a language of international civilization and religion. It plays a significant role in science, history, philosophy and politics up till the present moment 38. Considering the above assertions, Arabic is a veritable language of mass communication. Realizing this fact, Nigerian Government added it to languages of broadcast on its radio. 1.4. Introduction of Arabic to Nigerian broadcasting Broadcasting came to Nigeria in 1932 with the help of a British Empire service from Daventry in England. In 1936, the first radio distribution service (rediffussion) came into Lagos as a means of distributing programmes that originated from BBC in London. On April 1, 1951, the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation was formally established 39. It was in April 1957 that an independent Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation was established to provide information internally to Nigerians. In 1961, Voice of Nigeria (VON) came into existence as the external service of the Nigerian broadcasting Corporation (NBC) that later became Federal Radio Corporation on Nigeria (FRCN). It started with 10KW HF transmitters, which broadcast programmes for two hours a day in English and French to West Africa. In 1963, Arabic was introduced to Nigerian broadcasting40. This was in recognition of the importance the language in dissemination of information to the international community. Ever since its inception, the Arabic service has contributed immensely to the transmission of Nigerian culture, value, ideas, norms and
knowledge to members of the society, the international community and the Nigerians in the Diaspora. At inception, Late Ustadh Rufa’i Yahya was the 1st Senior Announcer in the Arabic Service up till 1970 when Ustadh Ibrahim Magaji from Kano State took over the leadership of the section for just six months. Then, Ustadh Naj’mdeen Adegbite Binuyo, from whom the researcher got some of this information, became the 3rd Head of the Arabic unit. He joined the Arabic service of the then External Service of Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) in 1967 when he left Sudan where he was working as a translator in the Nigerian embassy in Sudan. Ustadh Binuyo revealed that there was a scarcity of qualified Nigerians whose Arabic skills could be used in broadcasting. At that point in time, the Radio employed the service of some Sudanese, Lebanese and Egyptians among them was Yacoub El-tom Yacoub, a Sudanese. However some Nigerians later joined the Arabic service among then were: Uthman Ibrahim who became the 4th Head of the Unit, Hussein Muhammad, Hanafi, Professor A.F Ahmad currently of National Open University of Nigeria and Professor Murtada Bidmos, currently of the University of Lagos, Akoka41. Perhaps the most consistent Arabic broadcasting in Nigeria is that of Voice of Nigeria. In addition to daily Nigerian, African and World news, it broadcasts weekly Arabic programmes on Nigerian politics, Economy, socio-culture among others. Its broadcast had lasted for two hours daily but not less down 30 minute at any given time. It has participated and won International medals with some of its programmes and the members of the Service have benefitted in trainings both home and abroad. At the inception, most of its staff strength are majorly Nigerian who studied in the Arab world, but recently, the composition is made up of a mixture of Nigerian graduates and foreign as well. In addition to the external Arabic broadcasting, there exists local Arabic broadcasting in some Nigerian States. Freedom Radio, a privately owned Radio station in Kano has two weekly Arabic programmes. The first one is titled: “Mukoyilarabci”. The Programme is meant for teaching the basics of the Arabic language to beginners. It comes up every Wednesday between the hours of 9.00 - 9.30 am. It is done in such a way that a topic is chosen and is taught in Arabic with a lot of illustrations. Sometimes some sentences are constructed in Hausa language to be translated to Arabic. The then producer of the programme, Mallam Kabir Abdullah Umar revealed that the programme has attracted wide audience that the listeners have been asking for extension of its duration. The 2nd Arabic programme on Freedom Radio titled: “Mazika” is purely entertainment where listeners participate by telephone. The programme, which was being anchored by Hajiyah Aisha, is aired every Sunday between 3.00 and 4.00pm. It plays host to Arab poets who would be interviewed by the Presenter who also entertain listeners’ questions. The programme, at times, takes a request format42. Between the year 1998 and 2001, a segment of a T.V. programme on Muri International Television, Lagos (MITV) titled "Way of Life" was dedicated to Arabic broadcasting whereby contemporary issues were discussed. An interview conducted with the then anchor of the Programme Ahmad Saheed Ar-Rufai revealed that the programme had to stop, not because of unavailability of listeners, but mainly because he was not available at a point in time and the new anchor was not learned in Arabic43. Furthermore, Ahmad Murtada Busair who was a presenter of Arabic Programmes during his NYSC service year on Yobe State broadcasting Corporation revealed that the Arabic language was also used for broadcast on the Station.44. On Nigerian Television Authority Network (NTA) Ilorin, Kwara State Capital, Arabic was one the languages being used to relay Sport news every Sundays 8.30am between May 2004 and May 2005. The presenter of the Arabic section of the programme titled: “Sport Pro Show” Nurain Isa Sufi, revealed that the major reason for scraping the
ILCC 2013
52
programme was the extension of AM Express, an early morning daily general magazine Network Programme, to cover weekends45.
CONCLUSION From the foregoing, this paper has established the importance of Arabic as a language in Nigeria in view of its lasting influence on indigenous languages in the country. Considering the fact that effective communication and understanding can go a long way in fostering unity in a given country, the Arabic language is qualified to provide a platform for inter-cultural and inter-tribal communication not only in Nigeria, but in Africa as a whole. As the Arabic language had rendered unparallel service to the preservation of Nigerian and African history in the past, its potentials could still be tapped to solve the security challenges that bedeviled the country and the West African region as a whole. The utilization of Arabic as a language of broadcasting locally and internationally could help in providing correct and adequate information to the Arab world and the world at large. If properly utilized, Arabic broadcasting could be used to re-orientate a large number of people especially in Northern Nigeria. Summarily, the Arabic language in Nigeria has unexploited potentials for the promotion and fostering of national integration.
Notes & References 1- Microsoft Encarta. (2006) 2- See S.A.S. Galadanchi. (1993). Harakat al-Lugat al-Arabiyyah Wa Adabiha fi Naijiriyah. 2nd ed. Riyadh. 17 3- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim Prayers and beyond. Inaugural lecture. Dept. of Arabic & Islamic Studies. University of Ibadan. Ibadan University Press. 3 4- [----------] 10 5- I.A. Ogunbiyi. (1987). Of Non-Muslim Cultivators and Propagators of Arabic Language. Inaugural lecture. Foreign Languages Department. Lagos State University. 9-10 6- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op.cit. 19. Quoting D.O. Shittu. 1977. The Nigerian Draft Constitution and Shariah Controversy. NATAIS. No 1.114. 7- I.A. Ogunbiyi. (1987). Of Non-Muslim. op. cit. 10 8- [----------] 10. Quoting T. Hodgkin. (1960). Nigerian Perspective – An historical Anthology. OUP. 9- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op. cit. 11. Quoting Samuel Johnson. Undated. The History of the Yorubas from the earliest Times to the Beginning of the British Protectorate. Lagos. 23
10- S. Irinyemi. February 11, (2005). Arabic Inscriptions on the Naira. Arewa Journal Retrieved April 12, 2005.from www.arewa-online.com. 11- R. Sanda. February 12, (2005). Where Ignorant is bliss it is wise to educate. Arewa Journal. Retrieved April 12, 2005.from www.arewa-online.com. 12- M.A. Bidmos. (1996). Mustaqbal al-Lugah al-Arabiyyah fi Naijiriyyah. Lagos: Islamic Publications Bureau. 10 13- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op cit. 20. Quoting A. Bamgbose. Language and Nation Building. Review of English and Literary Studies. Vol. 2. No 2. 97. 14- Abubakre, R.D. (2004), The interplay of Arabic and Yoruba cultures in South-Western Nigeria. Iwo, Nigeria. 12. 15- See Malik, op cit. Quoting J.O. Hunwick. (1965). Report on a Seminar on the Teaching of Arabic in Nigeria. Ibadan and Kano 3 16- I.A. Ogunbiyi, (1987). Of Non-Muslim. op. cit. 23 17- S.H.A. Malik, (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op. cit. 23 18- Arabic Language. Retrieved March 18, (2005) from www.worldlanguage.com/Arabic.htm 19- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op.cit. 23 20- [----------]. 23 21- I.A. Ogunbiyi. (1987). Of Non-Muslim. op. cit. 12. Quoting M. Goerner, Y. Salman, & P. Armitage, Two essays on Arabic Loan Words in Hausa. Occasional paper. No 7. Department of English. Ahmadu Bello University. Zaria. 22- [----------]. 12 23- [----------]. 13 24- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op.cit. Making reference to Ogunbiyi, I.A. Arabic loan Words the Yoruba Language. Arab Journal of language Studies. 3. 1.161-180 25- See Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. 24-31
ILCC 2013
54
26- Yaafuao is borrowed from the Arabic word يعفوwhich means to pardon. 27- Ummatoon is borrowed from the Arabic word أمةwhich means a nation or a group. 28- Dalili is borrowed from the Arabic word دليلwhich means indication or proof. 29- A Standard Swahili-English Dictionary. (1939). Dar Salam: Nairobi-Oxford University Press. 30- Dictionary of the Hausa Language. (1962). Ed. R.C. Abraham. 2nd Ed. Great Britain: University of London Press Limited. 31- An English-Fulfulde Dictionary. (1986). Ed. F.W. Taylor. 32- A Dictionary of the Yoruba Language. (2002). Ibadan: University Press Plc. 33- C.S. Mudd & M.O. Sillars. (1975). Speech: Content and Communication. 3rd Ed. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. 3 34- [----------]. 4 35- O. Adidi Uyo. (1987). Mass Communication Media: Classification & Characteristics. New York: Civilities International quoting L. Melvin, L.& Everette, E. D. 1981. Understanding Mass Communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.148 36- See. Arabic Language. Retrieved March 18, (2005) from www.worldlanguage.com/Arabic.htm 37- See. African Language. Retrieved March 18, (2005) from www.isp.msu.edu/Afrlang/languages.htm 38- See. S.A.S. Galadanci, (1983). Harakatu. Op.cit. 187 39- O. Onabajo. 2000. International & Foreign Broadcasting. Lagos: Gabi Concept Ltd. 14 See also: http://www.nbc.org/radio.asp. Retrieved August 23,(2004) 40- See Voice of Nigeria General Information. (1988). Nigeria: Randara Ventures Ltd.
41- Interview conducted with Ustadh Naj’mudeen Adegbite Binuyo, the 3rd Head of the Arabic Service of Voice of Nigeria. Age: 75+. 42- Interview conducted with Mallam Kabir Abdullah Umar, the Head, Producer of Religious Programme on Freedom Radio, Kano. Nigeria. The interview was conducted on August 26th 2005 at the premises of the Radio Station between 3.40 - 430 pm. Age: 44+ 43- Interview conducted with the presenter of the defunct Arabic programme on Muri International Television (MITV) Ahmad Sa’eed Rufai. 44- Interview conducted with Ahmad Murtada Busair who was a presenter of Arabic programmes on Yobe State Broadcasting Corporation during his NYSC service year (2001). 45- Interview conducted with Nurain Isa Sufi who was the Presenter of the Sport News in Arabic. Other Languages include English, French, Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba. Nurain is currently the VON Arabic correspondent at Ilorin, Kwara State.
ILCC 2013
56
GENDER ISSUES IN AL-HILALI AND KHAN’S ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE QUR ’AN”: AN INVESTIGATION
PROF. DR. ZAKARIYAU I. OSENI, Ph. D. (Ibadan), FASN, FAR (The Chief Imam and Waziri of Auchi) Department of Arabic, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
[email protected]/
[email protected]
Abstract Undoubtedly, the translation of the Qur’an into English by Muhammad al-Hilali and Muham mad Khan stands out as one of the most detailed and famous English rendering of the message of Al lah contained therein all over the world today. That special position has been facilitated by the boun dless generosity of the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia which prints and distributes cop ies of the work worldwide free of charge. In the English-reading world, the translation has had trem endous impact in helping people to understand the Qur’an. Whatever be the case of human endeavour, there is room for improvement. Hence the need for this study which investigates gender issues in the translation. In the world today, writers are gen der sensitive, using terms which adequately give due recognition to males females without necessari ly overstretching the point to the extreme. Preference is given to: using terms that are all inclusive l ike humankind or humanity instead of mankind or man (in a generic form). This paper aims at studying selected verses whose translation would require a reconsideratio n for a better understanding of the Qur’an without women (who constitute more than half of the wor ld Muslim population) feeling alienated or unrecognised. In carrying out this assignment, I rely on selected original works on Qur’anic Exegesis in Arabic and compare the gender issues so translated with two other English translations, those of A. Y. Ali and A. J. Arberry. In the end, I am optimistic t hat there would be a clearer , gender-balanced translation which the two honourable translators and the publishers would be justifiably proud of.
1.0
Introduction
This paper aims at making a point that the monumental translation of the Glorious Qur’an ca rried out by Al-Hilali and Khan needs some improvement as regards gender issues. The thrust of th e study is the need to use all-inclusive gender terms instead of adopting male terms whether generic or not. The content of the paper includes this introduction, translation and gender, examples of gender issue s well translated, those that require some improvement and conclusion. 2.0
Translation and Gender
Translation is a very vital subject in academic pursuit. Without it knowledge would not have spread worldwide as it has been. “It is the replacement of textual material in one language (S.L.) by equiva lent textual material in another language (Catford, 1980, 20).
Translation can be classified into three types. These are literal translation, literary translatio n and meaning-oriented translation. Literal translation means word-for-word translation which may not give a comprehensible meaning in the target language. (Catford, 1980, 25-26). Nevertheless, to me, it helps a mature reader to grasp the meaning of the words put together and helps him to fathom the thinking of the milieu of the source language. Literary translation refers to the type of translation which is suitable for literature material li ke poetry, novel, short story and drama. The rich language used in writing these works would be los t, to some extent, if any other type of translation is used (Catford, 1980, 35). On the other hand, meaning-oriented translation which concentrates on extracting comprehe nsible meaning from the source language is the most common one. It is the one used in translating t echnical materials in the sciences, medicine, engineering, law agriculture, economics, etc. (Catford, 1980, 35-42). In the case of the Qur’an, meaning-oriented translation is often used. A. J. Arberry, an orient alist, attempted to use the literary type in translating the Qur’an (Arberry, 1964). On gender, I did not delve into the polemics of gender issues of supremacy and competitions . My simple approach in this study is to draw attention to the accepted usage in the modern era. 3.0 Gender Issues Correctly Translated I have to begin with gender issues which in my opinion, were well translated by Al-Hilali an d Khan in their monumental work on the Glorious Qur’an. These are the words Ibn, Ibnat/banat Ba nu/Banin, Imru’, Imra’ah, Abun, Rijal. The details are given below with examples from the translat ed Qur’an. 3.1 Ibn: In Arabic it basically means “a son”. When attached to another noun as the first part of a construct p hrase (al-idafah), it means “son of ….” The use of ibn in the Qur’an is in three ways. One is where it is used in the literal sense and this is in reference to ‘Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus son of Mary). Exampl es of such are found in Qur’an 2:87; 3:45; 4:157 and 171; 5:17, 46, 72, 75, 78, 110, 112, 114 and 11 6; 9:30 and 31; 19:34; 23:50; 33: 7; 43:57; 57:27; 61:6 and 14. The second use of Ibn is ya ibn umma (O son of my mother) by which the Prophet Harun ad dressed his brother, the Prophet Musa when the latter was crossed with him. This is found in two pla ces in the Qur’an, i.e. Qur’an 7:150 and 20:94. The third one is where ibn is attached to al-sabil (the way), that is ibn al-sabil (the wayfarer, a traveller), i.e. a miserable and helpless traveller who should be pitied and taken care of. (See Qur’ an 2:177 and 215; 4:36; 8:41; 9:60; 17:26; 30:38 and 59:7). 3.2 Ibnat/Banat: Ibnat means “a daughter”. When attached to another noun, it means “daughter of …” An example is Maryam ibnat ‘Imran (Mary, the daughter of ‘Imran) found in Qur’an 66:12. Banat is the plural of Ibnat or bint. It means “daughters” and is used in many places in the Q ur’an. Examples are Qur’an 4:23; 6:100; and 35:153. 3.3 Banun/Banin: This term means “sons” when used in a restricted sense. It also means “child ren of when used as the first member of a construct phrase (idafah). When used in idafah, th en the “n” would be omitted, .g. Banu Isra‘il (Children of Israel). Israel here is in reference t o the progenitor of the Israelis, i.e. the Prophet Ya‘qub (Jacob). In Arabic usage, banun/ban u is in the nominative while banin/bani is in the accusative/genitive. Examples of such use a re found in Qur’an 10:90; 18:46; 2:40; 3:14; and 68:14. 3.4 Imru’: This term means “a person, It was used in the Qur’an more in legal matters in refere nce to male and female especially in connection with inheritance. Examples are in Qur’an 4: 176; 24:11; 52:21; 70:38; 74:52; and 80:37). 3.5 Imra’ah: This means a woman or a wife. Examples of the use of this word are found in Qur ’an 7:83, 12:21, 51:29, 3:40 and 111:4.
ILCC 2013
58
Abun: This word means “a father” and is in the nominative. The accusative form is Aban w hile the genitive form is Abin. The “n” is omitted when the word is the first noun in a constr uct phrase (idafah) and is then elongated. The plural is aba (fathers, progenitors and ancesto rs). Examples of these are in Qur’an 12:78; 33:40; 6:74; 43:26; 2:170; and 21:44. 3.7 Rijal: This term means “men”, the plural of rajul (a man). It is used in a straight-forward an d unambiguous manner in the Qur’an. Examples are Qur’an 2:228 and 282; 33:40; 21:7; 7: 9; 25:8; 16:76; and 16:79. 3.8 Nisa’: The term is the plural of imra’ah (a woman) and therefore means “women”. Another form of the word is (niswah women). It is also used in the Qur’an to mean “wives” especial ly when attached to male pronouns like nisa’u-kum (your wives). Examples of the use of nis a’ in the Qur’an are Qur’an 2:222 and 231; 3:14 and 42; and 4:1, 7, 14, 19, 32, 34 and 128. In point of fact, Chapter Four of the Qur’an is entitled Surat al-Nisa-’ (Chapter on Women). 3.9 Zawj: This word means “a wife, a husband, a spouse, a pair and a group. The plural is azwa j. In the Qur’an, these are the clear meaning assigned to the word. Examples are Qur’an 75:3 9; 3:15; 33:52; 4:1; 6:139; 2:240; 30:21; and 42:11. In all the gender-related words, the translation of al-Hilali and Khan did well. There is hardly any serious lapse in the English rendering of the original Arabic origi nal. I will now turn to the crust of this paper, namely, an examination of the gender issues not prope rly translated into English. 4.0 Translations that Require Improvement In this section, a number of words related to gender which were not satisfactorily translated are examined. These include bunayya, hafadah, al-insan and al-nas. The details are as follows: 4.1 Bunayya: This word is the diminutive of ibn (son or child). It appears in Qur’an 11:42; 12:5 ; 31:13; 16, and 17; and 37:102. In the six place, the word bunayya was translated by al-Hila li and Khan as “my son” For example Qur’an 11:42 was translated as follows: “…and Nuh (Noah) called out to his son, who had separated himself (apart). “O my son! Embark with u s and be not with the disbelievers”. (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1997, 320). The words translated “O my son” are ya-bunayya which does not adequately convey the me aning. The diminutive form in Arabic morphology conveys different meanings such as smallness, co ntempt, endearment and even magnification. (Wright, 1967, 166; Daral-Mashriq, 2000, 50; Ibn ‘Aqi l, 2, 1392 A. H./1972, 477-478 and the best translation should be “O my dear son”. In this case, it is used for endearment. A. Y. Ali and Arberry made the same mistake of translating it like Al-Hilali an d Khan (Ali, 1968, 524 and Arberry, 1964, 216). 4.2 Hafadah: This word is the broken plural of hafid (a grandson). It appeared once in the Qur’ an i.e. Qur’an 16:72. Al-Hilali and Khan translated it as “grandsons” which is wrong within the context in which it was used. The correct translation is “grandchildren” which includes b oth males and females. Al-Hilali and Khan, 1997, 388). In fact banina wa hafadah containe d in the verse should be better translated as “children and grandchildren”. After all the two g enders are in reality what is meant – and not just males. Ali’s translation is correct (p. 675) w hile Arberry (p. 266) got it wrong. 4.3 Al-Insan: This is a word from ins (human kind). It means “man” in generic form, and a hum an being. The word appears in 65 places in the Qur’an. It has been translated in the work un der study as man(male) in most cases. Below are a few examples. *“…and man was created weak (cannot be patient to leave sexual intercourse with woman)” . (Qur’an 4:28). Both Ali (p. ) and Arberry (p. 77) translated al-insan “man” like the work under study. *“And when harm touches man, he involves Us, lying on his side, or sitting or standing. (Qu r’an 10:12). The word was translated by Arberry (p. 197) as “a man”. Similarly, Ali (p. 486) translated it 3.6
as “a man” I posit that “a person” would be a better word here. *“verily, Shaitan (Satan) is to man an open enemy” (Qur’an 12:5). *“And man invokes (Allah) for evil as he involves (Allah) for good and man is ever hasty” ( Qur’an 17:11). Ali (p. 696) and Arberry translated the word “man”. *Man is created of haste. I will show you My Ayat….” (Qur’an 21:37). Both Ali (p. 830) and Arberry (p. 326) translated the word “man”. In the examples given above, man has been used as a generic term which is correct. However, in line with modern trends of using all-inclusive terms in gender matters, it is my candid opinion that the terms “human being, person or human” may be better alternatives. 4.4 Al-Nas: This is the plural of al-insan discussed above. It means “people, human beings, hu mans and humanity” Al-nas appears in the Qur’an in 242 places. His should not surprise any ones as the Divine message in the Qur’an is for the guidance of humanity in general. A few examples of the translation of al-nas in the Qur’an in the work under study are as follows. *”And of mankind there are some (hypocrites) who say: “We believe in Allah and the Last Day” which in fact they believe not”. (Qur’an 2:8). This translation is correct but mankind could be changed to the people, humanity”. This would mak e it clearly more comprehensive. Ali translated it “the people” (p. 18) while Arberry translated it “m en”, (p. 2). Ali’s translation is better. *”……These are the verses of the book (the Qur’an), and that which has been revealed unto you (M uhammen) believe not” (Qur’an 13:1). Arberry (p. 239) and Ali (p. 602) translated it as “most men”. Most people would be a better transla tion. My contention is that, though these translations are correct, they could be improved upon by being extremely gender-sensitive. Doing so enriches the translation and creates more consciousnes s in the female gender as Allah’s special creature and excellent partner and mate of the masculine ge nder. 5.0 Conclusion In the foregoing it has been observed that, in spite of the profound benefits of the English tra nslation of the Qur’an carried out by Al-Hilali and Khan, there is a need for improvement, especiall y in respect of gender issues. I have given some examples of the good and the not-so-good translatio n of selected verses from their work. It is hoped that more objective research is done to identify more area which require a re-cons ideration in order to continually improve on the translatin of the Qur’an carried out by the two famo us scholars.
ILCC 2013
60
REFERENCES Arabic Sources ‘Abd at-Rahman ibn Nasir al-Sa‘di (1433/2012), Taysir al-Karim al-Rahman fi Tafsir Kalam al-Mannan 2nd Ed. Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Risalah al-Nashirun. Abu Tahir ibn Yaqub al-Fayruzabadi (1428/2006), Tanwir al-Miqyas min Tafsir Ibn ‘Abbas. Cairo: Sharikat ol-Quds. Baha’ul-Din ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Aqil al-‘Aqili al-Hamdani al-Misri (1392/1972). Sharh Ibn ‘Aqi th l 15 Ed. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. Ismai’l ibn Kathir al-Dimashqi (1388/1969), Tafsir al-Qur’an al-‘Azim 1&2 Beirut: Dar-alMa‘rifah. Muhammad Fu’ad ‘Abdul-Baqi (1422)/2001). Al-Mu‘jam al-Mufahras Alfaz al-Qur’an al-K arim. Cairo: Dar al-Hadith. Muhammad ibn ‘Ali ibn Muhammad al-Shawkani (1383/1964), Fath ol-Qadir al-Jami‘ bay na Fannay al-Riwayah wal-Dirayah. Vol. 1-3 Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi wa Awladuhu. English Sources Ali, A. Y. (1968). The Holy Qur’an: Text, Translation and Commentary. Beirut: Dar al Arabi a. Arberry, A. J. (1964). The Koran Interpreted. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Al-Hilali, and Khan M. M. (Translators 1997) Interpretation of the Meanings of the Noble Q ur’an in the English Language 17th R. Ed. Riyadh: Darussalm. Catford, J. C. (1980) A Linguistics Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wright, W. (1967) A Grammar of the Arabic Language. 3rd Ed. London: Cambridge Univers ity Press.
The English Block of Words as an Innovative Approach in Teaching English Grammar Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo 1, Mutiara Andrianti Sutarno 2, and Rohandi Latif 3 1 Sebelas Maret University 2 Sebelas Maret University 3 Sebelas Maret University Corresponding Author: Arief Eko Priyo, Atmojo, Sebelas Maret University,
[email protected] d ________________________________________________________________________________ _______ Abstract. As English has become an international language nowadays, the demand of English cours e for non-native learners is quite high. It is supported by some reasons for academic importance wh en people want to study in college which the prerequisite includes TOEFL, IBT, even GMAT test. T his condition forces people to learn English academically, for example English grammar, writing, sp eaking, listening, and reading. Though, some people experience difficulty in learning English gram mar as its fundamental basis to be excellent in English. It is due to the need of good grammar under standing in academic English. How can a person be excellent in academic English without masterin g well its grammar? So, this paper will provide an approach of making English grammar to its simpl est form to make learners become easier in understanding it. The approach would show the diagram containing the block of words which is in form of distinguishing "auxiliary" and "variation". Moreo ver, the block of words would simplify the rule of grammar to influence people to be easy in remem bering it. To test the hypothesis of the effectiveness of this approach, the author conducted an experi mental research. So, there were two classes which were experimental class and normal class. The da ta analysis showed that there was significant difference of result between experimental and normal c lass. This research has proven that "The English Block of Words Approach" is effective. Keywords: English grammar teaching, learning approach, teaching English as foreign language, the English block of words 1. Introduction As English has become a lingua franca in international environment, the demand of English course for non-native learners also rises. It is supported by some reasons for academic importance w hen people want to study in college which the prerequisite includes TOEFL, IBT, even GMAT test. This condition forces people to learn English academically, for example English grammar, writing, s peaking, listening, and reading. Though, some people experience difficulty in learning English gram mar as its fundamental basis to be excellent in English. It is due to the need of good grammar under standing in academic English. How can a person be excellent in academic English without masterin g well its grammar? Grammar itself is a very important aspect in language. It is considered as the fundamental ru les which support a speaker to speak meaningfully in the spoken language. Moreover, grammar kno wledge is closely related to communicative competence. Is it possible for a speaker who has no gra mmar knowledge to speak meaningfully in the target language being learned? Of course, it is a diffi cult job. In all languages, grammar always plays an important role even communicative competence i s considered as the main objectives of nowadays’ language teaching method. But, as the author has explained in the preceding paragraph, the emphasis on communicative competence only is not enou gh. It is because learners will be very difficult to express meaningfully utterances in the target langu age being learned due to lack mastery of grammar. Thus, communicative competence and grammar should be combined as well as possible to make language learners easier to speak meaningfully in t he target language being learned. In addition, there are many methods of language teaching which has been emerging that pay attention on communicative competence. But, those methods only pay less attention to grammar kn
ILCC 2013
62
owledge which must also be mastered by learners. So, it makes learners become a bit frustrated bec ause they have not found the approach to study grammar easily. Usually, learners only know that gr ammar could be learned from classical grammar book. Moreover, the classical grammar book is in h undreds pages. This becomes a terrible problem for non-native learners because they are usually not habituated to understand grammar rules from English textbook. In spite of their difficulty to understand grammar rules from English textbook, another probl em is that not all people are diligent. There are some people who are lazy to read book. They only w ant to be informed by their teacher. So, this job to explain and to teach grammar to learners is the re sponsibility of the teacher. Thus, the teacher plays an important role to teach grammar using an appr oach which can make learners learn grammar easier. Another problem related to learners ability has also emerged. The problem is that some learn ers are not able to remember well lots of rules of grammar. So, there must be a solution that should be found immediately to solve these problems. Moreover, the author proposed that the possible solu tion is an approach which can simplify the rules of grammar to be easily remembered by learners. The solution is considered as an approach because it will describe the grammar in different way. The author proposed that the most important points in grammar are tenses and modality. Thus, the English grammar will be simplified according to these two points. Moreover, the proposed appr oach will make some blocks of words (a word or some words) which will be grouped and colored. Related to the grouping and the coloring of words, there will be two distinguishing terminologies to name the block of words which are “auxiliary” and “variation”. 1. 2.1.
Literature Review
Grammar There are lots of definition and description related to what is meant by the word “grammar”. Some experts and linguists especially have described grammar in so many terms. But, the most ess ential meaning of grammar is the pattern of a language. It is supported by the literal definition taken from Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 3rd ed. (2008) which described grammar as “(the study or use of) the rules about how words change their form and combine with other words to mak e sentences”. This makes sense that when people are talking about grammar they will be talking abo ut what are the rules to make sentences in certain language. In addition, some definition of grammar proposed by experts will be presented to cover and reveal some expanding meaning of grammar. The first quoted definition is presented by Kaplan (19 95) as he argued that grammar is “the rules governing how a language is supposed to be used” (p. 1) . Moreover, this definition is explained furthermore by Kaplan (1995) by his statement that is “gram mar is viewed as a set of rigid prescriptions focusing on error correction” (p. xi). Another definition of grammar is taken from Radford (2004) as he stated that grammar can be divided into its traditional subdivisions which are morphology (the study of how words are form ed out of smaller units called morphemes) and syntax (the study of the way in which phrases and se ntences are structured out of words). It seems that Radford (2004) agreed with Kaplan (1995) when he stated that “the teaching of syntax in the traditional sense is described in terms of taxonomy (i.e., classificatory lists) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language” (p. 1). According to this perspective of grammar, Radford (2004) argued that each syntactic unit in a se ntence belongs to a grammatical category and has a specific grammatical function. Thus, the role of learner as well as the teacher is “to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each co nstituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves” (p. 1). The traditional appr oach to grammar as Radford (2004) said, it would only describe the specific grammatical categories to which words/phrases/clauses are assigned to and not explain why certain constituents behave or mean the way they do given a different context. Moreover, Radford (2004) had the same idea with Kaplan (1995) as he saw the inadequacy of this approach in learning a language for it failed to provi
de an explanation why a sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical. Ismail (2010) also argued about the importance of grammar in a language as he stated that “ Grammar is viewed as an essential element for communication to take place because it shows how l anguage is used” (p. 143). This definition is then reflected in term of how to teach grammar itself. I n fact, the process of grammar teaching is more successful when it deals with grammatical points th at can be used for communication (Nunan, 1991; Zhongganggao, 2001). 2.2.
Approach
To describe what is approach actually, Anthony (1963) distinguished it with other two terms in field of approach and method. Anthony (1963) identified three levels of conceptualization and or ganization which were termed as approach, method, and technique. He said that the arrangement is hierarchical. Moreover, he added that the organizational key of the relationship between these three terms is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach. Thus, the definitio n of each term will be presented here to make clear what is meant by approach. “An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and le arning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. Meanwh ile, method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which con tradicts, and all of which is based upon the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method i s procedural. So, there can be many methods within one approach. Then, a technique is implementat ional which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance use d to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefor e in harmony with an approach as well” (Anthony, 1963, p. 63-67). 2.
Research Methods
This research is conducted under the umbrella term of quantitative research. Especially, this research is conducted in the design of experimental research. Experimental research is a branch of q uantitative research which concerns to test the effectiveness of the proposed solution by comparing i t to one or more existed solution. Moreover, there is a settled design in field of educational research. The design is that the researcher will test the effectiveness of his proposed solution by comparing it to a normal (no treatment) class. So, the proposed solution will be used in experimental class. Then , the results of the two classes will be compared and decided to conclude which is more effective. T hus, the problem statement of this research is that “Is the English block of words effective to be use d to teach English grammar?”. 3.1.
Data
The data were taken using the same pre-test and post-test for both normal and experimental class. The pre-test and the post-test (as the instrument of the research) were tested for its validity an d reliability using discrete number statistics. Thus, the data are in form of the number of score of ea ch participant’s pre-test and post-test. Moreover, the data were classified into two classes as explain ed before into normal and experimental class. 3.2. Participants The participants of this researcher are 5 persons for normal class and 5 persons for experime ntal class. Totally, there were 10 persons who were selected randomly. All of the ten participants are the member of college organization of Sebelas Maret University which is named as SIM (Studi Ilm iah Mahasiswa). While the research was being conducted between May 1, and May 6, 2013, the acti ve members of SIM were about 70 persons. So, the percentage of the participants is 14.29% of the t otal population. But, the aim of this research is not to sample or represent the whole class of the pop ulation. Moreover, this research focused on testing the effectiveness of the proposed solution by con cluding from the improvement between pre-test and post-test.
ILCC 2013 3.3.
64
Procedure
The research was started by dividing ten participants into two classes randomly. Then, the pa rticipants were invited to attend their class (whether it was normal or experimental class) as schedul ed by the researcher. The schedule for experimental class was May 1, 2013 at 04.30 p.m. until 05.40 p.m. in building Porsima, Sebelas Maret University. Meanwhile, the schedule for normal class was May 6, 2013 at 04.30 p.m. until 05.40 p.m. in building Porsima, Sebelas Maret University. Each cla ss (both of normal and experimental class) had 20 minutes for pre-test, 30 minutes for presentation of material and discussion, and 20 minutes for post-test. After the two classes’ activities had been do ne (it means that data collection has been done also), the researcher did the data analysis and then w rote the research report. 3.
Result and Discussion
This research was conducted in two classes which were normal and experimental class. The used equipment in the teaching and learning process were notebook, LCD projector, and print-out m aterial. The teaching and learning process of both of the classes were lecturing and discussion. In ad dition, the general structure of how to make affirmative, negative, and question sentence was taught using the same approach at the beginning of material and discussion session. But, there was signific ant difference in the used approach after the general structure of how to make affirmative, negative, and question sentence was taught in both of the classes. The used approach had impact on the used material. In the experimental class, the researcher explained and taught English grammar using no spe cial treatment. So, the researcher only used a figure containing tenses pattern as the lesson material as follows:
Fig. 1: Tenses Chart (http://debsquickpicks.com/english-tenses/). Moreover, the researcher also explained orally about modality (will/would, shall/should, ma y/might, and can/could) which all of the modals will be usually followed by V1. The presented mate rial was explained orally and expanded with the questions from learners. Differently, the researcher used special treatment for experimental class. The researcher used his proposed approach as proposed solution. The proposed approach describes English grammar as 6 general patterns. The six general patterns were then distinguished by using the term “auxiliary” an d “variation”. The “auxiliary” and the “variation” formed the block of words which was colored in c ertain color by the researcher. Thus, the researcher’s proposed approach was written in form of lesso n material which could be presented as follows: Fig. 2: Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo Block of Words (©Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo). From the teaching and learning process, the researcher has got the score of pre-test and posttest of each class’ participant. The score therefore became the data of this research. Moreover, the da ta were analyzed using simple statistics which were sum, average/mean, and difference. Thus, the d ata analysis could be presented as follows:
Fig. 3: Data Analysis.
Figure 3 clearly shows that experimental class has better improvement than normal class. It proves that the proposed approach (the block of words) is more effective than normal treatment. It i s clearly shown in the mean of improvement column. The mean of improvement of experimental cla ss is 16.004. Meanwhile, the mean of improvement of normal class is 0.668. Whereas, the mean of t he pre-test of both of the classes are almost the same which are 51.998 for experimental class and 5 2.00 for normal class. But, after each class was given different treatment (normal class=no treatmen t; experimental class=the block of words approach), the experimental class got better score than nor mal class in post-test. Thus, it can be concluded that the block of words approach is effective. 5. Conclusion The problem statement of this research was finally answered. The English block of words w as tested in an experimental research. The data analysis of this research shows that the English bloc k of words is effective to be used to teach grammar. Thus, it becomes one of the important findings i n field of English Language Teaching (ELT). It is because grammar is a very important aspect whic h could not be separated from language and language teaching and learning. 6. Acknowledgements I thank to Allah Swt –the Only One God of all creatures and all worlds- for the blessing and the mercy that are always given to us. I thank to my mother (Sri Pudyastuti, S.Pd. and my father Drs . Muh. Agus Suseno) who always take care of me patiently from baby until now. I thank to all my c olleagues in English Education Department of Sebelas Maret University, Studi Ilmiah Mahasiswa (S IM), Lingkar Studi Pendidikan (LSP), and all of my beloved friends. Thank you for all your support . You are all great.
1. References (2008). Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Pre ss. Anthony, E. M. (1963). Approach, Method, and Technique, English Language Teaching, 17, 63-67. http://debsquickpicks.com/english-tenses/. Ismail, S. A. H. (2010). ESP Students’ Views of ESL Grammar Learning, GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 10 (3), 143-155. Kaplan, J. P. (1995). English Grammar Principles and Facts (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology. New York: Prentice Hall. Radford, A. (2004). Minimalist Syntax: Exploring the Structure of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zhongganggao, C. (2001). Second Language Learning and the Teaching of Grammar, Education, 12 2 (2), 326-336.
ILCC 2013
66
STUDY OF LANGUAGE USE OF INDONESIAN PROCLAMATION SPEECH BY SOEKARNO (PRAGMATICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS)
[email protected] Abstract This paper is concerned with study of linguistic analysis of Indonesian proclamation speech by Soekarno. The objective of the study is to describe all linguistic features in the speech in terms o f deixis and speech act (pragmatic analysis), and cohesive (discourse analysis). Further, it uses Yule (1996) and Searle’s claim (1976) of deixis and speech act and Cutting’s claim of cohesive. This stud y is expected as a beginning study that can be used as an additional source particularly to the other future researchers who are interested in carrying out a similar investigation. The data of this study were collected through classifying, and then analyzed by using discourse and pragmati c analysis. Based on the writer interpretation of this speech, the result of the study shows that (1) the re are three kinds of deixis found in this speech, namely persona ( saya ‘I’, kami/kita ‘we’, mereka ‘ they’, and saudara-saudara ‘brothers’), spatial/place (disini ‘here’), and temporal/time deixis (sekar ang ‘now’, zaman Jepan ini ‘this Japan period’, and tadi malam ‘last night’), (2) lexical cohesive co nsists of repetition (kita ‘we’, sendiri ‘alone’, nasib ‘fate’, zaman Jepan ‘Japan period’¸ kami ‘we’, and Negara ‘country/nation’), substitution (gelombang aksi ‘action wave’ is substituted with perjua ngan ‘struggle’), synonym (kekal ‘eternal’ and abadi ‘eternal’), and general words (saudara-saudar a ‘brothers’, and rakyat ‘society’), while grammatical cohesive consists of reference (nya ‘one/its’, mereka ‘they’, dan itu ‘that’) and conjunction (dan ‘and’, tetapi ‘but’, maka ‘so’, and bahkan ‘even do’) , (3) there are three kinds of speech act, namely locution, illocution, and perlocution speech act s, but locution act is ignored in this study, (4) illocution speech act found in the sentences of 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 15 while perlocution speech act only found in the sentence 9, and (5) other speech act ty pes found in the speech are declarative (in the proclamation text), representative (sentence 2), direct ive (sentence 3), and expressive (sentence 18). Keywords : pragmatics, discourse, lexical, cohesive, and speech act. I INTRODUCTION In communication, the role of language is very important. Any information is usually deliver ed by language. Language as a special communication tool is only used by the human being. In Ind onesian, the need of communication world toward Indonesian language may the language will unde rgo the significant development. The language performance is determined by society condition and social situation where the language used. The language may be used in either formal or informal sit uation. One of formal language using is in nation speeches. One of most historical speeches is Soekarno’s speech when reading proclamation of Indones ian. This speech constitutes one of traditional speech delivered by Soekarno as the president and as revolution great leader. The speech aims at conveying to all Indonesian society and all people in the world that Indonesian has gotten independent from any colonization and start determining itself as i ndependent country. It is very important for Indonesian since it as the first time of Indonesian procla mation. The speech is conveyed on Friday at 10 o’clock, 17th of August 1945 in east Pegangsaan pro clamation building, 56 Jakarta. It is very short but has the great value and message for all Indonesia n society. Word style and choice used are very simple. Besides, it is the first speech conveyed by the first president of Indonesian and presented by all Indonesian society. Therefore, the text is very inte
resting to be analyzed especially in pragmatics and discourse analysis. As discourse form, speech language has certain characteristic and style, particularly for Indo nesian independent proclamation speech. In the speech, the using of language is very important to r each the success of messages or purposes wanted. Therefore, the speech is received by any sides tha t show the Indonesian independent is legal. Moreover, related to pragmatics, it investigates lingual e xternal structure that observe several language using in concrete situation. This concrete situation m eans refers to speech acts that have clear lingual and extra lingual contexts. Therefore, the short stud y uses the combination between pragmatics and discourse analysis. Moreover, the unique speech act s as the topic in this discourse pragmatics analysis are speech, deixis, implicative, cohesion, polite p rinciples. Nevertheless, the aspects that will be investigated in this study are only limited to deixis a nd speech acts for pragmatics analysis and cohesion for discourse analysis. Based on the background above, the researcher is interested to investigate the language aspe ct in Indonesian independent proclamation speech at 17th of August 1945. In which, the main discus sion of this short study consists of three subtopics, namely (1) deixis analysis of Indonesian indepen dent proclamation speech, (2) speech analysis of Indonesian independent proclamation speech, and (3) cohesion analysis of Indonesian independent proclamation speech. This study constitutes discourse pragmatic analysis. Therefore, the theories of pragmatic and discourse are really needed. The theories used in this study are deixis concept, speech act, and cohe sion as explanation below. First, deixis comes from Greek; deiktikos means ‘directly showing’. A word has deixis char acteristic if its reference are always moving and changing, depend on the time and place of the word used (Purwo, 1984: 1-2). Wijana (2010: 81) defines deixis as lingual units that has different referen ce. Clearly, Nadar (2009: 55) explains that the words called as deixis commonly has function to refe r something, so the interaction success between speaker and interlocutor usually depend on the deixi s understanding used by a speaker. Kaswanti Purwo in Nadar (2009: 57) differs exaphora and endap hora. Besides, Yule (1996: 13-14) divides deixis in three parts, namely persona deixis (kamu ‘you’, anda ‘you’), place deixis (di sini ‘here’, di sana ‘there’), and time deixis (sekarang ‘now’, kemudia n ‘then’). Therefore, it can refer to person, place, and time. Second, the speech act constitutes not only thinking expression but also as saying from worl d representation. Yule (1996: 83) divides speech act in three parts. First, locutionary speech act cons titutes speech act base or it creates meaningful linguistics expression. Secondly, illocutionary act me ans speech that can be used to create something as long as its speech situation considered altogether. Thirdly, perlocutionary act means an act that has significant effect for the listener or interlocutor. B esides, Searle (1976) in Cutting (2002: 14) then divides illocutionary act in five kinds, namely decla rative, representative, commisive, directive, and expressive speech acts. Third, the theory used to answer the third problem in this study is cohesion as one of theorie s in discourse analysis study. Tarigan (1987: 27) in Wijana and Muhammad (2009: 67) state that dis course is the most complete and highest lingual unit with high coherence and cohesion continuously with having real starting and ending. Cohesion is the harmony balance between one element and ot her elements in the discourse, while coherence is the unity of discourse to make the communication has idea (Djajasudarma, 1994: 5). Cutting (2002: 11) divides cohesion in two parts, namely gramma tical and lexical cohesion. Grammatical cohesion consists of reference, substitution, and ellipsis. W hile, lexical cohesion consists of repetition, synonym, super ordinate, and general words. II DISCUSSION As mention before, this study discusses three main points, namely deixis aspect, speech act, and cohesion in Indonesian republic independence proclamation speech. 1. Deixis As additional information, Purwo (1984: 8) give explanation that the word of menunjuk ‘sho w’ used as a term outside of speech, and the word of mengacu ‘refer’ used as a term inside of speec h. Therefore, this analysis uses the word of menunjuk ‘show’ if the deixis exits outside of speech, w hile the word of merujuk ‘refer’ used if the deixis exits inside of speech. Based on the analysis, in th
ILCC 2013
68
is speech found three kinds of deixis namely persona, time, place deixis as in the illustration below. 2.1.1 Persona Deixis There are several examples of deixis in the speech. Deixis of saya ‘I’ in the sentence of (1) S aya telah minta saudara-saudara hadir disini untuk menyaksikan satu peristiwa maha penting ’I ha ve begun my brothers and sisters to present here in attending one most important event’ refers to pr oclamator, Soekarno. Deixis of saya ‘I’ will have different reference if it is spoken by other person ( not Soekarno). So, if A speaks the word saya ‘I’, the word of saya ‘I’ will refer to A. In addition, the using of saya ‘I’ is more suitable than the word of aku ‘I’ since the deixis of saya ‘I’ usually used i n formal situation like in the speech, while the deixis of aku ‘I’ is used in informal situation. Next, t he deixis of saudara-saudara ‘brothers’ in the sentence of (1) above refers to all Indonesian citize n (as interlocutor or listener) for either who present in the place of proclamation reader or not. The r eason is since proclamation for all Indonesian society. Deixis of saya ‘I’ and saudara-saudara ‘brothers’ above can be categorized as exaphora dei xis sine bot just focus on lexical meaning, the referred person is in the outside of speech. It means th at, both persona deixis just refers to lexical meaning, so the persona of saya ‘I’ may refers to differe nt people depend on who speak it. Likewise, the persona of saudara-saudara ‘brothers’ may refers t o different people depend on who become listener or interlocutor. Moreover, persona deixis of kita ‘we’ in all statements in the speech are included exaphora d eixis since it refers to something in the out of speaking and the deixis of kita ‘we ‘ can refers to diff erent people depend on who the speakers are or who are intended by speaker. Nevertheless, based o n the context of the speech, we can conclude that the deixis of kita ‘we’ in all speech texts refers to all Indonesian society. It is caused of the proclamation as the struggle result of all Indonesian people and it is the great history and refers to all Indonesia people. Besides, the word of kita ‘we’ in the m ost speech texts are suitable with the wanted meaning than the word of kami ‘we’. The reason is the deixis of kita ‘we’ refers to speaker and interlocutor. It is different to the deixis of kami ‘we’ that onl y refers to speaker and its members (see Wibowo, 2000: 60). Next, the deixis of kami ‘we’ in the sentence of (10) maka kami, tadi malam telah mengada kan ‘so we did last night’ refers to several Indonesian prominent figures that involved in the discuss ion of proclamation preparation in the night before conveying the proclamation. They come from yo ung generation group (Sukarni, B.M Diah, Yusuf Kunto, Wikana, Sayuti Melik, Adam Malik, and C haerul Saleh) and old figurer group (Ir. Soekarno, Drs. Moh. Hatta, Mr. Ahmad Subardjo, Mr. Moh. Yamin, Dr. Buntaran, Dr. Syamsi and Mr. Iwa Kusumasumantri). Therefore, the deixis of kami ‘we’ above can be categorized as exaphora deixis since it refers to something in the out of speaking and t he deixis of kami ‘we’ can refer to different people depend on who are intended by speakers. 1.
Deixis of Place
There are several deixis of place/spatial in the speech. Deixis of di sini ‘here’ in the sentence of (1) Saya telah minta saudara-saudara hadir disini untuk menyaksikan satu persitiwa maha penti ng dalam sejarah kita ‘I have begun my brothers and sisters to present here in watch one most impo rtant event’ refers to a place, where the proclamation text are conveyed, namely Soekarno’s house, a t Jalan East Pegangsaan Number 56 Centre Jakarta. Nevertheless, the place has different name now become Proclamation Building, Jalan Proklamasi Number 1. Deixis of disini ‘here’ can be categoriz ed as exaphora deixis since it refers to something in the out of speaking. Besides, the word of di sini ‘here’ can refer to different place (not Proclamation Building more) if it is spoken in other place. T
herefore, the deixis of disini ‘here’ has different references depend on the place. 2.
The Deixis of Time
In the speech, there are several examples of time/temporal deixis. The deixis of ini ‘this’ in t he sentence of zaman Jepan ini ‘this Japan period’ constitute signer of Japan colonization epoch wh en the speaker talk it. Therefore, the deixis of ini ‘this’ has different references depend on the time. I f it is spoken in 1945, deixis of ini ‘this’ refers to the year, 1945. Nevertheless, if it is spoken today, the deixis ini ‘this’ refers to the year of 2013. So, the speech of jaman Jepan ini ‘this Japan period’ f or Indonesian is only spoken at the time of proclamation text reading or Japan colonization period a nd it can not be spoken today. Besides, the deixis is categorized as exaphora deixis since it refers to something in the out of speaking. It is different, if jaman Jepan ini ‘this Japan period’ changed to ja man ini ‘this period’, so jaman ini will be categorized as endaphora deixis since it refers to what me ntion before is, namely jaman Jepan ‘Japan period’. The deixis of sekarang ‘now’ in the sentence of (8) Sekarang tibalah saatnya kita benar-be nar mengambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan kita sendiri ‘Now it is the tim e we really take our nation and land fate by ourselves in our hand alone’ refers to certain time depen d on the time of speaking. So, the deixis of sekarang ‘now’ at the speech refers to at the time of pro clamation reading, Friday morning at 17th of August 1945. Therefore, deixis of sekarang ‘now’ in th e sentence (8) is past time or 68 years ago. The time will be always changing depend on the time of speaking. While, the deixis of tadi malam ‘last night’ in the sentence of (10) maka kami, tadi mala m telah mengadakan…’so we did last night’ refers to certain time depend on the time of speaking. I n which, the deixis refers to at the night before reading proclamation text, at night of 16th of August 1945 about 12.00 o’clock PM after Ir. Soekarno and Muh. Hatta come back from Rengasdengklok. Besides, deixis of tadi malam ‘last night’ just spoken in the morning, noon, or afternoon, or it can n ot be spoken at night. Deixis of sekarang ‘now’ is also repeated in the next speech, at the sentence of (11) bahwa s ekaranglah datang saatnya untuk menyatakan kemerdekaan kita ‘that now is the time to state that i ndependent’. This deixis also refers to the similar time, just the article of lah in the word of sekaran glah ‘now’ has function to give emphasizes. Even, the speaker/Soekarno repeat it as at the sentence of (15) Kita sekarang telah merdeka! ‘We are free now’ that refers to at the same time, 17th of Augu st 1945. However, the deixis of sekarang ‘now’ in the sentence of (15) has rather different with the deixis sekarang ‘now’ before. Deixis of sekarang ‘now’ in the sentence of (15) more is more focuse d to the time after reading proclamation text, while the deixis of sekarang ‘now’ spoken before refer s to the time before reading text proclamation. It means that deixis is something that has different re ferences depend on the time of speaking. Next, deixis of saat ini ‘this time’ in the sentence of (17) Mulai saat ini kita menyusun Negara kita ‘starting this time, we organize our country’ refers to the time after reading proclamation text. The deixis of saat ini ‘this time’ is determined based on speak er. If the speaker talk it nowadays, the deixis of saat ini ‘this time’ refers to day, moon, or year nowa days, but it has different references if it is spoken at the different time. 2.2 Speech Act 2.2.1 The Types of Speech Act In this speech, it is seldom found the important speech act types in pragmatics analysis. It is caused of the speech is very formal as nation speech that determine Indonesian independent. Theref ore, it is arranged regularly and carefully with ideas that come from several main and educational pr ominent figures of Indonesian strugglers. So, all statements in the speech are categorized as direct s peech. 2.2.1.1 Locutionary Speech Act
ILCC 2013
70
Based on pragmatics view, locutionary act is less important to understand the speech act (Pa rker, 1986: 15). Therefore, this short study does not analyze the locutionary speech act. 2.2.1.2 Illocutionary Speech Act Illocutionary speech act is speech act that function not only to inform something but also to do it. If we analyze carefully, we will find out much illocutionary speech act in the proclamation tex t. Clearly, it can be looked at the illustration below. First, the sentence of (1) Saya telah minta saud ara-saudara hadir disini untuk menyaksikan satu persitiwa maha penting dalam sejarah kita ’I hav e begun my brothers and sisters to present here in watching/attending one most important event’, no t only giving information but also doing something, that is conveying greeting to all interlocutors w ho attend the proclamation text reading. Second, the sentence of (4) Gelombang aksi kita untuk men capai kemerdekaan kita itu ada naiknya dan ada turunnya, tetapi jiwa kita tetap menuju kearah cita -cita ‘the struggle of our action wave in reching the independent sometime get rising and lowering, but our soul still consistent with one idea’, also has illocutionary meaning in which the speaker wan t to remember that the struggle to reach the independent is really long. Therefore, Indonesian mush be commitment and consistent of the same idea, independent. Third, other illocutionary speech act is found in the sentence of (5) Juga dalam zaman Jepan, usaha kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan n asional tidak berhenti-berhenti ‘it also in this Japan period, our effort to reach the national independ ent never stopping’. This sentence constitutes admire form or proud expression conveyed by procla mator to all Indonesian society for their struggle without stopping to reach independent. Fourth, the sentence of (7) Tetapi pada hakikatnya, tetap kita menyusun tenaga kita sendiri, tetap kita percaya pada kekuatan kita sendiri ‘but actually, we still organize ourselves power alone, we still believe on ourselves power’ also has illocutionary meaning. In this case, the speaker want to give advice to all Indonesia society in order they just stand on their selves power and not on Japan’s power as mentio ned in the sentence (6) before. Fifth, sentence of (8) Sekarang tibalah saatnya kita benar-benar me ngambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan kita sendiri ‘Now it is the time we r eally take our nation and land fate by ourselves in our hand too’ has invitation meaning to all Indone sian society to escape their selves from any colonization. Sixth, sentence (9) Hanya bangsa yang be rani mengambil nasib dalam tangan sendiri, akan dapat berdiri dengan kuatnya ‘just brave country that take independent or fate by their selves, it will be stand strongly’, the speaker not only informi ng something but also giving advice to all Indonesian society to be brave strugglers in reaching the nation since it can give the prosperity and freedom or independent. Seventh, sentence of (15) Kita s ekarang telah merdeka! ‘We are free now!’ not only inform independent but also as invitation to all Indonesian society to thank and greet the independent.
2.2.1.3 Perlucutionary Speech Act Perlocutionary speech act is a speech act that has effect for listeners. Perlocutionary speec ac t is also found in the speech. The sentence of (9) Hanya bangsa yang berani mengambil nasib dala m tangan sendiri, akan dapat berdiri dengan kuatnya ‘just brave country that take independent/fate by their selves, it will be stand strongly’ has big effect for listeners (Indonesian). It likes doctrine tha t enforce all Indonesian society to be brave in struggling the independent. The sentence also has me aning that if we want to live safely, strongly, and well, we must be brave to maintain our nation and out all colonization in our country, Indonesian. Sentence (9) above also can be analyzed by metaphor aspect. The word of tangan ‘hand’ is not denotative meaning that refers to human hand physic but refers to connotative meaning, struggle or power. It can be known clearly by learning the history notes about the debate between young and
old groups in determining the time of proclamation text reading. Soekarno suggests all people who attend the meeting to sign of proclamation text as ”Wakil-wakil Bangsa Indonesia” (representatives of Indonesian country). However, it is not received by young group since most people who attend th e meeting are PPKI (Indonesian Independent Preparation Group) members, while PPKI is supposed as institution formed by Japan. Next, Sukarni suggests that Soekarno Hatta who sign on the procla mation text as the representative of Indonesian. Sukarni’s suggestion is received. Soekarno, Muh. H atta, and other figures suppose that Indonesian independent is not Japan’s giving but as the result of Indonesian alone. Moreover, the dividing of speech act based on Searle’s view (1976) is also found in the spee ch. However, the speech acts found in the speech only consist of representative, declarative, directiv e, and expressive. The example of representative found in the sentence (2) Berpuluh-puluh tahun kit a bangsa Indonesia telah berjuang, untuk kemerdekaan tanah air kita ‘we are Indonesian has done struggle for some years, for the independent of our country’ and sentence (11) Permusyawaratan itu seia-sekata berpendapat ‘the meeting gets one agreement’. The speaker in the sentence (2) convey the fact concerning the Indonesian struggle in reaching the independent, as sentence (11) in which t he speaker want to tell the truth concerning the agreement of Indonesian prominent figures to state t he Indonesian independent. Declarative speech act found in proclamation text: Kami bangsa Indonesia dengan ini meny atakan kemerdekaan Indonesia ‘we are Indonesian, by this proclamation state the Indonesian indepe ndent’. Starting at the time, after mentioned the statement, Indonesian is changed from colonialized country become independent country. Next, directive speech act found in sentence (13) Dengarkanl ah proklamasi kami ‘listen our proclamation’ that has function as invitation, not only listening it but also understanding, looking at seriously and full attention. Moreover, expressive speech act found in the end of speech, namely in the sentence (18) Ins yahAlloh, Tuhan memberkati kemerdekaan kita itu ‘May Allah bless our independent. This sentence constitutes speaker’s expression as praying hoping that the independent is eternal and gets bless fro m Allah forever. 2.3.2 The Aspects of Speech Acts Wijana and Muhammad (2009: 14) mention five aspects of speech act, namely speaker, inter locutor, context, purposes, speech as act form, and speech as verbal product. Related to the dividing, the speech is only suitable conveyed by main figures of Indonesian, namely Soekarno as the head o f PPKI (Indonesian Independent Preparation Group) at the time. If it is conveyed by children or you ng people, it may ignore by people in the world, especially fro Japan government. Related to interlocutor, the speech should be conveyed to public, especially to Indonesian pe ople. It is caused by the speech constitutes independent speech not only for Indonesian people but al so for people in the world. Since the independent constitutes one of law aspects and must be agreed by world. So, if the speech is only conveyed in the house or in the front of several prominent figures , it will not get agreement by others. The context of proclamation text reading is vey formal. Besides, either proclamator or interl ocutor has similar background knowledge and experience during colonization period. So, the purpos es of the speech can be understood well by all Indonesian people. The purpose of the speech is to pr oclamation the Indonesian independent. Related to the fourth and fifth aspects, the speech is represe ntative of Indonesian people acts to reach independent and organize the nation by their selves witho ut pressure and colonization from any sides. 2.3 Cohesion Related to discourse analysis, the short study just investigate cohesion without coherence alt
ILCC 2013
72
hough both are included as two important parts in discourse analysis. It is caused by the space to wr ite both are very limited and cohesive discourse must be coherence too but not in vice versa. In this speech found two kinds of cohesion, namely lexical and grammatical cohesion. For more clearly, it can be looked in the illustration below. 2.3.1 Lexical Cohesion There are three kinds of lexical cohesion found in this speech, namely repetition, synonym, and general word. 2.3.1.1 Repetition The words that have much repetition in the speech is kita ‘we’. It is caused by the pronoun o f either speaker or interlocutor uses kita ‘we’. In which, the proclamation refers to all Indonesian pe ople belong to Soekarno as the proclamator. Besides, independent proclamation constitutes the resul t of struggle form all Indonesian people. It comes from several statements like in the sentence (2) Be rpuluh-puluh tahun kita bangsa Indonesia telah berjuang, untuk kemerdekaan tanah air kita ‘we ar e Indonesian has done struggle for some years, for the independent of our country’. From all speech es, the word of kita ‘we’ undergoes repetition in the amount of 21 times. The word zaman Japan ‘Japan period’ also gets repetition like in the sentence (5) Juga dala m zaman Jepan, usaha kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan nasional tidak berhenti-berhenti ‘It also i n Japan period, our effort to reach the national independent is never stopping’. Then, it is repetitied in sentence (6) Didalam zaman Jepan ini in Japan period. From all speeches, the word zaman Jap an ‘Japan Period’ only twice gets repetition. The word of sendiri ‘alone’ also gets repetition like in t he sentence (7) Tetapi pada hakikatnya, tetap kita menyusun tenaga kita sendiri, tetap kita percaya pada kekuatan kita sendiri ‘but actually, we still organize ourselves alone power, we still believe on ourselves power alone’. From all speeches, the word of sendiri ‘alone’ gets repetition in the amoun t of 4 times. Next, the word of nasib ‘fate’ gets repetition like in the sentence (8) Sekarang tibalah saatny a kita benar-benar mengambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan kita sendiri ‘ Now it is the time we really take our nation and land fate by ourselves in our hand alone’. It gets rep etition in sentence (9) Hanya bangsa yang berani mengambil nasib dalam tangan sendiri, akan dap at berdiri dengan kuatnya ‘just brave country that take fate/independent by their selves alone, it will be stand strongly’. From all speeches, the word of nasib ‘fate’ gets repetition in the amount of 3 tim es. The word of negara ‘country’ gets repetition like in the sentence (17) Mulai saat ini kita me nyusun Negara kita! Negara Merdeka, Negara Republik Indonesia-merdeka kekal dan abadi ‘start at the time, we organize our country, independent country, Indonesian republic country, independe nt with eternal’. From all speeches, the word of negara ‘country’ gets repetition in the amount of 3. The word of kami ‘we’ gets repetition like in the sentence (12) Dengan ini kami menyatakan kebul atan tekad itu ‘by proclamation we state our strong agreement, it then repeated in the sentence, kam i bangsa Indonesia dengan ini menyatakan……’we as Indonesian people state’…. From all speeche s, the word of kami ‘we’ gets repetition in the amount of 3 times. The repetition phenomenon that is different from the speech is in the sentence (16) Tidak ada satu ikatan lagi yang mengikat tanah air kita dan bangsa kita ‘there is not any dependent or bond that fasten our country and nation’. The verbal of mengikat ‘fasten’ is included as repetition from its nominal ikatan ‘bond’. 2.3.1.2 Antonym dan Sinonym
In this speech found several antonym words like the word naik ‘rise’ has antonym turun ‘lo w’ as in the sentence (4)…. ada naiknya dan ada turunnya one rise and one low. Other example is t he word merdeka ‘independent’ has antonym ikatan ‘dependent/bond’ as in the sentence in (15) and (16). Besides, it is found contradictory phrase, namely “self dependent” that has antonym of “use ou rselves power” as in the sentence (6) and (7). While, the synonym examples in the speech like betw een seia-sekata ‘one agreement’ (sentence 11) and kebulatan ‘strong agreement’ (sentence 12). On s entence (16) and (17) found synonym phenomena that looked rather different, the word of tanah air ‘land’ has synonym with bangsa ‘nation’ and negara ‘country’. Besides, in the end of speech, it is found the synonym word like the word of kekal ‘eternal’ and abadi ‘eternal’. Two words have simil ar meaning that is meaning selama-lamanya ‘forever’. The two words found in the sentence (17)…. merdeka kekal dan abadi ‘eternal independent’ constitutes the believing and soul expression of spe aker that Indonesian will live forever. As we know that Soekarno is mystic one. It is seen when he is forced by young group to fasten proclamation text reading, he refuse it and just say: “I am a man w ho believe the mystic and at 17th is good day to read the proclamation text. Obviously, what he says is true. 2.3.1.3 General Words In the speech found the general words like saudara-saudara ‘brothers’ and rakyat ‘society’ t hat has meaning all Indonesian people either children, parents, teenagers, adult, high group, low gro up, or men and women. It concludes that the sentences in the speech can be signed by repetition, antonym, synonym, and general words. 2.3.2 Grammatical Cohesion There are four kinds of grammatical cohesion found in the speech, namely reference, conjun ction, substitution, and ellipsis, and those also help the unity of the sentences. 2.3.2.1 Reference Reference found in the speech consist of endophora dan exophora. Endaphora may consist o f anaphora and cataphora. It can be seen from the examples below. First, the pronoun of nya ‘one/its ’ in the sentence (4) Gelombang aksi kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan kita itu ada naiknya dan ad a turunnya ‘the struggle of our action wave in reaching the independent sometime get rising and lo wering’ refers to gelombang aksi kita the struggle of our action’. In other words, the phrase of gelo mbang aksi kita acts as anteseden for the pronoun nya ‘one/its’. Second, the pronoun mereka ‘them/ they’ in the sentence (6) Didalam zaman Jepan ini, tampaknya saja kita menyandarkan diri kepada mereka ‘in this Japan period, we are looked just base ourselves on them’ refers to Japan governmen t. It is caused by the previous speech talks about Japan that colonize Indonesian. Third, the word of itu ‘that’ in sentence (12) Dengan ini kami menyatakan kebulatan tekad itu ‘by this we state that str ong agreement’ refers to what mentioned before, what to be agreement of independent statement. Fo urth, the word of ini ‘this’ in the sentence (12) Dengan ini kami menyatakan kebulatan tekad itu ‘by this we state that strong agreement ’refers to what mentioned after it, the proclamation text content . It is caused by the statement of wanted independent will be proved by proclamation text reading. While, the word of itu ‘that’ in the sentence of (12) above refers to what mentioned before, namely t he agreement with one word and voice. Next, the word of itu ‘that’ in the sentence (18) InsyahAlloh, Tuhan memberkati kemerdekaan kita itu ‘May Alloh blesses our independent’ refers to the sequenc es of proclamation text reading as the evidence that Indonesian has gotten the independent. It can be also categorized as textual deixis (see Cutting, 2002: 146). What is different, besides as conjunction, the word of demikian ‘like that’ in the sentence (14 ) Demikianlah, saudara-saudara! ‘Thus, brothers! also as anaphora signer that refers to the content
ILCC 2013
74
or meaning or proclamation text (see Purwo, 1984: 125 and Wijana: 83). The synonym of demikian lah ‘Thus’ may be itulah ‘like that’ or inilah ‘like that’. Next, in the speech found exaphora reference that show what out side from the speech like t he statement in the end of proclamation text, Jakarta that show the Jakarta town as the place of proc lamation text reading and Soekarno-Hatta that show on the first president and vice president of Indo nesian. The word of Jakarta above and phrase of phrase rakyat Indonesia ‘Indonesian people’ on se ntence (10) can be categorized as unique reference since it always refers to the object in whenever a nd wherever it is mentioned (see Wijana, 2010: 73). 1.
Conjunction
There are several types of conjunction found in the speech, namely additional conjunction, c ontrast conjunction, causalities conjunction, time conjunction, instrument conjunction, and intensita s conjunction. First, the example of additional conjunction found in the speech are dan (and) and (b egitu) juga ‘likeweise’. Conjunction of dan ‘and’ in the speech only appears three times as phrase c onjunction and word conjunction. As phrase conjunction can be seen in the sentence (8) Sekarang ti balah saatnya kita benar-benar mengambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan k ita sendiri ‘Now it is the time we really take our nation and land fate by ourselves in our hand alone ’, and in the proclamation text content, namely Hal-hal yang mengenai pemindahan kekuasaan dan lain-lain,…’matters that related to authority changing, etc’ While, conjunction of dan ‘and’ that fun ction as word conjunction can be seen in the sentence (17) merdeka kekal dan abadi ‘eternal and ete rnal independent’. Moreover, the conjunction of juga ‘also’ may function as conjunction like in the sentence (5) Juga dalam zaman Jepan ‘also in Japan period’ since it connects the sentence (4) and ( 5). Actually, the word juga ‘also’ is written begitu juga ‘likewise’ completely, but the speaker shorte n it dengan juga ‘also’. Next, contrast conjunction tetapi ‘but’ in the speech only appears twice and function as claus e or sentence conjunction. While, subordinate conjunction, tetapi ‘but’ function as clause connectio n in one sentence like in the sentence (4) Gelombang aksi kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan kita itu ada naiknya dan ada turunnya, tetapi jiwa kita tetap menuju kearah cita-cita ‘the struggle of our ac tion wave in reaching the independent sometime get rising and lowering, but our soul still consisten t with the idea’. While, subordinate conjunction, tetapi that function as connecting of two sentences can be seen in the sentence (7) Tetapi pada hakikatnya, tetap kita menyusun tenaga kita sendiri ‘but actually, we still organize ourselves power alone’. Other conjunction found in the speech is causalitas conjunction, maka ‘so’ like in the senten ce (10) Maka kami, tadi malam telah mengadakan musyawarah ‘so we did meeting last night. This conjunction used to give causalities meaning, namely the causes of meeting done as the previous sta tement of willingness to take out from any colonization. Next, in the speech found the time conjunction, demikianlah ‘thus’. Conjunction of demikia nlah ‘thus’ can be seen in the sentence (14) Demikianlah, saudara-saudara! ‘Thus, brothers’! that f unction to give conclusion about the meaning or purposes of proclamation text reading. Besides, in t he speech found the instrument conjunction, dengan ini ‘by this’ like in the sentence (12) Dengan i ni kami menyatakan kebulatan tekad itu ‘by this, we state that agreement’. Conjunction of dengan i ni ‘by this’ has function to connect the statement (11) and (12). Particularly, the conjunction has fun ction as media to state the independent. Last conjunction found in the speech is intensitas conjunctio n like the word of bahkan ‘even do’ on the sentence (3) Bahkan telah beratus-ratus tahun ‘even do for thousands years’. Conjunction of bahkan ‘even do’ has function to connect the sentence (2) and (3). Particularly, the conjunction has function as intensities to show how long Indonesian country w
as colonized. 2.3.2.3 Ellipsis and Substitution The combination of two grammatical cohesion models in the discussion since it is found not much of both. Sentence (3) Bahkan telah beratus-ratus tahun ‘even do for thousands years’ is only one sentence that undergoes ellipsis in the speech. In which, the deleted part is kita berjuang untuk kemerdekaan tanah air kita ‘we have struggle fou our nation independent’. So, if it is written compl etely of sentence (3), it will become bahkan telah beratus-ratus tahun kita berjuang untuk kemerdek aan tanah air kita ‘even do for thousands years, we had struggle for our nation independent’. The p art is deleted since the meaning is clear without the statement as mentioned before. Then, the examp le of substitution are jiwa ‘soul’ and cita-cita ‘idea’ that substitute for each the word of perjuangan ‘struggle’ and kemerdekaan ‘independent’ like in the sentence (4) tetapi jiwa kita tetap menuju kear ah cita-cita ‘but our soul still go to idea’. It is caused by the word of perjuangan ‘struggle’ and kem erdekaan ‘independent’ have been mentioned before. On sentence (17) Mulai saat ini kita menyusu n Negara kita! Negara Merdeka, Negara Republik Indonesia ‘starting at the time, we organize our country! Independent country, Indonesian republic country also found the substitution, the word of Negara kita ‘our country’ is substituted by Negara Republik Indonesia ‘Indonesian republic countr y’. CONCLUSION Based on the illustration above, we can take several conclusions of pragmatics and discourse analysis of Indonesian independent proclamation speech. First, in the speech found three types of d eixis, namely persona deixis (saya ‘I’, kami ‘we’, kita ‘we’, mereka ‘they’, and saudara-saudara ‘br others’), place deixis (disini ‘here’), and time deiksis (sekarang ‘now’, zaman Jepan ini ‘this Japan period, and tadi malam ‘last night’). Second, in the speech found two forms of cohesion, namely le xical and grammatical cohesion. Lexical cohesion consists of repetition (kita ‘we’, sendiri ‘alone’, n asib ‘fate’, zaman Jepan ‘Japan period’¸ kami ‘we’, and Negara ‘country’), subtitution (gelombang aksi ‘action wave’ is substituted by perjuangan ‘struggle’), synonym (kekal ‘eternal’ and abadi ‘eter nal’), and general words (saudara-saudara ‘brothers’, and rakyat ‘society’). While, grammatical co hesion consists of reference (nya ‘its/one’, mereka ‘they’, and itu ‘that’), and conjunction (dan ‘and’ , tetapi ‘but’, maka ‘so’, demikianlah ‘thus’, dengan ini ‘by this’, and bahkan ‘even do’). Third, in t he speech found three types of speech acts, namely locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary sp eech acts. Illocutionary and perlocutionary speech acts that is analyzed in the speech. Illocutionary s peech act in the speech found in the sentences (1), (4), (5), (7), (8), (9), and (15). While, perlocution ary speech act only found in the sentence (9). Fourth, based on the dividing of speech act from Sear le (1976) found several types of speech acts in the speech. Representative speech act found in the se ntence (2), declarative speech act found in proclamation text, directive speech act found in the sente nce (3), and expressive speech act found in the sentence (18). Fifth, the speech act in this speech als o can be analyzed based on the aspects of speech act, namely speaker (Soekarno as Indonesian pro minent figure and the head of PPKI) and interlocutor (all Indonesian people), context (very formal), purposes (to praclamate the Indonesian independent), speech as act, and speech as verbal act produ cts, the implementation in the acts after reading the proclamation text or speech. REFERENCES Abdulgani, Roeslan. 1963. Dari Proklamasi sampai Gesuri. Jakata: Yayasan Prapanca. Austin. 1978. How to Do Things with Words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Cutting, Joan. 2002. Pragmatics and Discourse. New York: Rouledge Djajasudarma, Fatimah. 1994. Wacana: Pemahaman dan Hubungan Antarunsur. Bandung: Eresco. Nadar, F.X. 2009. Pragmatik dan Penelitian Pragmatik. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu Parker, Frank. 1986. Linguistics for Non-Linguistics. London: Roudledge dan Kegan Paul.
ILCC 2013
76
Purwo, Bambang Kaswanti. 1984. Deiksis dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka. Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Wibowo, Ridha Mashudi. 2000. Laporan Penelitian: Beberapa Masalah Sintaksis dalam Kalimat B ahasa Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Fakultas Sastra Universitas Gadjah Mada. Wijana, I Dewa Putu dan Muhammad Rohmadi. 2009. Analisis Wacana Pragmatik: Kajian Teori da n Analisis. Surakarta: Yuma Pustaka. ADDITIONAL SOURCES http://www.topix.com/forum/world/malaysia/T7ON1UH1UM90MCLBG http://www.crayonpedia.org/mw/BAB11._PERISTIWA_SEKITAR_PROKLAMASI_DAN_PEMB ENTUKAN_NEGARA_KESATUAN_REPUBLIK_INDONESIA
Common grammatical structures and their role in achieving linguistic oral communication DR. KHALID OSMAN YOUSIF DR. ABDUL ELAZIZ M. HAROUN MARYAM ABDUL RAHMAN Introduction The principle of capacity to daily oral communication with human beings, is the cornerstone of t he first that should be acquired by the learner language from native speakers and non-native speaker s, during the process of learning the language. Oral and audio direction is the best to achieve oral co mmunication skills in everyday life, and this trend is not just listen only to the learning material by t he learner, it is to listen, then repeat, then read, then talk. We had to speak first skill here, does not m ean our negligence writing skill, but we have seen that learning a skill to speak first boot means to l earn the skill of writing, Some educators have pointed to the importance of this delay by us. Which prompted us to write this research, not for us, through our teaching Arabic language in the Internatio nal Islamic University Malaysia for the students of the first level, their inability to oral expression w hen using Syntax grammatical, particularly with regard by addition and described, and that is seen t o provide first aid exercises Maybe it had to level on teachers in other exercises designed to other st ructures in the same manner Our training method to been benefit by their students in learning the st r u c t u r e s o f o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s k i l l s . And generally dealt with in this research the importance of auditory oral entrance, the method of teaching vocabulary and expressive oral compositions, and exercises to learn oral communication in with regard by and genitive, adjective and described, then dealt conclusion. Problem Statement Stem the problem of this research that the lack of great interest syntax common grammatical spo ken since the start of the students' learning involved any students of the International Islamic Univer sity Malaysia's first book, and this has a big role in their disability to acquire the skill of communica tion in the future, and also this problem can be extended to delay the gaining skill writing well for th e student who we means in this research.
Research Questions What's the foundations that underpin the common grammatical structures acquisition assistance to a cquire oral communication skills for students interested in Arabic? - Is interest in listening students involved included texts for common grammatical structures to help them acquire oral communication skill in Arabic? - Is the skill of repeating the common grammatical structures through simplified texts by students in volved in helping them to acquire the skill contact delicacy in Arabic? - Is the skill of reading common grammatical structures through simplified texts help students to gai n the gain oral communication skills in Arabic? - Do the allowing for students to speak freely as they heard, repeat and read helps them to acquire th e skill of verbal communication in Arabic? - Is the design of training for the performance of the students involved leads to acquire oral commu nication skill in Arabic?
The importance of auditory verbal entrance to acquire oral communication skills: Remember Rankin 1926 study, the first of its kind in the field of listening - to support the view that listening is the most common methods of communication and use, the person can be heard thre
ILCC 2013
78
e times what he reads. In addition to listening in the school program is a vital part; Most of the stude nts in the classroom quotas allocated for oral work. We here at the International Islamic University i n Malaysia need to train first-level students on the use of oral language fluently, and linguistic struct ures where the soft sound stress and toning, which paves the way to the written expression in the ne ar future. In this area indicates Shehata said: "On the other hand, has led the role of listening in the c ommunication process to the conclusion that teaching is essential etc. ... Although the attack, which drew him by some educators. And some recent studies suggest that some of the children deprived of anything more vulnerable to failure in the skill to speak because of not listening to the names of things escort to their age, so E ducating listen necessity when the learning process. He notes that listening includes several basics y ou should pay attention to it until it is able to achieve its objectives, including the following: - Listening is President's demand to hear the message and interpretation, and thinking necessary to p lace the process of giving meaning to what is heard. - Delete the dispersion factors, exemplified by showing emotion sadness or pleasure for the listener in the positions do not require it. - The student must acquire the ability to distinguish the main idea about the details. - Variable to listen effectively lead to the acquisition of the amount of information beyond what can be gained than just writing spelling without prior hearing. - The meaning of the words must be recognized immediately by express guessing, since the use of t he dictionary is impossible during the hearing process. It should be noted that just to listen to the foundations, he may also has several activities daily ac tivities, like; radio, conversation and face-to-face, greetings, and administrative requirements, phone , and listen to the TV or a movie, listen to recordings of concerts. It is noted that educators not satisfied the above for entrance to the importance of oral auditory in gaining skill contact, but also added to other aspects such as the following: - A commitment to sound speech in Arabic because altruism Mandarin in teaching prepares pupils g ood pictures of the simulation be delivered their. Words - To leave for pupils starting freedom of expression and dragging to say do not boycott during whic h the reform, but the guidance and direction after the end of his term student. - The teacher can use the questions in the way of addressing the subject verbally. Perhaps what goes in a circle entrance oral hearing as well as reading aloud, which is the best wa y to master the pronunciation, performance and proficiency meaning representation, especially in th e early grades, it is also a way to detect errors in pronunciation pupils which makes it easier to treat. Method of teaching vocabulary and expressive oral composition First: the method of teaching vocabulary Perhaps the most important means by which the learner to communicate in a foreign language, p ossession of a good number of key vocabulary, and then figure out how to use it to build simple stru ctures being able to express their communicative goals and living conditions, and other language lea rning objectives have been achieved. The issue of vocabulary contained in books designed for non-l anguage children a central and pivotal issue if it build on this vocabulary knowledge of foreign lan guage and her world and the culture of its people. So what's the criteria for selecting these words? A nswered this question Abdul Hamid Abdullah and dear Nasser: that these principles are as follows: - Common: the most common use of words and the most widely used studies based on lists of com mon words in the Arabic language on these different lists. - Inclusiveness: one individual to include multiple meanings so that sings about a large number of le arning vocabulary, like the word substitute for fruit orange, apple and banana. - Proliferation: Any individual selection which has many ties with other vocabulary, and word (buy) they are associated with a large number of vocabulary, about: (buy the book), or (buy a house), or (
rarely buy), etc.. .. - Proximity and adjacent: it is intended to be words that frequently they are received on the student, such as: occupation, age and nationality, and tools used, etc. ... - Sign-up: the use of common vocabulary between mother and target languages, such as the use of s ome Arabic words that have entered into Malay. - Provide real metaphor: for example: (I saw students in the classroom) instead of (see satellites in t he chapter). - Eloquence word of where their voice and شيوعهاstructure and distance from the vernacular. - Ease of pronunciation and writing. - Gradient, diversity and redundancy. The gradient is start by wide style in the common Listings, an d the diversity is intended diversification in the types of words in terms of the process called profess ionalism in a balanced manner. The repetition means repetition of new vocabulary so that including the learner has stabilized. - Indication of the word: that is, the word meaning clear to the student. - giving attention to principle Arab-Islamic cultural choice of words.
Second: the way education compositions Took care of educators and Linguistics, and the authors decisions by syntax the language that sho uld be included in the teaching of Arabic books for their children and for Speakers of Other Langua ges, show اcriteria for the selection of these compositions, and methods of submission, and their suit ability for achieving adequacy of linguistic and communicative occasion. But Mohammed Amayreh pointed into three analytical studies of structures Arab from a comparative perspective, the focus w as on the dimension of the statistical launched from these studies, up to the compositions Arab com mon that we find in the books Arabic now, and how to invest the results of these studies to guide de cisions and classification. The servant David has developed a number of principles that should be fo llowed in the selection of compositions presented in the book of Arabic to non-native speakers, incl uding the following: - Choose your popular compositions. Such as: (a long pen.), Or noun + verb, such as: (a student wro te.), Or do + name such as: (sat pupil), or do + name, such as: (Fatima-painted image), or the name + do + name, such as: (WordPad bought the boy, or a question character + do + name, such as: (a lik e oranges?), or conscience + reaction + + name, such as: (I love grilled fish), or the name + Associat ion + reaction coupled with a clear conscience, such as: (who taught me came), or so from what is k nown images of structures common in the Arab language books grammatical, or Arabic language te aching books, or which referred to the Arab linguists - To be a limited number of compositions. - The use of new compositions of the vocabulary is not new. - Any commitment to the principle of repetition of selected compositions. - Interesting nucleus to install before installation enlarged. - To know what we know of the rules and structures of language? How do we teach? To choose the content of Arabic language learners must determine the following: - Objectives of the course. - The time available to teach the course. - The general level of education. - The type of school, it must be influential in the selection of the content. - The characteristics of the learner any كاألنثىthe heterogeneity of the man. Then choose the content you should know how we include Article grammatical in the decision, t here calibrator longitudinally like to take debutante and study it intensively studied, there are includ ed periodically or rings, that language is not a single but a system synaptic, for example, take a debu tante or news integral part and then take the other , then go back and take something from him and s o on, and there are career progression, given that the language function, and there are situational gra dient, for example, in the airport or in a restaurant or at home .. And so on. But now prevails is that t
ILCC 2013
80
he career education for example, knows how to thank learner, whether at the airport or at home or in situations that require it.
Learn oral communication exercises Foreword: We in these exercises we foxed on the training capacity and described and added the genitive, - a s already noted in the Introduction Search - For students who are studying at the first level in the Int ernational Islamic University in Malaysia, and these exercises are only examples of uses by teachers in the preparation of training Other structures of the other constitute difficulties for students in oral communication, and despite the fact that these exercises are designed for students who are studying at the level concerned, but they can offer any schools last find difficulties in oral communication in the compositions concerned that we have mentioned, and our brand for students here came out of th e majority of the other students by our observation theory, there are various efforts have been made in the treatment of oral expression for Malay speakers at the level of structure and meaning, sounds and drainage. They can contribute to solving the dilemma of oral expression if invented them verbal communication training. It should be noted that these exercises that we will design does not depart from the criteria for sel ecting Arabic language structures, and words اthat we have mentioned in the last thread, but here wil l suffice by syntax the following in the process of acquiring the skill of communication and expressi on had to say: 1 - tool question mark + reaction, such as: What do you eat? 2 - an act described + recipe, such as: eat meat roast. 3 - a question character + did + described the recipe, such as: Would you like cold tea? 4 - positive character, or robbed + act + described the recipe, such as: Yes, I like cold tea, or do not l ike cold tea. 5 - tool question mark + reference evocative name + character appeal + name, such as: What is this, O Joseph? 6 - name signal evocative + added + laced with ID, such as: the student's notebook. 7 - tool question mark + Name signal feminine + Name feminine such as: What is this, O Mary? 8 - signal feminine name + added + laced with evil, like, this basket of lemons. Instructions for the teacher: - The objective of these exercises give the student the Malay or non-Malay in the first level the abili ty to oral communication. - These exercises bother to address the oral performance errors, added in the genitive, adjective and described. - Should not exceed the number of students fifteen students in the classroom. - Taking into account the division of students into small groups, each group consisting of five stude nts during the training process. - The teacher can use any audio-visual device such as a computer, or closed-circuit TV. use fixed or pictures animated. - Should be adhered to when providing training by making student to listen obeying the students we ll, and attention, and sound readings, and to correct if mistaken. There are other factors in the learning process mentioned Richard can take advantage of them acces sed. Verbal exercises models: You can see the example of this drill in the paper which it written in Arabic.
Conclusion This Conclusion consisted of the results, and suggestions and recommendations are as follows: A - Search Results - We found through our study in the books of linguists that listening is the most common methods o f communication used, because the person can be heard three times what he reads, and this refers to the priority learn oral communication skill when you start learning. - We have found that most educators point out that lots of students in the classroom, specialty of ora l communication and this strengthens the process of acquiring the skill to speak, and prepares the le arner to acquire the skill of writing. - We found through our study that activities oral communication, namely: radio, conversation and fa ce-to-face, greetings, and administrative requirements, phone, and listen to the TV or a movie, listen to musical recordings, and add to this the Internet. - The most important means by which the learner to communicate in a foreign language possess a g ood number of key vocabulary. - The use of the learner's ability to vocabulary building simple oral formulations, being able to expr ess their communicative goals and living and other language learning objectives have been achieved . - The issue of vocabulary contained in books designed for language is the sons of a central and pivo tal issue, if founded this vocabulary knowledge of foreign language and her world and the culture of its people. - Of the criteria for the selection of the common vocabulary and proliferation and thoroughness, elo quence and borrowing and provide real and metaphorical gradient, diversity and redundancy. - The choice of words animate Arab Islamic cultural content requirements for teaching Arabic langu age books. - Choose your popular compositions of the principles and foundations that contribute to the success of the oral expression. - You can get a grammatical structures common for a novice to learn Arabic books of first and secon d level to teach Arabic to non- the Arab speakers, such as the Arab Nation, and a series of pen, and a series of teaching Arabic to non Arab speakers, and the basis of Mecca and key Arab. - Some researchers pointed out that more errors students, during oral or written expression, be at the appointment, when you use (the) addition or epithet or letters, or numbers. - Wholesale style may be the cause of falling into error when the process of oral or written commun ication among non-native speakers arguing that this method does not exist in their own languages. - Research has found inside and outside the Islamic University touched to students problems during the process of communication oral or written in a manner different from way which we spoke about It. Proposals and recommendations: - The teacher who would like to use this research training, patience and strictly implement them on l earners in order to ensure its success if you saw it. - Listing is President's demand to hear the message and interpretation, and thinking necessary to pla ce the process of giving meaning to what is heard. - Delete the dispersion factors, exemplified by showing emotion sadness or pleasure. - The process of reading the text for the learner voice clear, effective and important factor in the teac hing-learning process, because it helps the learner in the talking stage. - Repeat the text to be taught to students for listening times, has an essential role in creating learner speech skill. - Repeat the learner to the text while reading teacher, from the basics fluent tongue and prepare to ta lk to, preferably to make the repetition several time. - To provide an opportunity for the learner for reading after hearing the text and repeating as it shoul
ILCC 2013
82
d be, an important factor to acquire the skill of communication. - Calendar sense when you read the text of the student learning a positive assessment of this enhanc es the learning process, and helps to build self-confidence when you practice to connect with others, because the learner master the words and structures that used during the process of communicating with others. - A commitment to speak Arabic sound is very important, because altruism in teaching Mandarin pr epares for pupils good pictures of the simulation be delivered their during the oral expression words . - That the leaves starting to know the freedom of expression and dragging to say, do not boycott dur ing which the reform, but the guidance and direction after the end of his term student. - The teacher can use the questions in the way of addressing the subject verbally.
References: First: Arabic references 1 - Ibrahim Abdul Alim, vector artwork for the Arabic language school, i 3: 1962, Knowledge Hous e, Egypt. 2 - Jawdat stirrup, methods of teaching Arabic language, i 2: 1986, Contemporary Thought House, Beirut, Lebanon. 3 - Hassan Shehata, Arabic language teaching between theory and practice, bigger revised edition, 1 /4, / 2004, Egyptian-Lebanese house. 4 - Hamada Abraham, contemporary trends in the teaching of Arabic language and other living lang uages to non-native speakers, 1978, Dar Cairo Arab thought. 5 - David Abdo, from the Arabic language issues, i 1: 2005, Carmel House, Amman. 6 - toxicity Ahmed Fahmi, an experimental study to compare the effect of, writing, spelling and liste ning in toning, 1957 Journal of Modern Education, the fourth issue. 7 - Suyooti, Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, happy sighting, explain Suyooti on Olvih named Balfred h in grammar, and discharge line, University House, Alexandria. 8 - Abdul Hamid Abdullah and dear Nasser, Basis of preparation textbooks for non-Arabic speakers, Dar sit, Cairo. 9 - Mohamed Akram Saad religion, pen, fluent Arab Speakers of Other Languages and the first level , the first primary book, International Islamic University, Malaysia. 10 - Mohammed Amayreh, Research in Education and Language, i 1: 2002, Dar Wael for Publishin g and Distribution, Amman. 11 - Mohamed Eid, as liquidator, i 1: 1971, youth library, Cairo. 21 - Qamar-uz-Zaman Abdul Ghani, Arabic and Malay Language down the Alsdhutah and morphol ogical study descriptive تقابلية, Master Thesis, 1998, Cairo University, Faculty of Science, Egypt. 13 - Wan Ahmad Rahiman, linguistic errors in oral expression among scholars Almlaaoyen (Master) , 1994, International Islamic University, Malaysia. Second :English References
1. 2.
Brown, J. The Construction of Diagnostic Test of Listening Comprehension, An Abstract of Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Colordo. Kimble, Greory A. and Gramezy , Norman. 1963. Principles of General Psychology. Second Edition. New York: Thr Ronald Press Company.
3.
Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers , Theodore S. 1986. APPRACHES AND Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ILCC 2013
84
The Study of Language Styles Used by The Members of Tonymacx86 Online Forum: How Peo ple Engage Themselves through Language Alfian Cahyo Budiardi , Baity Anggraeni Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, University of Muhammadiyah Malang
[email protected] Abstract. Technology nowadays has become an important partner for human life. It provides many things to h elp people in their daily lives. It reaches many aspects of lives such as education, health, and social. As a part of society, people communicate each other by using a language. In this transformative era, the communication is not only limited to a certain area but also to the broader place around the wor ld. Through Internet especially in an online forum, they are able to interact each other and discuss w hat they want to share without any barrier among them. Because they communicate across the count ries and races, they need to use English as an international language for their communication means . Internet World Stats (2012) shows that there are about 2.4 billion people are using Internet on 30 J une 2012. They come from different background of life like age, relationship, stereotype, and race. Derives from those recent circumstances, it is important to observe and investigate about the langua ge using in an online forum like Tonymacx86 which discuss about Macintosh as a sample. What kin ds of register styles do they use? Which one is the dominant style used by them? Those are some of the proposed questions for this study to be answered of this study. Moreover, this study uses a descri ptive qualitative method. As a result, it will be described the kinds of language styles used in that fo rum and also how they use that kinds of style. Furthermore, it also provides some knowledge and in formation related to the development of language on its applied in the society. Consequently, people can create an effective communication for daily lives. Keywords: language style, tonymacx86, register, sociolinguistic
1. Introduction 1.1 Background Internet is one of many products of technology that is mostly used by people in their daily lives. Th ey use it for many reasons such as entertainment, academic, business, etc. For those who get bored, they can use it to find anything that may entertain them such as gossip, news even online game. Inte rnet also helps students to do their responsibilities in learning. It may provide many references that t he students need so the student will be easier in understanding materials or doing their homework. I n addition, it can also be a very good media to promote a certain product because almost most of pr ofessionals and students access internet every day. Thus, the opportunity to have a transaction for th eir business is very big.
Because there are many people want to share about a certain topic in what they interested, people ar e inspired to create a medium which can facilitate them to having a sharing about their knowledge r elated to their interest. It leads people to make a website in internet that is usually called as an onlin e forum then. The forum is categorized based on a certain topic such as automotive, education, healt h, and also politic. The rapid development of internet and also the increasing number of internet use rs lead to a situation where sharing in internet has become a regular activity for people. Consequentl
y, the number of online forum is continuously increasing day by day. In Indonesia, based on Alexa chart (2013) reported by http://tonymacx86.com.outerstats.com/, Tony macx86 Forum gets five stars from Google page rank that makes it become the most accessed onlin e forum in Indonesia that talks about Hackintosh1. It is rated with 9 score with 10.552 sites are linki ng in that online forum. It shows how people are interested in that forum and also visit it frequently every day. It shows also that this site is visited by 49344 visitors per day. It is really a fantastic num ber of visitors for a site that emphasizes how popular this site is.
Fig. 1: Graphic of tonymacx86 visitors by Alexa (2013) Moreover, the visitors in Tonymacx86 are not only teenagers or young professionals but also adult p rofessionals who have their interest in Hackintosh. Surprisingly, the men are not the dominant users but it has also women users although men are still little bit leading. They are involved in a discussio n about their topic. In addition, they may come from different ethnic or race because internet has ma de the distance is not a big problem to have a communication. As a result, wherever people come fr om, they are still able to join the forum as long as they are connected to internet.
Basically, human is a social creature that builds their relationship with others from their interaction. One of the ways to do the interaction is by holding a communication. In doing it, people need a tool, which is known as language. Language bridges the human needs in sharing ideas and feelings by tr ansferring the information from the speaker to the interlocutor in form of series of word which is sy ntactically correct and pragmatically understandable. In addition, language is one of the important things for human life. By receiving and sending messa ge through language, people can fulfill their needs to survive. Language is primarily spoken, althou gh it can be transferred to another way, such as written. It also makes people easier share informatio n and to express their ideas or feelings. Generally, languages are continuously changing as far as culture develops. It creates many variation s in using language. The use of language variation itself is influenced by many factors, such as lingu istic environment, social background, non-linguistic factor, etc. Every language has different variati on since its characteristics are commonly different one to another. Style, as a part of language variat ion, is a different variation of a language used by a person in different situation and need. We can re cognize the speaker’s background and the reason of using a variety of language from the style that h e/she used (Trudgill, 2002:2). Moreover, language cannot be apart in people’s lives every day. They always use it to communicate and interact each other. They also use it in their sharing in the online forum. They do their communi cation by using their style whether formal, informal or other styles. Due to that reasons, the researcher is interested in observing that case and presenting it as a paper st udy about sociolinguistic studies that aims to identify the way of people communicating and involvi ng themselves into society then we can placed ourselves in a right way while communicating. The s tudy will also be accompanied with some questions as the problems would like to be answered. Tho se are 1) What language style(s) do the members of Tonymacx86 online forum use?, 2) What is the dominant style used by the members of Tonymacx86 online forum? In order to make the study concise and focus, the researcher choose “Native Ivy Bridge CPU and G PU Power Management” thread2 as the scope of this study. Since there are many pages in that threa
ILCC 2013
86
d, researcher also limit the study only from page one to six of the thread. 1.2
Theoritical Framework
In a daily interaction, people must use language as their communication mean to others. The social context or the circumstance of the communicators takes an important part to the variation of their la nguage. “sociolinguistics is an attempt to explain the relationship between language and society.... “ (Holme s 1992:1) As claimed by Holmes above, it can be understood that sociolinguistic is part of linguistic studies w hich brings a study in investigating the relationship between language and society. Further, he also s uggests its scope that falls into some areas such as why we speak differently in different social conte xts, and how language is used to convey social meaning such as relationships, situation, topic, and s o on. However, they may have different style in their communication. The may have a tendency to consid er the circumstance where the communication happens. Mostly, people are very aware about it that make them understand about the social context that they have in their communication. For instance, language style used in a conversation between children and parents at home will be different from a couple of teenagers who have close relationship. In addition, language is not only always in the same form but also there are several variations of it. Characteristically, the language users often cause the language become very various based on its co ntext. Language is characteristically various due to the person who use that language and the contex t. Holmes suggests (1992:2) that people choose their words carefully according to whom they are tal king. That opinion is also strengthened By Gleason as follow: “As we listen to a person speaking our native language, we hear not only what is said, but also certa in thing about the speaker, if he is an acquaintance, we recognize him, if not we identify him as mal e or female and perhaps obtain some ideas of his age, his Education and his social background” (Gl eason, 1980 in Adhalina:2011). Based on Gleason and Holmes’s statements above, it can be said that in our conversation, the use of language can be adjusted based on the target of the speaker or to whom the people we speak. It is be cause from the language presented by the speakers, we can get a clue about their age, their educatio n, or even their social status of the speakers’ language. Simply, people will understand and know ab out the speaker’s background because of the style and also characteristic of the language used by th e speaker. The differences in using the language cause many variations in language. Therefore, those differences in language usage may happen in various circumstances around the soc iety that might be mainly determined by the characteristic of the people who lives in that society an d also its culture. In line with the major circumstances, Joos (1972) claims five types of language st yle that might be used by people in their communication that consider either the spoken and writing skills. The classification seems more easy to be accepted because it tends perceive the language bas ed on the degree of formality that the language have. The classification is given as follow: • Frozen: It is the most formal style that usually used in a very respectful situation or formal c eremony. It is also called oratorical style which characterized by the very careful, has fixed form, an d has symbolic or historical nature. In some regions such as in most regions in Indonesia, it mostly
used in a spiritual ceremony and cultural events of its local wisdom. • Formal: this level of language is the language using standard sentence syntax and word choi ce of work and school. It has complete sentences and specific word choice. The academicians frequ ently use this kind of style when they are involved in an academic context. The language meets the r equirement of a good language whether its structural grammar or its diction. • Consultative: It is such kind like formal register when used in a conversation. Discourse patt ern is not quite as direct as formal register. Sometimes, people consider this style is mostly appropri ate to be used in a communication between someone and older interlocutors and the other way arou nd. It is common to be used in a group discussion. • Casual: It is often used in the conversation between friends or family. It is usually applied in daily conversation. In this classification, it can be considered as the informal style. Consequently, so me condition might show a sentence that does not meet the syntactical rules but the language is still possible to be understood by the interlocutors. Meaning takes a big role in this style because the lan guage could be far away from the syntactical rules but as long as it has an understandable meaning, it is acceptable in a communication. • Intimate: This style is a language which is used by married people or twins, and language of sexual harassment. The language in this style might be very flowery. However, metaphore and other figurative language are sometimes used in this style. In a social context, the circumstance is not the only one factor influencing the language style that pe ople are using but there are some other factors that is adhered at someone consciously or unconscio usly. According to Trudgill (1974:103), he argues that language in other words varies not only accor ding to the social characteristic of the speaker -such as social class, ethnic group, age, and sex- but a lso according to the social contexts in which we find himself. The same speaker uses different lingui stic varieties in different situation and for different purposes. From his opinions, it is clear that there are some social context that come from the speaker itself. Its social context -places, purposes, subje cts, and time- however can influence someone’s characteristic such as the social class that the some one’s has. But, the social characteristics cannot be seen as minor factors because it goes in a long ti me in a speaker’s personality and rarely changes it in a significant way to them. In addition, Wardha ugh (2006) points out that people can speak very formally or very informally, our choice being gove rned by circumstance. Besdies, Holmes (1992) also stands in the same position and asserts that style s are analyzed along a scale of formality. 2. Method and Discussion 2.1. Method and Design In conducting this research, the researcher uses the combination of descriptive qualitative because q ualitative research is usually used for describing and analyzing what actually happen to colloquial a ctivities without dealing with the analysis of statistical data. The researcher also uses the descriptive approach in order to ease the readers in understanding the actual circumstances. Furthermore, it is matched to Ary (based on Sholicha 2003:19, in Masudah: 32) that descriptive research is used to obt ain information about existing conditions and have been widely used in educational research. Moreo ver, the given statement of problems will be flexibly answered through this method. Also, the interp reted data will be systematically described based on related theory. In this research, the researcher uses the research subject as the participants. They are the members o f Tonymacx86. They are people who post some message related to topic they want to share. Specific ally, the subjects of this research are people who are the members of Tonymacx86 posting on Native Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management thread for the first six pages. Moreover, instruments take an important role in a research because it help researcher to collect the d
ILCC 2013
88
ata of the research to achieve the research objectives. Since that importance thing, it is very vital for the researcher to determine its instruments properly. Consequently, document, conversational analy sis, and interview are supposed as the best instruments to be used for this research because this rese arch deals with data of people conversation. Researcher then collects the data by accessing the website of the forum, http://www.tonymacx86.co m. The data of this research are collected through the process as follows: First, researcher finds out the conversation from page one to six. Next, researcher also reads the wh ole post from page one to six then makes a list of the members posting in those pages. Furthermore, the interview is started based on the lists made before. The interview is done through t he message of the forum so only the researcher and the contributor will exclusively know it. To give the evidence that it the data truly obtained from them, the researcher will use the print screen facilit ies from a computer to make screenshots of it. The same way is also used to make documentation fo r the conversation from the pages. Furthermore, those data can be printed and analyze later. At the e nd, researcher arranges it systematically based on the date of the posting or based on the page order in the website. After collecting the data with help of some instruments, researcher needs to analyze it in order to ge t the answers for the given statement of problems. In analyzing the data, researcher begins with iden tifying the written conversation got from the online forum. It is identified based on the person posti ng it so the data will be in group of conversation of each member. The researcher then adds the infor mation for each member got from the interview to it. The next step is classifying the data based on t he language style classification given by Joos (1972) and also find about the dominant style used in their conversation. From the additional data obtained from the interview, researcher also analyzes th e possible factors influencing the use of language styles by the members and also the reason why do minant style could happen in their conversation. At the end, researcher makes a conclusion from the analysis. 2.2.
Findings
After doing all the methods has been designed as given in a previous subtopic, the researcher gets s ome data as the data findings. The data is given in a table showing the writer of the post, some samp les of their message. The shortlisted data in table below consist of all the members of Tonymacx86 online forum who post in a “Native Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management” thread from pa ge one to six and also some choosen message of them as a representative of the evidences. Fig. 2 Table of findings for classification of the posts’ examples of Tonymacx86 Online Forum in N ative Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management Thread No Nickname Messages / Posts 1. StarbucksSteve Sorry - if I said 2630QM somewhere ... it is a 3630QM, and using the MBP10,1 didn't help UNTIL I corrected my error. I was trying to make the table match the Dell gen erated steps ... you must 1) not change the steps generated by the formula and 2) set the APSN (min e is 0x0B) and APLF (0x02) values to match what you need/want. Power management conquered! On to the next! And again, thank you for all of your hard work - and my solution does include my modification to t he SSDT to correct the PState table load failures. Understood. I think I got a PState stepper error with the MBP before but I'll try it again as we are fu rther down the road. The Dell N7720 is a H77 chipset although it has that nasty mobile designation
HM77 ... 2. Alexramone Hi Toleda! Thanks for all your hard work to Hackintosh community! I'm conf used about X86PlatformPlugin. I've set my Hack to iMac13,1 and I'm using the Core i7 Turbo and O/C (8 threads) SSDT. Can you help me to set the correspondent values to my system? 3. PikeRAlpha This will add four data properties with the actual table data that Method GCA P will load with help of function Load() Make sure to check/replace the values in SSDT. For experts only, of course. I don't know what people here use to extract ACPI tables, but I use my own tools. Doesn't really mat ter, but you should extract them from a running system, because only then are certain ACPI objects i s initialised. Extracting them from firmware might not work. Also keep in mind that the info might change with a new BIOS upgrade. Meaning that using other peoples data may fail as well. 4. SpinCycle “....... Sorry if a lot of these questions seem basic. I’m fairly new at all this an d trying to understand the process. 1. Can I find a basic ssdt.aml that is corrected for a non-overcloacked i7 3770k or do I need to make a custom one? The one in this thread says O.C. to 4.2ghz. 2. MSR Dumper is used to verify speed step is functioning? Need to google that. 3. Installation of the ssdt.aml seems fairly easy! 4. Where do I get an edited AppleGraphicsPowerManagment.kext or do I need to create a cust om one? 5. Should I change the sysdef to MacMini 6,1 or 6,2 before or after creating the extra folder an d placing the ssdt.aml in there? 6. After changing sysdef and adding the edited ssdt.aml will I need to edit graphics power man agement? Or is this an optional step? For optional discrete graphics (iMac13), the discrete graphics card device_id is used for graphics po wer management. The Ivy Bridge graphics power management is significantly easier to implement. For Macs without discrete graphics (Mini), simply adding the device_id power profile to the approp riate board-id adds graphics power management (i.e., Vendor10deDevice1086) How do I add the “d evice id”? I’m totally lost on this step. How do I add it? What do I edit?” Thanks Rehab Man! Appreciate it mate. 5. Ozbrit72 I'm still locked at x8 with revised Name (APSN, 0x09). However, I have gen erated an SSDT using MacIASL Beta which does give me P-States 16,17,18,19,20,21,43 so far on MSRDumper, without X86PlatformPlugin and without IB native power management. I'll wait until 10.8.3 is released and try again. Thanks again for helping and for your great guides wh ich are a wonderful contribution to the Hackintosh community on tonymac. On second thoughts I'll try the DSDT edit to activate X86Platform with the above SSDT. - Done! The X86Platform is loaded, confirmed in IOReg. Still no success with IB power manageme nt and P-States. Thank 6. Toleda (moderator) ....... How do I add the “device id”? I’m totally lost on this step. How do I add it? What do I edit? 1. The i7 SSDT works fine for non OC. 2. See How To Test for SpeedStep on Sandy Bridge CPUs Using MSRDump 3. Where are edits to AppleGraphicsPowerManagment.kext mentioned? (none are required) 4. You already have an Extra folder. Copy SSDT.aml to Extra. 5. It needs to be done before you restart use macmini6,2. 6. Timing is optional but is required for optimal graphics performance. Post #1 tells you where the Board-ID.plist is located. plist editor is available in Xcode or search for plist editor apps. ..... Your ssdt.aml is presumably working for you giving the PStates quoted in the last section (C.). For
ILCC 2013
90
me, it is not. Could you please have a look at my IOReg for me? You have installed a different version of 10.8.2, I've only tested 10.8.2/12C60 Try an edit: ssdt-i5oc_v1/Name from (APSN, 0x08) to Name (APSN, 0x09) 7. Going Bald (moderator) If your Ivy Bridge system already has native power manageme nt is there any advantage to going this route? I no longer have the P8Z77-I build or I would test it on there. OK, updated to 10.8.2 with a side step to delete a certain OEMSMBIOS kext. but it seems to have little effect as I get this from MSRDumper: In any case, here is a new ioreg... 8. Jonesssl Toleda, could you please help me... When you say "use SandyBridge sysdefs", do you simply mean (in my case, where I have a 7 series MB with a 2nd gen i5-2450 processor) that I should use a MacBook Pro 8 for the smbios.plist file, or something more than that? Also, when you say "ignore Console", what does that mean, please? Hope you [or someone else] don't mind answering these questions for a newbie. Thanks 9. The Real Deal As toleda suggested, Mac mini 6,2 works great ; more P-States than iMac 13 : msrdumper - 16 23 29 31 42 45 Boosted Mac mini @ 4,5GHz geekbench score is 17625 : http://browser.primatelabs.com/geekbenc h2/1610085 FYI : SMC version to match Apple product : 2.8f0 FakeSMC REV : AggPAAAA smc-compatible : i don't know if there is a better choice (huronriver, napa, etc,.) ok i will try. What is the smc-compatible value for a Mac mini 6,2 late 2012 in FakeSMC ? 10. Kanochen Hey toleda, my cpu is 3570k oc to 4.2Ghz, mb is p8z77n-i deluxe, boot loade r is chameleon 2168. I already edit DSDT injected cpu code like you said, it fix the unknown cpu warning and x86platfor mpluign were loaded.But if I put the i5 oc 4.2g ssdt in /Extra, will panic.If do not use any one ssdt.a ml only get two P-States 16 42 . I don't know why,someone use the same cpu and ssdt just work perfect,can you help me? I do not use an edited DSDT.aml. I can not comment on ASUS boards as I do not use one. So did you get the unknown cpu warning in log without edit DSDT? just place the i5 oc 4.2 ssdt.am l in /Extra ? No CPU errors in logs at all. Thats all I did..... 11 Hackintoshx86 I edited the AppleGraphicsPowerManagment.kext/Contents/Info.plist to provide AGPM controller info for the GT640 on the Macmmini6,2. Copy the info from iMac13,2 and changing the device ID works great. To get Speed-Stepping working I just changed SMBIOS to Macmini6,2 and placed toleda's i5 OC S SDT.aml in Extra. I do not use an edited DSDT.aml. I can not comment on ASUS boards as I do not use one. HackMac Pro: GA-Z77X-UD5H - i5 3570K - GeForce GT 640 HackMac: GA-Z68X-UD4-B3 - i3 2100 - Radeon HD 5770 Rename i5 oc 4.2 ssdt.aml to SSDT.aml macmini6,2: msrdumper - 12 16 22 29 35 39 42 All the data given in the table above are taken from the forum website but those are not mentioned e ntirely. It is given only one post showing a message that indicates the members in giving informatio n or problem they would like to share with and also the message showing the members’ response to others’ problems or suggestions. Each member in page one to six posts more than once, therefore th e data above are taken randomly. It aims at showing the examples of the language styles that the me mbers of Tonymacx86 online forum are using as a representative of the whole messages in the threa d. It is important to be known that there is no certain purpose to differentiate the format of typing in
the table than only to ease the readers in distinguishing between the iniative posts and responsive po st. The reguler format is used to indicate a message which is posted by the members as an initiative post while the italic format is used to indicate the responsive posts. 2.3. Discussion Referring to all data findings which have been obtained before, the analysis of the data is important to do to get a conclusion for this research and also to answer all the research questions proposed at t he beginning of this research. In this phase of study, the scale of formality of the languages that the members are using are determined by analysing some aspects related to the given theory. Fig. 3 Table of Classification of Scale of Formality of The Languages Used by The Members of Ton ymacx86 Online Forum in Native Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management Thread No Nickname Scale of Formality by Joos Initiative Post Responsive Post 1. Toleda (moderator) Formal Formal 2. Going Bald (moderator) Formal Formal 3. Hackintoshx86 Formal Consultative 4. Kanochen Consultative Consultative 5. The Real Deal Consultative Consultative 6. Jonesssl Consultative Casual 7. StarbucksSteve Formal Consultative 8. Ozbrit72 Consultative Casual 9. SpinCycle Formal Casual 10. PikeRAlpha Consultative Consultative 11. Alexramone Consultative Consultative From the table above, it can be identified that there are eleven members who post at page one to six of Native Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management thread. In addition, there are six members who use consultative language style in their communication for giving initiative post and the rest fiv e members’ language tend to be classified into formal language. While for the language that is used for responding a post, there are six members use consultative language, three members use casual la nguage and only two members use formal language. In short, the dominant style which is used by th e members is consultative. It is in accordance with the theory that says consultative style is often us ed in a group discussion. In this forum which is online forum and has various background of the me mbers, it is still relevant. Most of the members use it in both initiative and responsive posts. But, it i s also interesting that the phenomena shows that there are also some members who use formal style. Despite the number of members who use consultative style, formal style is in the second position fo r initiative post and two for responsive post. If we look at the kind of the media used by them in hav ing communication, it is a reasonable result because an online forum which is also called as comput er mediated communication (CMC) or virtual communication is different from face to face commun ication. In CMC, people do not know the expression, the physical performance, and the gestures of t he interlocutors so they will not get any clues such as the race, ethnic, age, about the interlocutors’ p rofile except from the language which is used. It might be the factors that make people tend to take a “low risk communication” by using formal language in the first communication they have. It can be a better way to avoid miscommunication between them. However, they may change their style af ter knowing the profile or the characteristic about their interlocutors. That is why people have a tend ency to start their communication in a good way by using formal language or at least consultative la nguage. They expect that by that kind of language, their interlocutors will have a good feeling and c omfortable to respond their message. That is also the reason why in an initiative post there is no one who use casual style. In the findings, it can be known that casual style is only used by those who ha ve had a communication before with their interlocutors in discussing their interest. In other words, t he casual style is used by those who have had felt a chemistry between them so they feel that they h ave been a friend. 3. Conclusion In conclusion, language which is a communication mean takes an important role for human life. Its
ILCC 2013
92
various style makes people have to take more attention to use it in their daily communication to avo id misunderstanding between them. The social contexts of someone do not significantly influence th em when they are having a virtual communication because they do not know each other about the cl ues about the speaker and the interlocutors’ characteristics. In social sites like an online forum, peop le are communicating each other based on a certain topic in what they are interested. They discuss it frequently in a room called as a thread and share some issues or problems that they are facing on it. In using language, they tend to avoid the risk by using a language that can be considered as a unive rsal –syntactically correct and semantically understandable- that is by Joos called as formal languag e and also consultative which is mostly used in a group discussion. By using that kind of style, peop le will easily understand the main point of the message and it is relatively changing after they get so me clues about the interlocutors’ characteristic. This research suggests also an evidence which is dif ferent from what Nguyen and Rose (2011) claim who argue that they find community norms of long time participants that are characterized by forum specific jargon and a style that is highly informal and shows familiarity with specific other participants and high emotional involvement in the discuss ion. From this research, it is also known the way of people engaging themselves into society in this very transformative era. The information transformation occurs anytime without any time limitation and it is connected every part in this world globally. In short, this research can describe how people break the barrier in communication and also how the use language to engage themselves into social interaction. 4.
References Adhalina, Nurul. 2011. The Different Language Style and Language Function Between Stud ents and Teachers in Updating Their Status in Facebook Webpage. Semarang: Published The sis http://tonymacx86.com.outerstats.com/ (accessed on May, 2013)
Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London and New York: Longman Masudah, Sulis. 2008. Language Style Used in Titanic Film. Malang: published thesis. Nguyen, Dong and Rose, Caroline P. 2011. Language Use as A Reflection of Socialization in Online Communities. Proceedings of the Workshop on Language in Social Media (LSM 2011), pag e 76-85 Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1986. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. UK: Basil Blackwell.
Motivation and E-learning: the Experience of Blended Learning Kristina Mullamaa, PhD Language Centre, University of Tartu, Estonia
[email protected] Abstract. The article discusses motivation in e-learning. It briefly reviews relevant aspects of motivation and i ndividualisation theories. The main aspects we focus on are motivation, individualisation and the dy namic learner and teacher roles. The possibilities of applying blended learning in university level la nguage teaching will be analysed. We approach the topic through the prism of examining the possib ilities for supporting and encouraging student-centred learning and increasing student responsibility in their learning process. Key words: e-learning, blended learning, language learning/teaching, student centred learning, stu dent responsibility, motivation 1.
Introduction
The dynamic and highly technological world around us is strongly affecting the ways in whi ch we live our lives, learn and teach. It also has an effect on what is considered to be good teaching. Novel motivational strategies, methods and approaches to students’ learning styles develop. Just as their students, the teaching staff is expected to be more and more tech-savvy. Many universities offer the teaching staff courses on e-design and e-learning. But in addition to the technical skills, one needs a solid background in recent learning theories and best practice. M otivation and individualisation are some of the main driving forces behind a successful modern lear ning process. Also, observation of the learning process, feedback collection and analyses are essenti al. In our article we analyse the effects of blended learning (i.e. combined on-line + “in-class” l earning) on student motivation and capacity to grow into independent and self-sufficient learners. 2. Student Motivation and Dynamic Learner/Teacher Roles 2.1. Motivation Web-based learning necessarily implies a great amount of student responsibility. This in its t urn requires motivation, which is essential for a learning process to take place. What is motivation? In general, definitions of motivation in education emphasise the eagern ess, willingness and readiness of people to try, achieve or acquire something. As Rob Dean (2010) p oints out, for motivation to occur, for the students there needs to be: • an interest in the topic • the will to understand and do more • the feeling that one can understand and can do more In theories of motivation, motivation is often divided into extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Theoba ld (2006:1) points out that for some students it is essential to resort to extrinsic tools to increase thei r motivation. This tends to be the factor behind most of the justification behind teacher-centred teac hing. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, has been seen as “the ultimate goal of educators for th eir students” (ibid.). Intrinsic motivation goes hand in hand with student centred learning. When we speak about student-centred teaching, we in fact imply that students should have the wish and skills to be independent learners and to take responsibility for their learning process. How can we make st udents reach this? Intrinsic motivation is often attributed to finding a value in what students do. The obald (2006:1) holds:
ILCC 2013
94
“Helping students find value in learning through the implementation of various instructional strategi es and multiple alternative and authentic forms of assessments, while maintaining high standards of student performance in an environment which encourages students to do their best work by effectiv e, nurturing teachers, will help increase the motivational levels of all students”. Dörnyei and Otto (1998:65) give us a definition of motivationin L2 (second/foreign language) learn ing: “In a general sense, motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and mot or processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritised, operationalised and (succes sfully or unsuccessfully) acted out”. Judy Copage (2013) stresses the importance of motivation through learner autonomy. Some of the main criteria, according to her, are the conditions in which our students can choose, be independent and sense and develop responsibility. Hasanbegovic (2005) has reviewed a study on the impact of intrinsic motivation on e-learning in aut hentic computer tasks by Martens et al. 2004. The study allows her to conclude: “In line with the motivation theory of Ryan and Deci it is predicted and evidenced that intrinsically motivated students do more in a fixed time period as a result of their higher effort and persistence a nd will do different things in computer environments that allow for this liberty of choice (Hasanbeg ovic 2005)”. A well-balanced e-learning environment enables students to feel intrinsic motivation and to stay mo tivated throughout the learning process. It also enables one to view and analyse the progress and set new realistic goals. E-learning can be harnessed in the interest of developing modern principles of l earning and language acquisition concerning motivation. The criteria mentioned above can be met i n e-tasks that are programmed to automatically increase the level of difficulty, to adapt to the studen t’s language level or to repeat areas where the student has made mistakes during previous visits to th e electronic environment. In the description above, also the needs for individualisation are met. And obviously, a high-quality e-learning environment meets the needs for a certain amount of playfulne ss and interaction. Thus, some of the most important aspects of learning – Individualisation, interaction and stu dent motivation – often considered paramount in modern education theories, are necessarily a part a nd a parcel of a successful e-learning support. 2.2. Increasing Learner Responsibility In addition to finding joy and pride in learning through intrinsic motivation, the learning process is more efficient when adequately conceptualised and reflected upon. A modern student, especially at t he university level, must be able to envision and pursue their goals, i.e. know why and what s/he ne eds to study, and to be able to design and stick to their personal study plan. An important assumptio n is that students can take responsibility for their study process, if provided with necessary know-ho w. Teachers can be of considerable support here. Dörnyei (2001a:37) points out: “Sharing responsibility with students, offering them options and choices, letting them have a say in establishing priorities, and involving them in the decision-making process enhance student self-dete rmination and intrinsic motivation /.../”. Wilson (1981:61) points out that student development through the university years can be seen as fo llows:
“One view is that student growth occurs through an invariant sequence of stages or levels in which progress from stage to stage implies a restructuring and reorganisation of what went before. ‘Higher ’ stages are qualitatively different from ‘lower’ stages in terms of the way the individual thinks, feel s or acts. Another influential view is that student development is to be seen in terms of mastery of a series of developmental ‘tasks’ which involve the individual’s maturation in the different aspects of intellect, emotions and social relationships”. Katrin Sachs (2012) stresses the importance of “unconscious learners” becoming “conscious learner s”. She concludes: “/…/ developing students’ self-directing learning skills is not the easiest task, and the teacher’s pers onal experience may not always be enough. However, going through the procedure with students ste p-by-step, starting with asking questions about the learner’s goals and needs, proceeding with choos ing suitable tools and methods and ending with looking at best ways of evaluating the process and r eflecting on its progress will lead to a more conscious awareness of the learning process. Furthermo re, having a central role in the decision-making process increases the learners’ sense of responsibilit y and their willingness to take control over their learning process”. 2.3. Modern discourse in professional roles: Changing Teachers’ Roles Modern education theories also emphasise the importance of neglecting the former rigid models of s eeing the students’ minds as “an empty space” to be filled with information. Rather, students’ interes t for learning, and their creativity should be developed with the help of encouraging and creative tea chers. Today, the role of the teacher is that of an advisor, an expert in the field whose task is to supp ort the students’ development (cf. Mullamaa 2009). This is much more creative and much more chal lenging than the more traditional “design and control the study process” concepts. Dörnyei (2001:35) points out: “/…/ teachers are powerful motivational socialisers. Being the officially designated leaders within t he classroom, they embody group conscience, symbolise the group’s unity and identity, and serve as a model or a reference/ standard. They also function as an ‘emotional amplifier’ of the group whose appeals and examples are critical for mobilising the group /…/. Simply speaking, to lead means to direct and energise, that is, to motivate”. In education, as elsewhere, increased cooperation and neglecting the earlier rigid borderlines, is bec oming more and more common practice. Day and Sachs (2004:7) indicate: “The core democratic pr ofessionalism is an emphasis on collaborative, cooperative action between teachers and other educat ional stakeholders”. Kiggins and Cambourne (2007:368-379) emphasise the importance of a “triadic partnership” (ibid. 374) from the very beginning of training of young teachers. Kiggins and Cambourne (ibid.) st ress: “/…/ trust becomes a required element in the knowledge building process, and if friendship and tru st are not present among the student cohort, this process is unlikely to occur”. It definitely takes some courage from the teacher to give free rein to a group of teenagers. You have to accept a certain amount of insecurity, as there is no way to predict how each group of students ap proaches their course and the e-learning environment. However, in our experience, supporting stude nt autonomy shows that there is a trust for the teacher, and an increased responsibility for the learni ng process. Students are innovative and creative, and accepting, and making them explicitly share re sponsibility for the process and outcome motivates them to come forward with fascinating and usef ul ideas. Karm and Remmik (2010) stress the importance of university teacher’s routes of developme nt. They (ibid.) note that only if a teacher has understood the underlying importance of her teaching
ILCC 2013
96
viz-a-viz the teaching skills, the development of one’s field of specialisation, and personal develop ment of students, does the need for further education occur. And we believe, it is often in the course of further education and mentoring that further processes of self-monitoring, improving one’s teachi ng and conceptualising one’s role occur. Thus, the challenges teachers are facing today are significantly more serious and demanding. The amount of responsibilities that today go along with the teaching profession per se has increased significantly. As Day and Sachs (2004:7) point out: “It suggests that the teacher has a wider responsibility than the single classroom and includes contri buting to the school, the system, other students, the wider community and collective responsibilities of teachers themselves as a group and the broader profession /…/”. In many countries, the codes of ethics for teachers have been developed (in 2004 in Estonia). Furthe r education training programmes are carried out. However, traditional, teacher-centred teaching styl es are regrettably still favoured by some representatives of the teaching staff as well as parents. The formulation of the code of ethics for university teachers is currently in progress. Discussions in the media on the issue are strongly encouraged. Further education programmes for university teachers h ave been worked out and they are attended by an increasing number of teaching staff. There are also different mentoring projects taking place. In all these endeavours the issues of ethics, the role boun daries, as well as the contribution to society, are clearly present. On the positive side, we see an acti ve discussion on the core issues in the media, and an active appeal for modern and child- and studen t-centred approaches in training and teachers’ learning communities. 3. The Possibilities for e-learning: Individualisation, Activating the Students, and Learning Co ncepts in Situated Meanings As Normak (2010) points out, the environment in which learners develop is crucial for success. Nor mak (ibid.) analyses sources of research on early child development and the development of logical thinking, reaching the conclusion that a safe learning environment from the very early years on, and a certain playfulness are essential for developing thinking and becoming successful learners and me mbers of society. E-learning has plentiful possibilities for catering for such needs also in the later st ages of learning. As pointed out above, the possibilities for e-learning include individualisation (thr ough motivation and dynamic educational roles) and activating the students. Also, the principle of learning concepts in situated meanings is an important aspect to consid er. Gee (2009:15) points out that students need to acquire and try out the contents of concepts in situ ations that teach and test their real meaning. Only then does true learning take place. Without that, st udents may be able to complete seemingly perfect “pen and paper” tests. However, at closer testing, they prove not to be able to solve real problems (cf. Gardner 1991, in Gee 2009:15). We suggest that web-based learning solutions offer the learners the possibilities for making t he learning process more interesting and challenging. Some of the capacities here are attractive and enthusing, in this being similar to what has, for example, been pointed out as the educational reserv e of video games. J P Gee (2009:15-22) suggests that the principles these follow often relate to the p rinciples of encouraging active learning. Out of the capacities that Gee relates to positive learning te chniques in video-games (Gee 2009:22), we associate with professionally designed e-learning the fo llowing: interactivity, adaptability, a gradual build-up of the level of difficulty, and following the pri nciple of the “cycle of expertise”. Also, the modernity of the medium and its parallels to the develop ments in virtually all other spheres of human life, where the digital revolution reaches from citizen j ournalism to museum pedagogy (cf. Gottlieb 2009:26-37), help to make it attractive. A SRI International for the Department of Education in Estonia (http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/ eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf) demonstrates that the learning results that have b een reached by using ICT solutions are more profound than the learning results achieved through us ing traditional learning methods:
“On average, students in online learning conditions performed better than those receiving face-to-fa ce instruction. Over the 12-year span, the report found 99 studies in which there were quantitative c omparisons of online and classroom performance for the same courses. The analysis for the Depart ment of Education found that, on average, students doing some or all of the course online would ran k in the 59th percentile in tested performance, compared with the average classroom student scoring in the 50th percentile”. As pointed out above, research has also shown that the focus in training future capable members of society should be on not only forwarding information and accumulating knowledge, but also on trai ning working in groups, adaptation to changes, and applying technological change. Blended learning offers splendid opportunities for this. Individualisation, activating the stud ents and learning concepts in situated meanings develop students´ skills in managing independent se lf-directed learning and at the same time building up trust. 4. The Experience of Using Blended Learning in Language Teaching In our experience, e-learning has proved to be a fruitful environment for teaching general language courses, as well as for teaching/ learning terminology and ESP (English for Specific Purposes). E-c ourses or courses with e-support can be organised differently. For example, they can be conducted a s complementary to ordinary classroom teaching, i.e. the web-based courses run parallel to the faceto-face seminars. Their primary goal is to support what has been learned in the classroom and thus t hey mainly include exercises on texts/ grammar covered in the classroom. Blended learning can also be organised as consisting of different “live” and on-line modules. This experience has recently proved to be most fertile, as students often need to combine their work and academic life. Also, the on-line module fosters their need and capacity for independent goal-set ting, time-planning and achieving (cf. above). In addition to learning and acquiring new vocabulary in a new language, the courses aim at helping students to form their personal opinion and being able to express it on issues topical in one’ s field of specialisation, as well as topics of general interest (e.g. through links to topical articles and hot debates both in their home-country and abroad, web-links, multimedia resources). Exercises designed as an extension to activities carried out in the classroom support the acqu isition of vocabulary, forming one’s personal opinion, and being able to express it on topical issues. It enables students to understand their area of specialisation and many other important issues in a wi der context and to put it into a perspective that stretches beyond their university, country, and contin ent. As students actively load up materials themselves, the e-course environment becomes a shar ed resource for the group and teacher, where both on-line activity and classroom face-to-face sessio ns complement the learning process. Allowing students to be co-creators of the learning materials is, as we know, an important factor in student-centred teaching. To sum up, e-learning as a support for ordinary class-room teaching, as a part of it, or as a se parate module has the obvious benefits of easy access whenever and wherever you wish it, demateri alisation (less paper – more trees), enabling us to use modern methodologies, individualisation, poss ibilities to develop contacts across the world (“broadening the horizons”; “real English” (or other fo reign language)). Students have an overview of topical issues, their context and background, easy access for q uickly finding inspiration for (continuing) the conversation, developing the skills for finding the rig ht information, analyse, present and discuss it, developing the skills for using the e-environment and new technologies, developing responsibility for the learning process, forming one’s own opinion an d learning to (dare to!) express it. 5. Conclusion As demonstrated in the article above, values and ethics may guide teachers through choosing their medium, procedures and communication patterns with communicating with their students. Behind
ILCC 2013
98
many of the seemingly practical choices there is a worldview based on active research and recent th eoretical approaches. Many years of teaching practice and – as a teacher in different learning groups – participant observation also helps to analyse and shape the processes. E-learning in language lear ning is possible and can be stimulating. Hopefully, anchorage in deeper theories, principles and ethi cs can support students in making meaningful choices. With the development of e-learning and blended learning endless opportunities for novelties, development and change are created. Students are becoming more and more engaged, the communi cation and learning are less and less teacher-centred. In these developments the role of teachers, stu dents, and learning itself are continuously changing to offer exiting possibilities for further develop ment. Many of these developments are to be discovered in the work process together with the stude nts and colleagues from all over the world. Hopefully, a student-centred approach based on individu alisation, increasing the student motivation, and responsibility, as well as accepting the new and dyn amic learner/teacher roles can be of support on this way. Blended learning can successfully be one o f the possible paths to take in order to pursue these goals. 6. References: Copage, J. (2013). The power of choice: motivation through learner autonomy. Lecture given at the further education training of English teachers in Estonia on March 5, 2013. Organised by Pearson a nd AS Dialoog, hotel London, Tartu. Day, C., & Sachs, J. (2004). Professionalism, performativity and empowerment: discourses in the p olitics, policies and purposes of continuing professional development. In: Day, C, Sachs, J. (Eds.), I nternational Handbook on the Continuing Professional Development of Teachers. Open University Press. UK, Bell& Brain Ltd, Glasgow. 3-33. Dean, R. (2010). On the Road to Success. Seminar organized by Pearson/Longman and AS Dialoog. Tartu, Estonia, in April 2010. Dörnyei, Z. (2001a). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Pearson Education Limited, Malaysia, LSP. Dörnyei, Z. (2001b). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge University Pre ss, UK. Dörnyei, Z, Otto, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Paper s in Applied Linguistics (London: Thames Valley University), 4: 43-69. Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind. How children think and how schools should teach. New York: Basic Books. Gee, J. P. (2008). Är videospel bra vid inlärning?/Are videogames good for knowledge acquisition?, Kulturens Studia Generalia, Svenska kulturfonden, Oy Nord Print, 8-23. Gottlieb, H. (2008). Digitala pedagogiska artefakter – nya verktyg för pedagoger och intendenter./D igital artefacts – new tools for teachers and museum personnell/. Kulturens Studia Generalia, Svens ka kulturfonden, Oy Nord Print, 25-38. Hasanbegovic, J. (2005). Review of Martens, R. L et al (2004). The impact of intrinsic motivation o n e-learning in authentic computer tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Vol. 20, pp. 368–3 76 (Electronic version). Retrieved October, 2009, from http://www.elearning-reviews.org/topics/ped agogy/readiness/2004-martens-et-al-impact-intrinsic-motivation-elearning-authentic-computer-tasks / Karm, M., & Remmik, M. (2010). Academics’ professional development as teachers. In press. Kiggins, J., Cambourne, B. (2007). The knowledge building community program. In: T. Townsend, R. Bates (Eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education. Globalization, Standards and Professionalism in T imes of Change. Springer, printed in the Netherlands. 365-381. Mullmaa, K. (2009). Ethics in Teaching: Should We Do More? Humanising Language Teaching, Ye ar 11, Issue 3, (Electronic version). Retrieved April 2010, from http://www.hltmag.co.uk/jun09/sart0 1.htm Normak, P. (2010). Mida juhtida ehk kuidas juhtida juhtimatut?/What to lead or how to lead what ca
nnot be lead?/ Lecture presented at the e-learning conference E-learning – a serious game in Tallinn, Estonia, in April 2010. Sachs, K. (2012). Developing self-directed learning. Voices. The bi-monthly newsletter of the Intern ational Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (iatefl), May-June 2012, Issue 22 6: 4-5. SRI International for the Department of Education in Estonia. Retrieved October 2009, from http:// www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf Theobald, M. (2006). Increasing Student Motivation. Strategies for Middle and High School Teache rs. Corwin Press. A SAGE Publications Company, Thousand Oaks, California. Wilson, J. D. (1981). Student Learning in Higher Education. Croom Helm London. New York – Tor onto. Kristina Mullamaa (PhD) is a lecturer of English and Swedish at the University of Tartu, Estonia. K ristina Mullamaa majored in English Philology (BA cum laude in 1996, MA cum laude in 2000, Ph D 2006) and in European Studies at Tartu University (MA in 2004). She has also studied Swedish at Uppsala and Stockholm universities in Sweden (1996, 1998, 2001), the International Doctorate Pro gramme in Translation and Intercultural Studies at Universitat Rovira i Virgili in Tarragona, Spain ( DEA, 2005). In 2010-2011 she carried out post-doc research as a guest researcher at Stockholm Uni versity in Sweden. From 2011 she is heading the Estonian Science Foundation research group on int erpreting research. Her current research interests focus on student-centred learning, the professional development of un iversity teachers, personal and professional roles, motivation and ethics. Kristina Mullamaa is a member of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL), the Estonian Association of Teachers of English (EATE), the Estonian Associ ation of Teachers of Swedish (ERKOS), member of the Teacher Training Seminars Organisers’ and Language Teaching work-groups, and Language Tests work group at the Language Centre of the Un iversity of Tartu.
ILCC 2013
100
Structured Learning Technique: Effort in Promoting Malay Language to International Students
Dr. Mardian Shah Omar Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia University Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN)
[email protected] Abstract
The interest of International students to learn Malay Language (BM) would definitely be fulfilled if we are successful in attracting them by using the easiest way to understand the language. This in tur n will increase the number of foreign speakers who are able to converse in BM. In order to achieve t his, we have to come up with a teaching technique and a better and efficient method. An analysis ha s to be done to find a method that is systematic, easy to understand, fast and at the same time, effici ent to apply on these International students. This research aims to find out the teaching technique ch osen, which is the structured method, which can be applied in the teaching of Malay language, henc eforth improve the language proficiency of International students. This research found out that the s tructured teaching culture does not only increase and hasten the International students’ understandin g and speaking ability, it also increases the interest of them to learn it. Interestingly, in the course of this research it was also found out that this method is more efficient for those who are of novice cha racteristic.
Key Words: Malay language, structured, foreign speakers, increase
Introduction Various initiatives and strategies can be implemented to attract the interest of the world to learn Mal ay language (BM) and culture. If this is possible, so is the internationalization of Malay language to the world. However, sometimes the interest of international students to learn Malay language decrea ses when they feel that the language is hard to learn, an effect of the teaching technique or methodol ogy used which are boring and ineffective. Hence, the best approach or method has to be thought u p to ensure these foreign students can understand easily, quickly, and effectively. Obviously the teac hing methodology which is used to teach a second language to non native speakers is very importan t and has to be emphasized to ensure a more interesting and effective teaching and learning environ ment. 2.0 Research Problem Various publications have highlighted the second language teaching methods and approach as discu ssed by Mora (2008) in two of his publications, which are: “Second-Language Teaching Methods: P rinciples and Procedures” and “Major Components of The Study of Syntax and Grammar”. The sam e goes to a few local writers who also discussed the issues of teaching Malay language to foreign sp eakers as in the publication of Mohd Afif (2004), Media Sandra (2004), Uthaya Sankar (2004), Zait ul Azma (2008) etc. Their publications highlight their experience in teaching the Malay language to foreign speakers and are very relevant and helpful to teachers who are just beginning to explore this
area. However, this shows that the methods implemented from one teacher to another is different. According to Mohd Afif (2004: 42), based on his teachings in National University of Malaysia (UK M), his opinion is that it is difficult to determine the approach, objective, method and technique whi ch is more effective and relevant to be implemented in teaching. However, in the teaching of Malay language to foreign speakers, the teaching methodology depends on the wisdom and creativity of th e lecturer who is teaching to gain students’ whole attention and interest towards the knowledge whic h is being imparted (Uthaya 2004:14). The same goes with Zaitul Azma (2008: 23) who gives opinion of her experience in teaching second language. According to her, the teaching of Malay language can be done through a communicative and semi-pragmatic approach. This shows that the method and approach used in the teaching of Mal ay language to foreign speakers depends on the technique and method of choice which is felt as mos t appropriate to the instructor or language teacher. Among the approaches which are used in the teac hing of Malay language to foreign speakers is grammar-translation, direct approach, reading, audiolingual and the silent way. However, the teaching technique and method can change and grow from time to time (Mohd Afif 2004: 44). Because of the fact that the teaching method depends on the wis dom and creativity of the lecturer who teaches, hence a lot of the instructors advice and emphasize o n their own teaching methods to be shared together. Not only that, in fact, the method choosen is al so dependent to the objective which is to be achieved by the particular course. This is research is based on McNeil’s (1970) point of view, who suggests that the scope of a structur e can determine the sequence of one’s syntax acquisition. Schlesinger (1971, 1974) also suggests th at there is a grammar structure relationship in speaking. Syntax acquisition researchers believe that syntax acquisition will only begin when someone starts to combine two or more words. This is also agreed by E. Clark (1977), Greenfield & Smith (1976) and Barman (1979). Beginning from these re searcher’s opinions, the structured method approach was chosen to be tested on foreign speaking stu dents who have not yet any knowledge about Malay language. Hence, a staged learning process bas ed on said acquisition development, which is in accordance with the development of the so-called s yntactic or structural methods can be used as a yardstick to identify good and effective method in te aching Malay language for foreign speakers. 3.0 Research Objective To summarize, the objectives of this research can be listed as following: 3.1. To identify whether the chosen approach, which is the structured approach, is suitable to be used for foreign students who are novice in speaking the Malay language. 3.2. Identify whether this structured approach can provide a positive impact thus improving students' ability to speak Malay. 3.3. Identify whether this structured approach can increase the interest of foreign students to learn Malay. In conclusion, this study aims to see how far the students can enhance their learning in the adoption of this structure. Therefore, this study will certainly be able to identify whether the approach is the b est method that can be applied to teaching Malay language for foreign speakers.
4.0 Malay Language Program for Foreign Students Like many other universities, now UNITEN or institutions of higher learning in this country has bee n blessed by the attendance of the students, especially those who come from Africa, Saudi Arabia, E gypt, Yemen, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Lebanon, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and others . The same goes for those coming from Myanmar, Vietnam, Indonesia and other neighboring countri
ILCC 2013
102
es. Malay language teaching for foreigners in UNITEN or subject code MALB 103, is offered every semester, which is to meet the mandatory requirements, specific to foreign students pursuing any d egree in UNITEN. A total of 3 hours a week and the whole 42 hours of teaching and learning shoul d be utilized by the students to meet the course requirements. They are required to take only once d uring their study session and are required to pass the subject. In UNITEN, this course is given a cert ain grade which is calculated when graduating. In UNITEN, BM courses for international students outlines some specific targets and among them i s to produce students who are creative in building and shaping the verse thus able to communicate more effectively. Furthermore, by the end of this course, the program is targeting so that the student s can master a daily vocabulary Malay. The program is gaining momentum in every coming semeste r. If before this, in the last two semesters, the Malay language classes for foreign speakers was only for a capacity of 30 people, but now, starting with the second semester of the academic session 2007 /08, this program’s capacity has been increased to 60 as the number of students who register for this course is increasing, which now stands at nearly 100 students in the first semester of the academic s ession 2013/14. With the rate of increase of capacity from semester to semester, an appropriate teaching method sho uld be provided to handle the foreign language classroom. Therefore, this study is a display of the a pplication of the structured teaching methods that have been applied in the teaching of Malay langu age to foreign students in UNITEN. This method could also be adopted and applied by any of the in structors from any institution in their teaching of second language. 5.0 Research Methodology First of all, teaching module implementing a structured approach should be developed to be applied and tested on Malay language teaching to foreign students which are the subject of this study. The d ata for this study were collected through observation and experience of the researcher while in the cl assroom. The study also distributes questionnaires to students to get a more significant data. Resear cher uses several methods deemed appropriate, because according to Burgess (1984: 53-55) in the st udy of Social Science research method selection is not limited to any particular method but it can in volve several methods and more importantly, it can follow the target objectives of the study to assist in the research hypotheses. Thus, besides interviewing the teachers on duty, the data for this study a lso involves analysis of written documents such as the syllabus being taught in the classroom, teach er lesson plans, teaching materials, exam papers, teaching sessions held and so on. A total of 70 que stionnaires were distributed to the foreign students. 6.0 Findings As mentioned in the previous section, of this study took into account a number of internal aspects su ch as teachers, syllabus, class activities and the teaching rooms. The study found that more students give priority to the teaching syllabus in the classroom than other internal aspects as mentioned abov e. In of this case 71% of informants strongly agreed that the teaching of this class had attracted the m to learn BM whereas only 26% only agreed. Based on this teaching syllabus factor enhance under standing, it was found that (A) 79% of students strongly agreed that the teaching structure used for t his MALB103 course easy to understand, (B) 80% of students strongly agreed that the teaching met hods used by lecturers to help their understanding and (C) 63% of the students strongly agreed that l earning BM is not something that is difficult when using structured methods. These percentages can be seen through the following chart:
Chart 1: Improvement in understanding Based on the factors of interest in BM, the results of this study found that (D) 51% of students stron gly agreed that they are only interested in learning BM after entering MALB103 class, (E) 71% of s tudents strongly agreed that the teaching methods used in the class had attracted them to learn BM a nd (F) 60% of the total number of students strongly agree that learning how to use this structured m ethod successfully increased their interest to learn BM at a higher level. These percentages can be se en through the following chart:
Chart 2: Interest in Bahasa Melayu Based on information from the chart above we can conclude that the learning Malay as a foreign lan guage is not easy and moreover interesting when it becomes compulsory and basic course in a unive rsity. However, interest and a sense of is ease to learn BM can be nurtured if teaching methods is abl e to apply the teaching structure. This increased interest is not just in learning the Malay language at a basic level in universities, but also to learn at a higher level. Next, under the command of the language factor, the study found that (G) 70% of students strongly agreed that the teaching methods used are capable of achieving the objectives of the MALB103 cou rse that are taught, (H) 56% of students strongly agreed that the teaching methods used enable them to communicate better and (I) 67% of the total number of students strongly agreed that the activities carried out in class to help them master the Malay language more easily. These percentages can be
ILCC 2013
104
seen through the following chart:
Chart 3: Mastery of Language Based on the above can it be seen that the activity and active student participation in class will help them communicate better in using the BM. This ability meets the targeted objectives within the fra mework of the course, which allows students to be more creative in building BM sentences thus can converse and communicate better. For the factor of lecturers teaching techniques in teaching syllabus, it was found that (J) 69% of the students strongly agreed that the techniques used by the lecturers teaching compatible with their nee ds and (K) 60% of the students strongly agreed that the techniques used in the appropriate class is al so suitable to be used to learn other foreign languages. However, the pattern was found to vary whe n students are asked the question 'Do you agree with the use of some techniques, you can learn the Malay language itself without the help of a lecturer?'. Only (L) 29% of students strongly agreed wit h this question, 23% disagreed and the rest answering 'not sure'. This percentage can be seen throug h the following chart:
Chart 4: Lecturer Teaching Techniques A total of 23% of the total students stated that they disagreed with the statement that they can learn t heir own BM without any help and guidance from the lecturers. This explains the teaching assistanc e of lecturers is still a need to complement the structured teaching methods used. Structured teachin g method is indeed suitable for use in teaching strategies and learning foreign languages. The resear cher says that because 60% of the students agreed that the techniques used in the appropriate class i s also suitable to be used to learn other foreign languages. Finally, in terms of teaching syllabus, factors of benefits and advantages of the techniques used sho wed that (M) 39% of the students strongly agreed that the technique used is only suitable for small c lass sizes (less than 30 students) and (N) the time to learn to use techniques and methods readily ava ilable in the classroom was adequate. (O)74% of the total students strongly agreed that the techniqu es used should be disseminated and used by other universities in Malaysia. This percentage can be s een through the following chart:
Chart 5: The Benefits and Advantages of the Technique Used Based on the feedback received, the teaching and learning techniques using structured methods wou ld be more effective if they are used in small-sized classes. MALB103 courses for example, is carrie d out in the classroom capacity of 30 people. The small class size will result in the process of teachi ng and learning to be more focused and more emphasis on in-class activities will be optimal. In addition to the size or capacity of the class, students also suggested that the study time period can be extended. According to them, duration of 14 weeks of lectures with three (3) hour meetings a we ek was enough for them to master basic Malay languages. However, these students found that struct ured teaching method is very interesting that will make them think having a basic course is extende d to middle and higher level. Students also suggested that courses with structured learning methods should be propagated and applied at other universities. According to them, most of the universities t hat houses compatriots do not teach Malay languages courses like they have got now. This causes a gap between those compatriots with lower achievement and mastery of the Malay language after on e semester of study. Discussion Structured teaching method applied in teaching syllabus BM in UNITEN is closely related to the sel ection and arrangement of title of subjects taught. For example, the teaching module is based on the sequence of the topics that will help and strengthen the teaching and learning methods. Therefore, t
ILCC 2013
106
hese topics should be contiguous and continuous help students understand and master the use of the language. In UNITEN foreign students will be taught in advance of Malay pronouns (KGN), nouns (KN) and family nouns (KNK) including fathers, father, mother, aunt, brother, sister, grandfather, gr andmother and so on. Then they are taught about the system of Malay numbers. When both of these vocabularies are dominated by students, teachers will also focus on the question words. For the writer, Malay WH Questions (Kata Tanya) are very important to foreigners who do not kno w the culture and procedures of the local community. Hence, they certainly would have a lot of ques tions or inquiries to ask. For this purpose, in UNITEN the teaching aspect of WH Questions involve several weeks or hours of instruction. This is to ensure that students understand the shape or structu re Malay WH Questions and how to answer correctly. In this case the teacher can relate this WH Qu estions with the use of words KGN and number systems that have been taught before. Example:
Siapa nama datuk awak? Berapa umur abang awak? Di mana awak tinggal? Bila awak dilahirkan?
What is the name of your grandfather? How old is your brother? Where do you live? When were you born?
This directly allows the students earlier introduce themselves or explain about their family matters. Then the process of communication with the students is infused with the Malay greetings. Due to th e fact that greetings are closely related and interconnected to each other, then it must be taught by te aching consecutively with WH Questions. It can strengthen and enrich the communication process f or the said students. At this stage the normal activities done in the classroom is getting acquainted a ctivities, the students were asked to build a number of WH Questions and then use them to get infor mation from colleagues based on the question words. In the process of obtaining such information st udents should use question words and greetings that have been taught to strengthen their communic ation process. Finally, the students are required to disclose the information they received to be prese nted orally to the class. It can also enhance students' understanding and mastery of the question and answer form of sentences. If it is a large class, the teacher can do it in small groups and if the studen ts are less than ten people, then it will make it easier for teachers to pay attention to the students. Next, the teaching module at UNITEN will involve certain stages, namely involving the teaching as pect of verbs such as prefix, adjectives, prepositions, and adverbs. The development stages of this st ructured approach can be shown as follows below; Level 1: Example:
[KGN] + meN- KD + [KN] 1. Ibu memasak bubur 2. Kami memancing ikan Level 2: [KGN] + meN- KD + [KN] + [KA] 3. Ibu memasak bubur panas 4. Kami memancing ikan besar Level 3: [KGN] + meN- KD + [KN] + [KA] + [KSN] 5. Ibu memasak bubur panas di dapur 6. Kami memancing ikan besar di sungai Atau tanpa [KA] Example: 7. Ibu memasak bubur di dapur Kami memancing ikan di sungai Level 4: [KGN] + meN- KD + [KN] + [KA] + [KS] + [KW] 9. Ibu memasak bubur panas di dapur petang semalam 10. Kami memancing ikan besar di sungai hujung minggu lepas
The stages above may indicate a continuity in foreign language teaching to speakers. Asmah says, t his aspect of continuity in teaching a second language is important because it would strengthen stru ctural reuse, expressions and the use of certain words (Nor Hashimah et. Al. 2007: x). Various activi ties can be done to strengthen this rule. Most of the activities carried out in UNITEN teaching is bas ed on the communicative approach. According to Zaitul Azma (2008: 23), this communicative appr oach spans the entire function of language, which includes components of meaning and linguistic. H ence by applying the communicative approach, teachers can focus on students' ability to communic ate with knowledge and ability of language use. Structured teaching method usage is not limited onl y as indicated but a lot of things in the teaching of Malay language to foreign speakers it can be appl ied to. For example, when the teacher has given and teaches the use of a list or a group of nouns (K N) and adjectives (KA), teachers can also introduce the use of the word 'more', 'of' and 'but' to the st udents. For example; [KN] + [KGN / KN] + lebih + KA + daripada + KN 11. Rumah saya lebih besar daripada rumah awak 12. Beg Ahmad lebih kecil daripada beg saya [KN] + [KGN / KN] + KA + tetapi + [KN] + [KGN] + KA Kelas kami bersih tetapi kelas awak kotor For example (13) and (14), the students will indirectly learn antonyms words in the Malay language learning. Teachers can also indirectly encourage the students to use the word antonym by conductin g writing activities of the verses in question, namely the verses that compare their classmates. But te achers need to be careful because in the Malay culture the use of antonyms is not the same as the wa y of use of the foreign students who have a background of differing cultures and languages. This str ucture (13) may be facilitated further by aborting [KGN / KN] and the consequent [KN]. This can b e shown as an example below;
14.
KN + KA + tetapi + KN + KA Mahmud tinggi tetapi Yasir rendah
The objective here is so that the students are able to compare something and at once can clarify thin gs such as country of origin, their friends, their homes and the like. Here, too, the teacher can ask st udents to apply this method with the use of a vocabulary list that was given and apply it by asking t he students to do strengthening activities, such as describing two of their friends in class and compa re with each other. The structured method used is sensible among foreign speakers because it can be applied to the use of the concept of strengthening vocabulary and methods that have been taught to them. The availability of such teaching methods and selected interactive activities contributes to spe aking proficiency, listening, writing, reading and at the same time in terms of grammar skills. Actually, there a lot of the kinds of structures that was created in Malay language instruction for for eign speakers here in UNITEN, especially in the introduction of classifications and fixations. For ex ample, in teaching the of word amplifier (KP) such as ‘sungguh’ (really) and ‘sangat’ (very), the tea cher may use a structure that has been taught as an examples given below. At the same time, this ca n again strengthen the KA mastery of students. It can be shown as the following example; KN + KA + KGNT + [KP] + KA Example: Rumah besar itu sungguh indah Kereta mahal ini sangat cantik Payung hijau itu sungguh besar Kek sedap ini sangat mahal So, in this case there are many things that can be attributed to the teacher or instructors with the stru
ILCC 2013
108
ctured method. In this way the students will feel convenient in learning the Malay language. Howev er, these methods need to be topped with creative activities so that the strengthening process occurs continuously and effectively. Many more things were correlated while teaching this MALB 103 subjects at UNITEN. In short, th e goal at the end of this course is that the student should have competence and capability to construc t sentences that contain aspects such as pronouns (KGN), nouns (KN), verbs (KK) and adjectives ( KA) apart from the ability to build simple daily conversations based on Malay culture. At the end of the program, students should also be able to clarify things that are easy and simple. These targets ar e compatible with the new foreign students learning a second language at a basic level. 8.0 Conclusion Internal aspects that apply the structured teaching syllabus is important and useful because it provid es an overview of grammatical structures in sentence structure to the learning process of foreign stu dents. In the process of foreign language learning, grammar needs to be a priority so that students d o not get carried away with the grammatical form of their native languages (Ong Shyi Nian 2008:26 ). So with this structured teaching scope, it can provide an effective and convenient teaching design fo r teachers or instructors to deliver to the students who are required to take compulsory courses such as this. Teaching classes like this only needs about 30 to 40 minutes in theoretical descriptions and f ocus of the remaining time can be given on strengthening activities such as conversation, storytellin g, delivering orders and lots of other forms of language games which can be conducted to attract mo re interest of the students to learn BM so that BM continues to grow and gain a place at the global le vel.
Bibliography: Hadley A. O. (2001) Teaching Language in Context 3rd Edition. United States: Heinle & Heinle – Thomson Learning. Mc Neill D. (1966) Development Psycholinguistics in Smith F and Miller G. The Genesis of Language: Psycholinguistics Approach Cambridge: Mass Press. Media Sandra Kasih (2004) Dewan Bahasa Julai 2004 ”Bahasa Melayu di Mata Penutur Asing”, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Mohd Afif Abidin (2004) Dewan Bahasa Julai 2004 ”Pengajaran Bahasa Melayu Laras Ilmiah Kepada Pelajar Asing”, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Mora J. K. (2008) Major Components of The Study of Syntax and Grammar: Teaching Grammar in Context. San Diego State University. Mora J. K. (2008) Second-Language Teaching Methods: Principles & Procedures. San Diego State University. Nor Hashimah et. al (2007) Bahasa Melayu Untuk Penutur Asing: Peringkat Asas Buku 1. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Ong Shyi Nian (2008) Dewan Bahasa Januari 2008 ”Analisis Kesilapan Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu oleh Pelajar Jepun”, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Uthaya Sankar SB (2004) Dewan Bahasa Julai 2004 ”Pengajaran Bahasa Kebangsaan Kepada Pelajar Luar Negara”, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah (2008) Dewan Bahasa Januari 2008 ”Mengantarabangsakan Bahasa Melayu”, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Comprehension and Ability to Use Word Order by International Students in Aspects of Writing Malay Language Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia Mardian Shah Omar (PhD)
[email protected] Abstract The influence of the mother tongue will affect the learning process while learning the Malay langua ge (BM) as a second language. It is observed that the aspect which strongly influences the learning process of international students in learning BM is the grammatical aspect. Therefore, this study ai med to examine the comprehension and ability to apply the rules of word order to international stud ents in terms of their Malay writing. The study takes into account the learning process that lasts for one semester at one stage only, namely, Level One (Basic Level). The data was taken twice, during t he middle and end of the semester through the middle and end of semester tests. This research also s hows the comparison in terms of ability or achievement of students in their understanding of the use of this grammar aspect. The study found that over 60% of students are able to apply word order in t heir writing and at the same time, more than 45% of students are able to use it accurately and entirel y correct. Keywords: International Students, word order, writing, ability, mastery Introduction In the process of learning a second language, students are often influenced by the existing system in their native language. For students who are learning English as their second language, they will als o be easily influenced by the grammatical structure in the English language when learning a third la nguage, for example learning Malay. In using Malay, foreign students will easily utter phrases like " name my (my name)", "lecturer good (good lecturer)", "house beautiful (beautiful house)" and the l ike in writing or during communication. This is because in the existing dictionary in their thinking i nfluences the way they interpret the Malay (BM) phrase. It is agreed by Nian Shyi Ong (2008:26) w ho says that grammar aspect is important to be taught in advance so that foreign students will not be distracted by the grammatical system of their native language. In teaching the concept of structured methods, McNeil (1970) argues that the acquisition of syntax o f a sequence can be determined by the scope of a syntactic structure that have been learned. Schlesi nger (1971, 1974) also emphasizes that there is a close relationship between a person's oral commun ication and grammatical structures learned. Accordingly, this study tries to look at the relationship b etween grammatical structures taught in the students' ability to apply and also see how the ability to apply this method provides a positive impact on the achievement of foreign students in learning the Malay language. Objectives of the Study 2.1 Identify the percentage of foreign students applying the structured method through the use of W ord Order in their writing. 2.2 Categorizing students applying structured methods based on their achievement. 2.3 Making a comparison of the percentage of student achievement based on two different teaching periods (two different exams). 2.4 Identify whether a structured teaching method is capable of positively affecting the Malay langu age teaching to foreign students.
ILCC 2013
110
3.0 Literature Review A study was conducted to research on the word order in the Malay language. It found that the shift f rom a dominant VS to a dominant SV word order is attributed to the change from an oral to a writte n tradition. This study closely related styles of Malay at the turn century points out the need to study discourse structures of distinct styles and genres separately. The assumption that a language will e mploy similar patterns of organization even in such fundamental areas as word order cannot he assu med. The structure of a language is too closely tied to its social functions and context to allow simil arities across genre and style to be taken for granted. (Rafferty, 1987) Of the languages which follows the word order SVO, only English abides strictly by that descriptio n. German and Dutch are either n mixed V0/OV (at the more conservative literary standard) or almo st completely SOV at the colloquial level. And Italian displays a flexible, pragmatically-sensitive w ord-order, at least in so far as the relative position of the subject is concerned. Of the two supposed SOV languages, Hungarian has a flexible word-order. One must, finally, be reminded that Greenber g (1966) classified the pragmatically- flexible (Biblical) Hebrew as VSO, the equally-flexible Italian and Malay as SVO, and was, on the whole, altogether silent on the existence of word- order flexibil ity, or degree of word-order rigidity in general. (Givon.T, 1988) The fact that word order is very important in acquiring Malay language is highlighted by yet anothe r researcher. He says that mistakes of sociocultural grammar/sociolinguistic grammar, are not readil y tolerated by Malays. Malays as a rule never tell the offender directly that s/he has committed a bre ach of etiquette. They consider it most impolite to “tell off" anyone, even a child, let alone adults. It is most likely that the offender will be shunned if s/he continues to commit breaches, will be consid ered to be a very nice person, and probably will not receive or be given any more attention. It is not uncommon for a non-Malay (local or foreign) whose command of Malay is imperfect to be commended by a Malay for being competent in using appropriate forms of address, pronouns and le xical choices, some of the affective characteristics of Malay. Malays react warmly toward non-Mala ys/speakers of Malay as a second language who show a little genteelness in their speech. (Kok, 200 1) From all of the previous literature, it is clear to see the importance of Word Order in learning Malay language and to be accepted as a proficient speaker. Research Methodology Data for this study was taken from the 36 sample test papers midterm and final exam that students t aking MALB 103 courses, which is the Bahasa Melayu for International Students during the last spe cial semester (March to May 2013). Student samples taken for this study are the students taking the courses at a basic level. In this special semester, only one class was offered. In this course, students must undergo 42 hours of instruction, 6 hours of instruction per week for 7 weeks in total. This instr uctional program emphasizes the concept of structured teaching, the students are taught according t o the Malay Word Order structure. In this Word Order, students are explained that the adjective com es after the noun, wherein the adjective would describe nouns used earlier in a sentence. Both tests are given to students, in the middle and end of the semester involved aspects of writing. S tudents were asked to write a short essay related to specific topics. Mid-semester examinations were made after students go through 21 hours teaching, while the final examination was made after stude nt finish 42 hours of teaching. Percentage taken by counting the number of students who apply use structured methods through the use word order. Through the Data of students application of Word Order, the researcher then gets a percentage taken by calculating the number of students who get all right in the use of word order, st udents who only get one mistake and finally students who got more than one mistake. The data is th en plotted in a bar graph for comparison of student performance at mid-semester test with the final e
xamination. Research Findings 5.1 Applying Structured Method Through Word Order The study found that at mid-semester examination, a total of 85% of students have applied the struct ured method through the use of Word order in the writing of Malay language. While 15% failed to a pply this method in their writing test. However, the results showed a decrease in the percentage of t he final examination. A total of 72% of the students were able to apply this word order in their final exams while 28% have failed to apply this method. Comparison of this percentage can be shown as a bar chart below.
Figure 1: Chart shows the percentage of students who apply the Word Order method in their writing s in two different exams. The researcher thinks that this difference in percentage occurs due to the fact during mid-semester exams students were just taught noun and adjectives. So exposure and knowledge they have were sti ll new. Compared with the final exam, the students were filled with a variety of different topics and because of this students may become confused or less skilled to apply this method. 5.2 Student Achievement in the Category of Applying Word Order In the category of students who apply the rules of word order, the researchers divided the students w ho made no mistakes, students who have one mistake and students who have two or more mistakes. Here the data showed that in mid-semester examination a total of 46% of the students who got all th e right or no wrong. While 36% of students have at least one error and a total of 18% of them havin g more than one mistake even though they have applied this method. Compared with the percentage shown in the final examination, a total of 52% of the students have d emonstrated their ability to get entirely correct without any errors in the use of word order. This sho ws an increase in the number of students who are proficient or know how to use this method even if the percentage of students who applied this method dropped. This also proves that more and more n umber of students who are proficient in applying these methods when they have been in the course f or a longer period of time. This percentage is shown in the bar chart below.
ILCC 2013
112
Figure 2: Chart shows the percentage of students in the category of applying the rules of word order in two different examinations. 5.3 Performance of International Students in Aspects of Malay Language Writing As a whole, this study found 52% number of students increased their achievement in the writing asp ect of the Malay language. This percentage is based on the number of students who got all correct in applying the word order. While the number of 18% shows an even tabulation, namely with the achi evement which showed no increase or decrease in their writing examination. There were only 30% of students who decreased their achievements in the writing aspect. This demonstrated that the use o f teaching techniques using this structure can give a positive impression in improving student under standing and achievement in the Malay language. This percentage is shown in the bar chart below.
Figure 3: Chart showing increase of student achievement percentage in the writing aspect of the Ma lay language in the final examination Findings
In UNITEN, teaching of Malay language to international students is according to the concept of stru ctured grammar rules, the teaching done in stages according to the grammatical structure of the sent ence construction. Thus, the restructuring of teaching syllabus is also important so that it meets the above structure and facilitates the students to understand the development of existing syntax. For ex ample, structured teaching can be shown as follows; Kata Nama Keluarga + Pronoun + “ada” + Noun + Adjective So the teacher will teach the class and list some form of family names such as father, mother, sister, brother and so on. Then the students are taught about pronouns such as I, you, he, we, us, them and t he like. In developing the ability to build sentences, the teacher introduces the words like "is", "like" and "love" to be associated with previously taught nouns. Next the international students are taught about adjectives before mid-semester examinations. This sentence structure is shown as follows; Ayah saya ada kereta besar (My father has a big car) Emak kami ada cincin mahal (Our mother has an expensive ring) Kakak saya suka kek manis (My sister loves sweet cakes) Abang awak mahu jam tangan baru (Your brother wants a new watch) However, the study also found that some international students are easily influenced by the structure of the existing grammar in their native language. Similarly, if the international students learn Englis h as a second language or learn English to understand the Malay language, the students inevitably w ill certainly be influenced by the structure of English and their native language. There are a number of structural errors made by students in UNITEN based on the data obtained, which is; Saya nama … (Name my) Saya umur … (Age my) … hitam rambut (hair black) … cantik perempuan (girl beautiful) Nevertheless, the researchers found that with the structured grammar rules such as word order, stud ents' learning is more focused and organized. Hence this study found that the percentage of students who understand the grammar structure is higher in the final exam (56%) than mid-semester examin ation (46%) although the number of students who applied this method is higher during the mid-sem ester test, a total of 85% compared to end of the semester, which is only a total of 72% who apply th is method. So, the findings of this study demonstrate that the structured teaching method is suitable for use in t eaching Malay language to international students since this method can improve the understanding and ability of students to learn Malay and improve their performance in the examination. This meth od can also be applied and adopted by any institution in the teaching of Malay language to internati onal students. However, this kind of teaching effectiveness also depends on the strengthening of acti vities done in the classroom as well as teachers creativity. Effectiveness also depends on the order o f a planned syllabus throughout the instructional program, in any given semester. Conclusion Through this structured teaching, it could draw international students to continue to learn and under stand the use of the Malay language. Interest of the students also increase due the fact that it is also easy to understand what is being taught through structured methods. Government's desire to internat ionalize and to uphold the Malay language can be achieved if the teaching programs of the Malay la nguage is able to attract more students or foreigners coming to Malaysia to study and learn at the sa me time appreciating the Malay language existing Malay culture.
ILCC 2013
114
References Givon T. (1988). The pragmatics of word order: predictability, importance and attention. Studies in Syntactic Typology. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Greenberg, Joseph H. (editor). 1966.Universals of language. 2nd edition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Pre ss. Kok S.T (2001). The Acquisition of Malay as a Second Language: A case of essentiality of language learning. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. McNeill, D. (1970). The acquisition of language: the study of developmental psycholinguistics. Ne w York: Harper & Row. Ong Shyi Nian. (2008). Analisis Kesilapan Pembelajaran Bahasa Malaysia Oleh Pelajar Jepun: Satu Kajian Kes. Dewan Bahasa Januari 2008: 26 - 28 Rafferty. E. (1987) Word Order in Intransitive Clauses in High and Low Malay of the Nineteenth Ce ntury. Coherence and Grounding in Discourse: Outcome of a Symposium, Eugene, Oregon Schlesinger, I.M. (1971). Learning grammar: From pivot to realization rule. In R. Huxley & E. Ingr am (Eds.), Language acquisirion: Models and methods. London: Academic Press. Schlesinger, I.M. (1974). Cognitive and linguistic structures: The case of the instrumental. Journal o f Linguistics, IS, 307-324.
Language Planning and Terminology: An Insight of the Mak Yong Terminology Asoc. Prof. Dr. Puteri Roslina Abdul Wahid Department of Malay Language Academy of Malay Studies, University of Malaya
[email protected] Abstract. Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of langua ges or language variety within a speech community (Kaplan, 1997). Terminology is an important as pect of the language planning in particular the area dealing with corpus planning and lexical expansi on. This paper discusses the terminology in Mak Yong, a Malay dance drama that combines dance, drama, opera and comedy. It is a unique theater in Malay performing arts. It is believed to be origin ated from Kelantan as a popular court entertainment. Not much research had been done about the te rminology in Mak Yong. This paper explores the native terms used by the practitioners in Mak Yong . This study will (i) identify the terminology used in the Mak Yong, and (ii) build concepts system a nd concept relationships in Mak Yong. The writer intends to enlighten the native formation in Mak Yong terminology such as buka panggung, berjamu, pecah cerita, bertabuh, and sembah guru which designates concepts in Malay performing arts. The emergence of globalization and development of modern information had its impact on multilingual communication. Thus, the role of terminology h ad become an interest as a service provider for language planning institutes as well as a tool for kno wledge transfer. The terminology does not only involve linguistics but as also had been regarded as a central element of communication and knowledge transfer processes. Keywords: terminology, Mak Yong, language planning, concepts, Malay 1.
Introduction
Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of langua ges or language variety within a speech community (Kaplan, 1997). Terminology is an important as pect of the language planning in particular the area dealing with corpus planning and lexical expansi on. This involves the assimilation of native words in Malay terminology and standardization of ter ms. The terminology does not only involve linguistics but as also had been regarded as a central ele ment of communication and knowledge transfer processes. The research focuses on Mak Yong, a tr aditional performing art of dance which combines elements of dance, music, songs, stories and acts . In 2005, Mak Yong was declared by UNESCO as an item “Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity”. However, in Kelantan the art form was banned in 1991 until today. This stu dy aims to examine the terminology found in Mak Yong, the conceptual systems and concept relati ons as a basic apparatus for terminological analysis. Welcome to The 2013 International Language and Communication Conference (ILCC 2013). The C onference is a primary international forum for academician and researchers working on topics relati ng to Language and Communication. It will provide an excellent environment for participants to me et fellow academic professionals, to enhance communication, exchange and cooperation of most rec ent research, education and application on relevant fields. It will bring you new like-minded researc hers, fresh idea. It also provides a friendly platform for academic and application professionals from crossing fields to communication together.
ILCC 2013 2.
116
Mak Yong In The Malay World
There are no early records confirming the origins of Mak Yong in the Malay world. Historian such as David K. Wyatt (1970) stated that Mak Yong had also spread in the state of Kedah, Perlis and Ria u Islands, Indonesia. According to the Hikayat Patani (Ahmad al-Fathy al-Fatani, 1994), Mak Yong began in the Patani Malay palace about 400 years ago and then spread to the West, particularly in th e Eastern states of Kelantan and Terengganu. Mak Yong is said to derive from the word in the ritual worship of spirits of ‘Mak Hiang’ or ‘semangat padi’ (padi spirit). Among the famous figures of Mak Yong is the late Khatijah binti Awang who was born on August 13, 1941 at Kg Lubuk Kawah, Pasir Mas, Kelantan. She is a Siamese-Malay descent and born in the family who are also active in Mak Yong. She is known as the prima donna of Mak Yong in Malaysia and was the leader of the Ser i Temenggung group. Mubin Sheppard had studied Mak Yong in his article, 'Ma’ Yong : The Malay Dance Drama'. He ga ve a brief overview of Mak Yong historically, roles, clothing, equipment, music, performance, and r itual elements found in the arts of Mak Yong. He also recorded the song in two stories of Mak Yong, Raja Gondang and Dewa Muda (Mubin Sheppard, 1969, 39-75). He also stated that the beginnings of Mak Yong in the palaces of Langkasuka and Patani. According to him, Mak Yong is the favourit e entertainment of “generations of rulers” of Langkasuka, Ligor, Patani and finally Kelantan. Howe ver, Mubin Sheppard failed to provide any evidence that shows the connections of Mak Yong with Langkasuka. In addition, apart from its name, nothing is known about that kingdom, not to mention the identities of its rulers. Mohamad Afandi Ismail (1973) also studied Mak Yong in his research e ntitled 'Mak Yong – A Survey from the Point View of Presentation'. He had divided his study into f our chapters, first, the history of Mak Yong, second, the preparation stage, third, the conventions in Mak Yong presentation, and fourth, a brief survey of various aspects of performance. He had collec ted information about Mak Yong purporting to prove the origin of Mak Yong from Setiu, a place ne ar the border of Kelantan and Terengganu. It seems that much of the information similar to what ha d been done independently by Ghulam-Sarwar Yousof (1976). It could be said that this is the first a ttempt made to give an account of how Mak Yong is from the point view of performance. Mak Yong also has been reviewed by Ghulam-Sarwar Yousof (1976) in his PhD thesis entitled 'The Kelantan Mak Yong Dance Theatre : A Performance Study of Structure' who studied the Mak Yong performances in terms of structure. He had divided his study into two parts, the history of Mak Yon g and cultural influence of religion in society and secondly, the elements of dance in the show itself. He concluded that due to incomplete information, the possibilities of early history of Mak Yong are as follows: out of an early shamanistic and folk style, Mak Yong developed two strands; the folk a nd the court. He stressed that this happened when Mak Yong found a place in the court Ghulam-Sar war Yousof (1976). However, there are still more other aspects to develop in terms of research in Mak Yong. He listed glossary of words in Mak Yong but it was just a mere explanation of the mea ning of the words and did not based on the concept system in a Mak Yong performance. A study by Habshah Mohd Noordin (1999) titled "Mak Yong Kelantan: A Study of Aesthetic Arts" reviewed the aesthetics of art in Kelantan Mak Yong performance. He had analyzed the data based on the theory that emphasizes the aesthetics of beauty aspects (entertainment) and means (benefit). His research f ocuses on aspects of presentation, form (appearance Mak Yong) and substance (soul Mak Yong). Th is study highlights the aspects of the beauty and meaning of life are the manifestation of artistic prac tice. This study also analyses the aesthetic aspects found in Mak Yong performance by taking exam ples from the story Raja Tangkai Hati presented in 1999. Although his research is quite enlightenin g but it does not reflect the terminology of a Mak Yong within a terminology framework. Rosdeen Suboh (2005) in his study titled 'Role of Actors and Characters in Mak Yong' focuses on t he role and character that played the Mak Yong performance. He also explained about the aesthetic character which used to be played by female actors, then later also played by the male actor. Some o
f the characters found in Mak Yong are Pak Yong, Mak Yong, Peran, Inang, Tok Wak, Dewa etc. Th e data provided in this research are helpful for a terminologist to gather more information specificall y the characteristics needed for coining a term. The art of Mak Yong has been reviewed by Solehah Ishak (2010), entitled The Art and Culture of Kelantan. In her research, she had studied and describ ed the diversity of art in the state of Kelantan such as Mak Yong, Wayang Kulit, Dikir Barat and so on. However, studies that has been done of a general nature and do not focus on the Mak Yong. To conclude, there is not much research had been done about the terminology in Mak Yong. This pa per explores the native terms used by the practitioners in Mak Yong. The emergence of globalizatio n and development of modern information had its impact on multilingual communication. Mak Yon g is less well received by the community even more forgotten by the younger generation today. The new generation is less expose to Mak Yong. Therefore, every effort should be made to preserve the Malay heritage by collecting terminology and vocabulary associated with these performance arts. In addition, there is still no documentation done for each term in Mak Yong. Therefore, this study will look into the terminological framework of Mak Yong. 3.
Research Focus
The researcher is looking at native terms and the formation of concept system and concept relations in Mak Yong. The study involved the preparation of concept mapping and definition of the term in Mak Yong. Therefore, this study will (i) identify the terminology used in the Mak Yong, and (ii) buil d system concepts and concept relationships in Mak Yong. 4.
Theory And Methodology
The relationship between concept and terminology can be seen in the Wuster’s term model (Felber: 1984) in Figure 1. The concept is the meaning of an object which is represented by a symbol or ter m, and the interrelated relationship between the three is as shown below in Figure 1. Fig. 1.: Wuster’s Term Model (Translation by H. Felber 1980; in brackets terms used by Ogden 1923) The above triangle was first introduced by Gomprez (1980). Later on, this model was modified by several other scholars like Dittrich (1913), Ogden (1923) and Knobloch (1959). Wüster (1984) later altered the model by incorporating Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory and produced a terminology mod el which includes symbol, meaning and object. Based on such approach, Wuster explained that any t erminological work begins with a concept. The purpose of which is to limit the concept itself. In su mmary, traditional approach in the field of terminology correlates with the relationship of concept a nd term. Terminological work begins from concept and due attention is given to the current structur e of concepts and its representation. In this framework, concept plays a very important role. The concept is the cornerstone of the GTT ( General Theory of Terminology) and it is the starting point of any work on terminology. A concept i s defined as an element of thinking, which consists of an aggregate of characteristics which themsel ves are concepts (Felber 1984:102). In order to support this argument, Felber named three important aspects in terminology. First, terminology is a deliberate creation. In general language, the standar d refers to the usage of language, while in terminology; any arbitrary use of language will result in c onfusion. Second, standardization of a terminology requires solid translinguistic guidelines. Third, t erminology places more importance to the written form rather than the phonics form. The research f ield we are talking about is a practical application of the traditional approach in coining terms in the Malay terminology, which also implies using native creations in the process. The researcher also used the General Guidelines for the Formation of Terms in Malay (1992: 4-6)
ILCC 2013
118
as a guideline for collecting the terms. There are three sources available for the formation of terms, t he first are from the vocabulary of the common Malay word that is any common word in Malay (inc luding words from dialects or archive languages) could be made terms on condition that the particul ar word gives the exact meaning, concept, process, situation or characteristics intended. The second source is from the vocabulary of words in the Malay language family. The third source is from a vo cabulary of words in foreign languages. However, in this research it seems that the first and the seco nd are more appropriate. Collection of these terms began with library research and followed by field work. 5.
Data Analysis
An analysis of terminology begins with the concept system and concept relations discussed in a spe cific field. The concept system is linked to the concept of logical or ontological relationship. Logica l relationship is a relationship based on equality (similarity) of intention in a concept. This relations hip is also known as generic relationship. Logical relationship can be divided into four types namely subordinate, intersection, coordinate and diagonal which consists of a vertical and horizontal serie s. However, the association of ontology is an indirect relationship between concepts. This relationsh ip exists between the concepts discussed. This relationship is characterized by correlation in space a nd time. The main ontology relationship falls into partitive, succession, and material-productive rela tionship. Based on the corpus collected, the researcher found that the generic relationship is more d ominant compare to the ontological relationship which can be found in the concept system of Mak Yong’s instruments. Native formation can be divided into two, namely the formation of hybrid and derivative. Native hy brids are used to form a Malay term in a specific field. In addition, native derivatives used the entire term and rules in Malay. Terms and concepts in the field of terminology interlinked with each other . The corpus of this research is the collection of terms used in Mak Yong performance. Data represe nted in this paper are limited to concept system in process, characterization, and dance in Mak Yong . Concept System for Process in Mak Yong Fig:2 Concept System for Process in Mak Yong Peformance Terms and Definition for the Concept ‘Process’ in Mak Yong Proses persembahan (performance process) Proses persembahan merupakan urutan atau susunan tindakan dalam sesebuah persembahan. The process of performing an action sequence or order in a presentation. proses awal (initial process) Proses permulaan dalam persembahan Mak Yong. The beginning process in Mak Yong performances. buka panggung Proses awal apabila para pelakon masuk ke pentas atau “panggung” bagi upacara permulaan. The initial process in which the actors enter the stage or 'panggung' for initiation ceremonies. sembah guru
Upacara awal yang dilakukan dalam “buka panggung” yang merupakan lambang kewujudan konse p menuntut ilmu yang menghubungkan guru dengan murid. Early rituals performed in the 'buka panggung' are a symbol of the existence of the concept of studyi ng that link teachers and students. berjamu Upacara awal dalam buka panggung yang menggunakan pulut kunyit, bertih, beras kunyit yang dile takkan di bawah pentas. The first event in the buka panggung using pulut kunyit (sticky rice), bertih, saffron rice placed und er the stage. bertabuh Pelakon akan mengadap rebab dan muzik atau “lagu bertabuh “ dimainkan.. Actors will be facing the rebab and music or 'song bertabuh' played. mengadap rebab Proses apabila pelakon akan duduk berhadapan dengan rebab sambil menyanyi dan menari mengiku t irama gesekan rebab. The process when the actor will sit opposite rebab while singing and dancing to the rhythm of rebab virtuoso. proses pertengahan Proses apabila cerita akan diperkembangkan bagi memberi pemahaman kepada penonton. The process when the story will be developed to provide an understanding of the audience. memperkenalkan diri Proses yang melibatkan watak utama atau Pak Yong akan memperkenalkan dirinya,negeri, asal-usul dan istananya melalui “lagu ela”. The process involving the main character or Pak Yong will introduce himself, state, and origin of th e palace through 'lagu ela'. pecah cerita Proses perkembangan cerita apabila jalan cerita Mak Yong akan berubah mengikut kisah yang diper sembahkan. The process when the development of the Mak Yong’s storyline changes according to the story pres ented. tutup panggung Proses penutup dalam sesebuah persembahan Mak Yong. Proses simbolik, iaitu ucapan terima kasih kepada kuasa ghaib kerana tidak menganggu perjalanan persembahan Mak Yong. The closing process in a Mak Yong performance. It is a symbolic process, which thanks to supernat ural for not disrupting the flow of Mak Yong performance. In the example, concept of Malay terms buka panggung, berjamu, pecah cerita, bertabuh, and semba h guru, is clearly contextualized into the field of Mak Yong. The object identified has the concept o f process performance. In the process of conceptualization, the nature of the object (in this case is th e abstract form) forms a set, which is abstracted into characteristics based on the process in the perf ormance of Mak Yong. The characteristics of each object are then analyzed to describe its concept, which subsequently forms a concept system and summarizes an appropriate definition to assist in fo
ILCC 2013
120
rming designation either in the form of a letter or a symbol. These native terms represent a specific concept in Mak Yong and could not be replaced by another term in English which might convey a different concept. These terms can be standardized at the international level by having a technical c ommittee handling the terms in performing arts. This shows that concept systems play an important role in coining terms. The professionals in the creative industry such as Mak Yong needs a conceptu al apparatus in developing , standardizing, and naming concepts. Antia (1994) stresses that concept systems constitute in many respects a particularly interesting object of research. Concept System for Character in Mak Yong
Fig:2 Concept System for Character in Mak Yong Terms and Definition for the Concept ‘Character’in Mak Yong watak Pelaku dalam sesebuah karya sastera atau karya seni. Character in a literary or artistic work. watak utama (main character) Watak yang dominan dalam sesebuah karya. Watak ini terlibat secara aktif dan berterusan serta men jadi struktur utama dalam perkembangan plot. The dominant character in a work. This character actively and continuously and become the main st ructure in the development of the plot. Pak Yong Watak utama yang berperanan sebagai raja atau pemerintah dan menjadi tulang belakang dalam ceri ta Mak Yong. The main character role as king or ruler and become the backbone of the story Mak Yong. Mak Yong Watak utama yang berperanan sebagai permaisuri dalam persembahan Mak Yong dan boleh memeg ang banyak watak seperti puteri raja. The main character role as queen of the Mak Yong performance and can hold a lot of characters suc h as a princess. Puteri Mak Yong Watak utama yang berperanan sebagai heroin dalam cerita Mak Yong. The main character in the story serves as a heroine Mak Yong. peran Pemain sandiwara atau pelawak dalam persembahan Mak Yong. Pelakon yang melakonkan watak lu cu dan berperanan sebagai pengawal dan pelindung raja. Peran terdiri daripada dua orang pelakon, i aitu peran tua dan peran muda. Dalam dialek Kelantan dikenali sebagai awe pengasuh atau dalam b ahasa standard dikenali sebagai awang pengasuh.
sin. Awe pengasuh, awang pengasuh awe pengasuh lih. peran awang pengasuh
lih. peran
Performer or comedian in Mak Yong performance. The actor who plays jokes and serves as a guard and protector of the king. Peran consists of two actors, peran tua and peran muda. watak sampingan Watak pembantu atau peranannya lebih kecil daripada watak utama dalam sesuatu karya. Assistant character or role is smaller than the main character in a work. dayang-dayang Watak sampingan yang berperanan sebagai penari atau pengasuh mak yong. Pelakon ini juga berfun gsi sebagai jong dondang. Assistant character as a dancer or nanny in Mak Yong.This character also serves as jong dondang. jong dondang Suara korus atau suara ramai. Chorus voice. tok wak Watak sampingan yang berperanan sebagai Tok Wak Nujum, Tok Wak Tukang dan sebagainya Side characters that serve as Tok Wak Nujum, Tok Wak Tukang and others. dewa Watak sampingan yang berperanan sebagai watak yang mengembalikan keharmonian dalam cerita Mak Yong. Side character role who that restores harmony in Mak Yong. jin/ gergasi Watak sampingan yang berperanan sebagai watak jahat serta menimbulkan konflik dalam persemba han Mak Yong. A side character who plays the evil character and create conflicts in Mak Yong performance. In the system of concepts and concept relationships, the main character and side character is the spe cies, while character is the genus. The graphical representation of the concept system helps a termin ologist to define the term by analyzing the characteristics of each concept. The native terms such a s dayang-dayang, peran, jong dondang, awe pengasuh (dialect from Kelantan) cannot be replaced b y any terms in other languages unless there is a similar concept in the culture which support the sam e concept relations in this field. The practical applications need not be the same for every country, s ubject filed or user group. However, it can be noted that the General Theory of Terminology (GTT) inspired by Wuster is also result of practical terminology. The terms Pak Yong, Mak Yong, and Pu teri Mak Yong are co-ordinates in concept relations to the genus watak utama (main character). The terms constitute the same characteristics which are watak utama but there is added characteristic th at differs from one term to another. In the compilation and collection of terms in a specialized field , this is not the only one or the most reliable approach. Concept System for Dance/Tarian in Mak Yong
ILCC 2013
122
Fig:3 Concept System for Dance/Tarian in Mak Yong Terms and Definition for the Concept ‘Dance’ in Mak Yong tarian Tarian merupakan gerakan badan yang diringi dengan nyanyian yang sesuai dengan makna dan tuju an tarian itu. Gerakan tangan dan badan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang mempunyai dua unsur p enting, iaitu gerak dan irama. Gerak merupakan satu bentuk spontan daripada kehendak yang terdap at dalam jiwa,manakala irama merupakan bunyi teratur yang mengiringi gerak tersebut. Dance is body movements that accompanied by an appropriate song with meaning and purpose of t he dance. Hands and body movements in mengadap rabbit have two important elements of moveme nt and rhythm. Movement is a spontaneous form of requirements contained in the soul, while the rh ythm is irregular sounds that accompany the motion. tarian mengadap rebab Tarian sambil menyanyi yang diketuai oleh seorang Pak Yong dan diikuti dengan korus-korus atau p enari-penari seramai 15 orang. Tarian ini haruslah mengikut rentak paluan gong manakala pergerak an dalam bulatan pula haruslah bergerak mengikut arah jam dan lawan jam. Tarian ini sangat halus dan ditarikan dengan penuh kesopanan dan lemah gemalai. Satu pendekatan yang digunakan untuk bercerita perihal tingkah laku atau perbuatan seorang Raja sebagai pengenalan cerita melalui tarian i ni. A dance while singing led by a Pak Yong and followed by choruses or of 15 dancers. This dance should follow the gongs and the rhythmic movement of the hand circle should move clo ckwise and counterclockwise. This a very delicate dance and should be danced with great modesty a nd grace. The approach used to describe the behavior or act of the King serves as an introduction of a story through dance. tangan susun sirih Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan dengan tapak tangan kanan mengada p ke kiri dan jari menunjuk ke hadapan. Tangan kiri diletakkan di bawah siku tangan kanan, ketika melakukan pergerakan ini, badan dicondongkan ke kiri dan ke kanan sebanyak empat kali kemudian tangan dihayun ke sisi sebanyak empat kali. Hands movement in mengadap rebab with your palms facing to the left and right fingers pointing fo rward. The left hand is placed under the right elbow, while performing this movement, body tilted to the left and to the right hand four times, then swung to the side four times. Photo 1 : Demonstration of tangan susun sirih gajah lambung belalai Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan semasa penari duduk dalam keadaan bertimpuh. Badan dicondongkan ke hadapan dengan kedua-dua tangan di atas lantai. Kemudian tan gan diangkat ke atas paras kepala sama ada sedikit ke kiri dan ke kanan, sambil badan dicondongka n bertentangan arah tangan. Jika tangan dinaikkan di sebelah kanan, badan dicondongkan ke arah ki ri pula. Tangan dari atas dibukakan terjuntai ke bawah. Hands movement in mengadap rebab while dancers sit in bertimpuh. Body tilted forward with both hands on the floor. Then the hands lifted above the head either slightly to the left and to the right, w hile the body tilted towards the opposite hand. If the right hand raised, body tilted toward the left. A rms open hanging from the top-down.
Photo 2 : Demonstration of gajah lambung belalai sawa mengorak lingkaran Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan dengan kedua-dua belah tangan dihay unkan ke kiri dan kanan sebanyak empat kali sambil badan bergerak ke kanan secara perlahan-lahan , kemudian berada dalam keadaan duduk bertimpuh, penari akan menghayunkan tangan ke kiri dan kanan sebanyak empat kali dan akan melakukan pergerakan ‘mati tari’. Hands movement in mengadap rebab with both hands to the left and right swung four times while th e body moves to the right slowly, then be in a sitting bertimpuh, dancers will sway left and right han ds four times and do the 'mati tari'. Photo 3 : Demonstration of sawa mengorak lingkaran lambung belalai seludang menolak mayang Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan semasa duduk. Kedua-dua tangan ber ada di tepi bersudut 45 darjah, kemudian kedua-dua tangan dinaikkan ke paras bahu dan tangan mel akukan pusingan ke hadapan. Ketinggian tangan Pak Yong haruslah bertentangan dengan mata hita m, manakala ketinggian tangan Mak Yong berada pada kedudukan tangan di paras bahu. Hands movement in the mengadap rebab while seated. Both hands are on the edge angle of 45 degre es, then raised both arms to shoulder level and the arms turn round the head. Pak Yong’s hand shoul d be at the same level as the black eye, while Mak Yong’s hand should be at the shoulder level, Photo 4 : Demonstration of seludang menolak mayang mengorak lingkaran tangan liuk kiri longlai ke kanan Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan dalam keadaan duduk bertimpuh bias a. Kedua-dua tangan diangkat ke hadapan. Sambil mencondongkan badan ke kiri, tangan kiri digera kkan ke tepinya, menyokong badan yang condong, bergerak ke kiri sebanyak lima kali sebelum ke kedudukan asal. Setelah itu, tangan kiri diluruskan sambil badan ditegakkan. Tangan kanan pula me lakukan pergerakan yang sama, dengan tangan kanan menyokong badan yang condong. Hands movement in mengadap rebab made in the ordinary bertimpuh seat. Both hands lifted forwar d. While tilting the body to the left, the left hand moved to his side, supporting the body tilted, mov ed to the left as much as five times prior to the original position. After that, the left hand while the b ody straightened upheld. The right hand will do the same movement, with the right hand supporting the tilted body. Photo 5 : Demonstration of seludang menolak mayang ikan seluang beranak Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan semasa duduk. Tangan dihanyun ke k iri dengan melakukan pergerakan bulatan kecil sebanyak empat kali. Setelah itu, tangan mengadap h adapan serta melakukan pergerakan ‘mati tari’ iaitu dengan membuat putaran tangan ke hadapan. K edua-dua tapak tangan mengadap hadapan pada akhir pergerakan ini. Hands movement in mengadap rebab while seated. The left hands swing to the left by circulating s mall circular motions four times. After that, faced the hand forward and do the 'mati tari' which is th e rotation of the arms to the front. Both palms facing forward at the end of this movement. Photo 6 : Demonstration of ikan seluang beranak sirih layah dijunjung Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan semasa duduk. Semasa duduk, tangan kanan berada di tepi. Penari kemudiannya berpusing mengadap ke belakang pentas dengan mengge
ILCC 2013
124
rakkan kaki kiri ke sebelah kaki kanan. Pada ketika yang sama, tangan kanan dihanyunkan ke hadap an sementara yang tangan kiri disendatkan ke belakang badan, dengan tapak tangan mengadap ke lu ar. (pusing 1 bulatan menghadap hadapan dengan pergerakan sulur memain angin). Sin : sirih layah dijunjung/ sirih layoh dijunjung Hands movement in mengadap rebab while seated. During the sitting, the right hand at side. The da ncers then turn the back to the stage by moving the left leg to right leg. At the same time, the right h and is swayed forward while the left hand held to the back, with palms facing outward. (Turn 1 circl e facing forward with the movement of the pergerakan sulur memain angin). Photo 7 : Demonstration of sirih layah dijunjung berdiri tapak tiga dan mengadap timur jaga Gerakan tangan dan badan dalam tarian mengadap rebab, iaitu perantaraan antara keadaan duduk at au bertinggung dengan keadaan berdiri. Dalam keadaan bertinggung, tangan dihanyunkan bergantiganti ke hadapan dan ke belakang (disebut sebagai limba). Limba dilakukan sebanyak empat kali, k emudian bangun dengan pergerakan susun sirih, kirat penghabisan dan diakhiri dengan pergerakan s ulur memain angin. Pergerakan ini merupakan penghabisan kepada tarian mengadap rebab. Hands and body movement in mengadap rebab, the intermediate between a sitting or squatting to st anding. In the event of squatting, hands are swung alternately forward and backward (called limba). Do the limba four times, then followed by susun sirih, kirat penghabisan and finishes with pergerak an sulur memain angin. This is the final movement of mengadap rebab. Photo 8 : Demonstration of berdiri tapak tiga dan mengadap timur jaga duduk atas tumit Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan dalam kedudukan punggung duduk at as tumit, bermula dengan pergerakan ‘pecah tari’ iaitu kedua-dua tangan diturunkan ke lutut sebelu m digerakkan ke tepi, lalu digerakkan masuk dan diturunkan. Semasa menurunkan tangan, tapak tan gan dicampak dengan jari menunjuk ke bawah. Kemudian berdiri sambil kedua-dua belah tangan m engadap sembah ke penonton, menandakan selesai persembahan Mak Yong. Hands movement in mengadap rebab by sitting in heel dorsal position, started by 'pecah tari' with both hands moved down to its knees before the edge, then moved in and lowered. While lowering th e hands, palms moved forward with the fingers pointing down. Then stood with both hands facing t he audience, marks the completion of Mak Yong. Photo 8 : Demonstration of duduk atas tumit kirat penghabisan Gerakan tangan dan badan dalam tarian mengadap rebab, iaitu berdiri tapak tiga mengadap timur ja ga. Penari melangkah ke kanan dengan kaki kanan dan pada masa yang sama menghayunkan tangan kiri ke kanan. Penari kemudian berpusing mengadap hadapan pentas dengan kaki kanan sambil me nggerakkan tangan kiri ke hadapan dan menyendatkan tangan kanan merentas bahagian belakang ba dan. Kaki kiri kemudian melangkah ke hadapan dan berhenti di sisi kaki kanan. Keseluruhan perger akan ini dilakukan di sebelah kiri. Hands and body movement in mengadap rebab which is berdiri tapak tiga mengadap timur jaga. Th e dancers move to the right with your right foot and at the same time swinging left to right hand. Th e dancers then turned to face the front of the stage with the right foot while moving the left hand for ward and tighten the right hand across the back of the body. Step the left foot forward and stop at th
e side of the right leg. This whole movement is done on the left. Photo 8 : Demonstration of kirat penghabisan Communication uses the terminological units representing the specialized knowledge and transferri ng of knowledge. From the above concept system and definitions, it can bee seen that terminologica l units are widely used for communication. Cabré (1994:35-37) states that from a social perspective , the communicative role of terminology seems to have the same importance as the representational role. What is more important is the acceptability of the society of the terms. This can be illustrated i n the concept of dance in Mak Yong. The terms used in demonstrating the movements basically are native words which represent the concepts in Mak Yong. The Mak Yong performance begins with a n opening ceremony called the buka panggung (opening of the stage) with prayers, offerings of food and the consecration of the musical instruments and other items (Patricia, 2004). Antia (1994) agre ed that terminology does not belong to artificial language but it shares the basic of a general langua ge. This shows that terminology occurs in natural communication. Thus, the understanding of conce ptual system and concept relations is an important aspect of any terminology work. 6.
Conclusion
Mak Yong as traditional performing arts has the potential growth in Malaysia. Malay traditional per formers should be given opportunities to perform at international level. In addition, Mak Yong sho uld be looked upon as a national heritage that must be studied as a science in its own field. This will bring one of Malaysia’s worlds heritages to the world stage. The documentation of Mak Yong’s ter ms as a field of knowledge can help the development of Mak Yong as an important subject in the ac ademic world. This formation of terms using native words and its rules will help to enrich the Mala y vocabulary. In this age of globalization, transferring knowledge need a tool as a knowledge provi der especially if we are interested to bring Mark Yong to the highest level and to the world stage. Th us, terminology plays an important in language and communication and hopefully this research cont ribute for the purpose. 7.
Acknowledgement
The researcher would like to thank the University of Malaya for providing funding for this research, under the provisions RG396-12HNE UMRG. Also to research assistants Fameza Nor Ismail, Siti Fa tini Mat Yusof, Rozita Siti Kassim Mohamad and Suziana and Puan Fatimah Abdullah (Mak Yong p ractitioner) for this study. 8.
References
Ahmad Fathy al-Fatani (1994) Pengantar Sejarah Patani. Alor Setar: Pustaka Darussalam, Felber, H. 1984 Terminology Manual: First Edition, Vienna: International Information Centre for T erminology. General Guideline for the Formation of Terms in Malay, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka: Kuala Lumpu r, (1992) Ghulam Sarwar (Ghulam Sarwar Yousof) (1976) The Kelantan Mak Yong Dance Theatre : A Study of Performance Structure. Thesis (pH. D.) --University of Hawaii at Manoa. Habshah Mohd Noordin (1999) Mak Yong Kelantan : Satu Kajian Estetika Seni. Akademi Pengajia n Melayu: Universiti Malaya. Kaplan, R. And Ricahard B. Bauldauf Jr. (1997) Language Planning from Practice to Theory (Multi lingual Matters Series , No 108) [Paperback] Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Mohamad Afandi Ismail (1973) ‘Mak Yong – A Survey from the Point View of Presentation.” Unpu blished. Academic Exercise. University of Malaya. Mohamad Afandi Ismail. 1975. ‘Perkembangan Mak Yong sebagai satu seni teater tradisional’ Dew an Bahasa Vol. 9 No. 6. Pg. 363-366.
ILCC 2013
126
Mubin Sheppard, (1969)“Ma’ Yong: The Malay Dance Drama” Tenggara, Vol. 5. pg. 107-113. Mubin Sheppard, 1969.“The text of the Sung Portion of ‘Dewa Muda’ and a Further Notes on Ma’ Yong Stories’ Federation Museum Journal. Pg. 39-75. Rosdeen Suboh( 2005) Peran Mak Yong: Pelakon dan Watak. MA dissertation. University of Malay a. Solehah Ishak (2010) Seni dan Budaya Kelantan. Kuala Lumpur : Persatuan Muzium Malaysia. Teeuw & D.K. Wyatt 1970. Hikayat Patani: The Story of Patani. Bibliotheca Indonesica, 5. The Hag ue: Martinus Nijhoff.
English Song as an Asset to Improve Middle-aged EL Learner’s Listening Skill Masoome Noori, Alireza Jamshidi Jahad Daneshgahi University Abstract. The simple objective of this study is to help adults(older than 40) to improve their English language listening skill through English language songs. To this aim, two groups of about thirty homogenous adult male language learners aged from 41 to 56 were selected. The members of the control group r eceived 14 fill- in- the- blank narrative listening homeworks to do , while the members of the exper imental group received 14 fill- in- the- blank song listening homeworks to do. After two weeks, both groups were given the post test and the results, submitted to a t-test, approve d that the experimental group did better on the post test. This study takes the view that the song listening homework is a more powerful asset in teachin g to the language learners, than narrative listening homework. Keywords: input , receptive skill , song Introduction However it has been long supposed that after puberty , as the suitable age of language learning, it would be impossible for adults to learn a second language, but today it has been proved that , out of some special aspects of language , every adult person can start learning a second language as a mea ns of communication. Needless to say, enabling students to use English as a means of communication should be the ultima te aim of teaching it. Based on the " input hypothesis"of Krashen ( 1985), listening comprehension, is considered to be one of the most crucial skills without which, as a receptive skill, it would be near ly impossible, to learn such productive skills as, speaking. Vandergrift (1997) believes that listening in a foreign language is a task at a high level of difficulty i n cognitive terms and therefore demands full attention. Listening as Sanchez (2007) defines it, is "a more generalized understanding of the word characteriz ed by the ability to categorize a word, understand its use in a sentence, and understand similar and d issimilar words and their relationships ".(p.17)provides a friendly platform for academic and applica tion professionals from crossing fields to communication together. Review of literature Adults and ELT For a long time scientists thought only kids could achieve high proficiency in a foreign language. E ven today, there is evidence that some aspects of second language acquisition get harder as we age. But a research led by Michael Ullmann and Kara Morgan made a comparison between two groups o f adults learning an artificial language, the one learning through explicit training, similar to standard classroom methods, and the other through implicit training, similar to immersion . After 6 months, t he two groups performed equally on proficiency tests. But brain scans revealed something surprisin g: The group that learned through immersion – like training showed brain activity similar to native s peakers, while the group stuck translating didn't. These results mean. that the immersion group mig ht be able to use the language better in stressful situations and retain the language better than the ex plicitly-learned group Authenticity and Adult ELT
ILCC 2013
128
All Much space has been devoted in language teaching literature to debating desirability of using au thentic materials in language teaching classrooms and, indeed, to defining exactly what constitutes genuine versus simulated texts (Hedge, 2000) . It is the author's view that it is imperative for second language learners to be regularly exposed in the classroom to really unscripted language-to passage s that have not been produced specifically for language learning purposes. As Nunan (1998) points out, "texts written specifically for the classroom generally distort the language in some way" (p.6). When the aim in authenticity in terms of the texts presented to learners is discussed, a common tend ency is to immediately think of written materials such as newspapers and magazines. But, materials designers should also aim for authentic spoken texts. That's really important for the learners to hear the way native speakers do naturally. As Harmer (1998) clearly asserts that these authentic spoken t exts should also be attractive. Then, songs can be one good choice. Song and human language Music, language and communication are all universals of the cultures of this planet. Before the writt en word, stories of war and odes of praise were passed along from tribe to tribe by songs. According to Larrick (1991), wandering minstrels brought literature to the crowds of people in the village squ are. The messenger first sang the content of the message, so he would not forget any of it. Those wh o came to listen were soon singing or chanting repeated lines and sometimes adding new stanzas on the old pattern. (p.3) According to Wilcox (1996), work songs were the answer to group efforts: "work songs comprise a vast literature of music as each country has songs that have been handed down by generations to ad d rhythm and pacing to group work efforts. Some of these are rowing songs, marching songs, and h arvest songs".(p.9). Livingstone (1973) provided anthropological evidence that homo sapiens sang (non-linguistic vocal izations) before speaking. Infants' crib language resembles singing more than speech, and adults nat urally adjust to infants and small children with musical motherese features. Howle(1989) said that lullabies are more than simple nursery songs, serving to set musical patterns t o words the child hears but does not yet comprehend . Richman(1993) noted that many researchers categorize human vocalization into two opposed syste ms, expressing sounds (e.g. sighing, crying, laughing) and speech. He believes that a third type of v ocalization lies between these two systems-singing. Listening Skill and ELT Randaya and Farrell (2010) explain some aspects that differentiate listening from other skills. They state that listening is fast, variable, with blurry word boundaries and has to be processed in real time . All these characteristics make this skill challenging to students. If we compare listening to reading we find that although they are both receptive skills, listening is challenging in different ways. For in stance, when students have reading materials and face problems understanding a sentence, they can always go back and read the sentence again. This is not possible if they have listening material whic h is fast and has to be processed in real time.
It is also important to analyze that blurry word boundaries are very common in many languages and English is not an exception. Students may lack comprehension because words sound connected in s peech. They can also sometimes sound as one word when they are actually two. Halter and Song(2009) did an experiment with two groups. The experimental group followed a com prehension based program and the second a typical language learning program. They state: Students in the experimental group received a great deal more input from listening than students in the regul ar program. This input helped sustain the pronunciation ability of the experimental group , for at lea st one year, in the virtual absence of any speaking practice and exposure to English outside the class room.
Method Participants From among 82 employees of four classes in PRC Company in which I was teaching, 60 homogene ous adult students were selected based on a teacher-made listening cloze pre-test, whose results didn 't show a meaningful difference. The sixty students were divided into two groups randomly. The exp erimental group and the control group. The age of language learners ranged from fourty one to fifty six and they all were males. Materials A pre/post teacher-made test including four cloze listening texts with random deletions made, select ed from Intermediate Select Readings (Lee and Gunderson) was given to the adult language learners , in an interval of two weeks, and 10 cloze quizzes selected from the songs of Chris de Burg, were g iven to the 60 homogenenious adult language learners to listen and fill in the random blanks made b y the teacher in this two- week interval. The experimental group received 10 quizzes as songs and th e control group received them as normal speech narrated . The two groups did their quizzes once pe r day. Procedure To reveal the homogeneity of the two groups, the pre-test was given to the students and then the res ults were submitted to a t-test. It didn't show a meaningful difference. The two homogenous groups were given 10 quizzes. The control group received the randomly-deleted passages (cloze test) as qu iz, to fill in , while listening to the passages narrated , and the experimental group received the same texts to fill in, while listening to the passages in the form of songs . The post-test was given to both groups in an interval of two weeks. Again the results were submitted to a t-test and revealed a meani ngful difference. Results The results of t-test of the pretest scores of the two groups Paired Differences 95% Confidence I Mea Std. Devi Std. Error nterval of the Diff n ation Mean erence Pre tests
.400 0
1.13259
.20678 Fig. 1
Lower
Upper
-.0229
.8229
t
df
Sig. (2-t ailed)
1.93 4
29
.063
ILCC 2013
130
It can be seen that the amount of t-observed isn't statistically significant (t-observed =1.934, p = .o6 3) which means that the two groups of participants were homogenous at the beginning of the experi ment. The results of the t-test of the posttest scores of the two groups
Mea n posttests
6.83 3
Paired Differences 95% Confidence I Std. Devi Std. Error nterval of the Diff ation Mean erence
3.1303
.57151
Lower
Upper
5.6645
8.0022
t
df
11.957 29
Sig. (2-t ailed)
.000
Fig. 2 Calculation of the t-test at the confidence level 95% indicated a statistically significant difference be tween two group's posttests (t= 11.957, p= .000 ). The mean scores showed that the experimental group, who had received cloze tests while listening t o songs did better than control group who had received cloze tests while listening to narrations.
References Harmer, J. (1998) How To Teach English. Harlow: Longman Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom, Oxford University Press. Howle, M. J. (1989). Twinkle, twinkle little star: It’s more than just a nursery song. Children Today, 18 (4), 18-22. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: issues and implications. New York: Laredo Publishing Company Larrick, N. (1991). Let’s do a poem! New York: Delacorte Press. Lee, L., & Gundersen, E. ( 2001). Intermediate Select Readings. Livingstone, F. B. (1973). Did the Australopithecines sing? Current Anthropology, 14 (25-29), 1-2 Morgan-Short, K., & Ullman, M. T. (2011). The neurocognition of second language. In S. M. Gass & A. Mackey (Eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Routledge. Nunan, D. (1998). Approaches to Teaching Listening in the Language Classroom.Paper presented at the Korea TESOL Conference, Seoul. Renandya. W. & Farrell. T. (in press). Teacher, the tape is too fast! Extensive listening in ELT. ELT journal, 64(2). doi:10.1093/elt/ccq015. Richman, B. (1993). On the evolution of speech: Singing as the middle term. Current Anthropology, 34, 721-722.
Sanchez, SJ.M. (2007). From Caterpillars to Patriotic Butterflies: Empowering &Teaching English Literacy to Adult Learners with an EL Civics Curriculum.University of Texas at Austin. Unpublished manuscript. Vandergrift, L. (1997). The comprehension strategies of second language (French) Listeners: A descriptive study. Foreign Language Annals, 30 (3), 387-409. Wilcox, D.A. (1996). Differentiating climatic and successional influences on long-term development of a marsh. Ecology 77:1765-1778.
ILCC 2013
132
Exploration of Cohesive Devices of English to streamline Arabic Communication Skills
Dr. Yahya Toyin MURITALA Kulliyyah of Languages and Management KLM, International Islamic University Malaysia IIUM,
[email protected] [email protected]
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to highlight the cohesive tools discussed by the Scholars of English Langua ge with the effort of putting them into use in the modern Arabic Language. The study which relies o n the descriptive and analytical methods will answer some questions on the possibility of borrowing the linguistic ideas from one language to another in spite of different origins. Although, Arabic has some distinct features, as a Semitic Language, which are not available in most European Languages including English, it can still be benefitted through the application of cohesive devices studied in E nglish for the purpose of effective global communication. The paper also suggests instances in whic h such devices may be applied in Arabic. Furthermore, it concludes with references to the cohesive usages in the Arabic Classical Texts like Quran, prophetic traditions and in the literary works of the early Arab Scholars, as it also affirms that exploration and exploitation of the English cohesive devi ces should not be the factor for the annihilation of the principles of the standard Arabic when it com es to the real communication skills and analysis. Keywords: Cohesive devices, Textual Linguistics, English, Standard Arabic and Global Communic ation.
INTRODUCTION The Article introduces the cohesive devices used in English texts to the learners of the modern stand ard Arabic in terms of communicative skills and in line with the global needs to achieve effective co mmunication on specific purposes. Although, there might be references in the works of the early Ar ab Scholars in that regard, the demand for the developing such devices becomes more imperative as the world today is tending towards advancement in discourse analysis with general understanding a nd comprehensive interaction in various human aspects of life. The focus of the study is on the ways in which the devices can be successfully applied in the use of common standard Arabic. The application exploits comparison of English texts with Arabic sentenc es as composed in the classical and modern works on communication skills.
Language and Communication: Language learning is strongly connected with the purpose rendered by human communication irresp ective of the geographical locations, economic situations, social backgrounds, cultural and religious dogmas of different communities of mankind in terms of reasons, skills and segments. Learning for travels to various nations is one of the most common reasons to learn an international language. Ma ny people learn such language to connect with certain category of people while many others learn it for business. Likewise, the purpose to learn a certain language may arise from the religious affiliatio ns and social interactions with other people. The reasons for students to learn languages especially international languages like English, French,
and Arabic etc are many and not restricted to the purpose of graduation or getting certain educationa l degrees from citadels of learning. Learning an international language is not limited to its traditiona l grammatical concepts, vocabularies and different sounds, but rather it goes beyond such methods i n this contemporary age when human beings are in 21st Global Village as it should give insights into other cultures, create a more positive attitudes toward people who are culturally different and give u s a better understanding of what it is like to be an immigrant. If this could be accomplished, there wi ll be increased prestige in the learners, cultures and markedly increased status in other cultures. Mea nwhile, it is a good skill to strive to become a World Citizen as the knowledge of other languages gi ves us a better understanding of our own languages and our own cultures. Therefore, the role of Arabic language in this regard is very much significant because it is a living international language connected with religious doctrines, commercial transactions with many count ries of the globe, diplomatic relations, tourism and educational influences. Not only that, it is a majo r language of two continents of the world as it is widely spoken in the North and the middle east of Asia. Although, there are many linguistic areas in which Arabic language is required to streamline it s roles to play to contribute to the effective global communication of the modern period, the focus o f this paper is to enhance the understanding of the Arabic Language learners on the exploitation of t he textual standards with concentration on the cohesive devices as specimen during the textual struc turing. Learning how to produce a continuous text is an essential part of learning a language. To describe what makes a text hang together, the term 'cohesion' is typically used. In order to equip and educate learners with this textual standard among others, textbooks often provide lists of cohesive devices th at can be grouped into grammatical and lexical devices. Like in Arabic Language, Halliday and Has an identify five main cohesive devices in English: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and l exical cohesion. But as it well known, Arabic and English belong to different language families, and it is natural that they may pose great difficulties and challenges for the dealers of the markets of the global communications. The formal and serious teaching of cohesion might, to a great extent, enhan ce the students' consciousness in interacting successfully between the two languages.
Arabic Language: Between traditional grammatical rules and textual standards: Glimpse on the Traditional Grammatical Structuring: According to the New Encyclopedia Britannica, Arabic language is Southern-Central Semitic langu age spoken in a large area including North Africa, most of the Arabian Peninsula, and other parts of the Middle East. It is the language of the Qur'an and is the religious language of all Muslims. Litera ry Arabic, usually called Classical Arabic, is essentially the form of the language found in the Qur'a n, with some modifications necessary for its use in modern times; it is uniform throughout the Arab world1. Arabic, which is a good example of the Semitic languages, has some distinct rules in its syntactical principles1. These rules are the tools and articles for the removal of ambiguity in language structurin g. They traditionally include: 1- Al-’I‘rab (Inflection/ parsing): This means the transformation of the vowels that adhere to the e nds of words due to the occurring of certain factors. This transformation aids the comprehension of the functions of such words and leads to its intended meanings. For example: Qara'tu Kitaaba 'Akhii Al-Kabiiri= I read the book of my senior brother Qara'tu Kitaaba 'Akhii Al-Kabiira= I read the voluminous book of my brother. So, as the first Al-Kabiiri which qualifies the brother is inflected with 'jarr' (genitive case) in confor mity with the grammatical position of 'Akhii (my brother), the second Al-Kabiira that qualifies the b ook has 'nasb' (accusative case) in conformity with the grammatical situation of Kitaaba (book) whi
ILCC 2013
134
ch is the object in that sentence. This inflective implication can be traced to the Quranic verse where Almighty Allah said: {Innama a Yakhshaa Allaaha min 'Ibaadihi Al-'Ulamaa'u}1. Meaning: "It is only those who have knowledg e among His slaves that fear Allah…"1. Unlike European languages, the arrangement order in that Q uranic portion is not considered but the inflectional indication; if not, the intended meaning would h ave been twisted out and distorted. Therefore, it is the objective position with accusative case of the word "Allah" and the subjective position with nominative case of the word Al-'Ulamaa'u (i.e. thos e who have knowledge) that saves the receivers of the message from spoilt and adulterated meaning of the verse as well as it consequently affirms the accurate intended meaning and removes the ambi guity. 2- Ar-Rutbah or At-Tarkeeb (Order in structural arrangement): This means the arrangement of t he segments of a sentence orderly. In classical Arabic, this is of two types: the preserved order and t he unpreserved order: i- The preserved order is the order in which the Arabs were known to have been applying in their sp eeches invariably. This order includes; Production of verb before the subject in the verbal sentences (except in the Kufan school of Arabic Grammar), Al-Mudaaf (the possessed) before Al-Mudaaf ilay hi (the possessed) in the possessive case, Fi'lush Shart (conditional verb) before Jawaabush Shart ( apodosis) and Sifat (adjective) after Al-Mawsuuf (the qualified noun). ii- The unpreserved order which is the type of order in which the Arabs were known to have been ap plying in their speeches interchangeably. For example, the subject comes naturally before the object but sometimes the object may precede the subject. This is apparent in the verse discussed under the inflection where Allah says: {Innamaa Yakhshaa Allaaha min 'Ibaadihi Al-'Ulamaa'u}1. Meaning : "It is only those who have knowledge among His slaves that fear Allah…"1. However, the producti on of subject before object will be inevitable when the confusion and doubt are being feared like in t he following sentence: 'Allama Musaa 'Isaa (i.e. Musa taught Isa) because the ending vowels of th e two names as underlined above sound identically and there is no distinguishing inflective device t o separate the indicative positions of the two. Therefore, the word Musa that precedes the word Isa i n the sentence is the subject while Isa is the object. Likewise, the precession of object before subject may be unavoidable in some cases like where a pronoun that refers to the object is attached or joine d with the subject e.g. Allah says: {'Idh btalaa Ibraahiima Rabbuhu bikalmaatin}. Meaning: "And (remember) when the Lord of Ibrahim tried him with (certain) commands…"1. He also says :{'Idh naadaahu Rabbuhu Bi Al-Waadi Al-Muqaddas Tuwaa}. Meaning: "When his Lord called him in t he sacred valley of Tuwaa"1. 3- Al-'Adaat (Particle): Sometimes two or more sentences may only be distinguished through the p articles of exception, conjunction, definite and indefinite etc. For example, what distinguishes betwe en the meanings of the following two sentences is the presence of exception "'llaa" in the latter: i- Maa Zaydun rajulan (Zayd is not a man) ii- Maa Zaydun 'illaa Rajulun (Zayd is nothing except a man). Unlike the first sentence, the word 'illaa in the second sentence annihilates the function of maa whi ch is a tool of negation. It also has reference in the Quran where Allah says: {Wa maa Muhammad un 'illaa rasuulun}. Meaning: "Muhammad is no more than an Apostle"1. 4- As-Siighat As-Sarfiyyah (Morphological Form): The morphological form has its role to play in the discovery of the inflectional meaning when the differential value of the vowels disappears betwe en Al-Haal (i.e. circumstantial expression) and At-Tamyiiz (i.e. specification). The two can then be s eparated through the ability to identify Ishtiqaaq (derivation) and Jumuud (inertness).It is well kno wn that Al-'Ishtiqaaq is the source of Al-Haal while Al-Jumuud is the source of At-Tamyiiz, so also i s the case between As-Sifah (Adjective) and 'Atful Bayaan (explicative apposition). Likewise, it is th
e form or shape of verb that can morphologically separate between Al-Faa'il (the subject) and Naa'i b Al-Faa'il (subject of the passive) as in the changing of 'kataba' to 'kutiba' or of 'yaktubu' to 'yuktab u'. 5- At-Tataabuq (Conformity): Conformity is a tool for the removal of confusion in the sentences of Arabic Language. It covers the grammatical issues like subject in terms of connection with its verb i n verbal sentence, subject and its predicate in nominal sentence, tawaabi'u (appositions), Inna and h er sisters and Kaana and her sisters. The domains of conformity of such sentences include: i- Number i.e. singular, dual and plural. ii- Gender i.e. masculine and feminine. iii- Inflective vowels. iv- Definite and indefinite articles etc.
Ma'aayiir Nassiyyah (Textual Standards): Although grammatical studying in terms of the discourse analysis is not apparently spelt out in the c lassical Arabic sciences but there were some inferences to it from the works of some early scholars of Arabic Knowledge. Arabic syntax is generally known as Nahw Al-Jumlah (i.e. Syntax of Senten ce) as it studies the functioning of the segments of sentence in line with the effective roles they play in any given sentence not in connection with the previous and succeeding portions in the text as a w hole. But as for the general characteristics of languages, there are some criteria which are expected i n any given text whether verbal or written to qualify such text to be a means of human communicati ve device. Despite the fact that Arabic Grammar is classically treating the texts produced in Arabic on the level of the sentence analysis, there are still references to the look onto the standards that a te xt must be characterized with in its semantic knowledge as developed by some scholars like Abdul Qaahir Al-Jurjaani and others. These textual standards are seven as follow: Cohesion known as As-Sabk or At-Tadaamm in Arabic, Coherence known as Al-Habk or At-Tamaasuk Ad-Dalaali, Intentionality known as Al-Maqsuudiy yah, Acceptability known as Al-Maqbuuliyyah, Informativity known as Al-'Ikhbaariyyah or Al-'I'il amiyyah, Situationality known as Al-Maqaamiyyah and Intertextuality known as At-Tanaass. However, according to the focus and limitation of this paper the study will be restricted to the first s tandard which is cohesion in terms of its devices in the accurate text of communication to the globe. Cohesion: According to Baker, "[cohesion] is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relat ions which provide links between various parts of a text. These relations or ties organize and, to so me extent create a text, for instance by requiring the reader to interpret words and expressions by ref erence to other words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is a s urface relation; it connects together the actual words or expression that we can see or hear". - (Bake r, 1992:180). This standard is indirectly known in Arabic as At-Tadaamm, As-Sabk or Ar-Rabt An-N ahwi which is divided into two types: - At-Tadaamm Al-Mu'jami (Lexical Cohesion) which is the arrangement of the lexical vocabularies into groups for the purpose of conformity of the elements of the speech as stated by the rhetorical scientists in the principles of Arabic rhetoric. For example, it is cohesively incorrect to say: "Inkasara Al-Khayt" (i.e. the thread is broken) because the thread is not among the group of the things that can be broken1. So, even if the sentence is well grammatically structured, there is no cohesion between the verb Inkasara (i.e. broken) and the subject Al-Khayt (the thread). – At-Tadaamm An-Nahwi (Grammatical Cohesion): This implies the connection that develops between two elements within the grammatical structure, o r in other word, it is the demand of either of the two grammatical analytical elements for another ele ment and such referred to as 'At-Talaazum' (correlation)1. Hence in the improvement of the global communication among humanity, there should be an unders tanding that each language has its own patterns to convey the interrelationships of person and event
ILCC 2013
136
s; in no language may these patterns be ignored, if the communicated message is to be understood b y its readers. The topic of cohesion has always appeared to be the most useful constituent of discour se analysis or text linguistics applicable to effective communication throughout the world. The theoretical terms for the linguistics resources which link one part of a text with another are wha t Halliday and Hasan regard as; reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion (Halliday and Hasan, 1985:48). These are the semantic relations that enable one part of the text to f unction as the context for another1. 1- Reference which means Al-'Ihaalah in Arabic modern linguistics according to them, is that what ever the type of the elements referred is, it cannot suffice on itself in terms of interpretation until it r efers to what it is making an indication to for the purpose of its interpretation. Naturally, all languag es including Arabic are enriched with the elements that own the features of Al-'Ihaalah (reference) which are: a) - Ad-Damaa'ir (Pronouns): The pronouns serve as means of consistency and harmony among t he elements of Arabic texts. Therefore, the knowledge of the two main types of personal pronouns i n Arabic; overt known as Damiir Baariz and covert also known as implied Damiir Mustatir is com pulsory on the language learners for the purpose of global communication. They should also know t hat "overt pronouns are either attached (suffixes) (i.e. muttasil) or independent (Damiir Munfasil)"1. The function of pronouns in language shows that: " A pronoun can point backwards (backward-poin ting is called "anaphora"), to an earlier sentence that included the noun it refers to, as well as forwar ds (this is called "Cataphora") in a text. Pronouns can also point to something outside the text ("exo phora")1. b) – Asmaa'u Al-'Ishaarah (Demonstratives): These pronouns are used to indicate specific people , animals, objects and concepts. The most commonly used pronouns are distinguished by proximity, gender, case and number1. Demonstratives also help in joining the cataphora and anaphora to contri bute in the uniformity of the text1. c) – 'Adawaat Al-Muqaaranah (Comparative items): According to Muhammad Khataabi, compa ratives are divided into general in terms of At-Tataabuq (conformity) through the exploitation of th e word 'same', At-Tashaabuhu (similarity) through the use of the word 'similar' and Al-'Ikhtilaaf (var iation) through the use of words like 'other and otherwise etc". And into special one in terms of Ka mmiyyah (quantity) as in the use of the words such as 'Akthar (i.e. more than) and in terms of Kayfiy yah (quality) like when it is said: Zaydun 'Asra'u min 'akhiihi (Zayd is faster than his brother). Like pronouns and demonstratives, comparatives also have referencing functions in the text1. 2- Substitution which is referred to in Arabic as Al-'Istibdaal: A second kind of cohesive tie can b e the use of words or phrases that substitute in the same grammatical slot for material elsewhere in t he text1. Example: Hal tarjuu an takuuna laka sayyaaratun jadiidah? Do you wish having a new car? Na'am 'arjuu dhaalika. Yes, I wish so. The word dhaalika 'so' substitutes here for a phrase an takuuna laka sayyaaratun jadiidah (havin g a new car). It ties the two sentences together by making the interpretation of the second one depe nds on the first one. Other Arabic words and phrases that can create cohesive ties through substituti on include the words like: kadhaalika (like that), Laa (no or not) kallaa (Never, certainly not) etc. 3- Ellipsis which means Al-Hadhf in Arabic term. Closely related to substitution is ellipsis which c reates cohesive ties via omission, as interpreters have to go elsewhere in the text, or in the context o f the discourse, to fill in the blanks1. The example of this device is as follows: 'Ayyu kitaabin sataqra'u? Haadhaa huwa Al-'Ahsan. Which book will you read? This is the best.
This type is common even in the Quranic text. So it is for the competent reader that is reading on th e level of the understanding of the writer to discover the omitted word, phrase or clause of the sente nce. 4- Conjunction or Al-Wasl as in Arabic form. Conjunction is the use of any one of a variety of strat egies to show how sentences are related in meaning to other sentences. According to Muhammad Khataabi, conjunction can be classified into1: a) - Al-Wasl Al-'Idaafi (Additive Conjunction): through the use of "wa" and "aw" (and & or) b) - Al-Wasl Al-'Aksi (Contrastive Conjunction): Contrastive conjunction signals differences or a lternatives between two pieces of information. Examples include: Min naahiyatin 'ukhraa or jaanibin 'aakhar (i.e. on the other hand). Wa bi Al-'Aksi (i.e. in contrast). Baynamaa (i.e. whereas) Bayda anna (nevertheless, but, yet, however, still). c) – Al-Wasl As-Sababi (Result Conjunction): It demonstrates to readers that the following textual element is the result or consequence of the previous information. A few examples of the result conju nction or consequential conjunctions are: Consequently – 'Idhan or wahakadhaa. Thus- Hakadhaa or 'Ilaa Haadhaa. As a result- Natiijatan min. Hence- Minal 'aana, or 'idhan or min thamma or li haadha as-Sabab. So- Hakadhaa. Therefore- Lidhaalika. - Al-Wasl Az-Zamani (Time Conjunction): It is a connection between two angles of two consecutive sentences in terms of time occurrence. The simplest expression from this connection is the use of the word 'then' which 'Thumma' is in Arabic usage1. 5- Lexical Cohesion which is interpreted into Al-'Ittisaaq Al-Mu'jami in its Arabic term. Lexical c ohesion means using the same words repeatedly, or using words that point to one another in various ways, such as by having similar or antonymous (opposite) meanings or by being meronyms (one ref erring to a whole and one to a part of it: tree-limb) or hyponyms (one word refers to a class and the other to an item in the class: beef-meat)1. According to Muhammad Khataabi, lexical cohesion may be divided into two types; which are1: – At-Takriir or At-Takraar (i.e. reiteration) – At-Tadaamm (collocation). In view of the above, it should be inculcated in the language learners that for the effective global co mmunication in the Arab world and other countries that may exploit Arabic as a medium of commu nication to the world in general sense, the combination of the two aspects of learning Arabic gramm ar is essentially inevitable. This is so, as it is the nature of any language that it must keep on with its root, heritage, source and origin as well as it must not reject the principles that will link it to other w orld languages in order to receive, share and give ideology, ideas, culture and modern knowledge. Therefore, as the application of the classical Arabic grammar helps a lot in the development of the l anguage competency of learners, if such learners can also add the knowledge on how to identify the standards through which verbal or written texts can be accepted through the method of applying the cohesive devices among other textual standards, their accuracy in language application will be more commendable.
Effective communication with Arabic as a specific goal The role playable by Arabic Language in both past and present has made it necessary that it must be
ILCC 2013
138
in effective global communication to the world. According to Kees Versteegh, "At a rough guess, ap proximately 150 million people use a variety of Arabic as their mother tongue. But the domain of Ar abic does not stop at the boundaries of the Arabophone area. Throughout history, speakers of Arabic have frequently come into contact with speakers of other languages and affected their language, in it s vocabulary or even in its morphosyntactic structure"1. Arabic is widely spoken as it has the feature of an intercontinental language because of its spread in the two world continents; Asia (especially in the Middle East) and the North Africa. In all Islamic c ountries, the influence of Arabic is pervasive because of the highly language-specific nature of Isla m. However, if the effective communication with Arabic medium should be contemporarily internat ionalized, it should adhere to the general accepted textual standards together with the commitment t o the principles of its grammatical heritage. This should be in terms of: Cohesion: It is that textual criteria which was, in this paper, previously mentioned and treated. In us ing the term "cohesion" ("sticking together"), we wish to emphasize the function of syntax in comm unication1. This has reference in the works of some early Arab Scholars like Abdul Qahir Al-Jurja ani who said in his book; Dalaail Al-I'jaaz, "The purpose of sentences composition is not the seque ncing of its vocabularies in speech, but rather the organization of their connotations and sticking of t heir meanings together in the way it is sensitively required"1. Coherence: A text "makes sense" because there is a CONTINUITY OF SENSES among the knowl edge activated by the expressions of the text…..we would define this continuity of sense as the foun dation of COHERENCE, being the mutual access and relevance within a configuration of CONCEP TS and RELATIONS1. Among other classical scholars of Arabic language, Al-Jaahiz had used the t erm closed to At-Taqaarun (Coherence) in its concept and denotation and named it Al-Qiraan1. Intentionality and acceptability: A language configuration must be intended to be text and accept ed as such in order to be utilized in communicative interaction1. The notion of INTENTIONALITY is introduced to subsume the intentions of text producers. In the most immediate sense of the term, t he producer INTENDS the language configuration under production to be a cohesive and coherent t ext. Some situations may place such limits on time and processing resources that this intention is no t fully realized by the presentation1. In a wider sense of the term, intentionality designates all the wa ys in which text producers utilize texts to pursue and fulfill their intentions1. Informativity: Informativity, being the extent to which presented materials are new or unexpected, exerts important controls on the selection and arrangement of opinions in texts1. The text producers can create a planned flow of expectations in order to uphold interest and fulfill an intention. So the c ontrols exerted by informativity must be a vastly important factor in limiting and motivating the use of particular options in all sorts of contexts. Situationality: The term SITUATIONALITY is a general designation for the factors which render a text relevant to a current or recoverable situation of occurrence1. This is traceable in the knowledge of classical Arabic itself as Al-Jaahiz used some symbols that inspire the meaning of this principle i n some of his works and write ups1. According to many scholars of classical Arabic like Abdul Qaa hir Al-Jurjaani, Ibn Rashiiq, Al-Qaadi Al-Jurjaani and Ibn Khalduun among many others stated t hat the principles guiding the Situationality of the texts include the sayings like: 1- Likulli Maqaamin maqaal (i.e. every context has its relevant monologue). 2- Muraa'aat Muqtadaa Al-Haal (i.e. considering proper situation for expression)1. Intertextuality: It is to subsume the ways in which the production and reception of a given text dep ends upon the participants' knowledge of other texts. This knowledge can be applied by a process de scribable in terms of MEDIATION (the extent to which one feeds one's current beliefs and goals int o the model of the communicative situation. The greater the expanse of time and of processing activ ities between the use of the current text and the use of previously encountered texts, the greater the mediation. Extensive mediation is illustrated by the development and use of TEXT TYPES, being cl asses of texts expected to have certain traits for certain purposes. Mediation is much smaller when p eople quote from or refer to specific well-known texts, e.g. famous speeches or works of literature.
Mediation is extremely slight in activities such as replying, refuting, reporting, summarizing, or eva luating other texts, as we find them especially in conversation1. CONCLUSION: Arabic is recognized internationally as it has gone across the major world continents and been sprea d through the advent of the religion of Islam which is meant for the whole humanity irrespective of t ribe, colours, nationality and diversion of ethnicity and languages. The religious influence has assist ed the language a lot to be a language used for different purposes throughout the world. Today, Arab ic is widely spoken in many communicative channels inside and outside Arab nations. Even it is a m edium of communicating to the world by BBC, CNN etc. Although the language has its traditional grammar from the onset that guides its methods and princi ples of accurate language delivery to the receivers as whole, it also needs to exploit some standards used in this contemporary age to communicate to the world effectively. Though the focus on the coh esive devices was made here in this study, the issue of giving good consideration into all textual sta ndards whether traceable into the classical Arabic grammar or not, should be greatly taken into cogn izance. Therefore the brief study of this paper has highlighted some areas of focus in the syntactical analysi s of the classical approach pointing to the roles playable by the inflection/ parsing, order in struct ural arrangement, particles, morphological form and conformity, in an attempt for the improve ment of the educational reform in line with the traditional principles. Likewise, it has suggested the possibility of using the textual standards of the modern linguistics when the syntactical analysis of t exts is being made. These cohesive devices and the principles of some other textual standards were also exposed to the works of early Arab scholars like Abdul Qaahir Al-Jurjaani, Al-Jaahiz and oth ers who had made mentioning of similar terms in their writings to give more substantiations on the need to combine the two areas of grammar in the educational reform of the Arabic textual analysis.
REFERENCES: Abu Ghazaalah, 'Ilhaam & Hamd, 'Ali Khan.(1999). Madkhal 'Ilaa 'Ilmi Lughat anNass. Cairo: Al-Hay'at Al-Misriyyah Al-'Aammah li Al-Kitaab, 2nd Ed. Al-Jaahiz, Abu 'Uthman 'Amru bn Bahr. (1367 AH/1948). Al-Bayaan wa At-Tabyiin. Cairo: Matba'at Lajnat Al- Ta'liif wa At-Tarjamah wa An-Nashr, 1st Ed. Al-Jurjaani, Abdul Qaahir. (1422 AH/ 2001). Dalaa'il Al-'I'jaaz fi 'Ilmi Al-Ma'aani. Beirut: Dar Al-Kutub Al-'Ilmiyyah, 1st ed. Alosh, Mahdi. (2005). Using Arabic: A Guide to Contemporary Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Beaugrande, Robert-Alain de & Dressler, Wolfgang Ulrich. (1981). Introduction to Text Linguistics. Essex, UK: Longman Group Limited. Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, Ruqaiya. (1990). Language Context and Text: Aspect of Language in a Social- Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd Ed. Hassaan, Tammaam. (1413 AH/ 1993). Al-Bayaan fii Rawaa'i'i Al-Qur'an. Cairo: 'Aalam Al-Kutub, 1st ed. Hassaan, Tammaam. (1421 AH/ 2001). Al-Lughat Al-'Arabiyyah: Ma'naahaa wa Mabnaahaa. Beirut: Dar Ath-Thaqaafah. Johnstone, Barbara. (2002). Discourse Analysis. USA: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Khan, M.M & Al-Hilali, M.T. (1996). The Noble Qur'an In The English Language. Riyadh: Darussalam. Khataabi, Muhammad. (1991). Lisaanu An-Nass: Madkhal 'ilaa 'Insijaam Al-Khitaab. Beirut: Al-Markaz Ath-Thaqaafah Al-'Arabi, 1st ed.
ILCC 2013 Lubbers and Koorevaar (2000). "Primary Globalization, Secondary Globalization and The Sustainable Development Paradigm- Opposing Forces in The 21st Century" in The Creative Society of the 21st century: Future Studies. France: OECD (pp.7-24). Versteegh, Kees. (1997). The Arabic Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Arabiya http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_hurra http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_manar http://www.alarabiya.net/ http://www.alhurra.com/sub.aspx?id=266 http://www.almanar.com.ib/newsSite/New.aspx?language=en
140
Multi Traditional Cultural Exposure Approach in EFLClassroom; Engaging Good Appreciation and Communication in Diversity Written By: Dian Karyani Astuti Department of Engish Education, Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers Training State Islamic Jakarta University, Indonesia
[email protected] Abstract The purpose of this paper is to investigate the implication of making a huge English exposure based on multi traditional cultural material approach in English as a Foreign Language classroom. In this s tudy, the writer studied Indonesian university students. The instrument used in this study is an obser vation. The samples of the study are 38 students on the 6th semester in English Education Departme nt who are learning Cross Culture Understanding (CCU) as a subject in EFL classroom. The study i s conducted by giving the students assignment to make a huge presentation about their own traditio nal culture (Javanese, Sundanese, Betawinese, Jambinese, etc) one by one in front of the classroom orally. The exposure consists of the province, traditional language, value, characteristic, habit, tradit ional dance, and traditional ceremony which are presented orally using English. Uniquely, the stude nts are asked to bring the traditional food to the class too when this study was conducted, they can e at nicely the various traditional food from different cultures. The important result of the study is that each student gives very positive impression toward the cultures exposure performed. All the student s freely express their English speaking content to their friends. Then, the message is presented com municatively; of course, all students are happy, they smile and enjoy every performance. They give opinion how traditional cultures work in intercultural communication and how avoid prejudice and stereotype. Hopefully, this study will be useful for English teachers to pay attention that cultural div ersity in EFL classroom becomes uniqueness. Moreover, good understanding of traditional cultural diversity can bring the students to engage good appreciation and language communication. Key words: Culture, CCU (Cross Cultural Understanding), diversity, EFL, prejudice, stereotype, int ercultural, speaking, communication. 1. Introduction This one world exists with so enormous culture with the uniqueness of each. Those should be a very beautiful phenomenon in this world that shows us diversity. However, to reach one voice about the equality is not always easy. The diversity of culture build believe, value, behavior and identity that i t sometimes makes misunderstanding in communication. In fact, it is still happen the disintegration of certain race or intolerance behavior to other cultur es with the minority and the traditionalism. That is a very tragic reality that becomes all people resp onsibility to care and to reach the equality and justice. The knowledge of intercultural communication and cross cultural understanding have been l ong time exist in teaching and socialized widely around the world. How it is very importance to giv e understanding and comprehension about the importance of engaging good appreciation in order to create a good communication among the people with the difference of culture, race and traditional c ulture. The effort must be done to all level of people to truly have honor and give honor to others. B esides by socialization to people in the world, the most importance is by educating the people especi ally the young generation to stand the voice of tolerance and respect. By the urgent of the theme, the writer propose the multi traditional cultural exposure approach in educational system in order to eng age the understanding of appreciation and good communication through diversity for the peace of th e world in this time and future. 2.
Theoretical Review
ILCC 2013
142
1. Culture& Identity Culture is complicated term to define. Culture rules become way of life in human being for individu al or society. Lustig and Koester (1999) defined culture as “a learned set of shared interpretations ab out beliefs, values, and norms which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people” (p. 3 0). Then, Orbe and Harris (2001) said that culture as“Learned and shared values, beliefs, and behavi ors common to a particular group of people; culture forges a group’s identity and assists in its surviv al” (Robert. G & Dana.L Powell, 2010, p. 54). Another conceptualization of culture that: the deposi t of knowledge, experiences, social hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relationships, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual or group striving. (Samovar, Porter and Stefani, 2000, p. 7) . It is interesting that culture is what people “must know in order to act as they do, make the things t hey make, and interpret their experience in the distinctive way they do” (Quinn and Holland, 1987, p. 4). It is believed that culture is learned. Someone learns his cultured well from his family members, bo oks, story or experiences. Culture is transmitted intergenerationally, it represents our link to the past and, through future generation, hope for the future. Culture is symbolic too; it includes word, gestur e, and image for conveying message and meaning. These symbols facilitate the communication bet ween one to another. Culture is also dynamic; it is never static that ideas, invention, and exposure ca n make change. Culture is ethnocentric. The strong sense of identity produced by culture can lead to ethnocentrism, the tendency that a certain culture is better, superior or best than others. Ethnocentris m can cause an individual have lack of contact with others (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2012, p. 12-13). Robert & Dana. L Powell noted (2010) that the connection to a culture’s values is accomplished thr ough the performance of cultural identity (p. 57). Cultural identity denotes the ways individuals vie w themselves and the ways they wish to be viewed by others. Lustig and Koester (2000) noted that cultural identity involves learning about and accepting the traditions, heritage, language, religion, an cestry, aesthetics, thinking patterns, and social structures of a culture (p. 3). Goffman’s (1959, 1963) dramaturgical perspective is an excellent framework for viewing the cultural identities of students. He claimed that whenever people participate in social interaction, they are engaged in a type of perf ormance. While culture value create identity, it strengthen the individual character and performance because t he shape of believe. Moreover, individual with certain identity and culture will inclime to other who has the sameness of culture. While identity can be positively creates the strong sense of belonging, however, it also has some dark sides. Stereotype can be the first dark side of identity. Stereotype is S tereotyping is a complex form of categorization that mentally organizes your experiences with, and guides your behavior toward, a particular group of people. It becomes a means of organizing your i mages into fixed and simple categories that you use to represent an entire collection of people (H. V. Richards, A. F. Brown, and T. B. Forde, 19 (3), 65). Samovar, Porter & McDaniel (2010) mentioned ; “Stereotypes can be positive or negative. Stereotypes that refer to a large group of people as lazy, co arse, vicious, or moronic are obviously negative. There are, of course, positive stereotypes, such as t he assumption that Asian students are hardworking, well mannered, and intelligent. However, becau se stereotypes (as the word is currently defined) narrow our perceptions, they usually jeopardize int ercultural communication and take on a negative tone. This is because stereotypes tend to over gene ralize the characteristics of a group of people. For example, we know that not all Asian students are hardworking and intelligent, and that there is no large group of people in which everyone is lazy.” ( p. 170). Stereotype can be learned hereditary from family or society judgment. The most obvious, and perha
ps most important, agent of stereotypes is the socialization process (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2 010, p. 170). Stereotype can happen to a large of group or race only where in different continent, but it also can happen to the traditional culture in a country. Adler notes about the harmfulness of stereo type that is rewritten by Samovar, Porter & McDaniel (2010) that; Stereotypes become counterproductive when we place people in the wrong groups, when we incorre ctly describe the group norm, when we evaluate the group rather than simply describing it, when we confuse the stereotype with the description of a particular individual, and when we fail to modify th e stereotype based on our actual observations and experience. (p. 171)
The second dark side of identity is prejudice;it held negative feelings to particular group. As was the case with stereotypes, beliefs linked to prejudices have certain characteristics. First, they are directe d at a social group and its members. Often those groups are marked by race, ethnicity, gender, age, a nd the like (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2010, p. 173). In Communication between Culture book written by Samovar, Porter & McDaniel stated that ethno centrism can be positive, negative or extremely negatives. It is said as positive if “it is the belief that , at least for you, your culture is preferred over all others. This is natural, and inherently there is not hing wrong with it because you draw much of your personal identity and many of your beliefs from your native culture”, p. 180. However, when you think that your culture is the centre of everything, the best of the best and other cultures must be measured and rated by your culture standard, it will b e said as negative. While you have said and thought that your culture is most powerful and other cul ture should adopt your culture, it is as a very extremely negative ethnocentrism. 1. Traditional Culture, Diversity in Indonesia Traditional culture is part of whole cultures, while culture is wider term, and traditional is specified to traditional ideas and narrower area. For example, the western culture will be different to the Japa nese culture where the discussion contained two different countries or continents. However, as exa mple of traditional culture, it can be said that Javanese traditional culture will be different with Sun danese or Betawinese traditional culture, even they exists in one country, Indonesia. It can be said that Indonesia is one of very unique countries in the world. As a country that exists wi th the archipelago, it has 33 provinces and 300 ethnic groups. More than seventeen thousands island and 746 traditional languages exist in Indonesia.
Some famous traditional cultures and ethnics in Indonesia; 1. Java Island: Javanese &Sundanese (Include Tengger, Sundanese, Badui, Banten, Cirebon, B etawi, etc) 2. Madura: Madura 3. Sumatra: Melayu, Batak, Minangkabau, Aceh, Lampung, Kubu, etc) 4. Kalimantan (Borneo): Dayak (includes 268 ethnics), Banjar, Kutai, Berau, Bajau, etc) 5. Sulawesi: Makassar, Bugis, Mandar, Tolaki, Minahasa (consists of 8 ethnics), Gorontalo, To raja, etc. 6. Sunda kecil arciphelago: Baliness, Sasak, etc. 7. Maluku: Ambon, Nuaulu, Manusela, Wemale, etc. 8. Papus: Papua (consists of 466 ethnics such as Dani, Bauzi, Asmat, etc). Diversity in Indonesia can be seen by the enourmous of traditional culture widespreads in 33 provin ces with the traditional cultures includes the traditional languaged, traditional songs, traditional dan ces, traditional foods, traditional ceremonies, religions, etc. With the multi traditional culture and the jargon of “Bhineka Tunggal Eka”, it needs a very good co
ILCC 2013
144
operation and tolerance that is shown well in communication. When each of traditional culture has i ts own identity, to avoid the dark side of identity such stereotype, prejudice and ethnocentrism, a kn owledge of intercultural communication must be taught and implemented well by the people. With t hose multi traditional culture we can imagine if all the indonesian society can have positive stereoty pe for examples:
1. Multi Traditional Cultural Exposure in Classroom Culture is often considered the core concept in intercultural communication. Intercultural communic ation studies often focus on how cultural groups differ from one another (Gudykunst, 2002). Soler& Jorda (2007) wrote intercultural relates to taking place or forming a communication between culture s. Aknowledge of Intercultural communication, and the ability to use it effectively, can help bridge cul tural differences, mitigate problems, and assist in achieving more harmonious, productive relations( Samovar, Porter, McDaniel, 2012, p. 8). Cultural differences includes the multi traditional cultural a nd the supporting traditional value. One of the ways to introduce and build well intercultural communication to multi cul tural of people is teaching the students to respect one another and build a good cross cultural unders tanding in order to avoid of negative side that can be created by the negative judgment such as stere otype, prejudice or ethnocentrism that can destroy the unity. It is needed a good cooperation in society and educational system how the children, s tudents and young generation can learn about the positivism of diversity and multi culture.
9. Methodology of Study Instrument The study uses qualitative design which observation becomes the main instrument. The observation was conducted in 2012. The observation was done in EED (English Education Department) classroo m when the students were learning Cross Cultural Understanding (CCU) class. Sample of the Study The samples in this study are the students in State Islamic Jakarta University. They are students in E nglish Education Department students who are in the sixth semester. There are 38 students The Data collection These are the steps in collecting data that is done before doing observation. 1. The CCU lecturer made a multi traditional culture exposure class. 2. The lecturer asked the students to divide themselves depends on the province they come fro m and traditional cultures. 3. The lecturer gave them assignment to do the group presentation and performance to explain about their own traditional cultures, traditional dances, traditional food, traditional value, and traditi onal ceremonies in front of class one by one using English. 4. All the students brought traditional food based on the province where they come from. 5. After all presentation and doing traditional culture exposure, question and answer section, al l the students are hug each other and hold hand together, then they enjoy to eat the traditional food t ogether.
6. The Finding and Discussion This is the table shows the names of the students and province they are from and their traditional cul
ture. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.
Name of Students Regional Traditional culture Traditional Language Salamah Fajriah Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese Mansyurah Sadiqah Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese Restu Eka Putra Bekasi Javanese Javanese Dian. K.A. Jambi (Sumatra) Jambinese Jambinese Amalia Putri Bekasi Javanese Javanese Dede Rika Kurnia Central Java Javanese Javanese Wahyu Fitri Medan (North Sumatra) Bataknese Bataknese Siti Rohimah Cilacap Javanese Javanese Cilacap Wulantri Septiningrum Gombong Javanese Ismi Putri Rahmah Bekasi Javanese Javanese Taskiya Hamdah Ciputat Betawinese Betawinese Septiani Wafda Bogor Sundanese Sundanese Mahmud Badaruddin Bogor Sundanese Sundanese Anita Latifah Jakarta Javanese Javanese Annisa Febrinel Hendri Padang (West Sumatra) Minang Minang Siti Ayu Subhiati Jakarta Javanese Javanese Malya Ulfa Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese Siti Ulfa Herdiyani Bogor Sundanese Sundanese M. Noor Abdillah Bogor Sundanese Sundanese Riyana Muntika Jakarta Javanese Javanese Septia Susilowati Solo Javanese Javanese Solo M. Subhan Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese Arini Fitriyanti Jakarta Javanese Javanese Shaumi Fitriyanti Bekasi Sundanese Sundanese Sandi Asmoro Solo Javanese (Solo) Javanese Solo Annisa Faradiba Gresik Javanese (East Java) Javanese Ratna Sari West Java Sundanese Sundanese Allen Subekti Tegal Javanese (Tegal) Javanese Tegal (Ngapak) Wiwin Winingsih Malimping Sundanese Sundanese Yona Erviani Jakarta Sundanese Sundanese Ikrima Nurendah Jakarta Javanese Javanese Novera Helsanita Aceh Aceh Aceh Amalina Shomami Central Java Javanese Javanese Yona Erfiani Bandung Sundanese Sundanese Desi Irianti Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese Nurul Fatmah Bogor Sundanese Sundanese Utari Prabawati Bogor Sundanese Sundanese Areta Wulandari Java Javanese Javanese
Based on observation, there are 38 students as sample. There are 6 students are Betawinese, their cu ltures are Betawinese and they are from Jakarta, and Bekasi. As we know that Jakarta is the capital c ity of Indonesia that the original people who live in are Betawinese. Then, there are 18 students are Javanese. Javanese is the largest traditional culture that many people immigrate or do urbanization i n almost the provinces of Indonesia. The uniqueness of Javanese is the students can explain that Jav anese has so many uniqueness from one city in Java to other cities in Java. For example, the Javanes e in Solo have difference in the softness of language compared to Javanese in Tegal that use ngapak dialect. The Javanese students are from Tegal, Central Java, Gresik, Solo, Gombong and Cilacap. Fr om the multi traditional cultural presentation, there is only 1 student are from West Sumatra (Padan g) and she has Minang traditional culture. From North Sumatra (Batak) there is only 1 student, she i
ILCC 2013
146
s Bataknese. However, Sundanese students are 11 students, they are from Bandung, West Java and Bogor. From Aceh, there is one student only, and her traditional culture is Aceh. There is one studen t from Jambi, and her traditional culture is Jambinese. After the students explain about their traditional culture orally using English, all students enjoy eati ng all the traditional food they are bringing to the class, each of the students explain the compositio n and how to make it too, so other friends will learn and know the way to make it and even the histo ry of the food. The last session of multi traditional cultural exposure activity is the open opinion for all the student about the positive judgment of each traditional culture. Some students` opinions are: 1. Javanese are polite people, soft and like helping others. 2. Aceh people is people who have very good obedient of Muslim rules. 3. Minang people are very smart in business management. 4. Bataknese are very discipline with the time. 5. Sundanese are soft and nice neighbor. All the comment from students about other culture are positive, and they looks very happy, they lau gh together, and they give comment about the delicious food, and that shows that multi traditional c ultural exposure approach is successfully applied to engage good appreciation and communication t hrough diversity. Reference Benedict Ruth. (1960).Pattern of Culture. England: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Kachru Yamuna And Larry E. Smith. (2008). Cultures, Contex, and World Englishes. New York: Ro utledge. Miller Jennifer, Alex Kostogriz and Margaret Gearon. (2009). Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Classrooms New Dilemmas for Teachers. Great Britain: by the MPG Books Group. Samovar Larry A. , Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel. (2010). Communication Between Cultu res, Seventh Edition. USA: Wardsword. Samovar Larry A. , Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel. (2012). Intercultural Communication: A Reader, Thirteenth Edition. USA: Wardsword.
HUMOR IN CHINESE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM - THE ‘CREAM’ OF LANGUAGE TEACHER’S SPEECH ACT Angus AngThiahHuat Faculty Of Language And Communication Sultan Idris Education University
[email protected] /
[email protected]
Abstract. Humor refer to an ability to perceive and express a sense of the clever or amusing humo r consists principallyin the recognition and expression of incongruities or peculiarities present in a conversatio n context or character. Humor is the quality of being funny and it is an art of human interaction based on a situati on or context. Language teaching and learning involves planning, organizing and practically present in the learnin g situation that will raise up the learning ability and interest of learners. As the additional to the language teaching skill, the relationship of teacherand learners in the classroom is the main factor to create a good language learning in the clas sroom.Austin (1962), theorized that language use is the sum total of utterances in speech in specific contexts. This utterance of speech is called speech act. Human is using the utterance to do something and affecting someone throughout the conversation. In the context of the language classroom, a language teacher in order to assure the learners learning with fun and interesting, teacher’s utterance will definitely be motivated to learners. Humor is describe as the ‘cr eam’ of teacher’s speech act.Since humor is describe as the quality of being funny and an art of human interaction bas ed on a context. This paper is presenting the facts that shows the humoristic in Chinese language learning classroom will optimize the learnerslearning interest. Keywords:humor ,utterance,context,speech act Introduction Humor is part of virtually most social encounters.The use of humor and wit is intimately related to h uman nature. Humorous statements are speech acts that have different functions in spoken and writt en discourse; some involve social satire, a play on words, while others have as their target, criticism of either men or women or a particular group, nation or race (Long and Graesser,1988). Humor in th e classroom is an act performed through linguistic or nonlinguistic means by teacher).Confucius stat ed that speech without text and artistic,it will not impress people. Teacher’s utterance will bring a su btle influence on students.Their language is directly related to the merits of the quality of classroom teaching,which restricts the teaching level of efficiency.Linsky(1963)stated that teachers’ language l iteracy to a large extent determines the student’s mental efficiency in the classroom.Language teach ers’ utterances should be accurate and concise in the sense of humor. Humor has the potential of cre ating a more relaxed classroom atmosphere which in turn could cause students to experience lower anxiety and to be more motivated (Wagner and Urios-Aparisi). Austin(1962)in his speech act stated that the speaker has his motive to say out things to listener so t hat the listener will react according to the utterance of the speaker.Language teachers’ speech act ne
ILCC 2013
148
eds to contains humor as the important element to motivate students.Loomax and Moosavi(1998) su ggest that the use of humor in the classroom reduces tense, improves classroom learning atmospher e and therefore, humor will increases the enjoyment of learning. Schmitz(2002)point that the use of humor in language courses, in addition to making classes more enjoyable, it can contribute to impro ving students’ proficiency. The use of humor in language teaching is describeas the cream of teacher s utterances in the language classroom.It will motivate students’ learning interest and also to strengt hen the relationship of teacher and students.Nowadays,the students must be “ learn” and know “how to learn”. Moreover, the teacher need to make students “happy to learn” because they hate the borin g exam orientated teaching and learning methods.They hope to be able to learn from the full of sens e of humor teacher in the language learning classroom.In my supervision of my practical students in secondary school,Iheard and received complaint from my practical teaching students that the studen ts seems had lost their interest in studying Chinese language in school.Secondary school students ar e under psychology independent period. Students need teachers to understand their needs of learnin g and be able to communicate with them easily.Teacher who can integrate humor in teaching is alwa ys beable to fulfill the students learning needs and demands.Laughter is generally subdued during c onversation. Speech will dominate and laughter serves as a phrase break creating a punctuation effe ct in language. It can allow the shy or timid student in the classroom to participate with group.This i s a new teaching situation in Chinese language classroom. The Importance of Research Humor is a kind of wisdom,self-cultivation,creativity and ability.Language is the basic of knowledg e. Learning a language will need motivation and interest.Teacher need to use the humors to stimulate s tudent in language classroom.If the student has shows the learning interest during the language lear ning period, the teaching will become easy. Moreover, humor can make the learning process becom e easy.The student will havethe interest to searchand create new knowledge.This will lead the stude nt develop their study and learn the new knowledge. Students hope that teachers will integrate humo r in teaching so that they can learn in a situation that full of fun and joy.The learning environment in the classroom like this will optimized the learning process and therefore will guide the student to lea rn and apply the knowledge in their actual daily life. The objectives of this research are: 1. To explore the using of humorous language teaching in Chinese language classroom,the changes of students learning interest. 2. To explore the feasibility of using humor in the Chinese teaching and learning classroom. 3. To explore after applying humor into the teaching classroom,the changes of teacher and student r elationship. This research is using the Sagor’s action research methodology.Sagor ‘saction research method (2008) is through the determination of focus of research action,confirmation of developing the actio n, development of teaching and learning research strategy,action to be taken to the process of teaching and learning, and also the students learning achievement. Then it will following with solving the actual problems that found in the process of language teaching and learning and to be match with the rese arch objectives. Researcher doing the field observations in the classroom has to record the relevant information.The n, analysis to information which are obtained from the observation during teaching and learning in the classroom.Observation research methods in the language classroom is based on several cycle observ
ation study.Questionnaires has given to the students as the feedback method in the study of teacher using humor in teaching Chinese language. In order for the students to answer the questions in the questionnaires , the contentsof the questionnaire must be designed as simple as possible. In addition, researcher asked st udents questions that to gather the research objective and to show the unbiased factual information, especia lly in thestudy of more complex issues to the different types of people is needed to understand the di fferent types of materials.On-line interview is based on interviews with the respondents by using lan guage and non-verbal communication method of investigation. It is not only face to face exchanges, but interviewer using the internetto collect information from respondents. Interview with the Interne t can reduce time and increases theefficiency of interviews process.Nowadays,students are fond of u singFacebook.Therefore, interviews byusing internet will be easy and attractive to students.
The Application of Humor as a Method of Chinese Language Teaching Humor in Chinese language teaching in different styles, from different angles, can be drawn a numb er of categories. Teachers are often based on content and context and also the students character. Tea chers carefully set up a humorous, in order to achieve the expected benefits. Innovation of humorou s teaching style to explore teaching materials and techniques. Explore in Chinese textbooks, covered with a rich sense of humor material. This type of humor material can always made students laugh.The laughter at the same time can let the students apprecia te the learning material. Humor in such materials can give the excavation, reappearing to students .Theref ore, it willenhance the sense of humor of teacher. For example,as the teacher teaching about the miserly of a greedy master, nature, teacher can select the interesting plot of the teaching material.When teacher enter into theclassroom ,his eyes are stared at the chalk box and shouted “ I had rob the gold box! ". This teacher’s humorous teaching method let the students surprise and laugh but thought deeply. Discovering in humorous teaching materials, which is also in conjunction with innovation in specifi c teaching content or situational humor skills of teaching. This innovative humor, both designed in ad vance and spontaneously. For example: at one point, Chinese language teachers asked one girl stand up for endorsements. She was looking at books while giving the answers.Then, some students reported her cheating to Chinese language teacher. The Chinese language teacher was not accountable to her bac k, but very funny, said, "you probably don't know it, to peek is a very important capability, I'd want people to develop this capacity. ' The students laughed, but looked at him with doubt. He went on to say: ' pe eking iswith eyes in the lightning speed from the pages you had passed through.The useof the faste st speed captured your need access to the information like this is called scan-speed reading. This is a very im portant reading skills, that wouldn’t you just use a little time to cultivate of it? Of course, during th e examination, you should not develop this ability you have.”
ILCC 2013
150
The teacher explanation caused gales of laughter from students. This spontaneous spark of humor th at give the creation of an atmosphere of a friendly moderate. It did not undermine students ' enthusi asm, but it gave the students are a well-intentioned advice and criticism. Flexible teaching like this c an be full of excitement and meaningful art. This requires teachers to have a long practice. The guid elines for teacher to integrate the humor in the language classroom: 1. Don't try too hard Let humor arise naturally, encourage it, don't force it. Don't be discouraged if the first time it doesn't meet your expectations. As Provine (2000) states, your reaction to their non-reaction (to a cartoon for example) may be the most amusing part. Like all things, proper preparation is needed for prop er delivery. 2. Do what fits your personality A good language teacher as a good humor user in the language classroom will never force himself t o use humor hardly during language class. Language teacher can easily try a different genre or ca rtoon in the teaching because the class is made up of individuals with different tastes. 3. Don't use private humor or humor that leaves people out The goal is not to become a comedian. The humor described here is through cartoons. It doesn't ma ke fun of any particular group, nationality, etc ... Private humor, if teacher use it, should be for an af fective reasons as wellused it carefully, never demeaning or sarcastic because it will hurt the student s’ feeling. 4. Make humor an integral part of your class, rather then something special. Humor works best as a natural on-going part of classroom learning. Teachers has to be very careful so that they will not over use it. It could loose its value and effect. With practice you will develop a style and comfort zone with humor.The use of humor will depend on the teaching content that a te acher is teaching and theavailability of appropriate material. Language teachers should have a specif ic goals or objectives in mind. Teacher who is using humor in teaching has to be well prepared. Wh en humor is planned as part of the teaching strategy, a caring environment is established, there is an attitude of flexibility, and an open style ofcommunication between student and teacher is always ha ppens in the classroom.The tone is set allowing for human error with freedom to explore alternative s in the learning situation. This reduces the authoritarian position of the teacher, allowing the teache r to be a facilitator of the learning process. Fear and anxiety, only natural in a new and unknown situ ation, becomes less of a threat, as a partnership between student and teacher is developed. Humorous Style of Teaching in the Chinese Language Classroom Modern teaching will not only require students to learn and to discover knowledge by themselves b ut italso to make the students study happily. Therefore, to achieve this purpose, humor is an important way of teaching language. Humor is one of the interesting and efficient ways of stimulating students’ learni ng interest. Humorous teaching in the Chinese language classroom will be given the following bene fits to the teacher and students: A. Classroom as an Active Learning Environment Classroom is an important part of teaching and learning location. Laughter will create a positive lear ning environment in the classroom. It will bring teaching and learning easy, and effectively. In th e active learning classroom, students can participate actively in the teaching and learning process. It will help students learn by creatively and without tense. Humors will be the art of teaching. It will motivate the students to learn happily.
B. The Lubricants of Teacher and Students Relationship Humorous brings laughter and create a peaceful learning situation. This can avoid psychological dis tance between teachers and students.Therefore, it will create a good teaching and learning environm ent in the classroom. When teachers who are lack of a sense of humor is often behave simple and ru de, the will bring the emotional confrontation between teachers and students. For example: a male student in the Chinese language class often fond of talking nonsense in the classroom. In this situati on, teacher can give him an advice without angry but with a smile, “ speaking of nonsense is to consume a certain amount ofenergy, you're not trying to lose weight, right? '' This student will stop t he nonsense and be silent. The others will not only be giving a happy smile but respect to the teache r. C.To stimulate students ' learning interest One of the basic characteristics of humorous teaching is fun. It is closely related to the students ' lea rning interest. The humor that integrated in language learning could lead to students ' emotional reso nance, to stimulate students ' learning interest, to cause curiosity in learning and make dull into a spi ritual enjoyment of learning. In short, humor can stimulate students’ desire to search for knowledge, passion and power. D. To improve students ' creative ability Humorous in teaching is a sign of wisdom. Congress has a sense of humor. It can stimulus and deve lop the creativity of the students. Humor helps the students to think and to reason because humor m akes students feel comfortable without any stress. Therefore, students can develop innovative ideas in a pleasant learning atmosphere. Students dare to envisage and creatively to receive new knowled ge. This will be forming a positive learning attitude in the classroom since the students are more wil ling to express themselves. E.Consolidation of knowledge and memory Humor can help students understand what they have learned. It can also deepen students ' memory. From the psychological point of view, while students in the learning process, their brain will be fati gue. If there is an appropriate use of humor in teaching, the laughter will gives a good relaxing mom ent to students from time to time, so that it can reduce fatigue and to stimulate the brain. Therefore, humor is to enhance the learning interest by creating a relaxing learning situation.
The Three principle Of Humorous Teaching In The Chinese Classroom Humor as a means in teaching. It plays an important role by giving teachers pleasant and effi cient completion of the task of teaching. Humor is used as the teaching tool, basically is not just con tained the sense of humor to the general characteristics, but also has its educational functions. There fore, in the teaching process, the use of humor in some of the principles has to be followed. A. The Unity Of Solemn And Harmonic Basically, the use of humor in teaching is a beautiful teaching art form, but it must use in th e appropriate ways. The appropriate ways will reflected in the aspects of quantity and quality. If a la nguage classroom although the humor is used constantly, the laughing is still with bitterly exists. Th is will not only affect the learning content and objectives, it would lead to student boredom. For exa mple, if a teacher saw some students dozing, he was publicly ridiculed, “ Do you know what it is pi g's hobby?”. This sarcastic style of humor though had amused everyone, its hurt the student's self-e steem, The quality of using humor in teaching must not be vulgar humor, not simply as amusing an
ILCC 2013
152
d humorous, not too much to joke, but has a high aesthetic value and educational value. B. Humorous Teaching Is To Serve The Needs Of Teaching Humor as a form of teaching teaching art, and its use is for the teaching towards success. Th at sense of humor is not an end, but a means to achieve the teaching objectives. Therefore, the frequ ency of use of humor and is determined by the needs of the teaching content of the decision. Humor is often use to inspire teaching. Students will only learn through positive thinking and inquiry to k now, appreciation and acceptance, andit takes the laughter had deep thinking or imagination, so that teacher can motivate theirstudents to learn about the flexibility of thinking and creative imagination. Humor for the purpose of motivate the students in a relaxed classroom atmosphere to acquir e knowledge .If the teacher is using humor in teaching without any purposes and content of teaching expense, it will be a waste of learning in the classroom. C. To Fulfill The Actual Needs Of The Students In teaching, the teacher is the embodiment of humor initiative, students are humorous percep tion of the subject. If the humor in teaching is out of the students' needs, it is difficult to resonate, hu mor may deform stale. The main target of using humor in teaching in the classroom is targeted at th e students. Teaching which integrated with humor should be considered students understanding and acceptance consistently. There are differences in the ability of thinking of the upper form secondary school students and the lower form students. The ability of the thinking is depends on the perceptual experience in the daily life .The lower form students mainly needs on direct experience in learning, and the upper form students has gradually entered the situation of abstract thinking type because th ey are in the rapid development of dialectical thinking stage. The upper form students are able to un derstand the deeper meaning of the language thus humor should be different levels of use. If the lan guage teacher do not consider the student lifeexperience, cultural background knowledge gaps caus ed by both teachers and students, the students will not be appreciate the humor. Therefore, the conte nt of teaching and the level of humor principally should consider the level of students’ understandin g and acceptance. So that teachers and students will enjoy the refreshing sense of humor in the lang uage classroom. Conclusion Humor in Chinese language classroom can increase students’ learning interest. Students disli ke Chinese language class because teachers using lecture type of teaching. There is no any attractive learning environment in the classroom. Humorous in teaching Chinese language can increase studen ts learning interest. In addition, it will strengthen the teacher and students relationship in the classro om. This will reduce the disciplinary problem in the Chinese language classroom. Since hum or is the cream of teacher s’ speech act, it will make students easily accept teacher’s criticism and instruction in the classroom. Thelearning environment will full of joy and inspiration.
References Aboudan,R.(2009).Laugh and learn: Humor and learning a second language,International of Arts a nd Sciences,3(3),1-4. Avner,Z.(1988).Teaching and learning with humor: Experiment and replication,The Journal of Experimental,57(1),1988,5-15. Chiasson,P.E.(2002).Using humor in the second language classroom,The Internet TESL Journal,
7(3).Retrieved June 2nd 2013 from http://www.iteslj.org/Techniques/Chiasson_Humour.html Doni,T.(2003).Laugh and learn.NewYork:Amacom Books. Douglas,W.(2010).A humor competence curriculum,Tesol Quartely,4491),155-157. Gilbert,H.(1989).The art of teaching.NewYork:Vintage Book. Jane,B.R.(2008).Use of humor as a pedagogical tool.Educational Leadership,12(1),83-107. Joan,G.,andDiane,M.C.(1990).The relationship of teacher’ use of humor in the classroom to immediacy and student learning,Communication Education.39(1),46-62. Johanna,S.D.S.(1992).Learning to communicate in the classroom,Studies in Second Language Acquisition,1391),1-23. John,R.S.(2002).Humor as a pedagogical tool in foreign language and translation courses,InternalJo urnal of Humor Research,1591),89-113. Mary,K.M.(2008).Using humor to maximize learning.Lanham:Rowman& Littlefield Publishing Group,Inc. Nancy,D.B.(2009).Learning about and through humor in the second language classroom,LanguageT eaching Research,13(3),241-258. Neelam,K.(1999).Using humor in the college classroom to enhance teaching effectiveness in ‘dread courses’,College Student Journal,33(3),400-406. Peter,M.(2002).Laughing matters.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. Ron,D.(2000).The use of humor as a teaching tool in the college classroom,NACTA Journal,1(1), 20-27. Ronald,A.B.(2002).Humor as an instructional defibrillator.Virginia:Stylus Publishing. SiewLian,C.(2009).Associations between Chinese language classroom environments and students’ motivation to learn the language,Journal of Educational Developmental Psychology,9(1), 53-64. Wanzer,M.B.(2006).Appropriate and inappropriate uses of humor by teachers,CommunicationEduc ation,55(2),178-196. Xiao,Y.(2006).Heritage learners in the Chinese language classroom,Heritage Language Journal, 4(1),47-56. Ziv,A.(1988).Teaching and learning with humor:Experiment and replication,Journal of Experimenta lEducation,57(1),5-15.
ILCC 2013
154
Culture and Language Use Author: Yuko Hoshino, Okayama Prefectural University, Japan
[email protected] Abstract We use languages to communicate every day. Not only our mother tongues, but we also try to learn and speak foreign languages. It is exciting when we realize that we can understand people from diff erent countries and cultures. It is exalting to be understood by them, as well. This is almost everybo dy’s dream to be fluent in foreign languages. However, we have realized that it is not easy. This study attempts to analyze why this is true using the cultures we were born into and grew up wit h, and how we can improve the situation. It is hoped that the analysis can be applicable to other sim ilar situations elsewhere. The subjects of the study are Japanese speakers who are trying to learn En glish in universities. They usually have had 6 years of English education before coming to universit y. Nevertheless, most of them complain that they cannot do anything with it. It is contradictory to t he fact that they had to pass university entrance examinations, including English, and had studied fo r them. The author discusses typical problems Japanese speakers have when using English. These are:1) un derstanding and selecting vocabulary, 2) flow of logic, 3) connection / cohesion, 4) cultural notion, 5) singular / plural nouns, 6) expressions, 7) attitude toward classroom participation, 8) attitude tow ard learning, and 9) feeling for expressing oneself.Remedies are proposed for educators to apply to t heir teaching. Introduction Cultures influence language usage. We have seen culturally specific expressions in various languag es, such as “rain cats and dogs” in English and “to listen to fragrance” in Chinese. They can be misi nterpreted or may not be used by people in different cultures. In learning foreign languages, one ca nnot focus solely on grammatical rules or on simple vocabulary memorization. Knowledge and und erstanding of background culture are also required for appropriate and accurate use of the language. Through the analysis of learner mistakes and misuses of English by Japanese learners, the author att empts to illustrate linguistic and cultural influence from the learners’ own. The mistakes and misus es dealt in this paper are categorized into nine areas below. Analysis of the problems 1. Understanding and selecting vocabulary Typical students in Japan take at least 6 years of English courses in junior high and high schools. R ecently, English program for grade school students has been introduced with the hope of improving students’ proficiency in the future. After these courses, they usually take unified college entrance ex aminations for various subjects including English. In order to attain good scores for the English exa mination, students need to acquire a large amount of vocabulary in short time. There are numerous books to helpthem prepare for the purpose. Most of the books are lists of English words with one or two translated words in Japanese and also one or two sample sentences. By using these books, stud ents tend to think that one Japanese word has only one equivalent in English and vice versa. Howev er, as Suzuki (1973) pointed out that one English word might cover a different range of meanings in Japanese. One such example is “paper.” In English, it can be a sheet of paper, a term paper, a manu script, or a thesis. It may not occur to beginning level learners that they have to write “papers.”
2. Flow of logic Probably the most striking difference for flow of logic between English and Japanese is the structur e to write a formal piece of writing. Japanese learners of English often start writing about trivial thi ngs in their lives, gradually develop them, and they turn around, and finally come to a rather unexpe ctedconclusions. This is the typical course of writing in Japanese culture called “Ki (starting) - Sho (developing) – Ten (Turing) - Ketsu (Ending, Conclusion).” (Hoshino and Sanders, 2010) Japanese children get exposed to this type of structure at the early age and continue to read and write this way . Therefore, it is extremely difficult for them to write conclusions first and supply the supporting fa cts and data later. Even in some academic papers by Japanese writers, conclusions are not found in the abstracts. The author has been teaching relatively formal writing in English for Japanese colleg e students, but almost 95 % of them do not initially follow the typical structure of “Introduction (co nclusions included) – Body – Conclusion” even when the specific instruction was given before the writing. 3. Connection / cohesion It is an interesting coincidence that English adverb and conjunction“so” means almost the same in J apanese “so.” However, their usage can be different. In Japanese writing, “so” appears quite often. Thus, Japanese learners tend to use “so” too many times to make their writings sound redundant. At the same time, they feel confident that word “so” will connect two sentences tightly. As a result, the y may not pay enough attention to consider the cohesion of the sentences and end up connecting tw o rather separate ones. 4. Cultural notion The author has been helping engineering students to write scientific papers for international confere nces. We would think that science is universal and scientists write the universal way to communicat e with each other. However, one can unintentionally explain facts with culturally specific notions as if they are universal. The example is that a Japanese engineering researcher tried to explain that sol ar energy was efficient and could benefit companies by offering to recharge their workers’ electric v ehicles instead of paying commuting allowance. The additional payment for commuting between h omes and offices is common in Japan, but that is not the case in most other countries. The writer w as not aware of that and used this example to explain the advantage. 5. Singular /plural nouns The problem with singular and plural nouns is not specific to Japanese. Chinese learners of English also have similar problems. In these languages, apparently singular nouns can be plural in meaning, and seemingly plural nouns can be singular, e.g. “Tomo (friend)-dachi (plural suffix)”should mean f riends but can be a friend. Another example is “Sensee (teacher)-gata (plural suffix) which can mea n several teachers or teachers and some others (non-teachers). Due to this ambiguity in Japanese, Ja panese learners do not pay much attention to the difference between singular and plural nouns and o ften produce sentences such as “I am student.” and “I have dog.” (in fact, the writer may have sever al dogs). 6.Expressions There are always particular expressions in every language. In Japanese, “shizen (nature) ga ippai (f ull)”is quite common to express the beauty of wilderness. This expression is often translated word t o word into “full of nature” in English. Also, it is well-known that Japanese sentences often do not clearly state their subjects. The subject of the sentence also may shift within a sentence without me ntioning. This causes Japanese learners to write incomprehensible English sentences, such as “New production decided (The management has decided to manufacture new products) and went out to m arket (the products went out to market). 7. Attitude toward classroom participation
ILCC 2013
156
From grade schools to high schools, Japanese students are expected to listen to teachers, to absorb k nowledge, and seldom have chances to speak out or ask questions. This general practice in learning makes it very difficult for students to acquire usable skills in a foreign language. First of all, they d o not feel that they should initiate conversations. Second, they are not used to asking questions. As a result, when a teacher asks students to pair up and practice communication, they have trouble getti ng started and to continue. The significant part of class time is often wasted because of this attitude. 8. Attitude toward learning Due to the practice stated above, students will become quite passive about their own learning. Kno wledge and answers are given, so they will wait for a teacher to tell themwhat to learn. They do not think they should be responsible for their own learning. This situation becomes worse when student s have to prepare for the college entrance examinations. They focus solely on the contents of the ex aminations. The process of passing the examinations and getting into colleges will become their lea rning goals. Thus, the majority of students lose their motivation for learning after coming to college s. Their comprehension and skills in English naturally fade afterward. Because translation is widel y available in Japan for foreign books, novels, movies, etc., people do not have problems on a daily basis. This also contributes to losing motivation to learn English and other foreign languages. 9. Feeling for expressing oneself Many Japanese students express their uneasiness for discussing their feelings, thoughts and ideas. It is largely due to the education they have received up to college. Most often, a question has only on e answer in classrooms. The students are not accustomedto open-ended questions or to talk about th eir own ideas freely. They think that there should be only one right answer and they have to know it before they speak out.Teachers tend to criticize the students if they make mistakes rather than encou rage them to keep trying. These two typical tendencies createone-way classroom interaction only fr om the teachers to the students, leaving very little space for expressing creative ideas and personal t houghts. When student have been discouraged to express themselves throughout their school years, they naturally hesitate to express themselves in foreign language practices. Furthermore, they may have lost the desires to communicate at all. The author has found such students in every classroom and had difficulty having interaction with them. Discussion We are born into our cultures and learn their symbols, heroes, rituals, practices, and values (Hofsted e and Hofstede, 2005) from daily life practices, in schools, societies, etc. Students learn to believe t hat words in their native language should have equivalents in other languages. They also think that their logic is universal so that everybody in the world understands it. Educators should pay attentio n to these learner believes and behaviors. They also should be patient to give these learners various cultural information, practices, and time for them to change their beliefs and behaviors. Languages are not independent from background cultures. Therefore, language classrooms need to include disc ussions and practical activities for cultural understanding. Suggestions for the problems 1. Understanding and selecting accurate and appropriate vocabulary In order to have students aware of the difference in word meanings between their own language and a foreign language, discussions on this topic should always be a part of language courses. It is a tim e consuming process for the learners to change their tendency of one word to one word translation t hey have been accustomed to during their college entrance examination preparation. The use of elec tric dictionary has been making this situation worse. Educators need to be patient to monitor the lea rners’ mistakes, misuses, and progress. Giving the learners many examples they have made in the p ast during the discussion helps them becomemore aware of the problem. Handouts or a textbook of
lists of such examples are effective and helpful. In addition, including practices to choose better tra nslating words is highly recommended. 2. Flow of logic Providing writing practice sheets which is formatted as Introduction-Body-Conclusion has proven e ffective. The learners need to write many times to internalize the flow of logic in English, so that th is writing practice should be simple and short rather than complicated and long. Variation of the pra ctice is the key to make the learners focused and motivated. 3. Connection / cohesion This problem is two-fold. First, the learners do not pay enough attention to the connection and cohe sion of their writing in their native language, Japanese, to begin with. Second, they try to translate word to word, so that every “so” in Japanese will be translated into “so” in English. It is extremely important to have them practice writing in Japanese first, have them think about the connection bet ween sentences and paragraphs, then move on to write in English. 4. Cultural notion Typical mistakes caused by different cultural notions can be discussed in class before writing or spe aking in English, but covert ones have to be dealt with each time it appears in the learners’ writings and speech. 5. Singular /plural nouns This problem takes repeated practices for it does not exist in the learners’ native language. Extensiv e reading in English can help reduce the problem, but the learners have to be reminded to check thei r own language use. Teachers might have to reduce the grade for this type of mistake if it repeatedl y occurs in order for the learners to pay more attention. 6. Expressions Culturally specific expressions in English have to be memorized, but the practice can be made inter esting. Grouping similar expressions makes it easierfor the learners. Comparing expressions in En glish and in Japanese is another. The key is to make acquisition process enjoyable and rewarding w ith encouragement and with good grades for trying to use them. 7. Attitude toward classroom participation To promote active participation, teachers should create an environment in which the learners feel sa fe to make mistakes. They should be reminded that trying is important and making mistakes is expe cted or even encouraged. Once they feel comfortable, they start engaging themselves into classroo m activities. In addition, they should be given ample amounts of praise and encouragement. 8. Attitude toward learning When students are very young, their teachers decide what to teach and how. However, as the studen ts become older, their interests and needs vary. That is the time they need to take responsibility for t heir own learning. It is more so when they go out to the real world. However, changing from being passive learners to becoming active learners can be a big step and is difficult. The students need ex planations why they have to become active learners and need to know how to become so. Various s trategies for learning such as described by Oxford (1990) should be introduced and be actually pract iced hands-on with teachers (Hoshino, 2001). 9. Feeling for expressing oneself This pose a most difficult challenge for Japanese learners and probably for some other Asian learner s. Speaking one’s thoughts, ideas, and feelings has been discouraged for them in classes and even at home. Moreover, one might become very self-conscious around the age when s/he is in college. S/
ILCC 2013
158
he needs to be reminded constantly that communication is for expressing oneself and for being unde rstood. Teachers should create a welcoming atmosphere in class where the learners can talk about t hemselves by encouraging, paying attention, and praising. All in all, learners need encouragement and praise far more than educators can imagine in order to c ontinue their learning. Because culture is very deeply embedded in us all, we unconsciously think a nd act on it. Learners’ foreign language use is influenced by it, and teachers’ attitudes toward learne rs is also influenced by it. The teachers should be open to the different values and practices in vario us cultures and should introduce them in their classrooms. References Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J. (2005). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, New York, McGraw-Hill. Hoshino, Y. (2001). Maximizing Class Time: Teaching Short Classes of Chinese”, JALT 2001 proce edings. Hoshino, Y., Sanders, L.W. (2010). Cultivating Cultural Competencies through Various Classes. Pro ceedings of International Conference on Engineering Education. Suzuki, T. (1973). Kotoba to Bunka (Language and Culture), Tokyo, Iwanami Publishing. Oxford, R. (2011). Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies, Pearson Longman.
The Impact of Indirect Feedback on L2’ Learners in Learning English Language Nazifah Hamidun1, Zaliza Zubir2 and Nur Farhinaa Othman 3 Centre of International Languages, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia
Corresponding Author: NazifahHamidun, ZalizaZubir and NurFarhinaa Othman Centre of International Languages, Universiti Malaysia Perlis.
[email protected],
[email protected] &
[email protected] ________________________________________________________________________________ _______ Abstract.The effectiveness of feedback in language learning is widely acknowledged as it is one of t he factors that promote noticing of linguistic feature and reduce the learners’ grammatical errors. Th is paper presents the findings of a classroom research conducted for undergraduates of engineering s tudents which to examine the impact of indirect feedback on their writing. Due to students’ languag e inaccuracies, they tend to commit lots of grammatical errors in their writing. By trying to overco me this issue, the instructors have taken the initiative to provide the indirect feedback to the student s so that they are managed to improve it by identifying the errorswith the instructors’ guidance. If b oth parties (instructors and students) are able to complement each other well, the lessons will be mu ch more effective and successful. Therefore, the study is attempted to discover the impact of indire ct feedback on L2’ learners in learning English language. The researcher had carried out class obser vations, interviews and analyzed the students’ writing throughout the semester. The students were p ermanently arranged into two groups; treatment and control group. They were treated with indirect f eedbackfor summary writing and extra exercises. The results revealed that indirect feedback had giv en such a positive impact on undergraduates’ writing. Keywords:Indirect Feedback, Writing, Grammatical Error
Introduction (Use "Header 1" Style) Corrective feedback is a correction of error committed by the learners which plays an essential role to second language learners in improving their linguistic accuracy and reducing the writing complex ity. The more feedback received by the students on their writing, the better understanding will be pe rceived by them in correcting errors in their writing. The issues and controversies on corrective feed back has become prominent among the scholars in recent years as there are lots of contradictory vie ws on the effectiveness of incorporating corrective feedback in writing development. Ellis (2009), B itchener (2008), Guenette (2007) and Ferris (2004) indicated that the argument is due to the findings of studies which shown to be inconclusive due to inadequate methodology, with the main problem t hat most studies did not include a proper control group, the failures of students to employ the correc ted errors in their new pieces of writing and too many errors discovered in the studies. Guenette (20 07) further explained that the different findings which led to conflicting interpretations of former stu dies can be attributed to several different factors such as research design and methodology flaws an d external variables uncontrolled by the researchers. Different studies explore different aspects of feedback and that make the findings turn out to be simi lar or vice versa. The main concern in this research is on the impact of indirect feedback on errors in learners’ writing and the learners’ response toward the use of indirect feedback. In this perspective, t he errors are referring to the grammatical errors committed by the L2 learners in written texts. Ashw ell (2000) revealed that teachers believe that correcting the grammar of student writers’ work will he lp them improve the accuracy of subsequent writing. Ferris and Roberts (2001) in their studies also i ndicated that error correction in L2 writing classes shows that students who receive error feedback f
ILCC 2013
160
rom teachers improve in accuracy over time. In highlighting the grammatical errors on students’ wri tten text, the instructors can employ the two major types of written corrective feedback such as dire ct and indirect feedback. Various numbers of studies have distinguished between direct and indirect feedback strategies as they facilitate greater accuracy in writing (Bitchener, 2008; Ferris, 2006; Liu, 2003; Lalande, 1982). Bitchener (2008) defined direct feedback is the provision of the correct lingui stics form or structure above or near the linguistic error while indirect feedback is done by underlini ng the errors in the students’ text to indicate that the students has made an error without actually cor recting it (Ellis, 2009). Drawing from Lee’s study (2004), he defined direct feedback is when the tea cher picks out errors and gives the correct forms, whereas indirect correction refers to situation whe n the teacher marks that errors have been made but does not supply the correct forms. Bitchener (20 08) pointed out that there is distinction of coded and uncoded feedback. He added that coded feedba ck points to the exact location of an error, and the type of error involved is indicated with a code (fo r example, PS means an error in the use or form of the past simple tense). Uncoded feedback refers t o instances when the teacher underlines an error, circles an error, or places an error tally in the marg in, but, in each case, leaves the student to diagnose and correct the error. The present study is aimed to contribute the findings to the body of research on corrective feedback in writing English by exam ining the impact of uncoded indirect feedback to improve the L2’s learners’ written text. 1. Methodology 1. The Participants The participants involved in this study consist of 50 students majoring in engineering courses from Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Malaysia who enrolled in this course namely Technical Com munication. It was their second year at the university and Technical Communication is one of the un iversity required courses. The major focus of this course is written communication where it covers t he fundamental of technical writing as well grammatical structures. This study employs the qualitati ve method by assessing the students’ summary writing, interviews and classroom observation. The p articipants were permanently arranged into two groups; treatment and control group. The researcher s provided the indirect feedback to the treatment group whereas control group received no correctio n or feedback. The targeted three grammatical errors; Definite article, Simple Present Tense and Infi nitive were chosen by the researchers since those errors were most identified in the students’ writing . The same amount of time was spent teaching the summary writing of two groups. 2. Instructors’ observation and interview on the indirect feedback Observations were carried out by the instructors to scrutinize the participants’ responses from both g roups; treatment and control group after they obtained back their corrected summary writing from th e instructors. In addition, interview was also conducted at the end of the treatment to obtain more re sponses and views from the participants pertaining on the indirect feedback provided. Ten participa nts from the treatment group were chosen randomly to ask questions on the indirect feedback that h ad been provided to them. 3. The summary writing tasks Each participant in both groups was assigned to write a summary for 150 words during 4 weeks peri od. The researchers facilitated the participants on describing the trend and movement of the data bas ed on the bar chart or line graph, utilization of appropriate vocabularies and determine the word limi t for summary writing. The participants needed to summarize by interpreting the data and analyzing it within 30 minutes. Their writings were assessed with the rubrics determined by the researchers. T he tasks given to them were similar to their midterm assessment. 2. 2.1
Data Analysis Findings
2.1.1 Grammatical errors decreased in the L2’ learners summary writing The data analysis of students’ writing revealed that the treatment group receiving instructors’ indirec t feedback predominate the non-feedback control group. The instructors indicated in the students wr iting that errors existed but did not provide any correction. The purpose of did not providing the cor rection was to offer them to diagnose it in details and did self-correcting on targeted grammatical er rors. It was discovered that the students were able to scrutinize the mistakes, correct it independentl y and apply it in the new piece of writing. It was noticed that their achievement in writing was incre ased and they performed in their fourth week writing compared to the previous writings. Carles (20 06) also proved that students who receive feedback during the writing process have a clearer sense o f how well they are performing and what they need to improve. Meanwhile, the centre of attention f rom the control group was merely on the marks provided to them. They did not concern on the gram matical errors committed in their writing as they were not highlighted by the instructors. In other w ords, there is no improvement shown by them in terms of grammatical aspects from the first until th e fourth week. 2.1.2
Instructors’ Observation and Interview
From the observation conducted in four weeks, it was noticed by the instructors that the students fro m both group gave a different response when they handed back the summary writing to the students . The instructors merely underlined their grammatical errors without providing the explicit guidance to them. It can be seen that the treatment group paid the close attention to the uncoded indirect feed back provided by the instructors by analyzing and revising the errors in their summary writing. Som e of them who failed to diagnose the errors on their own made the initiative to consult with the instr uctors after the class. On the other hand, the control group did not give any response or seek on furt her explanation from the instructors regarding on grammatical aspects although they committed it in their writing. The errors were not noticed by them as it was not highlighted by the instructors. Furthermore, the students’ response drew from the interview claimed that the indirect feedbacks wer e very practical and effective for them as they could correct the mistakes being highlighted by the in structors. Ellis (2009) quoted from (Lalande, 1982) revealed that indirect feedback is indeed more e ffective in enabling students to correct their errors. Moreover, the students also acknowledged that it was not really easy for them to identify and diagnose the mistakes on their own but after a few week s, they managed to correct it on their own by spending more time to study on it as well as obtaining the guidance from the instructors. They further added that they preferred indirect feedback to be inc orporated in the learning process frequently as they wanted to improve more in writing. 3.
Discussion
Truscott (1996), the main opponent of error correction argued that error correction did not have a si gnificant effect on improving L2 student writing. He suggested that the corrective feedback should be abandoned as it is not neither effective nor useful, and even harmful for students’ learning. Never theless, the result from this research is totally contradicted with his studies. It proves that incorporat ing indirect feedback to the students has given such a great impact and fruitful as it contributes to re duce the grammatical errors gradually in students’ writing and in the same time improve their gram matical accuracy. This result is in same line with the other researchers who provided evidence that i ndirect corrective feedback is to be more effective and helpful in reducing the errors on students’ es say (Soori and AbdSamad, 2011; Bitchener, 2008; Ellis, 2009; Chandler, 2003; Ferris, 2000). Beuni ngenet. al (2008) also supported by stating that students would benefit more from indirect corrective feedback because they have to engage in more profound form of language processing as they are sel f-editing their output. Ferris (2003) and Fratzen (2005) also stated that indirect error feedback is mo re helpful on students’ long term writing development than direct error feedback. Hence, it is vital f or the instructors to implement the indirect corrective feedback to the teaching and learning process
ILCC 2013
162
as it provides advantage to the students. Additionally, it is also discovered in this study that the students in the treatment group demonstrate d the better understanding on the targeted grammatical aspects being highlighted in their texts after a couple of weeks. It is interesting to point out that the students are able to implement the three targ eted grammatical aspects in the new piece of writing accurately. Ellis (2009) makes clear that indire ct feedback is effective as it caters to guided learning and problem solving as well as encourages stu dents to reflect about linguistic forms. Moreover, the participants from treatment group were seen m ore responsible with their learning compared to the control group as they did their self-study on com mon grammatical errors they committed in the writing. They also have changed their perspective to be more focused and vigilant when they do the writing exercise in order to avoid from committing t he grammatical errors. Moreover, the students’ responses towards the indirect feedback are also positive as they become m ore interested and enthusiastic to produce a better second writing. Jodaie and Farrokhi (2012) also i ndicated that the participants in their studies have positive perceptions of written grammar feedback after received the indirect feedback. The students also believed that they become more proficient an d confidence in writing if the researchers provide the feedback adequately and consistently in classr oom. 4.0 Conclusion The utilization of indirect feedback in the teaching writing has undoubtedly produced the positive re sults as it help to reduce grammatical in students’ writing. They have opportunity to revise their writ ing products by implementing self-correcting in learning process which is valuable for long term eff ects. The students also revealed a positive attitude and good response towards the use of indirect fee dback which make the teaching and learning easy for researchers/instructors. In addition, the studen ts who received the indirect feedback make a good progress in their English writing and performed well compared to the students who received none feedback. After all, it is believed that the findings of the study illustrated that the indirect feedback offers positive impact to the students and self-corre ction ability is useful for them to be independent in learning the linguistic features. With all the findi ngs from this study, a further research is recommended in the future in order to gain more insight on the other facet of indirect feedback such as vocabularies or content to improve students’ writing in E nglish language. 1.
References
Ashwell, T. (2000). Patterns of teacher response to student writing in a multiple-draft composition c lassroom: Is content feedback followed by form feedback the best method? Journal of Second Lang uage Writing,9(3), 227- 257. Beuningen, C. G. Van., Jong, N. H. De, &Kuiken, F. (2008).The effect of direct and indirect correcti ve feedback on L2 Learners' written accuracy. Amsterdam Center for Language ad Communication, 279-296Retrieved from dare.uva.nl/document/168926. Carless, D. (2006).Differing perceptions in the feedback process.Studies in Higher Education,31(2), 219-233. Chandler, J. (2003). ‘The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accurac y and fluency of L2 student writing’.Journal of Second Language Writing, 1, 267–296. Ellis, R. (2009). A typology of written corrective feedback types.ELT Journal, 63 (2), 97-107. Retrie ved from, http://lrc.cornell.edu/events/09docs/ellis.pdf
Guenette, D. (2007). ‘Is feedback pedagogically correct? Research design issues in studies of feedb ack on writing’. Journal of Second Language Writing,16,40–53. Ferris, D. R. and B. Roberts. 2001. ‘Error feedback in L2 writing classes: How explicit does it need to be?’.Journal of Second Language Writing,10,161–84. Ferris, D.R. (2003). Response to student writing :Implications for second language students. Mahwa h, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ferris, D.R. (2004). The ‘‘grammar correction’’debate in L2 writing: Where are we, and where do w e go from here?Journal of Second Language Writing,13,49–62 Jodaie, M. &FarahmanFarrokhi.(2012). An exploration of private language Institute Teachers’ perce ptions of written grammar feedback in EFL classes.English Language Teaching,5(2), 58-67. Retriev ed from doi:10.5539/elt.v5n2p58. Lee, I. (2004). Error correction in L2 secondary writing classrooms: The case of Hong Kong. .Journ al of Second Language Writing,13, 285-312 Liu, J. (2003). The effect and affect of peer review in electronic versus traditional modes on L2 writ ing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 2, 193-227. Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes.Language Learning, 46(2), 103-110. Retrieved from, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1996.tb01238.x Soori, A. &ArshadAbd. Samad. (2011). The efficacy of immediate and delayed corrective feedback in the correct use of English definite and indefinite article. Journal of American Science,7(4),349-35 4. Retrieved from, http://academia.edu/3684367/The_Efficacy_of_of_Immediate_and_Delayed_Corre ctive_Feedback_in_the_Correct_Use_of_English_Definite_and_Indefinite_Articles
ILCC 2013
164
THE IMPACT OF USING A REPETITIVE QUESTION SYSTEM OF TEACHING ON COMPREHENSION OF ARABIC SYNTAX IN UNIVERSITIES (A CASE STUDY OF INSANIAH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE) (ً جامعة اإلنسانيّة نموذجا:)أثر استخدام أسلوب تكرار األسئلة في تحصيل القواعد النحويّة على المستوى الجامعي
[email protected]
ABSTRACT This research aimed to investigate the impact of using a repetitive question system of teaching on t he comprehension of Arabic syntax in universities. Towards achieving this goal, the researcher carri ed out an experimental research on a sample of (60) respondents from students of department of Ara bic language in Insaniah University College Kedah, Malaysia. The sample was grouped into two eq ually distributed groups namely: experimental and control groups. The experimental group was tuto red by using repetitive question system of teaching while the control group was tutored by using the traditional lecture style. Text based instructional material for both groups were prepared by the resea rcher from a unit (Al-Asmaaul Al-Mansubah )األسمماء المنصموبةin the Arabic syntax text book (Alfiyatu Ibnu Maliki )ألفية ابمن مالمك. The researcher used two tests (pre-test and post-test) to carry out the study. The pre-test was used for both groups in order to evaluate both groups level of understanding on the principles of Arabic syntax. After the pre-test, the researcher tutored both groups extensively for thr ee weeks on the principle of Arabic syntax. Subsequently a post-test was carried out to measure the differences in both teaching styles employed. For data analysis the researcher used independent sam ple t-test to compare statistical means of both groups. The result of this study reveals that there is st xperimental group which has been tutored using the repetitive question system. (Keywords: Repetiti ve Question System Of Teaching, Comprehension, Arabic Syntax,) Introduction Surely effective teaching is needed to develop student’s intellectual ability. However, this is incomp lete except if it is in tandem with current demands. The abundance of teaching technologies, method s and strategies in the present century creates a lot of potentials for effective teaching. It is presently observed that teaching Arabic syntax needs to be reinvented; because the students’ of Arabic language in the present age are deficient in comprehending the subject. Nothing points to thi s as the glaring mistakes the students make in speech, writing and reading Arabic language. This ma kes the students’ love for the subject to be negatively affected. As a result of this, this researcher dee med it fit to embark on a study on development of teaching methodology and technology in imparti ng the knowledge of Arabic syntax. Possibly, this may help in changing the students’ perception and motivate them towards the subject. In response to the aforementioned, educationists have done various quantitative researches that have resulted in development of different methods and strategies in teaching Arabic syntax.This isto enab le effective teaching of the lecturers as well as sound intellectual development of the students in Ara bic syntax. This is so because Arabic syntax is a tool that aids fluency and guide against mistake in Arabic language. Hence, mastering Arabic syntax aids the students’ finesse of the languageAssayyid (2991())السيّد. These studies includesZaquut ( )زقوتand Al-Shakhsheer(1001( ) )الشخشميرwhich aims to establish the effectiveness between lecturing method and discussion method in teaching Arabic syn
tax in Islamic university Gaza, the research sample for this study is eighty students and the sample was distributed to two experimental groups. The result of the study established that there is no distin ction between the two methods. Amin ( )أمينand lina (1002() )لينماaims to establish the impact of using drama in teaching Arabic synta x on the achievement of female students in grade 10 in Jordan. The study was carried with 120 stud ents who were divided into two equal groups namely: control and experimental group. The result of the study reveals that there is statistical significant difference at (0.05) between the achievements of the two groups in favour of the experimental group that were tutored with drama. Al-fifiy (1020() )الفيفميaims to study the impact of solving problem method of teaching Arabic syntax on primary students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The study was carried with 46 students who were divi ded into two equal groups namely: control and experimental group. The result of the study revealed that there is a significant difference at 0.05 less between the two groups with the result favouring th e experimental group and a significant difference between the two tests favouring the post test. Research Problem and Research Question This research was carried out in InsaniahUniversity College, a relatively new university established by Kedah state Malaysia, in 1994 and opened in 1996 as a state private university. The university ha s among its faculties four Islamic faculties among which the faculty of Arabic language was chosen for the purpose of this research. As a result of the researcher’s experience in terms of the weakness of students in comprehending th e principles of Arabic syntax, the constant complaints of students on the difficulty of understanding the subject, and the fact that in most cases students do find it difficult to ask or answer questions on the subject in Insaniah University College. The researcher concluded that of all the challenges face d by the students, inability of the students to participate in the class (ask or answer questions) is the root cause of the problems. Hence, the researcher thought of a way to encourage the students’ partic ipation in the class thereby enabling the tutors to evaluate their level of understanding on the subject . In view of this, the research aims to answer the following question: What is the impact of repetitive question system of teaching on teaching Arabic syntax in universiti es? Research Objectives This research aims to achieve the following: 1. Understanding the extent of students’ weakness in comprehending Arabic syntax in universit ies. 2. Improving the methodology of teaching the subject through the result of the research. 3. Understanding the impact of repetitive question system of teaching Arabic syntax in Univers ities.
Research Hypothesis 1. There is statisticalsignificant difference at (0.05) between the mean of the two groups in the pre and post tests results. 2. There is statistical significant difference at (0.05) between the students’ achievement in the t wo groups as a result of the methods applied. 3. It is easy to develop the system of teaching Arabic syntax from the result of the research. Significance of the Research The significance of this research lies in aiding the teaching of Arabic syntax in Malaysian Universiti es with emphasis on Insaniah University College. Also, it aids lecturers in employing a teaching sys tem that is effective in motivating the Malaysian students and driving them towards scholarly contri butions in the class; in order to improve the students’ level of understanding Arabic syntax in parti
ILCC 2013
166
cular. Limitation of the Research The research is limited to testing the repetitive question of teaching Arabic syntax. The population consists of students of Arabic language department of Insaniah UniversityCollege K edah Malaysia. Definition of terms This research is centred on three terms namely: repetitive question systems, Traditional System of le arning (Lecturing), and Arabic syntax achievements. 1. Repetitive Question System Repetitive Question System is a task between two people; it is based on interaction between lecturer and students. The lecturer imparts knowledge on the student from his knowledge of the subject and stop intermittently to ask questions from the students on the immediate discussion; to evaluate the le vel of comprehension of the students on the topic till he is assured of their full understanding of the topic discussed. Therefore, in this system both the lecturers and students are active participants in th e class. However, it is advisable for lecturers to be moderate in the use of the system, so as not to re sult in boredom to the student in the classroom. 2. Traditionallecturing System. Traditionallecturing Method is a task that connects two parts, the first is the lecturer and the second is a specific group of students. In this system, the lecturer imparts his knowledge of the subject on t he student while feeling accomplished with the performance of the students in final examination. Th is system obviously does not identify individual differences among the students. Therefore, in this s ystem the lecturers are active while the students remain passive in their participation during lectures in the class. 3. Arabic Syntax Achievements An Arabic syntax achievement is the evaluation system that is used to measure the performance of t he students in the two tests (Pre Test and Post Test). These two tests are designed to evaluate the stu dents’ understanding of Arabicsyntax and its use in speech, writing, and reading by the students. Research Design and Methodology This researcher used experimental method to explain the effectiveness of repetitive question system of teaching onteaching Arabic syntax Research Population and Sample The researcher carried out the experimental research on sixty students of faculty of Arabic language in Insaniah University College, of which the population is five hundred and sixty three, including b oth local and international students from both sexes (Male and Female). The sixty students that ma de the sample were divided into two equal groups namely; experimental and control groups. Research Instruments The researcher employed the following three instruments to carry out the research: 1. Lecture: the researcher organised three hours per week sessiontutorial for the students from each groupfor three consecutive weeks. 2. Pre achievement Test: the researcher prepared forty questions for the pre- achievement test. 3. Post achievement Test: the researcher prepared fifty questions for the post- achievement test .
Reliability and Validity This researcher adopted the two questions for both tests from previous studies reviewed after the ne eded adjustment has been made for this research. The questions were further evaluated by specialist s in Arabic language and education. The researcher then carried out a pilot test with a sample of 22 s tudents from the same population to ensure validity and reliability on the 29th day of March 2013. The pilot test result revealed the suitability of the test for the evaluation of the students. Thus, the te st can be used for the purpose of the research. The research carried out pre achievement test to evaluate the level of understanding of both groups on the subject. The results are shown in the table below: Table 1. Pre achievement test result. GROUPS NO. MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION Experimental G. 30 65.07 19.348 .556 Control Group 30 62.20 18.159
T- TEST
It is evident from the table above that there is no statistical significance difference between the two groups.This shows the equality between the two groups in their level of understanding of the subject prior to the test. After the pre achievement test, the experimental group were tutored using repetitive question syste m of teaching while the control group were tutored with the traditional method. The researcher tutor ed the students on various topics on the subject. The topics include: The five Arabic objects, phrase and Specification; these topics were selected from alfiyahibnumalik ( )ألفيمة ابمن مالمكand are topics that are treated in year two Insaniah University College. Then a post test Achievement test was carried o ut on both groups with the aim of evaluating the achievement of the students after the tutorial on 20t h day of April 2013. The statistical method used The researcher employed the following statistical method for testing the reliability and validity of th e test, data analysis and the derivation of answers for research questions and hypothesis: 1. Crombach alpha 2. Descriptive statistics 3. Independent sample t-test Research Results In answering the research question “What is the impact of using of repetitive question system of tea ching in the teaching of Arabic syntax in universities?” And testing the three hypotheses the emplo yed t-test for comparisons between the two groups and the comparison between the pre achievement test and post achievement test. Refer to table 2 below: Table 2 T-test for comparison between the differences between the mean of the two groups GROUPS NO. MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION T- TEST Experimental G. 30 59.47 14.911 0.018 Control Group 30 49.93 15.434 It is clear from the table above that there is statistically significant difference between the two group s with the result in favour of the experimental group at 0.05 significance which shows the effectiven ess of the method employed over the traditionalmethod (lecture) in teaching Arabic Syntax.
Analysis of findings From the result of the study, it is evident that “There is statistical significant difference at 0.05 betw een the mean of the two groups in the pre and post tests results” which exposes the differences in th
ILCC 2013
168
e methodology. Based on past studies on similar experimental research on teaching methodologies o f Arabic syntax, this result is identical with; study (2003) and study (2005) which also reports signif icant difference at 0.05 or less between the two groups in the post achievement test on Arabic synta x that favours experimental group. Reasons for the success of the experimental group over the controlled group 1. The effectiveness of repetitive question method for teaching the students of Insaniah Univer sity College. 2. The use of repetitive question method aided the student in experimental group to have excell ent understanding of the subject. 3. The use of repetitive question method made the student in experimental group to be attentive in the class in anticipation of questions thereby aiding excellent comprehension of the lectures. In conclusion, the researcher discovered that the experimental group are distinct in their performanc e because they were motivated to participate actively in the class. Conclusion 1. The significant contribution of present study 2. The quality and the efficiency of repetitive question method are better compared to the tradit ional method. 3. The excellence of the experimental group over the controlled group in understanding the Ara bic syntax. 4. There is no statistical significant difference at 0.05 between the students’ achievement in the two groups as a result of the methods applied. 5. There is need to ensure the development of appropriate teaching methodology for Arabic lan guage especially Arabic syntax.
Recommendations With reference to the result of the present study, the researcher recommends that: 1. There should be more flexibility in employing other reliable methods other than the traditio nal method. 2. Repetitive method of teaching should made compulsory in delivery of lectures in Arabic syn tax for Insaniah University college students because of its effectiveness in aiding excellent understa nding of the subject. 3. Lecturers should be adequately trained on the repetitive method of teaching for it to be prop erly used in teaching Arabic syntax. 4. The method of teaching Arabic syntax should be re-examined and the necessary method and strategies be employed to suit current demands. 5. The Arabic syntax curriculum should be re-examined in Insaniah University. References تدريسالنحوالعربيّبينطريقتيالمحاضرةوالمناقشةلدىطلبةقسمماللغةالعربيّةبكليتياددابوالتربيةبالج. ومحمودالشخشير، محمدشحادة،زقوت م1001 ،)1( 21 المجلّد-(مجلّة جامعة النجاح لألبحاث –العلوم اإلنسانيّة،امعةاإلسالميّةفيغزة. (رسالة ماجستير مقدّممة لجمامع،ي ّ تنمية مهارات النحو لدى طالب المرحلة الثانويّة باستخدام الحاسوب كمساعد تعليم. حسنى،السيّد م2991 ،)ة عين شمس. أثر استخدام طريقة ح ّل المشكالت في تدريس مادة القواعد علمى التحصميل الدراسمي لتالميمذ الصم. حسن بن محمد بن حسين،الفيفي م1020 / ه2342 رسالة الماجيستير،) جامعة اإلمام محمد بن سعود اإلسالميّة: (الرياض،ف السادس االبتدائي. : (اإلمارات. أثر استخدام طريقة العصف الذهني في تنمية التحصيل الدراسي في مادة قواعد اللغة العربيّة،محمود عوض بني ذياب م1024 ،)رؤي إستراتيجيّة. أثر التدريس باستخدام الخرائط المفاهيميّة على تحصيل طلبة الصف المث. وغصايات محمد مطلق الفالحات،نصر محمد خليفة مقابلة م1020 ،3 العدد،11 المجلّد، مجلّة جامعة دمشق،امن األساسي لقواعد اللغة العربيّة في األردن.
Islamic Principles to enhance Effective Communication in Distant Education Hasina Banu Shirin, Institute of Education (INSTED) International Islamic University (IIUM), Malaysia Contact # 00600162245953 E-mail:
[email protected] Mohammad Serazul Islam School of Business University Kuala Lumpur (UniKL), Malaysia Contact # 0060146238339 E-mail
[email protected]
Abstract. Islamic principles in education refer to the rules of education which are prepared based on the teaching of the Holy Qur’an and Sunnah. Accordingly effective communication in distant educa tion denotes to exchange information between teacher and student. However, in this recent period it is rare to find the application of Islamic principles in distant education system. Therefore for enhanc ing Islamic education Islamic principles should be followed during communication in distant educat ion. The aim of this paper was to create a conceptual framework based on Islamic principles for effe ctive communication in distant education. The writers have used Moore’s (1991) transactional dista nce theory to produce the conceptual framework for the communication of distant education. Keywords:Effective communication, conceptual framework, Distant education, Islamic principles 1. Introduction Effective communication refers to that communication process in which the communicators exchan ge their messages and information among themselves; and their fundamental goals and objectives ar e achieved positively. Distant education, on the other hand, is a process of delivering teaching and l earning using various media sources such as radio, television, video tapes, printed materials, cassett es, satellite and internet as well. According to Schmidt and Gallegos (2001) distant education is the system of transfiguring a traditio nal classroom teaching into a course instructed through different media like CD-ROM, internet and so on. Working people do not have additional time to come any educational institution but are intere sted to accomplish higher degree and to enhance their knowledge and experiences. They can get the educational opportunities from distant education system. Due to their personal occupation distant learners face difficulties to attend the traditional classroom as regular students.Tesone and Ricci, (2003) argue, “Distance education is suited for busy people w ho wish to increase their knowledge and skills without giving up jobs, leaving home, or losing inco me”. Furthermore, distant learning in an Islamic educational institution must be assimilated with Isl amic teaching. Through the educational institutions educators can propagate the beautiful moral teac hing of the holy Qur’an and Sunnah. Accordingly, educators of an Islamic institution must have to p repare curriculum which is more relevant to Islamic principles. The central objective of Islamic edu cation is according to Halstead (2004, p.522) “(i) aiding individual development, (ii) increasing und erstanding of society and its social and moral rules and (iii) transmitting knowledge”. 2. History of communication in distant education Lecturers and the learners are the animated components for effective communication in distant educ ation. Therefore, to establish this effective communication between teachers and students media pla y an obligatory role. Frick (1991) says, “The history of human communication, all the way through,
ILCC 2013
170
develops in technology have powered exemplary modification in education”. According to Moore ( 1991) distant education depends on the effectiveness of the communication system and also the cont ent of the dialog between instructor and student. In the United States, in 1873, correspondence study, at present which is known as distant education, was introduced to encourage independent study. At the beginning it was arranged for all classes fem ale in the society. Mail, at that period, was the main communication system for teaching and learnin g. Printed teaching elements sent through mail (Nasseh 1997). Over forty years this mail was the on ly one process of communication. After that new technologies become the alternative way to comm unicate between teacher and student. From 1910-1920 visual teaching, including slides and vivid pi ctures, was added to the repertory of many extension units for communication, but for the most favo rable technology to communicate was instructional radio (Nasseh B., 1997). After the Second World War, television was deliberated as the communication system in distant edu cation. During that time educators considered television instruction is not a system but an instrumen t to transmit instruction in different places. According to the report of American National University Extension Association (NUEA, 1969) in 1968 the name of the correspondence study has been chang ed into the independent study; and for communication this new study system provided various optio ns such as programmed instruction, telephone, television, videotape and other multimedia. Accordin gly, during 1970s and 1080s the name of distant education was introduced instead of independence study. Nevertheless, Wright (1991) says, “In the late 1970s and 1980s cable and satellite were used as a co mmunication medium for distant education”. According to the catalog of the Mind Extension Unive rsity (MEU, 1991) in the United States, in the fall of 1991, eighteen educational institutions used th e Mind Extension University’s (MEU) educational Network as a means of communication to delive r video course materials for distant education. In addition, Neeley, Niemi, &Ehrhard, (1998) found that since 1995 in Northern Illinois University (NIU), one of the first graduate level course was taught through teleconferencing in human resource development. To them the distant education of Northern Illinois University (NIU) was success not o nly for being higher education but also teaching the course continuously via teleconferencing. In previous age, some individuals were unable to attend educational institutions to achieve higher e ducation because the time of traditional classroom was diverged with their own work schedules. No wadays, this scenario has been changed. People can acquire their Baccalaureates and Masters degre es through distant education system which is instructed in two ways. One is through technology and another way is teaching in traditional classroom. In this present era numerous number of universitie s even colleges are offering this distant delivery system of education. The age level of 60% distant l earners is over 45. 3. Communication in Islamic Perspective The greatest and holy religion Islam inspires mankind to communicate with each other for establishi ng a good relationship among the Ummah. “ This communication must be free from any prejudice b ased on race, color, language, religion, culture or rationality so as to achieve peace, equality, brother hood and prosperity in this world and salvation and the pleasure of Allah in the hereafter” (AbdurRa hman O. Olayiwola, 2010). In the Holy Qur’an Allah says, “Invite (mankind, O Muhammad) to the way of your Lord ( i,e. islam) with wisdom ( i.e. with the di vine Revelation and the Qur’an) and fair preaching and argue with them in a way that is better” (Sur ah Al-Nahal; 125). During Mecca period, Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) followed verbal communication sy stem to disseminate the divine teaching received from Allah (swt). Later on, when he (peace be upo n him) established Islamic Government he (sas) sent many letters to the chief of different provinces. Through those letters he invited them to accept Islam as their religion and to learn Islamic knowledg e. Therefore, these two forms of communication helped Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) to
propagate all information of Qur’anic teaching and messages of Islam. So “performing a good deed enhances any relationship or communication” (AbdurRahman O. Olayiwola, 2010).Accordingly, re garding Islamic communication Sarder (1993) cites, “Communication in Islam is intrinsically related to the fundamental Qur’anic concept of ilm. Often translated as ‘knowledge’ ilm is one of the most frequently occurring terms in the Qur’an.As a defin ing concept of the worldview of Islam, its influence permeates all aspects of Muslim individual and societal behaviour” (p. 43). In addition, the actual relationship between Allah (Creator of this universe) and human being is co nsidered in terms of rububiyya-'ubudiyya(Lord-servant). Hence Allah (swt) teaches human being thr ough His commanding speech and similarly we as human being learn by paying attention to His “vo ice through the text of the Qur'an and by submitting to his authority” (Cornell, 2005). Qur’an is the communication medium for teaching and learning between Allah (swt) and human being. The Holy Qur’an introduces its own self as “Ummul- Kitab” “sourcebook” (13:39). “In medieval A rabic, the term kitab stood for any type of dictated communication, whether it was written or verbal ” (Cornell, 2005). According to Cornell (2005) Qur’an accomplishes its act as the model of divine c ommunication and it also acts as a type “of ‘teacher’s guide’ to divine pedagogy” (Cornell, 2005). A l-Qur’an is the representative of wisdom teaching. As Allah (swt) says, “Recite in the name of your Lord Who created, created mankind from a blood clot; Recite, for your Lord is the most Noble, the one Who taught by means of the eternal pen (of revelation); Who taught mankind what it did not know”(96: 1-5).“He revealed to you the Book (the Qur’an) and Hikmah (th e Sunnah), and He taught you that which you did not know (4:113)”. Therefore, from the verses mentioned above, it is obvious that there remain two communications m edia for Allah’s teaching namely “written scripture, in the form of the revealed text of the Qur'an, an d the subtextual ‘Book of Wisdom’ that complements the written scripture” (Cornell, 2005). From I slamic perspective it can be said that Islam has a strong foundation for teaching learning communic ation. 4. Barriers of Communication in Distant Education The lecturers of distant education require to teach their courses live and it may be a studio class or without a studio class. In this way they interact with the students. Consequently it is quite hard to th e instructors to perceive whether the instruction is successful or not. Opposite phenomenon is seen i n a traditional classroom because here the lecturers comprehend the needs of the students. Furtherm ore, for producing an effective teaching learning environment instructors can observe the body lang uage of the learners, their verbal response even their eye contact. Teachers are able to provide feedb ack to the disciples to improve their learning. On the other hand, in a distant class, teachers are unable to contact directly with the students. “Even instructors in interactive distance learning situations face limited interpersonal contact, and must rea djust the manner in which they assess the response and understanding of students” (Bower B. L., 20 01). Consequently students fail to get feedback directly rather they receive indirect feedback from t he lecturers in delay. Therefore, it can be said that distant learners are separated geographically and they are also isolated from their own fellows and teachers. They are bound to motivate towards lear ning on their own. They can be considered as independent learners. A lot of studies have been conducted on distant education (Bower B. L., 2001), distance learning pr ograms for career (Tesone, D.V., & Ricci, P., 2003), Classes going the distance.... (Neeley, L., Niem i, J.A., &Ehrhard, B.J., 1998), Distance Learning: Issues and Concerns of Distance Learners (Schmi dt K.E. & Gallegos A., 2001). Notwithstanding, it is rear to get even a single article on the effective communication system of distant education base on Islamic principles. Therefore, the paramount tar get of this article is to generate a conceptual framework based on Islamic principles to enhance teac her-learner communication in distant education.
5.
Theoretical Framework
ILCC 2013
172
In distant education system ‘distance’ is considered geographically. However accroding to Moore’s (1991) transactional distance theory, distance is not geographical rather it is pedagogical in nature. This difference of thinking and comprehending must be overcome by all lecturers and learners who are involved in any educational transaction (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). Fig. 1: Michael G. Moore’s transactional Distance Model Moore’s (1991) transactional Distance theory is established based on three variables namely dialogu e, structure and learner autonomy. Here dialogue is the teacher-student communication transaction. Teacher, in dialogue, deliver instruction to the students and students reply. Moore (1991) thinks dial ogue as a significant component which is interconnected with the communication quality but not wi th the communication frequency. In addition regarding the three elements of Moore’s transactional Distance theory some scholars co mments can be mentioned; because they dedicate their utmost exertions to ratify the theory through their empirical research study. Therefore Crawford (2009) identifies that dialogue is termed as an int erchange of arguments, activities and concepts between instructor and students. In dialogue ‘the im portant factor involved is communication’ (Crawford 2009). According to Saba (2000) novice learn ers obtain skills and proficiency so their demand for dialogue become high and at that time transacti onal distance between teachers and students starts to decrease. Actually communication interaction of teacher-learner differs in accordance of learners’ educational background, their knowledge of the course and their depth of curriculum (Saba, 2000). Again she (2 000) argues that transactional distance may vary constantly because it depends on what learners mu st do to learn; and similarly what lecturers must accomplish to deliver teaching on every topic in tim e. Moreover, “the interactive communication characteristics of Web-based, distance learning enhanc e student-instructor interaction (dialog), thereby reducing transactional distance” (Burgess, 2006). Structure, on the other hand, is the level of changing course elements to fulfill the specific demand of some individual learners. According to Moore (1991) structure is a qualitative aspect not quantita tive. Moreover, teaching elements are included in structure such as: “(a) learning objectives, (b) the matic content, (c) presentations, (d) case studies, (e) animations, (f) exercises, (g) projects, and (h) e xams” (Burgess., 2006). According to Burgess (2006) the flexibility or rigidity of a course’s instruct ional strategies, assessments and learning outcomes are also reflected in structure. It is obvious that these instructional elements are sometimes strongly organized by the concern lecturers. And someti mes course elements are totally free for the students to work independently. In addition, according to Moore (1993) learner autonomy is the scope by which students instead of t eachers, create the outlines of a learning program. He (1986) also thinks that teacher-centered teachi ng approach always inspires pupils to be inactive receivers of teaching materials; and without being thirsty for knowledge students depend on their teacher to get guideline and direction. Therefore, the teacher-centered teaching approach was the dominating approach in distant higher-education system because of the shortage of teaching media (Moore, 1993). Nevertheless, today in student-centered te aching approach, lecturers are seen as counselors and facilitators as an alternative of directors and te achers (Diaz, 2000). Nowadays, autonomous learners have been provided flexibility to select their l earning style and this learner autonomous reduces transactional distance. So according to Moore it can be considered that transactional distance and dialogue are in opposite part to each other. If anyone of them increases then another one starts to decrease. Similarly “the inc rease of course structure leads to reduction of dialogue and consequently, transactional distance incr eases” (Giossosy, Koutsoube, Lionarakis ,&Skavantzos , 2013). 6. Conceptual Framework Moore’s (1991) transactional distance model is only for secular distant education which is totally Isl amic value free. His all arguments regarding each variable of the model are Western perspectives. H
owever, in Islam all educational models should be Islamic principles based. Consequently, to disse minate Islamic teaching throughout the world especially the Muslim world Islamic value-laden educ ational model can guide us properly. 1. Dialogue Here Dialogue is the extent to exchange arguments and interact between teacher and student. Throu gh dialogue teacher can provide Islamic teaching on Tawhid and the importance of Ibadah (worship ) to the distant students. The meaning of Tawhid refers to the oneness of Allah (swt). In this univers e Allah is the only one Whom people should worship. It would be unforgivable sin if anyone believ es that Allah has partner. This type of belief is known as shirk. Tawhidic-value laden individuals including teacher and student must have to believe that without th e will of Allah (swt) no additional authority in this world is able to do anything. “There is nothing o utside the power of Allah (swt) and in a more esoteric sense, nothing outside His Being, for there ca n not be two orders of reality” (Nasar, 1981, p. 7). In other words, Islam is not only a religion but it is the complete way to lead our entire lives successfully. In distant education system during interacti on or dialogue with the learners, lecturers can easily spread the tawhidic knowledge to inspire stude nt to be tawhidic-value laden person. According to Al-Ghazali the purpose of education is to nurture man who could follow the religious t eaching and could be assured of salvation and happiness in the life hereafter. Mohd Kamal (1986) s ays, “The aim of education is to get preparation for the safety of both in this world and the world he reafter”. So it is very obvious that “Islamic education, instruction and teaching are acts of worship t o Allah when it is accomplished within the instructions of Islam and planned to gain Allah’s Love” ( MohamadJohdiSalleh, 2012). Therefore, teacher-student dialogue in distant education must be base d on Islamic principles through which students could be able to worship Allah (swt) for the betterme nt of this world as well as Akhirah. 2. Structure Structure is the extent of altering course components which includes learning objectives, case studie s, exercises projects and vice versa. In Western education all these teaching elements are prepared b ased on Western thoughts. But in Islamic education each teaching element is prepared depending on ilm, aql, ruh, nafs and qlb. In order to elaborate Islamic educational communication ilm is considered as the most important ext ent. Moreover, the paramount source of knowledge is ilm. Accordingly, aql, ruh, nafs and qlb are th e blessing of Allah (swt). Through aql a man can elevate him to the highest status in the creation hie rarchy. Ruh is the spirit, soul and qlbare the heart of human being. Purified ruh and qlb should be po ssessed by every individual. These two are also rigorous to achieve worldly knowledge and reveale d knowledge. Nafs always allure human being to do both right and wrong. A man needs to purify hi s own self to be a good man. By obeying Allah’s order, performing five times solah, following all the rules of Islamic Monotheis m people refine their nafs. In the Holy Qur’an Allah (swt) says, “And indeed he fails who corrupts h is own self” (Ash- Shams, verse-10).Therefore for structuring teaching elements educators of Islami c countries should follow Islamic teaching principles which includes ilm, aql, ruh, qlb and nafs. 1.3. Learners Autonomy In learner autonomy students are to select the course outline. Western students create this outline ba se on their secular knowledge. Contrarily, in an Islamic country distant students need to produce co urse outline based on Islamic knowledge which includes iman and taqwa. Iman refers to the belief i n Allah (swt), His Angels, His Books, His Messengers and in the Day of Judgment. Iman, in other w ords, is an individual’s secretive matter which reflects his level of relationship with Allah (swt). “It i s a primary pre-requisite state of belief, on which a comprehensive system of values, attitudes and d evotional rituals is based” (Muhammad I. Ayish, 2003). Taqwa is the supreme individual, moral and ethical capacity to achieve higher level in iman. It neve r provokes a person to be more hanker after for this worldly desire. It actually, refers to the ‘fair of Allah (swt) and it also guides a person against of doing any unethical thing. In every spare of a Mus lim life taqwa should be considered as a reinforcement constituent. So distant students in Muslim co
ILCC 2013
174
untries should select their course outline based on the Islamic principles which includes Iman and T awqwa. 7. Recommendation and Conclusion In distant education system educational authorities should follow Islamic principles while preparing teaching module to disseminate Islamic knowledge. Consequently, distant teacher and students wou ld be bound to share Islamic knowledge during communication. Moreover Islamic principles in edu cation enable the teachers and students to be enriched as a good man physically, logically and menta lly. Islamic principles help to purify all individuals’ nafs,qlb, ruh and it also assist to heighten our aq l. On the other hand, The Holy Qur’an and Sunnah are the main source of Islamic principles. T herefore, Islamic teaching principles are designed based on the teaching of Qur’an and Sunnah. As a result, while a teacher communicates with distant learners s/he should search the appropriate Islami c principles relating to the lesson to deliver lecture. Nevertheless, lecturers can play a vital role to pr omulgate the philosophy of Islamic principles among the distant students. Moreover, it can be consi dered that teachers are more responsible to assist the students to construct their knowledge based on Islamic principles. Similarly, a Muslim’s moral character must be reflected while conducting with ot her individuals. To gain Allah’s pleasure Ummah should communicate with each other in a good manner. All princip les of Islamic communication should be followed while communicating with others. We should not give more priority on the worldly achievement neglecting the ethical and moral teaching of Islam. We need to be ethical and truthful to others. So to communicate with others Prophet Mohammad (pe ace be upon him) advises, “You must speak the truth for the truth leads to virtue and virtue leads to Paradise” (Al- Bukhari& Muslim). It is praiseworthy that effective communication of any education al institution or any projects depends on the actual practice of Islamic principles. In this study the writers have attempted to establish a conceptual framework for the effective comm unication of distant education based on Islamic principles. Nowadays many educational institutions have already offered distant education system for those learners who are entirely unable to attend th e class regularly due to the time confliction with the regular class and their own job. In a Muslim co untry, distant education should be integrated with the Islamic principles so that educators and learne rs can exchange their views from the Islamic sense. Without Islamic teaching Muslim individuals’ e ducation is incomplete. Therefore Islamic principles have tremendous power to enhance effective co mmunication in distant education and to fulfill education. 8. References Al-Qur’an Al- Bukhari& Muslim Al-Ghazali's . On al-Ghazali's view of ethics, see Ihya' ‘Ulum ad-Din, in particular, vols. 3 and 4. AbdurRahman O. Olayiwola, (2010). Interpersonal Communication, Human Interaction and Social Relationship in Islam. Editorial team, Qawareer.com American National University Extension Association (NUEA, 1969). THE CONFERENCES AND INSTITUTES DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL UNI VERSITY EXTENSI ON ASSOCIATION Papers, 1952-1987 (Predominantly, 1966-1977). Bower B. L., (2001). Distance Education: Facing the Faculty challenges. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, Volume IV, Number II, Summer 2001.State Universit y of West Georgia, Distance Education Center. Burgess J. V., (2006). Transactional Distance theory and Student Satisfaction with Web-based Distance Learning Courses. A Dissertation submitted to the department of Instructional
and performance Technology. The University of West Florida. Cornell V. J., 92005). Teaching and Learning in the Qur’an. The Journal of Scriptual Reasoning. November, 2005. A © 2005, Society for Scriptual Reasoning. Crawford J., (2009). Learning Theories that Encompass Distance Education. Learning Theories Related to distance Education. Bois State University. Diaz (2000).Carving a New Path for Distance Education Research. The Technology Source Archives at the University of North Carolina. Frick W. T., (1991). Restructuring Education Through Technology, Issue 326 Giossosy Y., Koutsoube M., Lionarakis A., &Skavantzos K., (2013). Reconsidering Moore’s Transactional Distance Theory. Halstead, J. M., (2004) An Islamic concept of education. Comparative Education, 40 (4). pp. 517-529. ISSN 03050068 Ihya' ‘Ulum ad-Din, vol. 2, p. 107-19. M. Kamal Hassan (1986). ‘Some dimensions of Islamic Education in Southest Asia’ inTaufik Abdullah and Sharon Siddique (Eds), Islam and Society in Southest Asia, Singapore: Instit ute of Southest Asian Studies. Mind Extension University (1991).The Education Network. Moore, M. (1991). Editorial: Distance education theory. The American Journal of Distance Education, 5(3), 1-6. Moore, M. (1993).Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 22-38). London: Routledge. Moore, M., &Kearsley, G. (1996).Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Nasseh B., (1997). A Brief History of Distance Education. Nasar, Seyyed Hussein (1981). Islamic Life and Thought. Albany: University of New York Press. Neeley, L., Niemi, J.A., &Ehrhard, B.J. (1998). Classes going the distance, so people don’t have to: Instructional opportunities for adult learners. T.H.E. Journal 26 (4), 72-74. Saba, F. (2000). What is distance education? Defining the concepts and terms which have characterized the field. Distance-Educator. Retrieved March 21, 2002, from http://www.distan ce-educator.com/index1a101600.phtml Sarder, Ziauddin (1993). Paper, Printing and Compact Disk: The making and Unmaking of Islamic Culture.Media, Culture and Society 15, 43-59. Salleh, MohamadJohdi (2012) Islamic principles of administration: implications on practices in organization In: Technology, Science, Social Sciences and Humanities International Co nference – TeSSHI 2012, 14 - 15 November 2012, One Helang Hotel Langkawi. Schmidt K.E. & Gallegos A.,(2001).Distance Learning: Issues and Concerns of Distance Learners.Journal of Industrial Technology • Volume 17, Number 3 • May 2001 to July 200 1 • www.nait.org Tesone, D.V., & Ricci, P. (2003). Distance learning programs for careerchange business educators. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship. 8(1) 57-65. University of Guelph (2002).Your learning connection.Open Learning. Guelph, ON. Wright G., (1991). Social Research: An International Quarterly. Home: A Place in the World Arien Mack, Editor. Volume
ILCC 2013
176
A PRAGMATIC STUDY OF MEDIA WAR AGAINST MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA (1989-1999) Mahfouz A. Adedimeji, Ph.D., Department of English, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
[email protected] [email protected]
Abstract This paper examined the deployment of language as “terrible weapons” (Akinfeleye, 1988:112) by t he Nigerian media in fighting military rule over a ten-year period in Nigeria. Based on the speech ac t theory of pragmatics which construes utterances as not mere statements of truth and falsity but as a ction-performing linguistic elements, the study highlighted the analysis of thirty headlines of News watch, Tell and The News magazines in combating the military in the last decade of its rule in Niger ia. The paper, while overviewing the Nigerian press, military rule and the three magazines, reported the various speech acts engendering the casting of the various headlines as well as their analysis. It concluded by affirming the truism of words being mightier than the sword and that language is pow erful tool which can be used to achieve various results when deployed effectively. Keywords: press, military, Newswatch, Tell, The News, speech acts, pragmatics. 1.
Introduction In the world of information or the Information Age in which we live today, the kind of langu age that man uses, hears or reads, shapes, to a surprising extent, the world he lives. According to Bi rk and Birk (1959:3), mere words can make and prevent wars, create understanding or inflame preju dice, form constitutions or destroy them, sell shoddy or superior products or ideas, justify man’s wo rst actions or express his highest ideals. “There is no substitute for words” (Boulton, 1960:8) and it i s through words that language attains its essence as “a symbolic manifestation of experience” (Broo ks, 1964:99). Language, as used by the media or press, both of which are used interchangeably, has been r eckoned by Kwame Nkrumah (cited in Akinfeleye, 1988:120) as “a weapon of fighting illiteracy, po verty, ignorance and the essential weapon to overthrow colonialism”. It is also considered a “powerf ul tool for construction and a powerful weapon for destruction and defense” (Birk and Birk, 1959:1 9). The essence of language lies in its effectiveness in achieving the purpose for which it is meant. T his paper highlights, using the pragmatic theory of speech-acts, how the Nigerian media, through th e deployment of language, launched offensives on three military regimes over a ten-year period cul minating in the successful attainment of democracy in 1999. It focuses on headlines of three news magazines and concludes that the war of words waged on the Nigerian military regime was largely r esponsible for the enthronement of democracy in the country. 2.0 The Diachrony of the Media and Military Rule in Nigeria The media or press, which includes radio, television, wire services, newspapers, magazines and suc h other channels of communication, evolved in the collection and dissemination of information (Olu gbiji et.al 1994:117). The press is a pervasive, indispensable aspect of human existence without whi ch the society will cease to exist; that is, if its members do not interact or share information (Okonk wo, 1978:117). The primary responsibility of the press is to report accurately and wherever possible
, seek out the truth (Jason, 1997:115). According to Medubi (1999:109), there are four major functio ns underpinning the responsibility of the press: information dissemination (i.e. reporting news and e vents), education/interpretation (i.e. giving enlightenment and being a watchdog for the society), ser vice function (providing services like advertisement, measures against health hazards, etc.) and ente rtainment function. While Ekwelie (1978:202-115) discusses the functions of the press from the viewpoints of (a) the ne ws function, (b) the education-information function, (c) the economic function, (d) the opinion funct ion and (e) entertainment and other functions, the over-arching duty of the press, as espoused by St. Louis Despatch (cited in Agbese, 1997a:67-111) is to: Fight for progress and reform and never tolerate injustice and corruption, always fight demagogues of all parties, never belong to any party, always oppose privileged classes and public plunderers, ne ver lack sympathy with the poor, always devoted to the public welfare, never be satisfied with merel y printing the news, always be drastically independent, never be afraid to attack wrong, whether by predatory plutocracy or predatory poverty. The Nigerian press, regarded as “the most outspoken volatile, witty and free in black Africa” (Arnol d 1977:113) started with “Iwe Irohin Fun Awon Egba ati Ijebu” published in 1859 by Henry Townse nd in Abeokuta. More stables were to join the pioneering Iwe Irohin during the anti-colonial protest and the nationalist struggles of the first half of the twentieth century. The press, after printing, is “th e oldest of the modern occupations in Nigeria”, for there were pressmen “before there were lawyers, doctors, engineers and educationists” (Dare, 1985:114). With Independence attained on October 1, 1960 and the resultant freedom and awareness it brought about, the Nigerian press blossomed with more newspapers, magazines and radio/television stations . The birth of the Nigerian press is aptly captured by Golding and Elliot (cited in Oso, 1997:5) that “Nigerian journalism was created by anti-colonial protest, baptised in the waters of nationalist propa ganda….” The post-independence era with its drastic, unprecedented socio-political changes, public enlighten ment and economic crisis, heralded the emergence of more stables, all aimed at positive social chan ge. “The Nigerian press is not for the faint-hearted” (Akinrinade, 1997:112) though to Alhaji Sheu S hagari and some others, “the Nigerian press is misleading... inept...mischievous...self-serving...illiter ate” (Newswatch, Jan.9, 1989-p.41). It is flamboyant and exuberant, especially with the long militar y intervention in Nigerian politics, which ceased some fourteen years ago, which made it imbibe the concept of advocacy journalism, which Oso (1997:10) defines as a practice of journalism where the practitioner refuses to comply with the canon of the profession which compels him to be a disinteres ted, impartial or neutral recorder of events, the journalist chooses and defines objectives, goals and causes which he thinks and in public interest and uses his stories to canvass, champion, project and defend such ideas. The practitioners of advocacy journalism, which was the hallmark of the last decade of military rul e in Nigeria, otherwise known as the radical press, the guerrilla press, the agitational press, the milit ant press, etc. are, for the purpose of this study, are those journalists in Newswatch, Tell and The Ne ws who launched psychological offensives, hauled linguistic missiles and deployed words as weapo ns to confront the military. Meanwhile, the history of the Nigerian press is replete will the gloomy pictures of suppression and r epression by the state power, especially the military, which had ruled the country for more than thirt y of its fifty years independence. The animosity and contempt that the military has for the press sur faced just three years after its incursion into politics with the overthrow of the first civilian governm ent. Thus, in November 1969, Daily Times was closed and its principal officers, including its Chair man, Alhaji Babatunde Jose, were detained. The paper was eventually taken over (or ‘captured’) by the Government in 1976 and the press had to be walking a tight rope. The trial of the publishers of the African Spark, Dr. Ohanbamu, for an alleged false story against G eneral Muritala Muhammed, the banning of Newbreed by General Olusegun Obasanjo and the shavi
ILCC 2013
178
ng of the hair of Minerre Amakiri of the Tide on the orders of the then Rivers State Governor, Diette Spiff, are just a few of the various infractions against the press before the second republic (Onanuga , 1997:117). The return of the military on December 31, 1983 subjected the press in Nigeria to furth er stiff legislations and official gagging. The notorious Decree No 4 of 1984 was promulgated by th e Buhari/Idiagbon regime to protect public officers and the first victims of the decree were Tunde T hompson and Nduka Irabor of The Guardian, who were jailed for publishing reports on Government diplomatic postings, in addition to the newspaper being fined N50,000.00. The assumption of power by General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (IBB) on August 27, 1985 mark ed a watershed in the annals of the military aversion to the free press. Series of harassment, hauntin g, hunting, detention and intimidation of journalists characterised his government, which allegedly murdered Mr. Dele Giwa, the founding Editor-in-Chief of Newswatch, through a letter bomb. Whe n his phantom transition programme was on course, in 1989, IBB ordered the closure of The Guardi an as it was later done for Concord. Previously, General Babangida had ordered the closure of News watch for six months, based on argumentum baculinum (one based on force and power), on April 6, 1987. The trying political period of the early 90’s gave birth to Tell and The News, considered the most vi brant Nigerian newsmagazines which “more than any other publication... suffered the most harassm ent (sic) in the hands of General Babangida’s security agents” (Olugboji et al. 1994:114), and which were repeatedly shut in 1993 and 1994. In 1990 alone, at least five media houses were shut down b y the Nigerian military authorities (Civil Liberty Organisation 1991:43) with scores of journalists ar rested and traumatised. The darkest period for the press was witnessed under the regime of General Sani Abacha who seize d power on November 17, 1993 from the Interim National Government, which was headed by Chief Earnest Shonekan. Barely a year after General Abacha seized power, more journalists had been arre sted and detained than the combined number of those arrested in the Nigerian history (Olugboji et al . 1994:2) In July 1995, media organisations were asked to register with the Newspapers Registration Board, a booby trap designed to further gag the watchdog. The order was challenged in court. In 1996, there were several cases of detention of journalists, though no media house was shut. Six journalists were incarcerated for alleged complicity in a coup plot and notable were the travails of Godwin Agbroko of The Week, Eyiwumi Tosin of Vanguard, Richard Akinola and Muyiwa Daniel of Concord and Bu nmi Aborishade, publisher of the defunct June 12 magazine. With the self-succession bid of General Abacha and the public denunciation and disapprobation of s uch as spear-headed by the press, 1997 was the year of “Operation Total Crackdown” (Headline, Tel l, Nov. 24. 1997). Tension mounted up and by 1998, it was “Murder incorporated” (Headline, New swatch March 2, 1986) again as “Abacha Declares War” (Headline, Tell August 29, 1994) on the tea ming opposition. Cases of human rights violation of the journalists and the public at large were legi on (Civil Liberty Organisation, 1991). The assumption of power by General Abdulsalami Abubakar, after the sudden death of Gene ral Abacha on June 8, 1998, brought relief to the besieged press and the embattled public. But the p ress was too experienced to trust a seemingly unassuming military man. Having paid considerably f or trusting General Babangida, General Abubakar was closely monitored, carefully attacked and con tinually hit until he fulfilled his promise to hand over power to a civilian president. Hence, to a considerable extent, General Abubakar was given the benefit of the doubt and was close ly tackled and persistently covered by the media missiles until he fulfilled his promise. General Ab ubakar eventually handed over to the democratically elected Chief Olusegun Obasanjo (on May 29, 1999) who was declared winner of the election, and who assumed power again twenty years after he also voluntarily relinquished power to a civilian president, in the same manner. 3.0
An Overview of Newswatch, Tell and The News
The quest to use the power of language and its chief function of communication to transform , or at least, sensitize the Nigerian public, was the impetus behind the establishment of the three ma gazines sampled for this study. The three media organisation were conceptualised and born during military regimes. The dictatorial, revolutionary undercurrents which characterise military rule perh aps informed the militant, radical posture of the magazines in distilling their messages. One thing t hey all have in common is courage and determination to articulate their views without minding who se ox is gored in the process. To quote Onanuga (1997:42), the Editor-in-Chief of The News extensi vely here is considered desirable: Newswatch, The News and Tell were all established by journalists who were nurtured on the noble i deals of journalism and who believe that the ideas must not be extinguished by the crushing weight of the jackboot. Because these journalists cannot contemplate living without journalism, they are st uck to publishing, jackboot threat, or no jackboot threat. For them, journalism is more than a busine ss. It is a lifetime vocation. For them, their existence derived from the failure of the government m edia to live up to their responsibilities to both the people and the government. Newswatch magazine was founded by four editors, Dele Giwa, Ray Ekpu, Yakubu Muhammed and Dan Agbese, all seasoned journalists. According to Dele Giwa, they wanted “to build a magazine w hich will be open even to the most radical of ideals, as long as they are positive-and well written” (c ited in Osundare, 1990:118). The magazine hit the news stands on the 28th of January, 1985, settin g out with a moral mission powered by a human and fearless conscience, “to help society grow whil e itself growing in the process” (Osundare, 1990:6). Barely two years after its inception, it became an international award winning magazine and Dele Giwa had to pay the supreme price for the maga zine’s ‘radical’ views. Even though Newswatch became “moderate” and “less critical” of the gover nment with time, probably for survival sake, it received further harassments under General Babangi da and the succeeding military regime of General Abacha. Tell, Nigeria’s independent weekly, is the quintessence of advocacy journalism, with its characteristi c use of emotive language, sensational and populist appeal to emotion and public sentiments. “The language is also combative and negative, designed to … portray the opposition camp in negative, de precatory and threatening light” (Oso, 1997:11). Its founding fathers are Nosa Igiebor, Dele Omotu nde, Onome Osifo-Whiskey, Dare Babarinsa and Kolawole Ilori who all decamped from the Newsw atch to pursue what Adeniyi (2001:111) refers to as “a single-minded determination, a course that w as to confer on it a golden plank of heroism”. The founders of Tell appear to have parted ways with Newswatch to pursue combat journalism from which the latter was diverting. At its birth on the 18th of April, 1991, its editors thought of a magaz ine “intended to inform, educate and entertain the Nigerians” (Adeniyi, 2001:12) and they remained faithful to their ideals and their integrity. The magazine and its staff suffered untold hardships, hara ssments, intimidation and persecution from the agents of Generals Babangida and Abacha. Moreover, The News magazine was founded by the team of Bayo Onanuga, Sani Kabir, Idowu Oba sa, Dapo Olorunyomi, Babafemi Ojudu, Kunle Ajibade and Seye Kehinde. The magazine, with the motto, “defining the present, shaping the future”, began in January 1993 with a mission, according t o Onanuga (cited in Oso, 1997:11), to Be dedicated to the promotion of the principles of civilised nationalism, democracy, liberty and the equality of the various ethnic groups of the Nigerian federation… to partisanly neutral on the side of truth, justice and good government. The News maintained a defiant, militant position and expectedly stepped on powerful toes w hich made it face trials and tribulations during the incumbency of General Babangida and General A bacha administrations. Apart from roping one of its editors, Kunle Ajibade, into a phantom coup sa ga which was almost fatal, the General Abacha regime saw to the mysterious disappearance of one of its reporters, Bagauda Kalto. By 1994, a year after it hit the news stands, The News was voted b y the Commonwealth Press Union (CPU) to have made the most outstanding contribution to the co mmonwealth paper industry. The magazine, which claims to be fresh, spicy and authoritative, is ab
ILCC 2013
180
out people, reporting their pains and their triumphs. 4.0 Pragmatics and the Speech Acts Theory The word “pragmatics” derives from the Greek word “pragma” which means “deed” o r “action”. The term pragmatics, according to Taylor (1998:118), was first used by Morris (1938) w ho described it as one of the three (with syntax and semantics) component fields of semiotics. The main goals of pragmatic theories, as Adegbija (1999:1989) avers, are to explain: how utterances in c ontexts and in particular situations; how contexts contribute to the encoding and decoding of meani ng; how speakers and hearers of utterances perceive them; how speakers can say one thing and mea n something else; and how deductions are made in context with respect to what meaning has been e ncoded in a particular utterance. In other words, as Lawal (1997:152) proposes, pragmatic theories must revolve around speech act f unctions, along with presuppositions, implicatures and mutual contextual beliefs (MCB’s). Thus, th e theory of pragmatics is that of meaning interpretation and pragmatic theories generally explicate t he reasoning of speakers and hearers (Katz, 1977:19). Scholars and theorists like Bach and Harnish (1979), Adegbija (1982), Leech (1983), Thomas (1995), Lawal (1995), Kreidler (1998), Osisanwo ( 2003), among others, are unanimous in submitting that pragmatics accounts for specific meanings o f utterances in particular social and situational contexts. While pragmatics is important as it enables the understanding of the principles and procedures guidi ng the interpretation of socio-cultural and contextual meanings of utterances, the aim of pragmatic t heories is to explain how speakers of any language can use the sentences of that language to convey messages which do not bear any necessary relation to the linguistic content of the sentence used (Ke mpson, 1977). The dominant theory of pragmatics is the “theory of doing things with words”, popularised by Austi n (1962), one of its pioneering theorists. This is further advanced by Mey (2001:6) who describes th e theory of pragmatics as follows: Communication in society happens chiefly by means of language. However, the users of language, a s social beings, communicate and use language on society’s premises; society controls their access t o the linguistic and communicative means. Pragmatics, as the study of the way humans use their lan guage in communication, bases itself on a study of those premises and determines how they affect, a nd effectualize, human language use. Until the post-humous publication of Austin (1962), philosophers, especially the logical positivists, had solely construed a sentence as either analytic or empirical. In other words, sentences were verif ied as either true or false (Thomas, 1995:30) giving verve to what is studied in linguistics as truth co nditional semantics. Austin (1962) sets out to challenge this myopic approach to language, asserting that utteranc es need not necessarily have truth conditions but are rather used to perform actions or carry out actu al events. Austin differentiates between constatives (sentences that have truth /falsity values) and p erformatives (sentences that do things with words). A speech act, according to Austin, is the total sit uation in which the utterance is issued (Thomas, 1995:51). This concept has received further apprai sal and modification by Austin’s student, Searle (1969) and a vast army of scholars including Bach and Harnish, 1979; Adegbija, 1982; Levinson, 2003; Leech, 1983; Thomas, 1995; Yule, 1996; Lawa l, 1995; Kreidler, 1998; Mey, 2001; Osisanwo, 2003; Odebunmi, 2006; Babatunde, 2007; and Sbisa, 2007. Mey (2001:95) considers speech acts as verbal actions happening in the world. According to him, “uttering a speech act, I do something with my words. I perform an activity that at best intenti onally brings about a change in the existing state of affairs.” To Yule (1996:134), a speech act com municates while Babatunde (2007:51) considers the thrust of the speech act theory as a consideratio
n of the social and linguistic contexts of language use. According to Adegbija (1998:44), the core pr inciple of the speech-act theory is that in uttering a sentence, a speaker, besides making a propositio n about a state of affairs in the world – about the truth or falsity of a proposition, committing himsel f to a future course of action, or making somebody else do something – also performs an action suc h as requesting, stating, commanding, or informing. The theory is relevant to media discourse as it h as been found that news reports perform the illocutionary acts of advising, commending, warning, t hreatening, condemning, highlighting and exposing (Adedimeji, 2005: 133-138). Searle (1969), building on Austin’s work, defines speech acts as “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication” and goes further to develop his five illocutionary classes as: Represent atives or Assertives (the speaker asserts a proposition to be true with verbs like affirm, boast, conclu de, deny, report, etc.), Directives (the speaker wants the hearer to do something with verbs like orde r, command, invite, insist, beg, entreat, etc.), Commissives (the speaker commits himself/herself to a future course of action with verbs like pledge, promise, guarantee, vow, undertake, etc.), Expressi ves (the speaker expresses an attitude to a phenomenon using such verbs as apologise, appreciate, c ongratulate, deplore, detest, regret, etc.) and Declarations (the speaker changes the status or reality o f a person, object or situation solely by making utterances like “ I name this art work Mona Lisa”, “ I pronounce you guilty”, “I sentence you to two years imprisonment” (Adegbija, 1982; Odebunmi, 2006; Babatunde, 2007). Speech acts are actions performed by the use of an utterance to communicate. They are the linguisti c acts made while speaking, which have some social or interpersonal purposes and pragmatic effects (Wales, 2001:363). Speech acts can either be direct or indirect. Direct speech acts are utterances tha t are explicitly expressed. What is meant is clearly stated in direct speech acts. Indirect speech acts, however, are utterances in which we say one thing and mean what we have said, and also mean anot her illocution with a different propositional content (Adegbija, 1999:196). Leech and Thomas (1990:191) see indirect speech acts as “cases in which one illocutionary act is p erformed indirectly, by way of another”. While they assert that speakers use indirectness for politen ess (Leech and Thomas, 1990:194), they cite factors such as “clash of goals”, “instrumental rational ity”, wishing “to say and not to say something simultaneously” (by using indirectness, the speaker s ays one thing and implies another, leaving him/herself an ‘out’ in case of reprisals) and “interestingn ess” as the motives for indirectness. A speech act, can also be locutionary, illocutionary and perlocut ionary. The speech-act theory is considered relevant to literary works as observed by Pratt (1977:86) thus: Speech act theory provides a way of talking about utterances not only in terms of their surface gram matical properties but also in terms of the context in which they are made, the intentions, attitudes, a nd expectations of the participants, the relatrionships existing between participants, and generally, t he unspoken rules and conventions that are understood to be in play when an utterance is made and received. This study adopts the set of speech acts proposed by Kreidler (1998) which tends to incorporate the essentials of Austin and Searle’s classifications. According to Kreidler (1998:182-194), seven types of utterances are identifiable based on their general purposes. Assertives are “concerned with facts that are subject to empirical investigation” such as “inform”, “r eport”, “state,” etc. (which relate to Searle’s Representatives). Performatives are those acts that brin g about a change in the state of affairs they name, a category that corresponds to Austin’s Performati ve utterances and Searle’s Declarations. The felicity condition of this category is that the speaker an d hearer must be within an extralinguistic institution before they can “perform”. According to Krei dler (1998:187), “the speaker must be recognised as having the authority to make the statements. T he circumstances must be appropriate” and examples include “resign”, “declare”, “sentence”, “exco mmunicate”, etc. Verdictives, which are just like Austin’s, are “acts in which the speaker makes an assessment or judgement” about the acts of the addressee; for example “thank”, “accuse”, “rank”, etc. Expressi ves assess or evaluate “the actions – or failure of the speaker to act or perhaps the present result of t
ILCC 2013
182
hose actions or failures”, for instance, “apologise”, “confess”, “admit”, etc. This category differs fr om that of Searle’s Expressives because it is restrospective in nature, making an anaphoric reference directly or indirectly to a previous situation; Searle’s is basically expressive as the term denotes. Directives, on the other hand, are illocutionary acts by which “the speaker tries to get the ad dressee to perform some act or refrain from performing an act”, the examples of which include “co mmand”, “direct”, “charge”, “forbid”, “warn”, etc. This category corresponds directly to Searle’s D irectives and is related to Austin’s Exercitives. While Commissives are “speech acts that commit a speaker to a course of action”, e.g. “agree”, “threaten”, “decline”, “promise”, etc. which squarely m atch Austin’s and Searle’s Commissives, the last Kreidlerian category, “phatic utterances,” derived f rom the concept of “phatic communion” coined by Malinowski, is used “to establish rapport betwee n members of the same society.” Examples here include greetings, farewells, polite formulas, etc. es pecially when they are neither Verdictive nor Expressive in nature. All the above classifications are part of the illocutionary act, with which the force of an utter ance is made. As Kempson (1977:51) puts it, “a speaker utters sentences with a particular meaning (locutionary act) and with a particular force (illocutionary act) in order to achieve a certain effect (p erlocutionary act) on the hearer”. It is noted that the speech acts theory is chiefly the theory of illoc utionary acts because illocutionary acts “are the central objects of study of speech acts” (Adegbite, 2000:76). 5.0
Data base Three magazines namely Newswatch, Tell and The News are sampled. The magazines are se lected on the basis of their prominence in the respective military regimes and the similarity of their agenda. Ten headlines from each of the three magazines over a total period of ten years that marked the highest point of agitation against military rule in Nigeria were selected. The data presented are i n three groups, A, B and C. Group A data feature Newswatch headlines cast against General Baban gida (between 1989 and 1993). Group B data constitute Tell’s fireworks against the government of General Abacha (1993-1998) while the last group, Group C, presents The News attacks on General Abubakar (1988-1999). The following are headlines of Newswatch, Tell and The News: Group A: Newswatch (1)a N BEYOND REACH Feb. 13, 1989 (2)b IBB’s Surprise Move The Sacking of AFRC Feb. 20, 1989 (3)c The 3rd Republic How New is the Constitution ? March 27, 1989 (4)d Is Judiciary in Retreat ? Jan. 29, 1990 (5)e Count down to 1992 IBB Changes Gear In the Last Lap of the Race Sept. 10, 1990 (6)f Transition in Turmoil Oct. 26, 1992 (7)g 1993 to Be or Not To Be ? Nov. 16, 1992 (8)h Nation in Darkness Dec. 21, 1992 (9)i Hardship April 19, 1993 (10)j Standstill No Light No Water No Fuel More Strikes May 31, 1993 Group B: Tell (11)a ABACHA DECLARES WAR – The Role Emirs Played August 29, 1994 (12)b ABACHA MUST GO IN 1995- Military Commanders December 12, 1994 (13)c SECRET ACCOUNTS/HOW ASO ROCK LOOTED THE NATION January 30, 1995 (14)d AMERICA SHAKES THE JUNTA Threatens Tougher Measures September 11, 1995 (15)e PANIC GRIPS ASO ROCK Military On Red Alert December 4, 1995 (16)f ABACHA Vs ABACHA His Latest Plot to Succeed
Himself Whey He May Fail February, 17, 1997 (17)g “THIS REGIME IS GODLESS…It’s Bound To Fail” GANI February 24,1997 (18)h NO WAY FOR ABACHA Nigerians Say Enough is Enough April, 14, 1997 (19)i THE ODDS AGAINST ABACHA Self-Succession Plan in Trouble June 9, 1997 (20)j OPPOSITION UNITES AGAINST ABACHA “We Can Die For Him”... Daniel Kanu March 23, 1998 Group C: The News (21)a. REVEALED ABUBAKAR’S AGENDA The IBB Connection 3 August, 1998 (22)b THE IGBO what have They Done ? A Story of MARGINALISATION 10 August, 1998 (23)c. Guerrilla War in Niger Delta 14 September, 1998 (24)d. ABUBAKAR Agenda Unfolds Why He Can’t Sack Abacha Boys 5 October, 1998 (25)e. Abubakar GIVES UP 18 January 1999 (26)f Return of the CHAGOURIS How Abacha’ Business Partners Penetrate Abubakar 1 February, 1999 (27)g. Rumpus in The MILITARY Bamaiyi Battles Abubakar 22 March, 1999 (28)h. THE RUSH TO Share Nigeria Abubakar Under Fire 29 March, 1999 (29)i. Abubakar’s FINAL COUP Obasanjo, Governors-Elect PANIC 12April, 1999 (30)j. The Soyinka Interview Abubakar’s Junta DUBIOUS 3 May, 1999 The summary of the analysis (see Adedimeji, 2002) is presented in the following table:
Data 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Speech Act Type Function Indirect Verdictive Complaining Indirect Expressive Reporting Indirect Directive Questioning Indirect Directive Questioning Direct Assertive Stating Indirect Verdictive Assessing Indirect Verditive Questioning Indirect Verdictive Complaining Indirect Verdictive Complaining Indirect Expressive Reporting Direct Assertive Affirming Direct Directive Commanding Direct Expressive Reporting Direct Assertive Threatening Direct Assertive Threatening Direct Expressive Informing Direct Expressive Condemning Direct Assertive Rejecting Indirect Expressive Reporting Direct Assertive Threatening Indirect Expressive Exposing Indirect Directive Questioning Indirect Expressive Reporting Indirect Verdictive Assessing Direct Assertive Reporting Direct Expressive Exposing
ILCC 2013 27 28 29 30
184
Direct Expressive Informing Indirect Verdictive Assessing Direct Assertive Stating Indirect Verdictive Judging
6.0. Analysis It is evident from the foregoing summary that indirect speech acts, which are utterances where one t hing is said but another thing is meant with a different propositional content in addition to what is sa id (Adegbija, 1999:196) or cases in which one illocutionary act is performed indirectly by way anot her (Leech and Thomas, 1990: 191) are preponderant during General Babangida’s regime (Group A ) constituting 90% while there is only one instance of direct speech acts or (utterances where what i s meant is clearly stated) or 10% of the data. There are five verdictives, two expressives, two directi ves and one assertive. In Group B or under General Abacha, however, there is only one indirect spe ech act (10%) while most speech acts (90%) are direct, the opposite of the Group A result in that cat egory. There are also five assertives, four expressives and one directive. In Group C or under Gener al Abdulsalam, the distribution of direct and indirect speech acts is almost even at ratio 6:4 or 60% a nd 40% respectively. There are also four expressives, three verdictives, two assertives, and one dire ctive. The result shows that the press, for certain reasons, did not criticise General Babangida directly. De liberate attempt was made in the casting of the headlines to condemn him and his government in a s ubtle way. Except in two instances, the name IBB was not mentioned as a strategy of avoiding conf rontation, as much as possible. General Babangida’s antecedents of allegedly masterminding the m urder of the magazine’s founding Editor-in-Chief and his perceived deceptive, often cunning counte nance, with which he consolidated himself in power, are some of the reasons for this approach of th e press. There is a strong reliance on using images, colours and pictures – which often lend themse lves to divergent interpretations – rather than verbal linguistic codes to achieve what Lascal (cited in Leech and Thomas 1990:194) refers to “an ‘out’ in case of reprisals”. The language of the press was thus that of doubt and sceptism while his policies, programmes and t he state of the nation were criticised with his name seldom mentioned in the headlines. It can be gai nfully surmised that General Babangida was attacked without causing him a lot of damage, for fear of reprisals, giving his previous antecedent and experience of the sampled press medium, Newswatc h. In other words, the press under General Babangida’s leadership, within the scope of our data was cri tical, but not combative, anti-status quo but diplomatic in approach. General Babangida’s reaction t o all these criticisms was repressing the media men and houses as well as forcefully quelling the var ious protests under his regime. For instance, the January 30 1989 edition of Newswatch presented a cover story highlighting various wicked measures taken by IBB to further gag the suppressed press. The headline of the edition was aptly captioned “Media Decree – chaining the Watchdog”. Though thousands of civilians died under his practical step to subjugate the public including the v olatile media, General Babangida was eventually “forced to ‘step aside’ from power on 26 August 1 993, replacing himself with Shonekan” (Uweche, 1996:119). As such, General Babangida was defea ted, at a high cost although. In the Group B data, against what used to be the case under General Babangida’s rule, there was a tendency to directly confront and unapologetically criticise General Abacha. The language of the press was highly combative, decidedly offensive with direct speech acts that amounted to lingui stic missiles. The media left no stone unturned in condemning, rejecting, exposing, threatening and attacking the General based on the perceived lessons of deception and hypocrisy learnt from Genera l Babangida. “Aso Rock”, “The Junta” in respective frequency dominate the headlines where “Aba cha”, mentioned in six out of ten instances, is not used, all in an attempt to portray the government o f General Abacha the way it was perceived, without taking recourse to much indirectness. The text
s of the headlines are powerful and forceful with performative “violent” verbs selected for pragmati c effect. It is entailed that given the prevailing autocratic ruthlessness of General Abacha, he should also be fired by linguistic missiles ruthlessly. It is doubtable if any other Nigerian military leader ha d been so terribly criticised, condemned and embarrassed by such level of language use. The reaction of General Abacha to the media warfare and public demonstrations was brutal. He brooked no dissent in unleashing a “Reign of Terror” on the nation, as the headline of Tell, 3rd November 1997 indicates. His tyranny was thus unprecedented as he had the singular “honour” of being “the worst ruler Nigeria ever had” (Uweche, 1996:2). All opposition regardless of being milit ary or civilian, high or low, was decisively dealt a fatal blow. However, despite the “operation total crackdown” launched by General Abacha and the resultant de aths, closures (of press houses), detention and tortures of the ubiquitous opposition groups, the press especially did not relent. The psychological warfare of the press arguably occasioned the heart-atta ck General Abacha allegedly suffered, culminating in his unexpected death. Though, he did not surr ender willingly to the linguistic power, he had to vacate the seat he so much coveted when he was g ripped by the hands of death. Definitely, the press attacks on General Abubakar, as the study shows, were not as serious as those launched on the previous regimes. Much attention was given to uncovering the various atrocit ies perpetrated by General Abacha. One can gainfully assert that he was being made to partly pay f or the sins of his comrades-in-arms, the previous two rulers. There was a tendency, moreover, to mi ldly criticise General Abubakar so that he would not attempt to truncate his transition programme as the two Generals before him did. With appropriate word density and face threatening acts, General Abubakar was “covered” to achieve the perlocutionary effect of not disappointing Nigerians. Practically, General Abubakar reacted to the missiles against him by freeing all the political detainees and others who were unjustifiably incarcerated by General Abacha. He was intimidated e nough to announce an epoch-making less-than-a-year transition programme. His activities were clo sely monitored and he made good his promise by conducting elections as scheduled and handing ov er to a democratically elected president. 7.0 Concluding Remarks This paper has shown that language to the press is like missiles, bombs and explosives to the military: they are used to wage war or make peace as the situation warrants. In Nigeria, it is discov ered, the press had been at the forefront of setting agenda and fighting the cause of democracy, the r ule of law and justice in compliance with the opinion of Nnamdi Azikwe, “one of Africa’s most gla morous politicians and journalists”, as quoted by Akinfeleye (1988:121) that, “there is no better mea ns to arouse African people than by power of pen and of the tongue”. During the worst decade of military rule in Nigeria (i.e.1989-1999), the scope of this study, headline s were cast, projected and propelled with force – as great and compelling as such could be – to awak en protest against the status quo and force the military out of power. A study of thirty headlines, ten for each of the regimes of General Babangida, General Abacha and General Abubakar revealed the f acets of assault on the military through linguistic (and non-linguistic) means by a selection of the Ni gerian vocal media. It can be deduced that the press set the machinery for the eviction of General B abangida in motion, practically chased General Abacha out of power (or out of this world) and blac kmailed General Abubakar into quickly stepping out of power. It is noted that the media did exceedingly well by fighting the military to achieve democracy with the force of language deployed through speech acts. It is a challenge as well to the press to all ow the hard-fought-for democracy to thrive as it should desist from all temptations to advertently or inadvertently provide a springboard or excuse for military overthrow of the civilian government. T he greatest of such temptations is “the prevalent cancer of corruption” which not only threatens the “credibility” of the press “but also its capacity to perform its constitutional roles” and which has cau ght the attention of “serious-minded professionals” (Aiyetan, 2002:112). It is believed that the rot i n the media should be treated accordingly, at least, for the sake of democracy while truth should be i ts hallmark, not lies in its various ramifications (Adedimeji, 2013). Lastly, the synopsis of this stud
ILCC 2013
186
y can be presented thus, in the words of a former Senate President and current Secretary to the Gove rnment of the Federation, Anyim Pius Anyim, with whom we agree that: The power of the media is, therefore, enormous and far reaching since the colonial era until this tim e, government has seen the media as sometimes helpful, sometimes dangerous but always an ‘indisp ensable institution for social control (Sunday Punch, 2002:12). References Adedimeji, M. A. 2002. “Language as Missiles: A Pragma-semiotic Study of the Press Fireworks against Military Rule in Nigeria (1986 – 1999)”. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Departme nt of English, University of Ilorin. Adedimeji, M. A. 2005. “Language and the Media: Their Roles in Combating Political Violence in Nigeria”. In Alanamu, A. S. ed. Issues in Political Violence in Nigeria. Il orin : Hamson Printing Communications. pp. 121 –143. Adedimeji, M. A. (June 21, 2013) “Let the Truth be Told”, Daily Newswatch.Abuja. Back ge.
pa
Adegbija, E. 1982. “A Speech Act Analysis of Consumer Advertisements”. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Indiana University, Bloomington. Adegbija, E. 1998. “Towards a Speech-act Approach to Nigerian Literature in English” In Epstein, E. L. and Robert Cole (Eds.) The Language of African Literature. Trenton, NJ and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, Inc. pp.41- 56. Adegbija, E. 1999. “Titbits on Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics”. In Adegbija, E. ed. The English Language and Literature in English. Ilorin: MEL Department, University of Ilorin. pp. 186205. Adegbite, W. 2000. “Pragmatics: Some Basic Principles and Procedures”. In Babajide, A. ed. Studies in English Language. Ibadan: Encrownfit Publishers pp. 60-80. Agbese, D. 1997. “The Press and Ethics: An Insider View” In State of the Media ’96. UJ Lagos Council and Friedrich Ebert Foundation. pp.63-68.
O.
Lagos: N
Akinfeleye, R.A. 1988. “The Youth, Education, Mass Media and Nation Building”. In Nnolim, C. E. ed. The Role of Education in Contemporary Africa. New York: Professors World Peace Academy. pp. 117-133. Akinrinade, O. 1997. “Liberty is not Licence”. In State of the Media ’96.pp.21-24. Arnold, G. 1977. “Introduction”. In State of the Media ’96. Lagos: NUJ. Lagos State Council and Friedrich Ebert Foundation. pp. 2-3. Austin, J. L. 1962. How To Do Things With Words. 2nd ed. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Babatunde, S.T. 2007. “A Speech Act Analysis of Christian Religious Speeches” In O debunmi, Akin and A.O. Babajide (Eds.) Style in Religions Communication in Nigeria. Muench en: Lincoln Europa. pp. 48- 89.
Bach, K. and R.M. Harnish. 1979. Linguistic Communication and Speech Acts. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Birk, G.B. and N.P. Birk, 1959. Understanding and Using English. 3rd ed. New York: The Odyssey Press. Boulton, M. 1960. The Anatomy of Language: Saying What We Mean. London, Henley and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Brooks, N. 1964. Language and Language Learning. 2nd ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World Inc. Ekwelie, S. A. 1978. “Mass Media and National Development”. In Kalu, O. U. (ed.) Readings in African Humanities: African Cultural Development. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing C o. Ltd. pp. 205-221. Jason, P. 1997. “Democratisation and Media Responsibilities”. In State of the Media ’96. Lagos: N UJ Lagos Council and Friedrich Ebert Foundation. pp.25-37. Katz, J. 1977. Propositional Structure and Illocutionary Force. New York: Cromell. Kempson, R. 1977. Semantic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kreidler, C. W. 1998. Introducing English Semantics. London: Routledge. Lawal, A. 1995. “Aspects of a Pragmatic Theory”. MS. Institute of Education, University of Ilorin. Lawal, A. 1997. “Pragmatics in Stylistics: A Speech Act Analysis of Soyinka’s ‘Telephone Conversation”. In Lawal, A. ed. Stylistics in Theory and Practice. Ilorin: Paragon books. pp. 150-1 73. Lawal, A. 1997. “Semiotic Perspectives on the Place of Linguistic Competence in a Theory of Literary Competence”. In Lawal, A. (ed.) pp. 11-24. Leech, G. 1983. Principles of Pragmatics. New York: Longman Group Ltd. Leech, G. N. and J. Thomas. 1990. “Language, Meaning and Context: Pragmatics.” In Collinge, N. E. ed. An Encyclopedia of Language. London and New York: Routledge. pp.173- 206. Levinson, S. 2003. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Medubi, O. 1999. “The Fundamentals of Journalism”. In Adegbija, E. ed. The English Language and Literature in English. Ilorin: MEL Dept., Unilorin pp. 106-121. Mey, J. L. 2001. Pragmatics: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell. Odebunmi, Akin. 2006. “A Pragmatic Reading of Ahmed Yerima’s Proverbs in Yemoja, Attahiru and Dry Leaves on Ukan Trees”. Intercultural Pragmatics. 3 (2): 153-170. Okonkwo, R. C. 1978. “The Press and Cultural Development: A Historical Perspective”. In Kalu, O. U. ed. Readings in African Humanities: African Cultural Development. Enugu: Fourth Di mension Publishing Co. Ltd. pp. 158-173.
ILCC 2013 Olugboji, B. A. et al. 1994. The Press and Dictatorship in Nigeria. Lagos: Constitutional Rights Project. Onanuga, B. 1997. “Challenges of the Besieged Press”. In State of the Media ’96. pp. 38-44. Osisanwo, W. 2003. Introduction to Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics. Lagos: Femolus-Fetop Publishers. Oso, L. 1997. “Journalism and Social Responsibility: Between Objectivity and Advocacy”. In State of the Media’ 96. pp. 4-15. Pratt, M. L. 1977. Toward a Speech Act Theory of Literary Discourse. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Sbisa, M. 2007. “How to Read Austin”.Pragmatics. 17 (3): 461-473. Searle, J. R. 1969. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Taylor, T. J. 1998. “Pragmatics”. In The Encyclopedia Americana Vol. 22. Connecticut: Grolier Incorporated. Thomas, J. 1995. Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. London and New York: Longman. Uweche, R. ed. 1996. Makers of Modern Africa. London: Africa Books Limited. P.68. Wales, K. 2001. A Dictionary of Stylistics. 2nd ed. London: Longman Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
188
Improving Young Learners Vocabulary using “Benteng-bentengan” Nisrin Adelyna Darayani University of Muhammadiyah Malang
Corresponding Author: Nisrin Adelyna Darayani, University of Muhammadiyah Malang,
[email protected] _______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. It is widely believed that one of the substances of learning English is vocabulary. Not only becomes language componen ts, also, it is as the basic of language. Structuring vocabulary to young learners is important because it sets up a strong b asic in their mind to learn understandable vocabulary as it should be known by their ages. Besides, teaching to young le arners is not that easy as we thought. There has been considerable difference in teaching young learners and adult learners. Despite being tolerance, the abilit y to perceive learning strategies and teaching media to ease teaching and learning process is needed for teacher. It is und eniable that media plays important role to clarify the material to what the teacher explained, by means; it becomes the to ol to have interaction between teacher and students. Deciding a best media to teach young learners is not easy. A best chosen media is got by recognizing the characteristics of young learners. One of alternative medias chosen using in this teaching vocabulary is “Benteng-bentengan”, one of I ndonesia traditional games that has replaced by the existence of modern games in this era. In addition, Indonesia traditio nal game is a game that plays together by people in a certain place. Moreover, it has numerous function such as to entert ain and as one of instruments to keep up the tradition. This traditional game can be played as teaching media in class, especially in teaching English as foreign language. By playing this game, young learner not only enjoys the game, but it gives additional benefits for them such as to gain their creativity, build up their togetherness and sympathy to other and also the use of language can be applied as media to interact with their friends. Therefore, this media can be the alternative chosen to teach young learners vocabulary.
Keywords: vocabulary, young learners, traditional game Background Considering the important role of English as widely spoken language, teaching English should have been tau ght as early as possible to the children. Moreover, teaching young learners is not as easy as adult. The approp riate technique in teaching English will help teachers to teach them. According to Willis and Slattery (2004) said that one of the most stimulating techniques in teaching English vocabulary is games; besides, the basic of teaching to young learners must be interesting and enjoyable. In ad dition, not only entertaining and interesting, the chosen games as the technique in teaching English is conside red to be implemented in all language skills as stated by Ersoz (2000). There are many kinds of games to teach young learners. Here, traditional game is chosen as the technique in t his research. Traditional game is a game that is passed to one generation to another in a particular culture. On e game should undergo the test of time and its generation. One that survives will be passed for a long time (S eagoe, 1971 in Hurlock, 1978.p.322). It is therefore, the researcher choose Benteng-bentengan to be impleme nted as one of games in learning English. This research has done at third grade students of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau where one of schools that condu ct young learners’ education. Through this research is expected to get an alternative ways in teaching and im proving young learners’ vocabulary mastery. Theoretical framework
ILCC 2013
190
Giving instruction and skills in a classroom with the materials and use the approach, method, strategies and t echnique to create the class effectively are called by teaching. In teaching, there is sequences of activities tha t have the goal and planned well (Herrel and Jordan, 2004). In teaching learning process, teachers usually prepare the teaching approach, strategy, method, and technique . Anthony (1963 in Brown, 1994:48) stated that approach is a set of assumption dealing with the nature of lang uage, learning, and teaching. Brown (1994:51) stated that theoretical position and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings are called by a pproach. Herdian (2012) stated that teaching strategy is a kind of learning activity which has to be done by teachers an d students to get the teaching goal effectively. There are two kinds of strategy from the way to deliver it; they are inductive and deductive teaching strategy as mentioned by Senjaya (2008, in Herdian, 2012). Teaching method is a way to implement the teaching strategy in a real activity (Herdian, 2012). He stated so me kinds of method. They are speech, discussion, demonstration, simulation, laboratory, brainstorming, deba te, and symposium. Games are used by the researcher to teach English vocabulary at third grade students. Games are fun and chil dren like to play them. And games add variation to a lesson and increase motivation by providing a plausible incentive to use the target language. Remember that for many children between and twelve years, especially t he youngest; language learning will not be the key motivation factor. Games can provide useful to the childre n. Research methodology 1. Research design This research used experimental research one group pretest-posttest design to investigate whether or not teac hing English games improves students’ vocabulary ability. pretest treatment posttest O1 X O2 Before giving any treatment to the students, they are given the pretest to know whether they have known the kinds of profession and the activities in English or not. After getting the score from the pretest, the researcher gave a treatment that is teaching English vocabulary using games technique. In the instruction, the students played a game which is Benteng-bentengan using cards to help them. To know the impact of the games techn ique in teaching English vocabulary mastery at third grade of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau, students are given t he posttest which is the same questions as the pretest questions. 2. Research method The instrument for data collection is written test that consist of 15 questions, that is multiple choice and matc h form. The material is about the kinds of profession and the activities. Students are expected to mention kin ds of profession and the activities. 3. Research findings 1. The condition of the students’ English vocabulary mastery at third grade students of SD Muhamma diyah 6 Dau The result showed that the students’ ability in English vocabulary is low. It reflected from the mean students’ pretest score. They were in trouble to answer the questions. Furthermore, there are many students got the lo w score; besides, some got high score. It shows the students’ ability in English vocabulary mastery. Not only in multiple choices but also in matching the word, they got difficulty. In doing this pretest, some of them ofte n asked about the questions. They did not know what the meaning of it. 2. The process of teaching English vocabulary mastery at fourth grade students of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau This research used games technique, since it makes the young learners interested in learning a new English v ocabulary and will be reached the goal of instruction easily. By doing game will make motivate them learnin g English vocabulary and it provides the stimulus. While teaching English vocabulary mastery at third grade
students of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau, they were happy. In implementing the games, there are some instructi ons followed by students. They are spelling the vocabulary and reading questions from the cards when playin g the game. The cards are consisted some questions that should be asked by students to their friends. In doing the games, the researcher explained how to play the games, and then the researcher gives an example for hel ping the students are more understand how to play the games. After the students are ready to play, the researc her gives them an opportunity to play the game which has done twice. After few a days, the teacher gave the same questions as the pretest, for evaluating the effect of the games in improving the students’ vocabulary as the posttest. 3. Data Analysis Researcher has to analyze them in order to find out whether teaching using games improves students’ vocabulary mastery or not. Here, a researcher needs to use t-test. This test is used to distinguish the effect of a method for pre-test and post-test, and also to check whether the Null hypothesis is accepted or not (Sudjiono, 2006:278). The level of significant or α used was 5% because it is usually used in educational research, and a form for t-test would be used as below.
Where: t = the difference between two means 1
= average or mean of post-test score
2
= average or mean of pre-test score
N1 N2
= sum of students who take post-test = sum of students who take pre-test
After the researcher found the t-value, she compared it with t-table. According to Levin (1999:25), the compa rison is done by using the selected level of α and the appropriate degree of freedom, df = N1+N2-2. Then, the researcher saw the result on the table. If the t-value is bigger than t-table value means that teaching using ga mes does not improve students’ vocabulary mastery. On the contrary, if the t-value is smaller than t-table, tea ching using games improves students’ vocabulary mastery. Besides using t-test, the researcher also used SPSS program to count t-value. Based on Laboratorium Kompu ter UMM module, the Ho is accepted if t-value is between –‘t’ table and +’t’ table, and Ho is rejected if t-val ue is not between –‘t’ table and +’t’ table. 4. Displaying the data The following are the data of the score obtained from the pretest No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Name Almas Nila E Adam Dwi A.D Ahmad Fadhil A Balqis Saraja Basti Mahbub Ibrahim Cindy Claudia Dimas Mahendra Erieck Fajar Airlangga Ghandi Miftakhul Ilmi’a Hamdan Ashari Ilham Nurhakim Khusna Nur Lailatus S. M. Bayu Prasetyo M. Ilham Hidatullah
Score 20 25 30 20 35 40 45 30 45 50 30 40 45 55
ILCC 2013 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.
M. Nauval Amrullah Moch. Ferlanda Maulana Moh. Akmal Hakim Moh. Iqbal Ashidiq Moh. Izdiar Al Nafisi Muh. Fakhruddin Netto Angkasa Hayuningrat Naufal Imaduddin Nida’ul Harmain Al Makzum Qathrunnada Salsabila Rizky Ramadhani Patawari Selvi Nur Afiyah Shofiyyah Rikhadatul Aisy Yovani Kistiara Yanti
35 50 50 55 30 45 55 30 55 35 55 40 40 35
SUM Mean Score
1120 40
192
Sum of Squared of Pretest (SS2) Value
The pretest mean-score was used to find the sum of squared of pretest value or SS2 value which would be us ed in finding t-value. The SS2 value was 3150. The following are the data of the score obtained from the posttest No. Name Score 1. Almas Nila E 55 2. Adam Dwi A.D 65 3. Ahmad Fadhil A 70 4. Balqis Saraja 75 5. Basti Mahbub Ibrahim 65 6. Cindy Claudia 70 7. Dimas Mahendra 85 8. Erieck Fajar Airlangga 65 9. Ghandi Miftakhul Ilmi’a 50 10. Hamdan Ashari 55 11. Ilham Nurhakim 50 12. Khusna Nur Lailatus S. 40 13. M. Bayu Prasetyo 60 14. M. Ilham Hidatullah 55 15. M. Nauval Amrullah 60 16. Moch. Ferlanda Maulana 60 17. Moh. Akmal Hakim 50 18. Moh. Iqbal Ashidiq 75 19. Moh. Izdiar Al Nafisi 65
20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.
Muh. Fakhruddin Netto Angkasa Hayuningrat Naufal Imaduddin Nida’ul Harmain Al Makzum Qathrunnada Salsabila Rizky Ramadhani Patawari Selvi Nur Afiyah Shofiyyah Rikhadatul Aisy Yovani Kistiara Yanti SUM Mean Score
50 70 55 65 75 75 80 85 50 1775 63.39
Sum of Squared of Posttest (SS1) Value
From the mean score, the sum of squared of posttest value or SS1 value result was 3652.679.
t-TEST AND t-TABLE CALCULATION t-test Value
t Table α = 5% = 0,05 df = N1+N2-2 df = 28+28-2 df = 54 t-table value = 1,684
t-TABLE DISTRIBUTION
ILCC 2013
194
The Result of t-test The mean of pretest score was 40 and posttest score was 63.39. The SS1 value was 3652.679 and SS2 value was 3150. From the result of pretest and posttest and also the SS value above, the researcher found the result of t-value. The t-value was 7.800 which was bigger than the t-table. The t-table was 1.684, with the level of s ignificant or α 5%. The calculation of t-test and t-table was stated above, and the t-table distribution was state d above. From SPSS result, the t-value was found -7.916 and t-table was ±2.05 with the level of significant 5% and df was 27.
Conclusions and suggestions 1. Conclusions From the analysis result, this research showed that teaching English using game improved students’ vocabula ry ability at SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau. It is shown by the t-value which was bigger than t-table with level of significant 5%. Moreover, the t-value in SPSS was not between –‘t’ table and +’t’ table. The improvement was significant which was shown from the result of pretest mean score and posttest mean s core. The mean score of pretest was 40 and the mean score of posttest was 63,39.
2. Suggestions After finding the result of the study, the researcher gives some suggestions as below. Teacher had to be creative to create and select the appropriate technique to teach English for young learners. Teaching using games motivates students more in learning English. The use of English in daily communicative will help students easily learn. References Slattery, Mary and Willis, Jane. 2009. English forPrimary Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press. Herdian. 2012. Apa Perbedaannya: Model, Metode, Strategi, Pendekatan dan Teknik Pembelajaran.(http://he rdy07.wordpress.com/2012/03/17/apa-perbedaannya-model-metode-strategi-pendekatan-dan-teknik-pembela jaran/) Retrieved on 15 June 2013 Herrel, Adrienne and Jordan, Michael. 2004. Fifty Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners. New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Levin, Irvin P. 1999. Relating Statistics and Experimental Design, an Introduction. Iowa: Sage Publication, I nc. Mutiah, Lutfatul. 2007. The Use of Games and Songs in Teaching English to the Fourth Grade Students at M I AlGhazali Panjerejo Rejotangan Tulungagung. Unpublished thesis. Malang: UMM. Sudijono, Anas. 2006. Pengantar Statistik Pendidikan. Jakarta: PT. Rajagrafindo Persada.
ILCC 2013
196
“MASTER OF TEACHER WEBSITE (MOTWEB): E-LEARNING BASED APPLICATION AS A SYSTEM TO IMPROVE TEACHERS’ COMPETENCY TO DEVELOP TEACHERS QUALITY IN INDONESIA” Tika Novita Sari 1, Wahyu Andi Saputra 2 and Tri Hardiyanti3
3
1
Dept of Informatics Engineering Education, Yogyakarta State University
2
Dept of Informatics Engineering Education, Yogyakarta State University
Dept of Elementary School Teacher Education, Yogyakarta State University
Corresponding Author: Tri, Hardiyanti, Dept of Elementary School Teacher Education, Yogyakarta State University, email address:
[email protected]/
[email protected] ____________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. In Indonesian Law number 14 year 2006/ chapter IV section 10, it is stated that teachers’ competency consi st of pedagogy, personality, social, and professional aspects that were gotten from profession education. Those compete nces are really important to improve the education quality in Indonesia. As known that the condition of education in Ind onesia hasn’t showed a significant increasing. According to Fasli Jalal (2008), the Board of Director of High School, al most a half of 2,6 million teachers in Indonesia are considered that they haven’t eligible yet for teaching students in clas s. Their qualifications haven’t met the 4 aspects that have to be qualified. Master of Teacher Website (MOTWeb) is a m edia to improve teachers competency and also used as a media for teachers certification. The aim of this research are 1) to design and make the MOT Web as a learning media for teacher, 2) knowing the coincidence and appropriateness of MOT Web as an e-learning media to improve the competency of teacher and as an instrument test for teacher’s compete ncy. The research method in this research is Research and Development method. The procedure in this research based o n “10 Step and Development Model” from Borg & Gall (1983: 775). Then we simplified this method into 4 steps, those are : (1) Need Assessment, (2) Model design, (3) Implementation, and (4) Validation. This media were made by Moodle , an open-source framework. There are some features in this website such as forum, e-books, exercises, and certificatio n exams. In validation, there are Alpha Testing and Beta Testing. In Alpha testing, the authors do interview to 2 lecturers . In Beta testing, this system was tested to 18 users and most of them said that this system is very useful and helpful wit h appropriateness percentage is 70%. MOTWEB is really appropriate to be used as an e-learning media to increase teac hers’ competence and as instrumental test for teachers’ qualification. The existence of MOTWEB gives the user much a dvantages as an e-learning media to improve the competence of teacher, especially in pedagogic.
Keywords: MOTWEB, E-learning, Teacher Competence, Indonesian Teacher Quality
Introduction In Indonesian Law number 14 year 2006/ chapter IV section 10, it is stated that teachers’ competency are consist of pedagogy, personality, social, and professional aspect that were gotten from profession education. Those competences are really important to improve the education quality in Indonesia. As known that the condition of education in Indonesia hasn’t show a significant increasing. According to Fasli Jalal (2008), the Board of Director of High School, almost a half of 2,6 million teacher in Indonesia are considered that they haven’t eligible yet for teaching the student in class. Competence does not satisfy qualifications as described above. In fact, the teacher is the most important factor in improving the quality of education. As has already been implemented in developing countries that the quality of education is much higher than Indonesia, the ideal teacher by Anies Baswedan, Ph.D in Jodhi (2011) said that a teacher must master two basic concepts, those are pedagogy and leadership. In terms of mastery of pedagogy, he said that teachers today must be always be up-to-date on the development of science pedagogy.
Regulation of the Ministry of Education and Head of BKN number 03/V/PB/2010 and Number 14 Year 2010 dated May 6, 2010 which became effective on January 1, 2013, explained that the terms of promotion / professorship of III / b to rank higher position shall implement self-development activities (training and teacher collective activities) and scientific publications / innovative work (scientific papers, making props, learning tools, technology work / art) .The self development in terms of this study, in line with the Regulation of the Minister of National Education of the Republic of Indonesia Number 16 Year 2007 on the Standards of Academic Qualifications and Competencies Teachers. The law states that teachers should be able to take action to improve the quality of reflective learning by doing research. On the other side, the development of Internet and technology in the world is very quickly. Indonesia is a country consuming this technology and the internet to remote corners of the country-has been touched by this progress. The development of the internet is being one of the main considerations for the government in the implementation of teachers competency test “Uji Kompetensi Guru (UKG)” by online tests. UKG held from 2012 it became the first step for the government to implement development programs and teacher professional development in the form of continuing professional development activities. However, the implementation of UKG is still lacking. Syawal Gultom (Gandi Makitan: Tempo 03/08/2012), said the national average value of the results of calculations per July 1, 2012 was 47.84. This value is still considered below the standard expected. In addition, the implementation of constraints in terms of implementation UKG there are some teachers that is one of Junior High School teacher, discloses in using a computer that instantly makes mental down because she is not familiar with the test online. (Dara in Hilda: 2012) Therefore, the authors propose the concept of "MOT Web" to overcome the problems of teachers in Indonesia by providing an online system that can be accessed in order to enhance teachers' pedagogical competence and professionalism to every teacher in Indonesia. This system is an online web system. Each teacher can obtain reference materials related to the research activities and questions to test the ability of teachers to instantly find out how much a user (teacher) can encourage to constantly learn.
Goal of the Research The aim of this research are 1) to design and make the MOT Web as a learning media for teacher, 2) knowing the coincidence and appropriateness of MOT Web as an e-learning media to improve the competency of teac her and as an instrument test for teacher’s competency.
Methodology Research Design The method that used in this research is the design approach or Research and Development method. Procedures that used in the development of this software as it has been developed by experts and include 10 step models of the development of Borg and Gall (1983:775), which we simplify in 4 steps. In line with the research and development of the model above, the procedures to be done in developing this MOT Web is the steps: (1) needs analysis/need assesment, (2) design of the model, (3) Implementation, (4) and validation. Need Analysis The stage of the analysis phase that is to identify and obtain data on the needs what is required in the design and implementation of systems and design thinking to the next. According to Pressman (2002:319), the analysis is a process of discovery, improvement, and specification. In this stage, the identification of the data required for system development. The steps that are taken in the analysis phase include: a) the analysis of the technical specifications, that is: what are the analytical capabilities needed by the system, b) analysis of the system, that is: an analysis of the performance of the work will be performed by the system being designed or built. Model Design Architecture The architectural design is an illustration for explaining the structure and the program modules represent relationships between modules. b. Interface
ILCC 2013
198
Interface design is the design software interfaces in order for the user easily understand the purpose of the software while the software is running as it should. With the appearance of the user-friendly interface, users do not need to go too far to understand the programs that are difficult to understand, but the user interface, they can run software more easily. Design flowchart is a picture of how these processes are derived from user input will be processed in a software system. Implementation Implementation is the stage the modules translate the results into the design of the application form by using a specific programming language and incorporate them into a more complete unified system. The steps that must be done in the implementation are: (a) collect and choose the modules that will be translated into a programming language, (b) determine the required programs to support programs that have been designed, (c) translating procedures, subroutines and functions -function of the modules into the programming language, (d) unify procedures, subroutines and functions of modules that have been made into the unity program. Validation Software testing is the process of executing the program to find errors. Before the program is applied, then the program must first free from errors. Therefore, the program should be tested to find errors that may occur. Testing is done for each module and continued with testing for all the modules that have been strung together. Testing in field research techniques includes Alpha Test and Beta Test. Alpha Test is the process of testing and revision of the program took place at the time of creation Software. This process includes an assessment of the aspects of the media and programming aspects. It required an expert media and programming experts who can objectively assess the software that has been created
Object Research Object of research is making “Master Of Teacher Website” (MOT Web). This website development is to improve the professional competence of teachers and pedagogic competence in particular. The target that we use in this research is a continuity of the program students study Primary School Teacher Education, Yogyakarta State University.
Data Collection Techniques Collection techniques in this research use two stages. First, use the measurements of program functions in accordance with a predetermined plan. Second, the media expert and matter expert related with precision manufacturing, software benefits for teachers or questionnaire to assess the feasibility of software Mot Web.
Data Analysis Data analysis techniques for the first phase is described as the result of engineering information systems are implemented in software, and the level of validation and reliability testing program. The second phase, also uses descriptive qualitative, that explained about the feasibility of the product to be implemented. Furthermore, the data that is processed communicative with the expected number and percentage obtained.
The feasibility of measurement for matter experts and media experts are as follows Eligibility percentage (%)
Xt X 100% Xy
Where Xt is the score of eligibility; Xy = maximum score;% = percentage of viability. The collected data were analyzed by qualitative descriptive analysis techniques disclosed in the frequency distribution and percentage of category rating scale that has been determined as a percentage of the presentation, then draw conclusions about each indicator.
Results and Discussion Development Procedure This website was made by using Moodle framework. There are some function that can be used from Moodle library, they are forum, course, resource, quiz, and agenda
Testing Procedure The testing procedure in this research was tested to media expert and content expert. Media testing is testing process and revision to the program during the producing. It includes assessment of the appereance. That’s why this testing need an expert who can assess objectively. Content testing is related to the content, those are the material and quize. The second testing is tested to the student of Elementary School Education from Yogyakarta State University. The reason why we choose this student is because they are involved in education and aware to technology d evelopment.
The result Architectural Design MOT Web
Forum
Chat
Upload
Soal
Materi
Berdasar mata pelajaran
Berdasar mata pelajaran
Picture 1. Architecture Design The description of every menu are: 1. Forum Used for interaction between teacher and each other teacher. In this forum, teacher can deliver their feeling, complaint, material, or publication of their research. 2. Exercise This website has some various kind of exercise. Those are competence tes, science, social, Indonesian, Math subject. There also duration or time period during the test. And after the test is over, this website will show the correct answer for them. 3. Material/content This menu will provide some material of every subject for teacher. This menu also will show announcements, news, calendar, and guidance for research. The login form divided into 2 forms, those are general visitor and member. The general visitor is a visitor who doesn’t registered as a member. The member are teacher who have been registered by the admin. The differences content between general visitor and member are the material, quiz, content, and news are more specific and comprehensive.
ILCC 2013
Picture 2. General Visitor Login Form
200
Picture 3. Teacher Login
Interface
Picture 4.Interface design of website
Picture 5. Procedur
Implementation Implementation is applying the design of the step before. This website was made by using an open source L MS (Learning Management System) from Moodle . the step of making this website are: Seeking the content and material Purchasing the domain of the website Purchasing the domain name Installation Moodle on our webhosting Configuration over internet Choosing theme Uploading the material Maintenance
Here is the result:
Picutre 6. The interface of MOTWEB
After the website is ready, then the website must be tested by developer (including all aspect, unction, and us ability system). The result of the test Result of Validity Test Media Expert Data
Num. 1.
2.
Name
NIP
Expertise
Yuniar Indrihapsari, M. 198206212010122002
Interactive Multimedi
Eng
a
Unik Ambarwati, M.Pd
19791014 2005012001
Learning Strategies
Matter Expert Data
Num
Nama
NIP
Expertise
1.
Ikhlasul Ardi Nugraha,
198206232006041001
Elementary schoo l science teaching
M.Pd Feasibility Test Results Pictures Num.
Component
Assesment 1
2
3
4
Material aspects 1. 2.
Suitability competency test materials with grille competenc y test Conformity with subject matter competence pedagogy
Suitability of the material with the development of professi onal competencies 4. Substance suitability website has been created with the Min istry of National Education website Aspects of information clarity
5.
interface design
6.
Clarity of instructions for using the menu
7.
Grouping information for each field category
8.
Clarity of exam questions and results are displayed
3.
Aspects of usefulness 9.
Use of the website for the development of pedagogical com petence
5
ILCC 2013 10.
Use the website as a means to exercise primary school teach er UKG The use of websites to measure the ability of teachers in wo rking. Use the website as a means of exchanging information thro ugh the establishment of a forum.
11. 12.
202
From the test results and retrieval of data can be analyzed the performance and quality of media. In the alpha stage of testing, no revision is obtained from the questionnaire design experts and media. Category: 16% - 32% = do not deserve to be tested 33% - 49% = less worthy to be tested 50% - 66% = good enough to be tested 67% - 83% = worth to be tested 84% - 100% = very feasible to be tested Media Expert 1: Eligibility percentage (%)
Xt 42 X 100% = X 100% = 70 % % (Worth to be tested) Xy 60
Media Expert 2: Eligibility percentage =
44 X 100% = 73,33 % (Worth to be tested) 60
Matter Expert :
Eligibility percentage =
41 X 100% = 74,54 % (Worth to be tested) 55
Num
Critic from Media Expert and Matter Expert
1. 2. 3. 4.
Text / font is too small (Log in, etc) Be Focused on material Fulfill the information The menu that is using English to be translate into Indones ia language.
Individual Testing
The external testing are taken from 3 random respondents from students of PGSD UNY that will checking th e function and usability. The researcher provides online questionnaire. Num.
Name
NIM PKS PGSD
1.
Murwantana
10108247051
2.
Fika Chilmi R
10108247071
3.
Yustina Martini
10108247063
The material of the questionnaire are: Num. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Question Usefulness of the webs ite Content Quiz Material
Result The website is very useful, very helpful in sharing a nd information-exchaning between each teacher. The content are need to be improve The quizzes are interesting and developing The material is still need some innovation
5. 6. 7. 8.
Forum Chat News Critic and Suggestion
Chat, forum, and news are interesting and developin g Need some revision and development in order to hel p the teacher competency Need some new innovation The material need to be enhanced
Discusstion Based on expert analysis of data media and design experts above this website earn approppriateness percentage for 70% that means this website is approppriate to be used as an e-learning media. On the second testing, from different expert, t hey said that this media need some revision on bigger font size. Beside that, the experts are suggested us to enhance th e material. And on this second testing, the approppriateness percentage is increasing to 73,33%.The third testing is mate rial testing. The expert suggest to translate the English menu to Indonesian. Other than that, this website need some extr a help menu to give more information for the user. The approppriateness percentage is 74,54% that means apprippriate t o be used with some revision. External testing is tested to 3 random respondents. And the result are: this website is quite useful, and the quiz is interesting. This competence test is an extra feature which become a good point for this website. The forum and chat menu also interact the users. Some critics that gotten from them is that this website need to enhance the amterial and concerning the teaching proccess such as method, strategy, nad model.Based on tha dat analysis, “Mas ter Of Teacher Website” is approppriate to be used with some revision, especially enhancing the material so that this we bsite can be used as a media that will increase teachers competence.
Conclution From the results obtained by means of making the following conclusions: Master Of Teacher Website creation (MOTWeb) using software engineering principles. The first phase of the needs analysis, design, implementation (coding), testing, and maintenance. Media and material test results of three lecturer experts showed a percentage of 70% and 73.33% on the test medium and 74.54% on test material. This media expert test results indicate that the tested media worthy and fit for use in some revision course with content.
References Aboedhari, H.M. (1985). Strategi Pusat Pengembangan Guru dalam Meningkatkan Mutu Pendidikan Guru Tenaga Teknis Kependidikan Lainya. Makalah disampaikan dalam sarasehan dan forum komunikasi VI FPIPS dan JPIPS FKIP/ STKIP se Indonesia di Kampus IKIP Malang. Arikunto, S. (1990). Managemen Pengajaran Secara Manusiawi. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. Bernadib, Imam dan Sutari Imam Barnadib. 1995. Beberapa Aspek Ilmu Pendidikan. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Andi. Clark, Ruth Colvin and Mayer, Richard E. 2011. E-Learning and the Science of Instruction. San Francisco: Pfeiffer Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI. (1994). Pedoman Pembinaan Profesional Guru Sekolah Dasar. Jakarta: Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. (2008). Sertifikasi Guru dalam Jabatan Tahun 2008, Buku 5 Ramburambu Pelaksanaan Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru(PLPG). Jakarta: Depdiknas. GadiMakitan. (2012). Hasil uji kompetensi guru masih di bawah harapan. Website: http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/08/03/079421057/hasil-uji-kompetensi-guru-masih-di-bawah-harapan. Diambil pada tanggal 17 agustus 2012.
ILCC 2013 Hilda SabriSulistiyo. (2012). UKG ONLINE 2012: Terobosan Yang Mencemaskan. Website: http://www.bisnis.com/articles/ukg-online-2012-terobosan-yang-mencemaskan. Horton, William K. (2012). E-Learning by Design Second Edition. San Francisco: Pfeiffer Jodhi Yudono. (2011). Mejadi Guru Ideal. Website: http://oase.kompas.com/read/2011/11/04/14563555/Menjadi.Guru.Ideal. Moh. Uzer Usman. (2007). Menjadi Guru Profesional. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya. Mulyasa. (2008). Standar Kompetensi dan Sertifikasi Guru. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya. Undang-undang Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 tentang Guru dan Dosen. Bandung :Fokus Media
204
Enhancing Literacy Skills In Higher Education Through Digital Storytelling Leela Chakrabarty Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
[email protected] _______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. This paper will showcase Digital Storytelling (DST) that has proved to be instrumental in enhancing literacy skills in higher education. It highlights the motivational elements of DST as perceived by the undergraduates in a public university and explores ways to further develop their interest in reading and enhancing their writing skills. This study explored the use of multimedia and traditional literacy to answer the question: “How did writing a story and constructing the video influence students’ learning?” Thirty five semester three ‘Diploma in English Studies’ students created a series of two digital stories implementing narrative writing. These productions were undertaken using two basic platforms; Microsoft Office tools-Power Point 2007 and Windows Movie Maker. The study showed how literacy skills were impacted through the use of digital storytelling and how it can be adapted to different content and proficiency levels and represent a tangible record of student progress and basis for evaluation. The students came to recognize the importance of organization, story, voice, emotion, pacing, economy of words, and value of re-writing while developing presentation skills. In analyzing the reflections by the students it is noted that students find that digital storytelling has had an impact in the enhancement of critical thinking skills and language skills. This in turn trained them to be more creative and critical in their writings.
Keywords: Digital storytelling, literacy skills. Introduction Although it is generally assumed that the motivation level of higher education students is high as they are supposed to be self motivated, it may not be so in reality. Motivation and involvement will increase if students find the activities meaningful and engaging. This was the starting premise for embarking on digital storytelling as teaching and learning tool in an ESL higher learning classroom. Trending now is that students tell stories digitally as they get involved in a continuous process of sharing information about themselves on social networking sites, through images and sound besides words, with peers and the world. Thus class activities merely based on pen and paper may appear boring and less engaging. Miech & Mosteller (1997) reviewed the research on computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and found a pattern of usage that reflected changes underlying educator beliefs about learning. With the advent of easy to use software we are able to capture and tell our stories to a broader population via digital storytelling using pictures, videos, text, music and narration bringing a particular concept to life. When seen from a pedagogical perspective, a digital storytelling activity actually targets all four skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking) apart from promoting research skills, critical thinking and reflection. It could be an excellent tool for informally assessing learners on their language skills.
Rationale of the Study Educators and researchers are looking to the future not by asking the question, “Should technology be used in education?” Instead they are now asking “How technology should be used to help students achieve higher levels?” Heo (2009) conducted an experimental study to show the effects of digital storytelling on preservice teachers’ self-efficacy and professional dispositions. According to the study, “Knowledge and skills of personal technology can be transferred to educational technology settings with the help of digital storytelling”. Prior to that, Li (2007) investigated the use of digital storytelling to integrate multimedia technologies into higher education. In that study participants were pre-service and in-service teachers in higher education. The results revealed that these experiences can improve students’ learning skills during the
ILCC 2013
206
incorporating phase of technology implementation in education. Thus, this study seeks to explore ways to further develop the students’ interest in reading and enhancing their writing skills through digital storytelling.
The Research Questions: The study looked into the impact of digital storytelling in a writing class. The following two research questions were examined: RQ1: How did writing a story and constructing the video influence students’ learning-in terms of literacy skills such as reading and writing? RQ2:Which learning area(language, critical thinking, reflection, artistic or communication skills) had the most impact as perceived by the students?
Literature Review (Porter,2008)
expressed that DST builds communication skills: creativity and inventive thinking, multiple intelligences, higher-order thinking, information literacy, visual literacy, sound literacy, technical literacy, effective communication, teamwork and collaboration, project managements, and enduring understandings. According to Brice (2009) kids tend to learn best by multi-modalities teaching. Since multimedia digital gadgets comprise multimodal properties, digital storytelling can help learners of ESL (English as a Second Language) students to enhance their literacy skills; namely reading and writing skills. Apart from that, researches conducted by Hibbing and Rankin-Erikson(2003) demonstrated that digitally-enhanced stories are excellent mnemonic devices that help students retain new information and comprehend difficult material easily. Dogan(2007)conducted a study with three groups of teachers and the results revealed that the teachers who used digital storytelling in their classrooms believed that their students increased their technical, research, presentation, organizational and writing skills. They also reported that they thought that the digital storytelling process had positive effects on students’ motivation and engagement levels. On a similar note, Rudnicki (2009) explored whether discussions about storytelling evoked students' higher consciousness of the stories they tell and she found that this in fact helped them tell more meaningful digital stories. In another research by Anh Nguyen (2011) who interviewed graduate students at a university, found that students’ own learning and teaching practices were influenced by personalizing elements in the script, using computer-based digital storytelling software, reflecting on their own work and listening to feedback from others, and perhaps most important, sensing their own progress as they worked through all the components of digital story making. Some researchers have already highlighted the importance of the use of digital storytelling in language teaching and learning (Gregori-Signes, 2008; Robin, 2006) well as the need for more research on the learning outcomes of its usage in educational settings (Barrett, 2005; Yuksel, Robin, McNeil, 2010). Robin (2006) reiterates that Digital storytelling not only offers language teachers the opportunity of working with all four language skills, but also brings together the idea of combining the art of telling stories with a variety of digital multimedia such as images, recorded audio narration, video and music.
3.0 Methodology
The students were required to produce two digital stories. They were to read a number of story books to find a story that they like. They then had to re-write the story in their own words. They were to create a ten to fifteen minutes movie based on the narrative writing. The learning areas investigated were: (1) Reflection Skills (2) Language Skills (3) Critical Thinking Skills (4) Communication Skills (5) Artistic Skills. This paper describes the practical experience of incorporating digital storytelling in an ESL classroom at tertiary level. Using the writing class as an anchor, students created digital stories through multi-media production. Final projects were then presented to the class.
Participant and Setting Thirty five semester three ‘Diploma in English’ students were the participants. They had completed the SPM(Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) or what is equivalent to “O” levels in some other countries. The evaluation scheme was fully exam-based. None of the students had any formal training in the use of software to make movies. The thirty five participants comprised both male and female students from all over Malaysia who opted to take a diploma level study at a local public university in Malaysia.
Procedure To answer research question 1, “How did writing a story and constructing the video influence students’ learning”, the researcher assumed the role of a non-participant observer. Observations were recorded as field notes and analyzed. The purpose of the observation is to gain additional information about the process involved. The observation allowed documentation of the learning dynamics amongst the students. Apart from that, their writings were scored. To answer research question two, “Which learning area had the most impact as perceived by the students?”; data was collected through an online forum portal from students. The forum sought to determine which learning areas were most meaningful as they delved with digital storytelling. The forum posted semi-structured interview- like questions to gain insight into the students’ thoughts and perspectives about the effectiveness of digital storytelling.
ILCC 2013
208
3.3 Stages in DST
In the first project, students were first taught storyboarding and then how to use the Microsoft Power point in the production. Basic animation concept was exposed whereby students created multiple pictures to produce
the ‘movement’ in the story. Students were not required to purchase or use any other software for the production. The students were then introduced to Windows Movie Maker as well as iMovie. The following pictures show a student who managed to create multiple slides to show the movements required in one of the scenes in the story. The slides were based on the student’s storyboard.
Fig. 2: Storyboarding The pictures were drawn according to the needs of the story. They were scanned into the computer and saved in the pictures file. The pictures were later inserted into the power-point slides during the final production. Sound and music were allowed to be inserted. Focus was not given to the writing of the story at this stage, although they did write the scripts. Here, the main focus was to expose students to storyboarding and basic animation concept that was to animate objects to effectively illustrate story action. The second project required students to come up with their own digital story. Here the researcher instructed the students to find a story by reading other stories in story books. Students selected a story to be re-written. This was done by paraphrasing and summarizing. They were also given instructions for the structure of the story. The story had to be well organized and the following pattern included:
Structure of the story 1-Setting: It introduces the main characters and the initial situation of the story. 2-Conflict: It presents some kind of problem or goal to reach and the tension around it. 3-Resolution: It is the end of the story and presents a solution to the conflict. Table 1: Instructions for the structure of the story
The students were allowed to change parts of the story to be re-written in their own version. This is now the script development stage. Students were taught to work with appropriate sentences as their words would be accompanied by images. This stage lasted for few sessions depending on the students’ ability to write. As it was an integrated skills’ environment, the researcher had students submit multiple drafts of their scripts and assisted them with form and structure. The next step was capturing and processing images. Images were used to further illustrate the story. This was a fun step in which students were able to be creative and original as they chose images they believed to be meaningful reflections of their stories. The students had to justify their choices. This was done as an additional critical thinking activity. Students were encouraged to use digital cameras to take pictures. They were allowed to draw their own pictures and scan them. Once they had their pictures digitized, they made a copy of the folder. Having done with images, it was time to combine the scripts with music. At this point the students combined the images onto a timeline. They could also record narration here. However, narration was not done in this
ILCC 2013
210
project as the focus was on reading and writing. They also added music tracks. This was another venue for students to unleash their creativity as they mixed images, and added cool transitions and fun music to their stories. Finally, the students reviewed and presented the completed version of the digital story. The students had a special presentation session using a computer projector for other students to watch and enjoy. Assessment was included in this project. They were given comments on form and structure immediately after presentations by the researcher. There was also a peer- reviewing session where students commented and offered suggestions for improvements. As a means to illustrate the actual processes that the students had undergone before they actually created their final product, a sample is described here. The students were asked to write down the process. Students A’s pre-production process: Firstly, she listed down all the different ideas that she had wished to use and went through them one by one. She crossed out the ones that she didn’t want and kept the ones that she would probably choose. In the end, there were only two stories that she decided to choose from: Blood and Chocolate, a story about an ancient being called the “Loup Garou” and “The Firework Maker’s daughter”. She decided to choose The Firework Maker’s Daughter because it stresses more on moral themes such as determination whereas Blood and Chocolate revolved around forbidden love which she thought was very typical. Secondly, she wrote the script that she would include in her project. She made sure that the sentences were simple and easy to understand. Then, she looked for some images from the internet that she would use in her project and edited them according to her colour scheme. She used Photoshop CS3 and Genius EasyPen drawing tablet to draw her illustrations. Below are two of the illustrations that she drew. In addition, she used CyberLink YouCam3 to record her desktop movement when she was drawing the illustrations. With the videos of the illustration in progress, she incorporated it in her project to make it more interesting.
Fig. 3: Student A’s drawings: She used the Genius EasyPen drawing tablet
4.Findings Observation notes were used to answer research question 1; “How did writing a story and constructing the video influence students’ learning?”
Instruments Researcher’s Journal
Script writing scores - rubrics
Results Students showed an improving progress although some seemed lost at first. Then after a few readings and discussions, they began to fill up the mind maps with the main details. They provided feedback to each other. Even the quiet ones started to be brave in asking questions and providing responses. It was found that many had problems with vocabulary. They had to make literary decisions. They had to determine whether they will use first, second or third person. They were challenged to expand word choices. Some of them resorted to the use of the dictionary and thesaurus.
Overall Findings DST made students contribute actively. Reading the stories allowed them to build on their foundation of the story line and enhanced their vocabulary. Reading the stories enhanced their reading skills whereby they learnt to pick up the main points and the supporting details to be included in their story.
Students rewrite the stories with a personal twist.
Rewriting the stories encouraged them to think critically about what they particularly like or don’t like about the story, and what features they want to highlight and exaggerate in their own version. Thus, the ignition of critical thinking skills has in turn made the students better writers.
Students gathered or created images, audio and video. They chose what will impact and set the tone for their digital story. It was observed that students revisited and revised their storyboard. Students were seen to be so engrossed in their work that they don’t leave when the time is up
Through matching pictures with the story line, they become acutely aware of mistakes and poor word choices.
Students managed to produce well written scripts that established a meaningful purpose of the story and maintained clear focus throughout until the story reached a logical ground.
17 students obtained “Outstanding” scores- extremely well written and contains all of the required elements; 11 students obtained ‘good’ scoreswell written and contains all of the required elements; 7 students obtained ‘average’ scores- written in an adequate manner and contains most of the required elements. None obtained ‘poor’ scores
Table 2: The Findings on the Influences of Digital Storytelling on Students' learning
During the first stage, organization is very important. At first, students seemed at a lost. They did not know where to begin. They were merely staring at a blank sheet of paper. They were then asked to read some stories. The researcher then used mind-mapping to help students keep track of information. There were many rounds of discussions before each one of them made a decision on their stories. It was found that many had problems with vocabulary. Reading the stories allowed them to build on their foundation of the story line and enhanced their vocabulary. This was also the time where literary decisions come into play. Students had to determine whether they will use first, second or third person. They were challenged to expand word choices. Some of them resorted to use the dictionary or thesaurus. Reading the stories enhanced their reading skills whereby they learnt to pick up the main points and the supporting details to be included in their story. When they were actually writing, another learning area came into play, that was critical thinking skills. Some of them had re-written the stories adding a personal twist. As an example, a male student had written an
ILCC 2013
212
outline of Dr. Jekyll and Mr Hyde in the Malaysian version. He said it was rather difficult to visualize the setting so he wanted to use Malaysian setting in his story. He then changed the names to Dr Johan and Mr Hadi along with some of the names of places such as London to Kuala Lumpur and so forth. The pictures were characters dressed up in Malaysian attires. Apart from that he also changed the ending. Some re enacted stories in their version and captured their own pictures. Some students were allowed to choose a book that they like or really don’t like and create a parody. This encouraged them to think critically about what they particularly like or don’t like about the story, and what features they want to highlight and exaggerate for their own version. Thus, the ignition of critical thinking skills has in turn made the students better writers. Storyboarding is the process whereby magic happens and writing come alive. Using their storyboard as a guide, students gathered or created images, audio and video. They chose what will impact and set the tone for their digital story. Through matching pictures with the story line, they become acutely aware of mistakes and poor word choices. It was observed that students revisited and revised their storyboard. Students were seen to be so engrossed in their work that they don’t leave when the time is up. At this stage, students were provided with a rubric so they understand what is necessary for a completed story. The storyboard presentations also indicated that there was awareness of audience as well as emotive content. The students could clearly explain why their selection of vocabulary, pictures, graphics and music suited the target audience. Overall, it was noted that there was student engagement in learning. They were encouraged to provide feedback to each other. This in turn made the students reflect on their work. They were proud of their products. Although the students were struggling in the beginning, they managed to write good stories after reading, paraphrasing, writing, editing and re writing. All these phases had helped to enhance the students’ reading and writing skills. Students developed their digital skills as there was extensive, informal peerlearning and feedback in the process of tool application. The positive progress in the students' writing ability was also indicated by the students' storyboard scores. The final productions showed a clear improvement regarding the use of linguistic routines with the final outcome that contained more complex structures and a varied range of expressions used to start and to end a conversation. The students were able to construct coherent stories that included both a narrative and a dialogue. Seventeen students out of thirty five obtained “Outstanding” scores- these were the stories that were extremely well written and contained all of the required elements, such as a meaningful purpose, clear focus and logical conclusion; eleven students obtained ‘good’ scores- well written and contained all of the required elements and seven of them obtained ‘average’ scores; their scripts were written in an adequate manner and contained most of the required elements. However, with additional effort, it could be even better. None obtained ‘poor’ scores. To answer the research Question 2: “Which learning area had the most impact as perceived by the students?”,the students were asked to categorize their learning area that they think they have improved on. Five themes were identified that dealt with the improvement of student learning using digital storytelling. The MyGuru2 platform was used to illicit responses from the students.
Learning Areas Reflection Skills Language Skills Critical Thinking Skills Communication Skills Artistic Skills Students that have chosen more than one skill Total number of students
Frequency 5 19 22 4 2 17 35 Table 3: Learning areas
Percentage 14.29 54.29 62.86 11.43 00.57 48.57 100.00
The discussion on the above findings are as given below, according to the identified learning areas and some samples of students’ postings are also inserted to show how the students responded. Reflection Skills: Five students indicated that digital storytelling allowed them to improve their reflection abilities. For instance, one student said that: My DST is about love and sacrifice. From this story, I reflect their situations and learn from it. I learn to love life and to be grateful because we still got the chance to live happily. Even if we have problem, we should smile and be strong because there a lot of people outside there who are more suffer than us… Finally, just like the main actor in my DST said, now I am trying to live life to the fullest for tomorrow might never be.
Language Skills: 19 students indicated that digital storytelling had helped them to improve on their language skills. Regarding the language skills, this is what some of the students had to say: After I created a digital storytelling (DST), I found that my language skills such as speaking skill, narrative skills for both written and oral have a “big” increase. It was because when I’m creating my DST, I needed to insert some text. From the text that I inserted, I needed to make sure that there are no grammatically errors in order to attract reader’s attention. Besides, my I also can speak well when I’m presenting my DST to my course mates. Hence, after creating my DST, my language skills have improved”. This project also really has improved my language skill. We have to write in a proper and correct English language. I asked my friends to check my grammatical errors besides asking for their opinion of using the different style of English writing to make my DST more attractive to watch. For me, this project was not only improving one skill, but can improve some skills at a time. While I was doing my work on DST, I need to make sure that my grammar is all true. I have to see my lecturer and asked her about my language so that my DST has a good quality. Apart from that, I also got many improvements in speaking skills that also can be categorized as language skills. Before I submit my final work of DST, I need to present it in front of class and of course I have to speak. Doing DST helped me a lot in language skills.
Critical Thinking Skills: 22 students indicated that DST had enhanced their critical thinking skills. Some of t hem said that: Doing the DST has improved me on language skills and higher level thinking skills. When I did the DST , my language skill has improved because I need to use a right words to make sure my DST is excellent and easily readable by the readers. I had done so many correction on my grammatical error and get explanation about my grammatical error from my classmates who read my DST. I have so many improvement on my grammar… My thinking skills has increased because by doing the DST, we have to be creative and thinking out of the box to make sure our DST is interesting, fun and provide knowledge to the readers. I learn how to think creatively when make a digital story telling. I can make my own story and it is really great. It makes me think out of box. To make a interesting digital story telling is difficult. But this is one way to practice high level thinking.
Communication/social skills: Four students indicated that using digital storytelling had improved their social skills/ communication skills. One student said that: I think that the social skills is more relevant to me. because before this I’m quite shy guy. so by doing all the DST I think that I’m more expose to the public. when we make the movie, we need to share to the public and get the comments. it really give something new. when I make it, I must set my mind, it s for commercial purpose so I’m trying my best to promote my movie to the public.
Artistic Skills: Only two students indicated that they had improved in their artistic skills. These two students were identified as the only ones good and interested in drawing. One of them said:
ILCC 2013
214
Creating an interesting DST requires one to think more on what to put in the DST, how to put it, where, when and why. This requires patience and the artistic ability to compose the scenes so that they fit along nicely with the music that plays. I certainly have acquired some artistic abilities along my journey to complete this DST. I used tablet and Photoshop to draw the scenes in my DST, and thanks to that I’ve brushed up my drawing skills that have rusted for the past 2 Semesters. I am more aware of the presentation of the characters for the story. I learned that characters need not be fancy and beautiful but they must be able to express emotion.
The results indicated that overall, the students’ experience in digital storytelling was positive. The learning areas most impacted were language skills(inclusive of reading and writing skills) and critical thinking skills.
5. Discussion Writing digital stories ignites a love of learning and creates powerful stories for others to share and enjoy. By incorporating digital storytelling projects into learning, teachers can reach today’s students and, at the same time, help them to develop the skills they need to be successful in the complex, technology-rich world. Digital storytelling learning projects may be a cure for reluctant learners as this approach to learning is an exciting and compelling way to engage students in the learning process and to inspire them to become lifelong learners. It is noted that Digital Stories has given voice to those who don’t always participate in class. Digital story telling enhances technology-rich project learning and this is what most students would rather do given a choice to write a traditional paper or create a digital story that presents their research and learning. Students of all ages enjoy creating stories, and more and more students are eager to use technological tools to create those stories. Through engagement, motivation, visualization, extensive production and contact with the target language, digital storytelling tools helps students to enhance their literacy skills. Students developed their digital skills as there was extensive, informal peer-learning and feedback in the process of tool application. DST can be adapted to different content and proficiency levels and represent a tangible record of student progress and basis for evaluation. For example, if the content is describing places, then students could be allowed to take pictures of the identified place, do research on the place and develop a digital story. Teachers can actually identify students according to proficiency levels and prepare various tasks according to their levels.
References Barrett, H. (2005). Storytelling in higher education: A theory of reflection on practice to support deep learning. In C. Crawford, D. Willis, R. Carlsen, I. Gibson, K. McFerrin, J. Price & R. Weber (Eds.), Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2005 (pp. 1878–1883). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Brice, A. E. & Brice, G. R. (2009). Language Development: Monolingual and Bilingual acquisition. Boston: Pearson. Dogan, B. (2007). Implementation of digital storytelling in the classroom by teachers trained in a digital storytelling workshop. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Houston, Houston, Texas. (Publication No. AAT 3272583). Gregori-Signes, C. (2008). Integrating the old and the new: Digital storytelling in the EFL language classroom. GRETA, 16(1&2), 43–49. Heo, M. (2009). Digital storytelling: An empirical study of the impact of digital storytelling on pre-service teachers’ self efficacy and dispositions towards educational technology. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 18(4), 405-428.
Hibbing, A. N., & Rankin-Erikson, J. L. (2003): A picture is worth a thousand words: Using visual images to improve comprehension for middle school struggling readers. Reading Teacher, 56(8), 758. Li, L. (2007). Digital storytelling: Bridging traditional and digital literacies. In T. Bastiaens & S. Carliner (Eds.),Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2007 (pp. 6201-6206). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/26774 Miech, E.J. & Mosteller, F. (1997). On CALL. A review of computer-assisted language learning in U.S. colleges and universities. In R.M. Branch & B.B. Minor (Eds.)Educational media and technology yearbook, Vol. 22. (pp. 61-84). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.National Storytelling Association U.S. (1997)Retrieved from http://www.eldrbarry.net/ Nguyen, A. (2011). Negotiations and challenges: An investigation into the experience of creating a digital story. (Doctoral dissertation) University of Houston, Houston, TX. Available from: http://gradworks.umi.com/34/62/3462838.html Porter, B. 2008. Digital Storytelling, (Online), (http://www.DigitTales.us accessed on June 11, 2011) Robin, B. (2006). The educational uses of digital storytelling. In D. A. Willis, J. Price, N. E. Davis, & R. Weber (Eds.), Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2006 (pp. 709–716). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Rudnicki, A. (2009). Coming full circle: Exploring story circles, dialogue, and story in a graduate level digital storytelling curriculum. (Doctoral dissertation) University of Houston, Houston, TX. Available from http://gradworks.umi.com/33/88/3388729.html Yuksel, P., Robin, B. R., & McNeil, S. (2010). Educational uses of digital storytelling around the world. In M. Koehler & P. Mishra (Eds.), Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education international conference 2011 (pp. 1264-1271). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
ILCC 2013
216
Linguistic Argumentation and Logic: An Alternative Method Approach in Arabic Grammar Assoc. Prof. Dr. Solehah Yaacob Dept. of Arabic Language & Literature Kulliyah of IRKHS International Islamic University Malaysia Abstract This research emphasizes the relationship between linguistic argumentation1 and logic1. Linguistic argumentation is a language system which uses the meaning of expressions in a sentence to draw a complete meaning of the sentence, as there lies a dependence between expressions. In fact, this connection between expressions enhances the overall meaning from the very fundamentals of the sentence structure in the logical relationship between ideas; where there lies a relation between words and the mind which is dependent on the logic of combined utterances. In order to signify the above concept of thinking, the researcher has turned to the theory of the early system of Arabic grammar which focuses more on analogical approach rather than anomaly. The analogical approach in the system is based on the underlying theory which implies the aforementioned relationship, even though some modern views may disagree on the interpretation of this issue. To round out the discussion, the researcher has included similar existing theories on Latin grammar which have shown the logical approach to be a result of the connection between linguistic argumentation and logic. As a result of this discussion, the connection between words and logic is shown to be a universal concept.
Keywords: Logic, Method, Grammar and Analogy
Introduction
The relationship between language and logic was discovered by early Muslim`s scholars. They believed that drawing a relationship between the two was basically a rouse to redirect the topic of discussion to theology and law in terms of Aristotelian logic. However, in order aver this argument and in order to exhibit the relevance of logic for the study of grammar, the researcher will henceforth use the term ‘linguistic argumentation’ to refer to the study of the Arabic grammar
system. In fact, Al-Fārābī (d.950)1 developed such a theory on the relationship between language and logic, discussing the origin and development of language from a logician`s point of view. This can be found in his book Kitāb al-ḥurūf
1
wherein he connects the ideas of Arabic grammar
demonstrating his awareness of the relevant differences between languages, in general, and between Greek and Arabic, in particular. His aim was to incorporate the disciplines grammar and logic together, for he believed there was no doubt that they were connected to each other. He based this on his view that logic the use of logic transcends the domain of any particular language and is common to all languages1. In fact, this connection has been proven in his book: “This science (logic) corresponds to the science of grammar because the relationship of the science of logic to reason and the intelligible equals the relationship of the science of grammar to language and the expressions. The rules that the science of grammar provides for the expressions are paralleled by the rules that the science of logic provides for the intelligible….it has in common with the science of grammar that it provides the rules for the expression and it differs from the science of grammar in that the science of grammar only provides rules concerning the expressions of a particular nation, whereas the science of logic provides universal rules that are valid for the expressions of all nations”1. He here has explained the connection between language and logic concerning the expression of a particular linguistic group, a nation, are related to their mode of expressing meaning in a grammatical sense, and that the expression of all nations or logics demonstrates a universality of approach which is a valid means of expression for the all nations. This point has been supported by, Ikhwān al-Ṣafā’, The Brethren of Purity, in their Rasā‘il. They believed that the heart is the organ responsible for distinguishing between intelligible (mafhūm), and unintelligible sounds. From the former, it distills the meaning (ma‘ānī) of sounds. They regarded this as the process of knowledge in establishing a correspondence between word and meaning. They explained in Rasā‘il, “… therefore, we need exterior speech and we have to teach it and to study its laws, which take a long time to explain. The pure spirit that are not embodied do not need language and speech for the mutual understanding of the knowledge and the meanings that are in their thoughts”1. The Brethren of Purity are not the only scholars to have discussed the correspondence relationship between the issue of word, meaning and thought, Jabīr ‘Ibn Hayyān 1 also has a speculation about the correspondence between word and meaning where he believed this correspondence are based on the balance of letters (Mizān al-Hurūf). This theory is clearly derived from Greek sources and is based on concepts ranging from the numerical speculations of the Pythagoreans to Plato’s dialogue on Kratylos1 postulation on the origin of language. However, ‘Ibn Hayyān places greater interest on the nature of physical elements in his investigation. Thus, he often uses grammatical theory as a heuristic instrument such as the grammarian applies his methods of Tasrīf (morphology) in order determine their radicals in contrast the alchemy or physical scientist
ILCC 2013
218
dissects the objects in order to find out their constituent element1. The discussion on the origin of language by ‘Ibn Jinnī and his teacher, ‘Ibn Fāris, should also be considered for his arguments on the origin of language being revelation or agreement between word, meaning and thought. Notably, most of the speculative philosophers held that the connection between language and logic is a matter of mutual agreement and convention rather than revelation and inspiration. This statement emphasizes the human nature of language and origin of speech is with man. Based on this concept, arises the Mutazilite correlation that since man has free will, then men are responsible for their own acts, their own words. In the context of the spoken word, by speaking man he is the one who brings into being, such as the nomenclature of mutakallim can be given only to someone who produces speech1. This leads to the discussion of the literary study conducted al-Jurjānī on meaning and expression where he considered the logical ideas to be signified by the expression. He linked his view to meaning as being the determining factor differentiating the level of quality of the between linguistic dimension in a text; by not considering this dimension in isolation but rather as it is realized within a coherent text1. From the aforementioned viewpoints, it is relevant that the relationship between language and logic is not a matter of philosophical speculation discussed among philosophers, but it’s also been a field of study and discourse between grammarians and rhetoricians.
Views Regarding Logic being Enhanced by Linguistics Argumentation
We acknowledge that vast the contributions of Arab logicians during the Golden Era of Islam enhanced the concept of meaning in the sentence structure, yet must also give note to the Orientalist perspective on this issue. They claimed that the idea of the existence of a relationship between syntax and semantics was taken directly from Aristotle’s works. This theory has been supported by Prof. Bursill Hall, who states: “Nevertheless, the attention paid to syntax by the grammarians of the later 12th century laid the basis for the continued close association between logic and grammar, a relationship fruitful enough to create a logical grammar within the domain of grammar and which culminated in the speculative grammars of the modesties. This was a development from the result of the full assimilation of the `new` Aristotle and the works of the Arab logicians”1. Charles E. Butterworth supported this idea in a similar statement, saying: “Aristotle’s writing found a much more receptive audience on the other side of the Mediterranean as learning on his writings flourished in Constantinople, Edessa and Antioch.
When the School of Alexandria was forced to close, it moved to Antioch in Syria. In the 6 th century, many of Aristotle`s writings had been translated into Syriac. This activity continued until some Syriac translations were rendered into Arabic. In the 10th century, the school moved to Baghdad…”1. This historical movement of study of the Aristotle’s works has been proved by ‘Aḥmad ‘Amīn when he showed the interest of a number of Arab scholars in the translations of Greek philosophy and science within Islamic world. These include Hunain bin Isḥaq, Yaḥya bin Bitrīq and ‘Ibn alMuqaffa’1. The process of translation of Greek philosophical works went through a process of serious scholarly endeavors when they were translated from Arabic1 and rendered into Hebrew during the period of Islamic Spain and then into Latin in the middle of the 12th century. Prior to this, the writings of Aristotle were unknown in the West. While, in the East, these works had already been studied and commented on by Al-Kindī, Al-Fārābī and ‘Ibn Sīnā, and they were redressed again by Averroes, in the beginning of 13th century. Even after the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204 and the discovery of new Greek manuscripts, the most complete translations of Aristotle`s works were still those done from Arabic texts1. The researcher believes it essential to highlight some of the tremendous contribution of Averroes in enhancing the ideas of Aristotle when he translated the `Categories` in his `Middle commentary on Aristotle’s Categories, as this work had a great impact on the development of the Modistae1 in Europe and, as it seems, the starting point in the progress of understanding Aristotle’s categories in the Middle Ages. Charles E. Butterworth supports this view without, writing: “…without exaggeration, the beginnings of scholarship in the later middle ages can be traced to the effect this newly found legacy had upon western Europe, especially to the effect it had upon such important thinkers as John of Salisbury, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon”1. Butterworth notes that in Averroes’ commentary, he presented the “…uncombined utterances which denote uncombined ideas necessarily denote one of ten things either substance or quantity or quality or relation or where or when or position or to have or doing or being acted upon…”1. To further our understanding from of Averroes’ view on this matter the researcher gives one of his examples on the subject. Averroes gave the situation of a man and a horse and how they are distinguished from each other, as both of them have a dependant relationship on each other, as in “Zayd rode a white horse last year”. The words Zayd and horse are understood by the listener when they are used together in a context they have a relationship. A new meaning is added to this image with the addition of the word ‘white’; conveying that is a white horse. Here, the word ‘white’
ILCC 2013
220
shows the concept of quality and thus is termed an adjective. Analysis of this example shows that Averroes was more concerned with meaning conveyed in a relationship between word as it is related to the concept of thinking, such that there is relation between words and thinking which depends on the logic of utterances when combined. Analysis of this statement is similar to the concept of naẓm introduced by Al-Jurjānī in his book Dalā‘l al-’Ijāz when he described that what is understood by a sentence is dependent on the connection of meanings in utterances of which it is made. This is idea is highlighted in Part two of Chapter 14 of Averroes’ commentary on the Categories. However, it must be kept in mind, that the statement and supposition do not admit truth or falsehood in as far as the thing to which the supposition refers outside the mind is itself altered. For example, take the supposition that “Zayd is sitting”, is indeed true1 when Zayd sits and false when he stands1. Averroes manner of analyzing here is similar to the concept of logical analysis when the case is that the action of something needs to be confirmed with the correct word of the action and not vice versa. It can be concluded from this discussion that the connection between syntax and semantics in linguistic theory has been thoroughly debated among Muslims scholars. This activity is especially important in the study and interpretation of the meaning of the Quran and Sunna, and should be applied to reach a correct understanding of its meaning in a modern context.
The Relationship between Linguistic Argumentation and logic
We have discussed previously the role of early grammarians in linguistic polemics, and we have found that there is a group of Modern scholars who have debated aforementioned issue. These include Khālid ‘Ibn Sulaymān Muhanna al-Kindī. He has mentioned in his book, ‘Uṣūl al-Naḥwī wa al-Ta‘alam al-Naḥwī fī al-Dars al-Lughawī al-‘Arabī al-Qadīm1, that the argumentation in the explanation of grammar is divided into four divisions which are; first, the linguistic argumentation is affected by philosophy and speech, secondly, linguistic argumentation is affected by the principles of Jurisprudence, thirdly, linguistic argumentation seeks more than one external influence, and fourthly, linguistic argumentation has not been subjected to these influences. The researcher views that al-Kindī’s divisions are unnecessary, as its essence can be stated as: linguistic argumentation is affected by speech, philosophy and jurisprudence. Why? This is due to the fact that the philosophical influence of grammar is an aspect that requires delicacy in its exploration and application. Regarding the impact of jurisprudence, it is an important matter to be
cited because the grammatical normative process is purely a result of the ancient Arabs’ dexterous scholarly endeavors. As for the remaining two points, al-Kindī’ himself has mentioned they are two normal events that do not require a discussion. In order to thoroughly discuss on logic, we have to discover the point at which philosophy entered the discussion of Islam? According to ‘Ibn Nadīm in al Fihrist, “We find recently that the Persians transferred something of logic and medicine books from Greek into their Persian language, and it remained so until they were transferred to Arabic by Abdullah bin al-Muqaffa’1 Relying on this evidence, the researcher believes that the concept of philosophy was digested by the great Arab grammarians from their study and translation of Greek philosophical works during the later part of the second century hijrī, and henceforth they imparted such theories in the discussion of studies in their own fields. It has its authorship in medicine, engineering, astronomy and logic and this means proximity of time, philosophy and speech. However, the intended meaning of the researcher is that the philosophical idea which appeared in Arabic grammar was the work of Muslim philosophers who sought wisdom in their work and they were convinced of this method. In fact, the acquisition of philosophy is not a result of a relationship with the Greeks, but rather is evidence of the dexterous Arabs’ work and their ability to apply this knowledge to problems in Arabic grammar. From study of this matter, the researcher concludes that the grammatical rules which have their origin in philosophy are: al-Taqdīrāt, al-Hadhafāt and al-Iḍmārāt, This conclusion is confirmed by ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā in his book ‘Ihyā‘ Al-Naḥw, wherein he discusses the influence of philosophy on Arab grammarians. He comments that Arab grammarians, in this path of theirs, are affected by all means by the philosophy of the Word (al-Kalām). This concept was not only common among them, but it dominated their thinking, and was taken as a standard means of practice based on the information available to them at their time1. ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā responded to this view with regards to the issue of estimation: “ً ”ولوال طو ُل إل ِفنَا لها لرأيناها لغواً وعبثا1. He describes the Arab grammarians’ as being in search of answers for linguistic dilemmas and in this situation they were by all means going to find a resolution even if their methodology was foolish. He puts forth many examples of this including : زيداً رأيته. He explains that some grammarians have claimed that this sentence is in fact truly; رأيت زيداً رأيته. This is based on analogy of the following Quranic verses :
﴾ارَك ْ َ استَ َج
ِ ِ ﴿وإِ ْن أ1 ني َ َح ٌد ّم َن الْ ُم ْش ِرك َ َ
which means إن استجارك أحد من المشركين استجارك, and
﴾َرِّيب
﴿لَّْو أَنتُ ْم َتَْلِ ُكو َن َخَزائِ َن َر ْمحَِة1
that means: لو تملكون تملكون خزائن رحمة ربي, and
ILCC 2013 ﴾اه ْم ُ َفَ َه َديْن
222
1 ود ُ ُ﴿ َوأ ََّما ََث
which means: أ وأما ثمودَ فهدينا هديناهم1. According to ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā these examples in linguistic and semantic and meanings are similar to the case of: َ إياك واألسدand احذرك واحذر األسد, where there is a case of omission yet this meaning is understood by the reader. He also gives the example of the ruling for the case where the predicate exists of an omitted subject, such as in the case of the sentence: الحمدُ هللا ربّ العالمين. He puts forth that for the word ربit is possible to assign it the accusative case as though the estimated meaning is أمد ُح ُرب, and it is equally valid to assign it the nominative case when its meaning is estimated as هو رب. He views that such examples of omission are common in every language, however, in the case of the Arabic language in particular, this type of expression is most often reserved for the cases of al-’Ijāz and al-Takhfīf. Herein, by eliminating that which is understood, the argument for estimation is rejected (al-Taqdīrāt). ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā continues that estimation and expansion lead to the loss of an existing Arabic grammar rule saying: “They did not make for him a conclusive word and decisive saying, and they overdid the aspects of the speech. Many types of parsing are intolerable. They estimate the factor as a nominative, hence they make [it] nominative case and estimate [it] as the accusative hence they make accusative case, and they do not see that it is followed by a difference in meaning or a switch in the understanding” 1. Then ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā points out that the Arab grammarians adherence to philosophy led them lose their concern for the meanings of speech relative to its different conditions, such as the case of مفعول معه1 , in the example:
كيف أنت وأخوك. Some scholars hold that the accusative case is
permissible on al-maf’uliyyah and others hold that the nominative case is suitable based on the fact that أنت وأخوكare in fact two subjects connected by a conjunction واو. The first position is viewed as the weaker of the two arguments because it has taken the position that the second subject أخوكis not preceded by a verb. He holds that in fact, each of the assumed meanings conveys a different meaning that cannot be substituted by the other one. That is, in the assumption that the intended meaning of: كيف أنت وأخوك؟is estimated to be equivalent to: كيف أنت؟ وكيف أخوك؟This conveys a different meaning than: كيف أنت وأخاك؟It is as though the estimation took place to explain the connection between the two subjects. However, the majority of the grammarians do not accept the aforementioned argument, due to their view that a double enténdre was indeed meant by the speaker 1. And this has caution of the majority is based on a history of such double meanings in Arabic language. For example if an Arab said, 1كيف أنت وقصعةً من ثري ٍد, where the word following the conjunction, قصعة, is in the accusative case due to its carrying the meaning of مفعول معه1.
’Abdul Raḥmān Muḥammad Ayūb has followed the same direction as ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā, noting that Arab grammarians have at times mixed between the parsing and the parsing location. Take for example محمدand رجلwhen they fall under the definition of the expressed, because their end voweling is changed by altering the compositions which precedes them. However, this view does not hold true in the situation of the vocative نداء, such as ُ يا محمدand يا رج ُل, and the topic of the الof absolute negation such as 1 ال رج َل في الدار. In addition, the grammarians claimed in their reasoning of ُ يا محمدas أدعو محمدًا, is semantically equivalent and therefore ياis means أدعو. They explained that this is a full attribution of equivalence. However, ’Abdul Raḥmān Ayūb views that the ُ يا محمدphrase and the أدعو محمدًاphrases are not equivalent, this is based on the fact that the first is compositional, and the second is predicative and there is no equating between the composition and predicate 1 . All these arguments are forms of linguistic argumentation, especially in Qiyās (Analogy), ‘Ijma’ (Consensus), and Istiṣhāb (Presumption of Continuity). The researcher has observed other forms of linguistic rules based on linguistic constants and these too, have marked influence of philosophical matters and logic. This is other than the note made by ’Abdul Raḥmān Ayūb with regards to the matter of omission of parsing at the end of the word; including estimated parsing ) )اإلعراب المقدرin the case that al-maṣdar al-mu‘awal ( المصدر )المؤولis made accusative case by fatḥatun muqaddaratun ( )فتحة مقدرةbecause it is an accusative object and they have based this assumption on the interpretation of the example by 1أقوم َ أريد أن. From the words where the parsing of the defective noun is estimated in it are: جاء القاضيand رأيت عيسى., where القاضيis made nominative case by case by latent ending in an original yā’ and عيسىis made accusative case by the argument: بفتحة مقدرة منع من ظهورها التعذّر, and of the words which can be estimated by what is known by the location is occupied by ḥarakatu almunāsibah ( )حركة المناسبةas in: بقائم ليس. The preposition bi causes the attached name of the ٍ preposition ) (اسم مجرور, قائم ٍ to be parsed as genitive case, and at the same time this prepositional phrase is a predicate of ليسand is thereby made accusative case by fathatun muqaddāratun that is not apparent due to the location being occupied by ḥarakatu al-munāsibah. ‘Abdul Raḥmān Muḥammad Ayūb analyzed and critiqued this aforementioned argumentation. He agrees with the position that estimation plays a significant role in Arabic grammar. However, he ridiculed the grammarians’ saying that al-maṣdar al-mu‘awal is made accusative case by estimated فتحة. He ridiculed their conclusion as being delusional or built on the assumption that the parsing mark that doesn’t have an existence. He described their situation as like a teacher who entered an empty classroom, and assumed that there are students in it. Then, he passed out test questions and the answer sheets! In the case of the sentence لست بقائم, he believes that it leads to two sites of parsing: genitive site due to the action of the preposition and accusative
ILCC 2013
224
predicate as a effect of the ليسsite. He said that the former of the two is of no necessity and it is better to say that this sentence is of one predicative side 1. In this matter, the researcher agrees with the fact that the prepositional phrase in this sentence is in a predicative position, however, disagrees with Ayūb in regards to the discountability of the effect of the preposition on the name of the preposition as this is necessary to mention as it is that which is responsible for the genitive case attribute of the name of the preposition or else we would find it in the accusative case.
Another scholar who stands by the view that Arabic grammar is affected by philosophy is Ibrahim Anis. He is of the opinion that the Basrans are from the people of logic due to their conscientious effort in judgments1. He means by this that it was the Basrans who were concerned with esoteric interpretation, reasoning, exegesis and measurement. He explains that it is as if in their pursuit of linguistic scholarship they wanted to imbue the subject of grammar with flexibility. Ibrahim Anis believes that the Basrans are the people of logic based on their interest in measurement and reasoning, and with the methods of Fiqh scholarship. This leads the researcher to ask whether Ibrahim Anis considers the Basrans to be people of philosophy and logic due to their interest in measurement and reasoning? Shawqi Ḍaif holds a similar position, and believes that the intellect of Basran grammarians was more acute and deeper than their Kufan counterparts. They were more prepared than the Kufan grammarians for the introduction to scientific study, as they preceded them in communication with foreign cultures, in general and Greek thought in particular, and surpassed them in that they were familiar with Aristotle’s work in logic; its limits and measurements1. Ḍaif sees the linguistic immersion of the Basrans’ with Taq’iīd theories of the placement of bases of the Arabic grammar and the depth of their knowledge of them evidences the high degree of influence by Greek language and philosophy. Al-Makhzūmī took the same path of Shawqi Dhaif, noting that many of the Arab linguists were scholars of al-Kalām and have been affected by philosophy and logic. This is a a general claim that all Arabs linguistics at this time were affected by logic and speech, yet the researcher has discussed previously that the Kufans were not deemed to have been affected or influenced to the same degree as the Basrans by philosophical and logic subjects. Evidence to support this position is in the Kufan grammarians rejection of the idea of reason of Ibtid’i for making the subject nominative case. In so far as whether or not the Arabic language was being influenced by philosophy and logic after the second century hijrī, it seems to have been the case as mentioned by
‘Ahmad ‘Amīn in his book Dhuha al-Islam . He mentions clearly here that both al-Ma‘ mūn and Hārūn al-Rashīd sent delegates to Rome during this period to learn the Roman language, in order that they may use this knowledge to translate the Roman sciences into Arabic1. Occasionally, not all linguistic arguments proved to be as clear, and such is the case for the study of some examples put forth by Arab linguistic scholars. The researcher is of the opinion that some examples and arguments put forth by ’Abdul Qādir Al-Muhairī fall into this category and considers his arguments to be strange. Take for the example his explanation of the parsing of a subject noun when it begins a sentence. He starts with analysis of: الزائمر وصمل . He claims that الزائمر: ُ ُ is a subject in the nominative case , and وصمل: a verb corresponding to its subject in the position of the predicate. Then, he analyzes the sentence: الزائر وصل إن.Here, الزائمر: is a subject in the accusative َ َ case due to the effect of إن, وصمل: a verb corresponding to its subject. The final example upon which he build his argument is الزائمرون وصملوا. الزائمرون: is a subject that begins the sentence and is in the nominative case, وصملوا: a verb corresponding to its subject1. The researcher notes that this example is similar to the first in this series with the exception that the subject is plural and the corresponding verb is conjugated in the 3rd person plural according to the action of the preceding subject. Al-Muhairī views that the verb وصمل, in the example of الزائمر وصمل, is what makes الزائمرto be nominative and that it is not nominative by reason of its being the subject (Ibtidā’) of a nominative sentence. This line of argument is similar to the opinion of the Kufan grammarians on this issue. The Kufans responsed to the Basrans saying: Verily, the subject is not made nominative case by the Ibtidā‘ but the subject and predicate are nominative. Therefore, this opinion does not leave with the governor and the governee, but it is a difference in explanation and an attempt to understand the construction of the word through its meaning, as it is clear in the saying: not every subject is nominative, not every object is accusative, and not all annexed are genitive. It is possible of parsing a noun at the beginning of the sentence by looking at the meaning of the sentence; hence, the meaning becomes the judge1. However, the researcher believes that Al-Muhairī ‘s view is based on assumptions. On the other hand, the researcher sees that Shawqi Ḍaif is certain of the parsing of meanings through nominative of the subject and accusative of the object, and he is opposed to the educational estimated parsing. Shawqi Ḍaif has referred to the idea of canceling the parsing of the nominal conditional tools such as such as: َمن يقم أقم معه. He said, “The grammarians have disagreed in assigning the agent in ” َممن. Some say: the conditional verb alone contains its pronoun, and some say: it is the answer verb because the benefit completes with it, and say: It is the sum of both because both complete the sentence.” Thus, he called for the cancelling of the parsing of the metaphor of the number1 such as:
ILCC 2013
226
كمم االسمتفهامية والخبريمةsince it does not serve any interest in its appropriateness of pronunciation. This is due to the fact that both are always built on the ‘absence of vowels’( )سمكونand are correlative to one pronunciation. It suffices to know that the first is called كمم اسمتفهاميّةand the second is called كمم خبريّمة, in order to differentiation between them. In terms of usage, the first is always followed by singular noun in the accusative case, while the second is differentiated as being either a singular or plural noun in the genitive case. This process of assigning special names to a single term, in fact, has been used to facilitate linguistic education, both past and present. As Shawqi Ḍaif commented in his book Tajdīd al-Naḥwī, this has been a humble attempt to facilitate Arabic grammar; freeing it from the rules, excess subsectioning and distressing complications. What Shawqi Ḍaif was referring to here was the canceling of educational parsing that confuses students yet, he does not imply that implicit parsing should be done away with as it influences factors such as nominative of the subject and accusative the object, like that is found in the example: َسمأل الوالمد ُ الولمد. This is a fundamental rule of Arabic grammar that cannot be changed. The researcher agrees with Ḍaif’s position and deems it to be the duty of the grammarian to respect the Arabic language as it manifests itself in many forms, the highest example of which is in the rhetoric of the Quran and Hadith, and not to simplify grammar to the extent with preference towards the student and will show prejudice to the linguistic history of Arabic. Al- Shāṭibī referred to this concept and recognized the role of the context of grammar to meaning, noting that grammar with Sībawayhi was not limited to showing that the subject is nominative, and the object is accusative, but also shows what befits it of meanings and words1. This indicates that Sībawayhi did not limit himself to the science of linguistics but was also involved in the science of rhetoric and in the clarification of the meanings of a word; its explanation and esoteric interpretation. Due to their similarity of views, it seems that Al-Makhzūmī was influenced by his teacher ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā . Al-Makhzūmī is known to have commented on the fact that many grammarians were scholars of al-Kalām and they realized the depth of the relationship between grammatical study and the methods of speech and logic. He holds that during the fourth century hijrī Arab grammarians were influenced by their contact with philosophy and logic and with their exposure to the methods of the scholars of al-Kalām1. That is, it seems that Arab grammarians in the fourth and fifth century hijrī were much influenced by philosophy and logic, and then they combined grammar and speech at the fundamental level of grammatical studies.
The researcher observes that, ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā’s views did not form in a void nor are they unique, rather they are a repetition of the ideas put forth by the scholar Ibn Maḍa. According to ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā , who has focused on the studies on estimation, he has come to the conclusion that Arab grammarians estimated in order that their linguistic rules be synchronized in one form. He sees that the rule of estimation put forth by Muhammad ‘Ahmad ’Arafah is faultless, and that estimation used in order to that the grammar convey the correct meaning. If it was assumed that Arabic doesn’t have parsing signs that indicate the meanings, then estimation would have been essential to convey the correct meaning. Take for example the sentence: إيماك واألسمد. Here, إيماكindicates that there is a situation immediately in front of the speaker and he is speaking to a single masculine addressee, and األسمدconveys the presence of a predatory animal, a lion. The two words do not convey a complete correct meaning together unless it is estimated that the speaker is warning the addressee of the lion and saying beware of, احذر, the lion. Otherwise, it does not indicate the intended meaning1. Elsewhere, ’Arafah remarks on the essentiality of estimation to Arabic language and grammar. He comments that estimation is a requirement of the meaning, so that we do not find fault in it. If we find an effect and we didn’t find it [the factor], then we turn to its estimation.
In the
aforementioned case we find the use of the accusative case evidence that an integral part of the meaning is not stated in words. The grammarians would then estimate any factor, such as in the examples of : إيماك واألسمدas being similar to قبّمل ودَا ِعمبas they are similar in the use of the accusative case. Some scholars have refused this approach, and don’t accept the estimation of احمذرand the meaning it conveys, in spite of its correctness. He stands by the idea that estimation serves the meaning and does not serve the pronunciation1. The researcher points out that Ibrahim’s refusal to the estimation, altogether and detailed needs to be considered, if only he had shortened his rejection on some of the arbitrary estimates that had a philosophical color. The difference in the factor is not considered a defect because we could not imagine that all the linguistic sections are the subject of an agreement between the grammarians, and this is required by the nature of things. From the perspective of the parsing mark, the grammarians made the parsing as a purely verbal rule that follows the factor’s pronunciation and its effect, and they neither saw, in its marks, a signal that refers to a meaning nor an effect in forming the concept or shedding light on its image1. This argument is not absolute and we can see the effect of alternative parsings in the books which discuss the meanings of the Qur’an. Take discussion of the parsing and the effects of the factor in the following Quranic verse:
﴾ ﴿إِنَّا ُك َّل َش ْي ٍء َخلَ ْقنَاهُ بَِق َد ٍر1
ILCC 2013
228
The discussion revolves around the parsing of كل شيءwith accusative case. The Sunnis say: كل شيء (everything) is a creation of God is assigned the accusative case, because it is the predicate of the verb خلقناهwhich has been placed in the initial position (Ibtidā’). The majority opinion () الجمهور disagrees with this argument because they hold that if the verb is not benefiting by adding value to the description, and rather that which comes after it fulfills this role corrects the predicate and the meaning was such that the verb is the chosen predicate accusative in the first noun, the pronoun attached to إنthen it is clear that the verb descriptive. An alternative reading, the qadariyah reading ()القراءة القدرية, disagrees with the accusative parsing of كلin the same ayah and stand by its reading in the nominative case:
﴾ ﴿إِنَّا ُك ُّل َش ْي ٍء َخلَ ْقنَاهُ بَِق َد ٍر1 The hold that the verb خلقناهis in the position of adjective for كل. They base this on the fact that it conveys the meaning: Everything We created. This argument has been based on its estimation, the extent in its appearance and its time, and so on1. Al-‘akbār agrees with the first argument on this issue as mentioned in his book At-tibyān fī ’Irāb Al-qur’an ,that being كلin the accusative. However, he puts forth a different argument for this effect. He considers that the factor in this verse is a deleted verb that is explained by the mentioned; the evidence is that كلhas been parsed in the accusative. He also believes that the accusative reading is preferred over nominative as it conveys the significance of the creation of everything more emphatically. He considered the possible reading of كلin the nominative, in the position of ibtidā’, and خلقناهadjective for all or something, and بقدر ٍ is its predicate, and came to the conclusion that it does not support the position that this indicates the generalization of creation. But rather conveys that everything created is done so by pre-measurement1. Reflection of the discussion put forth for the parsing of ك ّلbrings us back to the commentary made about ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā and applies to a large extent to Ayūb. He called for the cancelling of estimation entirely, arguing that it has been influenced philosophy. Though we do not deny the influence of philosophy on grammar, we do not believe that this justifies the denial of the rule of estimation and removal from grammar, because such a deed will lead to a large change in the map of Arabic grammar. Ayūb has overlooked the fact that there are many variations of readings of the Holy Quran and the prophetic Traditions, as well as Arabic poetry which cannot be
understood without esoteric interpretation and estimation, even if this is a mental process; occurring in the mind of the speaker and the listener. The researcher believes that grammarians have used logic in the fundamental steps of grammatical analysis. For example, in the parsing of the verb ُ يمذهبin the sentence ; َيمذهَبُ محممدit is a present tense verb, made nominative by an apparent ضممة. The question here is why doesn’t يمذهب become a predicate as in the example ُ ? محممد يمذهبThe answer to this is that the governor cannot precede the governee, and in order to solve this predicament grammarians have invented an implicit governor for يمذهبُ محممد. They came to the conclusion that there is rationale for the effect of accusative or jussive on it, rather it is in the initial position with an implicit agent preceding it. The researcher believes that this is an invention of the grammarians is an influence of philosophy and logic, and the implicit agent in this case is immaterial. ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā commented on the condition of Arab grammarians in this path and noted that they by all means affected by the philosophy of words that was common among them. It dominated their thinking, and was taken as a given in the assessment of facts in them1. Similarly, with regards to whether the reason for the emergence of the grammar agent is due to the logic and Aristotelian philosophy, or due to the philosophy of words, the researcher believes that the emergence of the grammar agent in the linguistic argumentation is mainly a result of man’s natural impulse to search for the cause of all that he sees. Therefore, in the search to understand the cause and effect in grammar, we ask the questions: “Why is the subject made nominative case and the object is made accusative case? And on what basis it is nominative and accusative?” It seems that this rule was used by Arabs in their poems, then grammarians interpreted this phenomenon and took it as a fundamental of grammar. This invention alone shows that Arab grammarians relied on philosophy and logic in linguistic analysis. Exploring language by questioning the fundamental reasons for parsing brings up other questions. In the case of the accusative object المفعمول بمهwhich is genitive in the feminine sound plural, such as ت ِ ضممربتُ الطالبمما, why do grammarians explain the use of the genitive case ‘for lightness’? What is the reasonable standard for this usage? In a similar case, what is the governor of طالبًمماin the phrase ?رأيممت خمسممة عشممر طالبًمما؟ Grammarians have said1 that it is in the accusative case for the reason of distinction ( )تمييمزand therefore its parsing is not attributed to any other factor, or governer. This brings us back to the claim that every governee must have a governor and the governee doesn’t precede it. Then what is the argument for an effect without even an implicit governer?
ILCC 2013
230
The case of the circumstantial accusative ( )الحمالmeets with similar objections. Take for example, جماء محممد راكبًما, what is the governor of ?راكبًماGrammarians have said1 the circumstantial accusative الحمالmust be accusative. Then, taking this rule into consideration, we look at the example of زيمدًاin the sentence رأيمت زيمدًا يخمرجwhere يخمرجis a present verb in the nominative case evidenced by an apparent ضممة, and the direct object of said verb زيمدًاis in the circumstantial accusative حمالposition, yet at the same time زيمدًاis also the subject of a nominal sentence ? The researcher believes that the grammarians claim that زيمدًاis in the circumstantial accusative case closes the opportunity for other arguments to be brought forth on the issue. Scholars agree that there is substantial evidence to support the claim that Arab grammar was influenced by philosophy1 and the researcher points specifically to the grammarians’ adoption of the concept of; لتقعيمدthat is, for every impact there is an influential, and two influences don’t fall on one impact. On the history of this subject, T. J. De Boer mentioned the precedence of the people of Basra using of logic before other Arabs was a social phenomenon that can be attributed to the influence of the establishment of philosophical schools of thought which appeared in Basra before anywhere else. The diversity of Basran grammarians, which included many Shiites and Mutazilites, paved the way for the foreign wisdom to affect their verbal ideologies1. De Boer explains the impact of Greek philosophy on Arab grammar, “The logic of Aristotle had an impact on the Science of linguistics that was not concerned in collecting Shawāhid and synonyms and the like”1. Arabs grammarians relied on the principles of logic as a means of conducting ‘ijtihād in grammatical analysis, and especially relied on the tenet: where every influential has a single impact and therefore, two disputed factors are not accepted on one governee. They applied it in analysis of cases such as: نمام واسمتراح محممدwhere they sought to explain the apparent influence of two influences on one impact. Remaining committed to this rule, the Basrans chose the second1 verb as the single influence on the subject i.e. اسمتراح محممدwhile the Kufans chose the first verb1 as the single influence on the subject i.e. نمام محممد. Yet, we raise the following question: why can’t an exception be made to account for the possibility of the existence of two influences on one impact, as is manifested in the sentence being discussed here. Isn’t is possible for this to be resolved by al-‘ishtighāl? What would be the result if نمام واسمتراح محممدwas stated and both verbs were considered to be the influence on a single factor? As shown above, it is clear to us that this sentence is correct in terms of parsing and it consists of two verbs connected by واو العطفwhich is indicative of two shared works, نمامand اسمتراح occurring at the same time to a single subject محممد. Meanwhile, the meaning of نمام واسمتراحconveys
that two different actions have occurred. The question then arises as to why the meaning is accepted as a valid social construct, but grammarians argue refuse it? As mentioned previously by De Boer, Arabic in Basra was affected by the philosophical and logical culture, therefore, the researcher puts forth that the grammar used to explain language should be consistent with the culture of that language. It seems to be in their saying: for every influential there is an impact in the conflict, that they search for the influence, yet have forgotten to guard the meaning. Both the Basrans and Kufans undoubtedly realized that محممدis the subject, yet they disagree on how to explain this in grammatical terms. In a different example, that of the case of: ضمربني وضمربت زيمدًا, again we find two verbs and a single subject, however, the second verb has been given priority as the influence on زيمدًا. It can be said that the subject of ضمربis زيمدand that نميis an attached pronoun called yā‘ al-mutakallim ( يماء )الممتكلمwhich is an objective of the first verb, and these roles are reversed after the conjunction واو where tā‘ al-fā’il ( )تماء الفاعملis the subject for the second verb ضمربand زيمدis the subject. This brings up two questions. Firstly, if Zayd is the subject of the first sentence and the direct object of the second sentence, then what is the role of the first verb if it does not have priority, by nature of its precedence in the sentence, to influence the parsing of Zayd? The second point, what is the role of waw al-‘aṭif ( )واو العطمفwhen the second verb has an influence and the first verb does not. It is as though the ’aāṭif ( )عاطفis points to the existence of al-taḍārub in the sentence. This brings us back to the issue of why did the Basrans choose the second verb as being the influence and not both of the verbs? The researcher recommends the Basrans’ awareness of different strength of the verbs according to the meaning intended in the saying; the second has the priority of working. However, the researcher brings up the point that the role of the first verb cannot be non-existent, because without it then the complete meaning is lost. This dependant relationship between the verbs is seen here in the example:
يحسمنان
1
ويسميء ابنماك. Grammarians said that the second verb was considered the influence, since if the first verb was considered to be the influence then the second verb would be neglected. The term which they used to explain this situation is ‘iḍmār which doesn’t mean deletion, but rather that it is not to be effective while working. They explain that the first verb is ineffective (‘iḍmār) and the second verb is working (’imal). Since each verb has its own subject then each has in influence on its own subject and the order of the verbs can be switched without causing a problem يسميء ويحسمنان التالميمذ and there is no benefit from the presence of two verbs connected by waw al-‘aṭif because of the presence of a different subject in يحسمنانeven though it has been preceded mention of the other subject التالميذ.
ILCC 2013
232
Another example of discourse of Arab grammarians differing in their opinion of defining the influence is the example of زيمدًا ضمربته. The Basrans claim1 that the governor of زيمدًاis estimated, which means that ضربتis not the influence. So, then why do the Basrans estimate ?ضربتIt is as if this sentence was an answer existed in a context, and was a response to the question: ?ممن ضمربت َهIt could not be the answer to the question: همل ضمربتَ زيمدًا؟, as this reply would require an affirmative reply, نعمم ضمربت زيمدًاyet it could be a response to: مماذا فعلمتَ ؟, for it would bring about a reply such as ضمربتُ زيمدًا. The Kufans disagreed1 with this argument and explained that ُض َمربت َ , pronounced, is the governor for زيمدًاand the proof is that the transitive verb,ب َ ض َمر َ , requires an object. In this discussion it is clear that understanding the order of the components of the sentence is vital in order to being able to uphold the idea that the governor must precede its governee. To oblige by this rule, the Basrans invented the idea of an estimated governor preceding زيمدًا. Hence, they explained that زيمدًاis a governee, and its governor is estimated and its estimation is ضمربت. This is the mental perception of the existence of an estimated verb in the statement. We can see from the manner in which Arab grammarians defended the tenet of precedence of the governor before the governee and different schools of grammarians put forth different philosophical arguments to come to this conclusion. In the aforementioned discussion of various grammatical issues it can be affirmed that there was a philosophical influence in Arabic grammar. Although the researcher does not support the argument that this phenomenon existed due to the influence of the Greek and Roman philosophical works, but rather the dexterous Arabs themselves sought out wisdom through philosophy discourse. Philosophical Influence in the Concept of ‘Modistae’1 In order to have a comprehensive discussion on the concept of relationship between the logic and linguistics on Arabic grammar, it is important to consider the structure of Latin grammar and shed light on the logical discourse which it has gained from Greek philosophy.
We will utilize the a
minor concept in the construction of the Modistae concept in sentences for discussion.
For
example: homo currit (The man runs). According to Alain De Libera’s study on 12th and 13th century thought this sentence would be described as: “an intransitive construction in which a verb has an immediate dependence on the substantive which represents the first constructible. In analytic approach, it would be considered as follows: There is at least one individual, a man, and he is running; or more simply: Something that was a man (regardless of whether it still is or not) has run, or there is at least one individual, which is a man and that it has been the case that he is running, or more simply. Something that is now a man has run”1.
He continues that in the case of: homo currit bene (The man runs well) the adverb is drawn back to the substantive through the verb, and in Homo albus currit bene (The white man runs well) we find an intransitive construction in which adjective and verb are immediately dependent on the substantive, and the adverb is dependent on it through the verb1. Note however that the case of a transitive construction such as Socrates currit (Socrates runs), the subject term Socrates supposits for a man. This is different from the intransitive construction which is presented as a relation between determinable and determinant such as homo est animal, man is an animal1. Martin of Dacia recounts that several debates occurred between Modistae scholars on this issue, including the construction of acts and the construction of persons1. Herein, we do not find that they had issue with examples such as Socrates et Plato currunt (Socrates and Plato run), where two nouns are one suppositum (noun phrase). In the case of one noun being influenced by two verbs, take the example of the conjunction of si Socrates currit is literally translated to be: If Socrates runs. Yet, according to Giulio Lepschy conveys the meaning: if he runs he moves1. However, Boethius of Dacia holds a different opinion on this matter and commented that a conjunction in a construction is but only a connector between the words in the sentence, so it is not a constructable. Being constructable, it must be a mode of signifying grammatical properties reflected to the mind. Lepschy gives evidence of further discourse on the matter and offers Radhulphus’ different approach to solving this question, for he sees it to be an issue of the fundamental distinction between intransitive and transitive construction. He has summarized that sentences fall into four categories or, four basic constructions: 1) intransitive construction of acts such as Socrates currit (Socrates runs); 2) intransitive construction of persons such as homo albus (white man); 3) transitive construction of acts such as lego librum (I am reading a book); and 4) transitive construction of persons such as cappa Socratis (Socrates’ cloak)1. Another type of construction in Latin is like1: vado in ecclesiam (I go to church). In this case the preposition is considered to be a medium of the construction of the verb with the complement and assigned to the complement which is ecclessiam (church) and is termed linguistically terminans (the determinator). In the case of the two previously mentioned constructables; homo albus currit and homo currit bene, the adjective albus and the adverb bene are determinants. Thomas of Erfurt, another of the Modistae scholars, disagreed with his fellow scholar, Radhulphus with regards to the different forms of construction and believed in the concept of
ILCC 2013
234
suppositum (noun phrase) and appositum (verb phrase) such as Socrates percutit Plato,(Socrates bit Plato), depends on the term of verb is either oblique1 or not and therefore follows it in a verb + oblique construction1. In all, it can be said that Erfurt emphasized grammar based on the meaning of the word in the sentence. The point here is not busying ourselves with the polemical issues between the arguments of Radhulpus and Thomas of Erfurt, but rather to point out their different methods for construction analysis. Of important note here is that the semantics of the Modistae puts forth a distinction between formal meaning and material meaning, where the formal meaning is stable, and is defined by the nature of words. The material meaning, on the other hand, cannot be properly determined by the context. We can say, the aim of these grammarians was to explore how a word corresponded to concepts understood by the mind, how it signified reality and how this was successfully realized. Since a word cannot signify the nature of reality directly, it must stand for the thing signified in one of its modes or properties such as being, understanding and signifying. It is this discrimination of modes that the study of categories and parts of speech is all about. Thus the study of sentences should lead one to the nature of reality by way of the modes of signifying 1. The researcher would like to highlight the tremendous contribution put forth by Averroes (‘Ibn Rushd) when he translated the Categories in his Middle Commentary on Aristotle’s ‘Categories. Here, he enhanced the explanation of Aristotle’s ideas, and had a great impact on the development of the Modistae in Europe, for it seems, the he was the starting point in the progress towards understanding Aristotle’s Categories during the Middle Ages. Charles E. Butterworth supports this idea, commenting: “without exaggeration, the beginnings of scholarship in the later middle ages can be traced to the effect this newly found legacy had upon western Europe, especially to the effect it had upon such important thinkers as John of Salisbury, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon”1. In his commentary, Averroes distilled Aristotles’ principles and presented them in a concise fashion. For example he said, “uncombined utterances which denote uncombined ideas necessarily denote one of ten things either substance or quantity or quality or relation or where or when or position or to have or doing or being acted upon”1. We can see in his discussion that he combined examples from Greek and Arab grammatical discourse in his discussion of understanding meaning in a sentence based on the relationship of the components. He explained the case of a construct including a man and horse where to differentiate
between the human and animal elements, as both of them have relationship of depending on each other, as in the sentence: Zayd rode a white horse last year. The relationship between Zayd and a horse is understood by the listener when they are combined by the verb ‘rode’. The introduction of a new meaning comes about with insertion of: white. In ‘white horse’, white shows the concept of quality in the sentence and is therefore called an adjective. Averroes method of analysis reflects that he emphasized meaning where it was in relation to a concept of thinking, i.e. there is relation between words and the mind which depends on the logic of utterances when combined. This issue is specifically dealt with in part two, chapter 14 of Averroes’ Commentary on the ‘Categories’. Notably, Averroes’ commentary is very similar to the theory of naẓm introduced by al-Jurjānī in Dalā‘il al-’ijāz, where the later explained that meaning of a the sentence is dependent on the connection of meanings in utterances1. However, not all of Averroes arguments were discussed from the point of view of maintaining meaning. With regards to the idea that a statement and supposition do not admit truth and falsehood in as far as the thing to which the supposition refers outside the mind is itself altered, for example, the supposition that Zayd is sitting is indeed true when Zayd sits and false when he stands1, we see that Averroes emphasized concept of logic when the action of something needs to be confirmed with the correct word of the action and not vice versa. The above discussion shows the role of linguistic argumentation and the concept of logic in the discussion of the construction of meaning and in Modistae grammar. The discussion of Latin grammar between Modistae scholars, reveals that they too utilized a discursive, analytical approach to grammar. Then, Averroes took an important step towards explaining Aristotles Categories and brought it to reach of Modistae scholars. It is evident that through Averroes’ deep knowledge of both the Arabic and Latin grammatical systems he was able to synthesize many linguistic examples and utilized philosophical arguments from both systems, thereby carrying the influencing of Arab grammar to the world of Latin grammatical scholarship. Averroes’ influence by Al-Jurjānī’s theory of naẓm; wherein an explanation was put forth to arrive at the meaning derived from the connection between the utterances, rang forth in his analysis and discussion of Aristotle’s Categories. It is evident here that the search for explanations and reasons for linguistic constructs which conveyed the intended meaning created a need for the use of logic, be that Arab or Greek, so that the convention of a grammar system came about to explain the meaning in language.
Conclusion
The discussion of the relationship between the linguistic argumentation and logic is an alternative approach to study of grammar, and the researcher has offered evidence from the corpus of Arabic
ILCC 2013
236
grammar itself to support this methodology. In order to create a balanced discussion, the researcher tied together both early Arab grammatical theory and modern Arab views. Astonishingly, though some of the modern views are flooded with the idea that Arabic grammar is a philosophically ridden field, they made the error in assuming that the historical discourse was not effective and have even erroneously called for the lack of necessity of parsing, a concept which it at odds with the relationship between the relationship between grammar and the conveyance of an intended meaning. They believe that the concepts of al-taqdīrāt and al-iḍmār spoil the mood of system in Arabic grammar, and called for their abolishment as being the solution. However, the researcher’s stand on the issue is not for a destructive approach but rather to take a constructive approach. Thus, we have presented some ideas from Latin grammatical discourse of the Modistae in order to uncover the methodology used for Latin, as this language has very strong contact with Greek. It was found that most of the scholars of Latin language were students of Arab logicians such as Averroes and therefore had exposure to Aristotle’s Categories, but did so through the eyes of a scholar who was grounded in both Arabic and Greek grammatical theories. Based on the evidences shown here, the researcher believes the connection between grammar and logic has been emphasized and seeing how this has been used to describe and analyze the relationship between grammar and meaning in expressions, that this provides a new alternative approach to the study of grammar, not only Arabic grammar, but also may be applied to other languages.
REFERENCES
The Glorious Quran ‘Aḥmad ‘Abdul al-Raḥmān Ḥammād (1985) al-‘Alāqah Baina al-Lughah wa al-Fikri: Dirāsah alLuzūmiyyah Baina al-Lughah wa al-Fikri, Alexandra: Dār al-Ma’rifah al-Jāmī’ah. ‘Aḥmad ’Amīn (1969) Ḍuha al-’Islām, 1st ed. Vol. 3. Cairo: Authorship and editing committee. ‘Aḥmad ‘Amin, (1978) Ḍuha al-Islam, vol. 1, Kuala Lumpur: DBP.
’Abdul Raḥmān Muḥammad Ayūb (1957) Dirāsāt Naqdiyyah fī al-Naḥw al-‘Arabī, Kuwait: Mu‘asasah al-Sabāḥ. ’Abdul Qādir Al-Muhairī (1993) Naẓārat fī al-Turāth al-Lughawī al-‘Arabī, Tunisia: Dār al-Gharb al-Islamī. Al-‘Andalūsī, Abu Ḥayān (2001) al-Baḥr al-Muḥīt, vol.8, 1st ed., Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-’Ilmiyah. ’Allāmah, Ṭalāl (1993) Taṭawwur al-Naḥwī al-‘Arabī fī Madrasatai al-Baṣrah wa al-Kūfah, Beirut: Dār Al-Fikr Al-Lubnānī. Butterworth, Charles E. (1983) Averroes’ Middle Commentaries on Aristotle`s Categories and De Interpretatione, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Ḍaif, Shawqī (1986) Taisīru al-Naḥwī al-Ta‘līmī Qadīman wa Hadīthan, Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif. (1995) al-Madāris al-Naḥwiyyah, Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif.
De Boer, T. J. (1954) The History of Philosophy in Islam, translated by Mohammad Abdul al-Hādī Abu RedhÉ, Egypt: Cairo University.
ILCC 2013
238
De Libera, Alain (1980) On some 12th and 13th Century Doctrines of Restriction in Studies in Medieval Linguistic Thought, Amsterdam: John Benjamin. “The European Middle Ages” Published http://www.britannica.com/The European Middle Ages. “Al-Farabi”
Published
by
New
by
Encyclopedia
World
Britannica,
Encyclopedia,
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Al-Farabi . Al-Fārābī (1996a), Kitāb al-Ḥurūf, ed. Muḥsin Maḥdī, Beirut: Dār al-Mashriq. (1996b), Kitāb ’Ihyā’ al-‘Ulūm, ed. ‘Ali Bu Mulhim, Lubnan: Dār wa Maktabat al-Hilāl,
H. Zainal Abidin Ahmad (1975) Riwayat Hidup Ibnu Rushd Filosuf Islam Terbesar di Barat, Jakarta: Bulan Bintang.
Hall, G.L. Bursill (1971) Speculative Grammars of the Middle Ages, Paris: The Hague. ‘Ibn ’Aqīl, 1998, Sharh ‘Ibn ’Aqīl, Vol. 1., Beirut: Dār al-Fikr. ‘Ibn Jinnī, 1952, al-Khasā‘is, ed. ‘Abdul Ḥakīm Muḥammad, Vol. 1, Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al’Arabiyah. ‘Ibn Nadīm (1994) Al-Fihrist, Tunis: Dār al- al-Ma‘ārif. ‘Ibrahīm ‘Anīs (1957) ‘Asrār al-Lughah, Cairo: The Egyptian Library. ‘Ibrahīm Muṣṭafā (1959) ‘Iḥyā‘ Al-Naḥwī, Cairo: Lajnah al-Ta’līf wa al-Tarjamah.
Al-AnbÉrÊ, (1998) al-InsÉf FÊ MasÉ´Êl al-KhilÉf Baina al-BaÎriyÊna Wal KËfiyÊna, Beirut: DÉr al-Kutub al-Ñilmiyah.
Al-Jurjanī, ‘Abdul Qāhir (1960) Dala’il al-‘Ijāz, ed. Sayyid Muḥammad Rashīd RedhÉ, Cairo: Maktabah Muḥammad ’Alī Subaiḥ wa ‘Awlāduhu. Al-Kindī, Khālid ‘Ibn Sulaymān Muhanna (2007) al-Ta‘līl al-Naḥwī fī al-Dārsi al-Lughawī alQadīm wal-Hadīth, Amman: Dār al-Masīrah.
Lepschy, Giulio (1994) History of Linguistics Classical and Medieval Linguistics, New York: Longman.
Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, (2002) Oxford: Macmillan. Al-Makhzūmī Maḥdi (1986) Al-Khalīl ’Aḥmad al-Farahīdī ‘Amāluhu wa Manhajuhu, Beirut: Dār al-Rā’id al-‘Arabī (1987) Al-Dārs al-Naḥwī fī Baghdād, Beirut: Dār al-Rā’id al-‘Arabī.
Sambursky, S. (1959) A Democratean Metaphor in Palto`s Kratylos, Journal for Ancient Philosophy, Vol. 4, No.1, Brill, retrieved at http://www.jstor.org/stable/418164 Al-Shāṭibī (1969) Al-Muāfaqāt fī ‘Usūl al-Aḥkām, ed. Muḥammad Muḥyiddīn ‘Abdul Ḥamīd, Beirut: Dār Al-Fikr. Al-‘Ukbūrī (n.d.) al-Ṭibyān fī ’Irāb al-Qurān, ed. Muḥammad Hussain Shamsuddīn, Beirut: Dār alKutub al-’Ilmiyah.
Versteegh, Kees (1997) Landmarks in Linguistic Thought 111, London: Routledge.
Zaidān, Maḥmūd Fahmī (1984) Fī Falsafah al-Lughah, Beirut: Dār al-NahÌhah al-‘Arabiyah.
ILCC 2013
240
“Fun Lyrics” as An English Learning Media Software for Elementary School Student via Music Lyric Tika Novita Sari1, Wahyu Andi Saputra 2, Novi Maisaroh 3, Wasilatun4, Luqman A.5 1 Yogyakarta State University, Karang Malang Yogyakarta 55584, Indonesia Corresponding Author:
[email protected]:
Wahyu,
Andi
Saputra,
Yogyakarta
State
University,
________________________________________________________________________________ Abstract. English has an important role in intellectual, social, and emotional development of a student. This role is indicated by its position in every class subject. Many people say that English is very important to be taught to student for their absorption and development of science, technology, art and culture, and also relation among countries. The existence of English subject in Indonesian Curriculum is to teach the student so that they can have such good skill in English, especially in speaking and writing and also to be used as international language. “Fun Lyrics” is one of alternative learning media to be used in English class for elementary school student. Theaim of this research is to design and improve the “Fun Lyrics” and knowing the eligibility of this learning media in education world. The research method is Research and Development (R & D) method. The procedure is based on “10 Step and Development Model” from Borg & Gall (1983: 775). Then, the authors simplified this method into 4 steps, those are : (1) Need Assessment, (2) Model design, (3) Implementation, and (4) Validation. The development of this application is using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, Adobe Flash, and Windows Media Player. There are 2 versions of this software, desktop and mobile version. The desktop version is made by using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, and the mobile version by using Adobe Flash CS 4. There are some feature in this media. They are choosing the song, edit the lyrics, and change the skin of that media. How the way this media can run is when they choose a song then 2 lyrics will appear, in Indonesian and English. There are 2 technique in testing. They are Alfa Testing and Beta Testing. The Alfa Testing were tested to 2 professional multimedia lecturers and the result is 85,41% for appropriateness number and it means this software is very appropriate to be used. The Beta Testing were given 30 students of elementary school and the appropriateness percentage is about 91,1%. It means that this software is very appropriate to be used. The elementary school student is very interested with this media and it really help them in learning English.
Keywords: English, Student, Learning Media
Introduction English as a lokal subject that is stated on Dekdikbud RI No. 0847/14/1993 chapter VIII. It is declared that “an elementary School grade is allowed to enhance the subject of their curriculum only if it doesn’t the purposes of national education”. This policy is also supported by a regulation from Education and art ministry No. 060/U/1993 on February 23rd 1993 about the possibilites of english to be a local subject for Elementary School. Based on the regulation of national education ministry number 22 year 2006, The purposes of English subject for elementary school is to develop the skill of language to support the action. Used for interaction, the topics are about conditional and situational of daily activites. It is important to be taught for the improvement of their knowledge, technology, and arts. The existence of English subject in Indonesian Curriculum is to teach the student so that they can have such good skill in English, especially in speaking and writing and also to be used as international language. Yogyakarta as cultural and educational region need to be aware about the importance of english. That is the reason why our government concern on improving english, especially in Grammar and Vocabulary. One way that will interact student’s attention is by using learning media. Fun Lyrics is an alternative learning media for elementary school student in learning English. The author proposes a research about English learning media software, called “Fun Lyrics: English Learning Media Software for elemtary school student via music lyric”. With this software, it is expected that student understand and learn english better because this one is not boring.
Theory Learning Media Tho word “media” comes from latin medius that means “center”, “intermediary”, or “middleman”. Gerlach and Ely (Azhar Arsyad, 2007) said that media in general definition os human, material, or happening which construct the condition of children and hel them gaining kowledge, skills, or stance. Arief S. Sadiman (2009) on the speech of Kasihani E. Suyanto said that media can be used as a mediator to tranfer the information between message sender and message recipient so it will stimulate their mind. Feelings, attention, and interest of student till a learning process will conducted. Learning process is the planned efforts that will manipulate the source of studying, include learning proccess without the coming of teacher. One effort that can be used to earn effective learning is by a media of learning. Media of learning is used to explain the material to be verbalistic-less (only by word or verbal). It also solve time, space and sense problem. We can say learning proccess is a proccess of comunication. Learning proccess consist of 5 elements: teacher, source of teaching, media of learning, student, and the goal of studying. Media of learning are: material, quipment, hardware software. So, media of learning is everything that can be used to transform the information so it can interests the attention, interest, and mind of student to reach the purposes of studying.
English English is an international language where commonly known in 2 styles, British and American. This language has been an important need of human’s life related to technology, infomration, and science. And thats why the curriculum of a country must organize it. English for elementary school student, as stated on national curriculum, is purposed for them so they are allowed to read, write, and speaks english. It means, the student are expected on able to understand common instructions, having interaction with their mate, and reading and writing with simple text on their daily life. On English learning, there are 4 skills of linguistics, they are: performatif, functional, informational, and
ILCC 2013
242
epistemic.
The characteristic of elementary school student An elementary school student’s age are at 7-12 years old. In this age, they are on the last period of being a children. Their fellowship coverage will be wider and more because thay have been a mate in a school. Education that is orientet at this period will be concern at the basic education for their growth and development, intelligence, emotional, linguistics, as their personality and development step on children (Conny R. Semiawan, 1999). Hemerly (1982) from the speech of of dissertation of Kasihani E. Suyanto stated that English teaching for elementary school student will be better if it be taught earlier for children. An assumption about age and learning are children will learn linguistics better than older-aged learner, english learning must be initiated as ealier as possible, children are easier to be interacted on education. Fitting to children’s development, they like seeing such interesting pictures, clear, and colorful. They also love listening to a story, while reading a full-of-picture book. Playing while studying is a cheerful activity for children.
Visual Basic (VB) 6.0 Visual basic come at 1960’s developed by Dartmouth College. BASIC (Beginner’s All Purpose Symbol Instrution Code) programming language has been developed quickly. And today, this software has compatible to Windows OS 32-bit..
Research Method Time and Place This research had been held on November 2011 for 1 month and take place in: Engineering Faculty and Education Science Faculty in making the software and consultation to the expert Minggiran Elementary School, Yogyakarta as testing place and approppriatenes test.
The Step of Producing This research is based Research and Development Method. The procedure in making the software is based on 10-steps of making and developing model by Borg & Gall (1983:775) that we simplified into 4 steps. The steps on implementing on “Fun Lyrics” production are: 1. Need assessment, 2. Model Designing, 3. Implementation, 4. Validation Need Assessment This step will identify and earning the data about the need in modelling implementing the system. It includes: a. The analysis of English learning process, b. The learning media of teacher, c. The stance of student to the media, d. The stance of student to the teaching Model Designing This step is to illustrate and explaining the model about content, size, coloring. Model was made in an easy interface. Implementation This step will translate every module from designing step into an application with certain language programming and rebuild them into a system. The steps are: a. Collecting and choosing module, 2. Determining the program that will be used, c. Translating the procedure and sub routine to the programming language, d. Rebuild them into a program. Validating the Program Testing this software is to knowing the bug of making this software to determine the approppriateness of
useing this Fun Lyrics as a media of learning English. This step sonsist of testing by expert, revision, then tested to student as the subject.
Research Object The object of this research is Fun Lyrics Software. The result will support the teaching process which uses this media.
Research Instrument The instrumenf of this research are questionnaire and interview to knowing and analyzing the needs of English learning proccess and assess the Fun Lyrics as a studying media. The data sampling was taken to earn the data of approppriateness level of the software and result will be used for validation. The assessment includes: content, interface, picture, and audio.
Data Sampling and Analyzing Data sampling are in 2 steps. First, by measurement of functions as implemented from design. Second, by questionnaire to assess the approppriateness of Fun Lyrics software. Data analyszing is by promoting the product, checking the validation and trustworthiness of software. The second step, by using descriptive-qualitative method, it is by accomplishing the approppriateness of the software after implemented to the student. And then the data will be processed to earn the percentage Approppriateness percentage (%)
Xt X 100% Xy
The data collected will be analyzed by that technique of calculation and will be wrote on a frequency and percentage based on assessment scale, and then described and conclude it into each indicator. The aspect are: Precentage
Value Scale
Interprestation
80 - 100 %
4
Very Appropriate
60 - 79 %
3
Appropriate
40 - 59 %
2
Enough
0 - 39 %
1
Not Appropriate
Hasil Batik Guide Mobile Application Screenshoot Program Versi Desktop
ILCC 2013
244
The description of each menu are: Main menu (menu utama): Main menu are consist of link to the sites on the internet, Help, and exit Find lyrics: Contain the list of the song Edit lyrics: To edit the lyrics Change skin: To change skin
Screenshoot Program Versi Mobile
ILCC 2013
246
Validate This are the results of the research instrument data processing to media expert and programming expert. In Fun Lyrics, the songs is song for children which familiar with children daily activities. The lyrics contained in the song is only used to attract the attention of student in learning English material. The example of the relation between lyrics and daily activities are:
Indicator Enhancement English vocabulary
Material Introduction my self and my friend My Family Class and school environment Kind of clothen Kind of transportation
Relation to the song Perkenalan guru Satu-satu Lihat Kebunku Topi Saya Bundar Naik Delman Kring-kring ada Sepeda
In
this case, need the character of teacher to help students
ILCC 2013
248
improve this English vocabulary. From results of validation and data collection, it can be analyzed performance and software quality. Tabel. Data Ahli media Pembelajaran No.
Name
NIP
Position
1.
Masduki Zakaria, M. T
19640917 198901 Lektor 1 001
2.
Umi Rochayati, 19630528 108710 Lektor M.T 2 001
Test result table by media expert (desktop version). No. Aspect 1. Design 2. Information Clearness 3. Advantage Total
Xt 47 20 23 90
Yt 56 24 24 104
% 83,92 83,3 95,8 86,5
Test result table by media expert (mobile version). No. Aspect 1. Design 2. Information Clearness 3. Advantage Total
Xt 47 21 23 91
Yt 56 24 24 104
% 83,92 87,5 95,8 87,5
Convertion table Percentage 80 - 100 %
Scale value 4
Interpretation Very Suitable
60 - 79 % 40 - 59 % 0 - 39 %
3 2 1
Suitable Suitable Enough Less Appropriate
Areas of Expertise Pembelajaran Elektronika Digital Pembelajaran Elektronika Industri
Fun Lyrics application for desktop version get the category “Very Suitable” or 86,5%, whereas mobile version get the category “Very Suitable” too or 87,5%. The next test is test to programming expert. The data was collected are: Tabel. Programming Expert Data No. Name 1. 2.
3.
NIP
Position
Yuniar Indrihapsari 19820621 201012 M. Eng 2 002 Adi Dewanto, M. Asisten Ahli Kom Dessy M.T
Areas of Expertise
Manajemen Sistem Informasi
Irmawati, 19791214 201012 Asisten Ahli 2 002
Tabel. Data acquired from programming expert (desktop version): No. 1. 2.
Aspect Design and algorithm of program Documentary and coding structure Total
Xt 90 33 123
Xy 108 36 144
% 83,33 91,67 85,41
Tabel. Data acquired from programming expert (mobile version): No. Aspect 1. Design and algorithm of program 2. Documentary and coding structure Total
Convertion table: Percentage 80 - 100 % 60 - 79 % 40 - 59 % 0 - 39 %
Xt 89 31 120
Xy 108 36 144
Scale value 4
Interpretation Very Suitable
3 2 1
Suitable Suitable Enough Less Appropriate
% 82,04 86,11 83,33
Fun Lyrics application, desktop version get the category “Very Suitable” or 85,41%, whereas mobile version get the category “Very Suitable” too or 83,33%. In validation stage of media expert, known some weakness in this application. Then, the author did revision. From media expert, this are some case had to be reapired. This media still simple, need to be equipped with some buttons so that student more easily using this application.
ILCC 2013
250
The size of media must be maximal, to make it more interesting and facilitate students to read the lyrics. After revision, then test the application again to media expert. After the application said good, then the author test this application in elementary school Minggiran, Yogyakarta. The students very attracted and enthusiastic follow our program. One of the thing that makes them attractive in this learning because this learning use computers that it is rarely done in this school. They are very excited and have hish curiosity to English. After some songs played, they follow the songs. Data of testing results in Elementary School of Minggiran Yogyakarta:
No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Pernyataan I feel that English is hard to be learnt I like reading an Englilsh book I have a computer I have a handphone I like playing PC games and in other peripheral I like studying by using computer or handphone Studying by using computer or handphone is easier and more enjoyful than by using book. I feel easier when learning English on FL Software. I feel more friendly with the buttons (the buttons are easy to be used) I’m interested in learning English after studying by Fun Lyrics Software.
Ya 19 18 8 29 32 30 26
% 55,8 52,9 23,5 85,3 94,1 88,2 76,4
Tidak 15 16 26 5 2 4 8
% 54,2 57,1 76,5 14,7 5,9 17,8 23,6
28
82,3
6
17,7
26
76,4
8
23,6
31
91,1
3
8,9
From the table above, show that the level of student interest in learning English using Fun Lyrics application is 91,1%. It can be concluded that this application is suitable used as learning media. Students interest to learning use Fun Lyrics. They will know some new words. Indonesian vocabulary and then translated in English. They are easier to memorized words. Teacher will expand the vocabulary with the similar words. For example, ‘bangun tidur’=wake up then expand in daily activities likes room, bed, and the others. Conclusion From the research acquired some conclusion as follows: The design of Fun Lyrics is done through several phases: need analysis, design, implementation, and validation. To determine software feasibility, testing on four lecture, media expert and programming expert and get the feasibility of 87 % for media expert. And get the feasibility of 84,37% for programming expert. Aspects tested are design, clarity of information, and benefit.
To determine feasibility software for users, tested on 30 respondents and get the feasibility of 91,1%. Acknowledgements With the completion of this study, we would like to thank: Dr.. Rahmat Wahab, M.A. as Rector of the State University of Yogyakarta. Dr.. Mochamad Bruri Triyono as Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, Yogyakarta State University. Mr. Drs. Muhammad Munir, MPd as Chairman of the Department of Electronics Engineering Education. Mr. Handaru Teak, Ph.D. as the supervisor who has given directions to the completion of this final report. Parents and family who always given me endless support and prayers. UKM Rekayasa Teknologi who always gave encouragement. All concerned that I can not mention one by one that has provided relief material and sprituil. References Anonim. 2010. Adobe Dreamwaver. Website: http://id.wikipedia.org/ wiki/AdobeDreamwaver. 2010. Diakses tanggal 6 Juli 2010. Anwar dan Arsyad Ahmad. 2007. Pendidikan Anak Dini Usia. Bandung: Alfabeta. Armstrong, Thomas. 2005. Setiap Anak Cerdas. Jakarta: Gramedia Arsyad, Azhar. 2007. Media Pembelajaran. Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada Azhim, Syakir Abdul. 2002. Membimbing Anak Terampil Berbahasa. Jakarta: Gema Insani Pers. Borg W.R. and Gall M.D. 1983. Educational Research : An Introduction, 4 th edition. London: Longman Inc. Dryden, Gordon dan Jeannette Voss. 2000. Revolusi Cara Belajar Bagian I Keajaiban Pikiran. Bandung: Kaifa. Nasution, S. 2001. Metode Research. Jakarta, Bumi Aksara. Palim, John. et al. 1992 Tombola. Hongkong: Nelson. Purwanto, M. Ngalim. 2000. Prinsip-Prinsip dan Teknik Evaluasi Pengajaran. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya. Rooijakkers, Ad. 1993. Mengajar Dengan Sukses. Petunjuk Untuk Merencanakan dan Menyampaikan Pengajaran. Jakarta: PT Grasindo. Semiawan, Conny. 1999. Perkembangan dan Belajar Peserta Didik. Jakarta: Depdikbud Subana dan Sudrajat. 2001. Dasar-dasar Penelitian Ilmiah. Bandung: CV Pustaka Setia Sukmadinata, Nana Saodih. 2011. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
ILCC 2013
252
Tarigan, Henry Guntur. 1985. Berbicara Sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Berbahasa. Bandung: Angkasa. Tim Pustaka Kamila. 2006. Warna-warni Kecerdasan Anak dan Pendampingannya. Yogyakarta: Kanisius Zamroni. 2000. Paradigma Pendidikan Masa Depan. Yogyakarta: Bigraf Publishing.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS ON VOCABULARY ACQUISITION AMONG EFL LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Azadeh Asgari Department of Languages & Humanities, Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia (UPM) Department of Languages, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences (SBUMS), E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract: In this study, attempts were made to explore two vocabulary-learning strategies used by a dvanced EFL learners at KIE institute in Tehran. A total of 130 EFL language learners participated a s a sample of this research. In this study, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) and two English tests, Pr e-test and Post-test were used as instruments. At first, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was given to homogenize students based on their vocabulary knowledge and as the result were divided into two groups. Then, Pre-test and Post-test, with a treatment interval of one semester were conducted. The collected data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS 16). The results show ed that the results of OPT test in the two groups were the same. Moreover, there were significant dif ferences among the students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not. Between these two vocabulary learning strategies (keyword method and concept mapping), keyword method proved more effective for long retention but not a lot; however, the difference between them was no t significant. Keywords: Memory strategies, Keyword method strategies, Concept mapping strategies Introduction English has been a major communicative language among countries for decades. English consists of four paramount skills, listening, speaking, reading and writing and three components vocabulary, gr ammar and pronunciation. As the researches indicate, the students need to have enough vocabulary knowledge in order to deal with them. In other words, vocabulary plays an important role in learnin g a foreign language. Rubin and Thompson (1994, p.79) pointed out, “One cannot speak, understan d, read or write a foreign language without knowing a lot of words. Therefore, vocabulary learning i s at the heart of mastering a foreign language”. Vocabulary is an element that links the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing all together. To communicate well in a foreign language, stu dents should acquire an adequate number of words and should know how to use them accurately. As Decarrico (2001) stated “vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition, whether the langua ge is first, second or foreign” (p. 285). As a result, researchers have paid attention to introducing strategies for teaching and learning vocab ulary. Nation (2001) declared that vocabulary-learning strategy is a subcategory of language learnin g strategy, which itself is a subcategory of general learning strategy. Language learning strategy was widely defined by scholars. Oxford (2001) defined language learnin g strategies as “operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of information; specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations” (P.166). Schmitt (1997) defined vocabulary learning strategies as “the process by which information is obtained, stored, retri eved and used... therefore vocabulary learning strategies could be any which affect this broadly defi ned process” (p.203).
ILCC 2013
254
In addition, researchers became interested in proposing taxonomies for language and vocabulary lea rning strategies in order to help learners to overcome their problems in foreign language learning. T he first typology of language learning strategies was introduced by Rubin (1981, 1987). Rubin (198 1) identified two major categories of strategies contributing to second language learning. One major group was strategies that directly affected learning and the other was strategies that contributed indi rectly to learning. Later on she categorized strategies into three main classes: learning, communicati on, and social strategies (Rubin, 1987). They are further subdivided into cognitive and metacognitiv e strategies. Cognitive strategies included a) clarification/verification, b) guessing/inductive, c) infer encing, d) deductive reasoning, e) practice, f) memorization, and g) monitoring. And social strategie s were a) asking questions to fellow students/teachers/native speakers, initiating conversations, liste ning to L2 media. Oxford (1990) proposed a very comprehensive taxonomy of language learning str ategies. She introduced two main categories: direct and indirect strategies. Direct strategies are thos e strategies with language itself directly containing memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies .Indirect strategies are those dealing with thoughts or feelings to help learning indirectly encompassi ng metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. On the whole, several classifications for vocabulary learning strategies were developed by scholars. Cook and Mayer (1983) distinguished two vocabulary-learning strategies: determination strategies a nd consolidation strategies. Lawson and Hogben (1996) introduced four vocabulary-learning strateg ies: repetition, word feature analysis, simple elaboration and complex elaboration. The most compre hensive taxonomy of vocabulary learning was developed by Schmitt (1997). He categorized the stra tegies into two groups containing 59 individual vocabulary-learning strategies: the ones to determin e the meaning of new words when encountered for the first time, and the ones to consolidate meanin g when encountered again. The former, discovery strategies, contains social and determination strat egies and the latter, consolidation strategies contains social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive st rategies. Memory strategies became a key group in Schmitt’s strategy classification system. These strategies, also called mnemonics, engage learners in learning new words through mental processing. Schmitt defined memory strategies as “approaches which relate new materials to existing knowledge” (p. 20 5). Mnemonic strategies involve the use of both visual and verbal mental imagery to relate a word t o be memorized with some previously learned knowledge. One mnemonic strategy, the Keyword M ethod, has been shown to be superior to any other deliberate vocabulary learning strategy (see revie ws in Meara, 1980). Atkinson (1975) defined Keyword Method in this way: “By a keyword, we me an an English word that sounds like some part of the foreign word. In general, the keyword has no r elationship to the foreign word except for the fact that it is similar in sound. The keyword method di vides vocabulary learning into two stages. The first stage requires the subject to associate the spoke n foreign word with the keyword, an association that is formed quickly because of acoustic similarit y. The second stage requires the subject to form a mental image of the keyword, ‘interacting’ with th e English translation; this stage is comparable to a paired-associate procedure involving the learning of unrelated English words” (Atkinson, 1975: 821).There are two versions of the Keyword Method, one based on the construction of visual images and the other based on the construction of sentences . Evidence exists that the visual imagery version is superior to the sentence construction version in f acilitating recall of words (Pressley, et al, 1982). Non-mnemonic strategies, such as concept mapping, encourage learners to process target words in t erms of their semantic properties. Concept mapping involves brainstorming associations that a word has and diagrammatically displaying the results (see Sökmen, 1997). According to Joseph Novak, a Cornell University professor who developed this idea in the 1960’s, concept maps are tools for orga nizing and representing knowledge. They include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes, and relationships between concepts, indicated by a connecting line between two concepts. Concepts are represented in a hierarchical fashion with the most comprehensive concepts at the top of the map a nd the more detailed specific concepts at the deeper level. Novak and his research team based their work on David Ausubel’s cognitive assimilation theories and the constructivist movement, both of which stress the importance of assimilating new information into previously learned structures: “To
learn meaningfully, individuals must choose to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts and prop ositions they already know” (Novak & Gowin, 1984). Sökmen (1997) mentioned that combining non-mnemonic concept mapping strategies with the mne monic Keyword Method resulted in greater retention of words than if either the Keyword Method or concept mapping alone is used. Mckeown and Beck (1988) suggested that integration of multiple m ethods rather than a single method would be the best approach. Furthermore, Brown (2001a) claime d the need to make an investment of developing multiple strategies in learners’ vocabulary learning process. Related studies on keyword method and concept mapping strategies Numerous studies have confirmed the effectiveness of the keyword method in both foreign languag e and native language vocabulary learning (Atkinson & Raugh, 1975). Atkinson and Raugh (1975) e xplored the effectiveness of a mnemonic procedure, the keyword method, for learning Russian voca bulary. The findings showed the keyword method is highly effective. In another study, Pressley, Mc Cormick, Miller and Shriberg (1979) found that experienced language learners used strategies that were as elaborate and effective as the keyword method. O’Malley et al. (1985) found strategies invo lving deeper more involved manipulation of information (i.e. imagery, inferenceing, Keyword Meth od) being much less frequent. Avila & Sadoski (1996) showed that the keyword method Mnemonics in the Classroom 7 can be helpful for limited English proficiency (LEP) students in an ESL setting in American schools. Also, researchers have attempted to investigate which de-contextualized vocab ulary strategies (Keyword Method or Concept mapping) is more effective. Wu and Chang (2005) re viewed three Taiwanese researches and introduced 15 vocabulary memory strategies. Among all, ke yword method and semantic mapping were the most commonly used strategies for vocabulary learn ing among learners. Zhang (2005) stated that vocabulary is basic to communication and often seen a s the greatest source of problems by the second language learners. However, it is often overlooked i n the Chinese EFL classroom. This study highly recommended one of the de-contextualized vocabul ary learning strategies, keyword method. After the analysis of theoretical basis, it resulted that keyw ord method is widely used for Chinese learners. Method such as concept mapping has been proven effective in several research studies (Scanlon, Du ran, Reyes, and Gallego, 1991). McCagg and Dansereau (1991) studied the efficacy of a specific ty pe of spatial learning strategy. They tested the effects of student-generated knowledge maps on psyc hology students and found that mapping had a positive effect on students’ memory retention, based on performance on recognition and recall tests. They also found that the effects were maintained ov er time. Ellis (1995) stated that shallow processing like oral rehearsal does not lead to long-term ret ention of words but that deep processing, whereby concept mapping associations are accessed and e laborated, does (p.12). Boyle (1996) studied the effects of teaching a cognitive mapping strategy to middle school students with mild learning disabilities or mild mental retardation. He specifically res earched changes in students’ literal and inferential reading comprehension. The students were taught to use a cognitive mapping strategy, which provided a series of steps to follow for constructing cog nitive maps while they read. He found that students with mild disabilities could improve their readin g comprehension of short passages once they were taught the strategy, and that they could complete the maps independently and accurately. O’Donnell, Dansereau and Hall (2002) reported about resea rch that concept maps are useful for increasing comprehension with low-ability students in the scien ces, and that concept mapping may have significant impact on summarization skills. Parsa Yekta an d Nikbakht Nasrabadi (2004) examined the effects of teaching by concept mapping method on mea ningful learning of 205 fourth-year nursing students in two nursing faculties in Tehran. They conclu ded teaching by concept mapping strategy has significant effects on meaningful learning and retenti on of the students and more nurse educators would attempt to use the concept mapping strategy in t he promotion of meaningful learning. Regarding the preceding researches, the present article aims to compare two vocabulary strategies: keyword method and concept mapping strategies to see which one is more effective for long-term re tention. Based on the mentioned aiming points, the following research questions can be formulated: Are there any differences in the scores between EFL students who learn memory strategies and EFL students who do not learn memory strategies?
ILCC 2013
256
Which of these two strategies (keyword method or concept mapping strategies) have more impact on the students’ learning? Methodology Participants A total of 130 intermediate EFL students participated in a homogeneity test. They were both males a nd females within the age range of 16 to 20 with mean of 16, chosen from KIE institute in Tehran. F or whom English was a foreign language. Their first language was Persian. 3.2. Instrumentation This study adopted two instruments, a Placement Test and two English vocabulary tests (pre-test an d post-test). 3.2.1. Placement test The Oxford Placement Test was given to homogenize the students. This test was used to discern the level of the students and consisted of three parts: grammar, language use, and vocabulary. This test comprised 50 multiple-choice questions with the reliability index of 0.82 calculated by Spearman’s rho, and pre-determined accepted validity. 3.2.2. English vocabulary tests Two English vocabulary tests were used in this study (pre-test and post-test) taken from Interchange Passages Placement and Evaluation Package by Lesley, Hanson and Zukowski (2005) consisting of 30 multiple- choice questions with the reliability value of 0.80 computed by Spearman’s rho. Pre-test was given to know about participants’ knowledge of vocabulary before treatments and posttest was utilized to clarify the effectiveness of two mentioned strategies, keyword method and conce pt mapping, through comparing with the results of pre-test. 3.3. Procedure The overall experimental procedures were divided into three major phases including pre-test, treatm ent and post-test. In the first phase, all 130 participants were homogenized by an Oxford Placement Test (OPT). Therefore, after conducting OPT test the participants were homogenized and the numbe r of participants was reduced to 60 because some of the participants were good and they did not nee d any treatment. 60 participants were randomly divided into two groups, in each group 30 subjects. In the second phase, a pre-test was carried out. The vocabulary test was scored and the students’ sco res were analyzed. A correct answer was assigned 1 point and incorrect answer was given zero point . The total possible points were 30. In the next phase, the two groups received the treatments. Since the instruction was embedded in regular English classes, the English words related to the instruction were also based on their textbook. Vocabularies were taught based on keyword method strategy to t he first group and concept mapping strategy was taught to the second group during one semester (ab out 40 days). In the final phase, a post-test with the same scoring system was given and the results o f pre-test and post-test were compared to consider the most effective strategy.
4. Data Analyses As mentioned before, this research investigated two instructional methods, keyword method vs. concept mapping strategies on vocabulary acquisition among Intermediate students in KIE English Language Institute in Tehran. The data was collected from 60 tests, which included demographic information such as name and age and 30 vocabulary multiple-choice questions. With the use of frequency tables and histograms, a description of the condition of demographic criteria and research hypotheses was presented. Then, different statistical means, T-Test, Independent Sample T-test, and two Pair T-tests with the Box-plot were used in order to consider research hypotheses.
Results and Discussions At this section, the two research questions have been answered along with the tables and graphs that proved the results. The following table and graph demonstrates a comparison among the scores of th e students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not. Table 1. The comparison of the students’ mean score who learned memory strategies and who did n ot learn Mean Mea Std. Error Statistics df ρ-value Score N SD Differenc difference n (Sig) T e Pre-test 65 20.27 4.948 Group -3.52 2.777 -8.909 59 0.000 Post-test 65 23.78 3.279 There is a difference in the scores between EFL language learners who learned memory strategies a nd EFL students who did not learn memory strategies. H0: The mean score of the students who learned memory strategies and students who did not le arn memory strategies is the same. The comparison of the students’ mean score who learned memory strategies and the students who di d not learn memory strategies calculated by two-pair Test states ρ-value (sig) is equal to 0.000 and it is smaller than the significant level (α=0.05). As the result, at this level H0 failed and it could be dec lared that the students’ scores who learned memory strategies and the students who did not learn me mory strategies have significant differences. According to the second research question that tried to prove the effectiveness of one of these strate gies, keyword method and concept mapping, the following table and graph declares this result. Table 2. The comparison of the students’ mean score in keyword method and concept mapping strat egies Std. Deviat Statistics df ρ-value Scores N Mean ion (Sig) T Key-word method 65 3.833 2.6018 Group 0.892 58 0.391 Concept mapping 65 3.200 2.9525
There are differences among the students’ score of memory strategies in both groups of keyword me thod and concept mapping strategies. H0: The students’ mean scores of memory strategies in the two groups (keyword method and concep t mapping strategies) are the same. The comparison of the students’ scores of memory strategies in two groups (keyword method and co ncept mapping strategies) computed by Independent Sample T-test reveals that ρ-value (sig) is equal to 0.382 and it is bigger than level of significance (α=0.05). It depicts H0 did not fail and therefore it could not say that the students’ scores of memory strategies in these two groups have significant d ifferences. Conclusions
ILCC 2013
258
The findings of the study on the impact of two kinds of vocabulary learning strategies: keyword met hod and concept mapping strategies. The findings revealed that there is a statistically significant diff erence among the students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not learn memo ry strategies. It is concluded that memory strategies could be used as an important ways to memoriz e the words forever. In the same study, Sperber (1989) conducted a survey in Western Europe and N orth America among students of foreign languages to establish how mnemonics are used. Sperber ‘e stimates’ that at least 10,000 students were contacted. The result showed that the mnemonics were s uccessfully used. Furthermore, the results showed that the keyword method seemed to be a little more efficient than c oncept mapping strategies for memorizing the words; however, this difference is not statistically sig nificant. In the same study, Atkinson and Raugh (1975) explored the effectiveness of a mnemonic pr ocedure, the keyword method, for learning Russian vocabulary. The findings showed the keyword method is highly effective. In another study, Avila & Sadoski (1996) showed that the keyword meth od Mnemonics in the Classroom 7 can be helpful for limited English proficiency (LEP) students in an ESL setting in American schools. Moreover, researchers have attempted to investigate which decontextualized vocabulary strategies (Keyword Method or Concept mapping) is more effective. Wu and Chang (2005) reviewed three Taiwanese researches and introduced 15 vocabulary memory strat egies. Among all, keyword method and semantic mapping were the most commonly used strategies for vocabulary learning among learners.
REFERENCES Atkinson, R.C.(1975). Mnemotechnics in second-language learning. American Psychologist, 30, (pp.821-828). Atkinson, R., & Raugh, M. (1975). An application of the mnemonic keyword method to the acquisition of a Russian vocabulary. Journal of Educational Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104(2), 126–133. Avila, E., & Sadoski, M. (1996). Exploring new applications of the keyword method to acquire Eng lish vocabulary [Electronic version]. Language Learning, 46, 379–395. Boyle, J.R. (1996). The effects of a cognitive mapping strategy on the literal and inferential compre hension of students with mild disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 19(2), 86-98. Brown, H.D., (2001a). Some practical suggestions for strategies-based instruction. In Selected Papers from the Tenth International Symposium on English Teaching, pp. 15-20.Taipei: Crane Publishing Company. Cook, L. K., and Mayer, R. E. (1983). Reading strategies training for meaningful learning from pros e. In M. Pressley and J. Levin (Eds.). Cognitive strategy research. New York: Springer Verlag. Decarrico, J. S. (2001). Reading for academic purposes: Guidelines for the ESL/EFL teacher. In M. Celce-Murcia (3rd Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (pp. 285-299). Boston : Heinle and Heinle. Ellis, N. C. (1995). Vocabulary acquisition: Psychological perspectives and pedagogical implication s. The Language Teacher, 19(2), 12-16. Lawson, M. & Hogben, K. (1996). The vocabulary-learning strategies of foreign-language students. Language Learning, 46(1), 101–135. Lesley,T. & Hanson, CH. & Zukowski, J. (2005) Interchange Passages Placement and Evaluation
Package. McCagg, E.C. & Dansereau, D.F. (1991). A convergent paradigm for examining knowledge mappin g as a learning strategy. Journal of Educational Research, 84 (6), pp. 317-324. McKeown, M.G. & Beck, I.L. (1988). Learning vocabulary: Different ways for different goals. Re medial and Special Education, 9, 42-52. Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: a neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teachi ng and Linguistics: Abstracts, 13(4), 221-46. Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge Universit y Press. Novak, J. D. & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. O’Donnell, A. M., Dansereau, D. F., & Hall, R. H. (2002). Knowledge maps as scaffolds for cogniti ve processing. Educational Psychology Review, 14 (1),( pp.71-86). O'Malley, J. M., and Chamot , A.U., Stewner-Manzanares , G.,Russo. R.P., & Kupper, L. (1985). Le arning strategy applications with students of English as a second language. TESOLQuarterly, 19,55 7-84. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Hein le and Heinle Publishers. Oxford, R. L (2001). Language learning strategies. In R. Carter and D. Nunan (Eds.) The Cambridg e Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, (pp. 166-171). Cambridge: Cambridg e University Press. Parsa Yekta, Z. & Nikbakht Nasrabadi, A (2004). Concept mapping as an educational strategy to pr omote meaningful learning. Journal of Medical Education, 5(2), 47-50. Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., & Delaney, H. D. (1982). The mnemonic keyword method. Review of Ed ucational Research, 1982(52), (pp.61-69). Pressley, M., & McCormick C.B., & Miller, J. E., & Shriberg, J. K. (1979). The keyword method an d foreign word acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology,1979(5), 22-29. Rubin, J. (1981). The study of cognitive processes in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 117-131. Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: theoretical assumptions, research history and typology. In Wen den and Rubin (Eds.). Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 15-30). New York: Prentice Hall . Rubin, J. & Thompson, I. (1994). How to be more successful language learner: Toward learner aut onomy (2nd Ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle, p.79. Scanlon, D. J., Duran, G.Z., Reyes, E.I., & Gallego, M.A. (1991). Interactive semantic mapping: An interactive approach to enhancing LD students' content area comprehension. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 7, 142-146. Schmitt, N. (1997). ‘Vocabulary learning strategies. In N. Schmitt and M. McCarthy (Eds.) Vocabul ary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy, (pp.199-227). Cambridge University Press. Sökmen, A.J. (1997). Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary. In N. Schmitt & M. M cCarthy, (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy (pp.237-257). Cambridge Univ ersity Press, Cambridge.
ILCC 2013
260
Sperber, H. G. (1989). Mnemotechniken im Fremdsprachenerwerb (Vol. 9). Munich: iudicium Verla g. Wu, M. H., & Chang, S. J. (2005). A study of Taichung sixth graders’ English vocabulary memory st rategies and background variables. Selected Papers from the Fourteenth International Symposium a nd Book Fair on English Teaching, (pp. 571-80). Taipei: Crane Publishing Company. Zhang, L. (2005). An Application of the Keyword Method to the Acquisition of English Vocabulary for Chinese Learners. Sino-US Foreign Language, 3(9).
Language and Communication Skills (LCS) of Leadership in Educational Management By Safrat Folake Adelakun (Postgraduate Student) Department of Educational Management and Leadership Institute of Education (INSTED) IIUM
[email protected] &
[email protected]
Abstract: Poor language and communication skills of educational leaders have been observed to be a major menace to leadership success in goal accomplishment. Leadership which happens to be the pioneer ing function of Management steers other areas such as Planning, Organizing and Coordinating of E ducational management, therefore it requires some strategic skills such as language and communic ation to accomplish its function. The power of oratory skill in leadership goes a long way in providi ng solution to some salient issues facing leadership in educational management. In this vein, this ar ticle will present the powerful oratory skills that solve various issues particularly relating to subord inates and their job functions. This paper will conclude on the basis that the presented (LCS) will to the highest degree, solve major issues between the leaders and their subordinate thus decision maki ng and implementation of policies will be easier. Keywords: language, communication, leadership, administration, subordinate, skills
INTRODUCTION This study is an attempt to present some communication skills which educational leaders need in th e day to day running of their organization especially while communicating with their subordinates i n relation to their job functions. In the first instance, it explains the relationship between language, c ommunication and leaders. The methodology will explore what are the skills and explain how, wher e and when to use each skill and the effects of the skills to the organization at large. This study will implore the use of descriptive and analytical method in presenting the language and communicating skills to leaders in promoting healthy and virile environment and how helpful it can go in solving to p-down communication problem in educational management. At the onset, we have to understand th e meaning of language, communication and their relationship to the leader. WHAT IS LANGUAGE? :
ILCC 2013
262
Language is the means of interpreting and regulating culture. It remains the predominant mode of c ommunication whether in spoken or written form. Using language for conversation by speaking de mands a bit more carefulness because you are aware that there is an audience whose task is to listen to you and analyze every word you use. Speech in language can be Monologue (presence of clear sp eaker-audience relationship), Conversation (talking with other people rather than to) and Discussion (when talk passes back and forth among several speakers) 1 It also serves in defining the roles of pa rticipants (Speakers, Readers and Listeners). There are majorly two types of communication: vocal and non-verbal language. The former is mainly the context of this study while the latter are forms of bodily, facial expressions /gestures of message. Vocal language is a form of oral expression (comm unication) of oneself. Usually it involves two ways whereby we have the speaker and the listener. Al so, in Language, Motivation to speak connects with desire to communicate and under normal intera ction; the feedback is to the content and not the form of utterance. Language is made up of symbols in different languages. This means a symbol which has positivism in a language might have negativi sm in another. THE MEANING OF COMMUNICATION Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another, whether this is done vocally (using voice) written (using printed or digital media such as books, magazines, web sites and emails) visually (using logos, maps, charts and graphs) or non-verbally (using body langua ge and/or gestures) to make meaningful result to the listener. The perfection of how well this infor mation can be transmitted and received is a measure of how good our communication skills are. In a nutshell, communication implies interpretation on somebody’s part.
It has been a common assumption that poor communication is a key contributor to the failure of major change efforts, therefore, to make change a leader need to communicate the change vision 1.
Not surprisingly, communication skills are increasingly regarded as a critical skill set for leaders, particularly in situations where the leader is an instrumental driver of change.
In the good sense of it, communication skills, both in terms of personal ability and strategic capability, are being given increasing importance in leadership competency models. Leaders who stand out from the crowd are those with exemplary communication skills. The feedback skill is associated with the communication skill and it helps the followers to improve their behavior and make the organization accomplish its objective and thus needs to be improved through training in coaching.1 Therefore, leadership communication skills training have become a core component of leadership development programs in success seeking organizations.
Studies of communication provide direction as to how managers can effectively and persuasively co mmunicate. Communication can be coded or not coded depending on the understanding the receiver has about the message.
INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION ROLE OF LEADERSHIP Leadership is sometimes interchangeably use with management. While leadership is linked with vis ion, mission and values, management is related to processes and structures put in place in any organ ization. Leadership is the ability of one who led to influence other stakeholders particularly the subo rdinates towards the belief in the vision design for the organization. “As no man is an island of mou ntain”, the leader will carry out the process and structure with the aid of human resource. Therefore in the process of influencing, the leader engages in communication through formal language of the organization. Communication skill is very much pertinent to be practiced by the leader to effectivel y and successfully perform the role and function vested on him/her. In the context of this paper, the following is the leadership communication model
ILCC 2013
264
Figure1: Leadership communication model Adapted from1 Communication skills In everyday life of human beings, ability to communicate effectively is the most important of all life skills. To be effective in his duty, the leader engages in interpersonal communication which is faceto – face with the followers and it is not just about what is said, the language used but how it is said considering the tone of the message; facial expressions sent with the message; gestures and other body languages. The interpersonal skills broken down by research consist of the following elements : Communicators (sender and receiver), Message (information sent), Noise (distortions) and the Fee dback (receiver’s returned information).
In the context of this study, leadership in educational man
agement will need but not constricted to the following skills which are basically divided into three: 1) Interpersonal skill 2) Presentation skill 3) Writing skill
Interpersonal skill of a leader in communicating with the subordinate as the name denotes, is the rel
ationship that should exist between the leader and the led. The interpersonal skill includes but not li mited to: Listening skill
Communication skill
Stress Management skill Assertive skill Decision making skill Problem solving skill1 o By listening, this study means the ability to accurately receive messages in the communication process. The word accuracy is used to emphasize that a balance is required to get message as intended by the sender. Listening is key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively messages are easily misunderstood – communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily become frustrated or irritated. To an educational management leader in measuring effective communication right, he needs ample measure of accuracy in this skill. o Communication skill is a spice to interpersonal skill in the sense that it expresses the feelings, understanding towards effectiveness of ideal situation of the speaker and the listener. As a leader, there is ample need to be very skilled in the two types of communication (verbal and non-verbal). Verbal communication to a leader requires the following to be effective: the opening, reinforcement, effective listening, questioning (close and open), reflecting and clarifying, summarizing and closing. By engaging in the above steps, the leader is assured of higher percentage of positive impact of his message on the led. The non-verbal communication which includes body movement, posture, eye contact, paralanguage, close/ personal space, facial expression and physiological change aspect is also a vital component to the leader.
ILCC 2013
266
The leader gets the feedback and optimizes the message through the non-verbal cues received from his followers. o By been assertive it is the ability to express feelings, wishes, wants and desires appropriately and it is vital aspect of personal and interpersonal skill. The leaders’ interactions with other people, whether at home or at work with employers, customers or colleagues, assertiveness can help him to express himself in a clear, open and reasonable way, without undermining the rights of his self or others. Assertiveness enable individuals to act in their own best interests, to stand up for themselves without undue anxiety, to express honest feelings comfortably and to express personal rights without denying the rights of others1. o ‘Stress’ is seen as a bad omen in an organization and thus must be controlled. An effective communicative leader must possess a holistic approach to stress management. This can be achieve by incorporating stress management activities into day by day culture of the system. It must be acknowledged that by optimizing the health of the workforce we ensure the good health of the organization. This becomes manifest in terms of maximum performance and productivity.1 o Problem solving skill is the ability to face the challenges surrounding the leader at any time. This is a must possess skill because the leader is bound to face challenge to make change effective. The problem may be within or out of the organization which will come purposely to defeat the accomplishment and productivity of the organization. An effective communicative leader will need analytical skill
to
process solution to the problem at stake. Analytical skill is the ability of the leader to recognize development opportunities for their members and determine whether communication in form of coaching is needed1. The leader will need to find out how the task is perform, the strength and weak areas of the performed task, determine
other procedures and conclude on the specific alternative to improve him to overcome the challenge.
HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR INTERPERSONAL SKILL
Learn to Listen
Listening is not the same as hearing. Leaders must take time to listen carefully to what others are sa ying through both their verbal and non-verbal communication.
Choose Your Words
Leaders should be selective and aware of the words to be use when talking to others. Could you be misunderstood or confuse the issue? Leaders need to practice clarity and learn to seek feedback to e nsure the message has been understood. They need to encourage others to engage in communication and use appropriate questioning to ascertain understanding of the message.
Understand Why Communication Fails
By learning about the various barriers to good communication, leaders can be aware of - and reduce the likelihood of - ineffective interpersonal communication.
Relax
It is common practice that when we are nervous we tend to talk more quickly and therefore less clea rly. Being tense is also evident in our body language and other non-verbal communication. Instead, as a leader try to stay calm, make eye contact and smile. In fact, studies had shown that smiling redu ces tension in the body. Leaders must let their confidence shine.
Clarify
A leader must show an interest in the people he/she talk to, ask questions and seek clarification on a
ILCC 2013
268
ny points that could be easily misunderstood
Be Positive
Leaders must try to remain positive and cheerful. People are much more likely to be drawn to leade rs of such if he can maintain a positive attitude.
Develop sense of Empathy
For leaders to have effective communication, they need understand that other people may have diffe rent points of view. Try to see things from their perspective. You may learn something while you gai n the respect and trust of others.
Understand Stress
Stress is understood to be part of the experiences of a leader. You as a leader must learn to recognize , manage and reduce stress in yourself and others. Although stress is not always bad it can have a d etrimental effect on the communication process. Learning how to recognize and manage stress, in y ourself and others, is an important interpersonal skill.
Learn to be Assertive
Leaders should aim to be neither passive nor aggressive. Being assertive is about expressing your fe elings and beliefs in a way that others can understand and respect. Assertiveness is fundamental to s uccessful negotiation.
Reflect and Improve
Leaders must always think about previous conversations and other interpersonal interactions; you sh ould learn from your mistakes and successes. Always keep a positive attitude but realize that we ca
n all always improve our communication skills.
Negotiate
As a leader you should learn how to effectively negotiate with others paving the way to mutual resp ect, trust and lasting interpersonal relations.
Working in Groups
Most of the time, we find ourselves in group situations, professionally and socially. As a leader, you should learn all about the different types of groups and teams.
Presentation skill Ability to Present information clearly and effectively is a key skill to get your message or opinion a cross and, today, presentation skills are required in almost every. As a leader and administrator or ex ecutive, if you need to share your ideas, plans and strategy with your team members, you need appl y an effective presentation skill in order of coherence for better comprehensive understanding. This will make your points a “hot cake”, acceptable and leaving your ideas only to constructive criticism among your subordinates.
Leaders must not avoid fears, fidgeting and feeling terrified when need be to make public talk, but t he initial fears can be reduced by good preparation which will also lay the groundwork for making a n effective presentation. It requires the leader to attempt these steps
Understanding the purpose
The leader must understand that the presentation is a means of communication which he has adapte d to suit the purpose of various speaking situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. To be effective, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presentin g the information should be carefully considered through effective speaking.
ILCC 2013
270
Preparing the Presentation
There is need for the leader to be fully prepared for the presentation. This is the crucial foundation stage and there should be no levity.
Organizing the Material
Leaders must realize that Irrespective of whether the occasion is formal or informal, he should alwa ys aim to give a clear, well-structured delivery. He should know fully, and understand the context o f exactly what he want to say and the order in which he want to say it. Clarity of ideas and good or ganization will result in a lively, logical and compelling message.
Deciding the Presentation Method
Sometimes, few people are able to give a presentation without notes. A leader need to know his own abilities and decide how best to make the presentation. He might manage his talk by using full text, notes on cue cards, keywords on cue cards, or mind maps
Working with visual aids
Use of visual aids enhances proper understanding of the message. Most visual aids will need advanc e preparation and should be operated with efficiency. Leaders are advice to only use visual aids if t hey are necessary to maintain interest and assist comprehension: he should not use them just to dem onstrate his technological prowess but if visual aids are used well they will enhance a presentation b y adding impact and strengthening audience involvement, yet if they are managed badly they can ru in a presentation.
Dealing with Questions
A leader should clarify at the start of his presentation, when he would prefer to deal with questions. Some speakers prefer questions to be raised as they arise during the presentation whilst others prefe r It is advisable to deal with questions at the end. Decide in advance how and when you wish to han dle questions.
Writing Skill
Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to commu nicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-face or tel ephone conversations. Writing that is free of error of grammar and spelling create good first impr ession about the reader (sender). Distorted message communicated are easier to forget than distor ted written communication because that can be pass from one hand to the other and thus spoil the credibility of the sender to a larger extent.
Summary In summary, Language is a means of communicating between the sender and the receiver. This stud y has successfully highlighted the leader as the apex of change with the aid of his subordinates. He r equire clear, concise and undistorted message to communicate in other to move the organization for ward. The leader is seen as one playing three integrated communicative role: communication syste m, communication planning and communication delivery. To successfully do this, he needs to learn, apply and practice effective communication skills which are majorly divided into three: Interperson al, Presentation and writing skills.
Conclusion Conclusively, this article has been able to justify that issue related to communication breakdown wh
ILCC 2013
272
ich easily degenerate law and order in organization and defeat the productivity can be resolved with the mastering and practice of this skills. Leaders can improve their relationship with their subordina te through the practice of good language and communication skills.
References: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/interpersonal-skills.html: A list of Interpersonal Skills.Retreived(7/7/2013) http://www.ceoforum.com.au/article-detail.cfm?cid=6128&t=/JoAnne-Facey-Mercer-HumanResource-Consulting/Effective-communication-skills-that-make-leaders-stand-out-from-thecrowd. Retreived(7/7/2013)
Psychometric Analysis of The Self-Efficacy Encouragement in The University Environment: A Chinese Version
Muhammed Yusuf, Faculty of Education and Human Development, Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI), Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia, Email address:
[email protected] or muhammed.yusuf@fppm _____________________________________________________________________________ Abstract. This study introduced the Self-efficacy Encouragement Questionnaire (SEEQ -14 ite ms). The scale was developed to examine whether the university lecturers encourage undergradu ate students to develop their academic sense of efficacy during class activities and to what exten t using a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to test the cross language equivalence of the SE EQ and to explore whether its psychometric properties are universally sound. A translated SEEQ -English version to the Chinese language was distributed to 65 undergraduate Chinese national s tudents who are concurrently studying English communication and Music in Malaysia. The PCA attempts to answer the following research question: what are the psychometric properties of the self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire? The results indicated that the Self-efficacy Encoura gement Questionnaire (SEEQ) is an established inventory with satisfactory validity and reliabilit y indications and for that reason, it's justified to be used in other studies. The findings of the freq uency analysis indicate that the respective university lecturers do communicate and encourage t he Chinese degree students to develop their academic self-efficacy during English class activitie s. Keywords: Self-Efficacy, Encouragement, Psychometric, Chinese.
1.
Introduction
Bandura 1986, 1997 arguers that human action towards success depends on how deep the intera ctions between one’s personal thoughts and own activity management. Besides, low Self-efficac y is associated with helplessness feeling and it is a predictor of human failure (Bandura 1994). F urther, a sense of self- efficacy motivates students to believe in their own ability to successfully exercise learning activities. When students are confident in themselves they think of learning dif ficulties as challenges (Bandura 1986 ; Bandura and Lock 2003; Schunk 1982). Accordingly, there are several factors that influenced individuals to develop self-efficacy beliefs . They are enactive attainment, actual experience, verbal persuasion, social evaluation and Com parison (Bandra, 1986, 1994; Schunk et al. 1987). Sense of social performance and modeling co
ILCC 2013
274
uld lead to self-efficacy development (Schunk 1987; Schunk and Hanson 1988), Children’s’ inte raction and parent environment increased self-efficacy (Bandura 1997; Meece 1997; Jonson-Rei d et al 2005). Social persuasion or word of encouragement helps to develop self-efficacy (Band ura 1986). It was empirically shown that Collective Cognitive and teachers' self-efficacy influen ced students' academic achievement (Bandura, 1993; Hoy and Murphy 2003; Pajares 1992 Asht on & Webb, 1986; Ashton, 1985). 2.
Research method
The scale was developed to examine whether the university lecturers encourage degree stu dents to develop their academic self- efficacy during class activities and to what extent they wer e encouraged. The SEEQ comprises 14 items and were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging fr om 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree. A translated SEEQ-English version to th e Chinese language was distributed to 65 undergraduate Chinese national students who are curre ntly studying Music at Faculty of Music and performing Art, the International University Colleg e of Technology Twintech IUCTT- Malaysia. Yes of course, the Chinese version of SEEQ was di stributed after a considerable content validity by some experts in educational research. The Prin cipal Component Analysis was applied to answer the following research question: what are the p sychometric properties of the self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire? Further, a frequency a nalysis was used to test proportion of the lecturers’ self-efficacy encouragement. The findings ar e stated below.
1.2.
PCA Results
All 14 Items were included in the self-efficacy encouragement investigation. The KMO and Bart lett's test results show that Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling Adequacy (MSA) was .912 Indicating that the overall MSA result fulfilled the requirement of at least .60. The MSA result is a strong indicator to continue the investigation, especially, Bartlett’s test was also statistically si gnificant p <. 001.
Further, Anti-image Correlation was used to test items parallel. Accordingly, each item loading was greater than the benchmark of at least 0.5. This is an indication of adequate interrelationship among the items of the SEEQ (fig. 1).
1 2 3
Item no
4 5 6 7 8
Item 1 .935a Item 2 Item 3
.885a .924a
Item 4
.939a
Item 5
.922a
Item 6
.920a
Item 7
.926a
Item 8
.855a
Fig. 1: Anti-image Correlation
9 10 11 Item no 12 13 14
Item 9 .873a Item 10 Item 11 Item 12 Item 13
.891a .960a .897a .952a
ILCC 2013 Item 14
276
.923a
Continued. Notice:
a Measures of Sampling Adequacy (MSA)
In addition, the measurement of Communality (fig. 2) reveals that all items -exempt item 3are above the requirement of at least 0.5, nevertheless, the item 3 was retained due to other stati stical strength of the item, for example, Anti-image Correlation shows (. 924) loading for the ite m 3 which is greater than the requirement (0.5). Also, test for individual item reliability reveals . 95 for the respective item. Taking the above and others into account, the researcher decided to re tain the item for any further analysis.
Initial
Extraction
encouragement
1.000 .526
encouragement
1.000 .660
encouragement
1.000 .464
encouragement
1.000 .516
encouragement
1.000 .656
encouragement
1.000 .534
encouragement
1.000 .672
encouragement
1.000 .620
encouragement
1.000 .609
encouragement
1.000 .780
encouragement
1.000 .719
encouragement
1.000 .821
encouragement
1.000 .512
encouragement
1.000 .592
Fig. 2: Communalities Result Item no
Component
1 encouragement
.725
encouragement
.812
encouragement
.681
encouragement
.718
encouragement
.810
encouragement
.731
encouragement
.820
encouragement
.787
encouragement
.780
encouragement
.883
encouragement
.848
encouragement
.906
encouragement
.715
encouragement
.769
Fig.3 : The Underlying Component Matrix
The Initial Eigenvalues and component Matrix results (fig. 3) grouped the 14 Items into one fact or namely, encouragement factor. The total variance explained was 61% and the remaining 29% could not explained by this study. The analysis also shows factors loading of 8.67 which was hig her than the requirement of at least 1 (Hair & Black 1998). Additionally, Chronbach’s alpha wa s applied to examine the internal consistency of the self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire. The finding demonstrates a commanding statistical internal consistency for the SEEQ (. 95).
2.2. Frequency Analysis Result The findings of the frequency analysis indicate that the respective university lecturers encourag ed Chinese degree students to develop their academic sense efficacy during English class activit ies. Also, the frequency analysis shows that the SEEQ perfectly describe the academic sense effi cacy of the respondents. For illustration, the majority of participants (44 %) indicated that item three “My lecturers inform me that my self-efficacy will help me to obtain better academic achie vement” was truly described their learning believe. 41.5% of respondents demonstrated that ite m one “My lecturers encouraged me to be confident in myself and beat the odds of my universit
ILCC 2013
278
y courses” and item five “My lecturers inform me about their self-confidence and how it helps t hem to overcome lots of learning difficulties” were truly explained their self-efficacy perception . At the same time, 41% demonstrated that item two “My lecturers make me confident that I hav e ability to execute all my university assignments” was also portrayed their learning self-efficac y perception (fig. 4).
No of item Not v. true
Sort true
1
3.1% 12.3% 41.5% 32.3%
2
1.5%
3
3.1% 21.5% 44.6% 23.1%
4
1.5% 32.3% 26.2% 26.2%
5
3.1% 21.5% 41.5% 26.2%
6
1.5% 24.6% 38.5% 16.9%
7
1.5% 24.6% 33.8% 30.8%
8
3.1% 16.9% 36.9% 29.2%
9
3.1% 26.2% 35.4% 29.2%
20%
40%
true
Very true
20%
10 7.7% 27.7% 35.4% 18.5% 11 3.1% 27.7% 32.3% 24.8% 12 1.5% 26.2% 33.8% 23.1% 13 3.1% 33.8% 32.3% 15.4% 14 1.5% 27.7% 29.2% 29.2% Fig. 4: Frequency Analysis Notice: 1 = not very true of me 2 = not true of me 3 = sort of true of me 4 = true of me 5 = very true of me.
3.
Conclusion
The present study contributed to the available empirical educational research findings of the self efficacy beliefs. Also, the study indicated that the university lecturers were personally involved i n students’ self-efficacy development process. Empirically, this is an important recognition for t he respective university lecturers that they were actively encouraged their students to be confide nt in their studies. Bandura (1997, 1994) emphasized on the important role of verbal persuasion on the self-efficacy development. It was empirically shown that teachers' self-efficacy influence
d students' achievements (Bandura, 1993; Hoy and Murphy 2003; Pajares 1992 Ashton & Webb, 1986; Ashton, 1985).
Based on the Principal Component Analysis investigation, the results of the SEEQ - Chinese Ve rsion were statistically sound, valid, and reliable. It is a significant construct and innovative cont ribution to the educational research field since it is unusual for many researchers in education to investigate the self-efficacy developmental process relating to the lecturers of universities. The SEEQ-Chinese Version could be used in any other similar studies. The present findings were si milar to the results of the SEEQ-English version by Muhammed Yusuf (2010; Rohaty, Muhamm ed Yusuf & Tamuri. 2010; Muhammed Yusuf 2012). Further, the PCA statistical results were als o signified by the finding of frequency analysis (Fig. 4).
4.
REFERENCES
Ashton, P. T. 1985. Motivation and teachers’ sense of efficacy. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), R esearch on motivation in education.. The classroom milieu 2 :141-174 Ashton, P .T. & Webb, R. B. 1986. Making a difference: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and studen t achievement. New York: Longman. Bandura, A. 1977. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review 84: 191-215. Bandura, A. 1982. Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist 37: 122147.
Bandura, A. 1986. Fearful Expectations and Avoidant Actions as Coeffects of Perceived Self-Ine fficacy. American Psychology 41 (12): 1389-1391.
Bandura, A. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Engl ewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. 1989. Human Agency in Social Cognitive Theory. American Psychologists, 44 (9): 1175-1184. Bandura, A., 1989. Regulation of Cognitive Processes through Perceived Self-Effic acy. Developmental Psychology: 25 (5) 729-735. Bandura, A. 1993. Perceived Self-efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning. Educati onal Psychologis 28: 117-148. Bandura, A., Ann, O.C., Taylor, B., Gauthier & Gossard, J. 1987. Perceived Self-Efficacy and P ain Control: Opioid and Nonopioid Mechanisms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 9: 1339-1394.
ILCC 2013
280
Bandura, A. & Jourden, F. J. 1991.Self-Regulatory Mechanisms Governing the Impact of Social Comparison on Complex Decision Making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (6 ) : 941-951. Bandura, A. 1994. Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior 4 :71-81. New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998). Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Bandura, A. Conce, P., Claudio, B., Barbaranelli, C. 1999. Self-Efficacy Pathways to Childhoo d Depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 (2): 258-269. Bandura, A. & Locke, E. A. 2003. Negative Self-Efficacy and Goal Effects. Revisited Journa l of Applied Psychology 88 (1): 87-99. Babbie, E. (1989). The practice of social research (5th Ed.). California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Collins, J. L. 1982. Self-efficacy and ability in achievement behavior. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York (March 19 82). Hair, S. & Black, T. 1998. Multivariate Data Analysis (5th Ed). New Jersey: Hall PTR. Hoy, W. A. & Murphy, H. P. K. 2003. Teaching Educational Psychology to the Implicit Mind.T o appear in B. Torff & R. Sternberg (Eds.). Understanding and teaching the intuitive mind. Mah wah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Jonson, M. R., Saunders, D. L., Williams, T. & Williams, J H. 2005 Academic Self-Efficacy am ong African American Youths: Implications for School Social Work Practice. Children & School s 27 (1): 5- 10. Muhammed Yusuf. 2010. Self-efficacy, Achievement Motivation, and Learning Strategies of U KM Undergraduate Students and their impact on academic achievement. National university of Malaysia (Faculty of Education -Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia). Meece, J. L. 1997. Child and adolescent development for educators. New York:
McGraw-
Hill. Rohaty, Muhammed Yusuf & Tamuri. 2010. Psychometric Analysis of Self-Efficacy Encouragement: an English version. Science Direct and Scopus, also Procedia Social and Behav ioural Sciences. Muhammed Yusuf. 2012. Psychometric Analysis of Self-Efficacy Encouragement: a Malay vers ion. Journal
of Sostanalble development- Canada.http://www.ssrn.com/link/OIDA- Intl Journal-Sostanalbledev.html Pajares, F. 1992. Teachers’ Beliefs and Educational Research: Cleaning up a Messy Construct. R eview of Educational Research, 62: 307-332. Pajares, F. & Miller, M. D. 1994. The Role of Self-efficacy and Self-concept Beliefs in mathematical problem-solving: A Path Analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 86: 19 3-203. Pajares, F. & Kranzler, J. 1994. Self-efficacy, Self-concept, and General Mental Ability in Mathe matical Problem-solving. Florida Educational Research Council Research Bulletin, 26: 8-32. Schunk, D. H. 1982a. Effects of Effort Attributional Feedback on Children's Perceived Self-effic acy and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 74: 548-556. Schunk, D. H. 1982b. Verbal self-regulation as a facilitator of children's achievement and self-ef ficacy. Human Learning 1: 265-277. Schunk, D. H. 1983a. Developing children's self-efficacy and skills: The roles of social compara tive information and goal setting. Contemporary Educational Psychology 8: 76-86. Schunk, D. H. 1983b. Reward contingencies and the development of children's skills and self-ef ficacy. Journal of Educational Psychology 75: 511-518. Schunk, D. H. (1984a). Self-efficacy perspective on achievement behavior. Educational Psychol ogist, 19 : 48-58. Schunk, D. H. 1984b. Sequential attributional feedback and children's achievement behaviors. J ournal of Educational Psychology, 76: 1159-1169. Schunk, D. H. 1984c. Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Mot ivational and informational effects. Journal of Educational Research 78 :29-34. Schunk, D. H. & Lilly, M. W. 1984. Sex differences in self-efficacy and attributions: Influence of performance feedback. Journal of Early Adolescence 4: 203-213. Schunk, D. H. & Gunn, T. P. 1985. Modeled importance of task strategies and achievement belie fs: Effects on self-efficacy and skill development. Journal of Early Adolescence 5: 247-258. Schunk, D. H., Hanson, A. R. & Cox, P. D. 1987. Peer-model attributes and children's achievem ent behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology 79: 54-61. Schunk, D. H. & Hanson, A. R. 1988. Influence of peer-model attributes on children's beliefs an d learning. Journal of Educational Psychology 81: 431-434. Schunk, D. H. 1989. Self-efficacy and achievement behaviors. Educational Psychology Review 1: 173-208. Turner, S. L., Alliman-Brissett, A., Lapan, R. T., Udipi, S. & Ergun, D. 2003 The career-relate d parent support scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development. Alexandri
ILCC 2013
282
a 36 (2): 83
5. APENDIX : Self-efficacy Encouragement Questionnaire (SEEQ) 自我学习鼓励 The following questionnaire (SEEQ) asks about your lecturers’ encouragement to develop your academic self-efficacy. Your responses are treated confidentially. In order to ensure this, please do not write your name or any identification on the questionnaire. ”Remember there is no right or wrong answer, just answer as accurately as possible. Use the scale ratings below to answer th e questions. If you think the statement is very true of you, circle 7; if a statement is not at all tru e of you, circle 1. If the statement is more or less true of you, find the number between 1 and 7 t hat the best describes you.” 以下的问题概括的就是有关你对大学英英语自我功效的看法，包括了老师的鼓励与支持 的程度。我们将会对你的回答进行保密。为了确保这点，请不要写上你的名字或者任何 鉴别身份的证明在你的问卷上。记住这些答案都没有对或错，只需要选出你认为最准确 的答案。用下列数据作为你的评判标准：如果你认为这个陈述和你完全相符，请圈7；如 果完全不相符，请圈1。如果陈述或多或少与你相符，请找出1到7之间最适合你的情况。
1 = not at all true of me
;
完全不适合
2 = not very true of me
;
不是很适合
3 = not true of me
;
不准确
4 = not sure
;
不确定
5 = sort of true of me
;
勉强准确
6 = true of me
;
准确
7 = very true of me
;
非常准确
1. My lecturers encouraged me to be confident in myself and beat the odds of my university courses. 讲师鼓励我们要对自己有信心，并克服大学课 程学习的困难
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. My lecturers make me confident that I have ability
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to execute all my university assignments. 讲师让我相信自己有能力完成所有大学的作业 1. My lecturers inform me that my self-efficacy will
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
help me to obtain better academic achievement. 讲师告诉我我的学习自信心将帮助自己获得更 好的成绩 1. My lecturers make it clear to me that my
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
self-efficacy will make me survive in the university setting. 讲师让我清晰地明白自我学习自信心能帮助我完 成大学科目 2. My lecturers inform me about their self-confidence
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
and how it helps them to overcome lots of learning difficulties. 讲师告知我们自信以及自信怎样帮助他们克服许 多学习上的难题 3. My lecturers do inform me that taking difficult
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 courses will provide me with encouragements and helpful experiences for future university courses. 讲师告知我较难的课程将会鼓励自己，以及 为之后的大学课程学习积累有用的经验 4. My lecturers build confidence in me that if
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I keep on trying, I will overcome my university course difficulties. 讲师培养我的自信心，我将克服大学课程中的难题 5. My lecturers encourage me to be brave/confident 7 enough to discuss my course difficulties with them. 讲师鼓励我要有足够的信心和勇气与他们探讨我 在学习中遇到的难题
1 2 3 4 5 6
ILCC 2013 6. My lecturers remind me that I have to be brave to
284
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 discuss my learning obstacles with my university course mates. 讲师提醒我必须勇敢地与大学同学讨论学习中 所遇到的困难 7. My lecturers give me enough confidence to set
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 effective learning goals for my university courses. 讲师给我足够的信心制定有效的学习目标 8. My lecturers’ emphasis that it is when I believe
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 in myself I can make my specific course goals achievable. 讲师强调当我对自己有信心的，我就能达到自己 制定的学习目标 9. My lecturers stress that my confidence can help my
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 university course plan work. 讲师强调自信可以帮助我计划大学课程的学习 10. My lecturers encourage me to not doubt myself in
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 making my time management plans work. 讲师鼓励我不要怀疑自己订制的时间管理的 工作计划 11. I feel encouraged by my lectures to feel confident 6 7 in designing effective study plans for my university courses. 我对老师有信心，对大学的课程实施的学习计 划有信心
1 2 3 4 5
Lexical Borrowing from the Arabic Language in an Islamic Course Conducted in English
Nurul-Ikhlas Arshad, Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah International Islamic University Malaysia
Corresponding Author: Nurul-Ikhlas, Arshad, International Islamic University Malaysia, email address:
[email protected]
_____________________________________________________________________________ __________ Abstract.The incorporation of Islamic Arabic words into the English language is one of the most visible and salient features of Islamic English. Since a number of studies by Muslim scholars an d academicians have advocated the concept of Islamic English, this study intends to further adva nce the concept by contributing to the accumulated literature from a linguistic perspective. This study analyses the patterns and processes of borrowing that can occur in the retention of Islamic Arabic words. Classroom discourse in a weekend course conducted in English by an internation al Islamic institute was analyzed using Haugen’s (1950) model on lexical borrowing. The study shows that the most common process of borrowing in the discourse is total importation, as loan words make up the majority of the borrowed features.Loanblends and loan translations were als o detected although each make up only less than ten percent of the borrowed features. The stud y found that there is a need to consider how Islamic Arabic words are used in English, in additio n to retaining their forms. Recommendations are provided in this aspect, particularly in teachin g Islamic Studies in the English language as well as in retaining Islamic Arabic terms in the gen eral discourse among Muslims. Keywords: Islamic English, World Englishes,lexical borrowing, Islamic Arabic terms 1. Introduction As the English language became the lingua franca of the world, the language spread to diverse c ommunities and nations. With its widespread diffusion into different communities that are cultu rally unique and diverse, this communicative tool which is seen as ‘Judeo-Christian based and e ntrenched in Roman secular worldview’ (Ratnawati, 1996, p.353) finds itself undergoing inevita ble modifications to meet the specific and unique communicative needs of its ‘new’ speakers. T hese modifications can be seen in the various World Englishes or varieties of English having the ir own distinctive linguistic features and suited to meet the needs and identities of their language communities (Kachru, 1997).
ILCC 2013
286
Many studies have been conducted to study these linguistic modifications in the different Englis h varieties including at the lexical level. Bamgbose (1996, p.6) for example described lexical in novations as inevitable and stated that in East Africa, one ‘has to be familiar with the uses of lex ical items such as wananchi(citizen), matutu(collective taxi), bwana (master) and panga(machet e)’ among others. Similarly, when in India where Indian English is spoken, one would encounte r lexical items that are foreign to the speakers of Standard Englishes such as avatar, guru and puj a as well as compound blends such as ghatroad and gobar gas (Pingau, 2009). These lexical inn ovations are often from semantic fields that are intertwined with one’s culture and identity such as food, religion and philosophy. They include culture-specific registers that are often absent in the Standard Englishes. This also holds true for the Muslim Ummah, having their own linguistic needs that are intertwin ed with their religion and identity. A number of studies by Muslim scholars and academicians (e .g.,Al Faruqi, 1986; Khairiah&ZuridahHayati, 2009; Khairiah& Maskanah, 2010; Dahiru, 1996; Haja, 2007) have supported this notion, showing the need for the application of Islamic Arabic t erms in the English language. With the absent of many Islamic religious referents in Standard E nglishes, Muslim scholars such as Al Faruqi (1986) speak of the concern in the preservation of I slamic understanding as distortion of meanings can easily occur through transliteration and trans lation. Al Faruqi (1986, p.13) stated that through such distortions ‘many meanings suffer chang e, loss or obliteration from consciousness’ and thus produce ‘a serious threat to the continuity of Islamic understanding’ (p.14). This concern and the perceived inadequacy of the English langua ge to meet the communicative and linguistic needs of the Muslims bring forth a new or modified form of English which is termed as Islamic English by Al Faruqi (1986). While studies have eff ectively shown the needs and importancefor an Islamic English(e.g.,Al Faruqi, 1986; Dahiru, 19 96; Ratnawati, 1996; Sheila & Zalika, 2009), there is still more studies required to further under stand the trends, reality and nature of the language (Dahiru, 1996) and propel forward the conce pt of Islamic English. One aspect that is seen as lacking in research is the linguistic features of I slamic English which this paper intends to explore,albeit restricted to the lexical level, particular ly the processes of lexical borrowing from the Arabic language. It is also of current interest to e xplore the authentic usage of the language in a linguistic domain (Islamic Studies and Sciences) that was once reserved for the Arabic language or the native languages of the Muslim nations. 1. Theoretical Framework Lexical borrowing can basically be understood as the incorporation of lexical items from a sourc e language into a receiving language. In the context of New Englishes, speakers who engage in
the borrowing of lexical items may not be the native speakers of the English language wherein i n this case borrowed items are introduced by fluent non-native speakers for cultural retention pu rposes, a process known as ‘endo-borrowing’. This is different from ‘exo-borrowing’ where the borrowing is done by native speakers of the receiving language (Haspelmath, 2003, p.4). Since speakers may not be natives of the English language, the source language is termed ‘the maintai ned language’ and borrowing in this paper is defined as ‘the attempted reproduction in a maintai ned language, of features from another language with which the former is in contact’ (Tan, 2009 , p.455). In addition this paper included frozen or idiomatic phrases as lexical items together wi th single or compound words, in line with Gumperz (1982, p.66 as cited in Hornberger& McKay , 2010) who defined borrowing as ‘the introduction of single words or short, frozen idiomatic ph rases from one variety into the other’. In analyzing and describing the linguistic processes involved in the borrowing of Islamic Arabic words, the paper utilized a framework by Einar Haugen (1950) as it is considered ‘one of the be st-known taxonomies of borrowed items’ (Haspelmath, 2003, p.4). In this framework, borrowed items are analyzed according to the degree of morphemic and phonemic substitution involved w hen reproducing the foreign items into the maintained language. The substitution of morpheme s of the foreign items with that from the maintained language may involve none, partial or comp lete substitution. Based on this criterion of morphemic and phonemic substitution, loan items ar e then grouped into three major categories of loanwords, loanblends and loanshifts. Loanwords undergo zero morphemic substitution, where total morphemic importation takes plac e. It is the ‘direct transference of a lexeme in both meaning and form’ (Capuz, 1997, p.87) altho ugh with varying degrees of phonemic substitution. An example of this is the word shivaree tak en from French charivari (Haugen, 1950, p.213). Loanblends, on the other hand, involves only partial morphemic substitution where only a part of the word has been imported while the rest is substituted with morphemes from the maintained language. This can be illustrated in the borro wing of the word plum piefrom American English as [blauməpaɪ] in Pennsylvania German ‘in w hich the morpheme [paɪ] has been imported but the native [blaumə] has been substituted for plu m’ (Haugen, 1950, p.214]. Further classification under loanblends is possible and has been iden tified as blended stems, derivational blends and compound blends. In the case of loanblends it i s important to highlight here that only features reproduced after a model from the source langua ge is considered as a loan item in the form of loanblends. Creations that appear as loanblends or hybrids, although combining both the morphemes from the source and maintained language, are not loanblends as ‘they did not come into being as direct imitation of a foreign model’ (Haugen, 1950, p.220). Loanshifts can be divided into semantic loans and loan translations. Only the latter is relevant t
ILCC 2013
288
o this study as the paper is not looking into shifts in semantics. Loan translations is a borrowing process that involves complete morphemic substitution without importation. Independent lexem es or morphemes previously existing in the maintained language are utilized and combined in i mitation of the structural pattern of a model from the source language, forming a new lexical uni t in the maintained language. An example of a loan translation is the German word wolkenkratz erwhich is modeled after skyscraper(Haugen, 1950, p.214). Using this theoretical framework by Haugen (1950) the paper then intends to examine the authe ntic usage of Islamic English at the lexical level among a sample of its language community. T he research objectives can be expressed as follows: 1. To examine the lexical featureS of Islamic English, specifically the lexis borrowed from the Arabic language, in an authentic setting. 2. To provide a descriptive account on the borrowing of Arabic words that occurred in the selec ted Islamic course using Haugen’s (1950) model on lexical borrowing.
3. Method Audio recordings of the most recent course conducted by a selected educational Islamic institute was obtained. This institute, although shall remain anonymous, teaches Islam in different cities worldwide using the English language. The recordings run for approximately 766 minutes (12 h ours) and consist mostly of the lectures by the course instructor although the speech of various s tudents is also heard from class discussions and question-answer sessions. The course which wa s on Islamic Eschatology was conducted in an intensive manner over a weekend, as it catered fo r working adults in addition to university students. Following the transcription of these recordings, specific words and phrases of Islamic Arabic ori gin were manually identified. With the assistance of a speaker fluent in the Arabic language and who has a background in Islamic Studies, each identified item was analyzed to determine wheth er an Arabic model is available and whether they are based on these Arabic models. Items meeti ng this criterion were then classified as either a loanword, loanblend or loan translation using Ha ugen’s (1950) model on lexical borrowing.
4. Findings A total of 413 borrowed items were found in the particular 12-hour discourse. It should be note d that this figure represents the total number of unique borrowed items found in the study and d oes not reflect their frequency. It should also be highlighted here that the results is based on a re
stricted and limited sample engaged in a particular topic and thus proper precautions should be t aken in generalizing the findings. The results here do not claim to represent the overall distribut ion or patterns of borrowed words in Islamic English but merely demonstrate instances of patter ns that can occur and the processes involved. It was found that an overwhelming majority of the borrowed items identified involves the proce ss of total importation. Loanwords amounted to 86 percent (n=357) of the borrowed features. C ompound blends (6 percent, n=24) as well as loan translations (8 percent, n=32) were also detect ed in the study although they form a small minority of the borrowed features. Thus three types of lexical borrowing occurred: total importation (86 percent), partial substitution (6 percent) and complete substitution (8 percent). The great amount of loanwords detected perhaps suggest the l ack of congruence between the Arabic and English language, the difficulty to borrow through co mplete substitution, as well as semantic considerations.
Table 1: Examples of loanwords identified in the study Category Loanwords
Total
Islamic Concepts Ḥalāl ()حالل Duʿā’ ()دعاء
Dīn ()دين
Adhān ()أذان
Ḥijāb ()حجاب
Jannah ()جنّة
Sạlāh ()صالة
Dunyā ()الدّنيا
Dhikr ( )ذكرZakah ()الزكاة 183 (51%) General Arabic
Khalās ( )خالص
Zaman ( )زمن
Tūr ( )الطور
Aqrān ()اقران
Ḥashīsh ()حشيش
Majlis ()المجلس
Nā-ib ()النائب
Tartīb ()ترتيب
Siḥr ( )سحرSāḥir ()ساحر 49 (14%) Islamic Devotional/Social Terms Qiblah ()قبلة Wudū’ ()وضوء
Sub•ḥānAllāh ()اللهسبحان
Rukū' ()ركوع
Bismillah ()بسم هللا
In shā‘ Allāh ()إن شاءهللا
Mus-ḥaf ( )مصحفĀmīn ()آمين Taslīm ()تسليم
Khuf ()خف
39 (11%) Sciences of Shari'ah
Fiq•h ()فقه
Bid'ah ()بدعة
ILCC 2013 UsūliFiq•h ()فقهأصول
290
Khilāf ()خالف
Wājib ()واجب Mustaḥab ( ّ)مستحب Ḥudūd ()حدود Darūrah ()ضرورة Mađhab ()مذهب
Rājiḥ ()راجح
25 (7%) Islamic Sects
Ismai’līyah( )االسماعليةMu'tazilah ()المعتزلة
Qarāmitah()القرامطة
Nusayriyah ()نصيرية
Khāwarij ()الخوارج
Khumus()الخمس
Usawliyah( )أصوليةal bada'()البداء Rāwandiyah ( )الراونديه
Mut’ah()متعه
24 (6.7%) Islamic History/Civilization BanūTamīm()بنو تميم
BanūMakhzūm()بنو مخزوم
Bāb al Lūt()باب اللوط
BanūIsrāīl()بنوإسرائيل (battle of) Al Ḥarrah()المعركة الحره BanūĀdam()بنو آدم
MulkanJabrīyah()ملكا جبرية
(battle of) Badr()بدر
Khulafāt al Rāshidūn()خلفاء الراشدون
19 (5%) Sciences of Hadith
Saḥīḥ ( )صحيحMutawātir ()متواتر
Ḥasan ()حسن Aḥad ()أحد Sunnah ()سنّة Mawdū' ( )الموضوع Nakārah()نكاره Daʿīf()ضعيف 9 (2.52%)
Isnād ()إسناد
(battle of) Al Nahrawān()النهروان
Islamic Eschatology
Mahdī ()مهدي
Al Dukhān ()الدخان Dābatulard ()دابةاألرض
Ruwaybidah()الرويبضة
Dajjāl ()د ّجال (al-ayaat) Kharazāt()اديات خرزات al Jasāsah()الجساسة Yājūj-wa-Mājūj ()ماجوجوياجوج 8 (2.24%) Sciences of Quran Waḥy ()وحی
1 (0.03%) Total
357
Table 2: List of compound blends (n=24) Category Compound blends
Arabic Model
Islamic Concepts 'Aṣrprayer صالة العصر Dhuhr prayer صالة الظهر Wājib fast
صيام الواجب
Zakah wealth زكاة المال صالة الفجر
Fajr prayer Sunnah prayers
صالة السنة
Tarāwiḥ prayer
صالة التراوح
Jāhilīyah time عهد الجاهلية Ibrāhīm station
Sciences of Shariah
مقام إبراهيم Sharī‘ah rulings
Bid'ah actions عمل بدعة Sharī‘ah system
نظام الشريعة
UsūliFiq•h principle قواعد أصول الفقه Good bid'ah
بدعة حسنة
Bad bid'ah
بدعة سيئة
Fabricated ḥadīth
الحديث الموضوع
قواعد الشريعة
ILCC 2013 Sharī‘ah method
أصول الشريعة
Sharī‘ah text متون الشريعة Sharī‘ah terms مصطلحات الشريعة Ḥanafī scholar علماء الحنفية
Islamic Sects
Shī'ah doctrine
عقيدة الشيعة Shiite Imāms األئمة الشيعة Twelve ImāmFiq•h
فقه اإلمامية االثنا عشرية
Islamic History & Civilization
Umayyad Khalīfah
Table 3: List of loan translations (n=32)
Category Term Arabic Model Islamic Concepts Student of knowledge طالب العلم People of knowledge أهل العلم The straight path
صراط المستقيم
The black stone
حجر األسود
Friday prayer صالة الجمعة Mother of the believers True vision
رؤية الصادقة
Islamic manner The unseen
أم المؤمنين
أدب االسالم
الغيب
Sunni scholars علماء أهل السنة The companions
الصحابة
Islamic history تاريخ االسالم Non-Muslims غير المسلمين Non-Islamic
غير االسالمي
Pillars of Islam
أركان االسالم
Night journey إسراء Minor sins
الذنوب الصغيرة
Book of deeds كتاب العمل
خليفة األموية
292
Islamic Devotional & Social Terms All-Aware
Wipe over socks
مسح الخفين
الكبائر
Oft-Forgiving الغفور Severe in Punishment شديد العقاب
Sciences of Hadith
Authentic narrations الحدبث الصحيح
Weak narration
الحديث الضعيف
Chain of narration
سند الحديث
Sciences of Shari'ah
Stronger opinion
الرأى الراجح
Islamic Eschatology
Signs of the Hour
عالمة الساعة
Minor signs of the hour
عالمة الساعة الصغرى
Major signs of the hour
عالمة الساعة الكبرى
Beast of the Earth
Phrases
دابة األرض
(Allah is) the Best of all
Ordering the good and
planners هللا خير الماكرين
prohibiting the evil
أمر بالمعروف والنهي عن المنكر
Tables 1, 2 and 3 above present loanwords, compound blends and loan translations respectively. As seen in the tables above, all of the borrowed features belong to the semantic field of religion except for a small number (n=49 loanwords) which are considered to be general Arabic terms alt hough driven by a religious context and needs. Since the majority of the borrowed features are of the same semantic field, further classification was employed in order to group them accordin gly. The categorization utilized, as seen in tables above is based on Al Faruqi’sTowards Islamic English (1986) with modifications. As shown in Table 1, slightly more than half (51 percent) of the loanwords belong to the categor y of General Islamic Words and Concepts, followed by General Arabic Terms (14 percent). As e xpected, Islamic Devotional and Social Terms were also common, garnering about 11 percent (n =39) of the total amount of loanwords. The remainder of the loanwords belong to more specific fields of Islamic Sciences, bearing more technical thus limited terms. Although the breakdown of the loanwords here do not represent the general breakdown in Islamic English, it can be sugg ested that Islamic discourse outside the classroom or discourse among Muslims in general woul d have similar patterns, of mostly consisting of loanwords of general Islamic Arabic terms as we
ILCC 2013
294
ll as devotional and social terms. This is because the loanwords that are of specific Islamic field s are expected to be less common as they are more technical in nature. Of course research is nee ded to prove or disprove this claim. It was also found that loanwords consist of both abstract and concrete nouns. This somewhat dif fer from a previous study on lexical borrowing where abstract nouns were seen more likely to be reproduced as loan translations while objects unique to the source culture tend to be loanwords ( Jian, 2005). The difference could be due to the semantic field of the nouns wherein abstract nou ns in this study are mostly from the semantic field of religion, a semantic field that is very closel y intertwined with the identity of a Muslim thus suggesting a greater need for their retention in f orm and semantic integrity. Another possibility is that some of the abstract nouns borrowed thro ugh total importation could be a part of the core vocabulary of Islamic English although such ha s not been formally established yet. This possibility is supported by the fact that the majority of the loanwords in this study (76 percent) were seen unaccompanied by a definition or proper expl anation of the terms (although English equivalents were used together with 36 percent of the loa nwords). It is thus suggested that future studies contrast the nouns borrowed through total impo rtation and complete substitution. There should also be a study that aims to determine the core v ocabulary of Islamic English. In addition to this, it was found that loanwords were modeled after both monosyllabic and polys yllabic items (except for general Arabic terms which are mostly monosyllabic or disyllabic) whi le the majority of the compound blends and loan translations were modeled after polysyllabic Ar abic words (Table 2 and Table 3). Therefore, the principle of economy may not be the first crite rion here in determining the type of features that will be borrowed through total importation. Th is again supports the postulationthat other factors such as guarding the semantic integrity or the difficulty to substitute Arabic with English morphemes, may have a greater role in determining t he borrowing process of Islamic Arabic items. Again, research is needed to validate such claims and determine the factors that influence the likelihood of a foreign model to be borrowed throug h total importation, partial substitution or complete substitution. In terms of the integration of borrowed features into the maintained language, very little (if any) phonemic substitution occurred in the borrowing process, similar to a previous study conducted by Tan (2009) on lexical borrowing in Malaysian English. Tan (2009, p.465) suggested that this is due to the fact that ‘the borrowers, being non-native speakers of English, are less likely to per ceive a need to alter the pronunciation of borrowed features just to make them sound more like t he recipient language words as the recipient language is an external variety’. Morphosyntactic i
ntegration too was rare. Some instances of the inflectional morpheme –s used to pluralize loan words were detected, forming words like sheykhs, ḥijābs, imāms, halaqahs, sunnahs and fatwās. The only form of integration applied to the compound blends and loan translations is word order reversal such as the compound blend fajr prayer (from )صالة الفجمرand loan translation the straigh t path (from )صراط المستقيم. It is also interesting to note that some Islamic Arabic terms (n=6) were reproduced through both total importation and complete substitution, bringing to existence both a loanword and a loan tra nslation. These include items such as mother of the believers and ummulmū'minīn, beast of the earth and dābatulardas well as severe in punishment or shadīdul ‘iqāb. It is not possible here to determine the reasons or motivations behind utilization of both processes for the borrowing of th ese terms until further research is made, nor is it possible to predict which form will outlast the other in Islamic English. Since the call for the retention of Islamic Arabic terms mainly stems from the concern for the pr eservation of Islamic understanding, it is worthwhile here to highlight a few patterns that were o bserved among the loanwords. It was found that the majority of the loanwords (76 percent) wer e lacking in proper definition or explanation. This include terms that were seen accompanied by or interchangeably used with their perceived English equivalents which may or may not be ‘true ’ equivalents in addition to lacking proper definition (32 percent, n=114). Some of these terms ( n=50) in fact have been highlighted for retention in its Arabic form by Al Faruqi(1986) as these terms, particularly Quranic terms, are ‘not possible to be rendered in one English word’ (p.21). Nevertheless these terms (n=50) were seen accompanied by, or alternately used with their percei ved English equivalent, in addition to lacking proper definition (except for five terms which wer e properly defined: sạlāh, zinā, ghusl, jannah, barakah). Table 4 provides a list of these terms to gether with their equivalents used.
Loanword English equivalent Yaqīn
Certainty
Du‘a
Supplication
Walī
Guardian
Ḥikmah
Wisdom
Ribā'
Interest, Usury
Al Ghafūr Oft-Forgiving Khayr
Goodness
Rijs
Filth
Mushrikūn,mushrik, mushrikas Polytheist
ILCC 2013 Fatwā
Opinion
‘Amal
Deeds, Applying Knowledge
Dhan
Thinking
Wājib
Compulsory, Must
JazākumullahuKhayr
May Allah reward you
Lāilāha ill-Allāh There is no god worthy to worship but Allah Sujūd
Prostrate
Akhi
Brother
Sạlāh
Prayer
Rasūl
Messenger
Āyah
Verse
Khalīfah
Caliph
Shirk
Associating partners with Allah
Khabīth
Filthy (substance)
Zinā
Fornication
Tawbah
Repent
Jahannam Hell Jihād
Strive in His path
Ghusl
Bath, head to toe
Waḥy
Revelation
Saḥīḥ
Authentic
Raḥmatullahi ‘alaih ‘Azīz
May Allah have mercy on him
All-Mighty
Ḥarām Prohibited Ḥadīth
Narration
Jannah
Heavenly abode
’Ākhirah Afterlife Īmān
Faith
Ummah
One nation
DīnFaith Fitnah, fitān
Trial, Calamity, Ordeal
296
Ḥaq (alhaqq) The Truth ‘Ilm
Knowledge
Jāhiliyyah Ignorance Barakah
Blessing
Bay‘ah
Pledge of allegiance
‘Abd
A worshiper
‘Ibādah
An act of worship
Mawdū’
Fabricated
Dā‘if
Weak
Ḥalāl
Legal, Lawful
Table 4: Terms listed in Al Faruqi (1986) and used with English equivalents (n=50). There were also instances whereconcepts(n=16) that have been identified for retention in the A rabic form by Al Faruqi (1986) were communicated only in its perceived English equivalent or t ranslation (see Table 5). The Arabic form is absent in the discourse.
English Terms
Arabic Terms
Believers Mū'minūn(those who possess Iman)
Reward
Thawāb (reward granted by Allah on the Day of Judgement)
Guidance Hidāyah(divine guidance or revelation of Islam) Justice
Qist (justice, equity and uprightness in dealing with all matters)
Blessed
Mubārak (infused with grace and approval of Allah)
Mislead/astray
Dalla/dalāl (to err and go astray from the straight path Allah has revealed to t
he Prophet) Injustice
Dhulm(the act or action of committing injustice)
Patient
Ṣabr(to resist evil or tragedy and remain firm in adherence to the cause of Islam)
Be mindful of Allah
Taqwā (the combination of piety, faith, loyalty, commitment called for
in Islam) Table 5: Examples of Islamic concepts using English equivalents only (definition from Al Faruq i, 1986). The usage of some Biblical or Christian terms were also observed in the discourse, such as ‘s on of Mary’, ‘Eve’ and ‘the second coming of Jesus Christ’. While these terms refer to the same
ILCC 2013
298
persons or events in Islam, the two religions do not have an identical understanding of these per sons and events. All of this raises some concern in both the preservation of the semantic integrity of these Isla mic concepts as well as the general Islamic understanding of a Muslim. It is possible that the as sociation of Islamic terms with inaccurate English equivalents together with the absence of prop er definition or explanation, the complete substitution of certain Islamic terms and concepts with English equivalents or translations as well as the usage of Biblical terms, will produce or reinfor ce inaccurate understanding of these terms and promote semantic shifts. This will defeat the pri mary purpose of retaining Islamic Arabic terminologies in the English language, which is to pre serve the correct Islamic understanding of these concepts. Thus it is very important that future research on these patterns and their consequences are condu cted, including the use of compound blends and loan translations, especially in terms of its effec t on one’s Islamic understanding. Potential semantic shifts of loanwords in Islamic English sho uld also be investigated.
5. Conclusion This study examined the authentic usage of Islamic English particularly the occurrences of borr owing of Islamic Arabic terms, in a recent course conducted by an Islamic educational institute. It was found that the majority of the borrowed Arabic terms in the course were reproduced throu gh total importation (86 percent) followed by complete substitution (8 percent) and partial substi tution (6 percent). Although it appears that many borrowed items were true to their Arabic form s, the study shows that some patterns may warrant concern. About 32 percent of loanwords wer e seen accompanied by, or interchangeably used with, their perceived English equivalents while lacking proper definitions, including terms that have been recommended for retention in the Ara bic form by Al Faruqi (1986). In addition to this, there were Islamic concepts that were complet ely substituted with its perceived Englishs or translations despite being highlighted for retention in the Arabic forms by Al Faruqi (1986). Thus, while there were a great number of loanwords used in the Islamic discourse analyzed, th ere need to be greater attention paid to how these loanwords are used. As demonstrated in this s tudy, the use of equivalents and lack of explanation and such may actually contribute to the conf usion of their meaning and may even promote semantic shifts to a certain degree. Further resear ch is needed to determine the consequences of such language patterns on the understanding of th ese Islamic terms.
What can be suggested at the moment is that more awareness is raised in how borrowed items are used and should be used, in addition to promoting the retention of Islamic Arabic terms. Th ose who engage in Islamic discourse, especially those who are teaching Islamic Studies in the E nglish language, should be careful in using perceived English equivalents and instead, should tr y to actively highlight the semantic differences between the Islamic terms and their perceived E nglish equivalents. Should speakers instead resort to using the English forms of important conc epts, students should be made aware of the differences in the understanding of these concepts be tween the Islamic and external worldview (e.g. secular worldview) followed by a redefinition of the English form according to the Islamic perspective (as per the concept of Islamization of lang uage introduced by Al-Attas, 1980). This is line with current research that have advocated for th e redefinition of certain English lexicons according to the Islamic perspective and the productio n of an English dictionary for Muslims (e.g. Alwa, 2013; Khairiah, Engku Haliza, AinonJariah& Nuraihan, 2013; Khairiah&Engku Haliza, 2009). When using Islamic Arabic terms, instructors of Islamic Studies (or other relevant fields such as Islamic English for Special Purposes) should look to provide the propers or definitions the terms , in the class text, in the glossary of materials used or verbally during classroom time. This is in accordance with Al Faruqi’s recommendation when using Islamic Arabic terms, wherein a brief explanation or definition should be given in order to ensure that terms are understood correctly ( 1986, p.21).Instructors could prepare beforehand, a list of Islamic Arabic terminologies and thei r definitions. These lists should not be limited to the technical or specialized vocabulary of the I slamic subject, but include general Islamic concepts and vocabulary that students may encounter in the course. This is because it is predicted that there will be high occurrences of general Islam ic terms as demonstrated in this study. All of this will hopefully create awareness among studen ts, promote better understanding of key concepts and vocabulary in Islam and address any existi ng confusion, in the effort to preserve Islamic concepts and understanding. It is hoped that the study has shed some light on the linguistic processes and patterns involved i n the borrowing of Islamic Arabic features and ultimately contribute to a better grasp of the reali ty and nature of Islamic English today.
6. References Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib (1980). The concept of education in Islam. Kuala Lumpur: ABIM Al Faruqi, Isma’ilRaji (1986). Toward Islamic English. Virginia: International Institute of Islami c
ILCC 2013
300
Thought.
Alwa Abd. Rashid (2013). Selected English words in an English dictionary from an Islamic per spective: a case study. Unpublished masters thesis, International Islamic University Malaysia.
Bamgbose, A. (1998). Torn between the norms: innovations in world Englishes. [Electronic ver sion].World Englishes, 17(1), 1-14.
Capuz, J. G. (1997). Towards a typological classification of linguistic borrowing. [Electronic version].RevistaAlicantina de EstudiosIngleses, 10, 81-94.
Dahiru Muhammad Argungu (1996). English, Muslims and Islamisation: Between needs and de eds.In Jalal Uddin Khan & A. E. Hare (Eds.), English and Islam: Creative Encounters 96 (pp. 33 1-347).Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Research Centre.
HajaMohideen Bin Mohamed Ali (2007). Islamic terms in contemporary English. [Electronic version].English Today, 90(23), 32-38.
Haspelmath, M. (2003). Loanword typology: steps toward a systematic cross-linguistic study of lexical borrowability. In T. Stolz, D. Bakker & R. S. Palomo (Eds.), Aspects of language contact :New theoretical, methodological and empirical findings with special focus on Romancisationpr ocesses (pp.43-62). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter [Electronic version].
Haugen, E. (1950). The analysis of linguistic borrowing. [Electronic version]. Linguistic Socie ty of America, 26(2), 210-231.
Hornberger, N. & McKay, S.L. (2010). Sociolinguistics and language education. United Kingdo m: Multilingual Matters.
Jian, Y. (2009). Chinese borrowings in English. [Electronic version]. World Englishes, 28(1), 9 0-106.
Kachru, B. B. (1997). Norms, Models and Identities. Retrieved 30/10/2011, from http://www.jal tpublications.org/tlt/files/96/oct/englishes.html.
Khairiah Othman, Engku Haliza Engku Ibrahim, AinonJariah Muhammad & Nuraihan Mat Dau d (2013). Islamic definitions of selected English words in English dictionary: students’ perspe ctives. [Electronic version]. World Applied Sciences Journal, 21, 95-101.
Khairiah Othman &Engku Haliza Engku Ibrahim (2009, December). An English dictionary for Muslim learners: is there a need? Paper presented at the Eight Annual Worldwide Forum on Education and Culture, Rome, Italy.
Khairiah Othman & Maskanah Mohammad Lotfie (2010). Incorporating Arabic words in the teachingof English: Students’ perspectives. Unpublished paper, International Islamic UniversityMalaysia.
Khairiah Othman &ZuridahHayati Abdul Hamid (2009). Incorporating Arabic words in the teaching of English: Teachers’ perspectives. Unpublished paper, International Islamic UniversityMalaysia. Pingau, S. (2009). Indian English. Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
Ratnawati Mohd. Asraf (1996). Teaching English as a second or foreign language: The place of culture. In Jalal Uddin Khan & A. E. Hare (Eds.), English and Islam: Creative Encounters 96 (pp. 351-367). Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Research Centre.
Sheila ParveenLallmamode& Zalika Adam (2009, May). Awareness of Islamic English among Muslim students in Malaysia. Paper presented at SoLLs International Conference on Langu age and Culture: Creating and Fostering Global Communities, Putrajaya.
Tan, S.I. (2009). Lexical borrowing from Chinese Language in Malaysian English. [Electronic version].World Englishes, 28(4), 451-484. Tan, S. I. (2009). Lexical borrowing in Malaysian English: Influences of Malay. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Hong Kong.
ILCC 2013
302
English Language Teaching Challenges in Malaysia: Polytechnic Lecturers’ Experience Suhaily Abdullah 1 and Faizah Abd Majid 2 12
Fakulti Pendidikan, UiTM Shah Alam Selangor, Malaysia
Corresponding Author: Suhaily Abdullah, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor Mala ysia,
[email protected] _______________________________________________________________________________________ Abstract. This study sought to investigate the challenges faced by two lecturers in teaching English in a po lytechnic’s setting. The case study inquiry strategy (via informal semi-structured interviews and reflective jou rnal writing) was employed in getting the real insights from the participants who were purposely selected for this systematic investigation within 9 consecutive weeks. Basic qualitative analysis (Creswell, 2009) was carr ied out through document analyses of the interview transcripts and reflective journal entries. The analysis wa s carried out by inductively identifying the emerging themes shared by both participants and had been consid ered as their challenges in language teaching. Some practical suggestions are also offered to the identified cha llenges in the discussion part of this study.
Keywords: ELT, polytechnic lecturers, challenges, Malaysia
1.
Introduction
Currently, local higher education system operations have undergone some extensive transformation phases due to th e external forces such as the advent of rapid globalization, emergence of information and communication technology, an d drastic change of socio-economic status in the community. Technical and Vocational Education and Training, or hence forth TVET, as a part of alternative branch to our education system is no longer viewed as a below average field instead, it is actively being improved in complementing the development progression of the nation. The transformation plan has been systematically geared towards assisting the national mission requirement in becoming a fully developed country b y 2020. Thus, this newly transformed system is patterned in a way to be able to provide justifications to the arising issue s such as the employability concerns and industrial needs. So, there is not a marvel to find that the Polytechnic Transfor mation Plan (PTP) was listed as one of the Critical Agenda Projects (CAP) in the National Higher Education Strategic P lan (NHESP) which was started in 2007 (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi, 2007). This aspiration was established in order to empower the revamped technical education. It is also meant for the communities as their lifelong learning platform t o formally acquire their skill knowledge, and upgrading or upskilling their existence practice. The achievement from the transformative action plans that has been fulfilled so far is gathered as an encouraging re sult in which can be continuously pursued to the ends. Some positive attainments include the growth of responses of the public choices in choosing polytechnics as their preferred tertiary education institution, the dynamic involvements of th e industrial key players in current polytechnic curriculum developments, and the up-to-date continuous professional dev elopment programmes offered to the academic and non-academic polytechnic staff in sustaining their subject content co mpetency and acquired skills (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2012). Other than that, the entry point requirement of the st udents has recently been altered (starting July 2010 session) in order to ensure the potential students possess initial featu red standards as employable graduates in their fields of choice for the future labour market (Jabatan Pengajian Politekni k, 2011). However, there is an issue on unemployability of technical graduates due to their lack of communication skill especially in term of poor of English language command (Ahmad Yasruddin, Wan Mohd Haniff, Affidah Mardziah, Noo r Izma, & Farawaheeda, 2010; Ezihaslinda, Noor Raha, Wan Jumani, & Noor Azlinda , 2011; & Suhaily, Noor Asmaa’, & Wan Rahayah Rahimi, 2011). Thus, this study is meant to investigate the background scenario, particularly refers to t he English language teaching and learning scope in polytechnics, that may establish unacknowledged connection to this deficit apart of the holistic efforts have been imposed and carried out by the government to ensure the action plans are i n line with the nation mission in term of generating human capital for high income economy (Sahul Hameed, Mohd Am in, & Mohd Ali , 2010)
2.
Content 1.
Background and scope of the study
Polytechnics are one of the tertiary education institutions in Malaysia that have been established and operated based on the TVET context. Originally, it was meant to produce semi-professional workers in technical and some other relate d service-based fields in order to conform with the revolutionary industrial development in early post-dependency perio d. Recently, it is undergoing an extensive transformative milestone which consists of 4 crucial phases. The transformativ e plan has yet to be completed as it only steps onto the second phase (2013 – 2015) of the overall proposed action plan a fter ‘The Quick Win’ and institutional transformative phase from year 2010 to year 2012. The aim to become a preferred tertiary learning institution among secondary school leavers has shown a positive remark when the targeted enrolment e xceeded up to 310 students in 2011 (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2012). It indicates that the community is starting to c onsider their choices in planning their tertiary studies to polytechnics. So, polytechnics are no longer being the last resor t for the students who are not able to secure entries in universities. Instead, polytechnics have fallen onto similar band as other higher learning institutions in Malaysia. Thus, the re-establishment of selected polytechnics or the new establishm ent of polytechnics into polytechnic premiers and polytechnic MEtROs does do the wonder in attracting the Sijil Pelajar an Malaysia (SPM) holders who possess good academic achievement to enroll as polytechnic students (Jabatan Pengaji an Politeknik, 2011). It can be seen through the entry requirement enhancement which has been imposed by Jabatan Pe ngajian Politeknik (JPP) starting July 2010 session, whereby the applicants are required to achieve, at least, to pass both Malay Language and English Language with another 2 to 5 credits in other related subjects depended on the their cours e choices. It does not reduce the number of applicants to further their study in polytechnics. Besides transforming the in stitutional image, the drastic calls for the changes are also applicable to the curriculum developments. The collaboration with industrial stakeholders in filling the skill gaps between what have been currently demanded by the sectors with the one that has been taught in polytechnics is successfully conducted from time to time. This effort is considered as the ba ckbone of this transformative agenda to gear up polytechnic students towards becoming employable graduates to serve i n the industrial sectors. To date, this is in line with the national mission in term of producing high skillful and sharp min d human capital to the industry in achieving a developed nation status by 2020. Given the pressing need for skilled workers, the concerns on current skill demands, and recent evolving technical a nd service fields are tunefully supported by other required attributions such as communication skill, entrepreneurship sk ill and interpersonal skill so the polytechnic graduates can be trained as competitive human capital to the local industrial innovative-led economy. Currently, it is reported that 3.3 million new jobs have been offered to the public and 46% of the posts are waiting to be filled which require the proportion of 24% and 22% of vocational and technical workforces r espectively (Abdul Karim, 2013). This is an impossible mission to be fulfilled by polytechnic graduates since there are only 35 000 exit attributes being produced annually (Abdul Karim, 2013). Furthermore, only some of them are successf ully being hired after six months upon their graduation. Consequently, the nation is still lack of trained technical workfo rces to serve in the industrial sectors even though there are an increment of the intake numbers in students’ enrolment to polytechnics. This imbalance intake and exit attributes is considered as an urgent concern that needs to be desperately a ddressed (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2011; & Ministry of Higher Education, 2012). Despite of the aforementioned revamp initiatives, it is also understood that the employers in Malaysia are still in the dilemma when confronted with the graduate employability (Ministry of Higher Education, 2012). The issue in term of t he concern on lacks of engineering, technical and science graduates who are qualified to be hired has triggered an alarm ing attention in the media (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). According to a report (Ministry of Higher Education, 2012), t he two most common drawbacks identified by employers in hiring fresh graduates are related to the facts that they have poor command of English (55.8%) and poor character, attitude or personality (37.4%). Thus, it is clearly shown that En glish proficiency is viewed as a major attribution which has been taken into consideration by employers in hiring their workforces even though the graduates are highly trained for the offered posts (Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010). The requireme nt of working in private sectors influence this cause whereby most communication transfers are carried out in English es pecially in multinational companies and local-based foreign investor factories. There are several findings related to this concern. First, the poor command of English among civil engineering poly technics graduates included the inability to effectively demonstrate their skills in a simple procedural work routine such as understanding technical documents and writing the reports (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). Next, majority of the che mical engineering students in a higher learning institution experienced high communication apprehension that hindered
ILCC 2013
304
them to effectively communicate due to the lacks of self-willingness to use the target language in public particularly dur ing the learning process (Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010). Furthermore, there are other few studies reported that tertiary instit ution students also possessed low range of vocabulary list and faced difficulties in understanding complex sentences and sentences that structured using low frequency words in which contributed to the low English proficiency graduates too (Normazidah, Koo, & Hazita, 2012). In addition to that, there was a slight significant difference between certificate and diploma students of commerce students to experience high anxiety level in learning English which directly influenced t heir language achievement particularly referred to their communication apprehension (Suhaily et al., 2011). These findings are linked to what has been discovered in another research in claiming that the recent teaching and l earning of the English language especially in polytechnics still could not produce graduates with an acceptable English proficiency required by industries (Harlini, 2011). This has elicited challenges to English lecturers in this particular TV ET higher learning institution to reflect on their practices in keeping abreast with the efforts to move the gap become clo ser. Therefore, even though Harlini (2011) suggested that more studies on the evaluation on the curriculum are needed t o uncover the real predicament and challenges that students faced in improving their language proficiency and Ahmad Y asruddin et al. (2010) recommended replication studies on investigation of English proficiency needed by engineering st udents in different population, the highlighted issue on the failure of graduates to be proficient in basic English commun ication calls for another immediate exploration on polytechnic lecturers’ language teaching practices. This is sorely mea nt to differ the investigation on the targeted concern from language lecturers’ perspective so that it can be added to the ci rcle of the unemployability issue especially in term of low English proficiency graduates that have been commonly con ducted through students’ standpoint, employers’ scope and curriculum (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010; Ezihaslinda et al., 2011; Harlini, 2011; Ministry of Higher Education, 2010, 2012; Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010; Suhaily et al., 2011). Conseq uently, present study is purposely conducted to explore the situational issues faced by English lecturers in order to bridg e the gap that revolve within policy compliance, institutional environment, syllabi requirement, students’ proficiency an d the reality of their language teaching practices.
2.
Language lecturers in polytechnics and problem identification
First and foremost, English is a compulsory subject to all polytechnic students except for those who are undergoing their industrial attachments. Even English is not classified as a main subject content being offered, it is a requirement fo r the students to pass their English module. The English language teaching and learning in this particular TVET higher e ducation institution is based on on-going assessment mode. It means that the grading is determined by students’ accumu lative marks in their spoken and written assignments, quizzes, and listening tasks for the whole semester, and then comb ine with their final standardized test. If the students fail to perform any of the assigned tasks, they are given chances to i mprove their marks in any ways that suit the syllabi and the lecturers’ availability before they are allowed to sit for their final standardized test. Besides that, students’ attendance is also taken into consideration in determining their status whe ther they are qualified to be evaluated by the lecturers or not based on the compliance of the institutional academic proc edure. The continuous monitoring process on the attendance is also considered as part of lecturers’ task. Thus, these situ ations indirectly defines the list of language lecturers’ job scope which is not limited to the teaching and learning proces s only. This kind of list can be considered as a threat to the lecturers’ professionalism because unreasonable teaching tas ks hinder teachers to prepare for quality teaching and undertake professional development programmes due to wider job scope with limited time allocation (Marwan, 2009; & Mohd Ali, Mohd Amin, & Muhamad Sukri, 2010). Next, in current inter-transformation phase, language lecturers have two different sets of English syllabus to be use d as their guide in instructional teaching preparations. The groups of students who enrolled before July 2010 learn Engli sh in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) context whereas the later intakes are taught in Communicative English (CE) s etting. To start off, though each group of students relies on a similar syllabus that has been used across the fields (i.e. en gineering, commerce, information and technology, and hotel and tourism), the module preparation is conducted in a ma nner to closely accommodate the authenticity consideration of students’ background. These circumstances indirectly ur ge the language lecturers to be aware of the trans-disciplinary subject contents of different fields so that they can practic ally integrate the specific corpora and jargons used in the notes, examples and tasks as contents of the module (Sarimah, Amerrudin, & Noraini, 2013). So, the awareness of the lecturers in this term promotes the ‘discourse community’ to the students in preparing them for the communicative demands in their future workplace (Khairi Izwan, 2001). In other wo
rds, the language lecturers’ tacit knowledge should addresses the surface ideas of their students’ fields of study so they c an interchangeably teach any language topics to different courses of students (Khairi Izwan, 2001; & Sarimah et al., 201 3). In addition, in recent polytechnic transformative revamp action plans, the English syllabi have been developed into the principles of Communicative English (CE). This indicates the emphasis on the speaking skill has been given the spe cific focus on language teaching in polytechnics. It is designed to provide students with useful expressions that can be u sed in a wide variety of social interactions and situations (Khairi Izwan, 2001). As a result, the calls for communicative l anguage tasks in the lesson plans are inevitable to promote the interaction in the target language. Still, some concerns re lated to class size (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012a), students’ level of proficiency (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010; Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010; & Suhaily et al., 2011), facility (Mohd Khalid , 2012; & Sahul Hameed et al., 2010) and personal pedago gical knowledge supports (Khairi Izwan , 2001; & Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b) have to be taken into account in which putt ing the lecturers in ‘do more with less resources’ position and dilemma. That is why the debates on the reasons why En glish language proficiency level of the polytechnics students is low have been going for several years (Mohd Khalid, 20 12). It develops a never-ending-issue chain whereby the real symptom is never been bothered to be clearly addressed so that it can be acknowledged and the cotangent measures can be taken into consideration. Last but not least, language lecturers in polytechnic must ensure they comply with the institutional requirements. A s for the credit hours, an English module should be taught to the students within 15 weeks of instructional duration per s emester. The lecturers have to teach a minimum of 16 hours per week. This is accumulated from the three hours of teach ing per class. A common class size in polytechnic is between 35 to 45 students per class, depending on the latest intake of the semester. So, it means a lecturer must teach and deal with 280 to 320 students of 8 different classes who are from different courses per week. The weighing of lecturers’ work demand can be easily listed if the students sit for their quiz or submit their individual task in that particular week. Other than that, they must attend a minimum of 10 days courses p er year and involve in newly cultivated culture, research, with none basic research background. In addition to that, atten ding impromptu meetings, assessing students’ activities, performing in community services and collaborating with indus tries are some other lists to the polytechnic lecturers’ ‘job inventory’ (Sahul Hameed et al., 2010). All in all, it is a worth effort to explore on the real challenges in the English teaching practice of polytechnic lecturers in order to dictate on th e visible factor that influences the outcomes of the language teaching and learning.
3.
Research question
Basically, this exploratory study on English Language Teaching (ELT) in a polytechnic’s context was purposely dri ven in order to share the outcomes of this research question:
1. What challenges do polytechnic English lecturers face in their teaching practice?
3.
Research methodology 1.
The study
This study was a part of an on-going postgraduate research involving a specific Malaysian polytechnic as a research population. The focus is more on local based setting that includes a multiple-cases-in-a-single-site exploration. The find ings revealed in this study are based on the responses gathered from two English lecturers as research participants. The purposive sampling method was chosen in order to select the participants of this study. Their academic background and years of teaching in polytechnic system fall under a similar range of related features. Furthermore, the implementation o f this type of sampling method was also influenced by the access factor and willingness factor (Creswell, 2007). Two En glish lecturers were selected; one male and one female. However, there would not be any comparative intentions especia lly in term of gender factor addressed in this study.
2.
Data collection
This study employed a fully qualitative research orientation in order to collect the anticipated data for the findings. Two instruments were used to capture participants’ responses related to their language teaching practices in polytechnic. Firstly, they were asked to keep reflective journals so they could share daily recollections of their activity, thought, feeli ng, aspiration or expectation which were related to their teaching practices. There was no specific guide imposed to the participants as the researcher intended to let the responses written in a natural setting as possible. This is because writin
ILCC 2013
306
g diary enables to permit one to freely express what they feel by using their own preferences in term of words and phase (Sidhu & Kaur, 2010). With that in mind, it was expected that the specific phenomenon could be identified in the entrie s. That is why the specific guide was not given to the participants as they wrote the entries within 9 consecutive weeks b efore the researcher put stop to it once they had not display any new topics or any other potential themes in their sharing . In other words, the write-up reached the ‘saturation’ point (Eekelen, Boshuizen, & Vermunt, 2005). Yet, a gentle remin der was given to them so the frequency of the entries per week should not be less than 3. Later, each one of them would be informally interviewed by asking them the semi-structured questions which had been prepared in an interview protoc ol. Their responses were audio-taped and then transcribed verbatim for the analysis purposes later on. All these were car ried out after participants agreed and had endorsed their signature on the consent form. For the trustworthiness purpose, ‘members-checking’ method was employed in order to ensure the accuracy of the responses and entries to what had bee n intended by the participants to say or write. Hence, the internal validity of this study had been systematically acknowl edged (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b).
3.
Data analysis
The analysis of this study was conducted using a Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) software, Atlas.ti version 7. Th e reading, re-reading and coding process were carried out through Atlas.ti 7 user interface. The process is mostly similar to the basic qualitative analysis (refers to Figure 1) by Creswell (2009). With this tool, the data from both sources could be easily linked through the ‘code manager’ which included the highlighted phrases in which later could be edited or re work as the on-going process of the study before a finalized networking was created. Interpreting the meaning of themes/descript ions
Interrelating themes/description -case study
Themes
Description
Validating the accuracy o f the information Coding the data (hand or computer)
Reading through all data
Organizing and preparing data for analysis
Raw data (Transcripts & journal entries)
Fig. 1: Basic data analysis in qualitative research (Creswell, 2009)
4.
Results and discussions
Based on the inductive analysis on both cases from both data sources, there are several frequent responses given by the participants that shared similar features which could be interpreted as the emerging themes of the topic discussed. T he following table (Table 1) depicted the summarized derived concerns as the specific examples of the challenges. The i
dentified emerging themes were mostly related to the issues and concerns of students, classroom, policy, workload, time and institution. The table consists of 5 major features that challenged participants in their routines. First and foremost, t he aspects that related to students are identified as the most worrisome issue. Then, this feature is followed by the partici pants’ related concerns on their professionalism and list of non-academic tasks. Last but not least, the derived features h ave been centred around classroom related concerns, and policy or institutional requirement or practice issues. All in all, these are 5 identified features that can be interpreted as sources of challenges in participants’ language teaching practice s. Each challenge is supported with the specific situational examples that had been derived from participants’ entries and responses.
Themes (Cha llenges)
It appears that participants did not only deal with common language learning drawbacks such as students’ proficien cy, attitude and behaviour, they also had to manage other unrelated teaching concerns like students’ attention, participati on, attendance and class size. It is understood that the polytechnic students were those who excelled in their subject cont ent skill and knowledge, but were relatively poor in their language command (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). Thus, extr a efforts from the lecturers were always welcomed. In these cases, the lecturers were willing to practice drilling as to ge t only an answer for a classroom task. In a way, this effort could have trigger students’ attention and participation in the class but sadly it did not work out. It was also unfair to the high proficient students to be dragged into this kind of learni ng environment. Other than that, the lecturers made use of their diplomacy sense if the students forgot the previous lesso n or they came in late to the class, yet the students were weakly expressed their respect to the lecturers. Thus, in this mix -ability of students context, the lecturers’ effort were somehow viewed as worthless efforts. The students, too, did not re ally have any intentions to put more on theirs. Hence, students’ hesitancy to actively and willingly participate in the clas sroom activities does not lessen their anxiousness or does not improve their sense of comfort and confidence to use the l anguage. That is why students nowadays are considered as ‘not work-ready’ graduates for future job positions by their p otential employers (Ezihaslinda et al., 2011). Since the existing efforts from lecturers’ part are less likely to succeed, th ere is one particular alternative to overcome this issue, segregating the students based on their proficiency levels that tra nscends their permanent subject-content tutorial groups. It can be done by addressing their English SPM result or Englis h GPA from the previous semester. It can also be run by sitting for requirement on diagnostic test as an entry point for th e English subject starting from their first semester. Institutional administrators could help the lecturers on this matter. By doing so, more centralized distribution of the students in a class will be based on their level of proficiency in which mo stly helpful to the language lecturers in adjusting their English teaching and learning expectations. They may, at the sam e time, able to reflect on their own practice in order to pinpoint the areas that in the need of ‘mending’ (Marwan, 2009). Both ways help to increase the effectiveness of the language lesson output.
Issues related to stud ents
Concerns related to classroom
Non-academic tasks
Concerns related to professionalism
Policy or institution al requirement/ pract ice
Students’ attendance 2. Students’ attention in class 3. Students’ attitude towards learning 4. Students’ behavior towards lecturers 5. Students’ participation in class 6. Students’ proficiency
1.
1.
1.
1.
Subthemes (Examples)
1.
Unconduc ive venue for classroom (replacement and assessment purposes) 2. Big class size (35-40 students) 3. Mix ability students (big gap between high proficient & low proficient in a class)
Updating attendance 2. Marking papers 3. Writing reports (PPSMTI research & MSK report) 4. Participati ng in MQA audit 5. Involving in students’ activity (English Festival)
Inadequat e received knowledge (nonTESL background) 2. Non English speaking environment in office 3. Need to collaborate with industries (content development) 4. Lack of language courses/ workshops
Attending external course 2. Attending in-house course and training 3. Lack of effort from the administrators in imparting new implementation of the policy (new syllabus introductory)
Table 1: Summary of the emerging themes and subthemes Then, there was another concerns on the participants’ ‘job inventory’ (Sahul Hameed et al., 2010). A list of non-aca demic tasks which were promptly being assigned to the participants based on the immediate institutional needs on certai
ILCC 2013
308
n particular matters, such as MQA audit, students’ activity (English Festival), PPSMTI research and Minggu Suai Kenal (MSK) report, was derived from both data sources. Other than that, there were also frequent mentioned of actions on up dating their teaching portfolio, which is Fail Rekod Pensyarah (FRP), particularly in term of monitoring attendance an d marking. All these exposures indirectly brought diverse administrative aspects to the language lecturers and tested thei r informal management skills to their teaching routine, which is a good thing. It is undeniable that experiential knowled ge is equally important as lecturers’ formal teacher education background (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b), yet this particular job inventory consumed most of the lecturers’ time and occupied their personal space that led to undefined workloads, which is a cliché constraint experienced by other educators regardless of their institutions (Marwan, 2009; Mohd Ali et al., 2010; Sahul Hameed et al., 2010; & Suhaily & Faizah, 2012a). One practical alternative can be taken into account w ould be the maximum collaboration within colleagues, non-academic staff as well as students’ involvement. In this man ner, the concepts of permanent support team (Mohd Ali et al., 2010), experiential learning (Eekelen et al., 2005) and trus tworthiness (Kane, Sandretto, & Heath, 2004) are effectively meaningful to be instilled and enculturated to the language lecturers’ work routine so that the language learning environment does not only take place inside the classroom, it may also provide the native environment exposure to others who are actively involved with the lecturers’ job progress and st udents’ social circles. Hence, the notion of the ‘discourse community’ (Khairi Izwan, 2001) concerns can be alienated d ue to the familiar environment of open interactions using minimum English would be shared by all levels of community in polytechnic context. As a result, it also promotes self-regulated learning (Kane et al., 2004) to the other subject conte nt lecturers, non-academic staff , and students, or the language lecturers themselves, in practicing and sustaining their la nguage proficiency. In addition to the aforementioned issues and recommendations, the participants were obliged to fulfill institutional policy such as attending external and in-house courses from time to time which none regarded their need on the langua ge content improvement. At the same time, they were required to implement a new syllabus without a proper workshop or detailed briefing regarding embarking on the implementation. They were left alone to figure it out as the imparting o n the information was poorly conducted and was not widely briefed to the community of the institution. To increase mor e alarm to these, the lack of facility issue (i.e. unconducive venue for replacement class or insufficient space in normal c lassrooms to occupy big size classes) was highlighted as the participants’ challenge in their teaching routine as well. In most common ground, they needed to act on their own term in order to ensure the lessons could be carry out in their mo st proper ways even the class session had to be conducted in the library. Thus, in these listed issues, it is assumed that t he institutional practice and policy, and lack of administrative supports are another features that increase lecturers’ burd en to be fully committed to their core practice, which is teaching. This is a serious threat to the lecturers’ professional de velopment (Marwan, 2009). In relation to these, they could view these ‘threat’ as their never-ending list of works, one-w ay solution alternative and undefined job scope which might be acted as deteriorating factors of their reflective language teaching practice. The question on their teaching and learning process quality may be arisen from time to time. Conseq uently, they felt inadequate in terms of their non-TESL background, awareness of current industrial demand and recent ELT inputs due to lack of external supports (Kane et al., 2004; Sahul Hameed Abdul Wahab et al., 2010; Suhaily & Faiz ah, 2012b). So, there is no other way to deal with this matter except that the higher administrators in the institution shou ld admit the flaws and then come out with workable short term and long term action plans to re-align their executive yea rly planning or annual strategic plan. They can impose a general order to maximize the usage of existence facilities in th e premise. It is also appreciated that the glimpse of language lecturers’ work nature could be publically acknowledged to other subject content lecturers and vice versa so that both sides become aware of each other routine. In certain extent, t he subject content lecturers could offer ‘win –win’ approaches to the language lecturers on the basis of striving for excel lence in their teaching practice. Last but not least, the culture of in-house training programmes and transdisciplinary res earch collaboration could be re-promoted and introduced as part of the polytechnics’ working environment culture. Thei r availability can be a massive positive impact in which the content expert lecturers of language, or any other fields, ma y able to incorporate their knowledge, skill and experience to be internally shared with the less competent or novice con tent lecturers, or the lecturers of different disciplines. This general institutional implication tunes with what have been a greed by Mohd Ali Jasmi et al., (2010), to which extent that the teaching and learning process is challenging and comple x and it incorporates many different role players and variety of different factors that need to be considered, then all play ers must bring their parts to the successful learning mission, particularly to the higher education institution students.
4.
Conclusion
This study was purposely carried out in order to explore the challenges faced by 2 polytechnic lecturers in their Eng lish Language Teaching (ELT) practice. The basis of the study was conducted through an interpretive case study orientat ion whereby the analysis process was run using Atlas.ti 7, a QDA software. There are 5 challenges have been derived fr om both data sources; namely reflective journal entries and interview transcripts. Students-related-issues is the central p oint of the lecturers’ teaching challenge. Then, concerns on professionalism and non-academic tasks have been successf ully concluded as another 2 more challenges to the English lecturers’ practice. Lastly, their challenges include the classr oom-related-issues and institutional-or-policy-related-practice. In relation to this discovery, 2 specific language based so lutions and a general institutional implementation have been put forward in suggesting the practical implication to the t arget audience. The limitation of the case study design in term of its contextual setting, sample size and profundity of th e data, however, should be put into consideration in generalizing the findings into bigger population. Further in-depth st udies which include more sample and variation of instruments or research orientations could be conducted to identify m ore exact features of the challenges faced polytechnic lecturers’ ELT practice. In addition, the empirical or comparative studies on current polytechnic students’ English proficiency based on the latest ‘Tracer Study’ result should also be carri ed out to set the current overview of students’ potential since they are the main challenge to the language lecturers’ teac hing practice. In a conclusion, the findings of this study contribute to the recent literature on deficit of employability iss ue concerning polytechnic students and provide initial impressions on polytechnic lecturers in teaching English.
5.
Acknowledgements
Thank you for never failing to share your experience even in between your ‘passing-baton’ moments (to all my rese arch participants, supervisor and families).
6.
References
Abdul Karim Jaafar. (2013, May). Transformasi Politeknik Fasa Dua. Opening Speech at the Kolokium Kecemerlangan Akademik Pegawai Pendidikan Pengajian Tinggi, Malaysia
Ahmad Yasruddin Md Yassin, Wan Mohd Haniff Wan Mohd Shaupil, Affidah Mardziah Mukhtar, Noor Izma Ab Ghani, & Farawaheeda Rashid. (2010). The English proficiency of Civil Engineering students at a Malaysian Polytechnic. Asian Social Science, 6(6), 161–170. Retrieved from www.ccsenet.org/ass Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design - Choosing Among Five Approaches (2nd ed.). California: Sage Publication. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. California: Sage Publication. Eekelen, I. M. Van, Boshuizen, H. P. a., & Vermunt, J. D. (2005). Self-regulation in Higher Education Teacher Learning. Higher Education, 50(3), 447–471. doi:10.1007/s10734-0046362-0 Ezihaslinda Ngah, Noor Raha Mohd Radzuan, Wan Jumani Fauzi, & Noor Azlinda Zainal Abidin. (2011). The need for competent work ready English language learners. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29(2010), 1490–1499. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.389 Harlini Khairuddin. (2011). An evaluation of the English for Specific Purposes curriculum in a Malaysian Polytechnic. Univesiti Teknologi MARA. Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik. (2011). Fakta ringkas (Quick Facts) September 2011. Putrajaya. Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik. (2012). Laporan Tahunan Politeknik 2011. Putrajaya.
ILCC 2013
310
Kane, R., Sandretto, S., & Heath, C. (2004). An investigation into excellent tertiary teaching: Emphasising reflective practice. Higher Education, 47(3), 283–310. doi:10.1023/B:HIGH.0000016442.55338.24 Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi. (2007). Pelan Strategik Pengajian Tinggi Negara - Melangkaui Tahun 2020. Putrajaya. Khairi Izwan Abdullah. (2001). English for Specific Purpose in Malaysia: International Influence, Local Flavour. Southeast Asian Journal of Education, 2(2), 345–361. Retrieved from http://www.seameo-journal.com/journal/index.php/education/article/view/25 Marwan, A. (2009). ESP teaching challenges in an Indonesian vocational higher institution. The English Teacher, XXXVIII, 1–12. Ministry of Higher Education. (2010). MOHE Implementation Plan for Development of Innovative Human Capital at Tertiary Level. Putrajaya. Ministry of Higher Education. (2012). The National Graduate Employability Blueprint 2012 - 2017. Putrajaya. Mohd Ali Jasmi, Mohd Amin Zakaria, & Muhamad Sukri Saud. (2010). Lecturer perceptions on workload, the impact towards the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process in polytechnic. 1st UPI International Conference on Technical and Vocational Education and Trainings (pp. 526–533). Bandung. Mohd Khalid Ustati. (2012). A study on Seberang Perai Polytechnic Lecturers’ perception on the integration of Digital Language Lab in English Language Lesson. Universiti Teknologi MARA. Noor Raha Muhamad Radzuan, & Kaur, S. (2010). A survey of oral communication apprehension in English among ESP learners in an engineering course. English for Specific Purposes World2, 10(31), 1–14. Normazidah Che Musa, Koo, Y. L., & Hazita Azman. (2012). Exploring English Language Learning And Teaching In Malaysia, 12(January), 35–51. Sahul Hameed Abdul Wahab, Mohd Amin Zakaria, & Mohd Ali Jasmi. (2010). Transformational of Malaysian ’ s Polytechnic into University College in 2015 : Issues and Challenges for Malaysian Technical and Vocational Education. 1st UPI International Conference on TVET (pp. 10–11). Bandung. Sarimah Shamsudin, Amerrudin Abd. Manan, & Noraini Husin. (2013). Introductory Engineering Corpus: A Needs Analysis Approach. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 70(0), 1288– 1294. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.189 Sidhu, G. K., & Kaur, S. (2010). Pathways to Reflective Learning and Teacher Development : Insights from Teacher Trainees ’ Diaries. Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 35(1), 47–57.
Suhaily, A., & Faizah, A. M. (2012a). Action speaks louder than words: Reflective teaching in second language classroom. International Colloquium on Language Teaching (Vol. 2012). Bachok, Kelantan. Suhaily, A., & Faizah, A. M. (2012b). Reflection on language teaching practice in polytechnic : Identifying sources of teachers ’ beliefs. International Conference of University Teaching and Learning. Shah Alam, Selangor. Suhaily, A., Noor Asmaa’, H., & Wan Rahayah Rahimi, W. R. (2011). Language Anxiety in ESP Classroom: A Local Polytechnic’s Context. Diges Akademik, 2(2), 86–89.
ILCC 2013
312
Mobilizing People’s Support to Combat Demonstration: (De)legitimization Discursive Strategy in Arab Spring Political Discourse Abdul kadir Sulaiman International Islamic University Malaysia
Corresponding Author: Abdul kadir, Sulaiman, IIUM, E-mail address:
[email protected] _______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. Handling demonstration is increasingly seen as a crucial task of leaders, but the role of specific discursive strategies, related linguistic tools and argumentative devices employed by those leaders to mobilize people’s support is little understood. This article aims to explain the (de)legitimization strategies employed by Arab leaders and to examine the linguistic choices associated with those strategies. The strategy of legitimization through emotions (one of the five strategies of legitimization) proposed by Reyes (2011) are applied to analyze some examples in the speeches of Arab leaders, specifically, former president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) and former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) in which they addressed the issue of demonstrations during Arab Spring. Both FPBA and FPHM delivered, respectively, three speeches while facing Arab Spring demonstrations. The key findings of this study are, first, that both presidents (FPBA and FPHM) influence the perspectives of audience toward them positively and toward demonstrators negatively through the choice of (de)legitimization strategies. Second, the linguistic choices made by the leaders clearly indicate that choosing vocabulary and grammar is important to portray demonstration negatively.
Keywords: Arab Spring, critical discourse analysis (CDA), demonstration, legitimization and (de)legitimization strategy, political discourse
1. Introduction Mobilizing support for combatting demonstration in a country requires ‘some shared understanding and common commitment’ (Markocy, 2001:1014) to be developed among people in order to make them believe and support the ruling government. In this regard, the leaders of ruling government play a vital role to develop mutual understanding between government and citizen in dealing with demonstration which is a crisis that can lead to the fall of ruling government. In this respect, the linguistic ‘struggle’ of leaders in managing such crisis in the real life settings provides us naturalistic data to be examined from the linguistic perspectives. Even so, less attention has been paid into the influence of leaders’ discursive strategies on managing the crisis of demonstration. To address this problem, I adopt ‘interdisciplinary discourse-oriented approach’ (Wodak, 2011: 593) to investigate strategic crisis management from the linguistic perspectives, exploring discourse in use during Arab spring. In socio-political perspective, there is basic conflict of interest between ruling government and citizens i.e. the interest in maintaining power from ruling party’s side and the interest in obtaining equal treatment from the citizen’s side which leads to the scenario of ‘one compete another’. This competition or two-sided ‘battle’ between ruling government and their opponents can be easily realized through the discourses produced and distributed by them. On the other hand, demonstration is seen as a sound outcome of this everlasting battle between the two groups. The present study considers demonstration as a ‘mass discourse’ which can influence the perception of people –locally and abroad- toward the image and reputation of the group targeted by demonstrators. Meanwhile the speeches of the leaders responding to this ‘mass discourse’ are considered as ‘counterdiscourse’. While facing threat to reputation and risk of losing power, leaders use to produce counterdiscourse in order to influence the salient audience to disbelieve the ‘discourse’ of other party (i.e. demonstrators) for the purpose of continuous holding of power. This is because the aim of politicians is to maintain their hegemonic power through different means and particularly through discourse (Antonio Reyes
2011: 783). One of the most newsworthy demonstration events of the past recent years is most probably Arab spring demonstrations. While facing those demonstrations, Arab leaders use different strategies in their speeches to convince people that they are the appropriate leaders and their decisions and suggestions worth to be followed. At the same time, they attempt to create the ‘bad’ image of ‘other’. In order to achieve this, they choose certain words and grammar to accomplish their mission and to make salient audience involved and engaged in their discourses. Arab leaders use their power and access to control the public media to legitimize their own leadership and (de)legitimize the demonstrations. Reyes (2011) defines legitimization as “the process by which speakers accredit or license a type of social behavior. In this respect, legitimization is a justification of a behavior (mental or physical” (782). Reyes argues that the process of legitimization occurs by providing arguments that explain our social actions, ideas and thoughts related to a goal such as seeking our interlocutor’s support and approval motivated by certain reasons such as obtaining or maintaining power. (Reyes, 2011: 782) The concept of legitimization and (de)legitimization in discourse proposed by Van Leeuwen (1996, 2007, 2008). Van Leeuwen underlines four key categories of legitimations: authority legitimation (reference to personal and impersonal authority, expertise, and role modelling), rationalization (reference to goals and uses of institutionalized social action), moral evaluation (reference to a value system) and mythopoesis (narratives that reward legitimate actions) (Van Leeuwen, 2007:92). These categories have been applied by Van Leeuwen & Wodak (1999) while analyzing the justifications of political official for rejecting immigrants’ petition to be reunited with their relatives in Austria. Rasti and Sahragard (2012) utilized the four (de)legitimation categories of Van Leeuwen with Wodak’s five discursive strategies of positive selfpresentation and negative other-presentation while conducting analysis of the actor and action (de)legitimation of the participants involved in Iran’s nuclear power contention in the media discourse namely The Economist. Reyes (2011) develops the categories of legitimization proposed by Van Leeuwen (1996, 2007, 2008) and proposes five strategies of legitimization: legitimization through emotions; legitimization through a hypothetical future; legitimization through rationality; voice of expertise and altruism. He integrates five discursive strategies (referential strategies or nomination strategies; predication strategies; argumentative strategies; perspectivation, framing or discourse representation; intensification or mitigation) proposed by Wodak (2001) into legitimization through emotions. The present study aims to examine some examples of the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in Arab spring political discourse delivered by former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and former president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) to their people during Arab spring in order to elicit people’s support to combat the demonstrations. Respectively both of them delivered three speeches while grappling with the demonstrations and demonstrators. This study sees speeches of Arab leaders toward demonstrators during Arab spring as a rich source of naturalistic data from which it can investigate a number of important issues. The first of these is to analyze (de)legitimization process through emotions as mentioned by Reyes (2011) in which he integrates the categories of legitimation by Leeuwen ( 2007, 2008) and Wodak’s (2001) strategies of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation into his model. Second, this study examines the linguistic features of those strategies adopted by the two former presidents in order to invoke emotions behind the justification of the (de)legitimatization.
2. Arab Spring and Discourse Analysis Arab Spring becomes an interesting socio-political phenomenon that attracts researchers to investigate issues related to this phenomenon from various perspectives. Wolfsfeld, Segev & Sheafer (2013) for instance, investigate the role of social media during Arab Spring by answering the question whether participations in social media increase the number of protests or the number of protests increases the participations in social media. Moghadam (2013) attempts to reveal the promises and perils of the democratization process of three early cases of Arab Spring (Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco). Hess (2013) on
ILCC 2013
314
the other hand try to study the relationship between Arab Spring and Chinese Winter to identify the similarities and differences of social and economic driving factors those lead to the fall of Egypt and Tunisia and not to the China. From the linguistic perspective, one of initial studies on Arab spring and critical discourse analysis (CDA) is that of Maalej (2012). The aim of the study was a person deixis analysis of the last three speeches of former president of Tunisia Ben Ali. This study revealed that Ben Ali uses WE and THEY in two early speeches before shifting to I-YOU and WE-THEY which is explained as an effort to reproducing power abuse, dominance and inequality by way of making political concession. Zouheir in some way includes the analyses of negative other-presentation and positive self-presentation through the pronounce choices. What is quite interesting and concern our studies is the discursive and linguistic ‘shifts’ as Zouheir argues that “the gradual loss of power by OPT caused him to make concession, which was reflected in the pronounce shifts in the speeches” (Zouheir A Maalej 2012: 697). Similarly, El Mustapha lahlali (2011) proposes that there are shifts from an authoritarian to a democratic discourse by President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt and President Zine El- Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia to address the public unrest. He identified that both former presidents use –in term of structure and strategy- the patterns: blame and denial, Acknowledging reality, emphasis on individual achievements and pledge of drastic reform and change. Useful though these studies are in providing insights into discursive strategies adopted by former presidents of Arab countries while facing demonstrators, they provide too little insights into the aspect of legitimization and (de)legitimization strategies in by those leaders in their speeches and the pragma-linguistic devices through which they are realized in the process of managing demonstration. To address this gap, the current study tries to answer the following questions: a- What (de)legitimization strategies do FPBA and FPHM adopt in their speeches to evoke emotions of their audience ?? b- How do FPBA and FPHM employ the linguistic devices in their (de)legitimization strategies?
3. Methodology The data for this study consists of speeches of former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and former president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) delivered as a response to the mass demonstration during Arab spring in their countries in which they were presidents. Coincidently, both of them delivered three speeches regarding to the crisis. The three speeches of FBHM were delivered on 29th January 2011, 1st February 2011 and 10th February 2011. Meanwhile, the three speeches of FPBA were delivered on 29th December 2010, 10th January 2011 and 13th January 2011. We chose the former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and former president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) to study the discursive strategies employed by them because they are among the leaders who have faced the demonstration’s threat into their power and they both handled the demonstration within the quite similar strategies and the quite similar time framework i.e. from December 2010 to February 2011. To mark the significance of the occasion, all the six speeches -three of FPHM and three of FPBA- were broadcasted by most television stations in Egypt and Tunisia and became newsworthy events that time. All of those speeches can now be accessed from YouTube website. The total length of our data is 1 hour 7 minutes and 36 seconds long which represents more than 5151 words. The detail of hours and word count of each speech of the former presidents are as follows:
Table 1: Data by Video Length and Word Count.
Former President Ben Ali
Former President Hosni Mubarak
Speech 1
Speech 2
Speech 3
Speech 1
Speech 2
Speech 3
Total
Video Length (minutes)
7:06
12:43
8:26
11:31
10:44
16:52
67:36
Word Count (number)
615
1082
760
793
726
1175
5151
While this may appear to be a small corpus, but the present study argues that its’ aim is to study the genre of ‘managing demonstration’ discourses in their specific context i.e. Arab spring through the lens of critical discourse analysis (CDA) in order to understand and explain the specific social phenomena through the in-depth analysis rather than studying huge size of context-less corpus to make generalization. In this respect, the scholars of CDA claim that CDA studies ‘mostly deal with only small corpora’ (Meyer, 2001:25). That is because the aim of CDA is to investigate object under study with multilevel analysis to understand complex social phenomena (Wodak, 2001). In fact, a lot of studies carried out in CDA only deal with small size data relating to specific context, for instance, the study of Reyes (2011) deals with two political speeches to investigate legitimization strategy and the study of Augoustinos et al. (2011) deals only with one political speech in order to investigate political apology. In conducting the present research, the researcher uses the legitimization strategies as developed and applied by Reyes (2011). One of the five strategies of legitimization of Reyes (2011) namely legitimization through emotions and five discursive strategies of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation developed by Wodak (2001) within her discourse historical approach (DHA) have been integrated and applied to current study while investigating the (de)legitimatization process in the speeches of FPBA and FPHM. the strategies of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation are: (a) referential strategies or nomination strategies; (b) strategies of predication; (c) strategies of argumentation; (d) strategies of perspectivation, framing or discourse representation; (e) intensification or mitigation.
4. Findings The examples of (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in Arab Spring political discourse is examined with specific focus on linguistic features.
4.1. Examples of (De)legitimization through Emotions In handling demonstration and gaining people’s support, FPBA and FPHM engage with emotional discussions with the concerns on moral aspect of demonstrations and demonstrators. Both FPBA and FPHM use the emotional evoking strategies. Pointing to problems such as implications of demonstration to the human and country being was an essential part of the both leaders’ campaign to combat the demonstrations. Table 2: (De)legitimization through Emotions. No.
1
Emotional Strategy
Explanation
Implications
By reference to:
to human
Threats to human life
being
Examples
Linguistic Choices
أحداث عنيفة دامية أحيانا أدّت إلى وفاة مدنيين وإصابة عدد من رجال أمن
Predication: adjective (violent
Violent incidents, sometimes bloody, which have caused
and bloody)
the death of civilians and caused injuries to several
Argumentation: material verb
officers of the security force. (FPBA, 27 December 2010)
(caused death and caused injuries)
ILCC 2013 Threats to daily routines
تتحول هذه التظاهرات ألعمال شغب تهدّد النظام العام وتعيق وقبل أن... ّ الحياة اليومية للمواطنين …before these demonstrations change to chaos, threaten
316
Nomination: noun (chaos) Argumentation: material verb (impede)
the law and impede daily routines of citizen. (FPHM, 29 January 2011) Threats to feelings
نعيش معا أياما مؤلمة وأكثر ما يوجع قلوبنا هو الخوف الذي انتاب األغلبية
Emotive loaded vocabularies:
الكاسحة من المصريين وما ساورهم من انزعاج وقلق وهواجس حول ما
noun (fear, disturbance,
سيأتي به الغد لهم ولذويهم وعائالتهم ومستقبل ومصير بلدهم
worry)
We are together living in the very painful days. What
Appeal to future: phrases
hurts our hearts most is the fear, disturbance, worry and
(what will happen,
unpleasant feelings those strike the absolute majority
tomorrow, future of their
of Egyptians on what will happen tomorrow to them,
country)
their families and the future of their country. (FPHM, 1 February 2011) 2
Implications to country
By reference to: Threats to economy
وهو مظهر سلبي وغير حضاري يعطي صورة مشوهة عن بالدنا تعوق
Predication: adjective
والسواح بما ينعكس على أحداثات الشغل التي نحن في إقبال المستثمرين ّ
(negative, uncivilized)
.حاجة إليها للحد من البطالة This is a negative and uncivilized manifestation that
Argumentation: material verb (tarnish, impede)
tarnish the image of our country and impedes the advent of investors and tourists which will effect on jobs creation while we need them to curb unemployment. (FPBA, 27 December 2010) Threats to security
إنّ ما حدث خالل هذه التظاهرات يتجاوز ما حدث من نهب وفوضى وحرائق لمخطط أبعد من ذلك لزعزعة االستقرار واالنقضاض على الشرعية
Fear
appeal:
phrase
(to
something planned for more than that)
Indeed what happened within these demonstrations
Emotive
loaded
vocabulary
transgress vandalism, chaos and fire to something planned
(that to shake the stability
for more than that to shake the stability and violate
and violate laws)
laws. (FPHM, 29 January 2011)
Threats to image of the country
واقتحام لبعض البعثات الدبلوماسية على أرض مصر... … and interfering some diplomatic representatives in the land of Egypt. (FPHM, 1 February 2011)
Argumentation (interfering some diplomatic representatives in the land of Egypt)
3
Negative
By reference to:
other-
Naming
..والمحرضين المأجورين المتطرفين كما أنّ لجوء أقلّية من ّ ّ
Nomination (extremists, agitators). predication (paid
presentation
by others) Attributes
أحداث قامت بها عصابات ملثّمة
Nomination
(guerrillas)
predication (hooked) Actions
ً أقدمت على االعتداء ليال على مؤسّسات عمومية وحتى على مواطنين في منازلهم في عمل إرهابي ال يمكن السكوت عنه
Argumentation (attack in the night)
4
Conclusion
On the whole, the negative traits of demonstration and demonstrators were found to mobilize the support of audience, as expected of the speeches of FPBA and FPHM who were under threat of losing power. It is likely that the way implications of demonstration to other fellow human being and to the country were highlighted would make audience adopt a negative attitude towards the demonstration. It is also noticed that the negative attitude of audience towards demonstration was triggered through the emotional appeals by highlighting the threats of demonstration to human life, their daily routines, their feelings as well as the threats to country’s economy, security and image. All the above negative traits of demonstration and demonstrators have been achieved through the negative other-presentation strategy as highlighted by Wodak which includes nomination, predication, argumentation, perspectivation and mitigation and intensification. In conclusion, demonstration and demonstrators were represented negatively through the choices of lexical and grammar. This study only gives some examples of the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions. Thus it is suggested for future research to study the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in a more comprehensive way. It is also important to mention that this study has focused only on one of the (de)legitimization strategies proposed by Reyes (2011). Future research should probably study the rest of strategies proposed by him.
5
Notes Bolded words and phrases in this article represent linguistic choices relevant to the process of (de)legitimization through emotions.
6
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the financial support of the Research Management Centre, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in the preparation of current research under grant Number EDW A13-035-1462
7
References
Caldas-Coulthard, C.R. (2003). Cross-Cultural Representation of ‘Otherness’ in Media Discourse, In: Weiss, G and Wodak, R (eds) Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 272-296 Diamond, J. (1996). Status and Power in Verbal Interaction: Study of Discourse in a Close-Knit Social Network. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Gee, J.P. (2011). How to do Discourse Analysis: A Toolkit. New York: Routledge. Hess, S. (2013). From Arab Spring to the Chinese Winter: The Institutional Sources of Authoritarian Vulnerability and Resilience in Egypt, Tunisia, and China, International Political Science Review, 34 (3), 254-272. Maalej, ZA. (2012). The ‘Jasmine Revolt’ Has Made The ‘Arab Spring’: A Critical Discourse Analysis of The Last Three Political Speeches of The Ousted President of Tunisia, Discourse & Society, 23 (6), 679-700. Markocy, L. (2001). Consensus Formation during Strategic Change, Strategic Management Journal, 22, 1013-1031. Meyer, M. (2001). Between Theory, Method, and Politics: Positioning of The Approaches to CDA, In: Wodak, R and Meyer, M (eds) Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: SAGE, 14-31.
ILCC 2013
318
Moghadam, VM. (2013). What is Democracy? Promises and Perils of the Arab Spring, Current Sociology, 61 (4), 393-408. Rasti, A., Sahragard, R. (2012). Actor Analysis and Action Delegitimation of The Participants Involved in Iran’s Nuclear Power Contention: A Case study of The Economist, Discourse & Society, 23 (6), 729-748. Reyes, A. (2011). Strategies of Legitimization in Political Discourse: From Words to Actions, Discourse & Society, 22 (6), 781-807. Van Dijk, T.A. (2009). Society and Discourse: How Social Contexts Influence Text and Talk. New York: Cambridge University Press. Van Leeuwen, T., Wodak, R. (1999). Legitimizing Immigration Control: A Discourse-Historical Analysis, Discourse Studies, 1 (1), 83-118. Van Leeuwen, T. (2007) Legitimation in Discourse and Communication, Discourse & Communication, 1 (1), 91-112. Wodak, R. (2001). The Discourse-Historical Approach, In: Wodak, R and Meyer, M (eds) Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: SAGE, 63-94. Wodak, R., Kwan, W., Clarke, I. (2011). ‘Getting People on Board’: Discursive Leadership for Consensus Building in Team Meetings, Discourse & Society, 22 (5), 592-644. Wolfsfeld, G., Segev, E., Sheafer, T. (2013). Social Media and the Arab Spring: Politics Comes First, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18 (2), 115-137.
PENGGUNAAN STRATEGI PEMBELAJARAN ATURAN KENDIRI KEMAHIRAN BERTUTUR BAHASA ARAB DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR MELAYU DI PUSAT ASASI UIAM
Mastura binti Arshad 1 1
Quranic Language Department International Islamic University Malaysia Malaysia
[email protected]
Corresponding Author: Kaseh Abu Bakar, Jabatan Pengajian Arab dan Tamadun Islam, Fakulti Pengajian Islam, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia,
[email protected] ________________________________________________________________________________ Abstrak. Kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab sering dikaitkan dengan penggunaan strategi pembelajar an yang pelbagai dan berkesan. Salah satu strategi pembelajaran bahasa Arab ialah strategi pembe lajaran aturan kendiri. Berdasarkan keputusan Ujian Kemahiran Bahasa (APT Skills Test) di Pu sat Asasi UIAM dapati majoriti pelajar tidak berjaya melepasitahap 6 (band 6) dalam Ujian mahara t al-kalam (kemahiran bertutur). Prestasi sebegini mungkin terjadi kerana mereka tidak mengguna kan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri secara efektif. Oleh itu, kajian ini meninjau penggunaan strategipembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar Mela yu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Kajian ini melibatkan 163 orang pelajar jurusan Bahasa Arab (BAR) da n Ilmu Wahyu (IRK) yang dipilih melalui kaedah persampelan rawak berkelompok. Soal selidik tel ah digunakan sebagai instrumen kajian. Data kajian telah dianalisis secara deskriptif mengguna kan median dan sisihan piawai. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan strategi yang memperoleh penggu naan tertinggi merupakan strategi-strategi kendiri bersifat keagamaan (Metafizik) manakala strategi kendiri yang memperoleh penggunaan terendah pula merupakan strategi kendiri yang melibatkan a ktiviti komunikasi bahasa Arab secara aktif. Kata kunci: strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri, kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab Abstract: Foreign language speaking skill is often associated with the use of variety and effective learning strategies. One of the strategies is Self-regulated learning strategies. Based on the result of Speaking Test in APT Skills Test, majority of students failed to achieve band 6 for Arabic Speaking Test. Such performance may occur due to the lack of practicing the self-regulated learning strategies in Arabic speaking skill learning strategies. Therefore, this research surveyed the practice of Self-regulated learning strategies in Arabic Speaking Skill among Malay students at the Centre for Foundation Studies (CFS) IIUM. This research involved 163 respondents taking B.A.R. and I.R.K. courses, using the Cluster Sampling Method. A Questionnaire was used to collect data for this study. The data were analyzed through descriptive analysis using median and standard deviation. The findings showed that the most practiced strategies was religious strategies (Metaphysics), while the lowest score was strategies that involves actively communication in Arabic. Keywords: Self- regulated learning strategies, Arabic speaking skill. PENDAHULUAN
Kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab sering dikaitkan dengan penggunaan strategi pembelajaran yang ba
ILCC 2013
320
nyak, pelbagai dan berkesan (Sueraya et.al 2010). al-Alwan (2008) menyatakan bahawa salah satu petunjuk utama kejayaan ialah penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri. Pembelajaran Atur an Kendiri ialah satu
proses pembelajaran yang berasaskan pelajar. Kebanyakan ahli teori peng
aturan kendiri berpendapat bahawa pembelajaran adalah satu proses pelbagai dimensi yang melibat kan komponen-komponen peribadi (kognitif dan emosi), tingkahlaku dan kontektual (Zimmerman 1989). Pelajar sendiri yang akan mengaktifkan dan
mengekalkan aspek kognitif, kelakuan dan a
fektif secara sistematik dengan tujuan untuk mencapai matlamat pembelajaran mereka (Brophy 199 8; Pintrinch dan Schunk 1996).
Ia bukan satu keupayaan mental atau prestasi pelajar tetapi ia merupakan satu proses arahan kendiri yang memandu keupayaan mental pelajar untuk berfungsi dalam melakukan tugasan. Menurut Hs u (1997),
Pintrinch dan De Groot (1990) strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri merupakan satu pro
ses yang aktif dan
konstruktif untuk mengawal kognitif, metakognitif, motivasi, tingkahlaku dan
yang berkaitan dengan
pengurusan sumber dan persekitaran kajian.
Memandangkan strategi pembelajaran kendiri adalah pendekatan yang membolehkan pelajar memperoleh pengetahuan dan kemahiran secara berdikari, seseorang pelajar haruslah bersikap auto nomi dan proaktif dalam proses pembelajaran dan tidak seharusnya menunggu ransangan guru dala m pembelajarannya, malah hendaklah mencari peluang untuk belajar secara berdikari. Penggunaan strategi pembelajaran kendiri
didapati memberikan beberapa kelebihan kepada pelajar seperti men
dorong kepada pencapaian yang tinggi
dalam akademik (al Alwan 2008). Selain itu, kurikulum y
ang disusun dengan tujuan meningkatkan tahap
pembelajaran kendiri juga menghasilkan penca
paian pelajar yang tinggi (Bail, Zhang & Tachiyama (2008)
dan Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons (2
004)).
Tinjauan kajian lepas mendapati, terdapat beberapa kajian terhadap beberapa komponen pembelajar an kendiri seperti motivasi (Kaseh dan Zainuddin 2009), sikap pelajar (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. R ahimi &
Parilah, 2010b), motivasi dan kebimbangan ujian (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi &
Parilah, 2010a), kesan perbezaan bentuk kursus terhadap penggunaan strategi pembelajaran kendiri (Ghazali Yusri dan Nik Mohd.
Rahimi 2010).
Dalam konteks kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab pula, beberapa kajian telah dilakukan tentang kelem ahan pelajar dalam menguasai kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab khususnya pelajar IPTA (Anida 200
3; Siti Ikbal 2006; Abd. Halim 2009; Sueraya et.al 2010), kajian strategi pembelajaran kemahiran b ertutur bahasa Arab yang terbahagi kepada strategi dalam kelas, strategi penggunaan media, strategi penyertaan dalam aktiviti ko-kurikulum dan strategi bertutur bersama rakan (Sueraya et.al 2010). S elain itu, terdapat kajian yang mengkaji penggunaan strategi belajar bersama rakan dalam konteks k emahiran lisan (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi,
Parilah M.Shah, Wan Haslina Wah & Ahmad
Thalal Hassan, 2012).
Berdasarkan tinjauan kajian lepas, didapati belum ada kajian yang mengkaji penggunaan str ategi
pembelajaran aturan kendiri dalam meningkatkan kemahiran bertutur, serta kajian yang m
engkaji pengetahuanpelajar terhadap strategi-strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri. Oleh itu, kajian i ni cuba mengkaji penggunaan dan pengetahuan pelajar tentang strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab.
PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Sebahagian besar pelajar Institut Pengajian Tinggi (IPT) khususnya dalam aliran pendidikan Islam masih
belum mampu menguasai kemahiran bertutur walaupun telah dapat pendedahan yang lua
s dalam bahasa Arab sejak berada di sekolah menengah. Menurut Naimah dan Aini (2005), walaupu n pelajar-pelajar bahasa ketiga menerima pembelajaran secara formal pada peringkat sekolah, namu n mereka masih lagi menghadapi masalahuntuk berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Arab yang dipelajari. Ab. Halim (2007) dan Sueraya et.al ( 2010) turut
menyatakan bahawa penguasaan bahasa Arab
di kalangan pelajar lepasan IPTA yang mengambil pengkhususan bahasa Arab tidak mencapai taha p kecekapan berbahasa yang baik.
Di Pusat Asasi UIAM, keputusan Ujian Kemahiran Bahasa (APT Skills Test) mendapati maj oriti pelajar tidak berjaya melepasi tahap 6 (band 6) dalam Ujian maharat al-kalam (kemahiran ber tutur). Justeru, adalah perlu untuk mengkaji penggunaan Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa (SPB) Kema hiran Bertutur Bahasa
Arab di kalangan mereka. Prestasi sebegini mungkin terjadi kerana mereka
tidak menggunakan strategi
pembelajaran aturan kendiri secara pelbagai dan berkesan. Oleh i
tu, kajian ini cuba meninjau penggunaan danpengetahuan pelajar tentang strategi pembelajaran atur an kendiri. PERSOALAN KAJIAN
Kajian ini dilakukan berdasarkan persoalan kajian berikut, iaitu: 1. Bagaimanakah penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab
ILCC 2013 dalam
322
kalangan pelajar Melayu di Pusat Asasi UIAM?
4. METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Kajian ini merupakan kajian kuantitatif yang menggunakan instrumen soal selidik. Soal selidik dip ilih
bagi meninjau penggunaan strategi kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab yang dilakukan oleh 163
pelajar Melayu jurusan Bahasa Arab dan Ilmu Wahyu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Berdasarkan tinjauan kajian lepas, 35 item
strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri telah digubal. Peringkat pra uji tela
h dijalankan bagi mengenalpasti
sebarang kelemahan dan kekurangan pada instrumen yang di
bina. Peringkat pengumpulan data pula
dijalankan oleh pensyarah masing-masing dalam 7
sesi kelas yang berasingan. Proses analisis data dibuat
menggunakan perisian SPSS (Statistical
Packages for the Social Sciences) Versi 20 bagi menjawab objektif
kajian. Statistik perihalan iait
u kiraan median dan sisihan piawai digunakan untuk menganalisa penggunaan strategi pembelajar an kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab.
5.DAPATAN KAJIAN
Pengkaji telah mengadaptasi interpretasi skor min (Oxford 1990) dan menyesuaikannya mengikut k esesuaian kajian ini. Oleh itu, pengkaji mencadangkan interpretasi median seperti berikut: Jadual 2
Interpretasi skor median tahap penggunaan SPB
__________________________________________________________________________________ Tinggi
Sederhana
Sentiasa benar tentang diri saya (sentiasa) 5 Selalunya benar tentang diri saya (kerap kali) 4 ____________________________________________________________________ Biasanya benar tentang diri saya (kadang-kadang) 3 ____________________________________________________________________
Rendah
Biasanya tidak benar tentang diri saya (sekali-sekala) 2 Tidak pernah benar tentang diri saya (tidak pernah) 1 __________________________________________________________________________________ Respon 1 (Tidak Pernah Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden tidak pernah menggunakan strategi tersebut, respon 2 (Biasanya Tidak Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden hanya sekali-sekala men ggunakan strategi tersebut. Respon 3 (Biasanya Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden kadang-kad ang menggunakan strategi. Manakala respon 4 (Selalunya Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud respondenke rap kali menggunakan strategi dan respon 5 (Sentiasa Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden sentias a menggunakan strategi tersebut.
Penggunaan strategi pelajar mengikut item strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri
Jadual 3 Susunan kekerapan penggunaan berdasarkan item strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri n=163 Item Strategi
Penggunaan
Min
Mod Med S.P
3 8 31 31 90 (1.8%) (4.9%) (19.0%) (19.0%)(55.2%)
4.21
5.00
5
1.03
1
2
3
4
5
i. Penggunaan tinggi 26
Berdoa
11
Baca Quran
4 8 38 51 62 ( 2.5%) (4.9%)(23.3%)(31.3%)(38.0%)
3.98
4.00
5
1.02
29
Siapkan diri
3 10 50 43 57 (1.8%) (6.1%) (30.7%)(26.4%)(35.0%)
3.87
4.00 5
1.03
4.00 5
1.12
27 Ungkapkan kata-kata peransang 6 16 43 45 53 (3.7%) (9.8%) (26.4%)(27.6%) (32.5%)
3.75
ii.
Penggunaan sederhana
25
Yakinkan diri 6 14 60 33 50 (3.7%) (8.6%) (36.8%) (20.2%) (30.7%)
28 diri
Mempersiapkan 7 28 48 40 40 (4.3%) (17.2%) (29.4%)(24.5%)(24.5%)
3.48 3.00
3
1.16
13 Arab
Berlatih sebutan 6 21 70 40 26 3.36 3.00 ( 3.7%) (12.9%)(42.9%) (24.5%) (16.0%)
3
1.02
24
Beranikan diri 7 34 52 38 32 (4.3%)(20.9%)(31.9%)(23.3%)(19.6%)
23 Tetapkan matlamat 10
35 Arab
23 62 41 27 (6.1%)(14.1%)(38.0%)(25.2%)(16.6%)
Bayangkan diri guna bahasa 23 30 47 20 43 (14.1%)(18.4%)(28.8%)(12.3%)(26.4%)
15 Ulangi kembali apa yang diajar 12 29 65 37 20 (7.4%)(17.8%)(39.9%)(22.7%)(12.3%)
3.66 4.00
3.33 3.00
3.32 3.00
3
3
3
1.10
3.18
3.00
3
1.38
3.15
3.00
3
1.08
1.11
1.14
ILCC 2013 12 Gunakan nahu dan sarf yang betul 9 34 72 31 17 3.08 3.00 3 (5.5%)(20.9%)(44.2%)(19.0%)(10.4%) 34 Bayangkan diri setanding pelajar Timur Tengah 36 28 43 19 37 2.96 3.00 3 (22.1%)(17.2%)(26.4%)(11.7%)(22.7%) 14
8
Berlatih membina ayat 18 39 66 22 18 (11.0%)(23.9%)(40.5%)(13.5%)(11.0%) Baca bahan bahasa Arab
3 Menterjemah di dalam minda apa yang dilihat di papan tanda 33 33 60 24 13 (20.2%)(20.2%)(36.8%)(14.7%)(8.0%)
2.79 3.00
3
3
2.71 3.00 3
1.17
2.70 3.00 3
1.18
4 Menterjemah di dalam minda apa yang dibaca 37 43 53 22 8 (22.7%)(26.4%)(32.5%)(13.5%)(4.9%) iii.
1.45
2.90 3.00
31 36 47 34 15 (19.0%)(22.1%)(28.8%)(20.9%)(9.2%)
21 Menilai kemajuan pertuturan 33 33 57 29 11 (20.2%)(20.2%)(35.0%)(17.8%)(6.7%)
1.02
2.50 3.00
3
Tahap penggunaan rendah
33 Bayangkan diri cekap bertutur 38 42 30 19 34 (23.3%)(25.8%)(18.4%)(11.7%)(20.9%) 18 Cari sebanyak mungkin peluang 26 55 44 23 15 (16.0%)(33.7%)(27.0%)(14.1%)(9.2%) 19 Cari orang yang boleh bertutur bahasa Arab secara aktif 36 46 42 23 16 (22.1%)(28.2%)(25.8%)(14.1%)(9.8%)
2.81
3.00
2
1.46
2.67
3.00
2
1.18
2.61 2.00
2
1.25
1.12
1.24
1.13
324
9 Memperbanyak aktiviti mendengar pertuturan bahasa Arab 36 58 36 24 9 (22.1%)(35.6%)(22.1%)(14.7%)(5.5%)
2.46
2.00
2
2.46
2.00
2
1.17
2.28
2.00
2
1.13
2.25
2.00
2
1.08
2.50
2.00
1
1.41
2.36 2.00
1
1.20
22 Beri ganjaran kepada diri sendiri 59 41 29 20 14 (36.2%)(25.2%)(17.8%)(12.3%)(8.6%)
2.32 2.00
1
1.31
31 Mempelajari budaya orang Arab 56 45 31 16 15 (34.4%)(27.6%)(19.0%)(9.8%)( 9.2%)
2.32 2.00
1
1.29
1 Berfikir dalam bahasa Arab 52 46 37 17 11 (31.9%)(28.2%)(22.7%)(10.4%)(6.7%)
2.32 2.00
1
1.22
5 Menterjemah di dalam minda, apa yang didengar seperti berita 39 50 45 18 11 (23.9%)(30.7%)(27.6%)(11.0%)(6.7%) 17 Merancang jadual 49
51 36 22 5 (30.1%)(31.3%)(22.1%)(13.5%)(3.1%)
Membaca buku strategi belajar bahasa 46 54 41 17 5 (28.2%)(33.1%)(25.2%)(10.4%)(3.1%)
1.15
10
32 Membayangkan diri berkomunikasi di negara Arab 53 41 27 19 23 (32.5%)(25.2%)(16.6%)(11.7%)(14.1%) 6
Bertutur bahasa Arab di hadapan cermin 49 47 36 22 9 (30.1%)(28.8%)(22.1%)(13.5%)(5.5%)
30 Mengaplikasikan pertuturan bahasa Arab di kedai-kedai dan restoran Arab 63 52 19 15 14 (38.7%)(31.9%)(11.7%)(9.2%)(
2.17
16 Mengikuti kursus-kursus komunikasi Bahasa Arab 65 41 33 16 8 (39.9%)(25.2%)(20.2%)(9.8%)(4.9%) 2
Bermonolog melalui penulisan diari dalam bahasa Arab 61
54
24
14
2.00 1
1.28
8.6%)
10
2.15
2.00 1
1.19
2.13
2.00 1
1.19
ILCC 2013
326
(37.4%)(33.1%)(14.7%)(8.6%)(6.1%) 7
Merekodkan pertuturan sendiri dalam bahasa Arab 86 40 19 13 5 (52.8%)(24.5%)(11.7%)(8.0%)( 3.1%)
20 Tinggal bersama rakan berbangsa Arab di asrama 117 22 11 10 3 (71.8%)(13.5%)(6.7%)( 6.1%)(1.8%)
1.84
1.00
1
1.11
1.53
1.00
1
0.99
Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa item no.26- (saya berdoa agar Allah mempermudahkan saya bertutur bahasa Arab) dan item no.11- (saya membaca al-Quran setiap hari untuk memperbetul da n melancarkan sebutan saya) memperoleh median skor tertinggi 5. Selain itu, item no.29 – (saya m empersiapkan diri untuk menerima sebarang teguran daripada pensyarah dan rakan terhadap kesalah an bahasa yang dituturkan dan berusaha memperbaikinya) dan item no.27- (saya mengungkapkan k ata-kata peransang untuk menaikkan semangat saya untuk terus mempertingkat pertuturan bahasa A rab) turut memperoleh skor median yang sama.
Terdapat 10 item yang memperoleh skor median terendah. Item-item yang memperoleh sko r median terendah ini terdiri daripada item no.20 –(saya tinggal bersama rakan berbangsa Arab di as rama), item no.7 – (saya merekodkan pertuturan sendiri dalam bahasa Arab), item no.2- (saya berm onolog melalui penulisan diari dalam bahasa Arab), item no.16- (saya mengikuti kursus-kursus baha sa Arab di luar), item no.30-(saya mengaplikasikan pertuturan bahasa Arab di kedai dan restoran Ar ab), item no.1-(saya berfikir dalam bahasa Arab), item no.31-(saya mempelajari budaya orang Arab) , item no.22 –(saya memberi ganjaran kepada diri sendiri), item no.6-(saya bertutur bahasa Arab di hadapan cermin) dan item no.32-(saya membayangkan diri berkomunikasi di negara Arab).
6.0 PERBINCANGAN DAPATAN KAJIAN
Meneliti pola item strategi yang paling banyak dilaporkan penggunaannya oleh pelajar, didapati bah awa strategi-strategi yang paling popular di kalangan pelajar ialah strategi kendiri yang bersifat kea gamaan atau Metafizik. Sebagai contoh, strategi yang memperoleh median penggunaan tertinggi ial ah strategi berdoa agar Allah mempermudahkan bertutur bahasa Arab diikuti strategi membaca al-Q uran setiap hari untuk memperbetul dan melancarkan sebutan. Dapatan ini hampir menyamai dapata
n Kamarul Shukri et al. (2009) yang menunjukkan Strategi Metafizik memperolehi min strategi ked ua tertinggi di kalangan pelajar SMKA Terengganu.
Pemilihan strategi kendiri bersifat Metafizik sebagai strategi yang paling kerap digunakan oleh pelaj ar jurusan BAR dan IRK mencerminkan kepentingan strategi tersebut dalam pembelajaran bahasa A rab. Ajaran Islam yang menganjurkan doa sebagai senjata mukmin dan memohon pertolongan Allah dalam setiap tindakan. Firman Allah dalam surah al-Ghafir ayat 60: ادعوني أستجب لكم Maksudnya: Berdoalah kepadaku, nescaya aku perkenankan permintaanmu. Pengkaji merasakan bahawa sebagai pelajar jurusan agama, para pelajar amat menyedari bahawa m ereka mempelajari bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa ibadah. Justeru, hubungan antara para pelajar jurusa n agama dengan bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa al-Quran adalah amat rapat sekali. Tambahan pula, bah asa Arab adalah bahasa agama yang wajib dipelajari oleh setiap individu muslim. Oleh itu, kajian in i mendapati bahawa motif keagamaan yang kukuh muncul sebagai strategi yang paling digunakan o leh pelajar Bahasa Arab dan IRK di Pusat Asasi UIAM.
Manakala item strategi kendiri yang mendapat median penggunaan terendah pula memperlihatkan s trategi-strategi komunikatif secara aktif seperti tinggal dengan rakan-rakan berbangsa Arab di asram a, merekodkan pertuturan sendiri dalam bahasa Arab dan bermonolog melalui penulisan diari dalam bahasa Arab. Dengan kata lain, kajian ini mendapati pelajar tidak cuba mencabar kebolehan diri unt uk bertutur bahasa Arab.
Faktor persekitaran juga memainkan peranan yang penting. Persekitaran pelajar di Pusat Asasi UIA M yang dikelilingi oleh ramai pelajar bukan natif (bukan Arab) menyebabkan pelajar merasa tidak t erdesak untuk menggunakan bahasa Arab dan merasa lebih selesa untuk berkomunikasi menggunak an bahasa Melayu bersama rakan-rakan sekuliah mereka. Senario di Pusat Asasi UIAM melihatkan kurangnya pelajar-pelajar berbangsa Arab yang mengambil jurusan sastera. Majoriti pelajar berbang sa Arab mengambil jurusan seperti Kejuruteraan, Fizik, Perubatan, Farmasi dan Senibina. Justeru it u, pelajar BAR dan IRK didapati kurang bergaul dengan mereka dan tidak mengambil peluang kee masan untuk tinggal bersama pelajar-pelajar berbangsa Arab di asrama lalu menyebabkan pelajar tid ak menggunakan strategi pembelajaran yang memerlukan komunikasi bahasa Arab secara berterusa n. Ini dapat dilihat dalam dapatan kajian ini yang menunjukkan item no.20 (tinggal bersama rakan b
ILCC 2013
328
erbangsa Arab di asrama) dan item no.11 (duduk bersebelahan penutur asal (rakan berbangsa Arab) memperoleh median penggunaan terendah (median= 1).
Sistem pembelajaran sekarang yang berorientasikan peperiksaan turut menyumbang kepada dapatan ini. Dapatan ini secara umumnya menyokong dapatan Oxford dan Nyikos (1989) mengenai bentu k strategi yangselalu dan jarang digunakan pelajar. Mereka berpendapat bahawa pendekatan akadem ik yang berorientasikan pengajaran dan peperiksaan telah membataskan usaha pelajar untuk mencub a strategi-strategi baru yang lebih kreatif serta melibatkan latihan penggunaan bahasa di luar kelas. Pengajaran bahasa Arab yang lebih menekankan tatabahasa, aspek metalinguistik dan analisis bahas a (Abdul Rahim 1994) juga mungkin merupakan penyebab pelajar-pelajar kurang menggunakan stra tegi-strategi yang bersifat komunikatif.
Selain itu, tiadanya pengetahuan tentang strategi kendiri, kurangnya kesedaran dan motivasi dalama n juga merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan strategi pembelajaran kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab. Sueraya et.al (2010) dalam kajiannya mendapati antara faktor yang mempengaruhi k elemahan bertutur bahasa Arab ialah kurangnya kesedaran tentang strategi pembelajaran bahasa (SP B) kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab. Nurazan (2003) dalam kajiannya di kalangan pelajar UNISZA turut mendapati majoriti pelajar tidak mengetahui strategi-strategi pembelajaran bahasa yang dinyat akan lalu menyebabkan tahap penggunaan SPB bahasa Arab adalah berada di tahap sederhana. Oleh sebab itu, pengetahuan pelajar tentang SPB Kemahiran Bertutur merupakan perkara penting bagi m embantu pelajar mencapai kejayaan dalam pembelajaran mereka.
7.0 PENUTUP
Pengkaji berharap agar kajian ini akan memberikan manfaat kepada pelajar dan juga pengajar. Dalam bidang pembelajaran bahasa Arab, pelajar yang didedahkan dengan pelbagai strategi ternyata mampu meningkatkan kebolehan bahasa. Pengetahuan tentang strategi-strategi pembelajaran kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab mampu menarik minat pelajar untuk mengaplikasikannya dalam pembelajaran. Selain itu, penggunaan strategi yang tepat dan bersesuaian akan melahirkan pelajar bahasa yang bijak dalam mengendalikan pembelajaran bahasa. Apa yang penting, penggunaan strategi dalam pembelajaran kemahiran bertutur
menjadikan
pembelajaran bahasa Arab lebih mudah dan menyeronokkan sekaligus menolak tanggapan bahawa
bahasa Arab sukar dipelajari. Strategi pembelajaran kendiri hendaklah didedahkan kepada para pelajar agar pelajar lebih berautonomi, tidak bergantung dan mengharapkan segala maklumat daripada guru semata-mata. Semoga kajian ini memberi sumbangan terhadap aspek pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab di Malaysia.
9.0 RUJUKAN
Al-Qur’an. Ab. Halim Mohamad. 2007. Masalah komunikasi bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar bacelor bahasa Arab di IPTA Malaysia. Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan Dalam Pengajian Islam Ke-4, hlm. 1-13. Ab. Halim Mohamad. 2009. Tahap komunikasi dalam bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar Sarjana Muda Bahasa Arab di IPTA Malaysia. Journal of Islamic and Arabic Education 1(1), hlm.1-14. Abdul Rahim Ismail. 1994. Pengajaran bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa kedua: permasalahan dan penyelesaian. Dlm. Muhammad Bukhari Lubis (pngr.). Persuratan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Anida Abd. Rahim. 2003. Strategi pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar Melayu. Tesis Sarjana, Universiti Malaya. al-Alwan, A.F. (2008). Self-regulated learning in high and low achieving students at al-Hussein bin Talal University (AHU) in Jordan. International Journal of Applied Educational Studies, 1 (1), 1-13. Bail, F. T., Zhang, S., & Tachiyama, G. T. (2008). Effects of a self-regulated learning course on the academic performance and graduation rate of college students in an academic support program. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 39(1), 54-72. Brophy, J. (1998). Motivating students to learn. New York: McGraw-Hill. Duncan, T.G., & McKeachie, W.J. (2005). The making of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire. Educational Psychologist, 40 (2), 117-128. Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi, Parilah M. Shah, Wan Haslina Wah & Ahmed Thalal Hassan. (2012). Penggunaan strategi belajar bersama rakan dalam kalangan pelajar kursus bahasa Arab di Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM). Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education 37: 37-50. Kamarul Shukri Mat Teh. 2009. Penggunaan strategi pembelajaran bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah agama. Tesis Dr. Falsafah, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Kaseh Abu Bakar & Zainuddin Ismail. 2009. Al-Nizam al-zati lidafiiʻyyati taallum al-lughah althaniah wa mutaallimu al-lughah al-arabiyyah fi Maliziya. Proceedings of the Malaysia Conference on Arabic Studies and Islamic Civilization (MACASIC). hlm. 1131-1136. Naimah, A., & Aini, A. 2005. Kajian tentang persepsi pelajar UiTM terhadap kepentingan bahasa ketiga di UiTM. Unpublished manuscript, Shah Alam.
ILCC 2013
330
Nurazan Mohmad Rouyan. 2004. Strategi pembelajaran bahasa dalam pembelajaran bahasa Arab: Kajian di KUSZA. Disertasi Sarjana, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Oxford, R.L. & Nyikos, M. 1989. Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students. Modern Language Journal 73(3): 291-300. Pintrinch, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in education: Theory, research and applications. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc. Siti Ikbal Sheikh Salleh. 2006. Masalah penguasaan pertuturan bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar Sekolah Menengah Agama di Selangor. Dlm. Mohd. Rosdi Ismail & Mat Taib Pa. Pengajaran dan pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Universiti Malaya. Sueraya Che Haron, Ismail Sheikh Ahmad, Arifin Mamat & Ismaiel Hassanein Ahmed Mohamed. 2010. Understanding Arabic-speaking skill learning strategies among selected Malay learners: A case-study at the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). ProQuest Education Journals Aug.(3): 8-9. Swain, M. 1995. Three functions of output in second language learning. In Cook, G. And Seidlhofer, B. (eds.). Principle and practice in applied linguistics, hlm. 125-144. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zimmerman, B.J. 1989. Models of self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Dlm. B.J. Zimmerman & D.H Schunk (pnyt). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: theory, research and practice. hlm. 1-25. New York: Springer-Verlag. Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (2004). Pursuing academic self-regulation: A 20-year methodological quest. Dlm. Jessie Ee, Agnes Chang & Oon seng Tan (pnyt), Thinking about thinking, hlm. 3-30. Singapore: McGraw Hill Education.
PEMINJAMAN BAHASA SANSKRIT DALAM DIALEK MELAYU PATANI DAN BAHASA THAI: SUMBER PERSAMAAN DEMI MENYELESAIKAN KONFLIK DI SELATAN THAI
Abdonloh Khreeda-oh Pensyarah Bahasa Melayu, Cawangan Bahasa Melayu, Jabatan Bahasa-bahasa Timur, Fakulti Kemanusiaan dan Sains Kemasyarakatan, Universiti Prince of Songkla, Kampus Pattani 181 Chareonpradit Road, Rusamilae, Muang, Pattani, 94000, Thailand e-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected]
ABSTRAK Kajian ini merupakan kajian yang meninjau proses peminjaman bahasa Sanskrit (BS) dalam Dialek Melayu Patani (DMP) dan bahasa Thai (BTh) dari perspektif Sosiolinguistik. Tujuan utama kajian ini adalah untuk melihat proses-proses peminjaman terutamanya proses persamaan antara DMP dan BTh yang berlaku akibat peminjaman BS. Data kajian bagi kata pinjaman BS di dalam DMP dan BTh diperolehi melalui bahan tulisan dan lisan. Perhatian terhadap proses peminjaman BS dalam kedua-dua bahasa tersebut melibatkan kajian terhadap persamaan antara DMP dan BTh melalui proses peminjaman, iaitu proses pengimportan. Seterusnya secara tidak langsung kajian ini turut menyentuh pengaruh BTh yang mempunyai peranan penting terhadap unsur-unsur leksikal DMP dan sebaliknya pengaruh bahasa Melayu terhadap kosa kata BTh. Selain daripada huraian terhadap proses peminjaman, analisis juga turut dilakukan terhadap proses perubahan kata pinjaman BS dalam DMP dan BTh dari segi fonologi yang melibatkan perubahan vokal dan perubahan konsonan dengan menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif. Hasil dapatan daripada kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa selain daripada berlakunya peminjaman secara langsung daripada BS ke dalam DMP dan BTh sehingga menghasilkan sumber persamaan iaitu perbendaharaan kata yang seerti dan seakan-akan sama bentuknya antara DMP dan BTh. Malah daripada unsur-unsur pinjaman, didapati adanya kata-kata DMP dan BTh yang boleh dianggap datang dari induk yang sama dan diharap dapat membawa kepada penyelasaian konflik di selatan Thai. Kata Kunci: Peminjaman, Bahasa Sanskrit, Bahasa Thai, Dialek Melayu Patani Pengimportan, Penyelesaian Konflik Selatan Thai.
Proses
ILCC 2013
332
PEMINJAMAN BAHASA SANSKRIT DALAM DIALEK MELAYU PATANI DAN BAHASA THAI: SUMBER PERSAMAAN DEMI MENYELESAIKAN KONFLIK DI SELATAN THAI 1. Pengenalan
Pengaruh bahasa asing yang pertama tersebar di alam Melayu, ialah bahasa Sanskrit dan sebahagian besar daripada perkataan-perkataan itu sudah begitu sebati dengan sistem bunyi BM sehingga tidak lagi dirasakan sebagai unsur-unsur asing (Asmah Haji Omar, 1985: 5). Bahasa Sanskrit datang ke Semenanjung Tanah Melayu bersama orang-orang India yang menjalankan perdagangan,dan perhubungan ini telah terjalin sejak tahun 200 sebelum Masihi lagi (Abdullah Hassan, 1974: 218). Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah (1989: 19) menyatakan bahawa kedatangan agama Hindu-Buddha ke alam Melayu adalah secara dua hala, iaitu bukan sahaja dibawa oleh para pedagang dan paderi, tetapi juga oleh pihak penerima yang secara sukarela menerima agama tersebut. Usaha ini disertai dengan menghantar para pengkaji ke India untuk tujuan pelajaran mahupun mengundang Brahmin terkenal sebagai penasihat raja (Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah, 1989: 19).
Tamadun India membawa bersama bahasa Sanskrit memasuki dunia Melayu dengan cara yang aman. Ini terbukti dengan adanya agama sebagai teras kebudayaannya (Asmah Haji Omar, 1985: 5). Tamadun India juga telah memberi pengaruh yang amat besar, bukan sahaja bagi BM, tetapi juga kepada kebudayaan Melayu secara meluas (Abdullah Hassan, 1994: 45). Bidang yang dipengaruhi oleh perkataan pinjaman daripada bahasa Sanskrit juga luas, bermula daripada namanama tumbuhan dan haiwan, bahagian badan, alat perkakas dan perdagangan, sehinggalah sistem pemerintahan, agama dan ilmu pengetahuan (Abdullah Hassan, 1994: 45-46). Menurut Khalid M.Hussain (1978: 470-473) pula, perkataan dari bahasa Sanskrit memainkan peranan penting dalam bidang yang berkaitan dengan keagungan golongan diraja dan agama, pandangan dunia serta moral, nama-nama gelaran dan panggilan golongan pemerintah. Ini tergambar misalnya dalam perkataan perdana menteri, menteri, Duli Yang Maha Mulia, syurga, neraka, dosa, pahala, dan sebagainya (Khalid M.Hussain, 1978: 473-475). Walau bagaimanapun setelah kedatangan agama Islam ke dunia Melayu, banyak perkataan Arab telah dimasukkan ke dalam BM. Dengan demikian bahasa Sanskrit telah disesuaikan daripada perkataan yang menunjukkan konsep agama Hindu-Buddha kepada konsep agama Islam tanpa perubahan perkataan. Salah satu faktor yang mengekalkan bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM adalah unsur
bahasa Sanskrit telah tidak lagi dianggap sebagai unsur pinjaman asing, sebaliknya menjadi sebahagian daripada kosa kata BM (Hara, 2001: 107). Seterusnya pada cogan kata “Bahasa Jiwa Bangsa” (Hara, 2001: 107) semuanya terdiri daripada perkataan bahasa Sanskrit, tetapi perkataan ini telah sebati dalam BM. Begitu juga nama-nama kereta buatan Malaysia seperti ‘wira’, ‘perdana’, ‘satria’, ‘kenari’ dan sebagainya (Hara, 2001: 107) adalah dari bahasa Sanskrit. Secara jelas didapati bahawa kedudukan bahasa Sanskrit bertambah kukuh walaupun setelah kedatangan agama Islam yang disertai oleh bahasa Arab dan unsur bahasa Sanskrit tetap dikekalkan dalam BM (Ismail Hussein, 1966: 31).
C.A.Mees (1967) menyatakan bahawa BTh dan BM yang tergolong di bawah filum Austrik berada di bawah rumpun yang berlainan. BM terletak di bawah rumpun Austronesia (Asmah Haji Omar, 1995: 35), manakala BTh pula tergolong di bawah rumpun Sino-Tibet (C.A.Mees, 1967: 12). Secara umum didapati bahawa BTh lebih dekat dengan rumpun Sino-Tibet dari rumpun Austronesia. Persamaan yang wujud di antara BTh dan BM ialah kesan proses sejarah di antara masyarakat penutur kedua-dua bahasa yang tinggal berhampiran. Proses sejarah yang paling utama adalah pengaruh yang amat mendalam dari segi peminjaman bahasa asing dan peminjaman di antara BM dan BTh sendiri, terutamanya dari segi kosa kata. Walaupun kedua-dua BTh dan BM ini tidak tergolong dalam rumpun yang sama, tetapi kedua-dua bahasa ini tergolong ke dalam induk yang sama, iaitu filum Austrik (C.A.Mees, 1967: 12). 2. Persamaan Bahasa Melayu dengan Bahasa Thai
Dalam BTh, terdapat beberapa perkataan yang serupa dengan BM, walaupun bunyi dan bentuknya agak berlainan. Pitsamai Intarachat (1980: 13) menyatakan terdapat persamaan pada sesetengah perkataan BTh dan BM disebabkan oleh empat faktor penting. Faktor-faktor tersebut adalah persamaan secara semula jadi, persamaan kerana saling meminjam, persamaan kerana meminjam dari sumber yang sama dan persamaan kerana meminjam dari bahasa lain melalui BM atau BTh. Berdasarkan pemerhatian yang dilakukan di daerah Chana dan data yang dikumpulkan, kemungkinan persamaan ini disebabkan oleh kedua-dua BTh dan BM terletak di bawah filum yang sama, iaitu filum Austrik (C.A.Mees, 1967: 12). Berdasarkan beberapa ukuran dan faktor, perkataan-perkataan seperti ini dapat digolongkan kepada beberapa jenis. Di sini akan sebut hanya dua jenis sahaja iaitu 1) Peminjaman kekeluargaan dan 2) Peminjaman dari sumber yang sama.
ILCC 2013 2.1
334
Peminjaman Kekeluargaan
Persamaan perkataan-perkataan di antara BTh dan BM akibat peminjaman kekeluargaan ialah katakata yang maknanya sama dan bentuknya juga sama atau berdekatan (Chantas, 1980: 13). Kata-kata asas dalam BTh seperti / ta: / “mata”, / kha: / “kaki” , / phet / “pedas”, / mot / “semut ” dan sebagainya berkemungkinan bahawa sumbernya sama dengan perkataan BM (Hara, 1988: 445). Berdasarkan data yang terkumpul, berikut adalah beberapa perkataan yang tergolong dalam kategori ini, di antaranya :
Contoh : BTh
DMPC
BMS
1.
รัง
/ raŋ /
/ saɤɛ /
=
sarang
2.
จิ้งจก
/ ciŋcok /
/ cɨcɔʔ /
=
cicak
3.
จูบ
/ cu:p /
/ kʉcʉʔ /
=
kucup
4.
ตวง
/ tua:ŋ /
/ tʉwɛ /
=
tuang
5.
แปลก
/ plɛ:k /
/ pəlɛʔ/
=
pelik
6.
สกัด
/ skad /
/ səkaʔ /
=
sekat
Banyak perkataan dalam BTh yang seerti dan sebunyi dengan BM sehingga agak munasabah kalau dikatakan persamaan sedemikian disebabkan oleh peminjaman. Namun masalah akan timbul apabila arah pinjaman tidak dapat dipastikan kerana tiada ciri pembeza yang jelas. Oleh itu, kemungkinan gejala ini memperlihatkan ciri-ciri kekeluargaan antara BM dan BTh, namun kajian yang lebih terperinci perlu dilaksanakan. Seterusnya Titima Suthiwan (1992: 699) menyatakan bahawa, mungkin beberapa kriteria dapat dimanfaatkan untuk menyelesaikan masalah kesamaan antara BTh dan BM. Antaranya adalah penyemakan rekonstruksi dalam bahasa Austronesia Purba atau BTh Purba serta cabang-cabang bahasa turunannya masing-masing atau penyemakan pada unsur fonologi dan morfologi seperti jumlah suku kata (Titima Suthiwan, 1992: 699). Peninjauan pada penyebaran sesuatu perkataan yang hanya terjadi di wilayah yang berdekatan dengan sempadan bahasa, mungkin mendorong perkataan tersebut dipinjam (Titima, 1992: 699). Misalnya Wilkinson (sumber dari Titima, 1992:
699) mengatakan perkataan kong (gading kapal) hanya digunakan di Kelantan dan perkataan kan (mangkuk kecil) pula hanya digunakan di Kedah. Namun penyebaran ini menunjukkan arah peminjaman dari BTh atau kedua-dua perkataan ini dipinjam secara berasingan dari bahasa ketiga. Misalnya kata-kata ini mungkin dipinjam dari bahasa Cina kerana kata ekasuku seperti yang terdapat pada dua perkataan tersebut bukan ciri yang umum dalam BM yang rata-rata adalah bersifat dwisuku atau lebih. 2.2
Peminjaman dari Sumber yang Sama
Perkataan yang mempunyai persamaan antara BM dan BTh melalui peminjaman dari sumber yang sama, iaitu kedua-dua bahasa tersebut meminjam perkataan dari sumber pinjaman yang sama, misalnya dari bahasa Sanskrit. Hal ini berlaku kerana orang-orang Melayu sebelum memeluk agama Islam pernah menganut agama Hindu yang disebarkan melalui bahasa Sanskrit (Khalid M. Hussain, 1978: 472). Bahasa Sanskrit juga turut digunakan oleh orang Thai yang menganut agama Buddha (Chantas, 1980: 13). Sebagai contoh, dalam BTh Standard terdapat perkataan / phica:rana / yang maksudnya sama dengan perkataan ‘bicara’ dalam BM. Kedua-dua perkataan ini, iaitu / bicara / dan / phica:rana / dipinjam dari bahasa Sanskrit (Chantas, 1980: 13). 2.2.1
Perkataan Pinjaman Bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM dan BTh
Dalam Kamus Khun (1989) terdapat banyak perkataan BTh dan BM yang berasal dari berbagai-bagai bahasa di India, terutamanya dari bahasa Sanskrit dan Pali. Semua perkataan itu sebenarnya tidak dapat dianggap sebagai kata pinjaman antara BM dengan BTh. Malah BM mahupun BTh banyak meminjam perkataan secara langsung dari bahasa Sanskrit, Hindi dan Pali (Titima, 1992: 698). Proses peminjaman pernah berlaku semasa pengaruh Hindu dan Buddha masih kuat di wilayah Asia Tenggara (Khalid M. Hussain, 1978: 471) dan gejala peminjaman masih terjadi hingga ke kini. Bahasa Sanskrit masih dianggap sebagai sumber istilah yang sesuai untuk mengembangkan BM dan BTh, tambahan pula bahasa ini serta bahasa Pali masih berfungsi sebagai bahasa suci yang dipelajari dan ditekuni oleh penganut agama Buddha di Thailand (Titima, 1992: 698).
Penerimaan bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM amat bersamaan dengan BTh yang juga menerima pengaruh dari bahasa tamadun agung tersebut.
Walaupun bagi BM jumlah kata pinjaman dari bahasa
Sanskrit jauh lebih kurang berbanding dengan BTh, tetapi kata-kata pinjaman ini merupakan teras bagi BM (Khalid M. Hussain, 1978: 491). Menurut Nik Safiah Karim et.al (1996: 6), kata-kata
ILCC 2013
336
pinjaman dari bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM meliputi pelbagai bidang seperti nama bahagian tubuh badan, barang-barang perdagangan, alat perkakas, nama binatang, tumbuh-tumbuhan, senjata, perkataan-perkataan agama, ilmu pengetahuan dan sebagainya. Disebabkan BM dan BTh menerima pengaruh dari bahasa Sanskrit, maka secara tidak langsung kedua-dua bahasa memperlihatkan banyak persamaan. Di samping itu terdapat juga perbezaan di antara BM dan BTh disebabkan keadaan sosiolinguistik dan proses perkembangan bahasa yang agak berlainan (Hara, 1998: 446). Oleh yang demikian kata-kata pinjaman dari bahasa Sanskrit yang terdapat di daerah Chana boleh dilihat berdasarkan makna yang sama (sinonim) dan makna yang berbeza (antonim). 2.2.11 Perkataan Sinonim
Perkataan-perkataan sinonim atau seerti adalah perkataan-perkataan yang yang mempunyai makna yang sama dengan tidak melibatkan persamaan yang seratus peratus (Abdullah Hassan dan Ainon Mohammad, 1995: ii-iii). Manakala Ton Ibrahim (1998: 131)pula menyatakan sinonim boleh mempunyai persamaan makna sepenuhnya atau sebahagian sahaja. Berdasarkan pemerhatian, DMP juga mempunyai kosa kata yang seerti atau sinonim dengan BTh. Hal ini disebabkan gejala peminjaman daripada sumber sama. Lihat antara contoh perbandingan kata DMP dan BTh yang dipinjam dari bahasa Sanskrit berikut: Contoh :
1.
BTh
DMP
BMS
ครู
/ khru: /
/ töʔ gʉɤʉ /
=
guru sekolah agama
/ khərʉ /
=
guru sekolah kerajaan
2.
รู ป
/ ru:p /
/ ɤʉpɔ /
=
rupa
3.
รถ
/ rot /
/ lʉdɔ /
=
roda
4.
สามี
/ sa:mi: /
/ səwɔmɨ /
=
suami (bahasa biasa)
สวามี
/ sawa:mi: /
/ səwɔmɨ /
=
suami (bahasa diraja)
ราคา
/ ra:kha: /
/ ɤəgɔ /
=
harga
5.
Dalam BTh, kata-kata tersebut di atas diberi bentuk yang berlainan. Dalam BTh, terdapat kecenderungan membentuk kata ekasuku (Titima, 1992: 693); misalnya guru menjadi / khru: /, rupa
menjadi / ru:p /, dan sebagainya. Kata-kata dwisuku kata juga diberi sebutan yang berlainan seperti / sa:mi: / bagi suami, / ra:kha: / bagi harga. 2.2.12 Perkataan Antonim Menurut Abdullah Hassan (1978: 164), perkataan antonim ialah dua perkataan atau lebih yang maknanya seolah-olah berlawanan. Manakala Nathesan (2002: 143) mendefinisikan antonim sebagai kata yang berlawanan, iaitu makna perkataan itu merupakan kebalikan daripada makna perkataan yang satu lagi. Seperti juga dalam DMPC, hasil kajian mendapati bahawa perkataan yang digolongkan dalam kategori ini agak kecil jumlahnya. Ini mungkin disebabkan oleh faktor bahawa kedua-dua bahasa ini bersumberkan bahasa yang sama, iaitu dari bahasa Sanskrit. Namun tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa lama kelamaan makna kata pinjaman dalam masyarakat bahasa yang berlainan akan berubah (Hara, 1998: 448). Contoh perkataan pinjaman bahasa Sanskrit yang berlainan maknanya di antara BM dan BTh ialah; ajar, curi, isteri, perdana, guna, kerja, laksana, sabda dan sastera. Walaupun makna bagi perkataan-perkataan ini berlainan di antara BTh dengan BM, tetapi masih memperlihatkan perhubungan dari segi semantik juga. Perhatikan contoh kata pinjaman bahasa Sanskrit dalam BTh yang didapati dalam DMPC dan dibandingkan dengan BM:
Contoh : BTh
DMP
BMS
1.
อาจารย์
/ aca:n /
/ aja /
=
ajar
2.
โจร
/ co:n /
/ chʉɤɨ /
=
curi
3.
ประธาน
/ praʔtha:n /
/ pədanɔ /
=
perdana
4.
คุณ
/ khun /
/ gʉnɔ /
=
guna
5.
กริ ยา
/ kiriya: /
/ kəɤɨjɔ /
=
kerja
6.
ศัพท์
/ sap /
/ saʔdɔ /
=
sabda
7.
ศาสตร์
/ sa:t /
/ satərɔ /
=
sastera
Perkataan ajar, dalam BTh menjadi / a:ca:n / yang bermakna “pensyarah, tenaga pengajar di universiti” (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 210). Manakala bagi guru sekolah rendah hingga menengah digunakan perkataan / khru: / yang berasal dari perkataan guru. Perkataan / a:ca:n / ini digunakan khusus untuk para pengajar di universiti yang bukan berpangkat profesor. Untuk profesor, perkataan yang digunakan adalah / sastra:ca:n / “sastera + ajar” (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 167).
ILCC 2013
338
Perkataan curi mempunyai makanan yang berlainan dalam BM dan BTh. Dalam BM, “curi” bermakna “melakukan perbuatan curi”, iaitu mengambil kepunyaan orang tidak dengan kebenarannya (Kamus Dewan, 2002: 256). Sebaliknya dalam BTh, bermakna “orang yang melakukan pencurian, perompak, penjahat” (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 42). Kedua-dua perkataan, iaitu ajar dan curi dalam BTh menunjukkan pelaku perbuatan, manakala dalam BM pula menunjukkan perbuatan.
Perkataan / praʔtha:n / dalam BTh juga mempunyai sumber yang sama dengan perkataan Melayu “perdana”. Perkataan “perdana” dalam BM berfungsi sebagai kata adjektif (Kamus Dewan, 2002: 1014), manakala / praʔtha:n / dalam BTh berfungsi sebagai kata nama yang bermakna “ketua atau orang besar dalam sesuatu kumpulan atau pengerusi” (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 87). Perkataan / praʔtha:n / ini tidak digunakan untuk menunjukkan perdana menteri tetapi digunakan untuk menunjukkan presiden, iaitu / praʔtha:na:thibɔdi / (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 87).
Selain perkataan yang menunjukkan kata nama, terdapat juga beberapa perkataan yang berlainan maknanya antara BM dengan BTh. Perkataan guna
berasal daripada bahasa Sanskrit yang
bermaksud manfaat atau faedah (Kamus Dewan, 2002: 418). Dalam BTh, perkataan ini disebut / khun / yang mengekalkan makna “kebaikan” dan pada masa yang sama digunakan sebagai kata ganti nama diri kedua, iaitu “anda atau awak” (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 32). Dalam BTh, perkataan “guna” disebut sebagai / cha:y /.
Perkataan / kiriya: / yang bersumberkan bahasa Sanskrit sama dengan perkataan Melayu iaitu, kerja yang juga agak berlainan maknanya. Perkataan ini bermakna “gerak geri, kelakuan” (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 15), tetapi pada masa yang sama perkataan ini dieja sebagai / kariya / akan bermakna “kata kerja” (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 9). Dalam BM, terdapat pasangan kata kerja dan karya yang berasal dari bahasa Sanskrit. Menurut James T. Collins (2003: 5) perkataan “kerja” yang bermakna “kegiatan melakukan sesuatu” sudah lama dipinjam dalam BM, bahkan mungkin dipinjam langsung dari bahasa Sanskrit. Manakala kata “karya” pula bermakna “buatan atau ciptaan seni”, iaitu yang dikatakan sebagai pinjaman dari bahasa Jawa (James T. Collins, 2003: 5). Perkataan sap yang asal-usulnya sama dengan perkataan Melayu “sabda”, bermakna bunyi, percakapan, perkataan dan sebagainya dalam BTh. Kata majmuk / ra:cha:sap / “raja + sabda” bermaksud “bahasa diraja”. Perkataan “sabda” ini dalam BM digunakan sebagai menunjuk kepada
perkataan atau titah Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. (Kamus Dewan, 2002: 1164). Oleh itu penggunaan perkataan “sabda”, menunjukkan ciri-ciri khusus dalam BM (Hara, 1998: 449). Dalam BTh perkataan ini digunakan untuk membentuk kata majmuk seperti / tho:rasap / “telefon”, / khamsap / “perkataan” dan sebagainya.
3. Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan huraian tentang kata pinjaman BM dalam BTh di daerah Chana, didapati bahawa BTh dan BM mempunyai pertalian yang amat erat dan memperlihatkan banyak persamaan. Walau persamaan yang berlaku ini bukan terangkum dalam rumpun bahasa yang sama, tetapi kesan proses sejarah dan kesan interaksi yang terdapat dalam kedua-dua bahasa dan masyarakatnya telah memperlihatkan sejumlah perkataan yang mempunyai perkaitan antara satu sama lain. Perkaitan dan persamaan BTh dengan BM dapat dilihat melalui proses peminjaman, antaranya peminjaman kekeluargaan dan peminjaman daripada sumber yang sama, sebagai contohnya adalah daripada bahasa Sanskrit.
Persamaan antara BTh dengan BM ini, walaupun bukanlah dari segi rumpun bahasa, tatabahasa dan sebagainya, tetapi kesan daripada proses sejarah yang dilalui oleh masyarakat penuturnya serta kesan-kesan interaksi yang terdapat dalam kedua-dua bahasa, membuktikan terdapat sejumlah perkataan yang mempunyai perkaitan di antara BM dan BTh, terutamanya di kawasan penutur DMP. Perhubungan ini mampu menjadi jambatan persefahaman di antara penduduk Thai dan penduduk Melayu di Kawasan Sempadan Selatan Thai memahami asal usul mereka yang hanya datang dari induk yang sama dan memahami perbezaan di antara satu sama lain. Penerimaan identiti yang berbeza dan juga pencarian identiti yang datang dari induk yang sama akan membawa kepada penyelasaian perselisihan faham dan konflik yang berlaku di Selatan Thai sekarang.
Bibliografi
Abdullah Hassan, 1974. The Morphology of Malay, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. ______________dan Ainon Mohamad, 1994. Kamus Sinonim Antonim Melayu Utusan, Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications and Distributors Sdn. Bhd. Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah, 1989. Islam dalam Sejarah Asia Tenggara Tradisional, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pena Sdn. Bhd.
ILCC 2013
340
Asmah Haji Omar, 1985. Susur Galur Bahasa Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. ______________, 1995. Rekonstruksi Fonologi Bahasa Melayu Induk, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. C.A.Mees, 1967. Ilmu Perbandingan Bahasa-bahasa Austronesia, Kuala Lumpur: Art Printing Works. Chantas Thongchuay, 1993. Phasa Lae Wattanatham Phak Tai (Bahasa dan Budaya Bahagian Selatan), Bangkok: Odian Store. Collins, James T. 1995. “Bahasa Melayu Sebagai Bahasa Antarabangsa” dalam Manifesto Budaya: Pupus Bahasa Pupuslah Bangsa, diselenggarakan oleh Asraf, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Ismail Hussein, 1966. Sejarah Pertumbuhan Bahasa Kebangsaan Kita, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Kamus Dewan (Edisi Ketiga), 2002. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Khalid M. Hussain, 1978. “Kata Pinjaman Bahasa Sanskrit dalam Bahasa Malaysia” dalam Dewan Bahasa, Julai 1978, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, halaman 469-492. Nik Safiah Nik Abdul Karim, Farid M. Onn, Hashim Haji Musa, Abdul Hamid Mahmood, 1996. Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Baharu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Pitsamai Intarachat, 1980. “Kham Yeam Phasa Melayu Nai Phasa Thong Thin Tai” (Kata Pinjaman Bahasa Melayu dalam Dialek Thai Selatan) dalam Phasa Lae Watthanatham (Bahasa dan Budaya), Bangkok: Odian Store. Pleak Khunsilapakamphiset, 1986. Phojjannukrom Kham Phong Thai-Melayu (Kamus Perkataan Thai dan Melayu yang Seerti dan Sebunyi), Bangkok: Khurusapha. S. Nathesan, 2002. Makna Dalam Bahasa Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Shintaro, Hara, 1998. “Etimologi dalam Pengajian Melayu: Satu Cadangan Berdasarkan Perbandingan Bahasa Melayu dengan Bahasa Thai” dalam Pengajian Bahasa Melayu Memasuki Alaf Baru, diselenggarakan oleh Sanat Md. Nasir dan Rogayah A. Razak, Kuala Lumpur: Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya. Titima Suthiwan, 1992. “Kata Pinjaman Melayu dalam Bahasa Thai” dalam Dewan Bahasa, Ogos 1992, , Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, halaman 691-700.
Ton Ibrahim, 1998. Bahasa Pernyataan Perasaan: Dimensi Semantik, Kuala Lumpur: Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya. Wichian Tantraseney, 1987. Phojjananukrom Thai-Malay-Angkrit (Kamus Bahasa ThaiMelayu-Inggeris), Bangkok: Sahamith Offset.
ILCC 2013
342
ANALISIS STRATEGI KESANTUNAN DALAM KRITIKAN Oleh: Nasihah Hashim Prof. Madya Dr. Indirawati Zahid Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya
[email protected] Abstrak Kritikan sebenarnya sesuatu yang sangat berharga dan tinggi nilainya apabila dilontarkan dengan tujuan supaya penerima kritik menjadi yang lebih baik. Sesuatu kritikan harus dapat diterima dengan lapang dada agar kita mampu berusaha untuk memperbaiki kelemahan dan mengukuhkan kekuatan yang sedia ada. Sebaliknya, jika kita berasa marah dan tidak berpuas hati maka usaha untuk menjadi lebih baik akan menemui kegagalan dan seterusnya menimbulkan perselisihan faham dan konflik dengan pengkritik. Justeru, seseorang pengkritik seharusnya menyampaikan kritikan dengan penuh kebijaksanaan agar dapat difahami dan dihargai oleh penerima kritik sekali gus dapat mengelakkan berlakunya konflik dalam komunikasi tersebut. Strategi kesantunan harus dipraktikkan oleh pengkritik bagi mewujudkan situasi bebas konflik ini. Persoalannya, manakah yang menjadi pilihan pengkritik, sama ada strategi kesantunan positif atau strategi kesantunan negatif atau mungkin kedua-dua strategi tersebut digabungjalinkan demi menjaga keharmonian komunikasi yang berlaku? Ini berhubungan dengan ancaman muka yang merupakan sesuatu yang perlu dielakkan dalam berkomunikasi apatah lagi dalam memberikan kritikan. Oleh yang demikian kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan program realiti televisyen berbentuk pertandingan nyanyian, iaitu Mentor. Data kajian merupakan analisis strategi kesantunan yang dipraktikkan oleh para juri profesional yang ditugaskan untuk mengkritik persembahan para peserta pertandingan dalam program Mentor musim kelima yang diterbitkan oleh TV3. Analisis dijalankan dengan mengaplikasikan kerangka model strategi kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) yang disesuaikan dengan model Sandwich Davies dan Jacobs (1985). Kata kunci : kesantunan positif, kesantunan negatif, situasi bebas konflik, ancaman muka
1.0 PENGENALAN Mengkritik merupakan perlakuan membuat analisis, penilaian, huraian atau ulasan hasil daripada pemerhatian dan pengamatan terhadap sesuatu atau seseorang. Ketika mengkritik seseorang pengkritik akan memperkatakan tentang kelebihan atau kelemahan, dengan melalui hasil penilaian, iaitu pengamatan, perbandingan, atau penganalisisannya. Pendapat yang merupakan penyataan atau kata-kata tentang kelebihan atau kelemahan tersebut dikenali sebagai kritikan. Oleh kerana itu, tindakan mengkritik akan meninggalkan rasa ketidakselesaan, baik pada pengkritik mahupun penerima kritikan tersebut. Tindakan mengkritik bukan mudah untuk dilakukan kerana berpotensi menjatuhkan air muka dan maruah peserta tutur yang akhirnya akan menimbulkan konflik di kalangan peserta tutur. Justeru kritikan harus disampaikan dengan cara yang efektif agar tidak mengancam air muka dan melukai perasaan kepada penerima kritikan. Oleh itu, seseorang yang diberi tanggungjawab untuk memberi kritikan seharusnya menyampaikan kritikannya dengan menggunakan strategi yang bersesuaian dan sebaik mungkin supaya tidak menyinggung perasaan lawan tuturnya bagi menjaga kerukunan dan prinsip hormat-menghormati dalam hubungan kemasyarakatan. Salah satu strategi
yang harus diambil kira oleh setiap pengkritik ialah penggunaan strategi kesantunan bagi mengelakkan berlakunya salah faham dan konflik. Strategi kesantunan digunakan oleh penutur untuk lebih menghargai orang lain mahupun diri sendiri dan sekali gus boleh mewujudkan situasi bebas konflik. Sehubungan itu, kajian ini dijalankan untuk memaparkan strategi kesantunan yang digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika memberi kritikan. 2.0 SOROTAN LITERATUR Kajian-kajian terdahulu berkaitan strategi kesantunan dalam perlakuan mengkritik masih belum mendapat tumpuan yang terperinci dan khusus berbanding strategi lakuan bahasa yang lain seperti penolakan, permintaan dan teguran. Kajian yang memfokuskan kepada strategi kesantunan merupakan kajian yang mengaitkan aktiviti pertuturan untuk merumuskan strategi kesantunan yang digunakan oleh penutur. Antara kajian-kajian strategi kesantunan yang telah dijalankan ialah kajian lakuan bahasa memerintah bahasa Indonesia dalam kalangan kaum perempuan oleh Manaf (1999), lakuan bahasa menolak oleh etnik Minangkabau moden oleh Triana(2009) dan kajian strategi kesantunan golongan politik di Indonesia yang dijalankan oleh Nadar, F.X (2009). Manakala Marlyna Maros (2011) pula telah melakukan kajian strategi kesantunan antarbudaya lakuan teguran di kalangan penutur bahasa Melayu dengan penutur asli bahasa Cina yang menetap di Amerika Utara. Kajian-kajian strategi kesantunan ini berupaya menjelaskan strategi kesantunan yang dipilih oleh penutur dan menepati standard nilai yang digunakan dalam masyarakat berkenaan. Asas kajian ini ialah penekanan aspek air muka oleh Brown dan Levinson(1987) ataupun skala pragmatik Leech(1983). Sementara itu, antara kajian-kajian terhadap perlakuan mengkritik yang pernah dijalankan, ialah kajian Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007), Nadar, F.X (2009) dan Yanti (2010). Kajian Yanti (2010) merupakan kajian terhampir dengan kajian ini kerana melibatkan rancangan televisyen sebagai bahan kajian. Yanti telah membuat kajian ke atas rancangan dialog Apa Kabar Indonesia Pagi TV One (AKIP TV One). Sebanyak empat episod telah dianalisis oleh Yanti. Beliau menggunakan pendekatan pragmatik dalam menganalisis dan membincangkan hasil kajiannya. Kaedah kajian beliau ialah kajian kualitatif bagi mendeskripsikan strategi mengkritik dan respons penutur dan pendengar dalam perbualan. Hasil kajian tersebut mendapati bahawa para penutur di dalam rancangan tersebut lebih banyak menggunakan bentuk ayat yang tidak lengkap dan berfungsi asertif. Sementara aspek strategi kesantunan didapati bahawa penutur lebih suka menggunakan strategi berterus terang untuk mengelakkan perselisihan dalam sesi perbualan tersebut. Walaupun kajian Yanti (2010) ini mengaplikasikan Teori Tindakan Ancaman Muka (TAM) oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) sebagai kerangka analisis, namun kajian ini tidak langsung melihat kepada substrategi yang diperkenalkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987). Analisis data hanya melihat kepada strategi asas sahaja. Situasi ini wajar memandangkan kajian ini adalah kajian pada peringkat sarjana. Oleh itu, maka seharusnya kajian yang lebih mendalam terhadap strategi perlakuan mengkritik dijalankan bagi mendapatkan gambaran yang lebih luas dan terperinci. Sementara itu, Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) dan Nadar, F.X (2009) pula mengkaji penggunaan strategi mengkritik dalam pertuturan berbahasa Inggeris. Kajian Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) telah membincangkan strategi mengkritik yang digunakan dalam interaksi penyeliaan pelajar peringkat doktor falsafah. Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) telah menggunakan model strategi pertuturan Brown dan Levinson (1987) untuk menghuraikan strategi mengkritik dan mendapati bahawa model tersebut dapat menghuraikan strategi mengkritik dalam pertuturan penyeliaan antara pensyarah dan pelajar PhD. Selain itu, Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) juga telah mencadangkan agar penelitian terhadap strategi mengkritik dalam situasi bahasa yang lain menggunakan model Brown dan Levinson (1987) sebagai model untuk menganalisis data. Berdasarkan analisisnya Li, S dan Seale, C. (2007) mendapati bahawa sesuatu perlakuan mengkritik boleh dilakukan dengan mengikut strategi berikut: Menggunakan strategi linguistik yang termasuk dalam strategi kesantunan secara umum untuk menunjukkan perlakuan yang baik seperti memuji dan menghargai.
ILCC 2013
344
Menunjukkan sikap saling hormat-menghormati dan peka terhadap aspek-aspek yang memalukan atau salah faham (teragak-agak, kesenyapan atau berhenti seketika), atau menggunakan penanda pengakuan (uhm, ya, betul, ok, pasti) atau menggunakan penanda inklusif. Mengelakkan atau menghindarkan situasi yang boleh memalukan atau mengancam muka. Mengekalkan keseimbangan kuasa Memulakan kritikan membina dengan pujian, galakan dan ungkapan berhati-hati Menggantikan kritikan dengan pengungkapan nasihat Manakala kajian Nadar, F.X (2009) pula agak berbeza dengan kajian-kajian lain kerana lebih menumpukan kepada strategi mengkritik antarbudaya, iaitu perbezaan strategi mengkritik dalam bahasa Inggeris oleh masyarakat Jawa dengan strategi yang digunakan oleh penutur asal bahasa Inggeris. Nadar, F.X (2009) hanya mengaplikasikan Teori Lakuan Bahasa dalam kajian ini untuk mengenal pasti bentuk strategi mengkritik yang digunakan oleh penutur. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa masyarakat Jawa mengujarkan kritikannya dengan mempelbagaikan cara ujaran dan menggabungkan beberapa bentuk lakuan bahasa, seperti yang berikut: Penyataan keengganan Penyataan ketidakmampuan Penyataan harapan Penyataan alasan Penyataan kecenderungan Cadangan Menawarkan alternatif Penyataan pengandaian Memberi arahan Penyataan keharusan Penyataan pujian dan penghargaan Sapaan Penyataan prinsip Penyataan falsafah Memberi peringatan Mengkritik Membela diri Penyataan penundaan Penyataan suka dan bersetuju Penyataan terima kasih Kajian ini menyimpulkan bahawa strategi mengkritik masyarakat Jawa masih dipengaruhi oleh latar budaya Jawa walaupun bertutur dalam bahasa Inggeris. Pertuturan masyarakat Jawa lebih dianggap santun kerana mengaplikasikan strategi tidak langsung dengan menyertakan ungkapan maaf dan nasihat berbanding dengan penutur asal bahasa Inggeris. Kesimpulannya, perkembangan kajian pertuturan Melayu yang semakin pesat memperlihatkan pentingnya kajian terhadap amalan pertuturan dalam kalangan masyarakat dijalankan dengan lebih terperinci. Namun begitu, kajian terhadap lakuan bahasa dan strategi mengkritik oleh juri pertandingan nyanyian dalam media televisyen di Malaysia masih belum pernah difokuskan oleh mana-mana kajian terdahulu. 3.0 OBJEKTIF
Analisis yang dilakukan ini mempunyai dua objektif berikut: Mengenal pasti penggunaan stategi kesantunan dalam penyampaian kritikan. Menganalisis strategi kesantunan yang dipraktiskan oleh pengkritik rancangan realiti televisyen. 4.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN Analisis dilakukan dengan mengaplikasikan beberapa kaedah, iaitu kepustakaan, rakaman dan pemerhatian. Kaedah kepustakaan diaplikasikan untuk mengkaji kajian-kajian terdahulu yang berkait rapat dengan kajian ini dan teori-teori yang bersangkutan untuk menentukan lompang kajian serta tujuan kajian dijalankan. Selain itu, kaedah ini juga diaplikasikan untuk mencari bahan kajian dan maklumat-maklumat yang berkaitan dengan bahan kajian. Kaedah rakaman pula diaplikasikan oleh pengkaji untuk mengumpulkan data kajian kerana sumber data berasal daripada tayangan di televisyen. Kaedah rakaman yang dimaksudkan dalam kajian ini ialah teknik perolehan data dengan cara merakam peristiwa bahasa yang bersifat sebenar menggunakan alat bantu rakaman. Dalam kajian ini pengkaji telah merakam keseluruhan episod rancangan Mentor 5. Seterusnya, sesi memberi kritikan oleh juri dalam setiap episod akan dikenal pasti untuk ditranskripsikan ke dalam bentuk teks perbualan. Dalam hal ini, kaedah pemerhatian akan digunakan oleh pengkaji dengan cara menonton, mendengar dan menyemak pertuturan juri profesional yang berperanan sebagai pengkritik dalam rancangan ini sebelum mentranskripsikan data tersebut untuk memudahkan proses menganalisis dan memperjelaskan konteks situasi pertuturan. Data-data mentah dalam bentuk transkripsi sesi kritikan dianalisis terlebih dahulu untuk mengenal pasti dan mengklasifikasi ujaran-ujaran kritikan yang diujarkan oleh juri-juri dalam rancangan Mentor 5. Ujaran kritikan dirujuk sebagai ujaran-ujaran yang dikemukakan oleh juri-juri profesional hasil daripada penilaiannya melalui tindakan pengamatan, pemerhatian, serta analisis terhadap prestasi dan mutu persembahan peserta Mentor 5. Kemudian, analisis strategi kesantunan akan dilakukan oleh pengkaji berpandukan model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) dan model Sandwich (Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A.,1985) yang telah disesuaikan dengan data kajian. Analisis kuantitatif pula dipraktikkan untuk memberi gambaran secara visual tentang kekerapan ujaran mengkritik dan strategi kesantunan yang digunakan, dalam bentuk rajah, jadual dan carta untuk memperjelaskan lagi dapatan kajian. Seterusnya, perbincangan hasil kajian dihuraikan dengan menggunakan pendekatan pragmatik kerana pragmatik ialah kajian penggunaan bahasa berdasarkan konteks. 5.0 BAHAN KAJIAN Analisis strategi kesantunan telah dilakukan ke atas rancangan realiti Mentor 5 terbitan TV3. Mentor musim kelima telah disiarkan dalam 15 episod bermula pada 13 Februari 2011 sehingga 24 Mei 2011. Walau bagaimanapun daripada 15 episod keseluruhan rancangan ini hanya 12 episod telah dianalisis. Tiga episod tidak dianalisis kerana tidak mengandungi sesi kritikan oleh juri profesional, iaitu episod uji bakat (1 dan 2), dan episod 13 kerana durasi masa penyiaran telah tamat. Mentor musim kelima ini membariskan 6 orang protégé, iaitu Salma, Shiha, Ratnah, Iqa, Aiman dan Ayish yang dibimbing oleh 6 orang artis ternama sebagai Mentor, iaitu Erra Fazira, Dato’ Sharifah Aini, Afdlin Shauki, Edry KRU, Rahim Maarof dan Noh Hujan. Seramai 11 orang juri profesional, iaitu seorang juri tetap dan 10 orang juri jemputan telah ditugaskan untuk menghakimi dan memberi kritikan. Secara ringkasnya, bahan kajian yang terlibat dapat dijelaskan dalam Jadual 1 yang berikut:
ILCC 2013
346
JURI
SESI UJARAN KRITIKAN Juri tetap 29 96 Juri jemputan 83 130 JUMLAH 112 226 Jadual 1: Bahan Kajian Jadual 1 di atas menunjukkan terdapat 226 ujaran kritikan juri yang telah dikenal pasti daripada 112 sesi kritikan yang dapat dirakam oleh pengkaji untuk dijadikan bahan kajian. Durasi masa keseluruhan rakaman sesi kritikan ialah 5 jam 36 minit. 6.0 BATASAN KAJIAN Kajian ini dijalankan ke atas kritikan secara lisan yang dikemukakan oleh juri profesional sama ada juri jemputan atau juri tetap dalam rancangan Mentor 5. Kritikan lisan tersebut telah ditranskripsikan menjadi teks perbualan untuk memudahkan analisis. Justeru, unsur bahasa bukan verbal tidak diambil oleh pengkaji untuk dianalisis. Oleh kerana bahan kajian ini merupakan teks perbualan yang menggunakan laras bahasa kolokial, terdapat banyak percampuran bahasa berlaku dalam perbualan tersebut. Oleh yang demikian, kajian ini hanya mengambil ujaran kritikan berbahasa Melayu sahaja untuk dianalisis. Ujaran juri yang menggunakan bahasa Inggeris sepenuhnya tidak diambil oleh pengkaji untuk dianalisis. Namun begitu, ujaran-ujaran yang hanya mengandungi beberapa perkataan bahasa Inggeris yang lazim digunakan oleh penutur dalam perbualan seharian seperti ‘I, you, think, hope, prefer, good, best, most, like’ dan istilah-istilah berkaitan bidang muzik seperti ‘tone, pitching, feel, eye contact, baritone, sharp, flat, low, high’ dan sebagainya tetap diambil oleh pengkaji untuk dianalisis. 7.0 KERANGKA TEORI Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah membentuk model kesantunan yang mengemukakan beberapa strategi pertuturan untuk digunakan bagi mengurangkan tindakan ancaman muka atau dikenali sebagai Face Threatening Act (FTA). Model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) ini dibentuk berdasarkan konsep muka dan keperluan menjaga air muka. Brown dan Levinson (1987) menggunakan istilah ancaman muka sebagai kehilangan muka yang dapat disamakan ertinya dengan berasa malu atau terhina. Konsep muka dalam model Brown dan Levinson (1987) ini amat sesuai digunakan untuk menganalisis dan menggambarkan aspek kesantunan pelbagai ciri linguistik dalam sesuatu peristiwa komunikasi. Hal ini kerana dalam sesuatu peristiwa komunikasi, terdapat ujaran-ujaran tertentu yang mengandung ancaman terhadap muka peserta komunikasi. Keterancaman muka peserta tutur dapat dikenal pasti melalui perlakuan berbahasa, iaitu apa yang dituturkan oleh penutur. Tahap ancaman muka sesuatu perlakuan dapat ditentukan berdasarkan tiga faktor, iaitu i) faktor kuasa antara penutur dan lawan tutur, ii) jarak sosial antara mereka dan iii) keseriusan perlakuan tersebut mengikut budaya tertentu (Brown dan Levinson, 1987). Tindakan ancaman muka akan dapat dikurangkan seterusnya dielakkan daripada berlaku apabila peserta tutur yang terlibat dapat menggunakan strategi-strategi pertuturan yang efektif. Berdasarkan model ini, terdapat dua aspek air muka yang mempengaruhi tindakan seseorang, iaitu air muka positif dan air muka negatif. Air muka positif ialah keinginan seseorang untuk diiktiraf atau disukai, manakala air muka negatif merupakan keinginan untuk tidak diganggu. Justeru, untuk mengurangi atau menghindari berlakunya ancaman terhadap air muka penutur dan pendengar atau lawan tutur,
Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah menggariskan beberapa strategi kesantunan seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.
Rajah 1: Strategi Pertuturan Tindakan Ancaman Muka Brown dan Levinson(1987) Berdasarkan Rajah 1 Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah mengemukakan strategi berekod (on record) dan strategi tanpa rekod (off record) untuk mengurangkan tindakan ancaman muka. Strategi berekod ialah strategi langsung atau tersurat, manakala strategi tanpa rekod ialah strategi tidak langsung atau tersirat. Sekiranya penutur memilih menggunakan strategi berekod tanpa penyesuaian (baldly on record), ujaran tersebut dianggap kurang santun kerana ujaran ini dituturkan secara langsung, terang-terangan, jelas, telus dan tidak kabur. Sementara strategi berekod dengan penyesuaian dianggap oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) sebagai strategi pertuturan yang boleh mengekalkan kesantunan, iaitu strategi berekod dengan kesantunan positif (on record with positive politeness) dan strategi berekod dengan kesantunan negatif (on record with negative politeness). Dalam kajian ini pengkaji menamakannya sebagai strategi kesantunan positif dan strategi kesantunan negatif. Strategi kesantunan positif melibatkan strategi-strategi yang menunjukkan kepada seseorang bahawa dia disukai dan diiktiraf. Antara strategi kecil yang diketengahkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) ialah memberi penghargaan, mengambil perhatian, memberi nasihat, motivasi, dan bersikap optimis terhadap tahap prestasi peserta, penampilan atau sikap-sikap positif yang lain. Sementara kesantunan negatif pula ialah strategi menyelamatkan muka negatif pendengar untuk mempertahankan kebebasan bertindak lawan tutur. Dalam melakukan strategi ini, penutur mengakui dan menghomati muka negatif lawan tuturnya. Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah mencadangkan beberapa strategi kecil seperti memulakan kritikan dengan meminta maaf, menggunakan kata-kata pelunak, memberi salam atau sapaan hormat dan sebagainya. Sementara itu, strategi tanpa rekod pula merupakan strategi melakukan tindakan ancaman muka secara tidak langsung dengan membiarkan lawan tutur memutuskan bagaimana menafsirkan tuturan penutur. Walau bagaimanapun, analisis kajian dalam kertas kerja ini hanya ditumpukan kepada strategi kesantunan positif dan strategi kesantunan negatif sebagai satu strategi pertuturan yang dapat mengekalkan kesantunan dalam kritikan. Hasil daripada pemerhatian didapati bahawa terdapatnya tumpang tindih di antara strategi-strategi kecil yang dicadangkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987). Sehubungan itu, untuk memudahkan analisis dijalankan, pengkaji telah menyusun semula strategi-strategi kecil yang diperkenalkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) tersebut mengikut kesesuaian kajian. Dalam kajian ini, strategi-strategi kecil tersebut dinamakan oleh pengkaji sebagai teknik. Teknik-teknik tersebut diterjemahkan oleh pengkaji seperti dalam Rajah 2 yang berikut:
ILCC 2013
348
Rajah 2: Strategi Kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987)
Selain daripada model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), analisis strategi kesantunan pengkritik juga telah disesuaikan dengan model Sandwich yang dicadangkan oleh Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A. (1985). Kedua-dua model tersebut diharapkan dapat saling melengkapi di antara satu sama lain untuk menghuraikan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan di rancangan realiti televisyen. Model Sandwich seperti juga model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), telah memberi panduan kepada penutur untuk bertutur dengan lebih baik agar dapat mengelakkan rasa ketidakselesaan di kalangan peserta tutur. Model ini diperkenalkan oleh Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A. (1985) sebagai satu strategi pertuturan yang dapat membantu penutur yang ingin memberi maklum balas, komen, penilaian atau kritikan terhadap individu lain dengan cara yang lebih berkesan tanpa mewujudkan sebarang konflik. Perlakuan ini diambil berat oleh Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A. (1985) kerana ia sesuatu yang sukar dilakukan dan boleh mendatangkan rasa ketidakselesaan di antara penutur dan pendengar, sekali gus sukar untuk mengekalkan keharmonian hubungan antara mereka. Tambahan pula, sekiranya terdapat sesuatu penyataan negatif yang perlu disampaikan oleh penutur tersebut. Justeru, Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A. (1985) telah mencadangkan agar sesuatu penilaian, kritikan atau komen harus disampaikan secara berstruktur, iaitu dengan mengapitkan penyataan negatif dengan penyataan positif. Struktur ini dikenali sebagai struktur Sandwich. Mengikut struktur ini untuk menyampaikan sesuatu penilaian atau kritikan negatif, secara asasnya penutur seharusnya terlebih dahulu menyampaikan sesuatu yang positif dan mengakhirinya dengan satu penyataan yang positif juga. Penyataan positif dalam struktur Sandwich ini seharusnya bukanlah terhad kepada pujian sematamata dan penyataan negatif juga bukanlah hanya merujuk kepada kecaman sahaja, malah positif juga merujuk kepada apa-apa bentuk penyataan yang menggembirakan dan menyenangkan seperti penghargaan, persetujuan, penyataan suka, cadangan penambahbaikan, nasihat, kata-kata semangat dan penyelesaian masalah. Sementara penyataan negatif pula dirujuk sebagai penyataan yang khusus tentang sesuatu perkara atau tindakan yang perlu dibaiki, penyataan kekurangan dan
kelemahan, ketidaksetujuan dan rasa tidak puas hati penutur terhadap sesuatu atau seseorang yang dikritik atau dinilai. 8.0 DAPATAN ANALISIS Berdasarkan analisis, kajian ini mendapati bahawa para pengkritik menggunakan kedua-dua strategi kesantunan yang diperkenalkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987), iaitu strategi kesantunan positif dan strategi kesantunan negatif ketika menyampaikan kritikan. Di samping itu, analisis juga telah menunjukkan bahawa para pengkritik telah memilih menggunakan struktur Sandwich dengan menggabungkan kedua-dua strategi kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) agar lebih mudah diterima oleh peserta dengan hati yang terbuka. Hasil kajian telah menunjukkan bahawa daripada 226 ujaran kritikan, hanya 129 ujaran kritikan sahaja yang akan menjadi fokus perbincangan dapatan analisis dalam kertas kerja ini. Jumlah ini mewakili 78 ujaran yang telah menggunakan strategi kesantunan positif, iaitu bersamaan 34 peratus, 36 ujaran bersamaan 16 peratus menggunakan strategi kesantunan negatif dan 15 ujaran, iaitu 7 peratus menggunakan struktur Sandwich. Manakala 97 ujaran lagi menggunakan strategi berekod tanpa penyesuaian dan strategi tanpa rekod, iaitu masing-masing sebanyak 38 dan 59. Rajah 3 berikut merupakan carta pai yang menunjukkan peratusan keseluruhan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan di rancangan Mentor 5.
Rajah 3: Jumlah peratusan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan Sementara itu, Jadual 2 pula ialah dapatan analisis yang menunjukkan jumlah kekerapan penggunaan strategi kesantunan positif, strategi kesantunan negatif dan struktur Sandwich dalam kritikan di rancangan Mentor 5. STRATEGI KESANTU NAN STRATEGI KESANTU NAN POSITIF
TEKNIK
JUMLAH KEKERAP AN
Mengambil berat
17
Optimis
16
Memberi fakta
1
Memberi tawaran
2
Menghargai
25
ILCC 2013
STRATEGI KESANTU NAN NEGATIF
Memotivasi
10
Meminta alasan
1
Menunjukkan kesamaan
5
JUMLAH
78
Mengucapkan tanda hormat
2
Menggunakan pelunak
kata-kata 25
Pesimis
2
Menggunakan pertanyaan
6
Memohon maaf
1
JUMLAH
36
STRUKTUR Positif + negatif +positif SANDWIC Negatif + negatif + positif H
14
JUMLAH
15
JUMLAH KESELURUHAN
350
1
129
Jadual 2: Taburan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan Mentor 5 Berdasarkan Jadual 2 didapati bahawa strategi yang paling kerap digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika menyampaikan kritikan, ialah strategi kesantunan positif, diikuti dengan strategi kesantunan negatif dan struktur sandwich. 8.1 Strategi Kesantunan Positif Strategi kesantunan positif ialah strategi melakukan tindakan ancaman muka dengan cara menyelamatkan air muka atau menjaga muka positif lawan tutur. Strategi ini memperlihatkan penutur menyampaikan kritikannya secara langsung tetapi dengan beberapa penyesuaian seperti yang dianjurkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) dalam Rajah 1. Analisis kajian telah menunjukkan bahawa lapan teknik telah digunakan oleh pengkritik yang mempraktikkan strategi kesantunan positif ketika menyampaikan kritikan, iaitu teknik mengambil berat, optimis, memberi fakta, memberi tawaran, menghargai, memotivasi, meminta alasan dan menunjukkan kesamaan. Berdasarkan Jadual 1 teknik yang paling kerap digunakan pula ialah menghargai, iaitu sebanyak 25 ujaran, diikuti dengan sikap mengambil berat sebanyak 17 ujaran dan optimis sebanyak 16 ujaran. 8.1.1 Menyatakan penghargaan Teknik menyatakan penghargaan sangat digemari oleh pengkritik dalam rancangan Mentor 5 ketika memberikan kritikan. Hal ini kerana teknik ini dapat menunjukkan kepada protege dan pendengar lain bahawa pengkritik menyenangi, menyetujui dan menghargai apa yang dilakukan oleh protege
tersebut. Penghargaan tersebut diluahkan oleh pengkritik dengan cara memberi pujian yang diiringi dengan kata-kata seperti ‘tahniah’, ‘syabas’, ‘terbaik’, dan sebagainya seperti yang terdapat dalam contoh ujaran di bawah. M5(4):U16(ZZ)
Dari segi penyampaian anda ada cara tersendiri, I love it.
M5(9):U116(NI)
Lagu kedua Aiman nampak Aiman enjoy sangat dengan persembahan ya, syabas!
M5(10):U157(JF)
Persembahan malam ini persembahan terbaik Ayish setakat ini.
8.1.2 Mengambil berat Teknik mengambil berat ini digunakan untuk menggambarkan sikap pengkritik yang memberi perhatian terhadap minat, keinginan, sikap, perbuatan atau apa-apa yang dimiliki oleh peserta atau dalam rancangan ini dipanggil protege. Dalam hal ini, kritikan-kritikan yang diujarkan oleh pengkritik, menggambarkan rasa suka, minat, simpati dan kecewa pengkritik terhadap prestasi persembahan para peserta. Dengan cara ini rasa keterancaman muka dapat dikurangkan kerana apa yang diujarkan menggambarkan bahawa pengkritik bukan sahaja mengkritik malah mengambil berat terhadap persembahan para protege yang terlibat. Berikut ialah contoh teknik mengambil berat yang digunakan oleh pengkritik: M5(4):U18(DR)
Saya sebenarnya kesian kat awak tau.
M5(4):U29(DR)
Last week kan saya dah cakap pasal melodi ni tau, tapi minggu ini you still you punya melodi bukan tepat tau.
M5(8):U90(DR)
Kamu sangat-sangatlah berbeza daripada dua minggu lepas ya, good.
8.1.3 Bersikap optimis Sebagai seorang pengkritik yang diamanahkan untuk menilai dan memberi kritikan, seseorang pengkritik harus optimis dan berkeyakinan terhadap kemampuan protege-protege yang bertanding. Secara tidak langsung, dengan cara sebegini pengkritik dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka seterusnya mengelakkan terjadinya konflik kerana penutur dapat memenuhi muka positif lawan tutur. Misalnya dalam contoh berikut, ungkapan ‘boleh menyanyi’, ‘boleh berlakon’ dan ‘ada bakat semula jadi’ menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik cenderung untuk mempercayai keupayaan dan keistimewaan protege. M5(10):U149(JF)
Ratnah bukan sahaja boleh menyanyi tapi saya rasa Ratnah boleh berlakon juga.
M5(11):U166(DR)
Saya dapat rasa kamu ada bakat semula jadi daripada Tuhan which is boleh besarkan lagi.
8.1.4 Memberi motivasi Hasil analisis juga telah menunjukkan bahawa teknik memberi motivasi telah digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika menyampaikan kritikan sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka. Teknik ini dipilih oleh pengkritik kerana pengkritik ingin memberikan kepuasan terhadap muka positif protege. Terdapat 10 ujaran kritikan yang telah dikenal pasti menggunakan teknik ini antaranya, ialah seperti berikut: M5(8):U91(DR)
Saya harap kamu boleh kejar kedudukan kamu lebih lagi.
ILCC 2013 M5(14):U228(AZ)
352
Menang atau kalah lain cerita tapi perjuangan harus diteruskan.
8.1.5 Menunjukkan kesamaan Teknik menunjukkan kesamaan dizahirkan oleh para pengkritik melalui penggunaan kata panggilan yang menunjukkan keakraban seperti ‘kak’ dan ‘sayang’ dalam contoh ujaran di bawah. Strategi ini digunakan untuk menunjukkan seolah-olah pengkritik dan protege berada dalam kelompok yang sama dan sekali gus dapat mengecilkan jurang di antara mereka. Apabila jurang di antara mereka dapat dikecilkan maka kritikan dapat diterima oleh protege dengan hati yang terbuka. Ini bermakna rasa keterancaman muka dapat dikurangkan seterusnya dapat mewujudkan situasi bebas konflik dalam komunikasi tersebut. M5(4):U14(ZZ)
Kak Ziana nak komen pasal dressing. It’s good, kena dengan lagu you.
M5(7):U88(MI)
Saya suka pakaian, kostum tapi kalau boleh selaraskan dengan vokal sayang.
8.1.6 Memberikan fakta Analisis kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik menggunakan teknik memberi fakta ketika melontarkan kritikan. Ujaran-ujaran kritikan yang diiringi dengan fakta atau prinsip pengkritik dapat memperkukuh hujah pengkritik yang sekali gus dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka pada lawan tutur. Oleh yang demikian, maka protege dapat mempercayai dan menerima kritikan dengan hati yang terbuka. Contoh ujaran M5(10):U137(DR) di bawah menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik memberikan fakta tentang tatacara menyanyi dengan betul. Sementara contoh M5(7): U89(MI) pula menunjukkan pengkritik berusaha menyampaikan kritikan dengan lebih santun melalui pernyataan prinsipnya. M5(10):U137(DR)
Menyanyi tak boleh sumbang ya memang diharamkan.
M5(7): U89(MI)
Saya suka ya muzik apa sahaja saya appreciate apa juga yang nak disampaikan cuma perlu selaraskan dengan kemampuan vokal ya.
8.1.7 Memberi tawaran Salah satu usaha pengkritik untuk mengekalkan kesantunan dalam kritikannya, ialah dengan menggunakan teknik memberi tawaran. Tawaran yang dimaksudkan dalam kajian ini ialah cabaran misalnya dalam contoh M5(11):U167(DR) di bawah. M5(11):U167(DR)
Next week kalau kamu masuk semifinal saya nak dengar kamu punya intelektual dalam singing which is direction yang kamu nak pergi.
8.1.8 Meminta alasan Teknik meminta alasan pula digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk mendapatkan sebab-musabab sesuatu itu berlaku. Kritikan yang diujarkan oleh pengkritik disertai dengan permintaan alasan agar kelihatan lebih santun. Ujaran berikut merupakan contoh penggunaan teknik meminta alasan oleh pengkritik: M5(8):U94(CF)
Saya tak tau kenapa awak dekat 78 markah je. Saya tak tau kenapa sebab saya tengok awak punya persembahan pertama tadi nampak
outstanding.
8.2 Strategi Kesantunan Negatif Brown dan Levinson (1987) menjelaskan bahawa strategi kesantunan negatif ialah strategi menyelamatkan muka negatif lawan tutur untuk mempertahankan kebebasan bertindak lawan tutur. Dalam strategi ini, penutur mengakui dan menghormati muka negatif lawan tuturnya. Merujuk kepada kajian ini, didapati bahawa strategi kesantunan negatif ini memperlihatkan bagaimana penutur, iaitu pengkritik menyampaikan kritikannya secara langsung tetapi dengan beberapa penyesuaian. Situasi ini berlaku kerana pengkritik mahu melindungi air muka positif dirinya yang telah diberi tanggungjawab untuk menggalas peranan sebagai juri dan pengkritik pilihan pihak penerbit rancangan untuk memberi penilaian dan penjurian. Pengkritik menganggap bahawa sesetengah kritikan itu perlu disampaikan secara lebih telus, untuk membantu peserta membuat persembahan yang lebih berkualiti pada masa akan datang. Sehubungan itu, pengkritik harus menyampaikannya dengan cara yang lebih berkesan dan masih mahu melindungi air muka lawan tutur dengan berbasa-basi menggunakan kata-kata pelunak, menunjukkan rasa hormat, mengutarakan pertanyaan, bersikap pesimis dan memohon maaf terlebih dahulu sebelum menyatakan kritikannya. Analisis kajian telah membuktikan bahawa lima teknik kesantunan negatif telah dipraktikkan oleh para pengkritik ketika memberi kritikan dalam rancangan Mentor 5. 8.2.1 Menggunakan kata-kata pelunak Teknik yang paling kerap digunakan ialah strategi menggunakan kata-kata pelunak. Menurut Marlyna Maros (2011) kata-kata pelunak merupakan strategi kesantunan negatif yang dapat melembutkan niat pengucapan tindakan ancaman muka. Penggunaan kata-kata pelunak diperoleh dari kehendak untuk tidak mengandaikan dan tidak memaksa pendengar, contohnya seperti memulakan kritikan dengan ungkapan ‘saya rasa’, ‘saya fikir’, ‘menurut saya’, ‘mungkin’ dan sebagainya. Kata-kata pelunak tersebut mampu memberikan kesan lembut atau bertindak sebagai pelapik dalam sesuatu penyampaian ujaran yang mengancam air muka lawan tutur seperti ujaran kritikan. Contoh-contoh ujaran di bawah menunjukkan penggunaan kata-kata pelunak, iaitu ungkapan ‘menurut saya’ , dan ‘bagi saya’ dalam ujaran kritikan yang digunakan oleh para pengkritik dalam Mentor 5. M5(6):U69(RO)
Lagu yang kedua menurut saya kamu membawakan lagu dengan sangat indah.
M5(10):U141(JF)
Bagi saya minit pertama tadi memang memukaulah.
8.2.2 Menggunakan pertanyaan Teknik pertanyaan digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka para peserta dan pendengar yang mendengar kritikan tersebut. Pertanyaan tersebut adakalanya berbentuk penyataan retorik, iaitu pertanyaan yang tidak perlu dijawab oleh si lawan tutur.Contoh di bawah menunjukkan kritikan disampaikan oleh penutur dengan strategi bertanya. Pertanyaan tersebut sebenarnya merupakan kritikan penutur terhadap rupa paras rambut lawan tutur yang dianggap kurang menarik dan perlu dipotong. Penutur tidak secara langsung memberitahu lawan tutur bahawa rambutnya tidak elok dan perlu dipotong sebaliknya menggunakan pertanyaan untuk menunjukkan rasa hormat kepada lawan tutur sekaligus mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka. M5(6):U61(RO)
“Abang Noh bolehkah dia dibawa potong rambut sedikit dong?”
ILCC 2013
354
8.2.3 Menyatakan rasa hormat Di samping penggunaan kata-kata pelunak sebagai strategi kesantunan, pengkritik juga menggunakan kata-kata yang menunjukkan rasa hormat, seperti ucapan salam, selamat dan sapaan. Contoh-contoh di bawah menunjukkan ujaran kritikan pengkritik yang didahului dengan ucapan salam, selamat dan sapaan. Ucapan salam dan sapaan ini memberikan gambaran bahawa penutur dan lawan tutur saling mengenali dan secara tidak langsung dapat mewujudkan situasi yang lebih santai seterusnya tidak terlalu memaksa lawan tutur untuk terus mendengar kritikan yang dilontarkan. M5(11):U172(MM)
Assalamualaikum Abang Rahim. Sama-sama kacak atas stage ya.
M5(4):U5(DR)
Hai Shiha, kamu ada banyak masalah dari segi feel kamu ya.
8.2.4 Memohon maaf Teknik memohon maaf diungkapkan oleh pengkritik dalam kritikan sebagai tanda menghormati lawan tuturnya iaitu protege yang terlibat. Dalam contoh di bawah, kata ‘maaf’ digunakan oleh pengkritik bagi mengelakkan timbulnya rasa marah dan perselisihan faham pada pihak lawan tutur apabila mendengar kritikan yang dilontarkannya. Secara tidak langsung strategi ini dapat mewujudkan situasi bebas konflik dalam situasi tersebut. M5(14):U224(ZZ)
“Second song tu saya nampak macam Faizal Tahir over shadow sikit, maaf jangan marah ye.”
8.2.5 Bersikap pesimis Sikap pesimis merupakan lawan kepada optimis. Ini bermakna pengkritik cenderung melihat sesuatu itu dari sudut keburukannya seperti dalam contoh berikut: M5(11):U175(MM)
“Rasa masih kekok sikit la awak atas stage, awak cuba nak perform tapi awak masih kekok, itu menampakkan kelemahan lagi.”
8.3 Struktur Sandwich Struktur Sandwich digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika menyampaikan kritikan negatif. Seperti yang diperjelaskan oleh Dohrenwend, A. (2002) bahawa sesuatu penyataan negatif sukar untuk disampaikan tetapi dengan menggunakan struktur Sandwich menjadikannya lebih mudah dan efektif. Di samping itu, strategi ini dapat membantu penutur menyampaikan kritikannya dengan lebih selesa dan tidak mengancam air muka orang yang dikritik. Dlugan, A. (2008) berpendapat bahawa penyataan positif dalam strategi ini seharusnya bukanlah terhad kepada pujian semata-mata dan penyataan negatif juga bukanlah hanya merujuk kepada kecaman sahaja, malah positif juga merujuk kepada apa-apa bentuk penyataan yang menggembirakan dan menyenangkan seperti penghargaan, persetujuan, penyataan suka, cadangan, nasihat, kata-kata semangat dan penyelesaian masalah. Sementara penyataan negatif pula dirujuk sebagai penyataan yang khusus tentang sesuatu perkara atau tindakan yang perlu dibaiki, penyataan kekurangan dan kelemahan, ketidaksetujuan dan rasa tidak puas hati penutur terhadap sesuatu atau seseorang yang dikritik atau dinilai. Hasil analisis mendapati bahawa 2 bentuk pola struktur Sandwich yang telah digunakan oleh pengkritik. Pola- pola tersebut, ialah seperti berikut:
Positif + negatif + positif Negatif + negatif + positif 8.3.1 Pola positif + negatif + positif Pola positif+negatif+positif ialah pola yang mengapitkan penyataan negatif dengan penyataan positif agar kelihatan lebih halus dan santun. Pola ini sangat digemari oleh pengkritik, buktinya terdapat 14 ujaran menggunakan pola tersebut dalam kajian ini. Antaranya, ialah ujaran berikut: M5(11): U168(MM)
Ok apa yang Iqa buat malam ni dah fokus nampak apa yang nak dibuat semua menjadi,cuma bila terlalu fokus anda terlupa dekat orang depan yang dekat bawah ni, jangan ya.
Penggunaan struktur Sandwich dalam contoh M5(11): U168(MM) ditafsir seperti berikut: Penyataan positif:
Iqa buat malam ni dah fokus nampak apa yang nak dibuat semua menjadi
Penyataan negatif:
bila terlalu fokus anda terlupa dekat orang depan yang dekat bawah ini
Penyataan positif:
jangan ya
Berdasarkan analisis, dalam contoh di atas pengkritik telah membuat kecaman terhadap protege yang terlibat. Namun begitu, untuk mengurangkan rasa ketidakselesaan pada protege dan pengkritik maka pengkritik telah mendahului kritikannya dengan penyataan pujian dan mengakhirinya dengan peringatan. Strategi ini secara tidak langsung dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka kerana pengkritik berusaha untuk menghormati muka positif lawan tutur dengan mengungkapkan penyataan positif di awal dan di akhir kritikan. 8.3.2 Pola negatif + negatif + positif Berbeza dengan pola di atas pola negatif + negatif + positif ini agak kurang santun kerana penyataan negatif mendahului penyataan positif. Tambahan pula dalam pola ini terdapat dua penyataan negatif. Hasil analisis mendapati bahawa hanya satu ujaran struktur Sandwich yang menggunakan pola ini, iaitu seperti di bawah: M5(4): U12(DR)
Kamu semua meremehkan melodi, melodi tak betul tak cukup tinggi banyak flat so perlu tumpu bagi betul tumpu yang dekat melodi tu.
Penggunaan struktur Sandwich dalam contoh di atas boleh ditafsir seperti berikut: Penyataan negatif:
Kamu semua meremehkan melodi
Penyataan negatif:
melodi tak betul tak cukup tinggi banyak flat
Penyataan positif:
perlu tumpu bagi betul tumpu yang dekat melodi tu
9.0 KESIMPULAN Berdasarkan analisis yang dijalankan dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa dalam rancangan realiti televisyen Mentor 5 ,pengkritik sentiasa berusaha menyampaikan kritikan dengan sempurna dan berkesan di samping mengekalkan kesantunan agar dapat diterima oleh penerima kritikan dan pendengar. Pengkritik bukan hanya menjalankan amanahnya sebagai seorang juri dan pengkritik
ILCC 2013
356
malah masih mempunyai sikap ambil peduli terhadap keharmonian dalam komunikasi. Jurang yang wujud di antara pengkritik dan protege telah cuba dikecilkan oleh pengkritik dengan mengaplikasikan strategi kesantunan dalam menyampaikan kritikannya. Walaupun kritikan diujarkan secara langsung atau terang-terangan oleh pengkritik, namun penyesuaian telah dilakukan oleh pengkritik seperti yang telah dicadangkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) dalam model kesantunannya. Analisis telah menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik paling kerap menggunakan strategi kesantunan positif, iaitu sebanyak 78 ujaran berbanding dengan strategi kesantunan negatif, iaitu 36 ujaran. Sementara 15 ujaran telah dikenal pasti mengaplikasikan struktur Sandwich sebagai salah satu strategi untuk menyampaikan kritikan negatif. Terdapat dua bentuk pola struktur Sandwich yang digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk menyampaikan kritikan dalam rancangan Mentor 5, iaitu i) pola positif + negatif + positif dan ii) pola negatif + negatif + positif. Hasil kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa struktur Sandwich yang dipraktikkan oleh pengkritik dalam rancangan Mentor 5 ini sebenarnya merupakan hasil gabungan teknik-teknik kesantunan yang dicadangkan oleh Brown dan Levinson(1987) dalam model kesantunannya. BIBLIOGRAFI Asmah Hj. Omar. (2007). Kesantunan bahasa dalam pengurusan pentadbiran dan media. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan bahasa dan Pustaka. Awang Sariyan (2007). Santun berbahasa. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Brown, P. & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Levinson, S. C. (1985). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Li, S. & Seale, C. (2007). Managing criticism in PhD supervision: A qualitative case study. Studies in Hinger Education, 32 (4). Hlm. 511-526. Manaf. (1999). Strategi kesantunan berbahasa Indonesia kaum wanita penutur bahasa Indonesia yang berlatar belakang bahasa Minangkabau dalam tindak tutur memerintah. Humanus, 11 (1). Marlyna Maros. (2011). Strategi kesantunan Melayu dalam membuat teguran. Jurnal Elektronik Jabatan Bahasa & Kebudayaan Melayu. (3).hlm. 7-20. Nadar, F.X. (2009). Pragmatik dan penelitian pragmatik. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu Nor Fariza Mohd. Nor & Jamaluddin Aziz. (2010). Discourse Analysis of Decision Making Episodes in Meetings: Politeness theory and Critical Discourse Analysis. 3L The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies,16 (2). Noriati Abd. Rashid. (2005). Kesantunan orang Melayu dalam majlis pertunangan. Tanjong Malim: Penerbit Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. Triana.(2009). Bahasa, kesantunan dan perubahan sosial: Analisis terhadap lakuan tutur menolak etnik Minangkabau moden. Tesis PhD Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Yanti Haryati.(2010). Strategi narasumber dalam mengkritik dan merespons tuturan dalam acara Apa Kabar Indonesia Pagi TV One. Tesis Sarjana Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mengajar Prinsip Kesantunan Linguistik Dalam Budaya Melayu Kepada Pelajar Asing. Zaitul Azma Binti Zainon Hamzah, PhD Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan. Jabatan Bahasa Melayu Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 Upm Serdang
[email protected] Abstrak Prinsip Kesantunan dibangunkan oleh masyarakat untuk mengurangkan pergeseran dan mengelakkan konflik dalam interaksi. Konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson (1987,1978) telah ditemui tidak adil, dan didapati berbeza dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam prinsip kesantunan budaya Melayu, (Asmah Haji Omar, 2007). Dalam budaya Melayu, 'wajah' mempunyai makna yang lebih mendalam daripada 'wajah' dalam budaya barat. Perbezaan ini telah menunjukkan wujudnya kekangan dan perbezaan konsep dan amalan kesantunan antara budaya barat dengan budaya Melayu yang seterusnya turut menimbulkan persoalan hierarki dan kuasa. Melalui konsep kesantunan dalam budaya Melayu, penutur disyorkan mempratikkan kesantunan untuk menyerlahkan nilai kebaikan, ihsan, tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta perbualan yang baik bagi mengelakkan konflik dan pergeseran. Dengan itu, tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti perbezaan konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam budaya Melayu yang menimbulkan pergeseran kepada pelajar asing, kedua, menjelaskan prinsip kesantunan dalam bahasa dan budaya Melayu sebagai satu pendekatan dalam pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing dan kedua. Data dikumpul daripada data teks, soal selidik, rakaman dan temu bual. Seramai 100 orang responden telah dipilih untuk mewakili institusi dan masyarakat. Hasil kajian ini dapat menentukan prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya Melayu dalam usaha meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa dalam kalangan pelajar di samping memantapkan pendekatan pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing. Kata kunci: Kesantunan, budaya Melayu, bahasa Melayu, konsep muka.
ILCC 2013
358
Pengenalan. Prinsip Kesantunan dibangunkan oleh masyarakat untuk mengurangkan pergeseran dan mengelakkan konflik dalam interaksi. Konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson (1987,1978) telah ditemui tidak adil, dan didapati berbeza dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam prinsip kesantunan budaya Melayu, (Asmah Haji Omar, 2007). Dalam budaya Melayu, 'wajah' mempunyai makna yang lebih mendalam daripada 'wajah' dalam budaya barat. Perbezaan ini telah menunjukkan wujudnya kekangan dan perbezaan konsep dan amalan kesantunan antara budaya barat dengan budaya Melayu yang seterusnya turut menimbulkan persoalan hierarki dan kuasa. Melalui konsep kesantunan dalam budaya Melayu, penutur disyorkan mempratikkan kesantunan untuk menyerlahkan nilai kebaikan, ihsan, tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta perbualan yang baik bagi mengelakkan konflik dan pergeseran. Perbezaan unsur-unsur budaya dan bahasa terbukti turut mempengaruhi amalan kesantunan seseorang. Unsur-unsur budaya bersifat ekstrinsik, manakala unsur-unsur bersifat intrinsik. Justeru di samping unsur-unsur gramatikal, cara merealisasikan pertuturan yang tampak santun menjadi sesuatu yang inheren dengan gagasan bahasa sebagai alat berkomunikasi. Sementara itu, dalam Beebe, Takahashi, dan Ullis-Weltz (1990) didapati terdapat perbezaan antara orang Jepun dengan orang Amerika dalam mempraktikan kesantunan berbahasa ketika memohon maaf. Kajian Beebe, Takahashi, dan Ullis-Weltz (1990) mendapati orang Jepun sering kali tidak menggunakan ungkapan maaf ketika mereka menolak sebuah undangan daripada seseorang pendengar. Selain itu, orang Jepun lebih memperlihatkan status seseorang daripada memperlihatkan unsur keakraban ketika membuat penolakan. Hal ini berbeza dengan orang Amerika yang lebih menggunakan ungkapan maaf dan menitikberatkan unsur keakraban. Demikian juga dalam kajian Ito (1989). Kajian Ito menunjukkan adanya perbezaan dalam pertuturan menolak yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang Jepun apabila dibandingkan dengan orang Amerika. Justeru, Dengan berlandaskan prinsip kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), Ito mendapati orang Jepun lebih suka menggunakan kesantunan negatif dengan strategi yang samarsamar menunjukkan penolakan, sementara orang Amerika lebih suka mengatakan ‘tidak’ dengan kesantunan positif. Cara-cara yang sama yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang Jepun ini juga ditemukan oleh kajian para sarjana lain seperti Tickle, Izuno, dan Epson (1991), Kinjo (1987), Ikoma dan Shimura (1994). Strategi samar-samar ketika membuat penolakan juga ditunjukkan oleh orang Thailand (Deephuengton, 1992). Menurut Deephuengton, orang Thailand cenderung menggunakan cara yang sangat konvensional dalam menolak, iaitu kesantunan negatif, kesantunan positif, dan strategi samar-samar. Kesantunan positif ditunjukkan dengan cara menunda atau menghindari jawapan langsung dan melembutkan ungkapan. Sementara itu, kesantunan negatif diwujudkan dalam ungkapan yang tidak menunjukkan komitmen, mengemukakan pertanyaan dan sebagainya. Menurut Deephuengton, kenyataan tersebut menunjukkan bahawa orang Thailand merupakan pemakai bahasa yang tidak mahu menimbulkan sebarang pergeseran ketika membuat penolakan, sebaliknya ingin menjaga keharmonian dan menghindari konflik personal.
Strategi samar-samar ketika membuat penolakan juga dilakukan oleh orang Sunda, (Aziz 1996, 2001). Dengan yang demikian, orang Sunda lebih memilih kesantunan negatif daripada kesantunan positif ketika berhadapan dengan suatu situasi yang akan memaksa mereka membuat penolakan. Selain itu, masyarakat Sunda adalah sama seperti masyarakat Thailand yang sangat mempertimbangkan keharmonian masyarakat dan hubungan interpersonal, justeru mereka cuba mengelak daripada membuat penolakan secara langsung dalam setiap pertuturan menolak yang mereka buat. Sama seperti masyarakat Thailand dan Sunda, masyarakat Melayu juga disyorkan mempratikkan kesantunan berbahasa untuk menyerlahkan nilai tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta cuba menghindari konflik dan pergeseran dalam pertuturan terutama apabila terdapat perbezaan penggunaan strategi kesantunan antara masyarakat timur dengan masyarakat barat. Oleh itu satu pendedahan tentang prinsip kesantunan linguistik perlu diajarkan kepada pelajar asing supaya mereka dapat berkomunikasi dengan santun ketika berinteraksi dengan masyarakat tempatan demi berlangsungnya komunikasi yang wajar di antara mereka. Objektif Tujuan kertas kerja ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti perbezaan konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam budaya Melayu yang menimbulkan pergeseran kepada pelajar asing, kedua, menjelaskan prinsip kesantunan dalam bahasa dan budaya Melayu sebagai satu pendekatan dalam pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing dan kedua. Metodologi Data dikumpul daripada soal selidik, rakaman dan temu bual. Seramai 100 orang responden telah dipilih untuk mewakili institusi dan masyarakat. Teori kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) dijadikan teori yang mendasari kajian ini. Dapatan Kajian dan Perbincangan Hasil kajian ini dapat menentukan prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya Melayu dalam usaha meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa dalam kalangan pelajar di samping memantapkan pendekatan pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing.
Skala
4 3 2 1
Sangat perlu Perlu Kurang perlu Tidak pasti
Lebih 80 % 60 % - 79 % 40 % - 59 % Kurang daripada 39%
Pendedahan aspek kesantunan kepada pelajar/ pekerja asing
1 2 3 4
Menyapa, majikan, rakan sejawat , dan pelanggan Membuat permohonan/permintaan Memberi peringatan / amaran Meminta kebenaran untuk bercakap/ menyatakan
Tidak Pasti 0 5.9 0 5.9
N=102 Peratusan % Kurang Perlu Perlu 0 47.1 5.9 47.1 29.4 11.8 5.9 35.3
Sangat perlu 52.9 41.2 58.8 52.9
Min
SP
3.53 3.24 3.29 3.35
0.514 0.831 0.920 0.862
ILCC 2013
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
pendapat dalam mesyuarat Memberi komen atau tidak setuju terhadap pendapat/idea/seseorang/rakan sejawat/pelanggan Memberi arahan Membuat desakan Menolak permintaan seseorang Memberi alasan tidak hadir mesyuarat Mengaku kesilapan/kesalahan yang telah dilakukan Membuat pesanan/tempahan Permohonan maaf Melahirkan rasa tidak puas hati/komplain
360
0
11.8
41.2
47.1
3.35
0.702
5.9 11.8 11.8 23.5 0
17.6 23.5 17.6 11.8 11.8
23.5 35.3 41.2 29.4 41.2
52.9 29.4 29.4 35.3 47.1
3.24 2.82 2.88 2.76 3.24
0.970 1.015 0.993 1.200 0.970
5.9 0 5.9
23.5 5.9 5.9
41.2 29.4 58.8
29.4 64.7 29.4
2.94 3.59 3.12
0.899 0.618 0.781
Hasil kajian mendapati 64.7% responden menyatakan cara menyatakan permohonan maaf sangat perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing, iaitu dalam skala lebih 80%. Aspek kesantunan seterus yang sangat perlu (skala lebih 80%) didedahkan kepada pelajar asing ialah cara memberi peringatan / amaran ( 58.8), menyapa, majikan, rakan sejawat , dan pelanggan (52.9%), meminta kebenaran untuk bercakap/ menyatakan pendapat dalam mesyuarat (52.9%), dan memberi arahan yang masing-masing (52.9%). Selain itu cara memberi komen atau tidak setuju terhadap pendapat/idea/seseorang/ rakan sejawat/pelanggan (47.1%) dan mengaku kesilapan/kesalahan yang telah dilakukan juga didapati sangat perlu didedahkan (47.1%). Aspek kesantunan yang perlu didedahkan dengan skala 60%-79% ialah membuat permohonan/permintaan (47.1%), membuat desakan (35.3 %), Membuat pesanan/tempahan (41.2%) dan melahirkan rasa tidak puas hati/complain (58.8%). Rumusan daripada dapatan soal selidik ini menemukan permohonan maaf menjadi aspek kesantunan yang sangat perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Hal ini memperlihatkan ada hubungan dengan pergeseran atau konflik dalam pertuturan antara pelajar tempatan dengan pelajar asing. Hal ini turut dibukti melalui temu bual dengan responden. Sebanyak 83% responden yang mengaku sering berlaku pergeseran dan konflik dalam pertuturan ini antara pelajar asing dengan pelajar tempatan apabila pelajar asing tidak tahu menghormati budaya setempat seperti yang terungkap dalam pepatah “Masuk kandang kambing, kambing mengembek, masuk kandang kerbau, kerbau menguak”. Pergeseran dan konflik ini sering berlaku apabila pelajar asing tidak tidak pandai untuk memohon maaf ketika mereka melakukan kesilapan, ketika mereka datang lewat ke kelas dan ketika mereka menolak permintaan pelajar lain. Perbincangan Daripada kajian ini beberapa dapatan dapat ditemukan dalam membentuk prinsip kesantunan yang perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Dengan berorientasi pada konsep 'muka', Brown dan Levinson, prinsip kesantunan linguistik yang ingin dibentuk perlu mengambil kira diri pendengar dikaitkan dengan faktor-faktor seperti status sosial, usia, kedekatan, tempat atau lokasi dan situasi. Sungguhpun konsep 'muka', Brown dan Levinson dibahagi kepada dua kategori, iaitu: kesantunan positif (KP) dan kesantunan negatif (KN) namun kedua-dua kategori ini digabungkan supaya
prinsip yang dibentuk dapat memperlihatkan solidariti ( solidarity), dan menunjukkan perhormatan (showing respect). Prinsip Kesantunan itu melibatkan penggunaan bahasa yang berikut; Prinsip hormat dan akrab 1)menggunakan kata gelaran dan panggilan bersama nama depan (first name) untuk menyapa seseorang bagi memperlihat darjat sosialnya (hierarchical relation) Contoh Prof. Tuan, Puan. 'Dr' dan sebagainya. 2. Menggunakan pakai kata ganti nama diri yang sesuai dan santun seperti 'saya', ‘anda’ 'dia', ‘beliau’ dan ‘mereka'. Prinsip menjaga perasaan Penutur dapat pertimbangkan perasaan pendengar sebagaimana kita mengharapkan orang lain pertimbangkan perasaan kita sendiri. Justeru penutur diharap menggunakan Bahasa yang dapat 1) memberi pujian mengikut konteks dan situasi yang sesuai, 2). menggunakan bahasa yang dapat menunjukkan nilai keakraban dan hormat. Prinsip bekerjasama dan toleransi. 1. Menggunakan bahasa yang memperlihatkan hubungan tidak langsung iaitu dari segi struktur dan fungsi komunikatif. 2) sentiasa memberi pilihan kepada pendengar untuk berkata sesuatu tanpa menyinggung perasaan seseorang. 3) mengguna bahasa yang memperlihatkan unsur kerendahan hati, tolak ansur dan permohonan maaf (apologetic language), 4) menggunakan nada dan tekanan suara yang rendah supaya dapat mengurangi risiko salah faham dan konflik dalam penyampaian ujaran. Dengan adanya pendedahan terhadap prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya Melayu ini usaha untuk meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa Melayu dalam kalangan pelajar dapat dicapai selain dapat menyemai nilai-nilai budaya Melayu dalam kalangan pelajar asing di Malaysia. Tanpa dinafikan, dalam pengajaran bahasa asing, pengetahuan tentang prinsip-prinsip kesantunan dalam sesuatu masyarakat bahasa yang dipelajari penting bagi meningkatkan kemampuan komunikasi yang baik dalam bahasa tersebut. Selain itu, pelajar dapat meningkatkan kompetensi komunikatif yang mencakup tiga macam kompetensi lain iaitu kompetensi gramatikal (grammatical competence), kompetensi sosiolinguistik (sociolinguistic competence) yang berkaitan dengan pengetahuan sosial budaya bahasa tertentu, kompetensi wacana (discourse competence) dan kompetensi strategik (strategic competence) yang berkaitan dengan kemampuan pengungkapan gagasan melalui beragam gaya yang berlaku khusus dalam setiap bahasa.
ILCC 2013
362
Kesimpulan Kesantunan berbahasa adalah prinsip atau kesepakatan yang harus dipatuhi di antara dua belah pihak yang berkomunikasi, oleh penutur dan pendengar. Kesantunan berbahasa pada hakikatnya adalah upaya untuk mengurangi dampak negatif pada khalayak, atau hak dan kewajiban dalam mengeratkan hubungan sosial dalam suatu percakapan, terutama dalam kalangan pelajar asing yang baru hendak mengenali Budaya di negara ini. Disebabkan perbezaan budaya, pelajar asing sering ditemu mengemukakan ujaran yang mencetuskan konflik dan pergeseran. Justeru aspek permohonan maaf dinyatakan sangat perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Pendedahan aspek permohonan maaf ini perlu didedahkan dalam prinsip kesantunan linguistik yang dapat mengeratkan hubungan, serta dapat menunjukkan nilai keakraban dan hormat akan budaya tempatan.
Bibliografi
Beebe, L.M. dan T. Takahashi. 1989. Do you have a bag? Social status and patterned variation in second language acquisition. Dalam S.M. Gass, C. Madden, D. Preston, dan L. Selinker (ed). Variation in second language acquisition vol I: sociolinguistic issues. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Beebe, L.M., T. Takahashi dan R. Ullis-Weltz. 1990. Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. Dalam R.C. Scarcella, E.S. Anderson, dan S.D. Krashen (ed). Developing communicative competence in a second language. NY: Newbury House. Brown, P. dan S. C. Levinson. (1987). Politeness: some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Clyne, M. 1983. Communicative competence in contact. Dalam L.E. Smith (ed). Readings in English as an international language. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Deephuengton, P. 1992. Politeness in Thai: strategies of refusing and disagreeing. Disertasi Ph.D. tidak diterbitkan. University of Kansas. Faerch, C. dan G. Kasper. 1984. Pragmatic knowledge: rules and procedures. Applied Linguistics. 5, 3, hal. 214-225. Goffman, E. 1967. Interaction rituals. Garden City: Double Day. Grice, H. P. 1975. Logic and conversation. Dalam P. Cole dan J.L. Morgan (ed). Syntax and semantics 3: speech acts. NY: Academic Press.
Hymes, D. 1972. Models of the interaction of language and social life. Dalam J.J. Gumperz dan D. Hymes (ed). Directions in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication. NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Ikoma, T. dan A. Shimura. 1994. Pragmatic transfer in speech act of refusal in Japanese as a second language. Journal of Asian and Pacific Communication, 2, 1-2, hal. 105-129. Ito, Y. 1989. Strategies of disagreement: a comparison of Japanese and American usage. Sophia Linguistica, 27, 193-203. Kartomihardjo, S. 1982. Ethnography of communicative codes in East Java. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Kinjo, H. 1987. Oral refusals of invitation and requests in English and Japanese. Journal of Asian Culture, 11, hal. 83-106. Lakoff, R.T. 1975. Language and women’s place. NY: Harper Colophom. Leech, G.N. 1983. Principles of pragmatics. London: Longman. Tickle, A., J. Izuno, dan S. Epson. 1991. Japanese refusals in a business setting. PALM, 6, 2, hal. 84-108.
ILCC 2013
364
Serangga Dalam Peribahasa Melayu Sebagai Pelengkap Kehidupan.
Oleh Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan Prof. Madya Dr. Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah Universiti Putra Malaysia
[email protected] [email protected] Abstrak Peribahasa Melayu mempunyai kaitan yang rapat dengan kehidupan dan pemikiran orang Melayu. Sebagai salah satu daripada puisi tertua yang memaparkan akal budi masyarakat Melayu lama, penciptaan peribahasa sangat terikat dengan adat istiadat Melayu dan alam sekelilingnya. Justeru penelitian terhadap peribahasa Melayu secara tidak langsung dapat diketahui falsafah hidup dan struktur sosial masyarakat Melayu lama. Segala kepercayaan dan ideologi yang dipegang oleh masyarakat Melaui digambarkan melalui unsur alam, flora dan fauna. Melalui unsur serangga, peribahasa Melayu turut memaparkan penghayatan orang Melayu terhadap perlakuan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Justeru, kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan unsur serangga dalam kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya, dan membincangkan hubungan sifat serangga dengan alam kehidupan serta pemikiran orang Melayu dahulu kala. Data kajian yang terdiri daripada peribahasa-peribahasa yang menggunakan unsur serangga akan dianalisis secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif menggunakan Hipotesis Sapir Whorf dan teori pragmatik. Pengenalan Peribahasa Melayu adalah salah satu daripada pusaka dan warisan nenek moyang bangsa Melayu yang unik kerana mempunyai maksud yang mendalam dan tersirat. Sebagai salah satu daripada puisi tertua yang memaparkan akal budi bangsa Melayu, penciptaan peribahasa sangat terikat dengan adat istiadat Melayu lama. Menerusi peribahasa dapat dikaji struktur sosial bangsa Melayu lama, sikap, aktiviti kehidupan serta falsafah hidup yang mereka anuti, (Zaitul Azma & Ahmad Fuad, 2011).
Penciptaan peribahasa adalah berdasarkan pengalaman orang-orang Melayu dahulu terhadap kejadian atau fenomena alam di sekeliling kehidupan mereka sehari-hari lalu disimpulkan dalam bahasa yang indah dan kreatif dengan tujuan untuk dijadikan pengajaran dan teladan kepada generasi seterusnya. Dengan demikiran tanpa diragui, peribahasa merupakan projeksi watak dan cara hidup masyarakat Melayu. Malah peribahasa juga merupakan pertuturan atau perintah yang dipegang dan dianuti oleh masyarakat Melayu yang terdiri daripada beberapa patah perkataan sahaja tetapi mampu memberi pengertian yang luas dan mendalam. Pendek kata, dalam peribahasa terdapat banyak pengajaran dan pedoman yang boleh diikuti bertujuan untuk membentuk peribadi dan perlakuan manusia berdasarkan pengalaman yang sudah ditempuhi.
Peribahasa menggambarkan kehidupan masyarakat Melayu lama dari segi perasaan, tingkah laku, kegiatan budaya, pola fikir dan lain-lain yang berkaitan dengan geobudaya bangsa Melayu. Bangsa Melayu menjana pengetahuan yang diperoleh hasil daripada interaksi dengan alam sekeliling dalam mencipta peribahasa dan maknanya. Unsur alam sekeliling yang dijadikan sumber dalam penciptaan peribahasa termasuklah unsur alam semula jadi, alam benda, alam flora dan alam fauna. Dengan kata lain alam sekeliling amat mempengaruhi bahasa dan kepercayaan orang Melayu. Sejajar dengan itu, menerusi peribahasa dapat dikaji struktur sosial bangsa Melayu lama, sikap, aktiviti kehidupan serta falsafah hidup yang mereka anuti.
Falsafah yang tersirat dalam peribahasa Melayu menunjangi kehidupan bangsa Melayu khasnya dan masyarakat Malaysia amnya. Segala sistem nilai termasuk hati budi orang Melayu dan perwatakan serta sifat-sifat orang Melayu juga dapat diketahui daripada peribahasa Melayu, (Wilkinson, 1907). Malah peribahasa berperanan sebagai hukum adat dan nasihat moral dalam mengawal tindak tanduk anggota masyarakatnya. Penciptaannya yang berdasarkan fenomena sebenar kehidupan masyarakat, (Hamilton, 1947) turut menyerlahkan pemikiran bangsa Melayu tentang alam kehidupan yang mereka tempuhi. Permasalahan Kajian Disebabkan keunikan dan kekreatifan bahasa serta kandungan falsafah bangsa Melayu yang tersirat di dalam peribahasa maka peribahasa telah banyak dikaji oleh para sarjana sejak dahulu lagi. Selain sarjana barat, sarjana tempatan juga telah banyak menjalankan Kajian tentang peribahasa namun kajian terdahulu lebih tertumpu kepada aspek bahasa dalam peribahasa itu sendiri. Antaranya kajian Indirawati Zahid (1997) yang mengkaji tentang penggunaan simbol dalam peribahasa, kajian Norashikin Mohamed (1998) yang melihat aspek diksi dalam Peibahasa Melayu, kajian Bahiyah Dato’ Hj Abdul Hamid dan Hafriza Burhanudeen (1998), yang membincangkan aspek gender dalam peribahasa. Kajian tentang peribahasa Melayu tidak terhenti setakat itu malah dalam abad ke-21, kajian terhadap peribahasa diteruskan oleh sarjana temapatan yang lain. Antaranya Zaidah Ahmad Rosly (2001) yang menjalankan kajian yang bertajuk, “Semantik dan Pragmatik Metonomi dalam Peribahasa Melayu”, Jyh Wee Sew (2009) menjalankan beliau yang bertajuk “Gila-gila dalam Peribahasa Melayu dan Humor dalam Peribahasa Melayu”, Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah & Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan (2011) dengan kajian yang bertajuk “Bahasa dan Pemikiran dalam Peribahasa Melayuk” dan Imran Ho Abdullah, (2011) telah menjalankan kajian yang bertajuk. “Pembentukan Model Kognitif yang Tercermin dalam Peribahasa Bersumberkan Haiwan. Daripada kajian-kajian terdahulu didapati unsur serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu belum diterokai lagi. Justeru perlulah dijalankan penelitian terhadap penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu bagi mengetahui mesej tesirat yang cuba disampaikan selain untuk menjelaskan hubungan serangga dengan kehidupan orang Melayu dahulu kala. Metodologi Data peribahasa diteliti daripada buku Peribahasa Melayu: Penelitian Makna dan Nilai, (Zaitul Azma & Ahmad Fuad, 2011). Data yang diperoleh dianalisis secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Peribahasa yang mengidentifikasikan serangga dipilih dan dianalisis menggunakan teori Hipotesis Sapir Whorf dan teori pragmatik
Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf (1921), didasari oleh teori relativiti linguistik, menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan antara bahasa, budaya dan pemikiran manusia. Dengan perkataan lain, tanggapan atau fikiran dan tindakan seseorang itu bergantung kepada struktur dan kosa kata dalam bahasa yang digunakan oleh penutur untuk berfikir dan menanggapi sesuatu. Dengan yang demikian bahasa turut mempengaruhi tingkah laku penuturnya. Penekanan “the structure of the languages we speak affects the way we perceive the world about us” menjelaskan bahawa struktur sesuatu bahasa menggambarkan cara penutur memandang dunianya dan bagaimana budaya mempunyai hubungan dengan bahasa, (Jufrizal, Zul Amri dan Refnaldi : 2007). Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf (1921) yang dipelopori oleh Boas, Sapir dan Whorf ini turut menyatakan bahawa bahasa tidak hanya menentukan kebudayaan tetapi juga menentukan jalan fikiran penuturnya. Hubungan antara bahasa dan kebudayaan yang begitu erat terjadi dalam kehidupan lahiriah dan batiniah. Hal ini dapat dikaitkan oleh penulis dengan penciptaan peribahasa Melayu. Seterusnya, teori Relevans yang menekankan tiga gagasan utama, iaitu konteks, kesan konteks dan usaha memproses maklumat diterapkan dalam menganalisis peribahasa Melayu. Tiga gagasan ini kadangkala dibantu oleh subgagasan seperti pengayaan, pemilihan rujukan dan penyahtaksaan maklumat bagi melicinkan penginterpretasian makna. Hal ini bersesuaian kerana pragmatik ditakrifkan sebagai bidang bahasa yang mengkaji cara suatu ujaran itu mendapat makna apabila digunakan dalam konteks tertentu. Pendekatan pragmatik mengutamakan penginterpretasian makna ujaran yang ada hubungannya dengan konteks situasi, tujuan penutur itu menghasilkan ujaran, dan cara pendengar menerima dan memahami ujaran itu. Dengan kata lain, bidang pragmatik cuba menyerlahkan penggunaan bahasa dan fungsi bahasa mengikut konteks. Justeru kajian pragmatik tidak mengutamakan struktur bahasa dalam menginterpretasi
ILCC 2013
366
makna ujarannya tetapi lebih kepada hubungan antara struktur bahasa dengan peraturan perlakuan para penggunanya. Oleh itu kerelevanan sesuatu ujaran adalah bergantung pada konteks, kesan konteks ataupun kognisi dan usaha pemprosesan maklumat antara penutur dan pendengar, (Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah, 2002). Dapatan Kajian Daripada 5461 peribahasa Melayu yang dijadikan bahan penelitian, didapati 1.23% peribahasa yang ada menggunakan serangga. Hasil penelitian juga mendapati serangga lebih banyak digunakan dalam penciptaan bidalan, iaitu sebanyak 46.3%, diikuti oleh perumpamaan sebanyak 35.8%, pepatah sebanyak 11.9%, dan simpulan bahasa sebanyak 6%. Setakat ini, didapati tiada unsur serangga dalam penciptaan katakata hikmat, (Sila rujuk Jadual 1)
Jadual 1: Jumlah Peribahasa yang menggunakan serangga Peribahasa Jumlah Semua Simpulan bahasa 1087 Perumpamaan 851 Bidalan 2567 Pepatah 956 Kata-kata Hikmat 0 Jumlah 5461 Sumber : Zaitul Azma dan Ahmad Fuad (2011).
Serangga 4 24 31 8 0 67 (1.23%)
Dari segi kekerapan penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa, didapati serangga lalat dan langau serta belalang adalah yang paling banyak, iaitu sebanyak 16.4%. Serangga tebuan mencatat jumlah kedua banyak, iaitu sebanyak 10.4%, diikuti oleh serangga kumbang, semut, kutu dan tuma yang masing-masing adalah sebanyak 9.0%. Serangga lain ialah lipas (7.5%), nyamuk (6.0%), anai-anai (4.5%), lebah (3.0%), pijat (3.0%), kelip-kelip (1.5%), rama-rama/kupu-kupu (1.5%), tungau (1.5%) dan bubuk (1.5%) (Sila rujuk Jadual 2). Jadual 2: Jenis serangga dalam Peribahasa Melayu Jenis Serangga Lalat dan Langau Belalang Tebuan Kumbang Semut Kutu dan Tuma Lipas Nyamuk Anai-anai Lebah Pijat Kelip-kelip Rama-rama/Kupu-kupu Tungau Bubuk Jumlah
Jumlah 11 11 7 6 6 6 5 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 67
Serangga % 16.4 16.4 10.4 9.0 9.0 9.0 7.5 6.0 4.5 3.0 3.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 100
Penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa adalah berdasarkan ciri, sifat dan kehidupan serangga dalam memberikan makna kepada tingkah laku dan gaya hidup manusia secara tersurat dan tersirat. Pendek kata, melalui unsur serangga, peribahasa Melayu turut memaparkan penghayatan orang Melayu terhadap perlakuan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Unsur serangga dalam kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya Seterusnya hasil penelitian, mendapati rujukan dari segi penggunaan perkataan atau istilah serangga yang terdapat dalam peribahasa Melayu adalah ditentukan oleh pengalaman manusia yang pelbagai dan berhubungan erat antara pemikiran dan budaya berbahasa masyarakat Melayu yang sekali gus diasosiasikan dengan kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Hal ini tergambar dalam contoh peribahasa yang berikut;
Data
Peribahasa
Makna
Serangga
Tema
Lain padang, lain Setiap negeri mempunyai adat belalang yang berlainan Seperti langau di ekor Orang yang selalu menurut gajah kemahuan atau mengikut orang yang berkuasa Ada padang ada Ada negeri tentulah ada belalang rakyatnya
Belalang
Sosiopolitik
Langau/ Gajah
Sosiopolitik
Belalang
Sosiopolitik
Serangga belalang dijadikan perlambangan untuk manusia atau rakyat. Penyalinan belalang sebagai rakyat dianggap relevan apabila padang dilambang sebagai tanah air atau negeri. Begitu juga dengan langau dan gajah. Langau, serangga yang bersaiz kecil dan dan berbunyi berdengung-dengung dianggap mempunyai perhubungan dengan sifat manusia yang riuh-rendah. Manakala gajah yang bersaiz besar disimbolkan sebagai pemimpin. Dalam peribahasa Melayu, unsur penyalinan objek alam dengan bahasa serta diberikan makna rujukan berlaku kerana setiap orang berbicara dengan cara yang berbeza dan berfikir dengan cara yang berbeza. Dengan yang demikian, bahasa juga menawarkan cara mengungkapkan makna tentang dunia persekitaran mereka dengan cara yang berbeza (Sapir-Whorf, 1921). Dengan demikian, bahasa tergambar menerusi penggunaan perkataan-perkataan itu dengan lebih meluas dan penutur cuba memaksimumkan fungsi sesuatu perkataan untuk mengungkapkan idea yang hendak disampaikan seperti halnya dalam peribahasa ‘Lain padang, lain belalang’, ‘Ada padang ada belalang’ dan ‘Seperti langau di ekor gajah’.
Data
Peribahasa Ada gula ada lah semut
Makna
Di tempat yang mudah memperoleh rezeki, di situlah orang berkumpul Bagai lebah Orang yang rajin bekerja dan menghimpun madu tekun berusaha, akhirnya terlaksana cita-citanya Seperti anai-anai makan Melakukan sesuatu kerja kayu dengan teliti dan tekun Bagai lalat cari puru Membuat sesuatu pekerjaan dengan cepat dan ghairah Lipas kudung Orang yang selalu bergerak dengan cepat atau bekerja dengan pantas dan cekap
Serangga
Tema
Semut
Sosioekonomi
Lebah
Sosioekonomi
Anai-anai
Sosioekonomi
Lalat
Sosioekonomi
Lipas
Sosioekonomi
Begitu juga dengan peribahasa 4 hingga 8 menunjukkan penggunaan serangga “semut, lebah, anai-anai, lalat dan lipas” yang menggambarkan perihal sosioekonomi masyarakat Melayu. Penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa “Ada gula ada lah semut” menunjukkan perkongsian persepsi yang terbina pengalaman yang menyaksikan sifat dan ciri semuat dalam persekitaran. Sifat semut yang mengerumuni gula sama-sama
ILCC 2013
368
menghasilkan pemahaman kepada tingkah laku manusia yang bertumpu ke tempat-tempat yang mudah memperoleh rezeki. Justeru peribahasa ini adalah lambang perkongsian persepsi sesuatu komuniti yang dizahirkan melalui kata-kata yang kreatif. Berdasarkan konteks, kita dapat menerima penggunaan peribahasa berserta makna secara logic. Begitu juga dengan penggunaan serangga “lebah, anai-anai, lalat dan lipas”. Berdasarkan sifat dan ciri serangga ini, objek serangga ini digunakan dalam peribahasa Melayu untuk menggambarkan sikap orang yang rajin, pantas, teliti, dan tekun melakukan kerja yang diamanahkan kepada mereka. Pengalaman manusia bertembung dengan lipas yang kudung yang berjalan dan bergerak laju dipetakan dengan seseorang yang pantas melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan dengan cekap.
Dalam aspek sosiobudaya, peribahasa Melayu juga digambarkan mempunyai kaitan yang rapat dengan kehidupan dan sifat serangga seperti anai-anai, lebah, semut dan pijat. Persepsi terhadap satu sifat penting serangga ini, contohnya anai-anai yang hidup dalam kumpulan mewujudkan pemahaman dalam kalangan masyarakat Melayu yang seterusnya dizahirkan melalui peribahasa ‘Bagai anai-anai bubus’. Dengan kata lain penciptaan peribahasa yang menggunakan serangga adalah lahir melalui perkongsian persepsi sesuatu masyarakat linguistik terhadap persekitaran mereka dengan serangga yang menjadi sebahagian daripada alam kehidupan mereka. Data
Peribahasa
Makna
Serangga
Tema
Bagai anai-anai bubus
Perihal yang menunjukkan ramainya orang yang berhimpun untuk melihat atau mendengar sesuatu Orang kaya yang murah hati tetapi suka menyindiri Perempuan yang cantik tetapi buruk perangainya Orang akan terpedaya atau terpengaruh dengan pujukan atau kata-kata yang manis Kerana pengaruh wang dan harta dunia, orang yang bodoh dan hina pun akan menjadi mulia Cara berjalan seorang perempuan yang baik, tidak terlampau lambat dan tidak pula terlampau cepat tetapi kuat dan tetap
Anai-anai
Sosiobudaya
Lebah
Sosiobudaya
Semut
Sosiobudaya
Pijat
Sosiobudaya
Semut
Sosiobudaya
Seperti lebah, mulut membawa madu, buntut membawa sengat Mati semut kerana gula
Pijat-pijat telah menjadi kura-kura
Semut dipijak tak mati, antan dilanda patah tiga
Hubungan sifat serangga dengan alam kehidupan serta pemikiran orang Melayu dahulu kala Serangga adalah sebahagian daripada alam kehidupan manusia. Dengan demikian kehadiran serangga dalam beberapa bentuk spesies telah banyak memberikan pilihan dan pengalaman kepada masyarakat Melayu untuk memeta dengan baik hubungan linguistik dengan serangga sehingga membentuk peribahasa yang bermakna. Persepsi dan pengalaman terhadap persekitaran serangga memberikan interpretasi tingkah laku kepada masyarakat Melayu untuk mencipta peribahasa yang relevan dengan fenomena dan konteksnya. Sebagai rumusan, alam serangga turut menjadi sebahagian daripada derivatif dalam pembentukan peribahasa Melayu. Hal ini berlaku apabila orang Melayu bertembung dengan sesuatu organisma (tumbuh-tumbuhan, haiwan, serangga dan benda-benda hidup yang lain) dan perlakuan manusia, maka akan berlaku interaksi melalui sistem saraf dengan objek, organisma dan perlakuan manusia lalu mereka membentuk makna
pemikiran dan diungkapkan dalam bentuk peribahasa. Misalnya pertembungan dengan serangga “anai-anai” yang rajin dan bekerjasama dalam melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan disamakan rujukannya dengan seseorang atau sekumpulan yang melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan dengan tekun dan teliti. Di samping itu, peribahasa Melayu menonjolkan perkongsian makna pemikiran bangsa Melayu yang bersifat interaktif. Hal ini menyokong hipotesis Sapir-Whorf yang menyatakan bahawa struktur bahasa yang dilahirkan adalah bukti yang mempengaruhi cara seseorang itu berfikir dan berperilaku. Bahasa dapat dikatakan sebagai bahagian integral, iaitu yang perlu atau yang menjadi sebahagian daripada hidup manusia dan bahasa menyerap dalam setiap fikiran dan cara penutur memandang dunia sekelilingnya. Kesimpulan Spesies serangga yang hidup dalam persekitaran hidup masyarakat Melayu telah memberikan pengalaman dan perkongsian persepsi kepada masyarakat Melayu untuk men cipta peribahasa yang mewakili tema sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Dengan kata lain daripada pengamatan masyarakat Melayu terhadap kehidupan, ciri sifat serangga telah mempengaruhi kepercayaan dan perkongsian pengalaman mereka untuk menzahirkan peribahasa yang relevan dengan konteks dan alam kehidupan manusia. Penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu turut menonjolkan kebijaksanaan masyarakat Melayu membina peribahasa dan makna berdasarkan pengalaman dan interaksinya dengan alam sekeliling. Rujukan Bahiyah Dato’ Hj Abdul Hamid & Hafriza Burhanudeen. (1998). Men and women in Malay proverb: An analysis of Malay gender ideology. Dlm. Sharifah Zaleha Syed Hassan & Rashila Ramli (pnyt.). Kedudukan dan citra wanita dalam sumbersumber tradisional Melayu (hlm. 148-158 ). Bangi: Institut Alam dan Tamadun Melayu, UKM. Brown, C.C. (1951). Malay sayings. Singapore: Graham Brash (pte) Ltd. Edwar Djamanis. (1985). Memahami dan menghargai peribahasa. Dewan Bahasa, 29(5), 338-344. Effendy Kadarisman. (2009) Karya dosen. (Atas Talian). Telah dimuat turun 4 Februari 2011, dari http://karya-ilmiah.um.ac.id/index.php/karya-dosen-fs/article/view/3689 Gumperz, John J. (1996). Introduction to part IV: The social matrix, culture, praxis, and discourse. Dlm. J. J. Gumperz, & S. Levinson, C. Rethinking linguistic relativity (hlm. 359-73). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hamilton A.W. (1947). Malay proverbs. Singapore: Eastern Universiti Press Ltd. Indrawati Zahid. (1998). Peribahasa Melayu: Satu klasifikasi yang tiada penentu. Jurnal Dewan Bahasa, 42(11), 978-984. Imran Ho Abdullah. (2011). Analisis Kognitif Semantik Peribahasa Melayu Bersumberkan Anjing. GEMA OnlineTM Journal of Language Studies, 11(1), 125-139. Jyh Wee Sew. (2009). Gila-gila dalam peribahasa Melayu dan humor dalam peribahasa Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya. Jufrizal Zul Amri & Refnaldi. (2007). Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf dan struktur informasi klausa pentopikalan bahasa Minangkabau. Jurnal Linguistika, 14(26), 1-22. Kamus Dewan. (2005). ed. ke-4. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Kramsch, C. (2001). Language and culture. UK: Oxford University Press.
ILCC 2013
370
Lavandera, B. (1988). The social pragmatics of politeness forms. In U. Ammon and N. Dittmar (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: An international handbook of the science of language and society vol 1. (hlm. 1196-1205) Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers. Slobin, D. I. (1996). From “thought and language” to “thinking for speaking”. Dlm J. J. Gumperz, & S. C. Levinson (pnyt.), Rethinking linguistic relativity. (hlm. 70-96). Cambridge: University Press. Shellabear, W. G. & Guru Sulaiman Muhammad Nor (1964). Kitab kiliran budi. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara Wilkinson, R. J. (1907). Papers on Malay subject 1: Malay literature. London: Luzac &
Co.
Winstedt, R. O. (1950). Malay proverb. London: John Murray. von Humboldt, W. (1767). From “thought and language” to “thinking for speaking”. Dlm J. J. Gumperz, & S.C. Levinson (pnyt.), Rethinking linguistic relativity. (hlm. 70-76). Cambridge: University Press. Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah dan Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan. (2011). “Peribahasa Melayu: Penelitian Makna dan Nilai” Serdang: Penerbit UPM
Analisis Kesalahan Umum Struktur Ayat Majmuk oleh Pelajar Asing Oleh: Arina Johari arinajr@ iium.edu.my Mohd. Zuber Ismail
[email protected] Divisyen Bahasa Melayu Pusat Bahasa dan Pembangunan Akademik Pra-Universiti Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM) Ayat Majmuk
Menurut Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Ketiga, ayat majmuk ialah ayat yang dibina dengan menca ntumkan dua ayat tunggal atau lebih, dan percantuman ayat-ayat itu disusun mengikut cara tertentu sehingga menjadikannya ayat baharu. Terdapat tiga jenis ayat majmuk, iaitu ayat majmuk gabungan , ayat majmuk pancangan dan ayat majmuk campuran.1 Menurut Abdullah Hassan (2003), kebanyak an ayat yang diucapkan dan dituliskan terdiri daripada jenis ayat majmuk. Penyataan ini jelas menu njukkan bahawa penggunaan ayat majmuk adalah sangat meluas dalam bahasa Melayu, tidak kira sa ma ada dalam pertuturan harian, formal mahupun penulisan. Ayat majmuk gabungan adalah ayat yang terdiri daripada dua ayat atau lebih yang disatukan denga n cara menggabungkan atau mencantumkan ayat-ayat tersebut dengan kata hubung seperti dan, atau, tetapi, da n sebagainya. Abdullah Hassan (2003) membahagikan ayat majmuk gabungan kepada dua jenis; gabungan ber susun dan gabungan bertentangan.
Manakala ayat majmuk pancangan merupakan ayat yang dibentuk oleh klausa yang tidak setara . Ini bermakna dalam ayat berkenaan terdapat satu klausa bebas atau ayat utama, dan satu atau lebih klausa tak bebas atau ayat kecil. Ayat majmuk pancangan ini pula terbahagi kepada tiga jenis; ayat majmuk relatif, ayat majmuk komplemen dan ayat majmuk keterangan.2 Ada ayat majmuk terdiri daripada beberapa ayat yang kedudukan antara ayat itu tidak sama. Dalam ayat majmuk gabungan terdapat dua ayat atau lebih yang bersifat sama taraf, yakni masingmasing dapat berdiri sendiri. Sebaliknya, dalam ayat majmuk pancangan terdapat satu ayat utama at au ayat induk dan satu atau beberapa ayat kecil lain yang dipancangkan di dalam ayat induk dan me njadi sebahagian daripada ayat induk. Abdullah Hassan (2006) mendefinisikan ayat majmuk campuran sebagai hasil gabungan aya t majmuk gabungan dan ayat majmuk pancangan.3 1
Abdullah Hassan, Seri Lanang Jaya Rohani, Razali Ayob, Zulkifli Osman. 2006. Sintaksis: Siri Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu. hlm. 46. 2 Abdullah Hassan. 2003. Tatabahasa Bahasa Melayu: Morfologi dan Sintaksis untuk Guru dan Pelajar. Pahang: PTS Publications & Distributor Sdn. Bhd. hlm. 309. 3 Abdullah Hassan, Seri Lanang Jaya Rohani, Razali Ayob, Zulkifli Osman. 2006. Sintaksis: Siri Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu. hlm. 47.
ILCC 2013
372
Contoh-contoh ayat majmuk gabungan, ayat majmuk pancangan dan ayat majmuk campuran adalah seperti berikut: 1) Ayat majmuk gabungan - Sanah, Milah, Jenab, Semek, Liah, Lebar, dan Kiah berada di tanah bermain masak- masak nasi pasir dan periuk tempurung. 2) Ayat majmuk pancangan 2.1) Ayat majmuk relatif - Rumah yang baru dibina itu sudah dijual. 2.2) Ayat majmuk komplemen - Dia mengetahui bahawa Ahmad telah bersara. 2.3) Ayat majmuk keterangan - Anak itu menangis kerana ia lapar.
3) Ayat majmuk campuran - Gadis itu mengalihkan baldinya yang satu lagi bagi menempatkan baldi kecil kanak-ka nak itu. Berdasarkan definisi ayat majmuk di atas, maka jelaslah bahawa ayat majmuk merupakan st ruktur ayat paling kompleks yang sering digunakan dalam penulisan bagi penyampaian sesuatu idea dengan lebih berkesan. Kesalahan dan kesilapan dalam penggunaan bentuk ayat majmuk akan menj ejaskan makna sesuatu ayat yang diungkapkan. Maka, kajian ini akan meneliti dan mengkaji keselur uhan aspek kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing di UIAM dalam penulisan esei mereka.
Kajian Literatur
Awang Sariyan (1980) mengatakan bahawa kesalahan bahasa tulisan pelajar berkisar dari m asalah kesalahan ejaan hingga kepada masalah morfologi (kata) dan sintaksis (ayat).4 Oleh itu, untu k menganalisis kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk dalam kalangan pelajar asing, satu kajian analis is data dari aspek sintaksis perlu dilakukan. Kajian sintaksis ini dapat menghuraikan peraturan dala m penggunaan tatabahasa yang betul untuk mengungkapkan idea-idea khusus dan tertentu dalam se suatu bahasa. Namun begitu, hakikat yang perlu diterima oleh pengkaji ialah, terdapat banyak kajia n mengenai aspek ini dilakukan untuk melihat kesalahan dalam pemerolehan bahasa pertama (B1) o 4
Awang Sariyan. 1980. Pencemaran Bahasa dari Perspektif Budaya. Dewan Masyarakat, jil. 18, bil. 3, hlm. 3-4.
leh penutur jati dan pemerolehan bahasa kedua (B2) oleh penutur asing yang tinggal di Malaysia iai tu kaum Cina dan India, tetapi belum ada kajian dilakukan terhadap penutur asing yang mempelajar i bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing atau pemerolehan bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa ketiga (B3) setakat ini. Maka, sorotan kajian ini akan mengambil contoh-contoh kajian terhampir yang telah dil akukan oleh pengkaji-pengkaji luar dan tempatan terhadap kesalahan ayat majmuk yang dilakukan oleh pelajar tempatan dan pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka. Kajian Luar Negara mengenai analisis kesalahan ayat Corder (1973) mengkategorikan empat kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar dalam pembel ajaran bahasa kedua, iaitu pengguguran unsur-unsur yang perlu, penambahan unsur yang tidak perlu atau tidak tepat, pemilihan unsur yang tidak tepat dan penyusunan unsur yang salah. Walau bagaim anapun, Corder mengatakan bahawa kategori-kategori tersebut belum mencukupi untuk menjelaska n kesalahan-kesalahan bahasa yang berlaku dan beliau akhirnya telah menyertakan kesalahan bagi peringkat-peringkat linguistik seperti morfologi, sintaksis dan leksikon. Selain itu, Wyatt (1973) telah menjalankan satu kajian tentang analisis kesalahan dalam kara ngan yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar 4C di Afrika Timur. Alat kajiannya ialah 52 buah buku karangan yang ditulis oleh pelajar sejak mereka Tingkatan Tiga. Sebanyak 14 jenis kesalahan telah ditinjau d an dikira kekerapannya. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kesalahan ejaan adalah yang paling ti nggi iaitu 18.4%, manakala kesalahan struktur ayat (16.6%), penggunaan kata nama dan kata kerja masing-masing berjumlah 16.0%. Hoh (1973) telah menganalisis tujuh jenis kesalahan bahasa berdasarkan karangan yang ditu lis oleh pelajar prauniversiti aliran Cina di Singapura. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa daripada 4813 kesalahan, terdapat 1188 kesalahan penggunaan kata kerja, 767 kesalahan ejaan, 694 kesalahan kat a nama bilangan, 656 kesalahan leksikal, 634 kesalahan fungsi kata, 463 kesalahan struktur ayat dan 411 kesalahan artikel. Schacter (1974: 205-214) telah membuat kajian tentang analisis kesalahan, khususnya untuk kesalahan yang disebabkan oleh pemindahan bahasa. Schacter menganalisis beberapa buah karanga n yang ditulis oleh dua kumpulan pelajar dewasa yang mempelajari bahasa Inggeris sebagai bahasa kedua. Kumpulan yang pertama terdiri daripada penutur jati bahasa Parsi dan bahasa Arab. Kumpul an kedua pula terdiri daripada penutur jati bahasa Cina dan bahasa Jepun. Bahasa Cina dan bahasa J epun menunjukkan sifat yang berbeza dalam pemakaian klausa-klausa relatif dan struktur ayat deng an bahasa Inggeris. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahasa pelajar-pelajar kumpulan pertama meng gunakan klaus-klausa relatif dalam ayat dua kali ganda banyaknya berbanding pelajar-pelajar kump ulan kedua. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa kumpulan pelajar tersebut cuba mengelakkan penggunaa n sesuatu bahasa yang tiada, atau berlainan daripada bahasa pertama mereka dalam bahasa yang me reka pelajari kemudian. Kesalahan yang dilakukan daripada percubaan menggunakan bentuk bahasa
ILCC 2013
374
pertama telah menunjukkan manifestasi wujudnya pemindahan bahasa. Selain itu, seorang pengkaji dari Brunei Darussalam, iaitu Pengiran Mahmud Pengiran Dami t (1992: 232) telah menjalankan kajian tentang kesalahan tatabahasa dan tanda baca ke atas 200 ora ng pelajar tingkatan dua sekolah Menengah Daerah Brunei/Muara dan Daerah Tutong. Dapatan ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar paling kerap membuat kesalahan yang ada hubungan dengan struktur ayat, iaitu 35.9 peratus daripada keseluruhan kesalahan bahasa yang dilakukan. Daripada jumlah ini, didapati pelajar paling banyak melakukan kesalahan tentang binaan ayat yang tidak lengkap, iaitu s ebanyak 18.45 peratus. Manakala dalam kajian Arpan Shahbudin Latip (1998) terhadap 186 orang pelajar Melayu th anawi(menengah) lima pada tahun 1996 di dua buah sekolah menengah Arab di Negara Brunei Dar ussalam. Dapatan kajian membuktikan bahawa pelajar lelaki dan perempuan didapati lemah dalam menggunakan kemahiran membina ayat majmuk.5 Kajian mendapati kelemahan pelajar membentuk ayat-ayat majmuk kerana mereka gagal menggunakan kata hubung, kata tugas dan lemah dalam me mancangkan beberapa ayat kecil ke dalam ayat induk dengan kemas dan teratur.6 Kajian mengenai kesalahan bahasa dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua tidak pernah putus ser ta masih dilaksanakan oleh ramai pengkaji. Oleh itu, kajian dalam aspek ini diteruskan oleh Money pada tahun 2004 terhadap karangan murid Tamil yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa kedua. Dapatan oleh Money ini sekali lagi membuktikan bahawa pelajar Tamil yang mempelajari ba hasa Melayu sebagai bahasa kedua tersebut sering melakukan kesalahan tatabahasa dari aspek perka taan, frasa dan ayat. Kajian Tempatan Tentang Analisis Kesilapan Ayat Majmuk dalam Karangan Pelajar Mohd. Sallehuddin (1983) membuat kajian terhadap karangan pelajar Tingkatan Lima di em pat buah sekolah di Negeri Sembilan. Sampelnya terdiri daripada pelajar Melayu, Cina dan India da ripada pelbagai aliran. Dapatan kajian mendapati bahawa empat kesalahan yang utama ialah ayat be rkait (40.1%), ayat panjang yang tidak dapat ditentukan maknanya (20.4%), ayat saduran daripada a yat Inggeris dan ayat aktif (10.5%). Kesalahan-kesalahan ini ialah 83.6% daripada jumlah kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mereka. Hasil kajian juga mendapati bahawa pelajar Cina kerap melakukan ke salahan ayat berkait, diikuti dengan ayat-ayat panjang, dan struktur ayat yang memperlihatkan peng aruh ayat bahasa Inggeris. Pelajar India pula banyak meakukan kesalahan ayat berkait dan ayat-ayat panjang, di samping kesalahan ayat pasif. Kajian Awang Mohammad Amin (1982: 18-22) mengenai kesalahan-kesalahan umum pengg 5
Arpan Shahbudin Latip. 1998. Tatabahasa Bahasa Melayu: Morfologi dan Sintaksis untuk Guru dan Pelajar. hlm. 137. 6 Ibid 1998, hlm. 137.
unaan bahasa Melayu oleh penutur ekabahasa peringkat sekolah menengah atas mendapati bahawa j umlah kekerapan kesalahan ayat dan jenis-jenisnya bagi keseluruhan sampel kajian ialah sebanyak 935 dengan purata setiap pelajar ialah 7.8%. Aspek kesalahan sintaksis yang dikaji ialah ayat selapis aktif dan pasif, ayat berlapis, ayat kompleks, ayat berkait, ayat saduran, dan struktur ayat-ayat lain serta jenis-jenis ayat yang dinyatakan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa sampel kajian banyak melakukan kesalahan berhubung dengan struktur ayat pasif. Selain itu, Awang mendapati bahawa k esalahan-kesalahan kata ganti nama diri, kata ganti tunjuk, kata depan, kata bantu dan penggunaan k ata asing merupakan kesalahan yang paling umum dilakukan oleh sampel kajian. Supian (1994) pula mendapati bahawa kebanyakan pelajar Cina yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa kedua melakukan kesalahan frasa kerja transitif, frasa kerja tak transitif, fras a kerja pasif pelaku diri pertama, kedua dan ketiga. Kajian beliau membuktikan bahawa kesalahan f rasa kerja transitif merupakan kesalahan yang paling banyak dilakukan oleh pelajar berbanding kesa lahan frasa kerja yang lain.
Abdullah Hassan (2006) mengatakan bahawa kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat-ayat teruta manya ayat kompleks seperti ayat majmuk, dan sebagainya merupakan kesalahan yang banyak dike san dan diperolehi oleh para pengkaji bahasa. Kesalahan ini terjadi disebabkan penggunaan kata hu bung yang tidak tepat atau kesalahan dalam ayat. Kekerapan kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat maj muk oleh para pelajar dan pengguna bahasa yang lain dapat dilihat dalam kajian yang dilakukan ole h ramai pengkaji lain.7 Berhubung dengan kesalahan ayat bahasa Melayu yang diambil daripada susunan ayat bahas a asing, para pengkaji bersepakat bahawa ayat yang terdapat kesalahan padanya ialah kesan pengaru h daripada bahasa Inggeris, bahasa daerah, bahasa ibunda atau bahasa seharian.8 Selain itu, kesalahan-kesalahan lain yang sering dilakukan oleh pelajar dalam penulisan akib at ketidakfahaman peraturan dalam binaan ayat termasuk kesalahan dalam binaan subjek dan predik at. Kesalahan tersebut ialah:9 a) Kesalahan struktur ayat tunggal b) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk gabungan. Antara kesalahan yang sering dilakukan ialah kesalahan menggunakan kata hubung, kesalahan kerana mengulang subjek yang sama dan kesalahan kerana mengulang kata kerja yang sama. c) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk relatif 7
. Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir. 2006. Analisis Kesilapan Tatabahasa dalam karangan Bahasa Melayu: Satu Kajian Kes. hlm .46. 8 Ibid. 2006. hlm. 47. 9 Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir. 2006. Analisis Kesilapan Tatabahasa dalam karangan Bahasa Melayu: Satu Kajian Kes. hlm. 62-63.
ILCC 2013
376
d) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk komplemen. Kesalahan yang biasa dilakukan dalam penulisan ayat majmuk komplemen ialah ayat tiada penanda (kata) komplemen iaitu “bahawa” dan “untuk”. e) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk keterangan. Ayat majmuk keterangan ialah ayat majmuk yang terdiri daripada satu ayat induk dan satu ayat kecil atau lebih yang berfungsi sebagai keterangan kepada predikat. Kesalahan yang sering dilakukan dalam penulisan ayat majmuk ini ialah: tiada kata hubung yang berfungsi sebagai kata keterangan, penggunaan kata hubung yang berfungsi sebagai penanda keterangan yang salah. f) Kesalahan struktur ayat aktif g) Kesalahan struktur ayat pasif Wan Mohd Norudin (2006) seterusnya menyimpulkan bahawa, terdapat perbezaan kecil dala m kekerapan kesalahan ayat antara pelajar lelaki dengan pelajar perempuan di Sekolah Menengah K ebangsaan Seri Nering, Jerteh, Besut, Terengganu. Dapatan kajian beliau menunjukkan bahawa pela jar lelaki lebih banyak melakukan kesalahan tatabahasa dalam aspek ayat tunggal dan ayat majmuk (24.7%) berbanding dengan pelajar perempuan (21.7%). Ahmad Shahril (1996) pula mendapati pelajar bahasa pertama melakukan kesalahan dari asp ek perkataan, frasa dan ayat. Dapatan beliau membuktikan bahawa kesalahan aspek perkataan yang paling banyak dilakukan oleh pelajar, diikuti kesalahan aspek frasa dan ayat.
Secara keseluruhannya, kajian-kajian yang diberikan di atas telah menggunakan kaedah anal isis kesalahan dan memperlihatkan dapatan dalam bidang-bidang yang lebih terperinci seperti daera h-daerah kesalahan, kekerapan jenis kesalahan dan penentuan punca-punca kesalahan. Berpandukan kepada kajian-kajian tersebut, maka kajian ini cuba meninjau beberapa aspek kesalahan bahasa de ngan penekanan kepada kesalahan ayat majmuk yang dilakukan oleh pelajar-pelajar asing dalam pe nulisan karangan mereka.
Soalan Kajian Kajian ini akan menganalisis dan meneliti jawapan bagi soalan-soalan kajian seperti berikut: 1. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka? 2. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan relatif yang dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka?
3. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan komplemen yang dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka? 4. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka? 5. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk campuran dalam karangan bahasa Melayu pelajar asing? Batasan Kajian Kajian ini akan dibataskan dengan menganalisa dapatan berdasarkan aspek kesalahan berikut: 1. Ayat majmuk gabungan 2. Ayat majmuk pancangan relatif yang menggunakan kata hubung “yang” 3. Ayat majmuk pancangan komplemen yang menggunakan kata hubung “bahawa” dan “untuk” 4. Ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan 5. Ayat majmuk campuran
Analisis Dapatan Kajian dan Perbincangan
Berdasarkan analisis yang dijalankan terhadap 41 sampel karangan daripada pelajar-pelajar asing, didapati bahawa sebanyak 597 ayat tunggal dan ayat majmuk telah dihasilkan dalam karanga n tersebut. Daripada jumlah tersebut, 316 atau 52.9 peratus terdiri daripada ayat majmuk. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar-pelajar asing mempunyai kebolehan membina ayat majmuk dan kera p menggunakan ayat tersebut dalam penulisan karangan mereka. Kajian mendapati kesemua jenis a yat majmuk telah dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing dengan kekerapan yang berbeza-beza seperti yang di kategorikan dalam Jadual 1 di bawah.
Jadual 1 Ayat Majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh Penutur Asing dalam Karangan Jenis Ayat Ayat Majmuk Gabungan
Ayat Majmuk Campuran
Jumlah Ayat (%) 160 (50.6)
Jumlah Kesalahan (%) 156 (50.9)
74
70 (23.4)
Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan
Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif
(22.8)
63 (19.9) 18
62 (20.2) 17
ILCC 2013 (5.6)
378
(5.5)
Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Komplemen
1 (0.3)
1 (0.3)
JUMLAH KESELURUHAN
316 (100)
306 (100)
Berdasarkan Jadual 1, kajian mendapati walaupun pelajar asing didapati kerap menghasilkan ayat majmuk dalam karangan mereka namun dalam masa yang sama, kekerapan kesalahan yang dit emui dalam setiap ayat majmuk berkenaan juga adalah tinggi. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa sebanyak 306 atau 96.2 % daripada 316 ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing mengalami kesalahan daripada pelbagai aspek. Perbezaan dalam kekerapan membentuk ayat majmuk mengikut jenis juga didapati selari dengan dapatan perbezaan kekerapan dalam kesalahan yang dilakukan me ngikut jenis ayat majmuk tersebut. Kajian mendapati faktor utama yang menyebabkan pelajar asing gemar membentuk ayat majmuk gabungan adalah disebabkan proses pemajmukannya yang mudah. Ayat majmuk campuran pula yang kedua kerap dibentuk oleh pelajar asing dengan peratus kekerapa n sebanyak 23.4%, ayat majmuk keterangan sebanyak 19.9% dan ayat majmuk pancangan relatif se banyak 5.26%. Namun begitu, kajian mendapati hanya satu sahaja ayat majmuk komplemen dihasil kan daripada 41 sampel yang dikaji dan dapatan ini diperolehi daripada sampel ketiga (S3) dalam p enulisan ayat ketiga (A3) dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 0.3%.
Abdullah Hassan (2006) menggunakan pendekatan tatabahasa pedagogi dalam kajiannya ten tang sintaksis bahasa Melayu. Beliau berpendapat bahawa kesalahan sintaksis bermaksud pembentu kan ayat yang menyalahi atau menyimpang daripada rumus-rumus struktur ayat yang betul dan sesu ai dengan sesuatu bahasa. Kesalahan ayat ini mencakupi kesalahan klausa, dan ayat. Kesalahan ayat juga terjadi akibat daripada ketidaktepatan dalam penggunaan bentuk-bentuk kata dan frasa tertentu yang mendokong kegramatisan dalam binaan sesebuah ayat. Berdasarkan penyataan di atas, kesala han pembentukan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing dalam kajian ini telah dianalisis dan dikelompokk an ke dalam beberapa aspek kesalahan. Antaranya ialah: a.
kekeliruan /ketidakjelasan struktur ayat
b.
penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat
c.
penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat
d.
Ejaan
e.
penggunaan kata saduran
f.
Ortografi (tanda baca dan huruf besar)
g.
Pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan Jadual 2 Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan Jenis Kesalahan Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat
Kekerapan 42
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat
Peratusan
15.6 38
46
14.2 17.1
Ejaan
72
26.1
Ortografi
36
14.4
Penggunaan kata saduran JUMLAH
15
5.5 249
100
Soalan kajian yang pertama akan dapat dijawab berdasarkan data-data yang telah dianalisis dalam Jadual 2 di atas. Setelah dianalisis kesemua 156 ayat majmuk gabungan yang didapati menga lami kesalahan, kajian mendapati terdapat sekurang-kurangnya dua kesalahan dalam setiap ayat ber kenaan malah terdapat juga ayat yang mengandungi antara empat hingga lima kesalahan. Kesalahan yang paling kerap ditemui ialah aspek ejaan dengan peratus kekerapan tertinggi sebanyak 26.1%. Kebanyakan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dihasilkan juga didapati mengandungi kesalahan kata ker ja seperti tidak mengandungi penanda pasif atau aktif (imbuhan), tidak sesuai malah ada juga ayat y ang langsung tidak mempunyai kata kerja sehingga mencatat kesalahan kedua tertinggi dengan pera tus kekerapan sebanyak 17.1%. Kesalahan dari aspek struktur ayat pula mencatat kesalahan ketiga t ertinggi iaitu 15.6%, apabila kebanyakan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dihasilkan mengalami kecela ruan susunan antara menggabungkan unsur subjek/predikat ayat utama dengan subjek/predikat ayat ke-2 dan ke-3 sehingga menjejaskan makna ayat secara keseluruhan.
Pelajar asing juga didapati tidak dapat menguasai makna kata hubung dan konteks penggun aannya yang sebenar dan hal ini menjadi faktor yang menyumbang kepada kesalahan memilih kata hubung yang sesuai dengan konteks ayat. Oleh sebab itu, kesalahan kata hubung mencatat peratus k ekerapan sebanyak 14.2%. Aspek kesalahan ortografi (14.4%) memperlihatkan pelajar asing gagal menggunakan tanda koma dan tanda nokhtah pada tempat yang sepatutnya di dalam ayat majmuk m anakala aspek kesalahan kata saduran (5.5%) dikenal pasti apabila pelajar menggunakan secara lang sung perkataan-perkataan dalam bahasa asing terutamanya bahasa Inggeris.
ILCC 2013
380
Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan Jadual 3 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan Sampel
Contoh Ayat
Pembetulan
S15 (A5)
Di situ banyak barang dan makanan Barangan serta makanan banyak dijual di jual antaranya, beg, kasut, pakaian, situ seperti beg, kasut, pakaian, buahbuah-buahan, sayur-sayuran dan buahan, sayur-sayuran dan sebagainya. macam-macam lagi.
S23 (A17)
Tetapi saya membeli setiap hari di kafe Harga makanan itu mahal tetapi saya tetap saya. membelinya di kafe setiap hari.
S23 (A5)
Nasi goreng di Kantin saya sangat sedap Nasi goreng di kantin saya sangat sedap dan sangat pedas. tetapi sangat pedas.
S25 (A7)
Antaranya, nasi goreng kampung dan Antara makanan tersebut ialah nasi nasi goreng ayam, goreng kampung dan nasi goreng ayam.
S25 (A14)
Sini, kamu makan setiap hari, nasi putih Kami makan nasi putih, ikan pedas dan dan ikan pedas dan daging. daging di sini setiap hari.
Berdasarkan Jadual 3, contoh kesalahan bagi sampel ke-15 dalam ayat kelima (A5), pengulangan kata hubung setara dan yang membawa makna yang sama dalam ayat berkenaan. Mengikut Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Baharu (2004), jika kata hubung dan telah digunakan untuk kali pertama dan ingin menggunakannya lagi dalam ayat yang sama, maka kata dan tersebut perlu digantikan dengan kata serta untuk menunjukkan tujuan yang sama. Selain itu, kesalahankesalahan lain seperti tidak mempunyai penanda pasif untuk kata kerja jual dan kesalahan susunan struktur ayat juga berlaku dalam ayat ini.
Kesalahan ayat 17 dalam sampel ke-23 dan ayat 14 dalam sampel ke-25 pula, kesalahan struktur ayat menyebabkan kedua-dua ayat majmuk tersebut tidak gramatis. A17 tidak mempunyai subjek dan predikat ayat utama serta dimulai dengan kata hubung tetapi. Pengkaji mendapati hal ini berlaku disebabkan ayat utama (Harga makanan itu mahal.) telah ditulis sebagai ayat tunggal di dalam ayat sebelumnya. Maka, pembetulan A17 dilakukan dengan memasukkan unsur berkenaan supaya pembentukan ayat majmuk gabungan tersebut lebih tepat dan gramatis. A14 pula mengalami kesalahan struktur atau susunan ayat yang agak mengelirukan. Proses penyongsangan atau pendepanan predikat serta penggunaan kata nama juga tidak tepat. Berikut diberikan pecahan ayat yang betul bagi ayat majmuk A14: Ayat utama: Kami makan nasi putih di sini setiap hari.
Ayat ke-2: Kami makan ikan pedas di sini setiap hari. Ayat ke-3: Kami makan daging di sini setiap hari. Ayat majmuk gabungan - penyongsanan separa predikat: Setiap hari kami makan nasi putih, ikan pedas dan daging di sini. Ayat majmuk -penyongsangan penuh predikat: Di sini setiap hari kami makan nasi putih, ikan pedas dan daging. Sampel ke-23 dalam ayat kelima (A5) pula dikesan mengandungi kata hubung dan yang tidak tepat kerana kata hubung dan bertujuan menunjukkan keadaan setara. Dalam hal ini, kata hubung tetapi yang merujuk keadaan pertentangan adalah lebih tepat digunakan bagi mendukung makna dalam konteks ayat berkenaan.
Kesalahan tanda baca (koma) dikesan terdapat dalam ayat ketujuh (A7) bagi sampel ke-25 yang menunjukkan bahawa tanda baca seperti koma sangat penting dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk gabungan. Ini disebabkan terdapat juga tanda koma yang boleh menggantikan kehadiran kata hubung (yang digugurkan) dalam ayat majmuk. Bagi ayat A7, tanda koma yang pertama tidak perlu diletakkan dan lebih gramatis digantikan dengan kata pemeri ialah manakala tanda koma yang kedua pula sepatutnya digantikan dengan tanda nokhtah. Kesalahan lain ialah penggunaan kata ganti nama kamu dan kesalahan predikat yang tidak tepat. Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif Jadual 4 Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif Jenis Kesalahan Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat
Kekerapan 8
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat
Peratusan
17.2 4
5
8.5 10.6
Ejaan
7
14.8
Ortografi
8
17.2
Penggunaan kata saduran
2
4.2
Pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai
13
27.6
JUMLAH
47
100
Data-data yang diperoleh dalam Jadual 4 di atas akan menjawab soalan kajian yang kedua. Kajian mendapati sebanyak 47 kesalahan ayat majmuk pancangan dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dan
ILCC 2013
382
kesalahan tertinggi ialah aspek pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat atau sesuai dengan maksud ayat dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 27.6%. Kesalahan struktur ayat dan ortografi pula kesalahan kedua kerap dilakukan dengan peratus kekerapan kedua-duanya ialah 17.2%. Hal ini diikuti oleh kesalahan aspek ejaan (14.8%), penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat (10.6%), penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat (8.5%) dan kesalahan penggunaan kata saduran sebanyak 4.2%. Dapatan ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar agak kurang menggunakan ayat jenis relatif ini berbanding ayat majmuk gabungan yang berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh proses pemancangannya yang agak kompleks. Hal ini dapat dilihat apabila kesilapan pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai sebagai kata tugas menyebabkan ayat-ayat kecil tidak dapat dipancangkan dengan tepat ke dalam ayat induk menggunakan penanda relatif yang. Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif Jadual 5 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif Sampel
Contoh Ayat
Pembetulan
S6 (A1)
Suaku hari dalam kehidupan saya yang Hari yang sangat gembira dalam hidup saya sangat gembira ialah hari yang saya saya adalah berkelah di tepi pantai dengan pergi berkila di pantai dengan keluarga keluarga. saya.
S7 (A10)
Saya akan makan tengah hari pukul 2.00 dengan kawan-kawan saya di baru Kafe di Azman Hashim Kompleks di dalam university islam Antarabangsa Malaysia.
S8 (A9)
Kita maka Nasi Goreng Ayam Kunyit, Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit itu sangat lazat. yang sangat lazat itu.
Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul dua petang dengan kawan-kawan di kafe baharu yang terletak di Kompleks Azman Hashim, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia.
Berdasarkan Jadual 5, ayat majmuk relatif (A1) yang ditulis oleh sampel keenam (S6) pula dikesan mengandungi kesalahan utama dari aspek pengulangan subjek (nata nama) saya yang sepatutnya digugurkan apabila memancangkan ayat kecil ke dalam ayat induk. Bentuk sebenar ayat tersebut setelah dibetulkan adalah seperti berikut: Ayat induk: Hari itu saya pergi berkelah di tepi pantai dengan keluarga. Ayat kecil: Hari itu sangat gembira dalam hidup saya. Ayat majmuk relatif: Hari yang sangat gembira dalam hidup saya adalah pergi berkelah di tepi pantai dengan keluarga.
Ayat bergaris dalam contoh di atas ialah ayat kecil yang dipancangakan ke dalam ayat induk setelah subjek digugurkan. Kesalahan lain yang dikesan ialah pengulangan penanda relatif yang. Sampel ketujuh (S7) dalam ayat ke-10 (A10) pula, dikesan mengandungi kesalahan ketiadaan kata hubung pancangan yang untuk memancangkan ayat kecil. Bentuk asal A10 setelah dibetulkan adalah seperti berikut: Ayat induk: Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul dua dengan kawan-kawan di kafe baharu. Ayat kecil: Kafe baharu itu terletak di Kompleks Azman Hashim, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia. Ayat majmuk relatif: Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul dua petang dengan kawan-kawan di kafe baharu yang terletak di Kompleks Azman Hashim, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia. Bagi kesalahan ayat relatif A15 dalam karangan sampel kelapan (S8) pula, didapati mengandungi kesalahan ketiadaan kata hubung serta kesalahan tanda koma sehingga menjadikannya ayat tergantung. A15 akan menjadi lengkap dan gramatis apabila kata hubung yang diletakkan selepas ayat induk. Contoh pecahan A15 adalah seperti berikut: Ayat induk: Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit itu. Ayat kecil: Nasi goreng ayam kunyit itu sangat lazat Ayat majmuk relative: Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit yang sangat lazat itu. Berdasarkan contoh-contoh kesalahan aspek relatif ini, kajian dapat mengenal pasti bahawa proses pemancangan ayat kecil kepada ayat induk yang agak rumit dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk pancangan relatif telah menyebabkan pelajar asing sering keliru dalam membuat susunan yang tepat dan betul. Mereka juga didapati kurang memahami maksud kata hubung relatif dan gagal menggunakannya dalam konteks pemancangan relatif yang sebenar. Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Keterangan Jadual 6 Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Keterangan Jenis Kesalahan Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat
Kekerapan 21
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat
Peratusan
20.1 17
11
16.3 10.5
Ejaan
23
22.1
Ortografi
14
13.4
Penggunaan kata saduran
7
6.7
ILCC 2013 Pemilihan kosa kata yang kurang tepat/sesuai
11
JUMLAH
104
384
10.5 100
Seterusnya, soalan kajian yang ketiga akan dijawab oleh data-data yang ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 6 di atas. Kajian menunjukkan bahawa kesalahan aspek ejaan ialah kesalahan tertinggi dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk keterangan oleh pelajar asing dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 22.1%. Kesalahan aspek struktur ayat pula ialah kesalahan kedua kerap dilakukan (20.1%), diikuti oleh kesalahan penggunaan kata hubung (16.3%), Ortografi (13.4%), kesalahan kata kerja dan pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai dengan peratus kekerapan yang sama (10.5%) serta penggunaan kata saduran sebanyak 6.7%. Kajian turut mendapati pelajar asing lebih banyak menggunakan ayat majmuk keterangan dalam penulisan karangan terutama pancangan keterangan waktu seperti apabila, setelah, ketika dan semejak; pancangan keterangan tujuan (untuk), keterangan musabab (kerana) dan keterangan syarat (jika). Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan Jadual : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan oleh Pelajar Asing Sampel
Contoh Ayat
Pembetulan
S11 (A12)
Bila habis buat alyer-layer dalam periut, kamu mesti masukan lasagna dalam oven dalam masa 45 min. Saya keluar bilik saya, saya pergi ke kullyyah untuk kelas pagi.
Lasagna hendaklah dimasukkan ke dalam ketuhar selama 45 minit setelah anda selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk. Saya keluar dari bilik untuk ke kelas pagi di kuliyyah.
S13 (20)
Apabila sudah saya membaca buku Saya membaca buku apabila selesai sampai waktu. makan petang.
S24 (A6)
Jika saya tindak ada kelas, saya sebagai Saya akan ke perpustakaan sekiranya untuk ke perpustakaan. tidak ada kelas.
S26 (A14)
Ibu saya rasa baik sebab ingin datang.
S2 (A9)
Ibu saya sangat baik kerana mahu datang.
Berdasarkan Jadual 7 di atas, kajian mendapati kesalahan utama yang terdapat dalam ayat majmuk keterangan bagi sampel kedua (S2) dalam ayat kesembilan (A9) ialah penggunaan kata tanya bila yang digunakan sebagai kata hubung. Kata hubung yang sepatutnya digunakan ialah setelah. Selain itu, terdapat beberapa kesalahan lain yang turut dikesan dalam A9 seperti: 1.
pemilihan kata tugas habis dan mesti yang kurang tepat. Perkataan tersebut harus digantikan dengan selesai digantikan dengan hendaklah
2.
penggunaan kata ganti nama kamu yang kurang tepat dan sepatutnya digantikan dengan kata ganti nama anda
3.
ortografi contohnya ejaan perkataan periut yang sepatutnya ialah periuk
4.
kata saduran daripada bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) seperti oven digantikan dengan ketuhar dan min sebagai minit.
Maka, pemajmukan yang tepat bagi ayat ini adalah seperti berikut: Ayat Utama: Anda telah selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk. Ayat kecil: Anda hendaklah memasukkan lasagna ke dalam ketuhar selama 45 minit. Bentuk aktif: Anda hendaklah memasukkan lasagna ke dalam ketuhar selama 45 minit setelah selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk. Bentuk pasif: Lasagna hendaklah dimasukkan ke dalam periuk selama 45 minit setelah anda selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk. Pengulangan subjek (kata ganti nama saya) dalam ayat kecil yang tidak digugurkan dalam proses pemancangan menyebabkan pembentukan A11 yang ditulis oleh sampel ke-11 (S11) tidak gramatis. Kesalahan lain ialah penggunaan tanda koma yang digunakan sepatutnya digantikan dengan kata hubung tertentu. Dalam hal ini, kata hubung untuk digunakan untuk menunjukkan tujuan di bahagian pembetulan ayat supaya dapat memberikan ketepatan makna bagi ayat tersebut.
Ayat keterangan A20 yang dibentik oleh sampel ke-13 pula mengalami kesalahan dari aspek struktur ayat apabila kata hubung apabila hanya menerangkan predikat yang tidak lengkap iaitu sudah. Dalam hal ini, ayat sebelumnya yang ditulis oleh pelajar dalam karangan yang dikaji telah dirujuk untuk memperoleh maklumat bahagian predikat supaya pembetulan ayat dapat dilakukan. Kajian mendapati bahawa predikat sudah dalam A20 merujuk predikat makan petang. Maka, pembetulan ayat dibuat dengan memancangkan predikat makan petang ke dalam ayat induk. Sementara bagi frasa …sampai waktu pula, pengkaji tidak dapat mengesan makna sebenar yang ingin disampaikan oleh pelajar dalam A20. Maka, frasa ini digugurkan dalam pembetulan ayat.
Begitu juga dengan sampel ke-24 dalam ayat keenam (A6) dan sampel ke-26 ayat kesepuluh (A10) yang dibentuk menggunakan kata hubung yang kurang tepat. Kata hubung jika dianggap tidak tepat kerana fungsinya yang menunjukkan maksud kemungkinan. Oleh itu, kata hubung yang sesuai menggantikan jika ialah kata hubung sekiranya bagi menunjukkan keterangan syarat. Dalam hal A10 pula, penggunaan kata sebab dianggap tidak tepat kerana perkataan tersebut tergolong ke dalam jenis kata nama serta tidak boleh berfungsi sebagai kata hubung. Kata hubung yang sesuai menggantikannya ialah kerana. Kata sebab hanya boleh digunakan sebagai kata hubung jika
ILCC 2013
386
disertai dengan kata sendi oleh yang apabila digabungkan menjadi oleh sebab. Kata hubung kerana pula tidak boleh digabungkan dengan kata oleh menjadi oleh kerana disebabkan kata tersebut memang jenis kata hubung. Selain itu, kata oleh sebab juga tidak boleh dijadikan sebagai kata hubung di awal ayat kerana kata tersebut tidak terdapat dalam Bahasa Melayu. Analisis aspek kesalahan ayat majmuk keterangan ini mendapati pelajar asing kerap membina ayat majmuk keterangan dengan pendepanan separa predikat serta mengutamakan kata kerja tanpa imbuhan. Faktor ini disebabkan oleh pemindahan bahasa daripada bahasa pertama iaitu bahasa ibunda serta bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) yang menjadi gangguan dalam proses penulisan karangan tersebut. Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran Jadual 8 : Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran Jenis Kesalahan Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat
Kekerapan 18
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat
Peratusan
13.2 22
26
16.1 19.1
Ejaan
27
19.8
Ortografi
14
10.2
Penggunaan kata saduran
8
5.8
Penggunaan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai
21
JUMLAH
136
15.4 100
Soalan kajian yang keempat akan dijawab berdasarkan data-data kajian yang diperoleh dala m Jadual 8 di atas. Jadual 8 menunjukkan kesalahan aspek ejaan masih dikenal pasti sebagai aspek kesalahan yang tertinggi iaitu dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 19.8% dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan oleh pelajar asing. Selain itu, kesalahan aspek kata kerja yang kedua tertinggi (19.1%) apabila pelajar gagal memberikan penanda imbuhan pasif kepada kata kerja yang digunakan dalam ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan pasif. Hal ini diikuti oleh kesalahan aspek kat a hubung (16.1%), kesalahan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai (15.4%), kesalahan struktur ayat (13. 2%) dan kesalahan ortografi (10.2%). Pengkaji mendapati, pelajar asing mempunyai kecenderungan menggunakan ayat majmuk campuran yang mempunyai bentuk paling kompleks dalam bahasa Mel ayu dan hal ini menunjukkan satu pencapaian yang agak membanggakan walaupun kekerapan kesal
ahan turut dikesan dalam setiap ayat yang dihasilkan.
Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran Jadual 9 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran Sampel
Contoh Ayat
Pembetulan
S10 (A9)
Saya sembahyang Suhur di masjid dan Saya pergi ke kuliyah untuk belajar saya pergi ke kulliyah saya untuk belajar bahasa Arab setelah bersembahyang bahasa Arabic. Zohor di masjid.
S30 (A11)
Saya rindu makanan ibubanyak kerana Saya rindu akan makanan yang dimasak bila saya datang pelajar sini dan saya oleh ibu kerana tidak pernah lagi tidak telah makan makanan dari pada merasainya semenjak belajar di sini. ibu.
S38 (A4)
Kedua saya suka roti canai, sebab ini makan sama roti di negri saya, ini roti, saya hari hari makan sebab saya tak mahu lupar negri, dan lagi, roti ada banyak nama-nama, misalnya roti boom.
Roti canai mempunyai pelbagai nama seperti ‘roti bom’, dan saya suka memakannya setiap hari supaya tidak melupakan negara saya kerana makanan itu juga terdapat di sana.
Proses pembentukan ayat majmuk campuran dalam bahasa Melayu agak rumit kerana ayat i ni mengandungi lebih daripada satu jenis ayat, iaitu terdiri daripada campuran ayat tunggal dengan ayat majmuk atau deretan berbagai-bagai-bagai jenis ayat majmuk. Oleh sebab pembentukannya ya ng agak rumit, kecenderungan melakukan kesalahan dalam pembinaan ayat tersebut oleh pelajar asi ng adalah tinggi. Dalam Jadual 9 di atas, ayat kesembilan (A9) bagi sampel kesepuluh (S10) menun jukkan kesalahan utama yang berlaku dalam ayat majmuk campuran tersebut adalah pemilihan kata hubung yang tidak tepat. Terdapat juga kesalahan-kesalahan lain yang dikesan dalam A10 iaitu kata kerja yang tidak lengkap sepserti sembahyang yang digantikan dengan kata kerja tidak transitif ber sembahyang, pengulangan subjek kata ganti nama saya yang sepatutnya digugurkan apabila ayat ke cil dipancangkan ke dalam ayat induk, kesalahan ejaan kata Suhur dibetulkan menjadi Zohor dan kata saduran bahasa Inggeris Arabic yang sepatutnya dieja sebagai Arab.
Ayat A11 bagi sampel ke-30 dan ayat A4 bagi sampel ke-38 dikenal pasti mengandungi kes alahan utama dari aspek struktur ayat selain turut mengalami kesalahan-kesalahan lain iaitu penggu naan kata hubung yang tidak tepat iaitu kerana, bila (kata tanya) serta dan yang tidak dapat member i makna sebenar terhadap ayat yang hendak disampaikan selain kesalahan aspek ejaan seperti ibuba nyak (sepatutnya dieja secara terpisah) , roti boom (sepatutnya roti bom) dan akhir sekali kesalahan tanda baca (koma) yang terlalu banyak dan ketara. Tanda koma tersebut sepatutnya digantikan deng an kata hubung dan, supaya serta kerana untuk memberikan maksud sebenar ayat dan lebih gramati
ILCC 2013
388
s. Ayat A38 dicerakinkan dan dibentuk semula untuk tujuan pembetulan seeperti berikut: Ayat Asal: Terdapat pelbagai jenis roti canai seperti ‘roti bom’. Ayat majmuk: Saya suka makan roti canai setiap hari supaya boleh mengingati negara saya kerana makanan itu juga terdapat di sana. Ayat majmuk campuran: Roti canai mempunyai pelbagai nama seperti ‘roti bom’, dan saya suka memakannya setiap hari agar tidak melupakan negara saya kerana makanan itu juga terdapat di sana. Kekeliruan susunan struktur ayat A38 dikenal pasti berpunca daripada aspek pemindahan bahasa oleh sampel dengan mengambil bentuk susunan yang terdapat dalam struktur bahasa ibunda serta bahasa kedua mereka iaitu bahasa Inggeris. Contohnya penekanan keterangan sebab kepada subjek dalam frasa ...sebab ini makan sama roti di negri saya, penekanan aspek kata tunjuk di hadapan kata nama dalam frasa ...ini roti, penekanan keterangan subjek di hadapan kata nama dalam frasa ...saya hari hari makan sebab saya tak mahu lupar negri, penekanan kata hubung lewah dalam frasa ...dan lagi, serta kesalahan penanda jamak dalam frasa ...roti ada banyak namanama, dan kesalahan kata saduran iaitu ‘roti boom’.
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Secara Keseluruhan Jadual 10 Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Secara Keseluruhan
Jenis Kesalahan Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat
Kekerapan 89
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat
Peratusan
15.9 102
88
18.3 15.7
Ejaan
129
23.1
Ortografi
72
12.9
Penggunaan kata saduran
32
5.7
Pemilihan kosa kata yang kurang tepat/sesuai
45
JUMLAH
557
8.0 100
Berdasarkan Jadual 10, secara keseluruhannya kajian mendapati bahawa kekerapan kesalaha n yang dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk ialah sebanyak 557 kali darip ada 156 ayat majmuk yang telah dikenal pasti sebagai salah. Aspek kesalahan yang paling kerap dil
akukan ialah kesalahan aspek ejaan dengan kekerapan sebanyak 129 atau peratus kekerapan sebany ak 23.1%. Kesalahan kedua tertinggi pula ialah kesalahan aspek penggunaan kata hubung yang tida k tepat dalam ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan dengan kekerapan sebanyak 102 kali atau 18.3%, kesala han aspek struktur ayat (15.9%), penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat (15.7%), kesalahan ortogra fi (12.9%), pemilihan kosa kata yang tepat /sesuai (8.0%) dan kesalahan menggunakan kata saduran sebayak 5.7%. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa setiap ayat mengandungi lebih daripada s atu kesalahan dan purata kesalahan tersebut ialah tiga kesalahan bagi setiap satu ayat.
Perbincangan Kajian yang telah dijalankan terhadap 41 sampel karangan yang ditulis oleh pelajar asing ya ng mengambil kursus Bahasa Melayu II untuk Pelajar Asing (LM 1011) ini mendapati bahawa mere ka telah melakukan kesalahan ayat majmuk gabungan, ayat majmuk pancangan relatif, pancangan k eterangan dan ayat majmuk campuran. Kesalahan yang mengandungi kekerapan paling tinggi ialah ayat majmuk gabungan diikuti oleh ayat majmuk keterangan, ayat majmuk campuran, dan pancanga n relatif manakala hanya satu sahaja bentuk ayat majmuk komplemen ditemui dalam penulisan kara ngan tersebut. Dapatan ini selaras dengan kajian yang telah dilakukan oleh Money (2004), Arpan S hahbudin Latip (1998) dan Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir (2006).
Kajian telah mengenal pasti beberapa aspek kesalahan ayat majmuk yang terdapat dalam kar angan pelajar asing iaitu kesalahan aspek struktur ayat, penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat, p enggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat, ejaan, ortografi, kata saduran dan pemilihan kosa kata yang t idak tepat/sesuai. Kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut telah menyebabkan kebanyakan ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan mempunyai sifat tergantung atau tidak lengkap serta mempunyai makna yang sukar untu k ditanggapi oleh pengkaji. Aspek ejaan pula telah dikenal pasti sebagai kesalahan utama dalam kes emua jenis ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing dan menjadi punca utama ayat tersebut t idak boleh dianggap gramatis. Dapatan yang sama pernah diperoleh oleh Wyatt (1973) berhubung k esalahan aspek ejaan. Hal ini disebabkan sesuatu ayat yang gramatis haruslah mematuhi hukum-huk um tatabahasa yang telah ditetapkan dan perkara tersebut termasuklah ejaan yang lengkap, tepat da n betul. Begitu juga dengan kesalahan aspek penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat. Pelajar asin g didapati gagal memahami makna kata hubung serta konteks penggunaannya dalam ayat sehingga menyebabkan masalah ini berlaku. Aspek-aspek kesalahan yang diperoleh dalam kajian ini selaras d engan dapatan kajian oleh Corder (1973) dan Pengiran Mahmud Pengiran Damit (1992: 232). Tafsiran selanjutnya yang dapat dibuat berdasarkan analisis kesalahan ayat majmuk oleh pel ajar asing dalam penulisan karangan mereka ialah pelajar asing lemah dalam kemahiran membina a
ILCC 2013
390
yat majmuk yang kompleks bentuknya. Kajian juga mendapati kegagalan menanggapi makna dan k onteks penggunaan kata hubung menjadi penyebab kepada kecelaruan serta kekeliruan penyusunan struktur ayat majmuk. Pelajar asing lemah dalam membentuk ayat majmuk kerana mereka gagal me mancangkan beberapa ayat kecil dengan teratur selain kesalahan pemilihan kata tugas yang betul, p enggunaan kata jamak yang tidak sesuai dan pemilihan kata kerja dengan penanda pasif atau aktif. Kelemahan aspek ini selaras dengan dapatan kajian Awang Mohd Amin (1982), Supian (1994) dan Arpan Shahbudin Latip (1998).
Pelajar asing juga didapati kerap melakukan kesalahan dalam aspek pembentukan ayat maj muk ini disebabkan proses pembentukan ayat majmuk yang mengikut struktur pembentukan ayat da lam bahasa ibunda serta bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) mereka. Kesalahan tersebut dikenal pasti m elalui pengguguran aspek imbuhan dalam kata kerja, penekanan frasa kerja, dan pengulangan kata n ama (subjek) yang menyamai struktur pembentukan ayat dalam bahasa Inggeris iaitu noun+verbs. . Hal ini berbeza dengan pembentukan ayat dalam bahasa Melayu kerana wujudnya pola-pola ayat (4 pola) yang perlu diikuti untuk membentuk ayat-ayat dasar dan ayat majmuk yang gramatis. Selain i tu, penggunaan kata hubung relatif yang mana juga dikenal pasti hasil saduran daripada versi Ingger isnya iaitu which is. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa berlakunya pemindahan bahasa oleh pelajar asing yang menggunakan pengetahuan dalam bahasa kedua mereka (bahasa Inggeris) untuk membentuk ayat majmuk berkenaan. Dapatan ini mempunyai persamaan dengan dapatan kajian oleh Schacter (1 974: 205-214) tentang pemindahan bahasa yang berlaku dalam kalangan penutur bahasa kedua dan Mohd. Sallehuddin (1983). Kesimpulan Kajian tentang analisis kesilapan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing boleh dikatakan satu aspek kajian bahasa yang agak mencabar kerana ayat majmuk itu sendiri mempunyai kepelbagaian bentuk dan struktur binaannya yang agak kompleks serta rumit. Penelitian yang mendalam diperlukan bagi memastikan kajian ini dapat mencapai tujuan atau matlamatnya. Secara jelas, pengkaji mendapati bahawa kajian ini telah berjaya memberikan gambaran mengenai penggunaan ayat majmuk serta kesalahan-kesalahan yang berlaku dalam pembentukan ayat tersebut dalam kalangan penutur asing yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing di UIAM. Walaupun terdapat batasan dalam kajian ini, diharapkan dapatan yang diperoleh boleh memberikan sumbangan kepada institusi pendidikan tinggi tempatan yang menawarkan kursus bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing terutama tenaga pengajar bahasa Melayu yang bakal mengajar tentang proses-proses pembentukan dan
penggunaan ayat majmuk kepada pelajar-pelajar asing di dalam kelas. Dapatan ini dianggap sangat berguna dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran kerana aspek kelemahan pelajar asing telah dikenal pasti dan pelbagai pihak boleh mencari jalan penyelesaian untuk mengatasi daerah kelemahan tersebut bagi meningkatkan penguasaan pelajar asing dalam aspek pembentukan ayat majmuk pada masa depan. Pengkaji berharap agar kajian-kajian seperti ini dapat diteruskan dari semasa ke semasa untuk memberikan pendedahan lebih lanjut bagi meningkatkan dan memantapkan penguasaan aspek tatabahasa dalam kalangan pelajar asing yang sedang mengikuti kursus bahasa Melayu di negara ini.
RUJUKAN
Abdullah Hassan. 2003. Tatabahasa Bahasa Melayu: Morfologi dan Sintaksis untuk Guru dan Pelajar. Pahang: PTS Publications & Distributor Sdn. Bhd.
Abdullah Hassan, Seri Lanang Jaya Rohani, Razali Ayob, Zulkifli Osman. 2006. Sintaksis: Siri Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu. Batu Caves: PTS Professional Publications Sdn. Bhd.
Arpan Shahbudin Latip. 1998. Bahasa Melayu: Kesilapan Tatabahasa Satu Analisis. Shah Alam: Faj ar Bakti Sdn. Bhd. Ab. Halim Mohamad. (2002). Pembelajaran frasa bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar Melayu: satu analisis kesalahan. Tesis PhD. yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
Abd. Manaff Abd. Rahman. (2002). An error analysis of English interrogatives: a case study. Tesis sarjana yang tidak dit erbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya. Abisamra, N. (2003). An analysis of errors in arabic speakers’ english writings. Diperoleh pada 20 Mac 2011 daripada http://abisamra03.tripod.com/nada/languageacq-error analysis.html.
Aini Haji Karim. (2007). Analisis kontrastif dan analisis kesalahan bahasa: Antara hipotesis dan realiti. Prosiding Semin ar Tahunan Jabatan Bahasa Melayu dan Linguistik II (SETALING), 2, 212-225.
Awang Sariyan. 1980. Pencemaran Bahasa dari Perspektif Budaya. Dewan Masyarakat, jil. 18, bil. 3. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Awang Sariyan. (1995). Pengantarabangsaan bahasa Melayu melalui institusi pendidikan tinggi: Catatan tentang pengal aman Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia. Kongres Bahasa Melayu Sedunia: Kumpulan Kertas Kerja Jilid 1 (A-L). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
ILCC 2013
392
Azman Che Mat dan Goh, Y.S. (2010). Situasi pembelajaran bahasa asing di institut pengajian tinggi: Perbandingan ant ara bahasa Arab, bahasa Mandarin dan bahasa Perancis. Asean Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Ed ucation, 2 (2), 9-21. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Longman.
Cheun, H. H., Ho, W. C. & Hoe, F. T. (2009). A study of Mandarin sentence grammar mistake made by non-native spea ker. Proceeding Language and Culture: Creating and Fostering Global Communities.
Collins, J. T. (1995). Perjuangan bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa antarabangsa. Kertas Kerja untuk Hari Sastera 1975.
Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learners' errors. Reprinted in J.C.Richards (ed.) (1974, 1984) Error Analysis: P erspectives on Second Language Acquisition. London: Longman, pp. 19 -27 (Originally in International Revie w of Applied Linguistics, 5 (4).
Corder, S. P. (1973). Introducing applied linguistics. Baltimore: Penguin Education.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Erdogan, V. (2005). Contribution of error analysis to foreign language teaching. Mersin University Journal of the Facult y of Education, 1 (2), 261-270.
Fa izah Abd Manan, Mohamed Amin Embi & Zamri Mahamod. (2010). Kerangka pembangunan dan penilaian modul b elajar cara belajar bahasa Melayu pelajar asing institusi pengajian tinggi Malaysia. Asean Journal of Teaching a nd Learning in Higher Education, 2 (2), pp. 64-76.
Goh, Y. S. & Ng, A. (2004). The bumiputra students' attitude in learning Mandarin at UiTM Campus Terengganu, Mala ysia. The International Colloquium on Language, Attitudes and Education in Multilingual Cities.
Habash, Z. A. S. (1982). Common errors in the use of English prepositions in the written work of UNRWA students at t he end of the preparatory cycle in the Jerusalem area. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Palestin: Universiti Birzeit. Hashim Mat Zain. (2009). Penguasaan kata kerja bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah: satu kajian kes. Te sis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
Jeniri Amir. (2005). Bahasa Melayu mudah dipelajari, tetapi sukar dikuasai. Jurnal Dewan Bahasa. Jilid 5(4).
Juriah Long, Raja Fauzi Raja Musa, Zarin Ismail & Hamidah Yamat@Ahmad. (2001). Keperluan pendidikan bahasa M elayu di institusi pendidikan tinggi swasta. Jurnal Pendidikan 26, 21-36.
Jyh, W. S. (2005). Evolusi dan evolusi semula bahasa. Dewan Bahasa. September, 17-21.
Khan, P. (2005). An error analysis on the written English of upper secondary students in Kuala Lumpur. Tesis PhD. yan g tidak diterbitkan. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Lee, Chai Chuen. (2007). Analisis kesilapan sintaksis di kalangan pelajar Melayu dalam pembelajaran bahasa Mandarin . Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
Lim, S. N. (2001). An error analysis of the use past tense in French by Malay students. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitk an. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
Loi, Chek Kim. (2001). An error analysis of English prepsitions in the written work of upper secondary Malay students. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
Maicusi, T., Maicusi, P. & Lopez, M.J.C. (2000). The error in the second language acquisition. Encuento Revista de Inv estigacion Innovacion en la Clase de Idiomas, 11, pp. 168-173.
Marzalina Mansor. (2004). Stail pembelajaran bahasa melayu sebagai bahasa asing di kalangan pelajar luar negara. Tesi s sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Md. Daud Taha. (1992). Masalah penguasaan bahasa Melayu di kalangan pelajar Melayu di tingkatan menengah atas di negara Brunei Darussalam. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia. Moghimizadeh, R. P. (2008). The study of syntactic avoidance on the written production of persian university students majoring in teaching english as a foreign language. Disertasi tidak diterbitkan. Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Mohd Shahril Rajain. (1996). Analisis kesalahan bahasa Melayu di kalangan pelajar-pelar Tingkatan Enam di sekolah m enengah: satu kajian kes. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Money, J. N. J. S. (2004). Kesalahan bahasa dalam karangan murid Tamil yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu di sekolah menengah. Tesis PhD. yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Muhammed Salehudin Aman. (1993). Analisis kesalahan tatabahasa bahasa Melayu di kalangan pelajar sekolah meneng ah agama atas. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Najeeb, Z. M. (2007). An error analysis of spelling mistakes of English at Baghdad University. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
Nik Safiah Karim, Farid M. On, Hashim Hj. Musa & Abdul Hamid Mahmood. (2003). Tatabahasa dewan edisi baharu. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
ILCC 2013
394
Nik Safiah Karim, Farid M. Onn, Hashim Haji Musa, Abdul Hamid Mahmood. 2009. Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Ketiga. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Nor Asmah Abd. Aziz. (2009). Penggunaan kata hubung bahasa Malaysia dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah: sa tu analisis kesilapan. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya. Richards, J. C., Platt, J. T., Weber, H. & Candlin C. N. (1992). Longman dictionary of applied linguistics. Essex: Longm an.
Saw, K. L. (1997). Kesilapan sintaksis dalam pembelajaran bahasa Mandarin di kalangan dewasa Melayu. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
Soh, B. K. (1996). Frasa nama bahasa Melayu dan bahasa Mandarin: satu analisis kontrastif dan analisis kesilapan. Tesi s sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
Supian Mohamad Noor. (1994). Analisis kesalahan penggunaan frasa kerja bahasa Melayu di kalangan pelajar tingkatan empat KBSM: satu kajian kes. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir. 2006. Analisis Kesilapan Tatabahasa dalam karangan Bahasa Melayu: Satu Kajian Kes. Petaling Jaya: Universiti Malaya. Xu, J. (2008). Error theories and second language acquacition. US-China Foreign Language. (1) 6: 35-42.
Zainor Said. (2011). Universiti, kolej di Malaysia banyak kelebihan berbanding negara lain untuk tarik pelajar asing. Di peroleh pada 15 Mac 2011 daripada
http://www.bharian.com.my/bharian/articles/IPTharustingkatkankualiti_perhebatpromosidiluarnegara/Article/print_html .
تصور مقرتح لبناء درس إلكرتوين يف تعليم العربيَّة للنَّاطقني بغريها ّ يف ضوء املدخل االتصايل
م .د .عبد الرمحن بن شيك أ .م.د .حممد فهام حممد غالب رمي عادل الرتك قسم اللغة العربية وآداهبا اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا
ملخص البحث أصبح استخدام احلاسوب ضروريًّا يف العمليَّة التَّعليميَّة ،ومتطلبًا أساسيًّا يف جودة التَّعليم ،وال يستطيع أحد
تصور مقرتح لبناء درس يف أن ينكر دوره يف حتقيق تعلم أكثر فعاليَّة .وفكرة هذا البحث تدور حول وضع ّ تعليم اللُّغة العربيَّة بوصفها لغة ثانية عرب املواقع اإللكرتونيَّة؛ يبدأ مبقدمة يتحدث فيها عن أمهيَّة تعليم اللُّغة الثَّانيَّة باستخدام تكنولوجيا التَّعليم ،مث يتلوه مفهوم التَّعليم اإللكرتوين ودوره يف تعليم اللُّغة الثَّانيَّة ،وتوضيح
الرتبويَّة وكذلك من حيث اإلخرا الف ي اها ،وكذلك بيان معايري تصميم الدروس اإللكرتونيَّة من الناحيَّة َّ وظيفة اللُّغة األساسيَّة وااهدف من تعلمها ،وأثر احلوار والتَّواصل اللُّغوي يف عمليَّة اكتساب اللُّغة الثانيَّة، وكيف يستطيع املتعلم إنتا اللغة ،مث تصبح لديه املقدرة على التَّعبري عن احتياجاته وحتقيق الكفاية اللُّغويَّة.
لذلك فال بد أن تبىن هذه الدروس اإللكرتونيَّة وتصمم يف ضوء املدخل االتصايل لتحقيق الكفاية االتصالية
وُيتم البحث بعرض تصور مقرتح لدرس إلكرتوين يف ضوء املدخل االتصايل .وسيتبع البحث واللُّغويَّةُ . املادة النَّظرية واملوازنة بني أرآء العلماء ،وال يغفل كذلك دور املنهج التَّطبيقي املنهج الوصفي من حيث مجع َّ يف وضع التَّصور املقرتح للدرس اإللكرتوين.
396
ILCC 2013
مقدمة يشهد التعليم التكنولوجي دورا مهما يف حياة اإلنسانية يف معظم جماالت التعليم ،العلمية واألدبية والنظرية والتطبيقية ،فلقد أصبح بوابة التعليم ،ومرتكزا ضروريا يف بناء املنهج واملعلم والطالب ،وإن استخدام احلاسوب يف العملية التعليمية أصبح ضرورة ملحة يف عصرنا ،عصر تدفق املعرفة واملعلومات ،لذا حيتا معلم اللغة العربية أن يكون على خربة واسعة يف مهارات احلاسوب واستخدامه خار الفصل وداخله، حيث تشري معظم الدالئل إىل أن التواصل اإللكرتوين سيقلب مفهوم التواصل اللغوي ،وهي مرحلة انتقالية لتواصل واسع النطاق وهو تواصل ما بعد الكتابة حيث ميتز فيه املكتوب واملسموع واملرئي املتحرك والثابت ،مكونا رسالة اتصالية كثيفة املعلومات.1 وقد أثبت كثري من الدراسات إن إدخال احلاسوب يف املؤسسات التعليمية من أهم معايري اجلودة الشَّاملة يف جمال التَّعليم ،فأصبحت البيئة التَّفاعليَّة ،والفيديو التَّفاعلي ،واحلقائب التَّعليميَّة ،والوسائط املتعددة، وقاعات التّدريس َّ الذكيَّة جزءًا ال يتجزأ من العمليَّة التَّعليميَّة ،1وال سيما يف تعليم اللغات ،ملا يف ذلك من أمهية كبرية يف عملية تعلم اللغة واكتساهبا ،وكوسيلة تعليمية تساعد على حتقيق األهداف الرتبوية املخطط اها ،والوصول إىل تعلم أكثر فعالية .1فهذا التسارع ااهائل بني العلم والتكنولوجيا وتضاءل املسافة بينهما جيعل حميب اللغة العربية والقائمني على رعايتها حيرصون على استعادة اللغة العربية ملكانتها ووهوضها من كبوهتا ،والسعي إلدخال العربية إىل تكنولوجيا التعليم من باب الضرورة ،فقط أصبح هذا األمر إجباريا وليس فيه خيار ،1وقد أصدرت منظمة اليونسكو يف عام )6002م( قائمة باللغات املتوقع انقراضها يف القرن احلادي والعشرين وكانت اللغة العربية من بني اللغات املهددة باالنقراض يف تلك القائمة. وحرصا على العربية حيتا هذا األمر إىل دخول اللغة العربية عامل التكنولوجيا ،وأن تسعى إىل منافسة الدول املتقدمة يف جمال تكنولوجبا التعليم ،ولن نستطيع استغالل اجلانب التكنولوجي يف خدمة اللغة العربية قبل التمكن من التعرف عليها ودراستها وتوظيفها والوصول إىل حسن استخدامها ،والشعور بقيمتها وأمهيتها، األمر الذي ميكننا من تنشئة جيل تكنولوجي ذي خصوصية عربية يدعم اللغة العربية حنو االستخدام
الصحيح واالنتشار يف مجيع أحناء العامل .1وال ننسى جهود املتخصصني يف هذا اجملال والسابقني يف إنتا املواقع اإللكرتونية املتميزة يف جمال تعليم العربية للناطقني بغريها ،فالدكتورة سناء غامن أنشئت موقع األكادميية العربية وهو موقع لتعليم اللغة العربية واحلضارة اإلسالمية يف مجيع أحناء العامل ،حيث يتوفر فيه الدروس والربامج اليت تليب مجيع احتياجات الدارسني باختالف أعمارهم ،وجنسياهتم وأهدافهم من تعلم اللغة عن طريق جامعة ومدرسة ومكتبة خاصة هبذا املوقع. مفهوم التَّعليم اإللكرتوين فعرفه املوسى ( 9261ه) بأنه "طريقة للتعليم باستخدام تعددت التعريفات املتعلقة بالتعليم اإللكرتوينّ ، آليات االتصال احلديثة من حاسب وشبكاته ووسائطه املتعددة من صوت وصورة ورسومات وآليات حبث ومكتبات الكرتونية وكذلك بوابات اإلنرتنت سواء كان عن بعد أو يف الفصل الدراسي ،املهم املقصود هو استخدام التقنية جبميع أنواعها يف إيصال املعلومة للمتعلم بأقصر وقت وأقل جهد وأكرب فائدة" .1وميكن سخر فيه التقنيات احلديثة للحاسوب وشبكاته تعريف التعليم اإللكرتوين بأنه "أسلوب من أساليب التعليم يُ ّ
ووسائطه املتعددة يف إيصال املقررات الدراسية إىل املتعلم الذي يتفاعل معها بأسلوب متزامن أو غري
متزامن ،يف الفصل أو عن بعد".1 وعرفه احليلة بأنه "عبارة عن جمموعة من العمليات املرتبطة بالتعليم عرب اإلنرتنت ،مثل احلصول على ّ املعلومات ذات الصلة باملادة الدراسية ،وهو نظام تقدمي املقررات الدراسية عرب شبكة اإلنرتنت أو شبكة حمليّة أو األقمار الصناعية أو عرب اإلسطوانات أو التلفاز التفاعلي للوصول إىل الفئة املستهدفة" .1وأما فعرب عنه أنه "طريقة إبداعية لتقدمي بيئة تفاعلية، بالنسبة إىل تعريف خان (6002م) للتعليم اإللكرتوين ّ متمركزة حول املتعلمني ،ومصممة مسبقا بشكل جيد ،وميسرة ألي فرد ،ويف أي مكان وأي وقت
باستعمال خصائص ومصادر اإلنرتنت والتقنيات الرقمية بالتطابق مع مبادئ التصميم التعليمي املناسبة لبيئة التعلم املفتوحة واملرنة واملوزعة .ونالحظ أن خان يركز على املتعلم ومبادئ التصميم التعليمي والتعلم املفتوح .1وعند التدقيق يف مجيع التعريفات السابقة نالحظ أن مجيع املتخصصني أشاروا إىل أن ااهدف
398
ILCC 2013
الرئيسي من مفهوم التعليم اإللكرتوين هو استخدام التقنيات احلديثة يف التعليم سواء أكان بوجود اإلنرتنت أم عدمه ،وحتقيق بيئة تفاعلية تواصلية بأساليب عصرية مباشرة أو غري مباشرة بني املعلم واملتعلم لتحقيق تعلم أكثر كفاءة وحيوية. أمهيَّة تعليم اللُّغة العربية باستخدام تكنولوجيا التَّعليم إن تعليم اللغة إلكرتونيا له الكثري من الفوائد واملميزات اليت يصعب حصرها ،وتكمن األمهية حني تعلم اللغة يف ضوء املدخل االتصايل ،الذي يركز على االتصال والتواصل بني املتعلم واملعلم ،واالستخدام األمثل للغة وتوظيفها يف مواقف اجتماعية خمتلفة أقرب ما تكون للمواقف احلقيقية يف جماالت احلياة املختلفة من أجل حتقيق الكفاية اللغوية .ويالحظ أن التعليم اإللكرتوين يوفر البيئة التعليمية التفاعلية اليت جتذب اهتمام الطالب وتطور معارفه وتنمي مهارات التفكري العلمي واملنطقي لديه وتساعد على زيادة اإلمكانية لالتصال بني زمالئه وبني الطالب ومعلمهم ،ومنح الفرصة لالتصال بسهولة ما بني مجيع األطراف يف عدة اجتاهات مثل جمالس النقاش يف الندوات واملنتديات والربيد االلكرتوين ،وأن هذه اجملاالت حتفز الطالب على املشاركة والتفاعل مع املوضوعات املطروحة وتساعدهم على اجلرأة يف التعبري ،واحلرية يف استخدام اللغة ،واملسامهة يف عرض وجهات النظر املختلفة ،دون خجل أو خوف من زمالئه أو املعلم .ألن أدوات االتصال اإللكرتونية تتيح الفرصة لكل طالب اإلدالء برأيه يف أي وقت دون حر ،خالفًا للفصول التقليدية اليت حترم الطالب هذه امليزة .وقد أثبتت الدراسات أن النقاشات اليت حتدث من خالل وسائل االتصاالت احلديثة تساعد وتشجع الطالب على املواجهة واملشاركة بشكل أكرب.1 وكذلك فإن الطالب يستطيع أن يتعلم املادة العلمية باختيار الطريقة اليت تناسبه ،فبعض الطلبة يفضلون الطريقة املرئية ،ومنهم من يعتمد على االستماع أو القراءة ،وبعضهم يتفاعل مع الطريقة العملية ،والتعليم اإللكرتوين يتيح اإلمكانية للطالب التطبيق العملي بطرق خمتلفة وعديدة ومباشرة للمواد التعليمية يف مجيع اجملاالت وال شك اللغة ،وباإلضافة إىل ذلك فإن املتعلم عنده احلرية يف الرجوع إىل املواد التعليمية وقتما
شاء ،وإذا رغب يف التكرار لالستماع إىل ملواد التعليمية أو قراءهتا يستطيع ذلك وبسهولة ،وباألخص أن تعليم اللغة يعتمد على االستماع املستمر للغة اجلديدة ،وحيتا إىل التكرار املستمر وهذه امليزة جتعل الطالب يف حالة استقرار وراحة.1 والتعليم اإللكرتوين يكشف عن القدرات احلقيقية للطالب ،ومدى َتكنهم من اللغة ،وذلك من خالل مشاركتهم يف غرف احلوار وجمالس املناقشة واملنتديات ،وبالتايل هذا يساعد املعلم على التقومي املستمر لطالبه والتعرف على نقاط ضعفهم ،ومعاجلتها بالوسائل واألدوات املناسبة إلكرتونيا أو داخل الفصل، وتعترب هذه الطريقة من أفضل طرق التقومي ألوها بعيدة عن أساليب التقومي التقليدية مثل االختبار القصري أو االمتحان النهائي أو اإلمالء املفاجئ اليت ختلو من املصداقية والتقييم احلقيقي للطلبة ،وذلك لدخول عناصر أخرى فيها مثل اخلوف من االمتحان واالرتباك واخلجل وغريها.1 معايري تصميم الدروس اإللكرتونيَّة اهتمت العديد من الدراسات مبعايري اجلودة املرتبطة بالتصميم التعليمى للمقررات اإللكرتونية ،فقدم بعض املهتمني معايري عامة للتعليم اإللكرتوين ،واهتم آخرون بتقدمي املعايري الفنية والتقنية للمقررات اإللكرتونية، وهناك من قام بوضع مقاييس عامة تستخدم لتقييم املواد التعليمية املصممة إلكرتونيا للحكم على مدى جودهتا ،وركز بعضهم على وضع معايري ترتبط باجلوانب الرتبوية للمواد التعليمية اإللكرتونية ،ويالحظ أن مجيع هذه الدراسات أمجعت على ضرورة وجود أسس ومعايري عند تصميم املقررات اإللكرتونية ،ألمهيتها يف ضبط جودة التصميم ونشر املقررات التعليمية املتميزة اليت تعمل على حتقيق األهداف الرتبوية التعليمية. وبناء على ما سبق وهج البحث إىل تقسيم املعايري إىل قسمني رئيسني مها؛ املعايري الرتبوية وهي كل ما يتعلق باجلوانب الرتبوية من األهداف واحملتوى ووسائل التقومي وغريها ،واملعايري اليت ترتبط باإلخرا الف ي والتق ي للمواد اإللكرتونية.1 أوال :املعايري الرتبوية
400
ILCC 2013
تتعدد العناصر اليت تندر حتت اإلطار الرتبوي واليت ميكن االعتماد عليها يف حتديد مقاييس اجلودة وضوابطها للمواد التعليمية اإللكرتونية ،وترى الباحثة أن مفهوم املنهج احلديث الذي يرتبط باألهداف الرتبوية واحملتوى ،وطرق التدريس وما يتعلق هبا من أنشطة ،والتقومي تعترب العناصر األساسية لضبط معايري اجلودة من الناحية الرتبوية ،وهي كما يلي: -1األهداف الرتبوية :جيب أن تنطلق األهداف من حاجات املتعلمني ،وكذلك من أهداف املؤسسة الرتبوية القائمة على الربنامج التعليمي اإللكرتوين ،وكذلك ينبغي دراسة خصائص املتعملني من حيث العمر واملستوى اللغوي وأهداف الطلبة من تعلم اللغة الثانية ،وبناء على ذلك تصاغ األهداف التعليمية مبستوياهتا الثالثة املعرفية والسلوكية والوجدانية. -2احملتوى التعليمي :ينبغي أن يبىن بطريقة علمية ينطلق من األهداف املنشودة ،وجيب أن يكون مرتابطا ومتكامال وقابال للتعديل واإلضافة والتغيري والتبديل املستمر ،ألن خصائص املتعلمني تتغري من حني إىل آخر ،وجيب أن يعرض بلغة سليمة وصحيحة وبأسلوب بسيط ومباشر ،كما ينبغي أن ُيلو احملتوى من األخطاء الطباعية واإلمالئية والنحوية ،وحيتوى على قائمة املراجع واملصادر ملن رغب يف التوسع والرجوع إليها. -3طرق التدريس والوسائل واألنشطة التعليمية :جيب أن تراعي طرق التدريس عمر الدارسني وخلفياهتم الثقافية واالجتماعية ،وكذلك تعرض الوسائل واألنشطة التعليمية للدارسني بأسلوب متدر من السهل إىل الصعب ،ومن احملسوس إىل اجملرد ،ومن املعلوم إىل اجملهول ،كما جيب أن تعتمد على اجلانب التطبيقي العملي ،وتكون قريبة من واقع حياة املتعلمني حىت يسهل عليهم تنفيذها ،وتنطلق من حاجاهتم وخصائصهم. -4التقومي :ينبغي أن ينطلق التقومي من خمرجات التعلم وغايته ،واألداء املتوقع من املتعلم يف وهاية تعلم الوحدة ،كذلك التنوع يف أساليب التقومي فال تكون على منط واحد وبشكل واحد ،فيجب أن يكون يف املوقع التعليمي التقومي املستمر والتقومي التكوي ي والتقومي اخلتامي ،وعلى املعلم أن يقوم بدور املوجه واملرشد
للمتعلمني يف كل مرحلة من مراحل التقومي ويسعى إىل معاجلة األخطاء باستمرار حىت ال يقع الطالب يف اخلطأ نفسه. ثانيا :املعايري التقنيَّة إن اإلخرا الف ي للربنامج التعليمي اإللكرتوين له دور كبري يف جناح العملية التعليمية اإللكرتونية ،فإذا اتصف مبعايري اجلودة ،وراعى املواصفات اليت جيب أن تتوفر فيه حقق تعلما فعاال وأكثر كفاءة ،وعند احلديث عن اجلانب التق ي لإلخرا فهو يرتبط بالوسائط املتعددة وإخراجها بصورة وهائية ،وتشمل مجيع املدخالت اليت تتعلق باملوقع التعليمي من حمتوى وصوت وصورة وفيديو وأنشطة تفاعلية ومن روابط وغريها، وسيكون احلديث عنها باختصار. -1احملتوى التعليمي :جيب أن تكتب النصوص خبط واضح ومقروء ،ومعروف لدى املتعلمني بعيد عن الزخرفة ،وكذلك جيب مراعاة الدقة اللغوية واخللو من األخطاء الطباعية واإلمالئية ،وكذلك تعرض النصوص على الشاشة بشكل منظم ومتناسب مع حجم الشاشة فال تكون مكتظة وال قليلة جدا ،وتكتب بلون واضح منسجم مع اخللفية ،وتتبع نظام واحد يف كتابة العناوين وكتابة النصوص الداخلية. -2الصورة :جيب أن تكون ملفات الصور حبجم صغري حىت ال تأخذ وقتا طويال عند حتميلها ،كذلك مراعاة وضعها يف املكان املناسب على شاشة العرض ،وإذا صاحبها نص فيجب التنسيق بينها وبني النص أو اجلملة أو الكلمة ،واختيار الصور الواضحة املعربة املتعلقة بااهدف ،واألفضل أن حتمل هدفا واحدا حىت ال تشتت التالميذ. -3الصوت :جيب أن تكون ملفات الصوت صغرية حىت يسهل حتمليها ،كما ينبغي أن تسجل بصوت نقي بعيد عن الضوضاء وتتصف بالوضوح ،كذلك مراعاة حتميل األصوات على برامج متوفرة يف مجيع احلواسيب ،وال حتتا إىل تنزيل برامج مرافقة. -4الفيديو :يرتبط باألهداف املنشودة ويسعى إىل حتقيقها ،وجيب إعداد السيناريو املناسب للموضوع وإعداد مجيع مستلزمات اإلخرا من صور وأصوات وغريها مث عمل مونتا مرتابط يتصف بالوضوح
402
ILCC 2013
والتناسق والتناغم بني الصوت والصورة ،كما جيب مراعاة احلجم حىت يسهل حتميله على أجهزة الطلبة وفتحه بربامج معروفة ومتوفرة. أي نظام سواء -5الروابط :تعد الروابط يف الربنامج اإللكرتوين من أهم األمور اليت جيب االنتباه إليها يف ّ
أكان تعليميا أم غريه ،وجيب على املصمم أن يراعي الدقة واإلتقان بني املؤشر وبني الرابط املتعلق به ،كذلك جيب أن تكون الروابط واضحة على الصفحة الرئيسية وسهلة لالنتقال من مكان إىل آخر ،كذلك وجود
روابط تسهل على املستخدم العودة إىل الصفحة الرئيسية ،وال بد من وجود روابط بقوائم احملتويات الرئيسة، وروابط للقوائم املنسدلة.1 املدخل االتصايل اختلفت اآلراء حول أسلوب تعليم اللُّغة بشكل اتِّصايل ،هل هو مدخل قائم بذاته أم عدة مداخل أم طريقة؟ فريى ريتشاردز ورودجرز وديان فرميان أنَّه مدخل مستقل متكامل ،يستند على جمموعة من املنطلقات حول تعلم اللُّغة واكتساهبا ،فهو يبىن على مفهوم االتِّصال واالتِّصال حبد ذاته عمليَّة وليست ناجتًا ،وأشار كريستال يف دائرة معارف اللُّغة " إن املدخل االتِّصايل هو ذلك املدخل الذي يركز يف تعليم اللُّغة على اللُّغة ذاهتا ووظائفها ،وكذلك على الكفاية االتِّصاليَّة وليس على البىن النَّحويَّة" .1لذلك يعترب املدخل االتِّصايل مدخال له خصائصه ومعامله البارزة ،تدور حول مفاهيم يف اجملال اللُّغوي وفلسفة اللُّغة وتعليمها ،واجملال النَّفسي والنَّظرة إىل األنشطة االتِّصاليَّة ومدى ارتباطها بدافعية الدَّارسني.
واملدخل االتِّصايل من املداخل املهمة يف تعليم اللُّغة النَّه كما يعتقد اللُّغويون قدميًا وحديثًا َّ أن اإلنسان يتعلم
الرتكيز على تدريب املتعلمني على استخدام اللُّغة يف اللُّغة من أجل التَّواصل مع اجملتمع ،لذلك جيب َّ املواقف احلياتية املختلفة ،فتعليم اللُّغة اتِّصاليًّا مب ي على إكساب املتعلمني املهارات اللُّغويَّة األربع ،وتنميتها لديهم حبيث َتكنهم من عمليَّة االتِّصال واستخدام قواعد اللُّغة من أجل أداء وظيفة حمددة يف موقف
معني
1
كيف تتم عملية االتِّّصال اللغوي؟ تبدأ عملية االتِّصال بوجود جمموعة من األفكار يف ذهن فرد يريد أن ينقلها إىل غريه ،هذه األفكار جمتمعة تشكل احملتوى اليت يبغى املرسل إيصاله إىل اآلخرين ألهداف يقصدها من خالل اتِّصاله مع غريه ،فيبدأ الرتاكيب والعبارات اليت يصب احملتوى فيها ،فينتقي الفرد من حمصوله اللُّغوي املفردات بالبحث عن اجلمل و َّ الرموز ،مث ينتقل إىل طريقة إخراجها واجلمل اليت تتناسب مع احملتوى ،وتسمى هذه املرحلة برتكيب ُّ الصويت ويعرب عن هذا احملتوى الرموز املناسبة من النِّظام َّ لآلخرين ،فتأخذ عمليَّة اإلخرا طريقتنيَّ :إما ُيتار ُّ وإما ختر رسالته بشكل مكتوب فيعرب عنها من خالل كالم شفاهة ،بأداء صويت يتضمن النَّرب والتَّنغيمَّ ، مكتوب يف صفحة مطبوعة ،وينتهي دور املرسل ،وتبدأ ِّ الرسالة مرحلة جديدة وهي اإلرسال عرب وسيلة
لتصل إىل املستقبل ،وتؤثر وسيلة اإلرسال على نقاء ِّ الرسالة ،فيتخللها حتريف أو تشويه ملا يف وسائل النَّقل
من ضوضاء تؤثر سلبًا على نقاء ِّ الرموز ويبدأ بتحديد دالالت الرسالة ،مث تصل املستقبل فيبدأ بفك ُّ ليكون منها معىن يناسب املوقف الذي حدثت فيه عمليَّة االتِّصال .فإذا كانت عمليَّة للكلمات واملفردات ّ االتِّصال مباشرة بني الطَّرفني املرسل واملستقبل حتدث االستجابة املتبادلة بينهما ،و َّأما إذا كانت شفوية مسموعة لكنها أحاديَّة مثل شخص يسمع إىل املذياع ،أو كانت مكتوبة فال حيدث تبادل بينهما.1 فالتَّواصل اللُّغوي يشري إىل عمليات اإلرسال واالستقبال لألفكار واملعلومات واالجتاهات عرب أشكال لغويَّة
ِ السياق الذي يتم فيه التَّواصل مبعىن موقف التَّواصل، خمتلفة ،ويتحقق هذا التَّواصل بتوفر ثالثة عناصر وهي ّ وحدث التَّواصل ،وفعل التَّواصل الذي يشمل العبارات واجلمل اليت حتملها الرسالة اللُّغويَّة.1
مهارات االتِّّصال اللُّغوي املهارات اللُّغويَّة األربع هي منطلق تعليم اللُّغة وأساسها عند بناء فلسفة الربنامج ،بتفاوت بني هذه املهارات
باختالف املدخل الذي يستند عليه الربنامج ،فتعليم اللُّغة بناء على املدخل اللُّغوي الذي يعتمد على علوم
اللُّغة وعناصرها بغض النَّظر عن استخدامها وتوظيفها ،ال شك أنَّه ُيتلف عن تعليم اللُّغة بناء على املدخل ِ ِ غوي أربع مهارات وهي :االستماع االتّصايل الذي يهتم بتوظيف اللُّغة ودورها االجتماعي ،فلالتّصال اللُّ ّ والكالم والقراءة والكتابة ،وبينهما عالقات متبادلة ،فاالستماع والكالم ميثالن مهارتني صوتيتني ،حيتاجهما
404
ILCC 2013
الصفحة املكتوبة ،اليت تتعدى حدود الفرد عند االتِّصال املباشر مع اآلخرين ،بينما جتمع القراءة والكتابة َّ الزمان واملكان عند االتِّصال مع اآلخرين ،وكذلك بني االستماع والقراءة عالقة واضحة ،فكلتا املهارتان من َّ مهارات االستقبال ،وهبما يشكل الفرد خرباته من خالل فكه للرموز بعد استقبااها ،بينما مهارتا الكالم والكتابة مهارتان إنتاجيتان ،ومها مهاراتان إبداعيتان ،وهبما يؤثر الفرد على اآلخرين ،واإلنتا اللُّغوي للفرد فيهما أقل مما يف مهاريت االستماع والقراءةَّ ، ألن دائرة الفهم أوسع من دائرة االستخدام. واملهارات اللُّغويَّة يف ضوء املدخل االتِّصايل تتكامل مع بعضها البعض ،وال ميكن الفصل بينها ،فهذا خاصة واها خصائص ووظائف ختتلف عن االلتحام والتَّضام بني املهارات جيعلها كوحدة واحدة ،اها طبيعة َّ أي مدخل آخر ،فاملوقف االتِّصايل الواحد حيتا إىل مهارتني أو أكثر إلجناز املهمة االتِّصاليَّة تعليمها يف ِّ املطلوبة ،حبيث جيعلها ختر بشكل طبيعي أثناء املمارسة .و َّأما بالنِّسبة إىل ترتيب هذه املهارات اللُّغويَّة يف املدخل االتِّصايل فال يوجد ترتيب ثابت ومطلق ،فيعتمد على املوقف االتِّصايل الذي يتدرب الطَّالب عليه،
وتتساوى املهارات اللُّغويَّة مبثل ما تتساوى أشكال االتِّصال ،وال توجد أولوية ملهارة على أخرى ،بل يتبع
ذلك أولويات التَّدريس فإن كانت األولويَّة البدء مبهارة القراءة مث الكتابة فال حر بذلك.1 تعليم اللُّغة العربيَّة اتِّّصاليًّا
تعددت املذاهب والطَّرائق املتبعة يف تدريس اللُّغة كلغة ثانية ،وبناء على ذلك َّ فإن مفهوم تعليم اللُّغة الثَّانية اختلف عرب العقود يف وهاية القرن املاضي وبداية القرن احلايل ،ونستطيع القول َّ إن اجلهود األخرية تركزت على تعليم اللُّغة اتِّصاليًّا ،فظهرت آراء خمتلفة حول تعليم اللُّغة اتِّصاليًّا ،ومن خالل النَّظر الدَّقيق يف آراء
اخلرباء نالحظ أنَّه يوجد تصورات متعددة ملفهوم تعلم اللُّغة اتِّصاليًّا منها :يرى البعض أنَّه يهتم "بتنظيم اإلجراءات املناسبة لتعليم املهارات اللُّغويَّة األربعة (استماع ،كالم ،قراءة ،كتابة) يف ضوء العالقة االعتماديَّة بني اللُّغة واالتِّصال" ،وآخرون يقولون إنَّه يع ي جبعل الكفاية االتصاليَّة هي ااهدف األساسي من تعلم اللُّغة وتعليمها ،ويرى آخرون أنَّه يتجسد يف توظيف اللُّغة بني الدَّارسني على شكل جمموعات صغرية أو كبرية،
كما يرى البعض أنه إعطاء االهتمام األكرب لألشكال الوظيفيَّة واألشكال البنيويَّة أو الرتكيبية للُّغة ،ويقول
بعضهم إن تعليم اللغة اتِّصاليًّا يعتمد على حاجات الفرد واجلماعة أكثر من اعتماده على اختيار حمتوى لغوي عام ،وبعضهم يرى أنَّه يع ي باخنراط الدارسني يف حمادثة وحوار شفوي يتفاعل فيه مجيع األطراف ِ أخريا يقول البعض َّ إن تعليم اللُّغة اتِّصاليًّا يعتمد على تعليم اللُّغة يف فالرتكيز هنا على االتّصال املباشر ،و ً مواقف اتِّصاليَّة طبيعيَّة أكثر من اعتماده على املشاركة يف أنشطة موجهة توجيها تربويًّا .1ويرى البحث أنَّه مهما تعددت األراء واختلفت حول مفهوم تعلم اللُّغة اتِّصاليًّا إال أن مجيعها تصب يف االتِّصال والتَّواصل يف سياق اجتماعي ،وتوظيف اللغة واستخدامها ،ويعتمد ذلك على شرطني أساسيني كما ذكر ولكنز الصواب االجتماعي. الصواب اللُّغوي و َّ وسافنجون ومها َّ الكفاية االتِّّصاليَّة َّ إن مفهوم الكفاية االتِّصاليَّة من املصطلحات املهمة اليت ترتبط مباشرة عند احلديث عن املدخل االتِّصايل، َّ ألن تدريس اللُّغة الثَّانيَّة اتِّصاليًّا يهدف إىل َتكني املتعلمني من االتِّصال مع املتحدثني األصليني للغة املتعلمة ،وينصب على تدريب املتعلمني على مهاريت الكالم واالستماع باإلضافة إىل مهارة الكتابة ألغراض اتِّصاليَّة حمدودة أو قراءة نصوص أصلية خمتارة .1وعرف هاميز الكفاية االتِّصاليَّة َّ بأوها" :قدرة الفرد على أن ّ ينقل رسالته ،أو يوصل معىن معينًا وأن جيمع بكفاءة بني معرفة القواعد اللُّغويَّة والقيم والتَّقاليد االجتماعيَّة يف االتِّصال" .1فيجب أن يتوفر يف االتِّصال الفعال الكفاءة اللُّغويَّة ومراعاة البيئة االجتماعيَّة ،فالكفاية االتِّصاليَّة تع ي مبدى وعي الفرد بقواعد اللُّغة احلاكمة لالستعمال املناسب يف املواقف االجتماعيَّة ،فهي تشمل مفهومني اثنني مها املناسبة والفعاليَّة ،ويتحققان يف كل من اللُّغة املنطوقة واللُّغة املكتوبةَّ .أما بالنِّسبة
إىل تعريف كانل وسوين للكفايَّة االتِّصاليَّة فهي مبنية على أربعة أجزاء وهي:
الصرفيَّة وقواعد الصويت والقواعد َّ الكفاية النَّحويَّة :وهي فرع من الكفاية االتِّصاليَّة وتشتمل املعرفة بالنَّظام َّ
النَّحو واملعرفة باملواد املعجميَّة ومفردات اللُّغة ودالالت اجلملة ،فهذه الكفاية ترتبط ارتباطًا وثي ًقا مبعرفة النِّظام اللُّغوي ونظام تكوين اجلمل.
الكفاية اخلطابيَّة :وهذه مكملة للكفايَّة النَّحويَّة يف نواح كثرية ،منها القدرة على وصل اجلمل يف اخلطاب نصا ذا معىن من جمموعة من املفردات واجلمل ،واملقصود باخلطاب املتصل القدرة مكونًا حو ًارا أو ً املتصل ّ
406
ILCC 2013
املطولة .فالكفاية اخلطابيَّة هتتم بالعالقات اللُّغويَّة بني على احملادثة احملكيَّة أو املكتوبة كالنُّصوص واملقاالت ّ
الربط بينهما بأساليب لغويَّة صحيحة. اجلمل و َّ
الكفاية اللُّغويَّة االجتماعيَّةَ :تثل هذه الكفاية توظيف اللُّغة يف املواقف االتِّصاليَّة ،فهي َتثل معرفة القواعد ِ السياق االجتماعي ،فال ميكن احلكم على مالئمة الثَّقافيَّة واالجتماعيَّة للغة اخلطاب ،واملقدرة على فهم ّ ِ للسياق العام. حوار معني إال مبعرفة مدى مناسبته ّ خاصا يف عمليَّة االتِّصال ،وهي فن االتِّصال الشَّخصي ،سواء أكان الكفاية االسرتاتيجيَّة :حتتل مكانًا ًّ لفظيًا أم مكتوبًا ،وتعتمد على املقدرة اليت يظهرها املتعلم والتَّمكن من استخدام التَّعويض املناسب عند انقطاع االتِّصال بسبب ما ،مثل نقص الكفاية اللُّغويَّة ،أو اإلجهاد أو التَّشتت َّ الذه ي .فهي اسرتاتيجيات
ِ الصياغة للكالم والتِّكرار واإلسهاب والتَّخمني وتغيري مستوى ملعاجلة نقص املعرفة ومواصلة احلديث وإعادة ّ اللُّغة وأسلوهبا من أجل حتقيق التفاعليَّة يف االتِّصال.1 أما بالنسبة إىل اجلزء التطبيقي يف هذه الدراسة فرتكز على الكفايات األربعة عند كانل وسوين ،فالكفايَّة االتِّصاليَّة عندمها كما ذكرنا مسبقا مبنية على أربعة أجزاء ،وسيتناول البحث بيان التطبيق اإللكرتوين املناسب اهذه الكفايات. تصور مقرتح لدرس إلكرتوين يف ضوء املدخل االتصايل: تعليم العربية لطلبة املرحلة اجلامعية -املستوى املتقدم الكفاية النحوية:
التطبيق األول
االستماع إىل النص أصوات احلروف والنطق السليم. استخرا معاين املفردات إلكرتونيا. تسجيل النص. التطبيق الثالث
استخرا الفعل املضارع املنصوب بأن من
النص. الكفاية اخلطابية:
التطبيق الثاين والثالث
تكوين مجل تامة املعىن.
اإلجابة على األسئلة أثناء املناقشة داخل الفصل. التفاعل مع احلوار يف غرف املناقشة . اإلجابة عن األسئلة والتدريبات الكتابية إلكرتونيا. الكفاية اللغوية االجتماعية
التطبيق الثاين التفاعل مع احلوار واملناقشة يف الفصل. التعبري عن رأي الطالب باملفاهيم الوادرة يف النص مثل السعادة ،املثل األعلى. احلديث عن أهدافه وكيف يريد أن حيقق النجاح يف جمتمعه.
الكفاية االسرتاتيجية
التطبيق الرابع واخلامس من خالل املشاركة يف املنتدى وغرف احلوار واإلجابة عن األسئلة واألنشطة اإللكرتونية. كتابة موضوع إنشائي.
408
ILCC 2013
اصنع حياتك
ٍ ٍ فقريًة أو َغنِيَّةً ،سعيد ًة أو َش ِقيَّةً ،بامسةً أو ُك ُّل إِنسان يف هذه احلياة ٌ قادر – إىل ح ّد ما – أن َ يصنع حياتَهَُ : ِ ٍ ِ لست نابغَةً ،وال َّ إن ك .ال تَ ُق ْل إِن َ اخلري يف ُمستَقبَل َ َّك َ عاب َسةًَّ .أو ُل َ نصيحة لك :ال تيأس ،وأ ْن تَتَ َوقَّ َع َ ِ مقصورا على النابغني دون غ ِريِه ْم. النجاح ليس وف ِضد َ الظُُّر َ َّكَ ، ً فالعا َملُ ال حيتا ُ إىل النَّواب ِغ وحدهم ،و ُ ٍ ِ للوصول إليه ...أن يكو َن عاملا دائما وخريُ وسيلة للنَّجاح أن يكون للش ّ مثل أعلى عظيمُ ، يضعهُ أمام عينيه ،ويسعى ً َّاب ٌ ِ ظ يف حياتنا َّ احدا شعر بالتَّعب عند وحنن نالح ُ يسري ميالً و ً أن َم ْن َ تاجرا ً ً ماهرا ُ ... عزَم أن َ ناجحا أو صان ًعا ً عظيما أو ً ٍ قطع ميالً وميلَ ِ ني وثالثة من غري تعبَّ . كرب ألن َغَر َ أوس ُع َ ضهُ َ مخس َة أميالَ ، وه َدفَهُ أ ُ الفر ِاغ منه ،ولكن من َعَزَم أ ْن َ يسري َ
بعد. وأ ُ
املال َ ِ اح األكربُ أن جيب أال يكو َن َ جيب أن يطلبَهُ الشَّبَ ُ وحدهُ ،وإَّمنَا الن َ َّج ُ اب ُ املثل األعلى الذي ُ إ ّن هذا َ نفس ِه وتساحمه وعطفه على الضُّع ِ وص ْدقِه وأمانَتِه يف ِ جيمع – إىل ِ جناح ِه يف عملِ ِه -نُبلَه يف خلُِق ِهِ ، فاء ُ ُ ُ ُ ُ ُ َ َ ِ ِ ِ يأكل كثريا من الناس اآلن يقيسو َن َ ومن املؤسف أن نرى ً واملَساكنيَ . جناح الشَّخص مبا كسبَهُ من مال ُ ... ِ ابِ َّ . الشر ِ ِ َّ عز النَّ ْف ِ ب اخلَ ِري ب َّ ب جبانِبِ ِه ُّ ب به أع َذ َ ويشر ُ س ،وتَ ُ سليحها حبُ ّ إن الغ َىن إذا طُل َ به ألَذ الطّعام َ ب إذا ِ العمل للخ ِري .فما قيمةُ ِ املال وال ّذ َه ِ قر الن ِ و ِ َّفس ؟ . َ َ صحبَ ُه َما فَ ُ ِ صاحلةٌ للح ِ ك بنَ ْف ِس َ ِ ِ ث ال ُقرآ ُن َّجاح .ولََق ْد بَ َّ ياة قابِلَةٌ للن ِ ك :ثَِقتُ َ صْن ِع حياتِ َ ك واعت ُ وم ْن َأه ِّم األُموِر يف ُ قاد َك فيها أن ََّها َ َ باألم ِة ،فقالُ ﴿ :كنتم خي ر أ َُّم ٍة أُخ ِرج ِ َّاس تَأْمرو َن بِالْمعر ِ وف َوتَْن َه ْو َن َع ِن الْ ُمن َك ِر ال َكرميُ الثَِّقةَ بالنَّفس واالعتزاز َّ ْ َ ْ َ ُْ ت لل ن ِ ُ ُ ُ ْ ََْ وتُ ْؤِمنُو َن بِاّللِ﴾ إِ َّن ضعف الثَِّق ِة بالنَّفس يقتل طموحها ويقضى على حياهتا .فلتَثِق ِ َّ لتعتز الب ولتحرتمها و َّ بنفس َ َ َ ّ َ ك أيُّها الط ُ
هبا .
ِ لك مثل أعلى تطلُبه ،وتعمل للوص ِ سم للحياةِ، ول إليهَ ، بَ َ وبعد الثَِّق ِة بن ْف ِس َ ُُ ُ ُُ عد أ ْن يكو َن َ ٌ ك واحرتامها اجتهد أن تبتَ َ للحياة خري ٍ ِ ِ َّفس واالبتِ ِ الحتمال املتاعب .فاملثل األعلى والثَِّقةُ بالن ِ داء ِ هي للحياة سام عال وخري للعقل فاالبتسام ٍ ُ ُ ُ ُ ُ َ ِ ذلك اخليو ُ ك ،وكان َ لك وألَُّمتِ َ خريا َ لت كا َن َذل َ ك ،وما أحسنَهُ من نسيج! إن َ تنسج منها حياتَ َ فع َ َّك إ ْن َ جيب أن َ ك ً ط اليت ُ بدون سعادةٍ؟! ما قيمةُ الن ِ ِ املال ِ جناحا عظيما ولو مل تكسب ماالً كثريا .فما قيمةُ ِ قيمةُ الدُّنْيَا إذا َ ً َّجاح بدون ُخلُق؟! وما َ َ َ ً ً من كتاب "فيض اخلاطر ،أمحد أمني /اجلزء السادس ت يف وج ِه َها َدائِ ًما ؟!. َعبَ ْس َ
التطبيق األول :النص مسجل بصوت واضح ،وعلى الطالب اإلعداد املسبق ،وذلك باالستماع إىل القراءة الصوتية أكثر من مرة .حبيث يصبح النص مألوفا لديه .مث يقرأ النص ويسجل صوته ويستمع إىل صوته بنفسه ليتعرف على أخطائه .والبحث يف املعجم اإللكرتوين عن املفردات اجلديدة والغريبه لديه. التطبيق الثاين :وبالطريقة االتصالية يناقش املعلم الطلبة باألفكار الرئيسة الواردة يف النص واملفردات اجلديدة ليتأكد من فهم الطلبة ملا ورد يف النص ،مع الرتكيز أثناء املناقشة على االستماع إىل رأي الطلبة يف كثري من املفاهيم مثل معىن السعادة برأيهم؟ هل السعادة باملال؟ هل املال وسيلة أم هدف يف احلياة ،وغريها من األسئلة اليت َتنح الفرصة للطلبة احلديث عن واقعهم.
التطبيق الثالث :إدخال جمموعة من األسئلة املتنوعة إلكرتونيا حول النص ،أي على املوقع ويفضل أن يرافقها صوت مث تكليف الطلبة باإلجابة عليها. أجب عن األسئلة اآلتية إجابات كاملة: ما أول نصيحة من الكاتب للشَّباب؟ ........................................................................... احدا عند الفراغ منه؟ ملاذا يتعب الذي عزم أن يسري ميال و ً ........................................................................... وض ْح ذلك؟ بَ َّ ث ال ُقرآ ُن ال َكرميُ الثَِّقةَ بالنَّفس واالعتزاز َّ باألم ِةِّ ،
...........................................................................
اقرأ العبارات اآلتية وضع ( ) إذا كانت العبارة صحيحة ،وضع ( ) إذا كانت العبارة خاطئة، مث صحح اخلطأ.
410
ILCC 2013
ال ينجح يف احلياة يف هذا العامل إال النَّوابغ وحدهم( .
)
..................................................................... خري وسيلة للنَّجاح َّ أن يضع الشَّاب َأمام عينيه مثالً أعلى يسعى للوصول إليه(.
)
..................................................................... من عزم َّ أن يسري مخسة أميال يتعب بعد الفراغ من ميل واحد) ( . ..................................................................... جيب َّ َّ أن يطلبه الشَّباب هو املال وحده) ( . إن املثل األعلى الذي ُّ ..................................................................... االبتسام للحياة خريُ دو ٍاء للعقل ،وخريُ عال ٍ الحتمال املتاعب) ( . ..................................................................... ضع ( )أمام اإلجابة الصحيحة: العامل ال حيتا إىل النّوابع وحدهم . النجاح مقصور على النابغني دون غريهم .معىن هذه العِبارة : ميكن لغري النابغني أن ينجحوا يف حياهتم .
ال حيتا العامل إىل النوابغ ألنَّهُ ال يستفيد منهم . ِ َّ ِ ب جبَانِبِه ِعّز النَّفس . جيب أن يُطلَ َ ب ُ إن الغ َىن إذا طُل َ طلب الغىن دون ِعّز النَّفس.يدعو الكاتب يف هذه العِبارة إىل : َّمسك بعِّز النَّفس مع الغىن وطلب املال. الت ّ
عدم طلب املال يف هذه الدُّنيا بل عز النَّفس. أكمل العبارات اآلتية:
َّ إن ضعف الثّ َقة بالنَّفس ............................................................ ال قيمة للمال بدون ............................................................... ال قيمة للدُّنيا إذا ..................................................................
اذكر مرادفا لكل كلمة حتتها خط يف اجلمل اآلتية : كثريا من الشَّباب يعتقدون َّ أن هناك َم ْن ُمنِ ُحوا قدرة على اإلتيان بالعجائب من مشقة. إن ً شعر أمحد بالتَّعب عند الفراغ من التّدريب. كثري من النَّاس اآلن يقيسون جناح الشَّخص مبا كسبه من مال . شجعه عزمه على مواصلة اخلطى يف غري خوف.
امأل الفراغ بكلمة مناسبة مشتقة من مادة ( ض ع ف ): َّ إن ..........الثِّقة بالنَّفس يقتل طموحها .
..........الطُّالب من جهدهم يف االستذكار قرب االمتحان .
هذا الالعب ..........اجلسم ال يصلح اهذه املباراة القويّة .
جيب أن تعطف على ..........واملساكني . ُّ
الروح املعنويّة لدى اجلنود . موت القائد ّ .......... استخرج من النص األفعال املضارعة املنصوبة:
.......................-9 .......................-3 .......................-5
....................... -6 ....................... -2
....................... -2
التطبيق الثالث :يفتح املعلم منتدى خاصا باملوضوع اآليت: "من الوسائل املعينة على النجاح أن يكون لك مثال أعلى ،حتدث عن مثلك األعلى" يكلف مجيع الطلبة باملشاركة واملناقشة يف املنتدى .ودور املعلم متابعة كتابة الطلبة والتعليق عليها ومناقشة ما حيتا إىل مناقشة وتصحيح األخطاء اإلمالئية والنحوية واللغوية كلما لزم األمر ،أو تكليف الطلبة بالتصويب ألنفسهم.
412
ILCC 2013
التطبيق الرابع :يرفق املعلم الصورة اآلتية يف املنتدى ،ويكلف الطلبة بالتعليق عليها ،وكتابة رأيهم يف الصورة ،ويكون دوره املرشد واملوجه لكتابات الطلبة بإضافة بعض املداخالت وتصويب األخطاء اللغوية.
التطبيق اخلامس :يكلف الطلبة بكتابة موضوع إنشائي ال يتجاوز عن 600كلمة ،حتت العنوان اآليت: "قصة جناح" وتسليمه إلكرتونيا يف صفحة الواجبات مع حتديد زمن وتاريخ التسلي اخلامتة والتوصيات إن التعليم اإللكرتوين عبارة عن منظومة متكاملة اها مدخالت وخمرجات ،وجيب أن ُيطط له بشكل جيد ويصمم تصميا جيدا من أجل أن حيقق الغاية منه وهو تعلم أكثر فعالية وأكثر كفاءة .واللغة العربية أحو العلوم لدخول تلك املنظومة وبذل اجلهود الكبرية يف اجملال التكنولوجي من أجل أن حتقق برامج تعليم اللغة فعالية عالية يف تعليمها لغري الناطقني هبا ،ومن أجل حتقيق كفاية اتصالية عند االتصال مع أبناء اللغة العربية .ويوصي البحث القائمني على برامج تعليم اللغة العربية لغري الناطقني هبا االهتمام بإعداد سلسلة متكاملة من الدروس اإللكرتونية وفق املعايري العاملية. املصادر واملراجع
براون ،دوجالس .مبادئ تعلِّّيم اللُّغة العربيَّة.ترمجه إبراهيم العقيد وعيد بن عبدهللا الشمري .الرياض :مكتب الرتبيَّة العريب لدول
اخلليج9112( . .م).
حسن ،حممد أمحد عبده .مقالة بعنوان :االحتياجات التكنولوجية ملعلمي اللغة العربية للناطقني بغريها .املركز العلمي
لألحباث واالستشارات الرتبوية/69 .فرباير (6093م)./http://azhar-ali.com/go .
احليلة ،حممد حممود .تكنولوجيا التعليم بني النظرية والتطبيق .ط ،8األردن :دار املسرية6099( .م). خان ،ترمجة املوسوي وآخرون .اسرتاتيجيات التعلم اإللكرتوين .سوريا :شعاع للنشر والعلوم5 600( .م). سامل ،أمحد .تكنولوجيا التعليم والتعلم اإللكرتوين .الرياض :مكتبة الرشد6002( .م). صادق ،عالء حممود .إعداد برامج الكمبيوتر لألغراض التعليمية .ط ،9القاهرة :دار الكتب العلمية للنشر والتوزيع،
(9111م).
عبد احلليم ،رجاء .مقالة إلكرتونية بعنوان :أسس ومعايري تصميم وحدة دراسية إلكرتونية .يونيو (6096م).
./http://ragaayaly.wordpress.com
طعيمة ،رشدي أمحد .املهارات اللُّغوية مستوياهتا ،تدريسها ،صعوبتها) .ط .(1.القاهرة :دار الفكر
العريب2004( .م(.
عوض ،أمحد عبده .مداخل تعليم اللغة العربية دراسة مسحية نقدية. غامن ،سناء .مواكبة العلماء للغة املعلومات والتقنية ،مكة :منشورات أم القرى. طعيمة ،رشدي أمحد ،وآخرون .اجلودة الشاملة يف التعليم بني مؤشرات التميز ومعايري اإلعتماد .ط .6األردن :دار املسرية للنشر والتَّوزيع6008( ،م). حممد ،عوض حممد .املعايري القياسية وضوابط اجلودة إلنتا برجميات التعليم االلكرتوين للمسامهة يف بناء جمتمع املعرفة. مقدمة للمؤَتر الدويل الثالث للتعليم االلكرتوين .متاحة على االنرتنت -9يوليو6093- . http://www.mohyssin.com/forum/showthread.php?t=8036
414
ILCC 2013
املوسى ،عبدهللا بن عبدالعزيز .التعلم اإللكرتوين :مفهومة ،خصائصه ،فوائده ،عوائقه ،ندوة مدرسة املستقبل-66 .
63أكتوبر ،جامعة امللك سعود ،الرياض ،متاح على االنرتنت.www.Ksu.edu.sa/seminare/future : ( 6009( ،)6002/6/92م). نبيل ،علي .العرب وعصر املعلومات ،الكويت :سلسلة املعرفة ،إصدار اجمللس الوط ي للثقافة والفنون واآلداب، عدد ،982إبريل (9112م). ااهرش ،عايد محدان ،وآخرون .تصميم الربجميات التعليمية وإنتاجها وتطبيقاهتا الرتبوية .ط .9األردن :دار املسرية
للنشر والتوزيع6096( .م).
تأرجح اللغة العربية االتصالية بني التأصيل واالستئصال احلاجة امللحة إيل الكفاءةِّ الذاتية د.حممد يوسف
[email protected]
[email protected]
بسم هللا الرمحن الرحيم وبه نستعني ملخص البحث جترى اللغة العربية يف اللغة املاليزية 1جمرى الدم يف العروق وال يكاد يفتح الطفل املاليزي عينيه إال ويرى الناس حوله يستخدمون الكلمات العربية الفصحى حىت إذا بلغ سن النطق و الكالم يردد معهم تلك الكلمات والعبارات العربية اإلسالمية بشكل منتظم ،وال يكاد تفارقه حىت اللحظة األخرية من حياته ،و كأن اللغة العربية تالزمه من املهد إىل اللحد .وعلى الرغم من الثروة اللغوية العربية املتوفرة يف اللغة املاليزية ،مازال هناك من يعتقد أن اللغة العربية يصعب تعلمها للماليزيني ،وال نكاد نلتفت أو نتطلع إىل استغالل تلك الطاقة ااهائلة إلنعاش اللغة العربية املاليزية مث االنطالق هبا إىل مرحلة النضو اللغوي العريب املنشود .وبدال من تكثيف اجلهود يف كيفية قراءة النصوص العربية قراءة سليمة نرى بعض الكتب املقررة ملادة اللغة العربية االتصالية يف بعض اجلامعات املاليزية تتضمن النقحرة ) 1 (Transliterationاألمر الذي دفع الباحث إىل دراسة أثر النقل الكتايب يف قراءة النصوص العربية .اشرتك يف هذا البحث 990طالبا مسجلني يف مادة اللغة العربية االتصالية يف جامعة مارا للتكنولوجيا .وقد توصل الباحث من خالل نتائج هذه الدراسة إىل أن كتابة النقحرة حتت النصوص العربية أو جبانبها تضر باللغة العربية االتصالية و تكون ذلك مبثابة َتكني سرطان اجلهل يف عقلية املتعلمني املاليزيني.
416
ILCC 2013
توطئة
أوال :اللغة العربية املاليزية إن األغلبية الساحقة من الشعب املاليزي بكل طوائفهم وأدياوهم يستعملون الكلمات العربية واالصطالحات االسالمية يف حركاهتم اليومية ،ويتم ذلك بال شعور بل وبال دراية أوهم يستخدمون الكلمات العربية األصلية الشيقة كقواهم :نكاح ،رزق ،حالل ،نفس ،تكافل ،دفرت ،سجل ،ديوان، حمكمة ،مجعة ،سبت ،أحد ،اثنني ،مخيس ،ثالثاء ،أستاذ ،أستاذة ،عسكر ،مسجد ،مصلى ،قاموس، مشاركة ،قوم ،مسألة ،مشكلة ،واجب ،جريان ،مشاورة ،اعتبار ،اعرتاف ،انتفاضةَ ،تت ،ممكن ،مستحيل، صفات ،تدبري .1وعلى الرغم من أن كافة الشعب املاليزي يردد هذه الكلمات السابقة وغريها بشكل يومي ،مازال البعض يعتقد بأن اللغة العربية يصعب تعلمها للماليزيني ،األمر الذي دعا بعض املؤلفني إىل وضع ما يقال عنه اآلن بكتب مادة اللغة العربية االتصالية -بشكلها احلاضر -يف املراحل اجلامعية املاليزية. و من األساليب املتبعة يف إعداد تلك الكتب أوهم كتبوا النصوص العربية فيها حبروف التينية تسهيال لقراءة العبارات العربية .1ومما زاد الطني بلة أن أكثر أواخر الكلمات العربية يف تلك الكتب خالية من التشكيل النحوي خوفاً من اللبس على طلبة مادة اللغة العربية االتصالية وعلى سبيل املثال ال احلصر )9 " :أَنْت ِ ِ صف اجلَ ِام َعة. يدة ، (3 ،بَ َع َد ِح َّ أخرِ (2 ،م ْن َع ِم َ متَ ّ العَربِيَّة ،يَ ْذ َهب َهاشم َمع َهْي َكل إِ َىل َم ْق َ صة الُّغَة َ ي ْشرتي ه ِ ف ويَ ْش َِرتى َهْي َكل َّ اسة وال ُق ْرص َوِِف اْمل َساء الر الدبَّ اشم األ ََد َوات ال ِّد َر ِاسيَّةِ :مثْل قَلَم َّ صاص وامللَ ّ َ َ َ َ َ َ ي رِجع ه ِ اشم َوَهْي َكل إِ َىل بَْيت الطَّلَبَة". َْ َ هكذا يتم نشر اجلهل بني طلبة العلم ،وهكذا ندمر أنفسنا بأنفسنا بل خنرب بيوتنا بأيدينا .ما املانع أو املشكلة يف مراعاة األحكام النحوية يف أواخر الكلمات ؟ وملاذا ال نعطى كل كلمة ماتستحقها ؟ وملاذا نتسابق إىل اجلهالة ؟ وملاذا ننشر اجلهل نستكثره يف بيئة خصبة للغة العربية ؟ جمتمع اليكاد جيد صعوبة يف فهم قولنا " ال شكر على الواجب " ألنه يستعمل كلميت " :الشكر " و " الواجب " يف معامالته اليومية بل أرى أن كل ما حنتا إليه عند حتويل تلك الكلمتني إىل مجلة مفيدة هو إضافة حرفني جديدين ،مها" :
ال " و " على " مث نضعها يف مكان مناسب مع توضيح طفيف ،فنطالب طالباً ماليزياً بتكوين عبارات متشاهبة .وكذالك حااهم يف فهم قولنا" :أنا يف جملس النكاح يف ديوان الدولة ويف دائرة ترنغانو -ماليزيا" ألن كلمة "اجمللس والنكاح والديوان والدولة والدائرة " متوفرة يف اللغة املاليزية ومستعملة يوميا .أجل لقد تسلل هذا الضعف إىل قلوب بعض حاملي اللغة العربية فشككوا يف قدرهتا على االنطالق من جديد .و قد بلغ بنا التساهل إىل درجة أننا ال نلقي باالً لبعض الصور الالسالمية املنتشرة يف تلك الكتب ،صور الَتثل اإلسالم مطلقاً وكأن اللغة العربية ال ترتبط باالسالم وشرائعه ناسني أو متناسني أن اللغة العربية قد شرفها هللا باالسالم وبرتكه أهينت .و بعبارة أخرى ،قد تقلص انتشار اللغة العربية عامليا بسبب البعد عن االسالم. ثانيا :النقل الكتايب سرطان يف عقلية الطالب التعليمة كنت حماضرا ملادة اللغة العربية االتصالية يف جامعة مارا للتكنولوجيا UiTMوحبسب النظام التعليمي املتبع هناك أنه توزع الكتب املقررة للطلبة املسجلني للغة العربية االتصالية مبراحلها املختلفة ،ومن حسن حظي أن الكتب املقررة تأخر توزيعها على الطلبة ،وقد شرعت يف تدريس املادة االتصالية لفصول خمتلفة باختالف مراحلها وملدة أسبوعني كاملني كاتباً النصوص العربية على السبورة مث ينقلها الطلبة البالغ عددهم 990طالبا إىل دفاترهم وذلك بعد قراءة متأنية حيث استطاع الطلبة بسهولة إتقان قراءة النصوص العربية اخلالصة واجملردة من املناقلة الالتينية .وِف األسبوع الثالث من الفصل الدراسي األول ََ ،6099-6090تَّ توزيع الكتب املقررة على الطلبة ،ومن عاديت يف الفصل مراجعة الدروس السابقة قبل اخلوض يف دراسة جديدة ،فآنذاك اكتشفت أن أكثر الطالب من خمتلف املراحل وِف األسبوع الثالث حتديدا يقرءون النصوص العربية اليت َتت دراستها يف الكتب املوزعة عليهم وِف الوقت نفسه يراجعون معاين الكلمات ومالحظاهتم املدونة من الكراسة ،فاستغربت متسائال ملاذا يقرءون يف الكتب املقررة ويبحثون عن معاين الكلمات يف الدفرت؟ وملاذا مل يعتمدوا كلياً على الكراسة؟ وملاذا مل حيدث مثل هذه اخللل يف األسبوعني املاضيني؟ فسرعان ما أدركت أن الطلبة يريدون قراءة النصوص العربية بواسطة النقحرة .وبعد هذه املالحظة، أمرت مجيع الطالب بإغالق الكتب املقررة واالعتماد كلياً على دفاترهم حىت ننتهي من املراجعة وأعلمتهم بأن احلروف الالتينية املعضدة لقراءة النصوص العربية غري مناسبة اهم وملن له مدرس أو ينتسب إىل فصل
418
ILCC 2013
صحفي أو "م دراسي عريب مثلهم ،وإمنا وضعت النقحرة حتت النصوص العربية يف تلك الكتب تلبية لرغبة ُ ٍّ في" فكانت قراءة الطلبة بعد هذا التنبيه على أحسن وجه. ص ْح ًّ َ
الدراسات السابقة من املستحسن للمدرس الناجح أن يبادر بتقييم معارف تالميذه السابقة ومهاراهتم العلمية ،ويقوم ببعض التعديالت امللحة ،ويف الوقت نفسه يقدم اهم التشجيع واملساندة حىت ال يقهرون أمام حتديات التعلم .وقد أثبتت دراسات كثرية ارتباطا وثيقا بني ثقة الطالب بكفاءهتم الذاتية للتعلم و اجنازاهتم األكادميية ،كلما اتزنت الكفاءة الذاتية للتعلم كلما زادت معارف الطالب ومهاراهتم التعليمية ،وكلما أخرب األستاذ طالبه أوهم قادرون على أداء متطلبات الدراسة أو قراءة نصوص معينة كلما بذلوا قصارى جهدهم ألدائها (حممد يوسف :6090حيي حسن علي مراد :6006حممد زباد محدانيز.)9185 وأكد غوتفريد ( )9110أن هناك ارتباطا معتدال بني الدوافع الذاتية لألطفال الصغار واعتقادهم بكفاءهتم الذاتية يف القراءة والرياضيات .درس كل من باجاراس وجونسون ( )9112تأثري االعتقاد بالكفاءة الذاتية و فهم الذات على إجادة كتابة املقال يف املرحلة الثانوية .وأثبتت النتائج تأثريا مباشرا للكفاءة الذاتية ،وكلما اعتقد الطالب أوهم قادرون على إعداد مقال ممتاز كلما سعوا لنيل ذلك .و ذكر حممد يوسف يف حبثه ( )6090:6099أن التشجيع على الكفاءة الذاتية من قبل احملاضرين يف اجلامعات اها أثر ملحوظ يف تفوق الطالب اجلامعية .باإلضافة إىل ما سبق سرده ،أثبتت نتائج حبث ميلس وآخرون ) (2004عن اجلهد املبذول من قبل الطالب إلتقان قراءة اجلمل ،أن الشباب قادرون على استثمار اجلهود يف تعلم املواضع اليت مل يتقنوها مسبقا ،وأنه لديهم القدرة على ختصيص الوقت الكايف إلتقان مهام أكثر صعوبة. ويف دراسة أخرى أجريت على الطالب املتفوقني ،وجد أن الفتيات أكثر من الذكور استخداما السرتاتيجيات منظمات التعلم وخاصة عند معاملتهن مع الواجبات املنزلية اليت تنطوي على مهام القراءة والكتابة (أبالد ولبشولتز .)9118وأيضا ،أظهرت دراسة أجراها شا باريال ) (1999أن اخنفاض اإلجناز األكادميي يف اللغة اإلجنليزية له عالقة باسرتاتيجيات تعلم غري مناسبة ،وعدم اختاذ موقف إجيايب للتعلم،
والدافع التعليمي لدى بعض طالب جامعة الوطنية املاليزية .وأشارت نتائج دراسة أخري أجريت يف 65 مدرسة ماليزية غري آمنة أو ذات مشكالت تعليمية ،أن طالهبا يعانون من اخنفاض الكفاءة الذاتية يف تعلم الرياضيات واللغة اإلجنليزية (حبيبة وآخرون .)6001ويف دراسة أخرى ,كانت الكفاءة الذاتية ،واجلهد املبذول للتعلم ،والقلق ترتبط بشكل كبري مع أداء الرياضيات اجلامعية (عائد السرية و وان زها .)6001و ذكر نغ ين يل وآخرون ( )6005أن مستويات دمج تكنولوجيا املعلومات ،والتفاعل بني الطالب واملعلم، واملعتقدات التحفيزية ،واملعرفة املنظمة الذاتية تساعد كثريا من الطالب علي التعلم يف أربعة من املدارس املتفوقة املاليزية .وباملثل ،وجدت وونغ ( )6005وجود عالقة ذات داللة إحصائية بني اسرتاتيجيات تعلم اللغة والكفاءة الذاتية اللغوية .وكلما ثبتت الكفاءة الذاتية اللغوية للمعلمني املشاركني يف اخلدمة التدريبية التعليمية كلما يتم حتديد عدد من اسرتاتيجيات تعلم اللغة األنسب .أرادت رحيل ) (2006وغريها من الباحثني التحقق يف ما إذا كانت اللغة اإلجنليزية لغة األداء لطالب َثانية من املدارس الثانوية يف منطقة بيتالينغ -سيالنغور .وأظهرت الغالبية من الطالب ( )٪ 59فعالية عالية للكفاءة الذاتية اللغوية ،و أظهرت ٪ 28فعالية منخفضة .وأيضا هناك فروق ذات داللة إحصائية بني اجملموعات العرقية ،وكانت الكفاءة الذاتية األكادميية للهنود أعلى مقارنة إيل املاليويني والصينيني .ومع ذلك ،انتهي الباحثون إىل قواهم بأن التحصيل األكادميي يف اللغة االجنليزية تتحسن بتحسني وزيادة الكفاءة الذاتية اللغوية للطالب.
منهج البحث وبعد التثبت من ميل الطلبة إىل القراءة يف الكتب املقررة بدال من الكراسة سأل الباحث بعض الطالب عن أسباب ذلك فكان جواهبم باللغة املاليزية هو " " Saba troisliterasiأي أن الرتميز احلريف متوفر حتت ٍ وحينئذ أخذ الباحث يشجع الطالب باالعتماد النصوص العربية فيفضلون االعتماد عليها خوفا من اخلطأ. على النصوص العربية املكتوبة ِف كراستهم ِف األسبوعني املاضيني وأوهم قادرون على قراءهتا من غري النظر إىل النقل احلريف يف مقرراهتم ألنه يؤثر سلبا على إتقان قراءة اللغة العربية ،وبعد هذا ،طالبت كل طالب وطالبة بقراءة جزء معني من النصوص اليت سبقت دراستها كما أمرهتم بالقراءة يف الدفرت فقط ،وقبلوا هذا األمر برحابة صدورهم ،بل أقدموا على القراءة فردا بعد فرد ويف وقت حمدد .قضى كل طالب ما بني ثالثة أو مخسة دقائق إلَتام قراءة النصوص املختارة للمراجعة علما أنه مل تكن اهم معرفة مبا سرياجعووها من
420
ILCC 2013
النصوص املدروسة .واستمع الباحث إىل قرائتهم من غري التدخل ،بل اكتفى برصد أخطائهم فقط .استغرق إجراء هذا البحث أسبوعني :األسبوع الثالث والرابع من الفصل الدراسي األول 6099-6090وذالك يف جامعة مارا للتكنولوجيا .UiTM اشرتك يف هذا البحث مجبع طاليب البالغ عددهم 990طالبا والذين يدرسون مادة اللغة العربية االتصالية مبراحلها الثالثة :املرحلة األوىل والثانية والثالثة .يتبني من اجلدول رقم ( )9عدد الطالب املشاركني من كل مرحلة من مراحل مادة اللغة العربية االتصالية ،وكما نرى من اجلدول رقم ( )6أن أغلبية الطالب املشاركني يف هذا البحث ( )909خترجوا من املدارس احلكومية .هذا وجييب هذا البحث السؤال اآليت :ما هو أثر النقل الكتايب على إتقان قراءة النصوص اللغة العربية لدى الطلبة؟ جدول رقم ( )1توزيع عدد املشاركني املرحلة االوىل
املرحلةالثانية
املرحلةالثالثة
20
30
20
اجلدول : 9يوضح توزيع عدد املشاركني مبختلف مراحلهم اجملموع الكلي= 990 جدول رقم ( )2نوع املدرسة املرحلة األوىل
املرحلة الثانية
املدرسة
املدرسة
املدرسة الدينية املدرسة
الدينية
احلكومية
0
20
املرحلة الثالثة املدرسة الدينية املدرسة
احلكومية 1
63
احلكومية 6
38
جمموعة خرجيي املدرسة الدينية=1
جمموعة خرجيي املدرسة احلكومية=909
اجلدول : 6يوضح نوع املدرسة اليت ختر منها الطالب اجملموع الكلي= 990
نتيجة البحث أبدى الطالب املشاركون عزمهم يف التغلب على اخلوف من اخلطا يف قراءة النصوص العربية بدون املناقلة. أصبح لدى الطلبة الرغبة يف مراجعة النصوص العربية اليت درسوها من الكراسة. استطاع أغلبية الطالب أن يقرءوا النصوص العربية كما ينبغي ،راجع جدول رقم (.)3 كانت أخطاء املشاركني حمدودة ونامجة عن قلة الوقت املخصص لتدريس خمار احلروف املتشاهبة (ح،خ، ه ،أ ،ث) يف الفصل دراسة متانية. استطاعوا أن يشكلوا أواخر الكلمات العربية كما ينبغي بل وكما شكلها وقرأها اهم الباحث ألول مرة. أدرك مجيع الطالب أن وجود الرتميز احلريف يف الكتب املقررة ملادة اللغة العربية االتصالية توريث للجهل بني طلبة العلم. قراءة النصوص العربية سهل للغاية وكل ما حيتا إليه الطلبة هو أستاذ خملص متقن للقراءة وال يتعب بسرعة. اللغة املاليزية قريبة إىل اللغة العربية يف بعض كلماهتا وعباراهتا. أسلوب كتابة اللغة املاليزية حبروف جاوية ) (jawiقريب جدا إىل أسلوب كتابة اللغة العربية. مشاعر الطالب السلبية جتاه اللغة العربية ميكن تعديلها إذا قام رواد لغة القرآن خبدمتها على أحسن وجه رغم احلمالت العدوانية الداخلية واخلارجية. .99مل يكن إتقان قراءة النصوص العربية املختارة نتيجة انتساب الطالب إىل املدارس الدينية االسالمية أو خترجهم
منها 1بل كان ذالك نتيجة لقراءة متأنية ،وجهود مركزة ،وتشجيع موجه. .96أما يف األسبوع اخلامس فصاعدا ،حدثت الطامة األكادميية الكربى ألن األغلبية الساحقة من الطلبة اعتمدوا
422
ILCC 2013
على النقحرة يف قراءة النصوص العربية ،وما استطاعوا قراءهتا جمردة .هكذا ماتت قدرة الطلبة علي قراءة النصوص العربية بتوزيع الكتب املقررة املوشحة بالنقحرة وباتت مجيع حماواليت بالفشل ذلك أن ي قرأت اهم النصوص العربية اجلديدة من الكتب املقررة النقحرية ال من السبورة ،1ومل يولوا لقراءيت اهتماما فائقا كاهتمامهم يف األسبوع األول والثاين العتقادهم أن النقحرة ستساعدهم علي قراءة النصوص العربية ناسني أن قدرهتم على قراءة النصوص العربية ستنعدم بانعدام النقحرة الالتينية وإزالتها. جدول رقم ( )3قراءة سليمة من األخطاء النحوية املرحلة االوىل
املرحلةالثانية
املرحلةالثالثة
31
30
35
اجلدول : 3يوضح لتا عدد الطالب الذين قرؤا النصوصة االختبارية قراءة سليمة من األخطاء النحوية اجملموع الكلي= 906
خالصة البحث واملقرتحات ن درك م ن خ الل ه ذا البح ث أن االس تعانة بالنق ل الكت ايب الالتي ي لق راءة النص وص العربي ة غ ري مناس بة لط الب م ادة اللغ ة العربي ة االتص الية املاليزي ة ،وإمن ا يك ون ذل ك استئص اال جل ذور اللغ ة العربي ة .وأن ه الحج ة لطال ب م اليزي يف ع دم إتق ان ق راءة اللغ ة العربي ة ق راءة س ليمة مل ا ل ه م ن ف رص مل تت وفر لغ ريه يف أفريقي ا كيَ ْوُربَاويني 1يف جنوب نيجريي ا وخاص ة أن كتاب ة اللغ ة املاليزي ة ب احلروف اجلاوي ة ( jawiس المة ه اري راي عيد الفطر) أقرب بكثري إىل كتابة النصوص العربية .ولذا ،جيب علينا االبتعاد عن مقررات الدراسية املوش حة بالنقحرة ،إذا كنا حقا خملصني لعربينتا هذه .وختاما يوصي الباحث ب بعض اخلط وات الض رورية إلنع اش اللغ ة
العربية يف ماليزيا ،وهي )9 :تعديل مشاعر الطالب السلبية جتاه اللغة العربية )6 .التغلب على اخلوف من اخلطا يف قراءة النصوص العربية بدون املناقلة )3 .ختصيص وق ت ك اف لت دريس خم ار احل روف يف الفص ل. )2تكثيف اجلهود يف كيفي ة ق راءة النص وص العربي ة ق راءة س ليمة )5 .من ع املق ررات املوش حة ب النقحرة)2 . مج ع الكلم ات والعب ارات العربي ة اإلس المية يف اللغ ة املاليزي ة وإنعاش ها )1 .اس تغالل اللغ ة العربي ة املاليزي ة لتطوير اللغة العربية الفصحى يف ماليزيا )8 .تكوين اجلمل العربية الصحيحة من الكلمات والعبارات العربية املاليزي ة كم ا أش ار الباح ث س ابقا" :ال ش كر عل ى الواج ب " و "أن ا يف جمل س النك اح يف دي وان الدول ة ويف دائرة ترنغانو -ماليزي ا" )1 .اإلرادة السياس ية املاليزي ة العربي ة القوي ة )90 .تط وير مس توى املعلم ني واملدرس ني والعاملني يف جمال اللغة العربية تطويرا مناسبا لتلبية مجيع التوصيات هذه الدراسة. املراجع العربية أمحد تالل حسن واخرون .6090 .الرائد يف العربية االتصالية -الكتاب األساسي كوالملبورPusat . : Penerbitan University (UPENA) UITM الشيخ مصطفى زغلول السنوسي .9181.أزهار الربا يف أخبار بالد يوربا .الطبعة األوىل .بريوت:شركة تكنو برس احلديثة حممد زباد محدانيز .9185.التنفيذ العلمي للتدريس مبفاهيم تقنية تربوية حديثة .األردن-عمان :دار الرتبية احلديثة. حيي حسن علي مراد . 6006 .آداب العامل واملتعلم.الطبعة األوىل .بريوت-لبنان :دار الكتب العلمية.
املراجع األجنبية Aid Asuraya Md & Wan Zah Wan Ali. (2009). Metacognition and Motivation in Mathematical Problem Solving. 2009. The International Journal of Learning، 15 (3): 121-132. http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.1699.
ILCC 2013
424
Ablard، K. E. & Lipschultz, R. E. 1998. Self-Regulated Learning in High-Achieving Students: Relations to Advanced Reasoning، Achievement Goals، and Gender. Journal of Educational Psychology 90 (1): 94-101. Bandura، A. 1982. Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist 37: 122-147. Bandura، A. 1986. Fearful Expectations and Avoidant Actions as Coeffects of Perceived SelfInefficacy. American Psychology 41 (12): 1389-1391. Gottfried، A. E. 1990. Academic intrinsic motivation in young elementary school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82: 525-538. Habibah Elias; Rahil Mahyuddin; Nooreen Noordin; Maria Chong Abdullah. (2009). Self-Efficacy Beliefs of At-Risk Students in Malaysian Secondary Schools. The International Journal of Learning 16 (4): 201-210: http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.2149. (30 November 2009). Miles، J. R.، Elizabeth، A. L. & Stine-Morrow. 2004 .Adult Age Differences in Self-Regulated Learning from Reading Sentences. Psychology And Aging. 19 (4): 626-636.
Muhammed Yusuf. 2010. Self-Efficacy, Achievement Motivation, and Self-Regulated Learning Strategies of Undergraduate Students and their Impact on Academic Achievement. Selangor: UKMEDU. Muhammed Yusuf. 2010. Psychometric Analysis of Self-Efficacy Encouragement (ENGLISH VERSION) Science Direct and Scopus, ALSO, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences. Muhammed Yusuf. 2011. Investigating relationship between self-efficacy، achievement motivation، and self- regulated learning strategies of undergraduate Students: a study of integrated motivational models. Science Direct and Scopus, ALSO, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences( publication in progress). Ng Lee Yen.، Kamariah Abu Bakar.، Samsilah Roslan،. Su Luan،. Petri Zabariah Megat Abd Rahman. 2005. Predictors of self-regulated learning in Malaysian smart schools International Education Journal 6 (3): 343-353. Shannon Research Press. http://iej.cjb.net 343. Pajares، F. & Johnson، M. J. 1996. Self-efficacy beliefs in the writing of high school students: A path analysis. Psychology in the Schools 33 :163-175.
Rahil mahyuddin; habibah elias; loh sau cheong; muhd fauzi muhamad; nooreen noordin; maria chong abdullah. 2006. The relationship between students' self efficacy and their english language achievement. Jurnal pendidik dan pendidikan, jil. 21: 61–71. Simpson، S. M; Licht, B. G; Wagne, R. K. & Stader, S. R. 1996. Organization of children's academic ability-related self-perceptions. Journal of Educational Psychology، 88: 387-396. shah Parilah Mohd. 1999. Perceptions of Malaysian ESL low achievers about English language learning. The University of Connecticut, (online) http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb? 210 pages; AAT 992629. (Oct 1999). translate.google.com Wong Mary Siew-Lin. 2005. Language Learning Strategies and Language Self-Efficacy: Investigating the Relationship in Malaysia. A Journal of Language Teaching and Research 36 (3): 245-269.
اللغة العربية املاليزية )3( ملحق رقم األصل
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
األصل
عمرة
Umrah
91
هللا
حج
Haji
69
النيب حممد
موسم
Musim
26
نيب
زيارة
Ziarah
23
مالئكة
هتليل
Tahlil
24
ُشكْر
Syukur
فقه
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم Allah
1
Nabi muhammed
2
Nabi
3
Malaikat
4
جن
Jin
5
65
قرآن
Quran
6
Fiqah
26
كتاب
Kitab
7
واجب
Wajib
27
آية
Ayat-ayat
8
ضرورة
Darurat
28
صالة
solat
9
سنه
Sunat
29
صالة احلاجة
Solat hajat 10
Hadis riwayat
30
قيام الليل
الرواية-احلديث
Qiamullail
11
ILCC 2013
426
12
naza
أذان
31
Sahih
صحيح
13
iqamah
إقامة
32
Halal
حالل
14
Imam
إمام
33
haram
حرام
15
Kiblat
قبلة
34
Rezeki
رزق
16
Sujud
سجود
35
Rezeki halal
17
Rukuk
ركوع
36
Ustaz
أستاذ
18
Tarawih
تراويح
37
Ustazah
أستاذة
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
األصل
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
الرزق احلالل
األصل اإلجياب والقبول
38
Tazkirah
تذكرة
57
Ijab kabul
39
doa
دعاء
58
Nikah
نكاح
40
Masalah
مسألة
59
Air + mani
م ي
41
Syukur
مشكلة
60
Rahim
رحم
42
Usrah
أسرى
61
Hamil
حامل
43
Aurat
عورة
62
Darah + haid
حيض
44
salam
سالم (مبعىن سلم)
63
Darah + nifas
نفاس
45
maaf
َم ْعف من العفو
54
Aqiqah
عقيقة
46
Zahir
ظاهر
65
Anak+soleh
صاحل
Batin 47
باطن
66
Solehah
صاحلة
48
Adab
أدب
67
Ummi
أمي
49
Aidilfitri
عيد الفطر
68
Abi
أىب
50
Mustahil
مستحيل
69
Dakwah
دعوة
51
Makmal
معمل
70
Maksiat
معصية
52
Masjid jamek
53
Musolah
مصلى
54
Shurah
شورى
73
55
akhlak
أخالق
74
Syahadah
56
Jiran
جريان
75
Nafas
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
مسجد جامع
71
Umur
عمر
72
Sebab
سبب
Takdir
تقدير شهادة نفس
األصل
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
األصل
76
mati
من مات
97
Wilayah
والية
77
Arwah
األرواح
98
Daulat
دولة
78
Kiamat
قيامة
99
Siasah
سياسة
79
Jenazah
جنازة
100
Tadbir
تدبري
80
Kubur
قبور
101
Rakyat
رعاية
81
Dunia
دنيا
102
Adil
82
Saat
ساعة
103
Hormat
حرمة
83
Syaitan
شيطان
104
Dewan
ديوان
84
Iblis
إبليس
105
Sijil
سجل
نصيحة
106
Daftar
دفرت
عمل
107
Mahkamah
حمكمة
العمل +اجلارية
108
Hukuman
كما ُح ً
109
Hikmah
حكمة
Yakin
يقني
Dakwah
دعوى
Nasihat 85 86
Amal
87
Amal jariah
88
Redha
رضى
89
Ikhlas
إخالص
110
90
Hakikat
حقيقة
111
عدل/عادل
ILCC 2013 خدمة
428
Khidmat
112
إسالم
Islam
91
Per+khid matan
113
أصلي
Asli
92
Khidmat masyarakat
114
رمسي
Rasmi
93
مشاركة
Masyarakat
115
سلطان
Sultan
94
مشاورة
Musyawarah/mesyu
116
حاكم
Hakim
95
117
معتمد
Muktamad
96
خدمة ااهجرة
hijrah خدمة املشاركة
arat جملس
األصل
Majlis
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
األصل
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
مفلس
Muflis
142
معاملة
Muamalat
118
قربان
Qurban
143
اعرتاف
Iktiraf
119
عوام
Awam
144
موافقة
muafakat
120
عموم
Umum
145
إذن
Izin
121
خاص
Khas
146
وكيل
Wakil
122
يقني
Yakin
147
وثيقة
Watikah
123
بدن
Badan
148
اقرار
Ikrar
124
وجه
wajah
149
حق
Hak
125
عني
Ain
150
امللك واحلق
Hak milik
126
علم
Ilmu
151
عاقبة
Akibat
127
معلومة
Maklumat
152
عامل البناء
Alam – bina
128
فلسفة
Falsafah
153
بناء
bina
129
فكر
Fikir
154
عالمة
مجود
Jumud
155
صحة
Alamat 130 Sihat
131
دليل
Dalil
156
قوة
Kuat
132
رجوع
Rujuk
157
صح
Sah
134
كلية
Kuliah
158
تكافل
Takaful
135
جدول
Jadual
159
زكاة
Zakat
136
pensyarah
160
بيت الزكاة
Bait Azakat
137
بيان
Bayan
161
بيت املال
Baitulmal
138
فهم
faham
162
يتيم
Yatim
139
مقصود
Maksud
163
فقري
Fakir
140
اصطالح
Istilah
164
مسكني
Miskin
141
+ شرحpen
األصل
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
األصل
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
أمانة
Amanah
183
معىن
Makna
165
س ٌ َْحن
Nahas
184
قاموس
Kamus
166
عدوان
Aduan
185
رموز
Rumus
167
فتنة
Fitnah
186
خرب
Khabar
168
شركة
Syarikat
187
صفة
Sifat
169
ركن
Rukun
188
مجلة
Jumlah
170
أساس
Asas
189
ضرب
Dorib
171
هدية
Hadiah
190
حاصل
Hasil
172
اعتبار
Iktibar
191
القاعدةRules
Kaedah
173
تعبري
Tabir
192
السؤال و اجلواب
Soal jawab
174
هتنئة
Tahniah
193
سؤال
حتية
Tahiyat
194
جواب
مرتبة
Martabat
195
جملة
Soal 175 jawab
176
Majalah
177
430
ILCC 2013
178
Ijazah
اجازة
196
Syura
شهرة
179
Makmur
معمورة
197
Mashur
مشهور
180
Nikmat
نعمة
198
Isytiharah
اشتهارة
181
Selamat
سالمة
199
Istiadat
استعادة
182
Aman
أمان
200
Ahli ahli
أهل (تكرر)
اللغة العربية املاليزية
رقم
األصل
201
Nasib
نصيب
202
Laju
َجلُو (بل جلوا يف عتو ونفور)
203
Isnin
اإلثنني
204
Selasa
الثلثاء
205
Rabu
من األربعاء
206
khamis
اخلميس
207
Jumaat
اجلمعة
208
Sabtu
السبت
209
Ahad
األحد
Solat sunat istiskah 210 211
Akidah Ummah
صالة السنة االستسقائية عقيدة األمة االسالمية
Islam 212
Maksud syariah
213
Tamat
214
Hadirin hadirat
215
)Akhir (last
مقاصد الشريعة أو املقاصد الشريعية َتّت احلاضرين و احلاضرات أخري "بدال من آخر أو أخريا"
رقم
اللغة العربية املاليزية
األصل
آخر الكالم وباهلل التوفيق وااهداية
Akhir kalam
216
Wabillahi taufiq wal
217
hidayah والسالم عليكم ومحة هللا وبركاته
Wassalamu alaikum warahmatulahi wabarakatuh
218
432
ILCC 2013
األول مبركز أثر برنامج اللغة العربيَّة التفاعليَّة يف تطوير مهارات اللغة العربية لدى طالب املستوى َّ اللغات باجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا.
http://learnarabiconline.ksu.edu.sa/Default.aspx
د .إبراهيم سليمان أمحد -مركز اللغات باجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا. د .زكريا عمر -رئيس شعبة لغة القرآن مبركز اللغات باجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية
مباليزيا.
[email protected]
-1امللخص: املتتبع ملسرية التَّعليم يراها قفزت قفزات ملموسة من خالل استخدام التقنيَّة يف التعليم؛ حيث يستطيع املتعلم أن يسمع ويتحدث ويقرأ ويكتب؛ واللغة العربية ليست بعيدة َعن هذا اجملال .ففي كثري من البالد صممت برامج عرب الشبكة العاملية ،وهذه الورقة تتناول برناجماً اإلسالمية والعربيَّة وحىت البالد غري اإلسالميَّة ُ مهماً يف تعليم اللغة العربية وهو برنامج" اللغة العربيَّة التفاعليَّة" ،فالربنامج يتكون من اثنيت عشرة وحدة، وثالثة دروس للمراجعة .وكل وحدة تكاملت فيها املهارات؛ وكل وحدة تكونت من سبعة دروس وهي: استَمع ،واملفردات ،والرتاكيب ،وفهم املسموع ،وحتدَّث ،واقرأَ ،واكتب .وترتاوح التدريبات لكل مهارة ما بني ثالثة إىل ستة تدريبات ،فقد قام الباحثان بتدريس هذه الوحدات مثَّ صمما استبياناً مكوناً من ستة حماور .اُ ْختريت عينة عشوائية من ثالثني طالباً لتكون صادقة التمثيل .وكانت معظم اإلجابات إجيابية حيث أشار الطالب إىل االستفادة من الربنامج يف االستماع ،واملفردات والرتاكيب ملا له من سهولة االستعمال وتكامل املهارات .وتوصي الدراسة باالهتمام بعملية تكامل التقنية مع مناهج اللغة العربية وزيادة الساعات التدريسية يف املعمل؛ وكذلك أمهية التدريب لألساتذة والطالب يف جمال استخدام التقنية يف تعليم اللغة العربية.
-2وصف
للربنامج:
شكل :1الصفحة الرئيسة لربنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية
شكل :2وحدات برنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية
434
ILCC 2013
تعليمي ،وتسجيل اخلرو . الشخصي ،وفيديو الصفحة الرئيسة للربنامج تتكون من املقدمة ،والسجل ِّ ِّ ويتكون الربنامح من اثنيت عشرة َوحدة وثالث وحدات مراجعة؛ والوحدات هي:
-1التَّعارف
-2طالب جديد
-3األسرة واألقارب
-4لطَّعام
مراجعة ()1
-5املنزل
-6املدرسة
-7احلديقة
-8اللغة -11
مراجعة ()2
-9العمل
-11اجلو
-12السفر
-13الصحة
مراجعة()3
-14نصوص فهم املسموع
ملخص املفردات ()1
ملخص الرتاكيب النحوية ()2
العربية
وتضمن كل وحدة
اآليت:
-1استمع
-2املفردات
-3الرتاكيب
-5حتدث
-6اِّقرأ
-7اكتب
-4ىفهم املسموع
مثال إىل الوحدات (الوحدة األوىل التَّعارف): يف املقدمة تعريف مبا سيتعلمه الدَّارس بعد وهاية الوحدة مثل" ستتعلم يف هذه الوحدة :بعض أساليب التَّحية؛ وكيف تعرف نفسك؟ وكيف ترحب باآلخرين؟ ،وأدوات االستفهام ،واجلنسيات ،واملهن ،والبلدان، والرتاكيب النَّحوية البسيطة (الضمائر ،وأمساء اإلشارة).
االستماع (يُفضل استخدام القارئ "إنرتنيت إكسبلورا" حىت تستطيع االستماع واملشاهدة).
شكل :3االستماع
جند حتت مهارة االستماع نصني أو ثالثة نصوص ،وهي مصحوبة بالفيديو ،وميكن للمستمع أن يستمع إىل ِ غوي. كل نص؛ بل ميكنه إعادة االستماع ملرات عدَّة ،كما ميكنه التوقف حسب مستواه اللُّ ِّ ويف هذا الدرس" التَّعارف" توجد أربعة حمادثات ،فاحملادثة األوىل كانت خاصة بتعارف الذكور (بني أمحد ومارك ) وغطت الضمائر املنفصلة وأمساء اإلشارة؛ أما احملادثة الثانية فكانت خاصة بتعارف النساء (بني ملياء وباوال )؛ وهذه احملادثة َعَّزَزت احملادثة السابقة من حيث الضمائر املنفصلة ونفحتنا بالتأنيث .كذلك احملادثة الثالثة عززت الضمائر املنفصلة؛ وجاءت بأمساء اإلشارة للذكور ،وهكذا أيضاً احملادثة الرابعة عززت الضمائر املنفصلة وجاءت بأمساء اإلشارة لإلناث.
َّ (املفردات):الدر س الثَّاين: أما الدرس الثاين من هذه الوحدة األوىل ":التعارف" فهو عن املفردات .فقد جاء املصمم يف التدريب األول(استمع إىل املفردات اآلتية) بعشرين مفردة للتذكري وقابلها بالتأنيث ،ومن هذه املفردات أمساء اإلشارة والضمائر املتصلة وأمساء الدول؛ ومنها (هذا ،وهذه ،وطالب ،وطالبة ،ومدرس ،ومدرسة ،وطبيب، وطبيبة ،وفرنسا ،والسعودية ،وتركيا.)...
436
ILCC 2013
التدريب الثاين:اخرت الكلمة املختلفة يف اجملموعةَ :ثاين جمموعات؛ ولكل جمموعة أربعة خيارات؛ وعلى املتعلم أن مييز الكلمة املختلفة غن الكلمات الثالثة املتشاهبة ،ومثال إىل ذلك: أ أنا
أنت َ
أ ِّ َنت
السعودية ُّ
ما مييز هذا الربنامج جند هناك تغذية راجعة إلجابة الطالب ،فالطالب يعرف اإلجابة الصحيحة ،وكذلك ف الطالب بسبب خطأ اإلجابة. اإلجابة اخلاطئة؛ لكن ليته َّ عر َ التدريب الثالث :اِّخرت الكلمة املناسبة للصورة: املصمم بست صور خمتلفة لوظائف خمتلفة؛ وعلى الطالب اختيار الكلمة املناسبة لكل اهذا التدريب جاء ُ صورة من بني ست كلمات ،ومثال اهذه الصور(مهندسة ،مهندسِ ، وطالب). أنت ،مدرسة ،طبيب، ُ التدريب الرابع :اِّخرت اسم الدولة املناسب لعلمها. جاء املصمم خبمس دول وهي (إيطاليا ،والسعودية ،وكندا ،وروسيا ،وإسبانيا).
الدرس الثالث :الرتاكيب النَّحويَّة: املصمم ما درسه يف الدروس السابقة حيث جاء برتاكيب مرت على الدارس من قبل وهي اجلمل دع َم َّ ُ
االمسية حيث جاء بالضمائر املنفصلة للتذكري(أنا طالب) ،وتقابلها مجلة امسية تبدأ بضمري منفصل مع كلمة
مؤنثة مثل أنا طالبة)؛ مثَّ جاء املصمم بالضمائر املتصلة واسم إشارة؛ مثل هذا صديقي ،هذه صديقيت، وأخرياً جاء املصمم بالضمائر املنفصلة مصحوبة حبرف اجلر ِمن وتليه دولة مثل :أنا ِمن فرنسا.
األول :اخرت عالمة صح للجملة الصحيحة وعالمة خطأ للجملة اخلاطئة: التدريب َّ وجاء املصمم بعشرة تراكيب حنوية وعلى الطالب أن مييز اجلملة الصحيحة من اجلملة اخلاطئة ومثال لذلك: -1
ت مدرسة أَنْ َ
-6
ت مدرسة أَنْ َ
التدريب الثاين :اخرت الكلمة الصحيحة جاء املصمم بست مجل بدأت بضمائر منفصلة أو أمساء إشارة؛ وعلى الطالب أن ُيتار كلمة واحدة من كل كلمتني متقابلتني للرقم ومثال لذلك: هذا
طبيب
طبيبة
الدرس الرابع :فهم املسموع: على الطالب أن يستمع أوالً لوصف صورة مث ُيتار الصورة املناسبة من بني ست صور لذلك الوصف.
ت عليه من خالل نصوص فهم املسموع ومنوذ اإلجابة( .هذا صعُبَ ْ ويستطيع الطالب معرفة اإلجابة إن َ
صديقي إبراهيم .هو مهندس من تركيا). ث الدرس َ اخلامس:حتَ َّد ْ
هنا الدرس يشجع الطالب على احلديث ،فالتدريب األول ،وهو: اذهب إىل غرفة احملادثة مث حتدث مع زميلك عن نفسك كما ِف املثالنياملثال ِّّ املثال الثاين األول -9أنا أمحد
-9أنا ملياء
-6أنا من أندونسيا
-6أنا من فرنسا
-3أنا طالب جدي ٌد أنت؟ -2و َ
-3أنا طالبة جديدة -2وأنْ ِ ت؟
ILCC 2013
438
ِّ اس ِّة: -3مشكلة ال ّدر َ
واملشكلة هي نفور بعض الطالب من اللغة العربية .هذا النفور قد يكون مبعثه هو عدم التدريب على مهارات اللغة ِمن االستماع ،أو الكالم ،أو الكتابة ،أو القراءة ،أو عدم التدريب فيها جمتمعة .تود الدراسة أن تعرف فائدة استخدام هذا الربنامج يف تدريس اللغة العربية؛ فما هي اجتاهات الطالب حنو استخدام برنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية يف تعليم اللغة العربية جنباً إىل جنب مع الكتاب؛ أي عملية تكامل التَّقنية مع الكتاب يف تدريس اللغة العربية؟ [إبراهيم ،وزكريا 6093م]
-2تساؤالت ال ِّّدراسة:
-9إىل أي مدى يستخدم الطالب مبركز اللغات برنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية يف تعليم اللغة العربية؟. هل يفيد استخدام برنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية يف تعليم اللغة العربية يف تطوير مهارة: االستماع؟ الكالم؟ القراءة؟ الكتابة؟ -5أمهية ال ِّّدراسة: حسب علم الباحث ِ ني مل ُجتَر دراسةٌ حول استخدام برنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية يف تعليم اللغة العربية يف مركز اللغات يف اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية؛ ومن مثَّ قد تساعد هذه الدراسة املسئولني يف مركز اللغات باجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا من االستفادة من التخطيط الستخدام التقنية يف اللغة العربية يف مركز اللغات؛ ومن مثَّ تطوير مهارات الطالب اللغوية. -6أهداف البحث:
هتدف هذه الدراسة للتَّعرف َعلى:
-9استخدام طالب مركز اللغات باجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية لربنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية يف تعليم اللغة العربية. -6اجتاهات طالب اللغة العربية حنو ذلك الربنامج. -3دور ذلك الربنامج يف تنمية مهارات الطالب اللغوية. -2مدى فائدة عملية تكامل ذلك الربنامج مع املنهج يف تعليم اللغة العربية.
-7منهج ال ِّّدراسة:
التحليلي فالبحث يصف آراء الطالب يف اجلامعة اإلسالمية الوصفي االجتماعي واملنهج يتبع هذا البحث منهج املسح ِّ ِّ ِّ العاملية مباليزيا حول است خدامات برنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية يف تعليم اللغة العربية يف مركز اللغات يف اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية؛.واستفاد الطالب من ذلك الربنامح يف تطوير مهاراهتم اللغوية .ويقوم البحث بتحليل اجتاهات الطالب حنو
برنامج اللغة العربية التفاعلية ،والعوائق اليت تعرتضهم .وهذه دراسة مسحيّة استخدمت االستبانة أداة رئيسة جلمع املعلومات. -1-7مجهور الدراسة:
َعّرف قاي وآيراسيان [ ]Gay & Airasian,2000بأ ِّن جمتمع البحث هو اجملموعة – من املفحوصني -الذين يود الباحث تعميم نتائج حبثه عليهم" [ص .]960 جمتمع البحث اهذه الدراسة هو طالب وطالبات املستوى األول للغة العربية مبركز اللغات وعددهم ( 950طالبًا) باجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا .وهؤالء الطالب يلتحقون عادة هبذه اجلامعة للدراسة يف الكليات املختلفة (معارف الوحي والرتبية ،والقانون ،واالقتصاد ،والطب ،وااهندسة ،وتقنية املعلومات) ،وغريها .وطالب اجلامعة من دول ِعدَّة مثل [ماليزيا، واخلليج ،والشام ،واليمن ،والسودان ،ومصر ،وااهند ،وكشمري ،وباكستان وبنغالديش وغينيا دول شرق أوروبا والصني وغريها]؛ فالدراسة ال تشمل طالب جممع كواننت ،وطالب مركز ال ِّدراسات األساسيَّة.
-2-7عينة الدراسة:
َعّرف قاي وآيراسيان [ ]Gay & Airasian,2000بأ ِّن عينة البحث تع ي َّ أن كل فرد يف جمتمع البحث له احتمال االختيار .واختيار أي فرد ال يؤثر على اختيار اآلخر " [ص .]963 اُختريت عينة عشوائية لتكون ممثلة جلميع جمتمع الدراسة .وتشري الدراسات إىل أن حجم العينة األقل من 30ال يعكس جيداً خصائص اجملتمع املنوي دراسته [منذر الضامن ،6001 ،ص .]926لقد َت توزيع 20استبانة على الطالب يف َ اسي الثاين لعام 6093-6096م من جممع قمباك ،من هنا فصلني ،غري أنه رجعت منها 30استبانة يف الفصل الدر ِّ يتضح أنه مل يكن هناك حتيز يف اختيار العينة.
440
ILCC 2013
-3-7أدوات مجع البيانات: مجع املعلومات هو عملية اِختيار األفراد أو املصادر اليت تساعد يف توفري املعلومات عن مشكلة أو قضية قيد البحث، وااهدف من ذلك هو حتديد اجلمهور ،أو األفراد ،أو نوعية املعلومات اليت ميكن أن تشكل وجهة نظر لتب ي هذه القضية [عبد اللطيف.]612 ، -4-7وصف لالستبانة: االستبانة أو االستبيان هو أسلوب مجع البيانات الذي يستهدف األفراد املبحوثني [املفحوصني] بطريقة منهجية يف مجع املعلومات ،ومقننة لتقدمي حقائق أو آراء أو أفكار ُمعينة ،يف إطار البيانات املرتبطة ملوضوع الدراسة وأهدافها[ ..عبد احلميد6008 ،م ،ص .]359وعن جودة االستبانة أشار مرسي [6003م ،ص ]953إىل َّ أن "االستفتاء اجليد هو الذي يكتب بطريقة تستحوذ على اِهتمام املستجيب ،ويكون ذلك عادة بأن تتدر األسئلة من األسئلة العامة إىل األسئلة األكثر ختصيصاً؛ ومن األسهل إىل األصعب ،وصياغة كلمات السؤال يف صوٍر غري ُمبهمة". جلمع املعلومات اِستخدم البحث االستبانة [اُنظر امللحق] أداة رئيسة للبحث .واالستبانة صممت ملعرفة آراء الطالب يف استخدام برنامج اللغة العربية التفاعليَّة (إبراهيم،وزكريا مايو 6093م) .واالستبانة تكونت من احملاور اآلتية ،وهي حمور االستماع وحمور املفردات وحمور النحو الوظيفي وحمور فهم املسموع وحمور الكالم وحمور تتبع الروابط و حمور القراءة و حمور الكتابة ،وحمور االقرتاحات .وتتكون االستبانة من 62بنداً ،وهي موزعة كما يف اجلدول رقم ( )9اآليت:
جدول ( :)1حماور االستبانة احملور
البند
-9االستماع.
2-9
-6املفردات.
8-5
الوظيفي. -3النحو ِّ
99-1
-2فهم املسموع.
93-96
-5الكالم.
95-92
-2تتبع الروابط
91-92
-1القراءة
91-98
-8الكتابة
62-60
-1االقرتاحات
61
- 5-7صدق االستبانة:
الختبار صدق االستبانة عرضت [االستبانة] على ٍ عدد من أصحاب االختصاص يف موضوع االستبانة ذلك للكشف عما يكون يف تصميم االستبانة من قصور أو أخطاء علميَّة أو منهجية تؤثر يف موضوعية وصدق حمتواها وبنائها ... [عبد احلميد ،ص .]319-310
ين يف اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا؛ وعميد للتأكد من صدق حمتوى االستبانة أرسلت هذه االستبانة ألربعة حماضر َ كلية الرتبية جبامعة املدينة العاملية بشاه علم للتعرف على املفردات الصعبة ،ومدى مناسبة لغة االستبانة للطالب املفحوصني؛ ومدى مناسبة بنود االستبانة جلمع املعلومات .ولقد علق األساتذة الكرام على موضوع لغة االستبانة وعلقوا ِ الباحثان بإجراء التَّعديالت املناسبة من حترير للغة ،وترتيب لفقرات أيضاً على فقرات االستبانة من حيث الرتتيب .وقام االستبانة وبنودها ،كل حسب حمورها ،وحذف بعض البنود وإضافة بندين اثنني.
-8-7ثبات االستبانة:
يذكر مراد ،وهادي6160 ،م[ ،صَّ ]919 أن مصطلح الثبات "يشري إىل اِتساق الدرجات اليت َِتّ احلصول عليها جراء تطبيق أداة ما ،أي مدى اِتساق درجات القياس إذا ما أعيد تطبيقه على نفس األفراد". للتأكد من ثبات االستبانة ََتَّ دفعها لعشرة طالب من كلية القانون ،ذلك ملعرفة مدى مناسبة لغة االستبانة اهم ،ومدى
مناسبة بنود وفقرات االستبانة اهم .وأبدى الطالب بعض املالحظات من غموض يف بعض فقرات االستبانة ومن مثّ تصحيح البنود الغامضة؛ وتسهيل لغة تلك البنود حىت تتناسب االستبانة مع الطالب. -8ال ِّّدراسات السابقة: تفاعلي لتعليم اللغة العربية للناطقني بغريها" والذي نشره مبجلة جامعة دراسة راغب2111(.م) .وهي"برنامج ِّّ
تفاعلي لتعليم اللغة العربية للناطقني بغريها قائم على املدينة العاملية احملكمة؛ فيشري فيه إىل أن حبثه طرح فكرة برنامج ِّ و ْعي ٍ تام مبكونات اللغة ومستويات دراستها األربعة ،الصوتية ،والصرفيِّة ،والنحويَّة ،والدالليَّة .مع ارتكاز واضح على أبرز َ ِ اإلليكرتوينّ .وقد قام البحث على العلمي القائمة على معطيات التعليم األسس والنظريات الرتبوية املعنية بالتحصيل ِّ قاعدة بيانات صوتية ونصيَّة شاملة ملفردات اللغة؛ وطرق نطقها واستنتا أهم األفكار املتوقعة من متعلمي العربية من غري أهلها .وشارك فيها ما يربو عن مائة وعشرين مستخدماً؛ حتت إشراف فريق ٍ إداري، عمل متنوع التخصصات ما بني ِّ وهندسي .وقد أظهرت النتائج املبدئية بصورة إحصائية فعالية الربنامج ودوره املتميز يف اإلسراع بالعملية التعليمية؛ لغوي، و ِّ ِّ وزيادة احلصيلة اإلدراكيَّة لدى الطالب عينة الدراسة الذين خضعوا اهذه الدراسة كعينة جتريبية؛ وذلك مقارنة بالنتائج التحصيلية للعينة الضابطة اليت أخذت تفس اجلرعة التعليمية بطريقة تقليدية.
442
ILCC 2013
دراسة لبلوب وبانتريو (سبتمرب )2113التفاعلية والوسائط املتعددة لدروس تعليم اللغة العربية منوذجا تشري الورقة إىل أنه يف الوقت الذي يعتقد فيه املرء َّ بأن تعريف التعليم عن بعد سهالً‘ غري أنه املفهوم واألسباب للتعليم عن بعد ما
زالت مساراً للتفاوض فكثري من املواقع توفر برامج بأشكال خمتلفة مثل التدريس ِ الذايتّ؛ وبرامج أخرى حتت إشراف إن تعليم اللغات استفاد كثرياً من التعليم عن بعد رغم قصور املخرجات مشاهبة الناطق باللغة األم؛ غري َّ املدرسَّ . أن التقنيات الرقميَّة املتقدمة عاجلت املشكلة السابقة؛ رغم أوها تبدو ظاهرة .وجند من مواقع التعليم عن بعد عرب الشبكة العاملية مواقع ممتازة لغوياً وتعليمياًَّ . التفاعي إن جند توفر املهارات األساسية اليت حيتا إليها الطالب ليتعلمها عرب االتصال ِّ من خالل املعلم النموذ الذي يعلمها للطالب ومن خالل التغذية الراجعة من الطالب.
وَت التحقيق مع املعلمني عرب وسائل ِعدَّة منها هذه الدراسة تقوم باختبار التنبؤ من خالل دراسة إدما من التقنية مع البيانات التجريبية ،وتشمل الفصول املالحظات تسجيالت الفيديو من الدروس ،وإجراء مقابالت متعمقة فيديو تنشيط األفكار. وتشري النتائج إىل أنه على الرغم من الشكل الصريح حنو البنائية تدريب املعلمني على استخدام التقنية؛ غري أن املعلمني انتهجوا طرقاً عدة منها طريقة القواعد والرتمجة والطريقة االتصالية.
اإلليكرتوينّ يف جامعة املدينة العاملية مباليزيا -من وجهة نظر دراسة كرار 16 (.نوفمرب 2112م) .فاعلية التعليم ِّ
الطالب ( 92نوفمرب 6096م) رسالة نالت هبا الباحثة درجة املاجستري يف الرتبية -ختصص مناهج وطرق تدريس. َّع ُرف على نظام التعليم اإلليك ِ رتوينّ يف جامعة املدينة العاملية مباليزيا؛ والتعرف على مدى فاعلية وهدفت الدراسة إىل الت َ ِ الوصفي؛ وجمتمع اإلليكرتوينّ يف جامعة املدينة العاملية مباليزيا من وجهة نظر الطالب .اتبعت الدراسة املنهج التعليم ِّ البحث هو طالب التعليم املباشر جبامعة املدينة وعددهم هو 250؛ وعينة الدراسة هي 622طالباً. املعياري .وتوصلت احلسايب واالحنراف استخدمت الباحثة جلمع املعلومات إحصائياً طريقة التجزئة النصفية والوسط ِّ ِّ الدراسة إىل نتائج من أمهها هي االستجابة اإلجيابية لطالب جامعة املدينة العاملية مباليزيا؛ حنو التعليم اإلليكرتوينّ؛ وال توجد فروق ذات داللة إحصائية يف استجابات الطالب حنو نظام التعليم اإلليكرتوينّ تُ ْعزى ملتغري النوع (ذكر/أنثى)؛
وتوجد فروق ذات داللة إحصائية يف استجابات الطالب حنو نظام التعليم اإلليكرتوينّ تُ ْعزى ملتغري التخصص واختالف الكليات لصاحل طالب كلييت تقنية املعلومات والعلوم اإلدارية واملالية .ومن توصيات الدراسة أن هتتم مؤسسات التعليم باملتطلبات الواجب توفرها يف عضو هيئة التدريس اليت تطبق نظام التعليم اإلليكرتوينّ والتدريب املستمر؛ ومراعاة التعليمي؛ وأن توضع روابط تقود الطالب إىل مصادر اجلامعات للضوابط العلمية واملعايري التفاعلية عند تصميم احملتوى ِّ
متعددة من مكتبات ومراجع؛ واالعتمام بالبيئة التعليمية اليت ينفذ فيها التعليم اإلليكرتوينّ مع توافر اإلمكانات واملادية والبشرية عند تطبيق التعليم اإلليكرتوينّ.
االجتماعي على الطالب اجتماعيا .طالب دراسة إبراهيم ،وزكريا 2-1(.يوليو 2113م) .أثر وسائل التواصل ِّّ
االجتماعي أثر فاعل يف الطالب اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية منوذجا.ومشكلة البحث أال وهي؛ هل ألدوات التواصل ِّ ِ ص ِّم َم استبيا ٌن مكون اجتماعياً؟؛ ملعرفة ذلك األثر ُ
االجتماعي حسب أمهيتها للطالب ،ومدة ِمن أربعة حماور ،واث ي عشر بنداً منها ترتيب استخدامات وسائل التواصل ِّ االجتماعي .واُختريت عينةٌ عشوائية من االستخدام ،وأسبابه ،مث رأي الطالب حول مميزات ومساوئ وسائل التواصل ِّ أربعة ومائة ٍ االجتماعي لالتصال طالب .وتوصلت الدراسة إىل أ ّن معظم الطالب يستخدمون وسائل التواصل ِّ أيضا معرفة ثقافات جديدة على الطالب .ومن املفارقات َّ إن معظم الطالب مل باألصدقاء ،مث باألسرة ،ومن النتائج ً االجتماعي يف التعليم .وتوصي الدراسة بتدريب األساتذة على استخدام وسائل التواصل يستخدم وسائل التواصل ِّ
االجتماعي يف التعليم. االجتماعي يف التعليم ،ومن مثَّ تدريب الطالب على االستخدام األمثل والواعي لوسائل التواصل ِّ ِّ ويرى البحث َّ إن عملية تكامل التقنية مع املناهج حتقق فوائد كثرية للمهتمني هبذا الشأن.
-9حتليل االستبيان: جدول :2توزيع الطالب حسب كلياهتم الكلية
التكرار
النسبة
معارف الوحي والعلوم اإلنسانيَّة. القانون.
90
33.3
2
60.0
االقتصاد. العِمارة.
2
60.0
3
90.0
تقنية املعلومات.
6
2.1
جمموع
61
10.0
اجملموع
31
111.1
ِمن خالل اجلدول السابق يالحظ أن طالب كلية معارف الوحي يشكلون أعلى نسبة ،وهي % 33.3؛ الوحي وذلك يظهر بوضوح حيث أن الكلية كبرية مقارنة بالكليات األخرى؛ ويلي عدد طالب كلية معارف ِّ كل من طالب القانون % 60.0واالقتصاد .% 60.0
444
ILCC 2013
جدول :3توزيع الطالب حسب النوع(اجلنس): الرقم
النوع
التكرار
النسبة
9
الذكور
92
22.1
6
اإلناث
95
50.0
3
اجملموع
30
900.0
طالب واحد مفقود من اجلدول السابق يالحظ َّ أن نسبة عدد الطالبات أكرب من عدد الطالب؛ ولعل هذه مالحظة جديرة باالهتمام؛ حيث أن عدد الطالبات يف الغالب أكرب من عدد الطالب يف عينة الدارسة؛ بل رمبا يف ماليزيا ويف العامل. جدول :4حتليل بنود االسنبيان
يف القسم األول االستماع لُوحظ َّ معياري أن البند الرابع هو "االستفادة من االستماع"؛ حقق أعلى احنراف ِّ الرتتيب
رقم البند
9
2
البند ِ االستفادة من االستماع للدروس.
احلسايب املتوسط ِّّ 2.10
املعياري االحنراف ِّّ 2.22
6
3
إيقاف االستماع إىل الفيديو حسب سرعيت.
2.51
502.
3
5
املفردات اجلديدة ساعدت ي يف تطوير لغيت العربية.
2.50
516.
2
9
دروس االستماع حققت حاجيت.
2.23
528.
5
8
تدريبات املفردات ساعدت ي يف تطوير لغيت العربية.
2.23
168.
2
2
قوائم الكلمات مفيدة يل.
2.32
210.
1
6
االستماع للمحادثة مر ٍ ات ِعدَّة.
2.33
199.
8
91
احلديث باللغة العربية ساعدين يف تطوير مهارايت االتصاليَّة.
2.33
199.
1
65
الربنامج سهل االستخدام.
2.33
822.
90
93
التحكم يف االستماع إىل الفيديو حسب سرعيت.
2.30
160.
99
98
فائدة أسئلة فهم املقروء.
2.68
221.
96
62
التغذية الراجعة ساعدت ي يف تصحيح أخطائي.
2.63
211.
93
62
املرشد املتوفر يساعد يف تصفح الربنامج.
2.63
262.
92
90
الوظيفي ساعدت ي يف التفريق بني املذكر واملؤنث. األلوان املستخدمة للنحو ِّ
2.69
162.
95
99
املفردات ُمناسبة يل.
2.69
260.
92
91
فهم املقروء ساعدين يف تطوير لغيت العربية.
2.60
222.
91
1
الصور امللحقة بقوائم املفردات تشرح معانيها.
2.98
296.
98
60
تكملة الكلمة باحلرف املناسب ساعدت ي يف معرفة احلروف العربية.
2.91
193.
91
69
من خالل التدريبات الكتابيَّة أستطيع أن أعرف أن احلروف العربية تكتب بصور خمتلفة.
2.91
812.
60
96
اختيار الصورة املناسبة للمحادثة
231.
2.92
69
92
أستطيع تتبع الروابط.
2.93
130.
66
92
فرص الكالم متوفرة.
2.03
810.
63
1
الوظيفي ساعدت ي يف التفريق بني املفرد واجلمع. اجلداول املستخدمة للنحو ِّ
2.00
806.
62
95
الد َّْرَد َشة مع األصدقاء.
3.13
828.
65
66
بعد دراسة فهم املقروء أستطيع أن أكون مجلة.
3.13
120.
62
63
أستطيع ترتيب الكلمات لتكوين مجلة.
3.13
828.
446
ILCC 2013
وهو 2.10وهذا يدل بوضوح على أمهية دروس االستماع وفائدهتا للطالب .ويلي بند" االستفادة من االستماع" يف معياري 2.51وهذا أيضاً يدل املرتبة الثانية البند الثالث وهو"إيقاف االستماع إىل الفيديو َحسب سرعيت"باحنراف ِّ داللة واضحة على حتكم التلميذ يف الربنامح .وتاله البند اخلامس وهو "املفردات اجلديدة ساعدتين يف تطوير لغيت معياري 2.50يف املرتبة الثالثة؛ فلن يستطيع أي ٍ طالب أن يطور لغته بدون اكتساب املفردات .وجاء العربية" باحنراف ِّ
معياري 2.23؛ وهذا يشري بوضوح إىل فائدة األول؛ وهو"دروس االستماع حتقق حاجيت" باحنراف يف املرتبة الرابعة البند َّ ِّ املواد السماعية للطالب
له يف حياته ،مث جاء البند الثامن يف املرتبة اخلامسة وهو"تدريبات املفردات اجلديدة ساعدتين يف تطوير لغيت" باحنراف معياري 2.32؛ ويف معياري 2.23؛ ويف املرتبة السادسة جاء البند السادس وهو"قوائم الكلمات مفيدة يل" باحنراف ِّ ِّ املرتبة السابعة جاء البند الثاين وهو "االستماع للمحادثة مر ٍ معياري 2.33؛ وهذا ما يؤكد على تنمية ات ِّع َّدة" باحنراف ِّ وتطوير مهارة االستماع واملفردات اللغوية؛ ويف املرتبة لسابعة أيضاً جاء البند السابع عشر وهو "احلديث باللغة العربية معياري 2.33وشاركه يف املرتبة نفسها البند اخلامس والعشرون؛ وهو ساعدين يف تطوير مهارايت االتصاليَّة" باحنراف ِّ "الربنامج سهل االستخدام"؛ ويف املرتبة السابعة جاء البند السابع عشر وهو"التحكم يف االستماع إىل الفيديو حسب معياري.2.30 سرعيت" باحنراف ِّ املعياري هو 2.68؛ ويف املرتبة ويف املرتبة الثامنة جاء البند الثامن عشر وهو"فائدة أسئلة فهم املقروء" وكان احنرافه ِّ التاسعة جاء البندان الرابع والعشرون والسادس عشرون باحنراف معياري 2.63ومها"التغذية الراجعة ساعدتين يف تصحيح أخطائي" واملرشد املتوفر يساعد يف تصفح الربنامج وكيف ال فالتغذية الراجعة تلعب دوراً مهماً يف العملية التعليمية؛ وكذلك التصفح له أمهية كربى يف الوصول إىل املعلومات؛ وإالَّ ضاع زمن الطالب.ويف املرتبة العاشرة جاء معياري هو 2.91ومها "تكملة الكلمة باحلرف املناسب ساعدتين يف البندان العشرون واحلادي والعشرون باحنراف ِّ
معرفة احلروف العربية" و"من خالل التدريبات الكتابيَّة أستطيع أن أعرف أن احلروف العربية تكتب بصور خمتلفة"؛ فالتدريب له أثر واضح يف صقل مهارة الطالب الكتابية.
معياري 2.92وهذا وجاء يف املرتبة احلادية عشرة البند الثاين عشر وهو"اختيار الصورة املناسبة للمحادثة" باحنراف ِّ املعنوي باحملسوس؛ وجاء يف املرتبة الثانية عشرة البند يساعد الطالب على االستماع اجليد للتفريق بني الصور؛ وربط ِّ معياري 2.93؛ فكلما عرف الطالب مهارة البحث عرب الشبكة السادس عشر وهو"أستطيع تتبع الروابط" باحنراف ِّ
العاملية؛ كلما استفاد أكثر (إبراهيم6090 ،م) .وجاء يف املرتبة الثالثة عشرة البند السادس عشر وهو"ف َرص الكالم الوظيفي متوفرة"؛ وهذا مما يساعد على التدريب على الكالم؛ وجاء يف املرتبة الرابعة عشرة"اجلداول املستخدمة للنحو ِّّ الوظيفي يلعب دواً مهماً يف توظيف اللغة يف حياتنا اليومية؛ ساعدتين يف التفريق بني املفرد واجلمع"؛ لعل النحو ِّ والتفريق بني املذكر واملؤنث مهم يف استخدام اللغة؛ غري أنه الكثري ُيلط بني املذكر واملؤنث.
معياري 3.13 اشرتك يف املرتبة الرابعة والعشرون البند اخلامس عشر؛ والبند الثاين والعشرون والثالث والعشرون باحنراف ِّ وهي على التوايل" َّ الد ْر َد َشة مع األصدقاء"؛"بعد دراسة فهم املقروء أستطيع أن أكون مجلة"؛" أستطيع ترتيب
الكلمات لتكوين مجلة"
فمن مهارات اللغة الكالم والكتابة مها مهاراتان إنتاجيتان؛ فبهما يَفرح ويَ ْسعد الطالب؛ واملرتبة السادسة عشرة جاء البند وهو"بعد دراسة فهم املقروء أستطيع أن أكون مجلة"؛ فتِك ِّ ْوين اجلُمل غاية؛ ولن يستطيع عليه إال من فهم اللغة وكذلك"أستطيع ترتيب الكلمات لتكوين مجلة"؛ فرتتيب الكلمات ليس باليسري فيحتاح إىل من يكون ِعلم بأجبديات اللغة.
جدول :5اقرتاحات الطالب التكرار
النسبة
9
-9استخدام الثنائية اللغوية لتعليمات السؤال
9
3.3
6
-99هذه الطريقة طريقة ممتازة ،حتتا إىل تطوير خدمة اإلنرتنيت
9
3.3
الرقم االقرتاح
لنستطيع العمل بكمال. 3
-92الربنامج يكون أفضل إن كانت تصحبه اللغة األجنليزية لنفهم بصورة أفضل.
9
3.3
2
-69هذا الربنامج ساعدين كثرياً؛ واملبتدئ مثلي جيب عليه استخدام هذه الصفحة ليتعلم العربية.
9
3.3
5
-68حتويل الربنامج إىل قرص صلب حىت نتفادى ضياع الزمن عند التحميل.
9
3.3
2
-1اقرتح زيادة عدد ساعات التدريس يف املعمل.
9
3.3
1
-8حنتا إىل تدر ٍ يب أكثر.
9
3.3
وجاءت اقرتاحات الطالب كما يف اجلدول السابق بنسبة % 3.3لكل اقرتاح؛ فرغم أوها نسب ضئيلة؛ ولكن جيب أخذها يف االعتبار لتطوير استعمال الربنامج؛ وهي كاآليت :استخدام الثنائية اللغوية لتعليمات األول واالقرتاح السؤال؛ وهذا يشري بوضوح إىل قلة الثروة التعبريية للطالب؛ وكيف ال وهم طالب املستوى َّ
448
ILCC 2013
الثاين وهو(هذه الطريقة طريقة ممتازة ،حتتا إىل تطوير خدمة اإلنرتنيت لنستطيع العمل بكمال(إبراهيم، 6090م)؛ فهذا يدل على بطء خدمة اإلنرتيت ومن مث حنتا خدمة سريعة حىت يستطيع كل طالب االستفادة من الربنامج عرب الشبكة العاملية .وزيادة عدد ساعات التدريس يف املعمل. -11التوصيات: لعل عملية تكامل برامج اللغة العربية عرب الشبكة العاملية مع مناهج اللغة العربية املقررة يفيد الطالب كثرياً ويكسبهم مهارات متنوعة .من خالل اقرتاحات الطالب اتضح َّ أن للتدريب أثر فاعل يف تطوير مهارات الطالب وهذه توصية تناسب دراسة كرار(6096م)وراغب ( 6099م)؛ ومن مث توصي الدراسة بتدريب األساتذة على استخدام هذا الربنامج حىت يستطيعوا تدريب طالهبم؛ وهذه التوصية تدعم دراسة (إبراهيم،وزكريا مايو 6093م) .وزيادة مساحة مركز مصادر التعلم ِ الذايتّ تفيد ثرياً يف توفري احلواسيب وحدو اإلنرتنيت للطالب .من املهم واملفيد للطالب ولألساتذة ترقية وتطوير
خدمة اإلنرتنيت مبركز اللغات لتعود بالنفع على الطالب .تصميم مقرر بعنوان تطبيقات لغوية يدرس فيه الطالب كيفية أسبوع من خالل كتابة املفردات واجلمل البحث عن الربامج واالستفادة منها؛ على أن يكون التقومي دوري يف كل ٍ ِ الباحثان .من هنا يرى البحث زيادة عدد ساعات التدريس يف املعمل؛ فهذا يعزز مهارات اجلديدة ىل الطالب كما فعل الطالب اللغوية ويزيد من إمتاعهم.
-11املصادر واملراجع:
العاملي الرابع للغة العربية وآداهبا إبراهيم ،سليمان وزكريا ،عمر (.مايو6093م) .ورقة قُ ِّدمت يف املؤَتر ِّ (تعليم اللغة وآداهبا ألغر ٍ اض خاصة) يف 91-95مايو 6093م .نظمه قسم اللغة العربية بكلية معارف الوحي والعلوم اإلنسانية باجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا.
االجتماعي يف الطالب إبراهيم ،سليمان وزكريا عمر(.يوليو6093م) .ورقة بعنوان " أثر وسائل التواصل ِّ األول (تطبيقات اجتماعياً؛ طالب اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا منوذجاً؛ ورقة قُ ِّدمت يف املؤَتر ِّ العاملي َّ العلوم اإلسالمية يف احلاسوب ) يف 6-9يوليو 6093م .عقد بفندق قصر اخليول الذهبية ونظمته جامعة املدينة العاملية مباليزيا. تفاعلي لتعليم اللغة العربية للناطقني بغريها" ونشرته جملة جامعة املدينة راغب ،أمحد6099(.م)" .برنامج ِّ العاملية احملكمة؛ وعنوانه هو:
http://magazine.mediu.edu.my/?page_id=165 . القاهرة. عامل الكتب,العلمي يف تكنولوجيا التَّعليم البحث.)6008(. حممد،عبد احلميد ِّ . مركز اإلسكندرية للكتاب.العلمي احلديث أصول البحث.)م6002( . فاتن،عبد اللطيف ِّ ِ من وجهة-اإلليكرتوينّ يف جامعة املدينة العاملية مباليزيا م) فاعلية التعليم6096 نوفمرب92 ( سوسن،كرار
ختصص مناهج وطرق-م) رسالة قدمت لنيل درجة املاجستري يف الرتبية6096 نوفمرب92( نظر الطالب .تدريس دار الكتاب. العلمي –تصميماهتا وإجراءته طرائق البحث.)م6006( . فوزيَّة، صالح وهادي،مراد ِّ . القاهرة. عامل الكتب.بوي وكيف نفهمه ِّ البحث الرت.)م6003(. حممد منري،ُمرسي . األردن.عمان. دار املسرية للنشر والتوزيع والطباعة.العلمي أساسيات البحث.)6001( .منذر الضامن ِّ املراجع األجنبية
Gay, L.,R., & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application (6th ed). Upper Saddle River, Nj: Merrill. Ibrahim, Suliman . (2010) Integrating internet in teaching Arabic language: a new approach of teaching Arabic language. Ph.d dissertation, Saabrucken :Lap Lambert Academic Publishing and distributed by Amazon in UK and USA. LeLoup, J, W and Ponterio,R. (Sept 2003). Volume seven , No 3. Pp 4-14. ON THE NET|Interactive and Multimedia Techniques in Online Language Lessons: A Sampler. Language Learning & Technology at URL: http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num3/pdf/net.pdf
ILCC 2013
450
Appendix Questionnaire
Your Faculty Your department Sex
Male Female
1
The listening lesson fulfills my need.
agree 2
strongly agree
neutral
Disagree
strongly disagree
Disagree
strongly disagree
I could repeat the conversation many time
Agree 3 agree
strongly agree
neutral
I would be able to pause the listening video according to my appropriate peed. strongly agree
neutral
Disagree
4 agree
strongly disagree I benefit from the listening lesson.
strongly agree
neutral
Disagree
strongly disagree
Part Two: The vocabulary: 5
The new vocabulary helps me to improve my Arabic.
agree 6
strongly agree
neutral
Disagree
strongly disagree
The list of word that appeared in the previous lesson is useful.
agree
strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
Part Three: I believe that the following questions are suitable to me: 7
The image combined the list of word illustrate the meaning
agree 8
strongly agree
Neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
The vocabulary exercise helps me a lot in improving my Arabic.
agree
strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
Part Four: Grammatical structure: 9
The table used for functional grammar helps me to differentiate between singular and plural.
agree
strongly agree
10
disagree
strongly disagree
The color used for functional grammar help me to differentiate between masculine and feminine.
agree 11
neutral
strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
disagree
strongly disagree
The vocabulary is suitable to me.
agree
strongly agree
neutral
Part Five: Listening Comprehension: 12
I would be able to choose the right image to suit the dialogue.
ILCC 2013 agree
strongly agree
Neutral
13 agree
disagree
452
strongly disagree
I would be able to control the video to my appropriate peed. strongly agree
Neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
Part Five:
The Speaking 14 agree
There is chance for me to speak strongly agree
neutral
15 agree
disagree
strongly disagree
I would be able to chat with my friend about the unit topic strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
Part Six: I believe that the following questions are suitable to me: 16 agree
I would be able to follow a link with a supplementary material. strongly agree
17 agree
neutral
disagree
Communication in Arabic would help me to improve my Arabic strongly agree
neutral
disagree
18 agree 19
strongly disagree
strongly disagree Part Seven : The Reading Reading comprehension questions are useful
strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
Reading comprehension help me in improving my Arabic
agree
20 agree 21 agree 22 agree
strongly agree
neutral
24 agree 25 agree
strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
I would be able to rearrange the word to become a sentence. strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
After studding the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence. strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
After studying the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence. strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
The feedback of the exercise help s me to correct my mistakes. strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree The programme is user friendly
strongly agree
neutral
28 agree
strongly disagree
After studying the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence.
27 agree
strongly disagree
By writing exercise I would be able to recognize how Arabic letter are written in different location.
26 agree
strongly disagree
Part eight : The Writing Complete the word with appropriate letter help me to recognize the Arabic letter.
23 agree
disagree
disagree
strongly disagree
The guides given help me in browsing the programe strongly agree
neutral
disagree
strongly disagree
ILCC 2013
454
Any Suggestions: ________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ The researchers
The impact of Interactive Arabic
دور فقه اللغة يف "ضياء التأويل يف معاين التنزيل" لعبد هللا النيجريي (دراسة حتليلية منهجية ،سورة البقرة منوذجا) إعداد: زبري أبو بكر ماداكي
ِ يس ْاو ،نيجرييا، حماضر الدراسات اإلسالمية ،كلية أ.د .رفاعي للقانون والدراسات اإلسالمية ،م َ وطالب الدكتوراه قسم القرآن والسنة،كلية معارف الوحي والعلوم اإلنسانية، اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية ،ماليزيا.
[email protected] امللخص كتاب "ضياء التأويل يف معاين التنزيل" تفسري ألحد أعالم نيجرييا عبد هللا بن حممد فُ ِ ودي ،ألفه يف القرن ا لثاين عشرة ااهجري املوافق القرن الثامن عشرة امليالدي ،وهو تفسري ليس بالطويل اململ وال بالقصري املخل، اتبع فيه مؤلفه منهج املفسرين املتأخرين الذين حذفوا األسانيد واختصروا األقوال ،ولكنه امتاز باالهتمام ببا ن فقه لغة كثري من كلمات القرآن الكرمي ،وتوسع يف ذلك توسعا ميكن للطالب الناشئ النيجريي وغريه أن ي ستغ ي به عن كتب فقه اللغة األخرى ،ومما زاد اهذه العملية املنهجية رونقا ،أن عبد هللا النيجريي اعتمد جل اعتماده على " القاموس احمليط" حملمد بن يعقوب الفريوزآبادي ،وتفاسري أخرى اليت اعتىن أصحاهبا بتفاص يل فقه اللغة كجواهر احلسان لعبد الرمحن الثعاليب ،وأنوار التنزيل للقاضي علي البيضاوي ،وغريمها. فهذا البحث يتناول دور فقه اللغة يف هذا التفسري اجلليل بالتعرف على ابن فودي النيجريي وتفسريه هذا ،ومنهج تعامله مع فقه اللغة فيه مع إيراد األمثلة على ذلك من تفسريه بآيات سورة البقرة فقط ،ويذكر الب حث أيضا نبذة خمتصرة عن مصادره يف فقه اللغة مع بيان أمهيته يف فهم كالم هللا تعاىل ،فالبحث مشتمل ع ىل مقدمة وثالثة مباحث وخاَتة ،كما يلي :املقدمة يف التعريف عن ابن فودي النيجريي .املبحث األول يف التعرف على تفسريه "ضياء التأويل يف معاين التنزيل" .واملبحث الثاين مصادره يف فقه اللغة يف تفسريه .واملب حث الثالث يف منهج تعامله مع فقه اللغة تفصيال .مث اخلاَتة. مفتاح الكلمات :التفسري ،اللغة والتعريف.
456
ILCC 2013
املقدمة: التعريف بعبد هللا بن فودي النيجريي: ُولد عبد هللا سنة 9980ه املوافق 9122م ،وهذا هو أرجح أقوال املؤرخني والباحثني ( .عبد العلي ،د.ت "م ِرنون" (يف والية ُوْرن بنيجر حاليا) ،وقيل يف بلدة َم ،ص .)65:واختلفوا يف مكان والدته ،فقيل ولد يف َ فرى (جبمهورية نيجرييا حاليا) ،وقيل يف بلدة طَغِ ْل اليت يف غوبر ،ولكن القول األو ْغ َمى اليت يف َ صكتو أو َزنْ َ ل هو املشهور عند أكثر الباحثني( .بوي ،د.ت ،ص.)92 :
نسبه :أبو حممد عبد هللا بن حممد فودي (الفقيه بلغة فُّالتة) ابن عثمان ابن صاحل بن هارون بن حممد غُ ْورطُ ب .ويلتقي مع أمه يف اجلد اخلام ب .وأما أمه فحواء بنت حممد بن عثمان بن َح َّم بن ُ عال بن َج ُّ و بن َج ُّ س له والرابع اها( .ايداع النسوخ9311 ،ه ،ص.)6-9 : نشأة عبد هللا :وقد نشأ عبد هللا بن فودي يف بيت معروف بالعلم والصالح ،وكان أبوه حممد فودي فقيها
صاحلاً ،فحاول أبوه إبالغه إىل كمال الطفولة واملراهقة والرجولة وتنمية مواهبه العقلية والعلمية وتوجيه فطرته حنو صالحها ،ولقد جنح أبوه فودي يف استعداد ابنه عبد هللا هذا ،فتلقى أوال تربية صحيحة إسالمية على ي ديه ،كما كانت العائلة املسلمة هتتم هبا عند تربية أبنائها وتنشأهتا على قيم إسالمية خالدة( .احلالوي93 ، 11ه ،ص.)62-93 : وحينما بلغ سن التمييز وَتكن من القراءة والكتابة وهتيأ ،دفعه أبوه إىل أخيه الشقيق عثمان بن فودي الذي كان أكرب منه باثنيت عشر سنةً ،فرباه تربية علمية جيدة ،وجعله على أسس ٍ متينة لتحصيل العلم والعمل به، حىت أصبح جبالً من جبال األمة اإلسالمية ،وعضواً قويةً من أعضاء إصالح جمتمعه ،وقائداً رائداً من قواد اجلهاد ،وإسهاماته اليت تُذكر فيما بعد ،بال ريب شاهدة له بذلك.
شيوخه :إن أول من تعلم عبد هللا على يديه هو أبوه حممد فُودي ،وهو الذي علمه مبادئ القراءة والكتابة كما هي عادة نظام التعليم يف أغلب بالد َهوسا ،وملا بلغ ثالث عشر سنة تركه أبوه عند أخيه عثمان ليوا صل السري معه يف تعليمه وتثقيفه ،فتعلم على أخيه عثمان؛ العشرينيات يف مدح النيب ،والشعراء الستة ،واملت ون األخضرية ،والعشماوية ،ورسالة ابن أيب زيد القريواين ،وأخذ عنه تفسري اجلاللَ ْني ،وعلم احلديث درايةً ور وايةً من ألفية العراقي ،وصحيح البخاري بشرح القسطالين ،ودرس النحو واإلعراب عليه من املتون األجرومي ة ،وملحة اإلعراب ،وقطر الندى وشرحه ،الزمه مالزمةً طويلةً استفاد من خالاها مبعلومات َثينة( .عبد العل ي ،د.ت ،ص.)68-61 :
تاو جبم والشيخ عثمان بن فودي هذا هو األخ األكرب الشقيق لعبد هللا بن فودي ولد يف حملية ماَداوا (والية َ
هورية نيجر حاليا) سنة 9632-9928ه( ،حوليات9291 ،ه ،العدد ،2ص )96 :و ( أبو بكر ،د. ت ،ص .)95 :نشأ يف ِحجر والديه الصاحلني وأخذ العلم عن علماء عصره حىت َبرع ونبغ ،ومن تواليفه؛ إ
حياء السنة وإمخاد البدعة ،نور األلباب ،نصيحة أهل الزمان ،بيان البدع الشيطانية ،سَوق األمة إىل إتباع ال سنة وغريها. مث قد كفانا عبد هللا مؤنةً البحث عن سائر مشاُيه يف التخصص والتعمق ،ألنه ذكر مشاهريهم يف كتابه ،م
وهم :الشيخ حممد بن حممد ،والشيخ عبد هللا حممد بن احلا احلسن ،والشيخ إبراهيم الربناوي ،والشيخ حمم د بن عبد الرمحن ،والشيخ حممد ثَْنبُو بن حممد بن عبد هللا ،الشيخ إبراهيم املْن َدري وغريهم ،قرأ عليهم :خال َ صة ابن مالك ،والفريدة للسيوطي ،والرامزة يف علم العروض والقوايف ،وكتاب الرتياق يف علم اآلفاق ،والدر ر اللوامع ألمحد بن األمني الشنقيطي وغري ذلك( .ايداع النسوخ9311 ،ه ،ص.)90-1 :
مؤلفاته :ولعبد هللا بن فودي مؤلفات كثرية ،وسأذكر ما كتبه يف القرآن وعلومه :ضياء التأويل يف معاين ال تنزيل ،كفاية ضعفاء السودان يف بيان تفسري القرآن ،نيل السُّ ْؤل من تفاسري الرسول ،املفتاح للتفسري وهو ن ظم ما يف اإلتقان يف علوم القرآن للسيوطي ،وساللة املفتاح خمتصر منه ،والفرائد اجلليلة وسائط الفوائد اجلم يلة نظم ملا ذكره الشوشاوي يف كتابه الفوائد اجلميلة يف اآليات اجلليلة.
458
ILCC 2013
املبحث األول :يف التعريف عن تفسريه "ضياء التأويل"
التعريف بالكتاب :فضياء التأويل يف معاين التنزيل تفسري قيم ووسط بني اإلطناب واإلقتضاب ،أمساه صاح
نورا يضيئ ويتألأل يف األرجاء النيجريية بالكشف والبيان والتوضيح به ب "ضياء التأويل" فكأنه أمل أن يصبح ً
ملن يهتدي به يف ظلمات اجلهل واإلشكال ،لفهم مراد هللا تعاىل من آياته الباهرات ،اليت تقرأ وتتلى آناء ال ليل وأطراف النهار. وإمنا اختار "التأويل" على "التفسري" هنا الختياره وترجيحه الفرق بني الكلمتني يف املعىن ،وبعبارة أخرى فإن عبد هللا مييل إىل عدم الرتادف بني كلميت "التفسري والتأويل" يف املعىن خالفا ملا ذهب إليه بعض العلماء ،م
وهم أبو عبيدة وغريه من العلماء ،وقد أورد السيوطي ومن بعده أقوااهم يف هذه املسألة( .السيوطي9262 ، ه ،2 ،ص.)9911 : والتعريف اآلخر للتفسري والتأويل هو الذي رجحه عبد هللا بن فودي لسعة مقتضى كلمة التأويل على كلمة التفسري مث بىن تفسريه عليه ،ولذلك مسى الكتاب "ضياء التأويل يف معاين التنزيل" ،وقد أشار إىل ما اختاره
يف مقدمة تفسريه الوجيزة بعد أن ساق بعض التفريفات فقال :قال أبو العباس األزدي :النظر يف القرآن من وجهني؛ األول :من حيث هو منقول وهي مجلة التفسري وطريقته الرواية والنقل ،والثاين :من حيث هو معق ول وهي مجلة التأويل وطريقته الدراية والعقل ...قلت (عبد هللا النيجريي) :فالتفسري هو القطع على هللا بأنه عىن هبذا املعىن فلم جيز إال بالنقل عن النيب ،والتأويل هو ترجيح أحد احملتمالت بدون القطع فيه ،وهللا أ علم( .ضياء التأويل9129 ،م ،ص( :ه ). وعلى هذا فتسمية هذا التفسري هبذا اإلسم يوحى أول ذي بدء بأن صاحبه سيميل أكثر إىل التأويل بالرأي احملمود واملقبول؛ منها :التفسري باللغة بكل أنواعها ،ملتزما بالضوابط املعروفة عند العلماء ،وذلك بعد التفس ير باملأثور الذى البد منه.
إيل كي أحصل على السبب الوحيد الذي ح سبب التأليف :مث إن ي حبثت يف املراجع واملصادر اليت وصلت ّ
فّز عبد هللا إىل كتابة تفسريه هذا ،ولكن بدون جدوى ،وليت ي حصلت على هذا السبب األصيل مكتوبًا أو جدا ،وقد ملح عبد هللا فيها بسببني فقط ومها اللذان دفعاه مسندا! إال ما ذكره هو يف مقدمة تفسريه بإجياز ً ً إىل كتابة هذا التفسري ،السبب األول :اشتداد حاجة الراغبني إىل التفسري الذي يعتمد على أرجح أقوال الع مل اء .والسبب الثاين :إحلاح امللحني عليه بكتابة هذا التفسري اهم ليفهموا به كتاب هللا .وهذان السببان مها ذ كرمها ابن فودي بغري تفصيل وال إطناب ،وال عجب يف ذلك ملكانته عند الطلبة النيجرييني وملالمح تضلّعه
يف الفنون العلمية اليت ظهرت فيه وشاهدها أهل بالد ااهوسا. منهجه فيه :فقد وهج ابن فودي يف تفسريه هذا منهج من سبقوه من املفسرين املتقدمني واملتأخرين الذين كثريا إىل التفسري ب حذفوا األسانيد وقللوا القصص واختصروا األقوال املأثورة وذكروها بدون أسانيدها ،ومالوا ً الرأي املقبول ،واهتموا بالرد أحيانًا على التفاسري املذمومة والتأويالت الفاسدة لآليات املتشاهبة .ومنهج عبد هللا بن فودي يف اإليراد والنقل والتوسيع شبه متوسط ،ليس مبسهب كالقرطيب وال مبقصر كجاللني بل هو و سط بني هذا وذاك.
تاريخ التأليف :وأما تاريخ كتابته اهذا التفسري ،فلم يذكر عبد بن فودي مىت بدأه ،وال ذكر ذلك غريه من ا لباحثني ،ومما يالحظ أنه بدأ ذلك بعد اجلهاد الذي قاموا به وتوطيد الدولة ال ُف ِ وديّة اإلسالمية يف نيجرييا ،و ذلك بعد عام 9668ه حيث صار أمريا يف ناحية غُْن ُدو (اسم بلدة بنيجرييا) ،وانتهى بكتابته يف يوم الثالث اء بعد الظهر يف شهر شعبان لثالثة أيام خلون منه ،عام 9639ه ( .ضياء التأويل9129 ،م ،2 ،ص: قضى يف كتابة تفسريه ثالث سنوات وين ف تقريبا.
ّّ .)606 إ ًذا ،ميكن لنا أن نوصف تفسري ابن فودي النيجريي "ضياء التأويل" هذا بأنه تفسري جليل ،سهل دقيق ،و متضمن لدق سط احلجم ،وجامع بني املأثور واملعقول ولكن األخري أكثر ،متناول لوجوه اإلعراب والقراءاتّ ، ائق علوم البالغة واللغة ،ومرشح بأقول أهل السنة واجلماعة والرد على أباطيل أهل البدع والضاللة ،ومل يوس كثريا من سرية الرسول وغزواته ،وأطنب يف توجيه املناسبات ب ع يف القصص والعلوم الكونية ،ولكنه سرد ً ين السور واآليات وتكرارها ،وليس تفسريه هذا بالطويل اململ وال بالقصري املخل. وطبع تفسري ضياء التأويل يف معاين التنزيل أول طبعه سنة 9129م بتقدمي الشيخ أبو بكر حممود جومي نائ ب قاض قضاة نيجرييا آنذاك ،يف دار االستقامة مبصر ،وذلك يف أربعة أجزاء متوسطة ،وعدد صفحات كل مصورة بدون حتقيق ثان وال ثالث ،واحلال جزء ما بني 695إىل 665صفحةً ،ومنه طبعت عدة مرات ّ هذه أن الكتاب يف أشد احلاجة إىل إعادة حتقيقه مرة أخرى.
460
ILCC 2013
املبحث الثاين :مصادره يف فقه اللغة:
املصادر من املالمح اليت تدل على قيمة املؤلَّف واملصنَّف إذا استعمل هبا الكاتب استعماال الئقا ،وكذلك إن اعتمد على مصادر ذات أصالة وأمانة ومعتمدة .لقد اعتمد عبد هللا بن فودي النيجريي على مصادر كث يرة ومشهورة يف اللغة وفقهها ،واليت كانت يف مقدمة أولويته هي :القاموس احمليط للفريوزآبادي وكتب التفاس ير املعتمدة املشهورة آنذاك ،أو بعبارة أخرى املتداولة لدى العلماء يف منطقة غرب إفريقيا ،وأكثرها من كتب املغاربة ،وتفاصيلها كاآليت: القاموس احمليط حملمد بن يعقوب بن حممد بن إبراهيم الفريوزآبادى (ت891 :ه ) ،والكتاب مشتمل على فرائد أثرية وفوائد كثرية؛ من حسن االختصار وتقريب العبارة وهتذيب الكالم ،وإيراد املعاين الكثرية يف األلفاظ اليسرية( .الفريوزآبادي6001 ،م ،ص .)63 :فقد اهتم ابن فودي هبذا الكتاب اهتماما بالغا واعتىن به اعتناء فائقا يف تعريف كثري من كلمات القرآن وإخرا فقهها األصيل ،يذكره الكتاب بامسه عند االستدالل ليشري إىل مصدره بدون عناء ،وذلك حاله يف أغلب األحيان. اعتمادا أساسيًا يف اللغة وفقهها ،فقد نقل ابن فودي النيجري وبعد كتاب القاموس احمليط الذي اعتمد عليه ً ي بعض بيان الكلمات العربية وأصالة معانيها من هذه التفاسري اآلتية: اجلواهر احلسان يف تفسري القرآن لعبد الرمحن بن حممد بن خملوف الثعاليب اجلزائري املالكي( ،ت815 :ه )، وهو اإلمام احلجة العامل العامل ،الزاهد الورع ،أحد علماء املغارية ،وقد استفاد يف كتابتة جواهره بتفسري ابن عطية األندلسي ،وخمتصر اللخمي النحوي لتفسري ابن جرير الطربي ،وخمتصر الصفاقسي لتفسري البحر احمليط أليب حيان األندلسي ،وكتب األحاديث والرقائق ومصادرة أخرى ذكرها يف مقدمة تفسريه أو أشار إليها أثناء تفسريه ،والكتاب جامع خلالصات كتب مفيدة ،وهو مطبوع يف أربعة أجزاء ،وليس فيه ما يف غريه من احلشو املخل واالستطراد اململ( .الثعاليب9116 ،م ،9 ،ص.)8-1: أحكام القرآن ،أليب بكر ابن عبد هللا املعروف بابن العريب املعافري املالكي (ت523 :ه ) .وهذا التفسري يذكر السورة مث يشري إىل اآلية أو اآليات اليت فيها األحكام فيتناواها بالشرح والتحليل واحدة تلو األخرى، وهو مرجع هام لفقه املالكية مع ذكره آلراء املذاهب األخرى بإجياز ،ولكن ظهرت عليه روح التعصب ملذهبه والدفاع عنه ،غري أنه مل يشتط فيه كما فعل غريه من املتعصبني ،ومل يفنّد كالم خمالفيه إذا كان وجيها ومقبوالً( .ابن العريب ،د.ت ،9 ،ص( :ط،ي).
أنوار التنزيل وأسرار التأويل ،للقاضي ناصر الدين عبد هللا بن عمر بن حممد البيضاوي الشافعي (ت:
285ه ) .وتفسريه هذا تفسري متوسط احلجم ،مجع فيه بني التفسري والتأويل ،على مقتضى قواعد اللغة العربية ،وقرر فيه األدلة على أصول قواعد أهل السنة ،وقد اختصر تفسريه من الكشاف للزخمشري ،ولكنه ترك ما فيه من االعتزال ،واستمد أيضا من التفسري الكبري املسمى مبفاتيح الغيب للفخر الرازي ،ومن تفسري الراغب األصفهاين ،وغريها من كتب التفسري( .الذهيب9233 ،ه ،2 ،ص.)655-652 : هذه التفاسري الثالث لقد اهتم أصحاهبا بإيراد معاين األلفاظ القرآنية عند أكثر كلماته لإليضاح والتبيني وا
الستدالل ،السيما عند املفردات اليت كثر االختالف فيها عند الفقهاء أو احملدثني أو اللغويني ،اهذا وذاك ،ن قل ابن فودي كثريا من فقه اللغة من هذه التفاسري الثالث. قال الفريوزآبادي يف مقدمة قاموسه" :إن علم اللغة هو الكافل بإبراز أسرار اجلميع ،احلافل مبا يتضلع منه ال قاحل والكاهل ،والفاقع والرضيع ،وإن بيان الشريعة ملا كان مصدره عن لسان العرب ،وكان العمل مبوجبه ال يصح إال بإحكام العلم مبقدمته ،وجب على ّروام العلم وطالب األثر ،أن جيعلوا عُظْم اجتهادهم واعتماده جل عنايتهم يف ارتيادهم ،إىل علم اللغة واملعرفة بوجوهها ،والوقوف على ُمثُلها ورسومها"( .ا م ،وأن يصرفوا ّ لفريوزآبادي9230 ،ه 6001/م ،ص .)66-69:إن دل هذا على شيئ ،فإمنا يدل على أن من مل يعنت باللغة وفقهها السيما يف تفسري كالم البارئ سبحانه وتعاىل ومسائل شريعته ،فسيقع يف هوة اخلطإ والضالل ،وظلمة اجلهل وااهوى ،وبدون معرفة اللغة وفقهها ال تفهم الشريعة ومقاصدها ومسائلها ومصادرها ،وح ّد ث وال حر !
462
ILCC 2013
مفصال: املبحث الثالث :منهج تعامله مع فقه اللغة ّ
تبني مما سبق ،أن عبد هللا النيجريي قد اختذ "القاموس احمليط" وغريه مصدرا يف توضيح وتبيني بعض امل وكما ّ عاين املرادة من اآليات القرآنية يف تفسريه "ضياء التأويل" ،يذكر معىن األصل للكلمة يف أغلب األحيان عن د اللغويني ،وأحيانا يردف ذلك بأمثلة أخرى مناسبة ،ويف األحيان األخرى يذكر معىن الكلمة شرعا بعد أن عرفها لغة ،واألمثلة اآلتية توضح ذلك: ِّ اك ا ْحلَ َج َر صَ وسى لَِّق ْوِّم ِّه فَ قلْنَا ا ْ ض ِّر ْ فمثال :عند بيان كلمة "احلجر" يف قوله تعاىلَ { :وإِّذ ْ ب بِّ َع َ استَ ْس َقى م َ }...البقرة...9 :قال ابن فودي وهو يبني أي حجر هذا :أو هو احلجر الذي فر بثوبه (أي بثوب موسى)
ملا وضعه عليه ليغتسل ،فربئه هللا به عما رماه بنوا إسرائيل من األدرة ،فأشار جربيل حبمله وهو خفيف مر بع قدر ذراع يف ذراع رخام أو ك ّذ ،والرخام –كغراب -األبيض الرخو ،والك ّذان –بذال معجمة -قال يف ا لقاموس :ككتان :حجارة رخوة كاملدر ،والكذكذة محرة شديدة ،وَك ّذ :خشن .اه (ضياء التأويل9129 ،م، ،9ص.)33: الشي ِّ اطني َعلَى مل ِّ ْسك سلَْي َما َن َوَما َك َف َر سلَْي َمان َولَكِّ َّن َّ الشيَا ومثال آخر يف قوله تعاىلَ ":واتَّبَ عوا َما تَ ْت لو َّ َ ِّ ِّ ِّ الس ْح َر }...البقرة .112 :ومن أنواع السحر ما يفرق بني املرء وزوجه ومنه ما طَ َّاس ّ ني َك َفروا ي َعلّمو َن الن َ كه َمزة – السحر أو شبهه وخرزة حتبب جيمع بينهما ويسمى التّولة ،وكالمها كفر ،ويف القاموس :الت َُّولة – ُ معها املرأة إىل زوجها( ،أو) كالتِّ َولة كعِنَبة فيهما( .ضياء التأويل9129 ،م ،9 ،ص.)22 : ومثال آخر أيضا ِّ َّ ِّ ِّ يم َحنِّيفا َوَما َكا َن ِّم َن ا يف قوله تعاىلَ { :وقَالوا كونوا هودا أ َْو نَ َ صَ ارى تَ ْهتَدوا ق ْل بَ ْل ملةَ إبْ َراه َ ويف القاموس :احلنف -حمركة ،االستقامة واالعوجا يف الرجل ،وقد حنف كفرح وكرم -فهو أحنف ،وكضرب :مال ،إىل أ ِّ ني .البقرة.935 : لْم ْش ِّرك َ ن قال :واحلنيف-كأمري :-الصحيح امليل إىل اإلسالم الثابت عليه .اه ( .ضياء التأويل9129 ،م ،9 ،ص.)53 : َّ ِّ ك َوَما أنْ ِّز َل ِّم ْن ين ي ْؤِّمنو َن ِّمبَا أنْ ِّز َل إِّلَْي َ هذه الثالثة ،مث األخرى كاآليت :بني "اإليقان" يف قوله تعاىلَ { :والذ َ ك َوبِّ ْاآل ِّخ َرةِّ ه ْم يوقِّنو َن .البقرة .4:بأنه حصول العلم بال شك( .ضياء التأويل9129 ،م ،9 ،ص قَ ْبلِّ َ .)99 : ِّ ِّ اَّلل َعلَى ق ل ِِّّ ص ِّ يم .الب وقال يف قوله تعاىلَ { :ختَ َم َّ ارِّه ْم ِّغ َ شا َوةٌ َوََل ْم َع َذ ٌ وِب ْم َو َعلَى َسَْع ِّه ْم َو َعلَى أَبْ َ اب َعظ ٌ قرة...7:والغشاوة :فعالة تبىن ملا يشتمل على الشيئ كالعصابة والعمامة .وعرف "العذاب" بقوله :كل ما ي شق على اإلنسان ومينعه مراده ،أصله املنع...والعذاب كالنكال بناء ومعىن ،تقول :عذب عن شيئ ونكل ع نه إذا أمسك ،ومنه املاء العذب ألنه يقمع العطش ،مث اتسع فأطلق على كل أمل فادح وإن مل يكن نكاال أ
و عقابا يردع اجلاين عن املعاودة ،فهو أعم منها .وقيل اشتقاقه من التعذيب الذي هو إزالة العذب كالتقذية والتمريض ،والعظيم نقيض احلقري ،والكبري نقيض الصغري ،فكما أن احلقري دون الصغري ،فالعظيم فوق الك بري ،ومعىن التوصيف به إذا قيس بسائر ما جيانسه قصر عنه وحقر باإلضافة إليه(...ضياء التأويل9129 ، م ،9 ،ص.)93-96 : ِّ ِّ ِّ ِّ َّاس من ي قول آمنَّا بِّ َِّّ ني .البقرة" ... ،8 :النا اَّلل َوبِّالْيَ ْوم ْاآلخ ِّر َوَما ه ْم ِّمب ْؤمنِّ َ َ وقال يف قوله تعاىلَ { :وم َن الن ِّ َ ْ َ س" أصله أناس حذفت مهزته ختفيفا وعوض عنه حرف التعريف ،واشتقاقه من األنس والظهور ،كما مسي ا جلن جنا الجتناوهم( .ضياء التأويل9129 ،م ،9 ،ص .)96 :وهنا بني تصريف الكلمة أوال مث ذكر فقه ها ومثال آخر عليه. ادعو َن َّ َّ ِّ وذكر ابن فودي يف قوله تعاىلُ{ :يَ ِّ ِّ سه ْم َوَما يَ ْشعرو َن .البقرة ين َ اَّللَ َوالذ َ آمنوا َوَما َُيْ َدعو َن إ َّال أَنْ ف َ ... .9 :واخلدع أن توهم غريك خالف ما ختفيه من املكروهلتنزله عما هو بصدده ،وأصله السرت واإلخفاء، ومنه املخدع للخزانة واملفاعلة هنا من واحد كعاقبت اللص ...والشعور :اإلحساس كأن رجوع ضرر اخلداع إليهم شيئ ظاهر كاحملسوس ال ُيفى إال على من عدم احلواس ،ومشاعر اإلنسان حواسه ومنه الشعار( . ضياء التأويل9129 ،م ،9 ،ص.)93 : ِّ ِّ ِّ ِّ الس الس َف َهاء أ ََال إِّنَّه ْم هم ُّ آم َن ُّ آم َن النَّاس قَالوا أَن ْؤمن َك َما َ يل ََل ْم آمنوا َك َما َ وأما يف قوله تعاىلَ { :وإذَا ق َ فَ َهاء َولَ ِّك ْن َال يَ ْعلَمو َن .البقرة .13 :أي اجلهال ،وأصل السفه :اخلفة والطيش ،وهو نقيض احللم ،وال يط لق على اجلاهل الساكت ،وإوها يطلق على السليط(...ضياء التأويل9129 ،م ،9 ،ص.)92 : وهكذا استعمل عبد هللا النيجريي اللغة وفقههاِ واهتم هبا أميا اهتمام يف توضيح اآليات وتبيني املعاين املرادة وتقريبها إىل أذهان العوام لكي يفهموا كتاب رهبم الكبري املتعال ،واألمثلة يف تفسريه هذا كثرية ج ّدا ،ويف ه ذه املختصرة كفاية إن شاء هللا تعاىل.
464
ILCC 2013
اخلامتة ولقد رأينا فيما سبق بيانه وتفصيله ،بأن عبد هللا بن حممد فودي النيجريي ،قد أتاح هللا له الفرصة الثمينة ،ال يت تعلم فيها فنون علوم اإلسالمية الكثرية ،حىت برع فيها ،ونشرها بالكتابة والتصنيف والتحرير والتلخيص، ومما أوجده يف جمال التفسري ،كتابه املشهور يف بالد السودان ،وهو " ضياء التأويل يف معاين التنزيل" ،التفس ير الذي انتهج فيه مناهج من سبقوه ،كاخلازن والثعاليب والبغوي ليستفيد به السودانيون وغريهم .ولكن ابن فودي قد اهتم يف تفسريه ببيان فقه اللغة وتعريف كثري من ألفاظ القرآن الكرمي ،واعتمد يف ذلك على "القام وس احمليط" للفريوزآبادي وغريه من كتب التفاسري اليت اهتمت بذلك .ولقد أوردنا بعض األمثلة على ذلك من سورة البقرة فقط ،فالسورة بل تفسريه مملوء بذلك ،وفيما ذكرنا كفاية وإشارة ومفتاح ملن يأيت بعد .واحلم د هلل رب العاملني ،والصالة والسالم على املبعوث رمحة للعاملني ،نبيينا وشفيعنا وحبيب رب العاملني ،حممد ب ن عبد هللا ،وعلى آله وأصحابه ،ومن تبعهم بإحسان إىل يوم الدين. املصادر واملراجع أبو بكر ،أمني الدين (د.ت) .اجملاهد الكبري :الشيخ عثمان بن فودي ،كانو :د.م ،د.ط.
ابن فودي ،عبد هللا بن حممد بن عثمان1961( .م) .ضياء التأويا يف معاين التنزيل ،تقدمي أيب بكر حممود غومي ،القاهرة :دار الكتب العلمية ،ط.1 ابن فودي ،عبد هللا بن حممد بن عثمان1989 ( .م) .كفاية ضعفاء السودان يف بيان تفسري القرآن ،ت قدمي حممد سنوسي غوميب ،كادونا :مؤسسة غوميب ،ط.1 ابن فودي ،عبد هللا حممد بن عثمان( .د.ت) .نيل السول من تفاسري الرسول ،حتقيق عبد العلي عبد احلميد ،كانو :شركة عبد هللا اليسار ،ط.1 ابن فودي ،عبد هللا بن حممح بن عثمان1432( ،ه 2119 /م) .مفتاح التفسري ،شرح حممح تكر بن حممد ،كانو :دار األمة ،ط.2 ابن فودي ،عبد هللا بن حممد بن عثمان( .د.ت) .ساللة املفتاح ،د.م ،د.ط. ابن فودي ،عبد هللا بن حممد بن عثمان( .د.ت) .الفرائد اجلليلة وسائط الفوائد اجلميلة ،حتقيق عبد العلي عبد اجمليد ،د.م ،د.ط.
ابن فودي ،عبد هللا1377( .ه1958-م) ،إيداع النسوخ ممن أخذت عنه من الشيخ ،د.م ،د.ط. ابن فودي ،عبد هللا بن حممد بن عثمان( .د.ت) ،كتاب النسب ،ص ّكتو :مطبعة سيد الطاهر ،د.ط. ابن العريب ،أبو بكر بن حممد د.ت) .أحكام القرآن ،تقدمي حممد عبد اخلالق عطا ،بريوت :دار الفكر
د.ط.
بوي ،عمر حممد( .د.ت) .توضيح الغامضات على تزيني الورقات ،د.ط.
الثعاليب ،عبد الرمحان بن خملوف ،)9116( .اجلواهر احلسان يف تفسري القرآن ،بريوت :املكتبة العصرية، ط.9
احلالوي ،عبد الرمحن1399( .ه1979/م) .أصول الرتبية اإلسالمية وأساليبها ،دار الفكر :بريوت،
ط.1 الذهيب ،حممد حسني9233( .ه6096 /م) ،التفسري واملفسرون ،القاهرة :دار احلديث ،د.ط. السيوطي ،جالل الدين عبد الرمحن9262( .ه 6002/م) .اإلتقان يف علوم القرآن2 ،مكة املكرمة: مكتبة مزار الباز ،ط.6
الفريوزآبادي ،حممد بن يعقوب بن حممد بن إبراهيم ،)6001( .القاموس احمليط ،بريوت :شريكة القدس،
ط.9
حوليات اجلامعة اإلسالمية بالنيجري1419( ،ه1998-م) ،العدد.4:
466
ILCC 2013
تناول كنز العال للربدة ما بني التناص والسرقة الشعرية يوس نظرية عبدهللا نور احلنيلة حممد عصمت اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا تسعى هذه الدراسة إىل تقدمي تصور نظري وحتليلي حول التناص والسرقة الشعرية يف كنز العال للربدة ،وذلك من خالل التعريف ببعض املفاهيم النقدية املتصلة بنظرية التناص والسرقة ا الشعرية وإيراد النماذ املتعلقة بالدراسة من الشواهد الشعرية .قد أ ّكد بعض الباحثني املاليويني تأثر كنز العال بالربدة للبوصريي من الناحية اللغوية ،واألدبية ،والعروضية العربية .ومن املالحظ ،أن هناك االستفادة والسرقة واحملاكاة فيما بني الشعراء يف نتاجهم األديب على اختالف األمم يف العامل ،ومنذ عصر اجلاهلية حىت اليوم ،سواء أكان بالنص أو شىت .وسوف تتعامل الباحثتان مع املضمون إذ تظهر بني آداب األمم يف العامل أوجه التشابه يف جوانب ّ النصوص الشعرية لدى الشاعرين يف تلك القصيدتني وتقارن بينها إلبرازا كيفية تناواهما بشمائل الشخصية احملمدية وحياهتا وحتويلهما إىل الصورة الشعرية استندا إىل جتربتهم احلياتية واالجتماعية .وسوف تكشف الدراسة عن عناصر التناص والسرقة األدبية يف كنز العال للربدة ،إذ قد يتناص سيد حممد العيدروس معىن ولفظا ،أو قد يسرق هبما سرقة حمضة برتمجة عدد نصوص شعرية يف الربدة النصوص الشعرية منهما ً وااهمزية إىل اللغة املاليوية دون أي إبداع جديد من الناحية اللغوية واألدبية ،ويف املضمون وبناء الف ي. وسوف تستخدم الباحثتان املنهج الوصفي التحليلي واملقارن يف الدراسة ،بإتيان النماذ الشعرية املختارة من القصيدتني وابراز أوجه التشابه واالختالف الجل إثبات حقيقة التناص أو السرقة الشعرية يف كنز العال للربدة .
املقدمة
1
قد انتبه العرب القدمى مدلول التناص وهو عالقات النصوص بعضها مع البعض اآلخر ومصطلح التناص أو ترمجته يف اللغة االنكليزية( )Intertertualityتستخدم يف الدراسات النقدية العربية 1 مع مصطلحات أخرى اليت ترتادف من حيث املفاهيم أمثااها التناصية والنصوصية 1والتعالق النصي وتداخل النصوص واحلوارية 1والنص الغائب . 1وهذه املصطلحات كلها تدور حول العالقات القائمة بني عرفت الناقدة الفرنسية جوليا كرستيفا بأن التناص هي تقاطع داخل النص لتعبري نص ونصوص أخرى .وقد ّ
(قول) مأخوذ من نصوص أخرى 1وتذهب كرستيفا إىل مفهوم التناص الذي ال يتجزأ من النص 1بوصفه التقاطع والتعديل املتبادل بني وحدات عائدة إىل نصوص خمتلفة.1 ويرى بارت أن التناص يتسرب يف كل نواحي احلياة ألن النص هو نسيج من الكتابات وجمال إدخال 1 ثقافات متنوعة يف وسائل عديدة من حوار وحماكاة وسخرية وتغريض. ومصطلح التناص عند جي رار هو التعال ي النص ي أي ما جيعل النص يف عالقة خفية أو جلية مع غريه من النصوص 1مما يهتم بالتمظهر الشكلي للتناص .و مفهوم التناص عند تودوروف هو حتويل م ن خطاب 1 إىل آخر وم ن نصٍ إىل نص 1ويرى روبرت شولز أن القصيدة نص يرتبط بنصوص أخرى . مفهوم التناص هو الشبكات املتصلة ببعضها البعض؛ أي تداخل النصوص وتفاعلها مما حيدث عالقات متعددة منها اجلانب الثقافة والتأويلية بوصفها تقنية منهجية يركز على بنية النصوص األدبية اليت تسري على األدوار املختلفة.وهي تينب حقائق منابعها األصلية ،وثقافة املبدع، وظروفه ،ومواقفه اليت جعلته يستدعي النصوص السابقة املتسمة باألصالة. والتناص أيضا عبارة عن امتصاص نصوص لنصوص أخرى مع الزيادة والنقصان والتغيري والتحويل ،ويف تلك احلالة أصبح النص الواحد يذخر بنصوص أخرى. نظرية التناص ،رغم نشأتها يف الغرب؛ من النظريات اليت استفاد منها النقد العريب ،فقيمة هذه النظرية ال تنهض فيما تقدمه من قراءة جديدة للنص فحسب؛ بل يف الدور الذي تؤديه لتخليص بعض املناهج النقدية من العقم الذي أضحى يهددها ،إذ استطاعت أن تكسر احلاجز الذي أقامته البنيوية حول النص، حني رفضت كل ما هو خار عليه ،وانشغلت عن تأدية وظيفة الوسيط بني النص واملتلقي بأمور أخرى.1
والنقاد يف الدراسات النقدية العربية أمثال :حممد مفتاح ،حممد بنيس ،عبد هللا الغذامي وسعيد يقطني وغريهم قد استفادوا من نظرية التناصية الغربية يف دراسة النص واخلطاب رغم تشعبت هذه النظرية إىل شىت اجلوانب .قد اجتهد هؤالء يف إجياد مفهوم دقيق اها من حيث التنظري والتعريف والتطبيق متأثرين بآراء النقاد
468
ILCC 2013
يف الغرب ،أمثال :باختني ،كريستيفا ،أريفي ،لورانت وتودوروف وغريهم.والحظنا أن نظرية التناصية لدى نقاد العرب تسعى على منوال هؤالء النقاد يف الغرب. ويقصد بالتناص لدى الغربيني أو العرب هو عملية التناصية اليت تتم بالتبادل ،والرباط ،واالحتاد ،والتفاعل بني نصني أو عدة نصوص .وقد تعددت تعريفات التناص ومصطلحاهتا املتداولة لدى النقاد الغربيني والعرب بناء على ثقاف اهتم العلمية وقدرهتم التأويلية مما أدت إىل اختالفهم يف تقسيم أنواعه .وأنواع التناص اليت ذكرت يف الدراسات النقدية احلديثة أمثال :التناص الداخلي أو التناص الذايت ،والتناص اخلارجي أو التناص العام ،والتناص الظاهري أو الواعي أو التناص الشعوري ،أو التناص األفقي السطحي ،والتناص الالشعوري أو تناص" اخلفاء ،أو التناص العمودي أو العميق . والتناص الداخلي هو أن يتناص الشاعر مع نصوصه نفسها ، 1سواء كانت هذه النصوص من أعمال سابقة أم من نفس العمل الشعري مثل التناص مع مقاطع سابقة أم مع عنوان القصيدة ،1وقد يسمى التناص الداخلي بالتناص الذايت حيث يدخل الشاعر من خالله يف جتربة جديدة تنطلق من نصوصه املوجودة.1ويعرف التناص اخلارجي بأنه عملية استحضار لنص أو نصوص أخرى متعددة املصادر واملستويات 1والوظائف ،ويسمى أيضا بالتناص العام الذي تنجلي فيه عالقة نص الكاتب بنصوص غريه من الكتاب ،1وال تنحصر العالقة بالنصوص فقط بل تشمل النص املفرد وغريه أدبية كانت أو غري أدبية ، 1 لغوية كانت أو غري لغوية ،مبعىن امشل عالقة الفنون بعضها ببعض . وقد وضع حممد بن عمارة تعريف التناص العمودي أو العميق وهو "نتا مفهوم عميق ،ينب ي هاجسه على أساس انتقال الذات الشاعرة بوجدانها ،وميواهها وحركيتها إىل النص الذي تتجلى فيه خمتلف املراجع الروحية والذوقية واجلمالية املكونة لتلك الذات املبدعة.إن جتليات النص الشعري الرؤيوي تتجسد يف االفتنان اللغوي عن طريق البحث عن اللغة العليا اليت تساند لغة الشعر وَتدها بأبعاد التعبري الشاعري" 1ويأيت هذا التناص بطريق االستدعاء أوالقناع أو الرمز أو األسطورة يف الشعر الذايت والشعر امللمحي لدى الشعراء احلديث املعني ،كما يرد يف الشعر الصويف القدمي واحلديث.وأما التناص األفقي السطحي يكشف عن العالقة املوجودة بني نص ونصوص أخرى واستدعائه اها بطرق عديدة أمثااها ،األخذ أواالحتذاء أوالسرقة أوالغصب أواالقتباسأ والتضمني ويتم ذلك باإلتيان مبعاين النص الغائب أو ألفاظه أو اإلشارة إليها أو إعادة بنية النص
الغائب حبيث وظفها الشاعر بالزيادة والنقصان والقلب والتضاد .وهو عملية اليت تنجز بصناعة اللفظ واملعىن وحسن اختيارمها ،واالهتمام بالنظم وحتنب عيوبه ،واإلتيان باملعاين القوية والصور احلية.
وقد حتدث القدمى عن النص وعالقاته التفاعلية مع النصوص األخرى من حيث التأثري والتأثر سواء أكان يف الشعر أم النثر بطريقة غري مباشر إذ قامت الدراسات اللغوية واألدبية والنقدية والبالغية على أساسه بظهور املصطلحات املتعددة يف تلك اجملاالت .وعلى الرغم من ظهور مصطلح النظرية التناصية خالل سنوات الستينيات من القرن املاضي نتيجة للتجديد الكبري الذي طرأ على الفكر النقدي أن وجود أصول لقضية التناص بارز يف املؤلفات النقدية العربية القدمية مبصطلحات عدة كالسرقات واالقتباس ،والتضمني، واملعارضة وغريها .وهي تقرتب من النظرية التناصية يف بعض مدلوالهتا ومعانيها .وقد شاع عدد مصطلحات مشهورة أخرى يف النقد القدمي اليت تعكس شكال من أشكال التناص والتداخل النصي، وأمثلتها املوازنة بني أيب َتام والبحرتي لآلمدي ،واملفاضلة بينهما للمنجم ،والوساطة بني بني املتنيب وخصومه للجرجاين وسرقات البحرتي من أيب َتام وسرقات املتنيب للحميدي . وقد ثبتت الدراسات اليت أقامها بعض النقاد أمثااهم باختني ،كرستيفا ،بارت أن تعريفات للسرقات الشعرية تقرتب كثرياً من مفهوم تعالق النصوص وتداخلها يف األدبيات احلديثة وتتطابق مع أشكال التناص املاثلة يف الشعر احلديث .وأصبح التناص يف مفهومه أخذ معىن أو عبارة النص املعني.وقد توضح أمهية التناص على األدباء حبيث أعطائهم احلرية الواسعة للتعامل مع املصادر الثقافية ما واملعرفية غري حمددة واالقتباس منها. وتعد السرقة من صميم التناص اليت تثري اجلدال والنقاس بني النقاد والباحثني يف كشف حقيقة التناص من حيث التنظري والتطبيق ورغم ذلك فما زال التناص يعاين من عدم استقرار منهجي ألنه مل يصبح نظرية مكتملة بعد إذ تشعب املفهوم وتداخله مع جماالت حبثية أخرى ،بناء على أن املدة نشأته جديدة غري كافية لبلورة املفهوم وصياغته صياغة حمكمة .ومن اآلراء املتداولة حول التناص وعالقته بالسرقة ،أن العرب منذ اجلاهلية عرفوا التناص من حيث النطبيق ومل يضعوه اصطالحيا أو قد يعرف جوهره بتسمية أخرى، هناك عالقة قوية بني السرقات ونظرية التناص وتبادل التأثر بني نص ما ونصوص أدبية أخرى وهذه الفكرة كان النقد العريب القدمي قد عرفها ولكنه صنفها حتت مسمى السرقة .وقد خاص الفكر العريب يف قضايا التناص ومن بينها فكرة السرقات ،1والتناص ليس يف" تصورنا ،ال حدوث عالقة تفاعلية بني نص سابق ونص حاضر إلنتا نص الحق ،فقراءة النصوص السابقة يف تصور النقاد السيمائيني ،وحفظ هذه النصوص مث نسياوها يف تصور ابن خلدون مها أساس فكرة التناص اليت تالزم كل مبدع مهما يكن شأنه، فاملخزون من النصوص املقروءة أو احملفوظة أو املنسية من قبل ،هو الذي يتحكم غالبًا يف صفة النص 1 املكتوب". وكان شعراء القدامى يكررون يف أشعارهم مطالع الطللية وموضوعاهتا ومعانيها ويشرتطون على من أراد أن يكون شاعرا فحال متمكنا حفظ أشعار فحول الشعراء .ألن" من قل حفظه لألشعار اجليدة ال يكون
470
ILCC 2013
شاعرا ؛ إمنا يكون ناظما ساقطا 1".ويكاد الوقوف والبكاء وذكر ال ِّد َم ِن أصبح أهم معجمهم الف ي وهذا إمنا يفتح أفقا واسعا لدخول القصائد يف فضاء نصي متشابك.1 يف احلقيقة ،قد حيدث اإلتفاق يف القول أو الكالم من حيث األغراض واملعاين املقصودة بني البشر ،إذ يتناول األدباء ممن سبقهم من املعاين وقوالب األقوال ،ويستفيد منهما ويكسومها بألفاظهم يف التأليف سواء أكان يف الشعر أو النثر .واألخذ إما بالسرقة الظاهرة أو السرقات غري الظاهرة ،فالسرقة الظاهرة أو النسخ أو االنتحال يع ي أخذ املعىن مجيعه مع اللفظ مجيعه بدون أي تغيري يف نظمه األصلي ،والسرقات غري املباشر الذي يعرف بإملام أو سلخ هو أخذ املعىن فقط .ومن مناذ السرقة الظاهرة كما أشار إليها اجلاحظ يف كتاب البيان والتبيني-: جند ذلك يف قوله :قال يزيد بن مفرغ: واحلر تكفيه املالمة العبد يقرع بالعصا وقال :أخذه من الفلتان الفهمي ،حيث قال : واحلر تكفيه اإلشارة العبد يقرع بالعصا وقال مالك بن الريب: واحلر تكفيه الوعيد العبد يقرع بالعصا وقال آخر: واحلر تكفيه املقالة العبد يقرع بالعصا والسرقة خفية إشارة إىل اتفاق املعاين لدى الشعراء املختلفة باختالف أدائهم يف التعبري ،وكذلك يف اختيار األلفاظ ومن مناذجها -: قال أحد الشاعر: متضجع يكفي وال يكفي من كل مطوي على حنق وقال احلسن بن هانئ: وأما عليه باكفى تشري إذا نابه أمر فأما كفيته وقال آخر: ذري ي فال أعيا مبا حل ساحيت
أسود فأكفى أو أطيع املسودا
1
وكان علّى بن أيب طالب يقول :لوال أن الكالم يعاد لنفد ،وقال بعضهم :كل شيء ثنيته قصر إال الكالم،
فإنك إذا ثنيته طال 1.وقد قسم البالغيون السرقات الشعرية إىل النسخ والسلخ واملسخ أو اإلغارة ،ويقصد بالنسخ هو أخذ اللفظ واملعىن مجيعا ويعده السرقة السلبية أو املعيبة ،وأما السلخ فهو السرقة احملمودة لكونه أدق السرقات وأجودها الصورة ،ويتم ذلك بأخذ املعىن وحده ،واألخري،ما يسمى باملسخ أو اإلغارة أي أخذ بعض اللفظ أو يغري بعض النظم.واجلاحظ اختص يف كتابه " احليوان" موضوعا خاصة يف أخذ الشعراء بعضهم معاين بعض .ومن امللحوظ أن التناص الظاهري أو الواعي أو التناص الشعوري ،أو التناص األفقي السطحي يقرتب مفهومه بالنسخ أو السرقة الظاهرأو االنتحال والتضمني واالقتباس.وأما التناص الالشعوري أو تناص" اخلفاء ،أوالتناص األفقي السطحي ميثل بالسرقة غري املباشر أو اإلملام أو املسخ أو اإلغارة من حيث مفهومه األدىن ،كما قال ابن رشيق" :السرق يف الشعر ما نقل معناه دون لفظه وأبعده يف أخذه.وكأن ابن رشيق من مقولته السابقة ما أشار إىل السرقة بل حتدث عن التناص . التناص مع الربدة قصيدة كنز العال )1تناص املعاين كنز العال مع الربدة وقد نالت الربدة الشهرة الكبرية وصارت أمنوذجا حيتذي به يف األمة اإلسالمية وأثرت يف الشعراء واألدباء قدميا وحديثا شكال ومضمونا ،فلقيت اهتماما كثريا من حيث الشرح والتحقيق يف خمتلف اللغات ،كما ترمجت إىل لغات عديدة منها الفرنسية واالجنليزية ،واألملانية ،والرتكية ،والفارسية ،واملاليوية وما إىل ذلك. وقد اختذها الشعراء عرب العصور قالبا اهم ينسجون على منوال صاحب الربدة البوصريي بغض النظر إىل لغاهتم وثقاتاهتم منهم سيد حممد العيدروس شاعر ماليزي بقصيدته "كنز العال" ،وإذ املتأمل لقصيدته" كنز العال "جيدها تتناص من ناحية املوضوعات مع قصيدة البوصريي. واملوضوع الذي طرقه البوصريي وسيد حممد موضوعا دينيا ،وشخصية الرسول (ص) كانت احملور األساسي الذي دار حوله كال الشاعرين وما تتعلق هبا من جوانب خمتلفة .والرسول (ص) ميثل العنصر الرئيسي يف حياة األمة اإلسالمية يف كل زمن ومكان وكذلك يف الشعر العريب الذي أدى إىل ظهور املديح النبوي ،مث كان تتبلور ظاهرة أدبية من الظواهر األدبية املنتشرة ،ومثاله بردة البوصريي مبا فيها تقاليدها الفنية واملوضوعية . من املالحظة ،أن بعض معاين كنز العال وموضوعاته تتميز مبعاين قصيدة الربدة ،مما يؤكد أخذ معانيه من الربدة ويع ي ذلك أن معاين كنز العال أيضا تصدر من الشعر العريب .وقد اضطر البوصريي وسيد حممد أن يولدا معاين جديدة من املعاين املطروحة املشهورة يف املصادر التارُيية واألدبية املوجودة غري أن استفادة
472
ILCC 2013
الشاعرين منها ال تقلل مقدرهتما وموهبتهما الشعرية .واملعاين اليت وردت يف الربدة وكنز العال مقتبسة من السرية النبوية تسجل كل صغرية وكبرية عن حياة رسول هللا (ص) وكل ما يتعلق هبا من أحداث ومواقف، ومعجزاته وما إىل ذلك. كان البوصريي يتناص معاين الربدة من السرية النبوية والشعر العريب القدمي ويطورها ويضيف إليها أفكار جديدة مل تعرف بعد من قضايا عصره وكذلك يف موضوع معني الذي يوضح عالقته برسول هللا(ص) روحيا ونفسيا ،وأما كنز العال فيتناص معاين الربدة اليت توافق مع ثقافة شعب املاليوي يف تلك القرتة .ولعل من أشهر القضايا يف الربدة الذي يتناص معها كنز العال هو مديح الرسول (ص) .وقد أشار كنز العال إىل أن الرسول(ص) يتفوق على سائر املخلوقات خلقيا وخلقيا حبيث يقول سيد حممد العيدروس : ويقول سيد حممد : 1 ذاته وصفاته ونسبه وأخالقه سيدنا رسول هللا األعظم 1 يف خلقه وخلقه أن عظمة رسول هللا(ص) ليست اها شبيه ومعاين هذه األبيات سبقه فيها البوصريي يف بردته ،ويقول البوصريي: 1 ومل يدانوه يف علم وال كرم فاق النبيني يف خلق ويف خلق وهناك وجه آخر التشابه يف ذكر تفضيل الرسول (ص) على سائر البشر ومنهم األنبياء عند الشاعرين : يقول البوصريي : 1 والفريقني من عرب ومن عجم حممد سيد الكونني والثقلني ويقول سيد حممد: 1 واجلن أصله من النار واإلنس "حممد سيد العرب والعجم من املالحظة ،يتناص سيد حممد يف وصف الرسول (ص) سيد العرب والعجم وسيد اجلن واالنس مع ما وصفه البوصريي يف بردته .وموضوع آخر يتناص سيد حممد مع الربدة يف تشبيه رسول هللا (ص) بالشمس وغريه من األنبياء بالكواكب .وذلك الظهار فضل الرسول (ص) على غريه من األنبياء. ويقول البوصريي : 1 يظهرن أنوارها للناس يف الظلم فإنه مشس فضل هم كواكبها ويقول سيد حممد : وهو مشس نورها المع
واألنبياء األخرون كواكبها
1
وشبه الشاعران رسول هللا بالبحر والغيث للداللة على جوده وكرمه . يقول البوصريي : كالزهر يف ترف والبدر يف شرف مث يقول : ولن يفوت الغىن منه يدا تربت ويقول سيد حممد :
والبحر يف كرم والدهر يف مهم
1
إن احليا ينبت األزهار يف األكم.
1
وموجه الفياض فإنه البحر الواسع 1 يف الرب والبحر فإنه سحاب ينزل به الغيث وقد تناص كنز العال فكرة احلقيقة احملمدية مع الربدة لإلشارة إىل منزلة الرسول (ص) العظيمة عند هللا وميزته على سائر البشر وحىت األنبياء السابقني حيث يقول سيد حممد العيدروس: وغريه يستمد منه النور فهو أول نور ُيلق 1 ملا كان وجود هذه الدنيا ولوال وجود الرسول (ص) وسبقه البوصريي ذكرها يف موضعني : 1 لواله مل ختر الدنيا من العدم وكيف تدعو إىل الدنيا ضرورة من ويقول أيضا: 1 فإمنا اتصلت من نوره هبم وكل آى أتى الرسل الكرام هبا ويتناص كنز العال ظواهر االرهاصات من الربدة حيث يقول يقول سيد حممد: 1 املظاهر الكثرية اليت ختالف العادة والنادرة وأبان يف ليل مولده ويقول البوصريي : 1 يا طيب مبتدإ منه وخمتتم أبان مولده عن طيب عنصره والقضايا املشركة بني الشاعرين يف بيان مظاهر مولد رسول هللا (ص) أمثااها تداعى إيوان كسرى وانصداعه ،واحتالم علماء كسرى ،ومخود نار الفرس ،وغوض حبرية ساوة ،وانقاض الشهب فوق األصنام ،واحتباس الشياطني ورمجها. ويقول البوصريي : 1 وبات إيوان كسرى وهو منصدع كشمل أصحاب كسرى غري ملتئم ويقول سيد حممد: يف ذلك الوقت وهو منصدع وتداعى ايوان كسرى
474
ILCC 2013
يف ذلك الليل مما ازعجهم
1
واحتلم علماء كسرى ويقول البوصريي: 1 عليه والنهر ساهي العني من سدم والنار خامدة األنفاس من اسف ويقول سيد حممد: يف أرض فارس والنار خامدة اليت كانت تشتعل 1 منذ ألف سنة كانوا يوقدووها ومل ختمد قط يف الزمن السابق ويقول البوصريي: ورد واردها بالغيظ حني ظمى 1ويقول سيد حممد: وساء وساوة أن غاضت حبريهتا 1 وهي مل تغض من قبل "وغيض املاء يف حبرية ساوة الواسعة ويقول البوصريي: واحلق يظهر من معىن ومن كلم واجلن هتتف واألنوار ساطعة منقضة وفق ما يف األرض من صنم وبعد ما عاينوا يف األفق من شهب 1 من الشياطني يقفو إثر منهرم حىت غدا عن طريق الوحي منهزم يقول سيد حممد: فانصدعت كل األصنام يف ليل مولده(ص) من الشيطان الباغي امللعون فحرست السماء العليا 1 فال يصل إىل السماء فيقذف بشهاب مشتعل كان يتناص كنز العال يف ذكر األحداث والظواهر يف ليل االسراء واملعرا مع الربدة حبيث شدد الشاعران على مكانة رسول هللا (ص) اليت ال يدانيها فيه أحد حيث قدم رسول هللا على مجيع األنبياء واملالئكة بوصفه إماما اهم ،وعر به إىل السموات السبع حىت سدرة املنتهى وكشف عنه احلجاب أثنائه. قول البوصريي: كما سرى البدر يف دا من الظلم سريت من حرم ليال إىل حرم من قاب قاسني مل تدرك ومل ترم وبت ترقى إىل أن نلت منزلة وقدمتك مجيع األنبياء هبا وأنت خترتق السبع الطباق هبم
والرسل تقدمي خمدوم على خدم 1 يف موكب كنت فيه صاحب العلم
ويقول سيد حممد: يف ليل االسراء واملعرا فالرسول الذي خلفه املالئكة لألنبياء يف ذلك الليل فالرسول الذي يكون إماما 1 السماء العليا حىت سدرة املنتهى فالرسول الذي يعر إىل وهناك مظاهر أخرى حتدث عنها الشاعران من تظليل األشجار للرسول(ص) ،وسري الغمامة معه أىن سار لتقيه حر ااهجري ،وما صنع احلمام والعنكبوت بالغار ،وشق املالئكة صدر الرسول (ص) . يقول البوصريي : أقسمت بالقمر املنشق إن له ويقول سيد حممد: فانشق صدر الرسول (ص) وشق املالئكة قلبه ويقول البوصريي : وما حوى الغار من خري ومن كرم فالصدق يف الغار والصديق مل يرما ظنو احلمام وظنوا العنكبوت على ويقول سيد حممد: وهاجر الرسول (ص) مع وعند دخواهما الغار مث ظهرت العنكبوت ونسجت ومث جاءت احلمام وحامت وما ظن الكفار
من قلبه نسبة مربورة القسم
1
من عنقه حىت سرته 1 وأخرجوا مضغة سوداء وكل طرف من الكفار عنه عمي وهم يقولون ما بالغار من أرم 1 خري الربية مل تنسج ومل حتم صحابه ايب بكر إىل املدينة نبتت الشجرة أمام بابه على بابه على بابه وباضت 1 أن الرسول(ص) يف الغار
)2التناص العاطفي كنزالعال مع الربدة وإذا أمعنا النظر يف املديح النبوي عند البوصريي وسيد حممد جند ارتباط عواطفهما برسول هللا (ص) كما جند شدة تعلقهما به.أول مظاهر العاطفة واملشاعر يف الربدة وكنزالعال حبيث أكد هذان الشاعران حبه للرسول (ص) وتعلقه به مباشرة إذ يقول البوصريي: لكل هول من األهوال مقتحم. 1 هو احلبيب الذي ترجى شفاعته
476
ILCC 2013
وكذلك عندما يقول: إال ونلت جوارا منه مل يضم ما سام ي الدهر ضيما واستجرت به 1 إال استلمت الندى من خري مستلم وال التمست غىن الدارين من يده وعرب سيد حممد تعلقه برسول هللا (ص) حيث يقول : سيدي أنت مرجوي عندما يأتي ي املوت سيدي أنت مرجوي عندما يفتن ي الشيطان سيدي أنت مرجوي عندما يسأل ي امللكان 1 سيدي أنت مرجوي عندما يقبض ي القرب يف بعض احلني ،يتفوق سيد حممد يف العاطفة حيث أنه يتميز بأسلوب التكرار يف اإلشارة إىل تعلقه برسول هللا ويعربها يف صورة مباشرة .ويبلغ تكراره لعبارة " سيدي أنت رجائي" يف مواضع كترية متتالية أكثر من ثالثني مرة ،وتكون هذه العباره يف الشطر األول من البيت ،ويف الشطر الثاين يبني سيد حممد رجاءه وآماله وأمنيته مع طلب االستعانة واالستغاثة واالستعاذة وشكوى آالمه.وكأن سيد حممد العيدروس يف تلك األبيات يفسر ويفصل عبارة البوصريي تع ي ؛ األهوال املقتحم. فقد حاول الشاعران اجياد العالقة الروحية والنفسية بينهما وبني ممدوحه أي الرسول (ص) يف قصيدتيهما .وهذه العالقة تبني لنا صدق العاطفة والتجربة الفنية لديهما ،اللذان يعدان الرسول (ص) ناصرا اهما يف الظروف املخيفة أو الكوارث . ويقول البوصريي : 1 سواك عند حلول احلادث العمم يا أكرم اخللق ما يل من ألوذ به ويقول أيضا: 1 فيا خلسرة نفسي وما أعظم هالكي إن مل أجد النصر من الرسول (ص) مما الشك أن الرسول (ص) أثر على نفس الشاعرين حىت جعل كليهما يعشقانه ويغرمان به وهذا الغرام والعشق واضح يف مديح الرسول (ص) .وفيه "ميضي يبثنا ذوب مشاعره جتاه النيب ،متحدثا عن مكانته العظمى ..فهو سيد الكونني والفريقني من عرب ومن عجم ..وهو مناط الشفاعة ..ومقتحم ااهول األعظم يوم القيامة ..ويف اإلميان برسالته االعتصام حببل ال ميكن فصمه ،وحممد هو الذي فاق النبيني مجيعا ،فال ميكن أن يدانيه أحد " ".1وهذه املشاعر الصافية جندها أيضا يف كنز العال .
يقول البوصريي : وكيف تدعوا إىل الدنيا ضرورة من حممد سيد الكونني والثقلي نبينا اآلمر الناهي فال أحد هو احلبيب الذي ترجى شفاعته يقول سيد حممد :
لواله مل ختر الدنيا من العدم ن والفريقني من عرب ومن عجم أبر يف قول ال منه وال نعم 1 لكل هول من األهوال مقتحم
واجلن أصله من النار واإلنس "حممد سيد العرب والعجم فلقب حببيب هللا هو الرسول (ص) الذي حيب هللا هو الرسول (ص) صاحب الشفاعة يف يوم القيامة اليت اختلف فيه األنبياء 1 مل توجد الدنيا لوال وجود الرسول (ص) )3التناص اللفظي كنز العال مع الربدة )2يف التشبيهات أ) تشبيه رسول هللا (ص) بالشمس ،والقمر ،والبدر ويقول البوصريي : 1 صغرية وتكل الطرف من أمم كالشمس تظهر للعينني من بعد أما سيد حممد يف قوله: 1 شبيه بالشمس يف ضوئه ونوره فيظهر ويضيء وجه الرسول الكرمي ب ) تشبيه األنبياء واملرسلني بالكواكب ،وأما الرسول كالشمس .وكأوهم خدمه وجنوده ،والرسول (ص) بذلك قائدهم واملخدوم . يقول البوصريي : 1 يظهرن أنوارها للناس يف الظلم فأنه مشس فضل هم كواكبها يقول سيد حممد : 1 واألنبياء األخرون كواكبها وهو مشس نورها المع ج ) تشبيه الرسول (ص) بالزهرة والبدر لنضرة وجهه ،وبالبحر إلثبات صفاته احلميدة من الكرم واجلود. يقول البوصريي : كالزهر يف شرف ،والبدر يف ترف ،والبحر يف كرم .1
478
ILCC 2013
أما سيد حممد يقول: وسيدي هو زهر طيب الرائحه 1 سيدي أنت قمر المع 1 وهو حبر واسع 1 فيظهر لنا غالم كرمي ،شبيه وجهه البدر ليال )1الصور الكنائية )2وصف الكفار بالعم والصم يقول سيد حممد: 1 عمي وصم قريش مل يسمعوا دعوة الرسول ومل ينظروا بارقتها. 1 ألوهم عموا وصموا مل تسمع ثقيف دعوة الرسول ويقول البوصريي : 1 تسمع وبارقة االنذار مل تشم عموا وصموا فإعالن البشائر مل وقد تناص كنز العال مع الربدة يف عرض الصورة الكنائية حني كان يصف ثقيفا وقريشا بالعمى والصم إذ رفضوا دعوة الرسول (ص) ،وأما البوصريي فقد أطلق على اليهود والنصارى هاتني صفتني كناية عن ضالالهتم وعدم قبول احلق. )1لفظ صاحب العلم يقول البوصريي : 1 يف موكب كنت فيه صاحب العلم وأنت خترتق السبع الطباق هبم ويقول سيد حممد: 1 يف يوم القيامة ورسول هللا هو صاحب العلم ولفظ "صاحب العلم" كناية عن قائد األمم الذي بيده حق الرياسة والشفاعة وخلفه األنبياء واملرسلون . بالنجاة من النار والدخول إىل اجلنة اإلميان هو طريق احلصول على السعادة هللا الغ ي ورسوله الكرمي ولكن ال إميان بدون حب فعالمة حمبة الرسول الكرمي
اتباع سنته العليا
1
التناص من حيث الوزن لقد بىن سيد حممد العيدروس قصيدته بناء تقليديا على حبر اخلليل بن أمحد" البسيط"؛ وبذلك فهي تتناص موسيقيا مع قصيدة البوصريي؛ إذ كلتيهما من البحر البسيط الذي يقول فيه حازم القرطاج ي" من تتبع كالم الشعراء يف مجيع األعاريض وجد الكالم الواقع فيها ختتلف أمناطه حبسب جماريها من األوزان ووجد االفتنان يف بعضها أعم من بعض ،فأعالها درجة الطويل والبسيط .واختيار هذا البحر اها عالقة مغ غرض الشعر فهو املديح .جاءت الربدة على البحر البسيط " مستفعلن فاعلن مستفعلن فعلن " لتوفر له تفعيالت طويلة تكفية للتعبري عن عواطفه وأفكاره تعبريا واضحا يف بيت يعترب وحدة متكاملة ،كما كان موفقا يف اختيار روي امليم املكسورة فزاد من حالوة النغم املوسيقى لدى البوصريي ،وزادها مجاال وحالوة قلة الزحافات والعلل العروضية ،فاملوسيقى اخلارجية تساند بنجاحها ومجااها موسيقاه الداخلية لتخر وحدة مجيلة منسقة.1 مثال تقطيع البيت إذ يقول البوصريي: مزجت دمعا جرى من مقلة بدم أمن تذكر جريان بذي سلم ، متفعلن فعلن مستفعلن فعلن
متفعلن فاعلن مستفعلن فعلن
ويقول سيد حممد :
مك باثق ال ظهر /فد كتيك إيت مكب بثق /الظهر /فدككتيك /كاإيتو متف علن /فاعلن /متفعلن /فاعلن هذا تقطيع عملت الباحثة مبساعدة واحد من ابن أحفاد تؤكو توان بسر أو سيد حممد العيدروس وهو أنكو إبراهيم بن أنكو ووك زين العيدروس ،حماضر جامعة دار اإلميان ترجنانو ( ( UNIZARيف كلية أصول الدين الذي يواصل دراسته يف الدكتورة وُيتار كتاب جوهر الثنية ليكون موضوع رسالته.وهذا الكتاب كتبه أيضا سيد حممد العيدروس الذي تناول موضوع العقائد الدينية فيه .وقد أشار أنكو إبراهيم إىل مسامهات عظيمة سيد حممد العيدوس يف بث الدعوة اإلسالمية وتربية احملليني إعتمادا على " اإلنشاد" بعض القصائد الدينية منها املدائح النبوية عامة والربدة خاصة مبناسبة االحتفاالت الدينية ويف احللقات العلمية اليت أقامها يف املساجد. نتائج البحث
480
ILCC 2013
.9عند وصول اإلسالم إىل أرخبيل املاليو تسربت الثقافة العربية اإلسالمية إىل األدب املاليوي ومن ضمن ذلك بردة البوصريي.وأثبتت الوثائق املاليوية القدمية انتشار الربدة يف أرخبيل املاليو ،ومنها خمطوطة للربدة .وهناك جهود للعلماء املاليويني يف معارضة الربدة ،وشرحها ،وترمجتها وكذلك من جهة املستشرق درويش يف نشرها ،وترمجتها .ويعد كنز العال أول حماولة شاعر ماليزي يف معارضة بردة البوصريي وتقاليدها املضمونية والفنية. .1ومن املالحظة قد تناص كنز العال مع الربدة يف معاين املدائح النبوية وأفكارها وكذلك يف املعاين العاطفية إلشارة على عمق حبه حنو الرسول (ص). .4ومن الدراسة اليت أقامها الباحثة ،مل يكن يتناص سيد حممد العيدروس مع الربدة من حيث املعاين فحسب بل كان يتناص معه من حيث اللفظ والوزن . .3إن املقارنة املوضوعية بني الربدة وكنز العال تكشف عن وجود اتفاق بني البوصريي وسيد حممد يف عرض مديح الرسول (ص) والسرية النبوية ويف التوسالت ،والتشفع برسول هللا (ص) .ومهما كان االختالف بينهما يف اللغة فهو ال مينع تاثري الربدة يف كنز العال من حيث واألسلوب ،والقيم البالغية ،والوزن، والقافية ،إذ يالحظ ،تفوق البوصريي يف عرض املعاين واألفكار ،وبنية القصيدة وكذلك اللغة، واألسلوب .ومن النقاط املشرتكة بينهما اتفاق كنز العال مع الربدة يف بعض الصور التشبيهية ،والكنائية يف عباراهتا ومعانيها مما يؤكد تأثري الربدة فيه ،وأمهه حدوث عملية التناصية كنز العال مع الربدة. .5وأما قضية السرقة ،فال حتدث السرقة الظاهرة أو النسخ أو االنتحال أو يف عبارة مفصلة ما يعرف بأخذ املعىن مجيعه مع اللفظ مجيعه بدون أي تغيري يف نظمه األصلي يف كنز العال من الربدة .وعلى الرغم من ذلك ،توضحت السرقات غري املباشر الذي يعرف بإملام أو سلخ يف كنز العال من الربدة .وهذا النوع من السرقة تعد حممودة وإجيابية كما أشار إليها ابن رشيق :السرق يف الشعر ما نقل معناه دون لفظه وأبعده يف أخذه" ،أو تعرف بالسرقة الشعرية.
خالصة القول ومن هنا ميكن القول إن النقاد العرب تنبهوا إىل التناص واستخدموه استخدا ًما ال يقل عما يستخدم اليوم كمفهوم وتطبيق ولكنهم مل يقعوا على االسم "التناص" لذا فإن كل املصطلحات السابقة سواء أكانت السرقات أ م املعارضات أم االقتباس والتضمني كلها تصب يف بوتقة واحدة ،وهي التداخل النصي وإن كان بعض النقاد مل يرد اخلوض يف غمار هذا املوضوع واكتفى بإبعاد النقد القدمي من دائرة التناص .ويبقى التنبه إىل نقطة رمبا ُيتلف فيها التناص لدى النقاد الفرنسيني علي نقادنا وهي أن النقد العريب اهتم بتقسيم تلك القضايا إىل جزئيات وإن بعضها يقع يف اللفظ وبعضها يف املعىن يف حني كانت نظرة الناقد الغريب مشولية وكلية.1
482
ILCC 2013
الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغتني العربية والصينية :دراسة حتليلية تقابلية (Main Author: Dr. Suo Yan Mei )Fatimah Co-author 1: Zalika Adam Co-author 2: Nurul Hanilah Mohd Ismath Corresponding e-mail: mys71fa@ gmail.com
د .فاطمة سو يان مي زاليكا بنت آدم
1
1
نور احلنيلة بنت حممد عصمت
1
التمهيد: يتكون من إن القواعد النحوية يف اللغتني العربية والصينية اها أوجه التشاهبات ،والرتكيب اإلضايف مثال ّ
املضاف واملضاف إليه يف كال اللغتني .يهدف هذا البحث إىل دراسة حتليلية تقابلية يف الرتكيب اإلضايف
للغتني العربية والصينية ،وسيعرض أوجه التشابه وأوجه اإلختالف عن الرتكيب اإلضايف يف هذين اللغتني. تعتمد الباحثة يف هذه الدراسة على منهج التحليل والتوازن إلستخرا أوجه التشابه وأوجه اإلختالف بني اللغتني عن هذا املوضوع .وحيتوى هذا البحث على األمور األتية :تعريف بالرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغتني العربية والصينية .وأنواعه ،وأوجه التشابه واإلختالف ،وأخرياً ،ختتتم هذه الدراسة بنتائج البحث مع بعض اإلقرتاحات والتوصيات.
التعريف بالرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغتني العربية والصينية .1الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغة العربية: يتكون مباشرة من :مضاف ومضاف إليه. ئي امسي ّ إن الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغة العربية هو تركيب جز ّ واملضاف إليه ميلك املضاف أو مبعىن آخر أن املضاف جزء من أجزاء املضاف إليه ،فمثالً ( حممد )
نستطيع أن جنعله مضافًا إليه وكل ما ميلكه حممد هو مضاف .مثال :قلم حممد ،يد حممد -رأس حممد - سيارة حممد -والد حممد -أخو حممد -صديق حممد ... دائما .أما املضاف فهو ليس إعراب لكلمة ما ولكنه من املمكن أن يكون يف أي موقع واملضاف إليه جمرور ً إعرايب ويف أي حالة إعرابية كاملبتدأ واخلرب والفاعل واملفعول به واحلال وحىت املضاف إليه نفسه قد يكون
مضافًا إىل كلمة أخرى. معلم النحوِ ،وإن كان مثىن أو مجع مذكر ساملا املضاف ال ميكن أن ينون ( حمذوف التنوين ) مثل ُ : ً حذفت نونه مثل :معلما النحوِ -معلمو النحوِ . اإلضافة خاصة باألمساء فقط ،فاحلرف أو الفعل ال يكون مضافًا وال مضافًا إليه. دائما ،فإذا وردت يف مجلة عرفنا أوها مضافة إىل ما بعدها ،مثل :كل وهناك أمساء مالزمة لإلضافة غالبًا أو ً وبعض ومجيع ( إذا مل تنون ) -غري -سوى -مثل -فوق -حتت -ميني -مشال -بني -أمام -
خلف -قبل -بعد -مع -عند -لدى -شبه -كال -كلتا -ذو – سبحان
484
ILCC 2013
.2الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغة الصينية أما الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغة الصينية فهو ليس تركيبا جزئيا امسيا فقط بل تركيب جزئي فعلي كذلك .وهو يشمل املضاف إليه واملضاف .واملضاف إليه يف هذا الرتكيب هو الكلمة اليت تصف وتقتصر وتبني الكلمة اليت بعدها .واملضاف هو الكلمة الرئسية يف هذا الرتكيب .والعالقة بني عناصر الرتكيب هي صفة وموصوفة .ومن املمكن أن يكون املضاف إليه امسا أو فعال أو صفة ،ودائما ما يكون املضاف امسا أو فعال. مثال : )wo de shu）我的书 :كتايب أنواع الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغتني العربية والصينية أ .أنواع الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغة العربية إن الرتكيب اإلضايف له نوعان :معنويّة ولفظيّة. تدل على: أوال :اإلضافة املعنويّة :هي إضافة املضاف فيها اسم جامد و ّ ِ اجلامعة. أ .تعريف املضاف باملضاف إليه املعرفة :مكتبة ب .ختصيص املضاف باملضاف إليه النّكرة :جثّة رجل. ت .امللكيّة :كتاب أمحد ث .النّسبة :حكايات اجل ّدة ،زرقة البحر. .إضافة العدد إىل َتييزه :عشرة أيّام. السوق. كل البيوت ،حول ّ ح .إزالة اإلهبام على األمساء املبهمةّ :
ثانيا :اإلضافة اللّفظيّة :هي إضافة يكون فيها املضاف مشت ّقا أضيف إىل ما هو يف املعىن معمول له من
ذلك: أ .إضافة املصدر إىل فاعله :مساعدة األم.
ب .إضافة املصدر إىل مفعوله :إنشاد القصيدة. ت .إضافة اسم الفاعل إىل مفعول له :سارق املال. الساق . ث .إضافة اسم املفعول إىل نائب الفاعل :مقطوع ّ ب .أنواع الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغة الصينية إن الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغة الصينية كذلك له نوعان حسب َتيزات القواعد النحوية ومها :اإلضافة اإلمسية؛ واإلضافة الفعلية من الفعل ،والصفة ،واحلال. أوال :اإلضافة اإلَسية :هي تصف باإلسم يف القواعد النحوية. مثال: أ. )piao liang de yi fu ( 漂亮的衣服
）北京气候
امللبس اجلميل
) Bei jing de tian qi
جو البكني ّ
) jin tian de bao zhi) 今天的报纸جريدة اليوم ب:
)shou du bei jing( 首都北京بكني عاصمة )ta men san ge reng ( 他们三个人هم ثالث
486
ILCC 2013
هذا الرتكيب يسمى أيضاً املضاف واملضاف إليه يف اإلعراب من البدل. ثانيا :اإلضافة الفعلية :هي تصف بالفعل ،والصفة ،واحلال يف القواعد النحوية. مثال: (ke ku xue xi) 刻苦学习
يدرس جبد واجتهاد ( بدون الفاعل يف اللغة الصينية)
(zi xi di ting jiang ) 仔细地听讲
يستمع بانتباه( بدون الفاعل يف اللغة الصينية)
(man man zou zhe) 慢慢走着ميشي بطيئأ( بدون الفاعل يف اللغة الصينية) (Yi jing zou le ) 已经走了
قد ذهب ( بدون الفاعل يف اللغة الصينية)
(zheng zai chi fan) 正在吃饭
يأكل األن ( بدون الفاعل يف اللغة الصينية)
(xiang ta xue xi ) 向他学习
تعلم منه
(fei chang nu li ) 非常努力
جيتهد اجتهادا جدا ( بدون الفاعل يف اللغة الصينية)
老干干净净的
) ) Lao shi gang an jing jing deنظيف جدا دائما
تبني الباحثة أن الكلمة اليت تصف باسم يف اإلضافة اإلمسية تسمى نعتا؛ والكلمة اليت هنا ال ب ّد أن ّ تصف بفعل والصفة واحلال يف اإلضافة الفعلية تسمى حاال .والنعت دائما مع ) ،)的 deأما
احلال دائما مع .(di) 地
وظائف الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغتني العربية والصينية .1وظائف املركب اإلضايف يف اللغة العربية
اإلضايف احملالّت الوظيفيّة التّالية يف اجلملة. حيتل املرّكب ّ ّ علي جديدة. أ مبتدأ :سيارة ّ الشتاء شديد الربودة. ت .خرباّ : ث .فاعال :قدم قطار املساء. السندباد. .مفعوال به :قرأت ّ قصة ّ للزمان :رجعت قبل املغرب. ح.مفعوال فيه ّ الشجرة. خ.مفعوال فيه للمكان :وقفت حتت ّ الرزق. د .مفعوال ألجله :سافرت ابتغاء ّ ذ .ح اال :جاء أمحد باسم الثّغر. اإلضايف فيكون للرتكيب احملل الوظيفي ّ ّ عالمة اإلع راب :تظهر على املضاف عالمة اإلعراب اليت تناسب ّ
املضاف:
السندباد ممتعة. ر .مرفوعا: ُ قصص ّ السندباد. ز .منصوبا :قرأت قصص ّ .2وظائف املركب اإلضايف يف اللغة الصينية اإلضايف يف اللغة الصينية احملالّت الوظيفيّة التّالية يف اجلملة حيتل املرّكب ّ ّ مبتدأ 我的书很漂亮 (wo de shu hen piao liang) : أ. كتايب مجيل. ب.
خربا:
）这是我的书（zhe shi wo de shu
هذا هو كتايب
1
488
ILCC 2013
ت.
مفعوال به:
ث.
أحب كتايب ح اال (ta de ba ba yi jing qi chuang le ) :
. ح.
)我喜欢我的书 (wo xi huan wo de shu
他的爸爸已经起床了
أبوه قد قام من النوم نعتا请给她最热烈的掌声（qing gei ta zui re lie de zhang sheng ） : يرجى يعطيها التصفيق احلرار. إضافةlai de zhe me kuai) :
你來得這麼快 ( ni
أتيت هنا بسرعة هكذا. الدراسة التقابلية يف اللغتني العربية والصينية: بعد دراسة الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغتني العربية والصينية ،قد وجدت الباحثة أن له أوجه اإلتفاق وأوجه اإلختالف من جانب التكوين واألنواع ،والوظيفة كما يف اجلدول التايل: اللغة العربية
اللغة الصينية
.9يتكون الرتكيب اإلضايف من املضاف يتكون الرتكيب اإلضايف من املضاف إليه واملضاف إليه.
واملضاف.
.6إن الرتكيب اإلضايف له نوعان :معنويّة إن الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغة الصينية كذلك له نوعان حسب َتيزات القواعد النحوية ولفظيّة. ومها :اإلضافة اإلمسية؛ واإلضافة الفعلية من
الفعل ،والصفة ،واحلال
اإلضايف يف اجلملة الصينية حيتل املرّكب .3إن املرّكب ّ ّ حيتل يف اجلملة ّ اإلضايف ّ العربية احملالّت الوظيفيّة :مبتدأ ،وخربا ،احملالّت الوظيفيّة :مبتدأ ،وخربا ،ومفعوال به، للزمان،، فاعال ،ومفعوال به ،مفعوال فيه ّ مفعوال فيه للمكان ،مفعوال ألجله ،ونعتا ،وحاال ،وإضافة. وح اال وال يظهر أي عالمة اإلعراب يف اللغة وعالمة اإلع راب :تظهر على املضاف الصينية. احملل عالمة اإلعراب اليت تناسب ّ اإلضايف فيكون للرتكيب الوظيفي ّ ّ املضاف:مرفوعا ،ومنصوبا.
اخلامتة : بعد دراسة الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اللغتني العربية والصينية ،قد وجدت الباحثة أن له أوجه اإلتفاق وأوجه اإلختالف من جانب تكوينه وأنواعه ،ووظيفته .ويرجى هذا البحث سيساعد الصينيني الذين يدرسون اللغة العربية يف فهم وتطبيق الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اجلملة العربية ،ويف الوقت نفسه ،سيساعد العرب الذين يدرسون اللغة الصينية يف فهم واستخدام الرتكيب اإلضايف يف اجلملة الصينية.
490
ILCC 2013
اللغوي األساسيّة كيفية اكتساب مهارات التّواصل ّ 1
د .أمحد ياين 1 د.خالد عثمان يوسف مل ّخص البحث: حتليلي ،يهدف إىل تبيني كيفية اكتساب مهارات التّواصل اللّغوي األساسيّة بالنسبة هذا حبث وصفي ّ
يتم عن طريق التّفاعل املتبادل بني طرفني: لطالب مبتدئي اللّغة العربيّة .يالحظ أ ّن التّواصل اللّ ّ غوي عادة ّ لتؤدي إىل إشباع حاجات هذا مرسل ومستقبل وبينهما رسالة لغويّة مكتوبة أو منطوقة تسري يف قناة تواصل ّ غوي. التّواصل اللّ ّ
فعاالً وسط مبتدئ تعلّم اللّغة العربيّة من الطّالب دورا ّ واجلدير بالذكر ميكن أن يلعب التّواصل اللّ ّ غوي ً
إذا استخدم يف عملية التّعليم والتّعلّم مهارات التّعلّم األساسيّة األربعة أال وهي االستماع والقراءة والكالم والكتابة. وتنوعها ،وهذا واهتمامنا مبهارات التّعلّم هنا جاء من منطلق تع ّقد احلياة احلديثة ،وكثرة وسائل االتّصال ّ
غوي من فنون مسعية شفويّة ،وفنون قرائية أمس احلاجة إىل امتالك مهارات التّواصل اللّ ّ جيعل اإلنسان يف ّ قادرا على اإلقناع واالقتناع. وكتابيّة ّ حىت يكون ً
مق ّدمة:
وصفي حتليلي ،يهدف إىل إكساب مبتدئي اللغة العربيّة من الطّالب مقدرة هذا حبث ّ غوي شفاهة وكتابة عرب مهارات التّعلّم األساسيّة (االستماع والقراءة والكالم االتّصال والتّواصل اللّ ّ والكتابة) كما سبقت اإلشارة إىل هذا يف املق ّدمة. ونفسرها إ ّن اكتساب القدرة االتّصالية أي ذلك العنصر الذي نستطيع به أن ننقل ّ الرسائل ّ فعالة بالنّسبة ملبتدئي اللّغة وأخص اللّغة ونتفاوض به مع اآلخرين يف سياقات حم ّددة بطريقة ّ
1
غوي األساسيّة اليت سبق ذكرها ،فإتقان يتم من خالل مهارات التّواصل اللّ ّ العربية ،ميكن أن ّ هذه املهارات بالنّسبة للطّالب يف بداية تعلّم اللّغة جيعله إجيابيًّا يف املستقبل على االتّصال مع الغري شفويًا أو كتابيَّا ،واهذا نالحظ االهتمام الكبري هبا من قبل الرتبويني وواضعي املناهج يف 1
كتبهم التّعليميّة التّعلّميّة. وجاء اهتمام هذا البحث بقضيّة االتّصال ،حلاجة الطّالب املبتدئ إليه ،وملا له من أمهيّة يف اليومي فيما يتعلّق بالتّحايا والبيت واملدرسة وخاصة جمال التّعامل كافة جماالت احلياة االجتماعية ّ ّ يوضح كيفيّة الزمن قد اكتفينا بإيراد منوذ واحد يف هذا البحث ّ السوق إخل ...ونسبة لضيق ّ و ّ إكساب مهارة هذا االتّصال املع ي للطّالب املعنيّني. عموما تناولنا يف هذه الورقة دور االستماع والقراءة والكالم والكتابة يف اكتساب مهاريت ً االتصال عن طريق الكالم أو الكتابة ،وتلي هذا اخلاَتة مبا فيها من نتائج ومقرتحات وتوصيات. األول :دور مهارات التّعلّم األربعة يف يف اكتساب مهارة االتّصال القسم ّ – 1مهارة االستماع
االستماع هو فهم الكالم ،أو االنتباه إىل شئ مسموع مثل االستماع إىل متح ّدث ،خبالف السماع وهو عملية فسيولوجية يتوقّف حدوثها على السمع الذي هو ّ حاسة وآلته األذن ،ومنه ّ ّ 1
سالمة األذن .ويف هذا اجملال نشأت طريقة عرفت هذه الطّريقة باسم الطريقة السمعيّة الشفهيّة 1
كما عرفت بالطريقة املباشرة ،وقد ظهرت أمهيتها حني اندلعت احلرب العاملية الثّانية ،ووجدت الواليات املتحدة نفسها منغمسة يف صراع عاملي اشتدت احلاجة عند األمريكيني إىل اكتساب املؤسسة العسكرية الكفاءة ّ السواء ،وهكذا ّتولت ّ الشفهية يف لغات حلفائها وأعدائها على ّ أساسا على األمريكيّة ً جهودا لغويّة مكثّفة ترّكز على املهارات الشفهية ،وكان هذا الربنامج يعتمد ً املؤسسات النّشاط ّ الشفهي ،أي تدريبات النّطق وممارسة احملادثة ،وما لبث األمر أن اندفعت ّ
492
ILCC 2013
السمعيّة التّعليميّة تطبّق هذه الطّريقة بعد جناحها ،وعرفت هذه الطّريفة يف اخلمسينات بالطّريقة ّ 1
ال ّشفهية . الصويت جتدر اإلشارة إىل أ ّن ّ الرتبويني حياولون تقريب معىن االستماع بقواهم أ ّن النّظام ّ معني ،وسعة معيّنة لإلنسان شبيه مبا يعرف بالفلرت أو مصافاة ذات فتحات حم ّددة بشكل ّ ألوها سارت يف هذا الطّريق سنواتّ .أما األم خترتق هذه الفتحات بسهولة ويسر ّ وأصوات لغة ّ فإوها جتد صعوبة يف التكيّف مع هذه األمّ ، أصوات اللّغة اجلديدة اليت ختتلف عن أصوات اللّغة ّ الرديء الذي يتبعه نطق الفتحات ّ ألوها مل ّ السماع ّ تتعود عليها ،ومن َمثّ كانت املقاومة وكان ّ رديء ،ولذلك فاألجنيب الذي ال ينطق صوت ال /ط /مثالً فهو معذور ألنّه مل يسمع هذا حىت تعتادها األذن املتكرر ألصوات اللّغة اجلديدة ّ ّ الصوت جيّ ًدا؛ ولذلك كانت ضرورة االستماع ّ 1
1
الشفهيّة ما يلي : السمعيّة ّ ومن مثّ ميكن نطقها نط ًقا ً سليما .ومن ّ أهم خصائص الطّريقة ّ ِ املادة يف شكل حوار. تُق ّد ُم ّمتكررة. تعلّم األمناط البنائيّة باستعمال أمثلة ّ ال مكان لشرح النّحو.صارما ،وتق ّدمها يف سياق سليم. حت ّدد املفردات ًحتديدا ً كبريا إىل النّطق. توجه ًّ اهتماما ً تكثر من استخدام شرائط التّسجيل ،ومعامل اللّغة واملعينات البصريّة.الضرورة القصوى. األم يف ّ الشرح إالّ عند ّ ال يسمح للمعلّم استخدام اللّغة ّ -تعزز االستجابات النّاجحة.
تشجع الطّالب على إنتا لغة خالية من األخطاء. ّ َتيل إىل االهتمام باللّغة ال باحملتوى.مهما يف أداء االتصال اللّغوي بطريقة دورا ًّ يالحظ فيما سبق ،أن االستماع ميكن أ ّن يلعب ً سليمة بالنّسبة ملبتدئ اللّغة العربيّة ،ولكن بشرط أن يتكامل مع بقيّة املهارات اللّغويّه اليت سيأيت الرتبويّني ،أ ّن االستماع ليس فقط جملرد االستماع الصفحات التّالية .ويرى بعض ّ توضيحها يف ّ الضرورة ،أي أن يستمع مرات ،بل هناك ما يعرف باالستماع للرتديد إذا دعت ّ مرة أو ّ للجملة ّ سليما من قِبَل املتعلّم املتعلّم مثّ ُيرّدد ما مسعه بعد املعلّم وينبغي أن يالحظ املعلّم أ ّن النطّق يأيت ً 1
ترديدا ببغاويًّا. حىت ال يكون ً ّ ومثلما يف االستماع جوانب ينبغي االلتزام هبا فهناك جواتب أخرى جيب االبتعاد عنها من 1
أمهّها: التنغيم املتقطّع. استخدام العاميّة. عدم حتديد املفردات املستخدمة. – 2مهارة القراءة ويردده من نصوص ودروس معنيّة، بعد أن استمع الطّالب املبتدئ ما شاء هللا أن يسمعه ّ ورددده من قبل معلّمه .ولدروس القراءة أغراض يف هذه املرحلة فينبغي بعد ذلك أن يقرأ ما مسعه ّ 1
منها : تنمية قدرة ال ّدارس على القراءة وسرعة فهمه ،وجودة نطقه وأدائه وَتثيله للمعمى. -تنمية قدرة ال ّدارس على تتبّع ما يسمع.
494
ILCC 2013
تنمية ميل ال ّدارس إىل القراءة. حتصيل املعلومات وتنميتها وتنسيقها. الكسب اللّغوي.السليم من خالل قراءته.. تدريب ال ّدارس على التّعبري ّ1
صامتة ،والقراءة اجلهريّة ،والقراءة لالستماع ،ونرى والقراءة تشمل ثالثة أنواع وهي :القراءة ال ّ هنا أ ّن القراءة املناسبة يف هذه املرحلة هي القراءة اجلهريّة وقراءة االستماع حلاجة ال ّدارس إليهما يتم إالّ جبهر الصوت .ويف هذا اجملال يشري إبراهيم السماع وهذا ال ّ إذ أنه يف هنا يف حاجة إىل ّ عبد العليم إىل أ ّن القراءة هي الوسائل إلتقان النّطق ،وإجادة األداء وَتثيل املعىن ،وال سيما يف الصفوف األوىل ،كما ّأوها وسيلة للكشف عن أخطاء ال ّدارسني يف النّطق ،األمر الذي يساعد ّ 1
على معاجلتها يف وقتها املناسب . -3مهارة الكالم:
وردده وقرأه يف ما مضى ،ونع ي هنا بالكالم يعرب ال ّدارس بأسلوبه عن ما مسعه ّ الكالم هو أن ّ خاص هبم .وجتدر احملادثة ،وهذا عادة حيدث بني شخصني أو أشخاص ع ّدة شفاهة يف أمر ّ اإلشارة هنا ،أنّنا إذا أردنا أن يتكلّم مبتدئ اللّغة العربية فال ب ّد أن نثريه مبا ق ّدمناه له يف مراحل االستماع والرتديد والقراءة ،فمثالً إذا ما ق ّدمنا له حو ًارا عن التّعارف فنسأله مثالً :كيف حالك؟ ما امسك؟ ما بلدك؟ وهكذا ...ولكن بشرط أن تكون مثل هذه األسئلة وردت يف ما مسعه وقرأه من قبل.
ويالحظ أ ّن طريقة الكالم أو ما يعرف بطريقة املناقشة ّأوها تساعد ال ّدارس على حتقيق 1
تؤدي إىل التّم ّكن من التّعبري بنحو أفضل .كما الفعالة ،واكتساب املعرفة اليت ّ املشاركة النّشطة ّ حيتك الشخصيّة اإلجيابيّة بني املتعلّم واملعلّم ،فكالمها ّ أ ّن طريقة املناقشة تساعد يف إجياد العالقة ّ 1
باآلخر ،ويتفاعل معه بطريقة من شأوها أن توجد الثّقة واالحرتام املتبادل بينهما . الرتبويون أنّه باإلمكان تنمية مهاراة التّعبري الكالمي إذا روعيت كيفية البدء ،وفن يرى ّ 1
غوي . در فيها إخل ...األمر الذي ّ استخدام مهارات التّعلّم والتّ ّ يسهل عملية مهارة االتّصال اللّ ّ معني واملالحظ أنّه ميكن استخدام النّقاش ّ الشفوي يف صورة جمموعات صغرية حول موضوع ّ 1
يتم تكليف ال ّدارسني مبناقشة أفكار موضوع ما يف جمموعات صغرية . الراجعة ،وهنا ّ للتّغذية ّ آن و ٍ وهذه اخلطوة تساعد ال ّدارس على التّعبري الكالمي والكتايب يف ٍ احد. – 4مهارة الكتابة:
التّعبري الكتايب بالنسبة للمبتدئ هو وسيلة لالتّصال بينه وبني غريه من النّاس ،بقطع 1
وإبداعي :فالتّعبري الوظيفي وظيفي الزمان واملكان ،وهذا التّعبري نوعان: النّظر عن بعدي ّ ّ ّ ويعرب عن ما يريده أو يقصده يف جمال احلياة ،لتنظيم بالنّسبة للمبتدئ حي ّقق اتّصاله بالنّاسّ ، الرسائل أو الواجبات املنزلية ،أو ملء االستمارات أوكتابة حياته ،وقضاء حاجاته ،مثل :كتابة ّ املبسطة .و ّأما التّعبري اإلبداعي فينقل املشاعر واألحاسيس واخلواطر النّفسيّة األخرى، التّقارير ّ الشعر مشوق مثري ،وهذا يصلح للطالب املتق ّدمني يف دارسة اللّغة ،مثل كتابة ّ أديب ّ بأسلوب ّ الرتاجم والتّمثيليات والقصص األدبية .وُيتلف التّعبري الوظيفي باختالف جماالت العمل وّ 1
الشفوي قبل التّعبري يتضمن التّعبري ونوعيات األعمال إخل ...وبرنامج التّعبري اجليد ،الب ّد أن ّ ّ
496
ILCC 2013 1
الكتايب .كما سبقت اإلشارة إىل ذلك من قبل .وعند كتابة ال ّدارس للتّعبري يف هذه املرحلة 1
املب ّكرة البد أن يراعي اآليت : دقة مالحظة األشياء ووصفها كما هي ومبنهجيّة سليمة خاصة يف وصف األلوانواألشكال واألحجام واألجناس.
االستناد إىل إحساس جيّد وسليم يساعده على انتقاء الكلمة املناسبة للتّعبري أثناء عمليةملء الفراغات.
خاصة يف التّعبريات الرئيسة وينظمها قبل الكتابة ّ الوضوح يف التّفكري حبيث حي ّدد األفكار ّ1
حىت املساء؟ الصباح ّ الروتينيّة ،مثل ماذا تفعل من ّ املعربة ،واحلوار البنّاء السرد اجلاف ،بل الب ّد من أن يستخدم املتعلّم األفعال ّ البعد عن ّواملوازنات البسيطة.
الرتقيم البسيطة مثل النّقطة واالستفهام ،وشرطة كتابة مراعاة ال ّدقّة قي استخدام عالمات ّاألرقام.
1
الرتبويني . وللمزيد من التّعرف على طرق تعليم التَعبري ميكن النّظر إىل كتب ّ صايل القسم الثّاين :منوذج ال ّدرس االتّ ّ أ -إرشادات للمعلّم
بالصور .أو ميكنك تقدميه بأي وسيلة أخرى – 1ق ّدم لل ّدارسني حو ًارا عن التّحايا مصحوبًا ّ تراها مناسبة. وشجعهم على ذلك. – 2حاول تطبيق عبارت احلوار يف أوقاهتا املناسبة مع ال ّدارسنيّ ، – 2استخدم يف احلوار مجالً بسيطة من املبتدأ واخلرب أو الفعل والفاعل. – 3استخدم يف احلوار الكلمات املتداولة يف احلياة اليوميّة. احلواري :التّحايا اليوميّة ص ب – النّ ّ ّ - 1استمع إىل احلوار اآليت: الم َعلَْي ُكم. َمجَالَّ : الس ُ السالم. نُور َعْي ِ يَ :و َعليَ ُك ُم َّ باح اخلَْري. َمجَالَ : ص َ باح النُّور. نُور َعْي ِ يَ : ص َ َمجَالَ :م َساءَ اخلَْري. نُور َعْي ِ يَ :مساءَ النُّور. طاب َوه ُارِك. َمجالَ : طاب َوه ُارَك. نُور َعْي ِىنَ : َمجال :طاب لَي لُ ِ ك. َ ْ ليلك. طاب َ نُور َعْي ِ يَ : َمجالِ :يف أَم ِ ان هللا. َ نُور عي ِ يِ :يف ِر ِ عاية هللا. َْ المة . َمجالَ :م َع َّ الس َ نُور َعْي ِ ي :إِىل اللِّ َقاء. َمجال :تُ ِ ني َعلَى َخ ْري. صبِح َ ْ
498
ILCC 2013
ت ِم ْن أ َْهلِ ِه. نُور َعْي ِ ي :أَنْ َ ِّ ِّ ِّ ِّ ْ - 2 وار ِّ اآليت: استَم ْع مثَّ َر ّدد احل َ
الم َعلَْي ُكم. َمجَالَّ : الس ُ السالم. نُور َعْي ِ يَ :و َعليَ ُك ُم َّ باح اخلَْري. َمجَالَ : ص َ باح النُّور. نُور َعْي ِ يَ : ص َ َمجَالَ :م َساءَ اخلَْري. نُور َعْي ِ يَ :مساءَ النُّور. طاب َوه ُارِك. َمجالَ : طاب َوه ُارَك. نُور َعْي ِىنَ : َمجال :طاب لَي لُ ِ ك. َ ْ ليلك. طاب َ نُور َعْي ِ يَ : َمجالِ :يف أَم ِ ان هللا. َ نُور عي ِ يِ :يف ِر ِ عاية هللا. َْ المة . َمجالَ :م َع َّ الس َ نُور َعْي ِ ي :إِىل اللِّ َقاء. َمجال :تُ ِ ني َعلَى َخ ْري. صبِح َ ْ ت ِم ْن أ َْهلِ ِه نُور َعْي ِ ي :أَنْ َ
التَّ ْد ِّريبات يب األََّول :اقْ َرأ احلَِّو َار ِّ اآليت: التَّ ْد ِر ْ الم َعلَْي ُكم. َمجَالَّ : الس ُ
السالم. نُور َعْي ِ يَ :و َعليَ ُك ُم َّ باح اخلَْري. َمجَالَ : ص َ باح النُّور. نُور َعْي ِ يَ : ص َ َمجَالَ :م َساءَ اخلَْري. نُور َعْي ِ يَ :مساءَ النُّور. طاب َوه ُارِك. َمجالَ : طاب َوه ُارَك. نُور َعْي ِىنَ : َمجال :طاب لَي لُ ِ ك. َ ْ ليلك. طاب َ نُور َعْي ِ يَ : َمجالِ :يف أَم ِ ان هللا. َ نُور عي ِ يِ :يف ِر ِ عاية هللا. َْ المة . َمجالَ :م َع َّ الس َ نُور َعْي ِ ي :إِىل اللِّ َقاء. َمجال :تُ ِ ني َعلَى َخ ْري. صبِح َ ْ ت ِم ْن أ َْهلِ ِه نُور َعْي ِ ي :أَنْ َ ِّ ِّ ك ابق َم َع َزِّميلِّ َ الس َ التّ ْد ِّريب الثّاينَ :مثّل احل َ وار ّ ِّ ِّ ِّ وار ِّ ك ،مثَّ ا ْكت ْبه اآليت َش َفاهة َم َع َزِّميلِّ َ التَّ ْد ِّريب الثَّالث :أَ ْكم ِّل احل َ أ ِ -يف ِرعايَِة هللاِ.
ب . ___________ - الم َعلَْي ُكم. أ – َّ الس ُ ب . ___________ - باح اخلَْري. أَ - ص َ
500
ILCC 2013
ب . ___________ - أ . ____________ - اب نَ َه ُارَك. ب -طَ َ ك. طاب لَْي لُ َ أَ - ب . _____________ - المة. أ – َم َع َّ الس َ ب . _____________ - أ . ______________ - ب -مساء النّور. ب . ______________ - ِ أنت من أهله. ٍ ِّ ِّ ِّ ِّ ِّ ك َما ال تَ ْعرف. التَّ ْد ِّريب َّ اسأ َْل م َعلِّّ َم َ ب َع ِّن األَ ْسئلة اآلتية كتابَة ِّيف َمجاعةَ ،و ْ الرابِّع :أَج ْ ول لَِزِميلِك ِيف اللَّْيل؟ _______________ َماذا تَ ُق ُ الصبَاح؟ ______________ َخ َ اك ِيف َّ َكْي َ ف ُحتَيِّي أ َ ول ِجلَا ِرَك ِيف امل َساء؟ _______________ َماذَا تَ ُق ُ َ َكيف ُحتيِي ِ ك إذا قاَبَ ْلتَهُ؟ _____________ صدي َق َ ْ َ َّ َ مىت تَ ُق ُ ِ ِ ك تُصبِح َعلَى َخ ْري؟ ___________ ول لَزِميل َ ََ ول لِزِميلِ ِ ك ِعْن َد اللِّ َقاء؟ ______________ َما َذا تَ ُق ُ َ ِ المة___________ . ني لَِزِميلَتِك َم َع َّ َم َىت تَ ُقول َ الس َ ابة ال َكلِّم ِّة املنَ ِّ التَّ ْدريب اخلَ ِّامس :أَ ْك ِّم ِّل اجلمل اآلتيةَ بِّكتَ ِّ اس ِّبة َ ََ باح ________ َ ص َ
____ َعلَْي ُكم. اب _______ طَ َ ______ يا فَ ِ اط َمةُ. َ َو َعلَْي ُك ُم ________ ِيف أ ِ َمان ________ الس ِّ ادس :استَ ْخ ِّدِّم ال َكلِّ ِّ مات اآلتِّيَةَ ِّيف مجَ ٍل م ِّفي َد ٍة التَّ ْد ِّريب َّ ْ
ت_________________ : أنْ َ الم________________ : َّ الس ُ َم َساءَ_________________ : تُ ِ ني________________ : صبِح َ ْ اللِّ َقاء_________________ : المة________________ : َّ الس َ
ِّ السابِّع :ا ْكتب بِّطَ ٍ ني اآلتِّيَ ْ ِّ َص ِّدقَاءَك َوزَمالءَ َكَ ،ك َما ِّيف الِّمثَالَ ْ ِّ ني: التَّ ْد ِّريب َّ اقات حتَيِّّي ف َيها أ ْ ْ املِ ال األ ََّو ُل :ص ِد ِ باح اخلَْري؟ ص ال، ز فاي ي يق ث ُ َ َ َْ َ َ َّاين :زِميلَِيت فَ ِ الم َعلَْي ُكم. املِثَ ُ اط َمةَُّ ، ال الث ِ َ الس ُ
أ – نتائج البحث
اخلامت ة
ال حظنا نظريًّا أ ّن االستماع وسيلة من وسائل اكتساب مهارة االتّصال ملبتدئ تعلّم اللّغة.الرتديد وسلية من وسائل اكتساب مهارة االتّصال الرتبويّني أ ّن ّ وجدنا يف ما قرأنا يف كتب ّالرتديد ،ودوافعه أثناء عملية تّعليم املتعلّم. مرات هذا ّ ملبتدئ تعلّم اللّغة ،إذا َتّت معرفة ّ
502
ILCC 2013
ال حظنا أ ّن القراءة من وسائل اكتساب مهارة االتّصال ملبتدئ تعلّم اللّغة ،إذا روعيت عمليةتقومي املتعلّم يف الوقت املناسب. يتم توفري البيئة الكالم من وسائل اكتساب مهارة االتّصال ملبتدئ تعلّم اللّغة بشرط أ ْن ّاملباشرة أو صنعها بوسائل أخرى. ال حظنا يف ما سبق أ ّن الكتابة من وسائل اكتساب مهارة االتّصال ملبتدئ تعلّم اللّغة إذا َتّالسليم. تعليمها للمتعلم بالتّدر والتقومي ّ الرتكيز على النّصوص احلوارية توصلنا من خالل تعليمنا للّغة العربيّة للطّالب املبتدئني اها أ َن ّ ّفعاالً يف إكساب املتعلم مهارة االتّصال. دورا ّ أثناء عملية التّعليم والتّعلّم ،يلعب ً ال حظنا أ ّن عدم الفصل بني مهارات التّعلّم األربعة ( االستماع ،القراءة ،الكالم ،الكتابة) يفالفعال يف سرعة اكتساب مهارة االتّصال. املرحلة األوىل ملبتدئ اللغة له أثره ّ وجدنا من خالل مالحظتنا النّظريّة أ ّن إتقان مهارات التّعلّم األربعة بالنّسبة للطّالب يف بدايةتعلّم اللّغة ،جيعله إجيابيًّا يف املستقبل على االتّصال مع الغري شفويًا أو كتابيَّا دون عُ ْسر. ب – مقرتحات وتوصيات البحث يف ختام هذه الورقة البحثيّة نقرتح ونوصي باآليت: أن يعرف معلّم اللّغة العربيّة من أين يبدأ ،وما األداء املطلوب تعليمه؟ وما اخلرباتاملنتظمة املتتابعة اليت جيب أن يوفّرها لطالبه.
حىت يبدع الطّالب املعنيّون. مكونات املهارة يف اجملال الذي يعلّمه ّ أن يدرك املعلم بوضوح ّالصوت وال ّدرس أن يق ّدم املعلّم هذه التّدريبات بأي وسيلة يريدها ،ولكن يشرتط وضوح ّفيها.
الت ّّعلم أن يبتكر املعلّم تدريبات جديدة أخرى ،شريطة أن يتقيّد خبطواط مهارات ّاألربع اليت أشرنا إليها يف هذه الورقة البحثيّة،
أن يوفر املعلّم املواقف احليويّة اليت ميكن ممارسة املهارات من خالاها وقد تكون مباشرة أوصورا أو حنو ذلك. ً
كل مهارة. تنمية قدرة ال ّدارس على تتبّع ما يسمعه يف ّب تدرجييًّا. أن ّيتدر املعلّم يف إكساب ال ّدارسني املهارات املعنيّة ،أل ّن املهارة تُ ْكتَ َس ُ منوها. أن ّيدرب املعلّم طالبه على املهارات املعنية ،أل ّن التّدريب شرط أساسي يف ّ يصمم املعلّم تدريبات املهارات حبيث تكفل املرونة ،وتناسب الفروق الفرديّة أن ّلل ّدارسنب. مستمرا بصورة متقنة ،أل ّن االستمرارية تولّد االتقان. أن يكون التّدريب على املهاراتًّ ميسرة من خالل التّدريبات اليت تُق ّدم له؛ إلتقان أن ّيتزود ال ّدارس املبتدئ بثروة لغويّة ّ املهارات املعنيّة؛ أل ّن ضآلة املفردات ال تساعد على إتقان املهارات.
للمعلّم مطلق احلريّة يف استخدام األجهزة أو الوسائل التّعليميّة اليت يراها مناسبة.ميسرة كل مهارة من خالل تدريبات ّ أن ميارس الطّالب املبتدئ عملية التّعلّم ال ّذايت عقب ّتصمم له عرب أجهزة التّعلّم. ّ
تشجيع الطّالب املبتدئ على حتصيل املعلومات وتنميتها وتنسيقها يف مهاريت الكالموالكتابة.
504
ILCC 2013
السليم ،من خالل ما يق ّدم له يف مهاريت تدريب الطّالب املبتدئ على النّطق والتّعبري ّالقراءة والكالم.
مراجع البحث:
ّأوال :مراجع اللّغة العربيّة املدرسي ،ط1692 :2م ،درا املعارف ،مصر. الف ي - 1إبراهيم عبد العليمّ ، ّ املوجه ّّ - 2جودت الركايب ،طرق تدريس اللّغة العربيّة ،ط1699 :2م ،دار الفكر املعاصر ،بريوت ،لبنان.
- 3حسن شحاتة ،تعليم اللّغة العربية بني النّظرية والتّطبيق ،ط2004/4/1 :3م ،ال ّدار املصريّة اللّبنانيّة. االجتاهات املعاصرة يف تدريس اللّغة العربيّة واللّغات احليّة األخرى لغري النّاطقني هبا، - 4محادة إبراهيمّ ، العريب ،القاهرة. 1691م ،دار الفكر ّ العريب ،دار الكتاب اللّبناين ،بريوت. - 5حنّا الفاخوري ،اجلديد يف اإلنشاء ّ
الراجحي1664 ،م ،دار النّهضة العربيّة، - 9دوجالس براون ،أسس تعلّم اللّغة وتعليمها ،ترمجة عبده ّ بريوت. - 1رونالدت هاميان ،طرق التّدريس ،ترمجة إبراهيم أنيس ،1693 ،عمادة شؤون املكتبات ،جامعة امللك الرياض. سعودّ ، - 9علي عمران بك ،هداية املدرس للنّظام املدرسي وطرق التّدريس ،مطبعة مصر ،القاهرة. الكتايب لدى تالميذ املرحلة اإلعداديّة باليمن ،رسالة ماجستري ،كلّية حممد ،تنمية مهارات التّعبري - 6غامن ّ ّ الرتبية ،جامعة عني مشس ،مصر. ّ - 10حممد فدوي لطفي ،اللّغة القومية يف السياسة التّعليمية اجلديدة ،السنة السادسة ،العدد
ّ الثّاين ،مصر.
ب – مراجع اللّغة اإلجنليزيّة:
ّ
ّ
ّ
ّ
ّ
1. Harris. T. L. et al : A Dictionary of reading and related Terms, International Reading Association, Newark, Delaware, 1981. 2. Partor, Clifford H. and Celece-Murcia, Marianne. 1979. An outeline of language teaching approaches. In Celce- Murcia and Mclntosh 1979.
3. Savignon, Sandara J. ,Communicative; Theory and classroom Practice. Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company, 1983.
دراسة حتليلية:واقع اللغة العربية يف األنظمة التعلمية ؛ نيجرييا منوذجا
506
ILCC 2013
بقلم :الدكتور شيخ أمحد بن عبدالسالم احملاضر بقسم الدرسات العربية و اإلسالمية ،كلية اآلداب و العلوم اإلنسانية، جامعة والية كوغي،أنيبا،نيجرييا. ملخص البحث: بسم هللا العليم الذي علم بالقلم و علم اإلنسان ما مل يعلم ،وصلى هللا على مصطفاه أفضل من نطق بالضاد ،وعلى آله وأصحابه وتابعيهم إىل يوم الدين وبعد،يعد اللغة العربية لغة التخاطب بني شعب العرب رب الكون على غريها إلختياره تعاىل تعبريا و هي يف العامل اإلسالمي أفضل اللغات العاملية و لقد فضلها ّ لكالمه ،و تنزيال ألفضل كتبه،وبعثا خبري رسله من القريش املتكلني بأحسنها لسانا لقوله تعاىل ":و إنه
رب العاملني نزل به الروح األمني على قلبك لتكون من املنذرين بلسان عريب مبني" الشعراء. 162:و لتنزيل ّ
من مث أصبح الثقافة اإلسالمية لألمة ثقافة واحدة،مبنية على القرآن و السنة الشريفة،و ال تزال آداهتا اللغة العربية حبتة ،وإىل هذه النظرية أشار العالمة الشيخ آدم عبد هللا اإللوري":كفى العرب شرفا أوهم أقرب الناس انتسابا لرسول هللا صلى هللا عليه و سلم ،و كفاهم فخرا أن اهجتهم أقرب لسانا لكتاب هللا ،و
كفاهم تكثرا أن كل من تكلم بالعربية صار عربيا" ." 1.و أصبحوا أمة المثيل اها يف العامل عقيدة ،و در القائل: عبادة ،وعادة يف العامل اإلسالمي 1".وهلل ّ هلل ما أحالك يا عربيىت
يف ذوق أهل الذوق والعرفاىن
2
و إىل آخر ما قال. و طبعيا أن كانت اللغة العربية حيثما ختل دخل إليه اإلسالم ،كدخوله غرب أفريقيا مستوعبا مملكة كامن برنو يف القرن احلدي عشر امليالدي ،حني اعتنقه أول ملوكها الذي يدعى :مهي جلمي ،عاش بني (1169 1095م) .و اختار لنفسه بعد اسالمه اسم( :حممد) و على يديه اسلمت مملكته كلها.
3وإذن،فهدف هذه املقالة املتواضعة هو دفع عجلة أنشطة جمتمعنا الدراسية إىل األمام خاصة لدارسي علوم اللغة العربية وثقافتها اإلسالمية ،فتحتوى على املقدمة‘و موجز القول عن موقع نيجرييا اجلغرايف ،و مكانة الدراسات العربية قبل االستعمار ِف نيجرييا‘وهجوم االستعمار على دراسيت العربية واإلسالمية ِف نيجرييا، وجوانب تطورمها رغم صدود املستعمرين اها هبذه الديار ،مث واقع اللغة العربية يف األنظمة التعليمية؛ نيجرييا منوذجا ،و التوصيات ،فاخلاَتة. نبذة تارُيية عن موقع نيجرييا اجلغرايف: وبالبح ث ثب ت أن تق ع نيجريي ا يف قل ب الق ارة األفريقي ة تقريب ا حل دودها الش مالية .وهب ذا املوق ع ِ التج ار والن ازلني هب ا ع رب أه ّم اجلغرايف امتازت عن غريها وف ازت مب امل يف ز هب ا األقط ار اجمل اورة اه ا ...م ن قب ل ّ طُرق القواف ل ال ثالث ال ىت خت رتق الص حراء الك ربى جنوب ا تلتق ى كله ا داخ ل نيجريي ا .وأواله ا م ن طَرابُلُس
بفزان وكوار وينتهي يف برنو داخل نيجرييا‘ من حني ثانيتها تبدأ من تُونس وينته ى يف كن و‘ بينم ا ثالثه ا مارا ّ ّ ِِ ِ ِ ات اس ةَ وتغ ازة‘ واآلخ ر بِتَ َو َ يب دأ م ن تَاف َّلَْل َ ت يف املغ رب‘ وه و تف ّرع إىل الف رعني أح دمها مي ّر بسج ْل َم َ يتوجه شرقا إىل كنو 5.ولئن دلت ه ذه فإمن ا ت دل عل ى تبي ني و َ أودغشت‘ فيجتمعان كالمها يف َتبكتو‘ ومنها ّ العالقات بني مشال أفريقيا و غرهبا عامة ،و مبا فيها نيجرييا خاصة ،اقتصاديا و ثقافيا على األخص. مكانة الدراسات العربية قبل االستعمار يف نيجرييا: انبثق نور اإلسالم وتعاليمه من أيام ع ام -510امل يالدي ب واد غ ري ذي زرع ب األرض املقدس ة عن د بيت هللا احل رام حي ث أس كن س يدنا إب راهيم ول ده إمساعي ل ليق يم ذريت ه الص الة ،فكثّرهم هللا ح ىت ص اروا أم ة زك ّّ ّّيهم إىل أن ص اروا خ ري أم ة أخرج ت للن اس وف يهم بع ث خ اَت رس له ل يعلم قوم ه الكت اب واحلكم ة وي ّ
ق ائمني ب املعروف ون اهني ع ن املنك ر .ه ذه الوظيف ة مازال ت قائم ة عل ى عمليّ ة الدراس ة والت دريس إزاء اللغ ة العربية وعلومها والدراسات اإلسالمية على السواء .وإىل هذه املفاهيم يستهدف قول القائل: الل غة العرب ية إح دى اللغ ات الس امية حس ب ال رأي الق دمي يف ب واللغات وكان ت أخ ت الع ربان ية والسرياني ة ومل ا ج اء اإلس الم ون زل هب ا
508
ILCC 2013
قدرها وارتفع شأوها وكثر سوادها...وح يث َت ّكن اإلسالم القرآن مسا ُ
من احلكم صارت الع ربية لغ ة الدول ة ولغ ة الكتاب ة والق رأة ولغ ة الت عليم والرتبي ة ولغ ة التاري خ والت شريع وك ذلك كان ت يف غ رب أفريقي ا ع موما
منذ الفتح اإلسالمي بال قرن التاسع عشر امليالدي.
2
ٍ نيجرييا،الىت اختذت اللغة العربية يف فرتةٍ من ويؤكد هذا القول الثوابت التارُيية أن والية برنو من واليات تارُيها لغة رمسية للدولة إثر َتكن اإلسالم هبا وتعاليمه.
هكذا
احلال إىل أن اقتحم
، وحل القانون املستعمرون البالد فاستبدلوا ذلك بلغته اإلنكليزية ،مع ترك آثار العربية يف دواوين احلكومة ّ
حل الشريعة اإلسالمية .هذا ،لقد تكفل هللا خالق الكون حبفظ كتابه‘ األمر الذي يؤدى إىل الوضعي ّ ٍ يعم عناية حبفظ العربية كذلك .وإىل هذه النظرية يوحي قواهم ":واحلديث عن مكانة العربية يف نيجرييا ّ
مشال البالد وغرهبا (اي بالد هوسا وبالد يوربا) ،إذ كانت العربية قبل االستعمار لغة الثقافة واحلضارة منذ القرن السابع امليالدي وخاصة يف اململكة الربناوية".
3
وكذا احلال بصكتو ِف عهد اجملدد الشيخ عثمان بن فودي‘ حاول االس تعمار حم و العربي ة ع ن عق ول الن اس ،بع ّدة وس ائل املكائ د ،ولك ن فش ل يف حموه ا رغ م العراقي ل املختلف ة ال يت وض عها أم ام اللغ ة يف ح ني اجت ه أكث ر الن اس إىل تعلمه ا ألوه ا لغ ة دي نهم و ثق افتهم اإلس المية خ الل منتص ف الق رن الث امن عش ر امليالدي4. وهكذا بغرب نيجرييا (أي بالد يوربا)لقد طرق اإلسالم على أهلها مبا ال يستهان هبا حيث استطاعوا تقي ٍي ٍّد بعض وقائع مدوهم باللغة العربية قبل احتالل االستعمار وبعده .ذلك ملا أثبتها املؤرخون أيد ْي ،وغريمها أن بعض ملوك بالد يوربا الذين سجلوا دواوينهم بالعربية منهم ملك أ َْولُوبَ َد ْن ,وملك مدينة َ وإن مل ختل كتابتهم من ضعف تأليف أو ركاكة أسلوب .
5
ومهم ا يك ن م ن أم ر ،فاملش ار إلي ه هن ا مق درة كتاب ة اإلنش اء وص نائع ال دواوين الش رعية وتس جيل الوق ائع التارُيي ة وإقام ة الدول ة اإلس المية وتوطي دها إىل ح ّد ّم ا ،ال ختل و م ن نت ائج دراس ات اللغ ة العربي ة
دراسة تطبيقية.
ِ دما قب ل االس تعمار ،ال ت زال عل ى ال نظم احمللي ة دون احلكومي ة. الش ّ ك أن مكان ة الدراس ة العربي ة ق ً
فاخت ذت األم اكن لدراس تها منه ا :املس اجد وده اليز ذل ك ل دواعيها األساس ية ب ل إلت زام الت ديّن هب ا إس الميا‘ ّ
علمائها‘ وغريمها مم ا يص لح إللق اء ال دروس عل ى الس واء إن ك ان التعل يم اجلم اعي ،ذل ك أن ليس ت امل دارس أو املكات ب يف بن اء خ اص .ف إذن ،ثب ت أن م ن أراد تعل م الكتاب ة أو الق راءة عل ى ح ّد التعل يم اإلف رادي إمن ا يقصد بيت معلمه بوجه خاص. هجوم االستعمار على دراسيت العربية واإلسالمية يف نيجرييا: ملموس ا يف نيجريي ا قب ل اح تالل االس تعمار الربيط اين ومواجه ة التنص ري، دورا ً لقد لعبت اللغة العربي ة ً
يف حني أن راجت جتارة اللغة العربية بدون منافسة حيث استقلت وحيدة يف امليدان طيلة أربعة قرون‘ وذلك قبل ااهجوم األجنيب بلغيت اإلنكليزية و الفرنسية ،األمر الذي سبّب املنافسة بينهما وب ني اللغ ة العربي ة فتت ابع
حمل اللغة العربية 6.ومن األسف أن َتّ اهم آمااهم. ذلك حماولة القضاء عليها هبدف احتالل اللغة اإلنكليزية ّ
هذا ،مل مينع بعض اآلخ رين م ن علم اء اجلن وب اليورب اويني م ن مقاوم ة ه ذه الطغ اة إىل ح د ّم ا‘ وِف
ذل ك يق ول :ال دكتور عب د ال رحيم مح زة ِف مقدم ة كتاب ه بعن وان" :محّ اة الثقاف ة العربي ة اإلس المية م ن طغي ان
محّاة الثقافة اإلنكليزية املسيحية يف نيجرييا"
...وبع د‘ ف إىن وض عت ه ذا الكت اب( :محّ اة الثقاف ة العربي ة اإلس المية م ن طغيان الثقافة اإلنكليزية املسيحية يف نيجرييا) بني أيد طالّب العل م اإلس المي
كرس وا يف ه ذه ال ديار رغب ة اإلحت ذاء واإلقتف اء بآث ار ه ؤالء العلم اء ال ذين ّ
حياهتم حلماية حظرية اإلسالم من اإلندراس ورفعوا من شأنه بكل ما أوتوا من ق ّوة وعت ادة أو نف س ونف يس ح ىت غ دا اإلس الم بفض ل جه ودهم اجلب ارة ِدين ا 7 شعبيا...
510
ILCC 2013
َّ تتوسع يف غرب أفريقيا اشتد احلركات التنصريية خالل القرن التاسع عشر امليالدي وال تزال أنشطتها ّ
يف املستعمرات الربيطانية منها بوجه عام ويف نيجرييا بوجه خاص ،وكما التزال سياستها يف نشر الدين تاما عن طريق نشر التع ليم الغرىب وقد فتحت اهذا الغرض مدارس كثرية يف البالد تشمل مراحلها النصراين ّ
املتعددة.و إىل هذا أشار اإللوري...":واحلكومة ال ختصص اهم إال حصة الديانة اليت خصص ت لغريهم و ال حاجة للحكومة يف تعليم العربية اليت ال تعود عليها منها أية فائدة ملموسا" 9وذلك حسب عزمها بدأ. جوانب تطورها رغم صدود املستعمرين َلا ِبذه الديار: وملا َتّ استقالل نيجرييا ب إذن هللا ع ن عبودي ة االس تعمار الربيط اين ع ام 1690م ،فتس ابقت البل دان
العربي ة إىل ف تح الس فارات والقنص ليات يف الغ وس -عاص مة نيجريي ا القدمي ة -وم ن مثّ مل جت د احلكوم ة الفيدرالي ة ب ّدا م ن توطي د غ رس املعامل ة الدولي ة ،فقام ت بف تح س فاراهتا يف تل ك البل دان العربي ة واإلس المية؛
توسع دور اللغة العربية ألن الدولة رأت ضرورة توظيف من جييد اللغ ة العربي ة للقي ام بالعم ل فأسفر ذلك عن ّ يف سفاراهتا املفتوحة يف البلدان العربية‘ هذا مازال من مفاد تطورها تعلميا وعمليا.
سبق ال ذكر أن عه د الش يخ عثم ان ب ل خالفت ه الص كوتية تش جعت التعل يم تش جيعا بالغ ا إلختاذه ا العربية لغة رمسية‘ وثبت تأثري ذلك يف بالد يوربا وقتئذ مع أن مناهج التعليم ظلّت ض ئيال .لك ن يرج ع تط ور الدراس ات العربي ة إىل ح ني ب دأت أوض اع املن اهج تتحس ن عل ى أي دى أمث ال الش يخ عب د الك رمي الطربلوس ي املتويف يف كنو عام 1629م وهو ّأول من مجع األوالد على املقاعد والس بورة ش بيها باملدرس ة النظامي ة املغرىب ّ
ح ني نزول ه الغ وس -ع ام 1960م .مث اإلس تاذ حمم د ومص طفى الس امي نزي ل الغ وس ك ذلك ،ع ام
1620م وهو ّأول من وضع كتابا مقررا ،والشيخ تا األدب اإللورى املت ويف 1622م‘ الذي وض ع طريق ة منهجية خاصة للطلبة يف عام 1610م‘ َتتاز عن غريها باستعمال الكتب املص ورة وحتدي د س ن التعل يم ب ني
ثالث س نوات أو دووه ا .وج اء بع ده تلمي ذه الش يخ كم ال ال دين األديب بتط وير الطريق ة بوض ع م نهج التعل يم ُسس يف مشال البالد مدرس ة العل وم العربي ة ع ام 1634م للتالميذ حسب مستواهم العلمي والعقلي قبل أن أ ّ
6 عرب الدكتور أبوبكرعلي: وعنها الىت توافق روح العصر. ّ
"ميتاز القرن العش رون ع ن الق رن التاس ع عش ر بكث رة ع دد العلم اء ال ذين جيي دون اللغ ة العربي ة ويرج ع الفض ل يف ذل ك إىل إنش اء مدرس ة الش ريعة بكن و-س نة 1634م ال ىت أخ ذت خت ر دفعاهت ا س نويا من ذ س نة 1639م ،وقد نتج عن ازدياد عدد هؤالء املتخ رجني أن ارتف ع ع دد املتكلم ني باللغ ة العربي ة وال ذين جيي دون كتابتها ،ولعب عدد كبري من هؤالء اخلرجيني دورا هاما يف تطوير احلياة الثقافية يف البالد أي نيجرييا
0 11
وبع د ه ؤالء األع الم‘ ق ام الش يخ آدم عب د هللا اإلل ورى مبجهودات ه اإلص الحية يف ختط يط م نهج التعليم العرىب اإلسالمى مبركزه-أغيغى بدأ من عام 1652م‘ مقرتحا يف ذلك مايلى: جتميع التالميذ يف بناء خاص كمدرسة. إختيار املواد الدراسية وفق مطالب العصر. حتديد الكتاب للتدريس مقررا وفق إدراك الطالب. التمرن على الكتابة اإلنشائية والرسائل بأنواعها تكوينا مللكة اللغة واألسلوب. واحلث على التخاطب بالعربية َترنا للطلبة.طبّ ق الش يخ ه ذه التخطيط ات املقرتح ة تطبيق ا فوف ق ب إذن هللا– بالنج اح الب اهر‘ وإىل ه ذا أش ار الس يد عبد الوهاب زبري أحد تالميذ اإللورى :
"...هذا بعد حماولته العلمية سنة 1649م،عند ما عاد الشيخ من رحلته العلم ية من مص ر‘ وتع اون م ع مجاع ة أنص ار ال ّدين إلنش اء مدرس ة مس ائية حبت ةً دون مزجه ا باللغ ة اإلجنليزي ة‘ ولك ن تقل الش يخ وتكلّف العم ل عل ى احلس اب الف ردي عدم القيام اإلجياىب من قبل اآلباء واألبناء لفت ور مه تهم اس ّ
ومسّى مدرس ته ب (املركز) ب دأ ب ذلك م ن مدين ة أَبَْيأ َْوُكوتَا ،مثّ نقله ا إىل أغيغ ي س نة 1655م .ويف تأيي د ذل ك
أحد طالبه: يقول ُ
مفر يف إدخال دراسة اللغة العربي ة ...م ن دون ملا بدى لالستعمار أن ال ّ
أي تدخل ومساعدة من احلكومة وكانت اللغة العربية تعيش اليوم وخاصة
512
ILCC 2013
يف الغرب بفضل ما قد متها هذه املدارس اخلصوص ية .واجل دير بال ذكر أن أكثر أساتذة العربية يف جامعات البالد غرب ا ومش اال ق د م روا هب ذه امل دارس اخلصوص ية يف مرحل ة م ن مراح ل حي اهتم الثقافي ة قب ل وص واهم إىل ه ذه الذروة العلمية.
12
ومن هذا املنطلق ،سنحت الفرصة لدراسة اللغة العربية وعلوم ثقافتها اإلسالمية إىل ح ّد مستواها العليا ,ولئن دلت هذه النظرية فإمنا تدل على تطور اللغة العربية دراسة وتدرسا رغم عناد كارهيها. واقع اللغة العربية يف األنظمة التعليمية؛نيجرييا منوذجا ولقد استمر كل من أهل االستعمار والتنصري واالستشراق يف العمل بكيد إلماتة اللغة العربية واإلسالمية عل ى س واء ،ذل ك بوض ع العراقي ل أمامه ا إىل ع ام اس تقالل نيجريي ا 1690امل يالدى‘ فوج دت حرك ات إصالحية تقرر مناهج التعليم عموما واللغة العربية وثقافتها اإلسالمية خصوص ا .فنتج ت م ن ذل ك حرك ات م نح البعث ات العلمي ة للمتخصص ني يف العربي ة والدراس ات اإلس المية وتعي ني موظ ف مس ؤول ع ن تنظ يم الدراس ات العربي ة يف وزارة الرتبي ة رمسيّ ا وغريه ا م ن اإلص طالحات ال ىت س اعدت يف تط ور اللغ ة العربي ة يف نيجرييا عموما ويف مشااها خصوصا.
ويف ذللك يق ول حمم د زكري ا عيس ى" 13ب دأت ِف اخلمس ينات تظه ر بع ض امل دارس العربي ة النظامي ة ِف والية برنو‘ناهيك عن احلكومات املختلفة...واذا كان ت الدمقراطي ة تعت رب مص لحة األغلبي ة ف إن أغل ب الن اس ِف برنو االَن يفضلون العربية على اللغات األجنبية بدليل أن أكثر الطالب الذين يدرسون اإلجنليزية يدرسون ِف أوقات فراغهم العربية والرتبية اإلسالمية.
14
توىل احلكومة الوالية ادارة أمث ال ه ذه امل دارس بالش مال إذ ه ي ال ىت هذا ،إمنا هو على سبيل املثال‘ وقد ّ
أنش أهتا وأم ر َت ويج الثقاف ة اإلجنليزي ة والعربي ة مع ا بي دها‘ ووض ع مناهجه ا بإش رافها وه ذه احلكوم ة ه ى ال ىت
تتحمل مجيع نفقات املدارس كما هتيئ إصدار شهاداهتا على السواء حذرا أالّ يؤثر اجلمع بني الثقافتني تأثريا سيّئا ِف اللغة العربية‘ خبالف ما ِف املدارس العربية ِف الغرب (أي بالد يوربا). ويتحمل ون مجي ع نفقاهت ا ذل ك أن األف راد م ن محّ اة اللغ ة العربي ة ه م ال ذين لزم وا إنش اء ه ذه امل دارس ّ
أي ت دخل م ن قب ل احلكوم ة ألوه ا ال تع رتف هب ذه وحدهم‘ وقاموا بوضع مناهجها وإصدار شهاداهتا ب دون ّ املدارس ،بل تعمل إلماتتها إقالعا واستئصاال جذرها من بالد يوربا.
أوه ا م ا زال ت هب ذه اإلج رآت حالي ا ،ول دفع عجل ة تق دم اللغ ة العربي ة يف ال بالد ،أص بح حتم ا عل ى احلكومة الفيدرالية يف مشايعها من اآلن قبي ل تطلعاهت ا لع ام 2020م‘ تغي ري ختط يط منظوماهت ا م ن س لبيّتها إىل إجيابيتها مراعيا اإلقرتاحات اآلتية. إقرتاحات: * يلزم على احلكومة الفيدرالية بعد أن قد شعرت ورأت ما يف الدراسات العربية من خري أفراد أبنائها دارس يها م ن ناحي ة وجملتمعه ا م ن ناحي ة أخ رى حي ث أوه ا م ا زال ت إح دى مف اد نعمته ا عن د معاملته ا ضمنتها يف مناهج الدرسات اجلامعي ة إىل ح ّد مراح ل الدرس ات العلي ا جب ّل الدولية خار وداخل البالد ّ حىت ّ جامعات نيجرييا تقريبا ،ال ب ّد أن تعيد النظر يف وسائلها التعليمية مصلحا يف تقدمها اللغوي. * على احلكومة إلت زام فك رة التض مني عل ى مي زان سواس ٍّي لي تمكن الطال ب أن جيتم ع ب ني اللغت ني يف
آن واحد .مثّ جيدر باحلكومة أن جتتنب عن إعط اء احلري ة لت دريس اللغ ة العربي ة باللغ ة اإلجنليزي ة مل ا فيه ا م ن املضرة حيث قصور أمثال دارسها هبذه الطريق ة رغ م دع واهم التخص ص يف املي دان .وإىل ه ذا ي وحي القائ ل: "...وعلى سبيل املثال فالطريقة املتبعة عند املستشرقني لتدريس اللغة العربي ة ه ي عب ارة ع ن إلق اء احملاض رات العربية كلها باللغة اإلجنليزية وأسئلة اإلمتحان ات واألجوب ة وكتاب ة البح وث والرس ائل كله ا باللغ ة اإلجنليزي ة.يف مث ل ه ذه احلال ة ال ش ك أن الطال ب ال ذي م ّر هب ذه الطريق ة يف تعل يم اللغ ة العربي ة فإن ه حتم ا جيي د وي تقن اللغة اإلجنليزية أكثر من العربية الىت هي جمال ختصصه".
15
514
ILCC 2013
* عل ى احلكوم ة إقام ة من اهج الدراس ية املناس بة تنف ع ألف راد جمتمعه ا يف إتق ان اللغت ني دون تغلّ ب إح دامها عل ى األخ رى‘ لك ي يوج د يف نيجريي ا يف املس تقبل القري ب ب ل قبي ل ع ام2020م ،ع دد كث ري غ ري املس لمني تط البهم احلكوم ة بعك س م ا تتطال ب ب ه املس لمني ( -:أي اتق اوهم العربي ة عل ى ح ّد ثنائي ة لغ تهم اإلجنليزية‘ وحتسبها احلكومة ضرورة يف التحاقهم باجلامعة. *ول يكن هن اك اهتم ام ك اف هب ا ل دى احلكوم ة الفيدرالي ة عل ى وج ه العم وم ،ذل ك ألن لك ل دول ة سياستها وتوجهاهتا وميواها واهتماهتا وأهدافها سلبيا أو إجيابيا. *ولتطل ع احلكوم ة يف ه ذه ال بالد عل ى جه ة رمسي ة رفيع ة املس توى‘ وعل ى مس توى ال وطن يلتزمه ا أن هتتم بتعليم وتدريس أبنائها على العموم هذه اللغة الىت كانت إحدى اللغات العاملية ،فلتشجعهم عليها حىت سائر جماالهتا الىت يرجى النفع بسببها على غرار الدراسات العلمية يف الدول العاملية الراقية. * عل ى احلكوم ة يف بع ض الوالي ات أن تع رض نفس ها ع ن من ع مدارس ا اللغ ة العربي ة وآداهب ا يف املؤسس ات التعليمي ة احلكومي ة م ن آداء واجب تهم حي ث تط البهم بت دريس م واد أخ رى فض ال ع ن جم ال ختصصهم. *وم ن تل ك التطلع ات‘ قي ام احلكوم ة بت وفُ ِر ك ّل الوس ائل التعليمي ة يف اللغ ة العربي ة مبدارس ها عل ى
العم وم لتس اعد عل ى فهمه ا نطق ا وكتاب ة وإم الءً‘ وق رأة‘ ل رتيح ال بالد م ن س وء الفه م إزاء اللغ ة االعربي ة ودراسات ثقافتها اإلسالمية.
فيجب على احلكومة النيجريي ة أن تب ادر إىل اخت اذ م ا يل زم جعله ا م ادة إجباري ة ألبنائه ا يف امل دارس كل من غزير منفعتها .هذه كلها من جهة. احلكومية لكى جيت ي ّ
وأما من جهة أخرى؛ ما يقرتحها الباحث إزاء إخواننا العرب ملا رأها من املنشودة ليبادروها ،فهي:
املس ؤلية
أنه يليق بالدول العربية بإنشاء مصنعات عديدة لك ن ت درجييا ,ول و بش ركة تن تج فيه ا اجل ورب متنوع ةمثال ,مث تفكري عن وضع مصنع آخر حيث يشرتط أن يك ون م واظفني هب ا ذووا م ؤهالت عالي ة,مع كوني ة العربي ة لغ ة التح دث فيم ا ب ني العم ال في ه ي دفع ه ذا إىل تق دم ووهض ة ه ذه اللغ ة يف ال بالد فتحت فيه مثل هذا املصانع. و على العرب التشمر إلعادة جمد العربية املندرس بعد أن قد كان ت لغ ة الت دين ِف الع امل اإلس الميعامة ويف الدولة خاصة يف بعض األوطان قدما وحاضرا. اس ئناف الع رب س عيا ك ى ي تمكن جعله ا لغ ة يومي ة يف س ائر املع امالت الش عبية يف ع امل اإلس الم,األمر الذي يؤدى إىل ترحيبهم متعلمينها يف شىت جامعة الدول العربية متخصص ني يف العل وم العام ة ال الدينية واللغوية فحسب. و م ىت القي ام بف تح الش ركات أو املص نعات املنتج ات لتل ك األش ياء الض رورية حلي اة البش رية حي ثالعم ال فيه ا م ن أواه م إىل أس رهم ح املني ش هادات العربي ة بك ل مس توياهتا داخ ل وخ ار يك ون ّ
بلداوهم.
رس ًاما أو هذا ,ليصبح طالب اللغ ة العربي ة عائ دا إىل وطن همهندس ا ّم ا ,أو طبيبً ا ,أو بنّاءًا فنيًّا ,أو ّ ً غري ذلك من جمالت العلوم العصرية العاملية. اخلامتة: تقوي ة ملس توى الدارس ي يف اللغ ة العربي ة وثقافته ا اإلس المية يف ه ذه ال ديار النيجريي ة حتت ا احلكوم ة الفيدرالية ملستقبل أبنائها إىل مراجعة شاملة لعدة جوانب عرب ما تناولته املقالة يف صددها .ولقد استقلت يف ِ دما حني اختاذها اللغة العربية لغة رمسية قبل احتالل ذلك بلدان الغرب اإلفريقية مبا فيها نيجرييا اليت ظفرت ق ً االس تعمار الربيط اين وحرك ة التنص ري واالستش راق الفرنس ي .وإذن الش ك م ن إع ادة النظ ر يف امل نهج املطب ق حالي ا واملت وارث ل دى األجي ال الس ابقة وحاض ر العص ر ح ىت يس توعب املغت ريات يف املك ان ،ويتس ع ليش مل وسائل وأساليب ضرورة نافعة وما يتبع ذلك من إعداد املدرسني املؤهلني علميا.
516
ILCC 2013
م ن هن ا ،ي رى الباح ث أمهي ة ام داد ي د املس اعدة م ن قب ل ال دول العربي ة ,ن اظرين يف ح ل ه ذه املشكالت بكل الوسائل املتمكنة إلسعاد ومستقبل دارس العربي ة ومدرس يها يف ديارن ا النيجريي ة خاص ة ,ويف غرب أفريقيا عامة. اَلوامش -1
اإلل وري‘ آدم عب دهللا‘ "اإلس الم الي وم وغ دا ي نيجريي ا" مطب ع املخت ار اإلس المي‘ – ق اهرة – 1695م ص150-151
-2
اإللوري‘ آدم عبدهللا‘ "الصراع بني العربية واإلجنليزية ي نيجرييا" الطبعة األوىل‘ دار التوفي ق النموذجية‘1311-1411ھ ‘ ص5
-3
ش يخو أمح د س عيد غالدنث ي‘ "حرك ة اللغ ة العربي ة وآداِب ا يف نيجري ا" – الق اهرة – دار املعارف‘ ص16
-4
حمم د زكري ا عيس ى‘ ت دريس اللغ ة العربي ة بربن و‘ جمل ة اللس ان‘ الع دد الثالث‘ 1429ھ2005/م‘ ص112
-5
ال دكتور عب دالرحيم عيس ى األول‘ "اللغ ة العربي ة ومس تقبل طالهب ا ِف نيجريي ا" – جمل ة اللس ان – مجعي ة مدارس ي اللغ ة العربي ة وآداهب ا ِف نيجريي ا – اجملل د الث اىن‘ الع دد الرابعة‘ 2006م‘ ص22-21
-9
مرتض ى أديرام ي‘ مس تقبل اللغ ة العربي ة ِف نيجريي ا‘ مكت ب منش ورات اإلس المية‘ الطبع ة األوىل ‘1661 ،ص3
-1
عب دالرحيم مح زة (ال دكتور)‘" مح اة الثقاف ة العربي ة اإلس المية م ن طغي ان مح اة الثقاف ة اإلجنليزية املسيحية"‘ مطبعة التقدم‘ 1369ھ1619/م ص3
-9
اإللوري ,آدم عبد هللا "،نظام التعل يم الع ريب وتارُي ه يف الع اس اإلس المي",الطبع ة الثاني ة,دار مكتبة احلياة – بريوت 1691م,ص 51
-6
عب د اللطي ف اونريي يت إب راهيم" ،نظ ام الش يخ آدم عب دهللا اإلل وري ِف تعل يم اللغ ة العربي ة ِف نيجرييا"-،أنظر جملة النور‘ العدد الثالث‘ 1431ھ2006/م‘ ص3
-10ال دكتور عل ّي أب وبكر‘"الثقاف ة العربي ة يف نيجريي ا م ن 1661-1751ع ام االستقالل"،الطبعة األوىل-،القاهرة1612-م،ص344 -11عبد اللطيف اونريييت إبراهيم‘ املصدر السابق،ص3 -12الدكتور عبدالرحيم عيسى األول‘ املصدر السابق‘ ص13-14 -13
ه و الس يد حمم د زكري اء عيس ى‘حماض ر بقس م اللغ ة العربي ة – كلي ة حمم د غ ومي الش ريعة والقانون والدراسات اإلسالمية‘ -ميدوغري.
-14الدكتور عبدالرحيم عيسى األول‘ املصدر السابق،ص -15حممد زكريا عيسى ،املصدر السابق‘ ص23
114
518
ILCC 2013
ختلف املسلمة النيجريية عن حقل التعليم العريب احلديث :أسبا ب وحلول إعداد الدكتور موسى عبد السالم مصطفى أبيكن قسم الدراسات العربية واإلسالمية ,جامعة والية كوغي. أينبا ,نيجرييا
[email protected] َتهيد : املرأة املسلمة شريكة احلياة يف تعمري األرض اهذا ،ال بد اها من مشاركة الرجال جبد واحتشام ِف جماالت احلياة وإن انطالق املرأة ومشاركتها ِف احلياة اإلجتماعية هو وهج قررته الشريعة الغراء ,فمشاركة النساء للرجال ِف بناء الوطن ال تعوق املرأة عن أداء مسؤليتها األوىل يف بيتها وتربية أوالدها وإمنا تساعد على ضرورات احلياة وحاجات اجملتمع بكافة مناحيه . خصوصا ِف ميدان التعليم وحتديات اجملتمع املعاصر للمسلمة النيجريية أقل من الرجال تنافسا ً العريب .فالغاية من املقالة النظرة الشاملة إىل املرأة املسلمة وحتديات اجملتمع املعاصر اها بني املاضي البعيد واحلاضر القريب .
اللغة العربية قبل توغل املستعمرين الربيطانيني : التمهيد قد اتفقت آراء الباحثني النيجرييني قدميا وحديثا على أن اللغة العربية قدمية وعريقة ِف نيجرييا ،إذ يرجع تاريخ دخواها ِف هذه البالد إىل تاريخ دخول اإلسالم فيها .9ومن احلقائق التارُيية الثابتة أن بعض الشعب النيجريى قد اعتنق الدين اإلسالمى منذ أوائل القرن األول ااهجرى وانتشرت أنواره ِف هذه البالد بسرعة فائقة ،شأنه ِف ذلك شأن كل قطر من األقطار الىت دخل فيها ،فقد ترتب على هذا اإلنتشار أن ازدهرت الثقافة العربية ِف ذلك العصر ،األمر الذى جعل اللغة العربية لغة رمسية قرنا كامال ِف األمرباطورية الفالنية 9بعد أن ظلت كذلك ِف األمرباطورية الربناوية عدة قرون . ولقد أتاح هللا للغة العربية ِف ذلك احلني من قام بنشرها من رجال الدين من أبناء الوطن من ناحية, ومن الوافدين من ناحية أخرى فال أدل على ذلك من وجود علماء نيجرييني تبحروا ِف علوم اللغة العربية 2
من النحو والصرف والبالغة والعروض والشعر واخلطابة .
املرأة ِف اجملتمع النيجريى القدمي : قبل أن نتكلم يف وضع املرأة احلايل ينبغى أن نلتفت إىل الوراء قليال لنعرف وضعها قبل احلضارة العربية ِف البالد فبعض النساء يف نيجرييا ختدم زوجها ِف ذل وانكسار ,وليس اها حق التصرف فيما َتلك بدون إذن زوجها ,فهى ِف القرية تعصر الزيت من حبوب النخيل ,وتلتقط احلبوب والفواكه ِف البستان, وجتمع احلصاد وتدرسها وتطحنها وتعجنها وهتيئها لألكل أو البيع ,وتصنع اخلزف من الطني الالزب كل ذلك خلدمة الزو . وِف املدينة تغزل األقطان ,وتنسج األقمشة أو تتاجر لتسلم األرباح كلها للزو املسئول عن املستلزمات املنزلية ,اهذا يعترب تعدد الزوجات مزية للرجال .فالطبقات املتوسطة أو الغنية يكثرون الزوجات 3
إىل بضع عشرات ,وللزوجة األوىل الكبرية حق السلطة على الباقيات ,وكلهن ِف خدمة أزواجهن .
520
ILCC 2013
املرأة املسلمة والتعليم : إن اإلسالم مل يفرق بني الرجال والنساء ِف التعليم بل اهتم بتعليم النساء كالرجال جاء ِف البخارى عن أىب سعيد اخلدرى رضي هللا عنه قال :جاءت امرأة إىل رسول هللا صلى هللا عليه وسلم فقالت :يا رسول هللا ذهب الرجال حبديثك ,فاجعل لنا من نفسك يوما نأتيك فيه تعلمنا ما علمك هللا :قال النىب صلى هللا عليه وسلم ’’ :اجتمعن ِف يوم كذا ِف مكان كذا‘‘ فاجتمعن فأتاهن رسول هللا فعلمهن مما علمه هللا مث قال ’’ :ما منكن امرأة تقدم بني يديها من ولدها ثالثة إال كانوا اها حجابا من النار ‘‘ فقالت امراة منهن: يارسول هللا واثنني قال أبوسعيد فأعادهتا مرتني مث قال رسول هللا ’’ :واثنني واثنني واثنني ‘‘ .وفيه أيضا عن 4
أم هشام قالت :ما أخذت سورة ق إال على لسان النىب كان ُيطب هبا كل مجعة .
اشتهرت السيدة عائشة بالعلم والفتيا وكانت من الستة املكثرين لرواية احلديث عن رسول هللا ،وقد قال فيها الرسول ’’ :خذوا نصف دينكم من هذه احلمرياء ‘‘ 5وِف حديث آخر ’’ :طلب العلم فريضة على كل مسلم ‘‘ . وقد اشتهر ِف العلم عدد كثري من النساء املسلمات ِف خمتلف العصور والعواصم .وِف نيجرييا نساء عاملات قبل ظهور ابن فودى اجملدد وبعده .منهن أم هاين بنت حممد العبدوسى من فضليات النساء ِف غرب إفريقيا ،ورقية جدة ابن فودى وعائشة الكثناوية ،إن دل هذا على شيء فإمنا تدل على أن بعض النساء يف نيجرييا يرسخن يف الدراسات العربية واإلسالمية.
مبدأ حتديات احلياة للمرأة املسلمة النيجريية : ولعل املسلمة النيجريية بدأت تعاىن من الشعور بالنقص بعد تزوجيها ِف سن مبكر ،وهذا بالطبع مينعها من احلصول على درجات علمية عالية وثقافات واسعة املدى ،وال أدل على ذلك من قول الشيخ آدم عبدهللا اإللورى حيث يقول" :ومن األسف أن يعترب بعض الناس الزوا املبكر فريضة إسالمية على
البنت جيب على األب أو الوىل أن يسرع إىل أدائها ِف سن املراهقة فقطعوا بذلك طريق تعليمها بالزوا املبكر فانتقلت وهى صغرية من بيت أبيها وأمها إىل بيت زوجها لتبدأ احلياة الزوجية قبل البلوغ كل هذا باسم اإلسالم وإن كانت هذه البنت بدأت التعليم فإن الزوا يقطع عليها الطريق فبذلك قلت النساء 6
املتعلمات اليوم ِف مشال نيجرييا وكثرت املتعلمات ِف اجلنوب " .
إن النساء ِف نيجرييا جتابه التحديات على أنواعها ،وهذه التحديات تكاد َتس مرافق احلياة كلها فبينما يتسابق الرجال على عمل من األعمال قلما يرى ممثلة للنساء وال سيما ِف ناحية التعليم العريب . تعليم النساء ِف القرن التاسع عشر امليالدى: وقد تقدمت النساء ِف جمال التعليم العريب ِف القرن التاسع عشر امليالدى وظهر منهن نابغات ِف النثر والشعر يشاركن الرجال ِف التأليف والتدريس والوعظ واإلرشاد ونشاطات دينية أخرى ،وِف مقدمتهن جدة الشيخ عثمان بن فودى حيث تقول ِف قصيدة اها: الكري م ي قبل ت ائ با أت اه
ال ي خاف خبسا كل من رجاه
بالعذاب جيرى من عصى وجيرى
7
ال ي نال ع زا م ن ت بع هواه
ت ب لعل ت رحم يا أخي فاعلم
أن ف ى ج هنم سجن من عصاه
ث م من ت مرد ِف اللظى يصفد
م ن عصى م حمدا هكذا جزاه
جب ره ي كسر ع يشه ي كدر حائرا ذل يال قد كسى ن حوال خ ل عن مرادك واكثر اجتهادك دم ع لى اجلماعة والزم القناعة
خي ره ي قرت ق د ع ظم باله ق د لقى ج هوال م ا جنت يداه إن ف ى معادك م ا سعت ت راه من ل ه الص ناعة واج ب تقاه
522
ILCC 2013
ذو اجلالل قدر أن من ت جب ر رب نا كري م ل م ي زل رحيم زارع اخلطايا ح اصد ال باليا
ف ى ال جحيم حيشر قعرها مأواه أم ره ع ظيم ج ل ف ى عاله ما عمى العمي ي ا من قلبه عماه
وهذه األبيات صاغتها الشاعرة على حروف ااهجاء بدأها بااهمزة فالباء فالتاء إىل حرف الزاء من باب التمثيل . وبنات الشيخ عثمان بن فودى على قدم راسخة ِف الدراسات العربية واإلسالمية ،وكانت نانا أمساء أكرب بنات الشيخ علما وأوسعهن ثقافة وأغزرهن تأليفا وإنتاجا 8.اها إنتاجات نثرية وشعرية تفوق ستني 9،ومن بني الكتب الىت ألفتها تبشري اإلخوان بالتوسل بسور القراءن عند اخلالق املنان وتنبيه الغافلني وتذكري العاقلني إىل طرق الصاحلني . ومن قصائدها العربية قصيدة ِف مرثية صديقتها عائشة بنت عمر الكم زوجة أمري املومنني حممد بلو جاء فيها: 11
إل ى هللا أشكو من صنوف البالبل
ثوت ِف سويداء لقلب ى داخل
ل فقد شيوخ قادة الدين س ادة
وإخ واننا أخدان خي ر ونائل
وذكرىن م وت احلبيبة م ن مضى
من األخوات الصاحلات العقائل
م ن الصاحلات القانتات لرب هم
من احلافظات الغيب ذات النواخل
فزادت مهومى وانفرادى ووحشىت
وسكب دموع فوق خدى هواطل
ل فقدى لعائشة الكري مة يال ها
من امراة حازت ص نوف الفضائل
م ن الذكر والصدقات ث م تالوة
وذب ل مظلوم وح مل املثاقل
وموضع سري م ن عصور أوئل
توحشت من فقدى اها وهى صفوتى
وللسيدة مرمي بيت الشيخ أشعار جيدة قالتها ِف أغراض الشعر وإمنا خنتار قصيدة تعرب فيها ارتياحها بالنصر الذى أحرزه والدها ضد أعدائها الكفار . ن حمد هللا رب نا ه ازم الكفر ماحيا ّفر بَ َاو الذى ط غى إذ ل قى أسد شيخنا إن ه ذا ل زل ة كل من كان ذا جوى ق د ب را من سقامه سبط ع ثمان غوثنا ط ول هللا ع مرن ا ن صر هللا ج ندن ا بشفيع الورى ال هدى وب آل وص حب ه
ق امع الكفر والظلم
11
ظ لمة اجلهل إذ دجم وت ول ى م ع اخلدم ض اربات ع لى البهم ل ذوى ال ذل والقزم وس قام م ن األم م إذ غدا باوا ف ى األمم ذا م عاذ أخ و الكرم ف ى رج اء مع النعم حيث كانوا على العجم أح مد س يد األمم وب من ف يهم انتظم
التعليم العريب ِف العصر االستعمارى: ومبطلع القرن العشرين امليالدي تسيطر اإلنكليز على البالد فأصبحت لغتهم رمسية وأصبح من يعرفها سيدا مطاعا فطلع سعدهم وغرب سعد غريهم ،وكسدت جتارته ،ألن هدف اإلنكليز األول هو
524
ILCC 2013
تنصر الشمال تنصريا كليا عن طريق التعليم فحاول أوال القضاء على ثقافة اإلسالم وأدبه وسد سبيل العيش على أهله ففتح املدارس اإلنكليزية وجلب إليها أبناء الفقراء وأغراهم باألموال الطائلة ووزع عليهم املنح العلمية إىل أوروبا وأمريكا بوأهم الوظائف العالية حىت مل يبق اليوم ِف التعليم العريب إال النذر اليسري من املتمسكني بالدين . ومن القرن العشرين إىل اليوم مل تربز عاملة نيجريية ِف ساحات الدراسات العربية تنافس الرجال ِف خمتلف العلوم والفنون نثرا كان أو شعرا كزميالهتا ِف القرن التاسع عشر امليالدى،أيام ابن فودى وأحفاده ولعل السبب ِف ذلك يرجع إىل النقاط اآلتية: -9استمرارية الزوا املبكر :يرى بعض اآلباء وأولياء األمور أن استمرارية الزوا املبكر أنسب وأوىل للبنات ,فلذلك يزوجون بناهتم مبكرا بغض النظر إىل مستواهن من الثقافة العربية اإلسالمية فيبقني يف بيوت أزواجهن شبه جاهالت بالدين إال أن أغلبهن قبل الزوا أو بعده يستطعن أن يقرءان القرآن الكرمي سردا . -6كراهية اللغة العربية من قبل بعض املسلمني العادين :إن بعض اآلباء م ن الذين ينتمون إىل اإلسالم ال يرغبون أن تتخصص فتياهتم ِف جمال اللغة العربية حبجة أن فرص العمل ضيقة ألصحاهبا فالوقوف على مبادئ الدين حسب رأيهم كفاية اها . -3طغيان الثقافة الغربية على العربية :وقد غلبت الثقافة الغربية على الثقافة العربية ِف الوقت الراهن حيث إن معظم البنات املسلمات اليوم ال يتقدمن بدروسهن ِف دهاليز العلماء بعد ختم القرآن على خالف الواقع قبل إستقالل البالد ,أكثرهن يشغفن الثقافة الغربية فبذلك احنطت هوية العربية ِف نفوسهن إال قليل نادر منهن تتقدم بالدراسة إىل الدراسات العليا .
-2عدم التشجيع املعنوي :إن كثريا من أدباء اليوم ِف ميدان الثقافة العربية ال يشجعون بناهتم على التعمق ِف الدراسات العربية واإلسالمية إمنا يلقون حبلهم على غارهبن فينهضن على حب الثقافة الغربية من الثقافة العربية . وقد وجدنا قليال من األديبات النيجرييات تقدمن ِف الدراسة حىت أهلتهن باإلنضمام إىل هيئة التدريس باجلامعات واملعاهد العليا يف نيجرييا ,ولكن عددهن تعد بأصابع اليد .وهؤالء احملاضرات يكتنب مقاالت أكادميية وينشروها ِف خمتلف اجملالت ِف نيجرييا وخارجها . اإلقرتاحات: وملا كان احلال على هذه الصورة الكئيبة نقدم إىل اجلهات املعنية بعض املقرتحات الىت قد تزيل هذه التحديات لبنات. -9
تأسيس املدارس لتعليم املتزوجات الراغبات ِف اللغة العربية ِف القرى واملدن .
-6
محالت متكررة حول تعليم النساء اللغة العربية وماهيتها ِف املساجد واملدارس وجمالس الوعظ واإلرشاد .
-3
ندوات ختص النساء ِف البالد .
-2
تشجيع النابغات منهن على الكتابة وَتويل خمطوطاهتن للنشر .
-5
إرسال معونات مادية من البالد العربية للنساء الالتى يعملن ِف حقل الدراسات العربية ترغيبا يف تعلمهن وتقديرا لدورهن احليوى ِف دولة اختذت اللغة اإلنكليزية لغتها الرمسية كنيجرييا على سبيل املثال .
526
ILCC 2013
اخلاَتة: الشك أن التحديات الىت جتابه املسلمات النيجرييات ِف تعليم اللغة العربية ِف الوقت املعاصر كثرية, ينبغى أن تزال بكل الوسائل املمكنة ,فاملستعمرون الغربيون الذين هيمنوا على ثروات البالد ومقاليد أمورها قد رجعوا إىل أوطاوهم بعد اإلستقالل ،وبقي األمر بني املواطنني . وقد حتدثنا بصورة موجزة عن حركات النساء ِف القرن التاسع عشر امليالدى،مع مناذ لبعض إنتاجاهتن ،مث حتدثنا عن حالة اللغة العربية ِف مطلع القرن العشرين حيث الركود والفتور للنساء أيام اإلستعمار البغيض مرتبطا باألسباب الىت أدت إىل ذلك مث اقرتحنا احللول الىت قد َتيط التحديات الىت تكابد املسلمات النيجرييات ِف التعليم العريب رجاء من املسئولني أن يضعوها موضع التنفيذ . ااهوامش انظر ورقة قدمها األستاذ علي نائىب سويد بعنوان :دور املدارس العربية ِف الديار النيجريية ِف
-9
ندوة عقده مركز الدرسات اإلسالمية بوالية كنو من أغسطس 9181املوافق ذواحلجة 9201ه ص ه. -6
املرجع نفسه ص .5
-3
آدم عبدهللا اإللورى :اإلسالم اليوم وغدا ف ى نيجي ريا ,الطبعة األوىل ،مطابع املختار اإلسالمى 9205ه 9185م ص .962-965
-2
آدم عبدهللا اإللورى :نظام التعليم العريب وتارُيه ِف العامل اإلسالمي ,الطبعة الثالثة ،دار العربية للطباعة والنشر والتوزيع بريوت لبنان 9209ه 9189م ص .91
-5
املرجع نفسه ص . 5
-2
آدم عبدهللا اإللورى :اإلسالم اليوم وغدا ِف نيجرييا .املرجع السابق ص .936 -939
-1
آدم عبدهللا اإللورى :مصباح الدرسات األدبية ِف الديار النيجريية الطبعة األوىل ص .936 -32
-8
أمحد بابا تندى عبدالسالم يف مقالة بعنوان السيدة نانا أمساء عثمان بن فودى حياهتا ونشاطاهتا الثقافية واإلجتماعية والدينية ،انظر احلضارة للدراسات العربية واإلسالمية ،السو ,اجمللد األول يونيو 9188ص . 61
-1
املرجع نفسه ص . 36
-90
شيخو أمحد سيعد غالدنث :حركة اللغة العربية وآداهبا ِف نيجرييا ,الطبعة الثانية طبع بشركة العيبكان للطباعة والنشر 9292ه 9113م .
-99
املرجع نفسه ,ص . 960
528
ILCC 2013
أمهية تفعيل بعض طرق تدريس اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية يف جنوب شرقي آسيا :اجلامعة االسالمية العاملية منوذجا
األستاذ املساعد الدكتور حممد أمحد صاحل–كلية اللغات احلديثة واالتصاالت جامعة السلطان إدريس الرتبوية تاجنونج ماليم فرياك(دار الرضوان).
ملخص البحث أمهية تفعيل بعض طرق تدريس اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية يف جنوب شرقي آسيا :اجلامعة االسالمية العاملية منوذجا إن النظريات والطرق أو الوسائل التعليمية خاصة يف تعليم اللغة العربية ألغراض خاصة الزالت تتأرجح بني احلداثة والراديكالية حينا وبني القدم واجلدة يف أحايني أخرى .واحلقيقة اليت التكاد تكون حمل شك أو ارتياب أن وصفها أو إلباسها تلك الصبغة ينب ي على مدى تأثريها يف البيئة اليت َتارس فيها وعليه ميكن اطالق املقولة "أن نظريات التعليم هي بنات بيئاهتا" . إن مصطلح احلداثة أو اجلدة والتجديد أصبح مصطلحا مطاطا أو ذئبقيا من بلد آلخر أو من مؤسسة ألخري ،ويف منتصف القرن املاضي وبدايات القرن احلايل أضحى له رواجا وسوقا راحبة السيما بني أوساط املؤسسات اليت تتبىن تعليم اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية ،وانربى اهذا الطلب أساطني وفطاحلة يف خمتلف أقطار العامل اإلسالمي تلخيصا ونقدا بل تطوير يف أحايني كثرية .ولعله من احلق املر أن يقال إن حمضن هذه النظريات قد ولدت يف حماضن غربية تبشري باللغة اإلجنليزية ،وقد رآى معظم علماء التخصص إن مل
يكن كلهم جبدوى هذه النظريات يف تعليم اللغة العربية للناطقني بغريها 1سيما وأن تعدادهم يف تزايد مستمر بغية تعرفهم على أجبديات الدين اإلسالمي احلنيف. إن هذا البحث أو الدراسة هي حماولة لطرح بعض النظريات أو الطرق الفاعلة يف تعليم اللغة العربية ألغراض خاصة يف اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية ماليزيا -مركز اللغات منوذجا ،وسوف تنتهج النهج الوصفي التحليلي ملعرفة مستوى طالب اللغوي وأداء املعلمي األكادميي .إن النتائج اليت يتوقعها صاحب هذه الدراسة ترتاوح بني نتائج إجيابية تستحق اإلشادة والتقدير ،وبني مثالب تستحق منا الوقفة والتطوير. تفعيل بعض طرق تدريس اللغة العربية ألغراض خاصة :جتربة شخصية مدخل تأصيلي الطريقة عرفت َّ بأوها "النمط أو األسلوب الذي ميكن أ ْن يكرر يف الظروف املتشاهبة عند التعامل يف املواقف التعليمية واملوجه بقصد حنو حتقيق هدف أو أهداف تعليمية .ومن هذه الطرق :طريقة القواعد والرتمجة، طريقة القراءة ،السمعية الشفوية ،املباشرة ،القياسية اإلستقرائية ،احملاضرة ،احلوار ،حل املشكالت ،التعليم التعاوين ،التوليفية وغري ذلكَّ . إن جناح بعض طرق تدريس اللغة العربية يتوقف على الوسائل التعليمية املستخدمة كما هو احلال يف الطريقة املباشرة أو الطريقة السمعية الشفوية مثالً ،ممايوحي بأن هنالك عالقة
متينة بني طرق تدريس اللغة العربية ووسائلها .1قد تناواها الباحث يف املبحث الثالث من الفصل الثاين بشيئ من التفصيل .والتوجد طريقة بعينها أفضل من الطرق األخرى ولعل الطريقة اإلنتقائية اليت تأخذ من كل الطرق الشيئ احلسن فيها ،حىت تتكامل املعلومة عند املتلقي ولذا فضلها بعض الرتبويني على الطرق األخرى. ومن الدراسات اليت تناولت طرق التدريس علي النعيمي يف كتاهبلهذه الطرق1مبقدمة تأصيلية فذكر َّ "أن الطفل يف البادية قبل اإلسالم كان يتعلم اللغة العربية عن طريق املشافهة ،والسماع ،أواحملاكاة واستمرت عت رقعة الدولة اإلسالمية خار اجلزيرة العربية وغالباً كانت هذه الطريقة إىل العصر العباسي ،حيث َّ توس ْ الرتبية اللغوية بيد الشيخ (املعلم) إذ كان هو املنهج والطريقة يف ٍ آن واحد .بل إنَّه الذي مينح اإلجازة للتالميذ يف أي فرع لغوي" ما" .فقد كتب عتبة بن أيب سفيان إىل عبد الصمد ُم َؤِّدب ولده فقال" َرِّوهم
530
ILCC 2013
والختْ ِر ْج ُهم من عل ٍم إىل غريه حىت ُْحي ِك ُموهَُّ ، فإن ازدحام الكالم يف من الشعر أعفه ،ومن احلديث أشرفهُ ، يعرف الداءَ". السمع مضللة للفهم ،وكن اهم كالطبيب الذي اليُ َع ِّجل بالدواء حىت َ وقد تناول طرق التدريسمحمد عبد القادر 1يف كتاهبحيث ذكر" أنَّه التوجد طريقة واحدة ميكن وصفها َّ بأوها أحسن طريقة يف التدريس وننصح هبا مجيع املعلمني ونطالبهم باستخدامها ،فالطريقة ختتلف بإختالف املادة ،أو املرحلة الدراسية املعينة .بل بناءًا على العمر الزم ي أو العقلي وكذا ميول الطالب يقة واحدةٍ وأعدادهم َكثْرًة وقِلَّةً .ولكن احلقيقة كل طرق التدريس يف جمملها مهمة ومفيدة ،وقلما ي ْقتصر بطر ٍ ُ ُ درس َّ ٍ يف ٍ معني ،وإمنا تتالقح الطرق وتتضافر .وقد جيمع املعلم بني أكثر من طريقتني كاإللقاء ،واملناقشة مثال.وقد يبدأ درسه بطريقة االستقراء وينهيه باالستنتا وهكذا ...إذا األمر مرتوك لفطنة املعلم وحكمته، ً يف كيفية استخدام فنون التدريس.1 كما تعرض حسن شحاته 1يف كتابه لطرق التدريس وذلك بتوضيح املفهوم قائالً " َّ إن املفهوم السائد يف هذا املوضوع أي طرق التدريس هو األسلوب اإلنتقائي مبعىن اختيار أفضل الطرق لتدريس اللغة كبريا من املعلم وذكاءًا خارقاً ،ليختار مايناسبه من القدمي أو احلديث .ومبا َّ أن العربية.وهذا ينطلب ً جهدا ً ِ ب املادةَ إىل طرق التدريس متشعبة فاليكفي للمعلم أن يتقن اجلانب التنظريي منها فقط ،وإمنا ينبغي أ ْن ُحيَبّ َ طالبه وي َق ِّدمها اهم بشىت السبل والوسائل .ومن اخلطأ الشائع أ ْن يُ َق َال َّ إن طرق التدريس هي وسائل لنقل املعلومات إىل املتعلم وكفى! ويُ ْغ َف ُل جانب األهداف ،والعالقات البشرية ،والفروق الفردية بني املتعلمنيَّ . إن ِ ص ُر املتعلِّم مبحيطه اخلارجي ،كي يُغَِّري سلوكه النظرة احلقيقة لطرق التدريس هو اعتبارها وسائل تعليمية تُبَ ّ مبعناه العام الذي يشمل املعرفة والوجدان واألداء .وهذا املفهوم هو الذي يُبَ ْرِه ُن على َّ أن العملية التعليمية هي تفاعل بني املتعلّم واملعلمَّ ، وإن دور املعلم فيها هو هتيئة هذه الظروف ليستجيب اها املتعلِّم .فضالً عن االهتمام بالتحصيل اللغوي ،ومراعاة الفروق الفردية.ومىت ماقرر املدرس تدريس مادة " ما" فعليه أن يقوم وحيَ ِّدد األهداف اليت يقصد حتقيقها يف وهاية املقرر الدراسي .ومنها أن ينتقي بعدة أنشطة منها -:أن يُ َقِّرر ُ
أساليب العمل ،واحملتوى ،والطرق اليت تناسب األهداف ،واليت تدفع الطالب للتفاعل معها ،مثَّ يف النهاية تقييم أداء الطالب وفقاً لألهداف اليت انتقاها يف األصل. يقول الباحث:ومبا أنَّه التوجد طريقة واحدة بعينها تعترب َّ بأوها أفضل طريقة من الطرق األخرىَّ ، فإن لكن هناك طرقاً أصبحت مشهورة األمر ُيضع لِلَباقة املعلم وحسن تصرفه وتقديره الحتياجات الطالب ،و َّ لدى أهل الفن ،ولذا سيسلط الباحث الضوء على بعض الطرق املشهورة واملتداولة بكثرة وهي :طريقة
القواعد والرتمجة ،الطريقة املباشرة ،الطريقة الشفوية السمعية وأخريا طريقة القراءة وغريها.
1
وسوف يكون تناول الباحث للدراسات السابقة لطرق التدريس من خالل التعرض للطرق اآلتية طريقة القواعد والرتمجة يقول جي أوسينج جافاكي 1يف حبثه"من الصعب حتديد نشأة هذه الطريقة من الناحية التارُيية بيد َّأوها ِ ت تعترب من أقدم طرق تعليم اللغات الثانية وتعود تأرُيياً إىل عصر النهضة يف البالد األوروبية ،حيث نُ ّقلَ ْ اللغتان اليونانية ،والالتينية الكثري من الرتاث اإلنساين إىل العامل العريب فضالً عن تزايد العالقات بني خمتلف
البالد العربية ،مماأشعر أهلها باحلاجة إىل تعليم هاتني اللغتني فاشتد اإلقبال على تعلمها وتعليمها ،واتبعت
يف ذلك األساليب اليت كانت شائعة يف تدريس اللغات الثانية يف العصور الوسطى. وممن تعرض لطرق التدريس سونا سامل 1يف حبثهحيث قال" َّ أن هذه الطريقة من أقدم طرق تعليم انتشارا يف برامج تعليم اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية ،وتعود إىل عصر النهضة اللغة الثانية ومن أوسعها ً األوروبية ،وهذه الطريقة ترجع جبذورها إىل تعليم اللغتني الالتينية ،واإلغريقية ،حيث استخدمت لفرتة طويلة يف تعليم هاتني اللغتني ،عندما كان التحليل املنطقي للغة وحفظ ماهبا من قواعد ،وتطبيق ذلك يف تدريبات للرتمجة باعتباره وسيلة من وسائل تقوية عقل التلميذ ،وذلك حينما كانت دراسة الالتينية ،واإلغريقية، تعتربان مفتاحاً للفكر واألدب القدمي وعلى ذلك كانت قراءة النصوص وترمجتها ،والتدريب على الكتابة. ويستمر سونا قائالًَّ " : أن هذه الطريقة تتمحور يف حتفيظ الطالب بعض سور القرآن الكرمي أو النصوص العربية املختارة ،و شرح معاين املفردات ،مث شرح القواعد اللغوية اليت تسهم يف فهم تراكيب اللغة، أن هذه الطريقة ِّ كما َّ تدرب الطالب على كتابة اللغة بدقة عن طريقالتدريب املنظم ،يف الرتمجة من اللغة األم إىل اللغة املتَ َعلمة ،فضالً عن تزويد الطالب حبصيلة لفظية أدبية واسعة .باإلضافة إىل كل ذلك تدربه على استخالص املعىن من النصوص األجنبية برتمجتها إىل اللغة الوطنية وعلى تقدير الدالالت األدبية
532
ILCC 2013
ملايقرأ.وذكر مجال عبد الناصر 1يف حبثه" َّ ُحسن إن هذه الطريقة أع ي الرتمجة والقواعد من الطرق الفعالة إذا أ َ تطبيقها كما ميكن االعتماد عليها يف تعليم اللغة العربية للناطقني باللغة املاليوية وخاصة يف تنمية مهارة القراءة ،والفهم الصحيح للنص ،بل َّ إن من أمساء اللغة العربية أوها " لغة اإلعراب". أن شرقاوي عبد هللا 1أثبت يف حبثه املسحية َّ اجلدير بالذكر َّ "أن ( )% 50من املعلمني يستخدمون يف تدريسهم للغة العربية هذه الطريقة" .مبعىن َّأوها حتتل املركز الثالث من ناحية الطرق املستخدمة بكثرة يف التدريس .يقول الباحث :ويربز دور املعلم يف طريقة النحو والرتمجة يف َّ أن املعلم يزود متعلمي العربية بوصفها ِّ كمايزود املتعلم لغة ثانية مبجوعة مفردات من اللغة املستهدفة(العربية) عرب ترمجتها إىل اللغة الثانية غالبا، أيضاً بكمية مناسبة من القواعد النحوية والصرفية ،حبيث تصون لسان املتعلم عن اللحن أو اخلطأ يف كتاب هللا تعاىل الذي يتعبد املسلم هللا به وخصوصاً يف العقيدة أو الشعائر التعبدية الواجب على املسلم إتياوها، ولكن هذا الدور قد ال يؤيت َثاره اليانعة كما ينبغي إ ْن يكون املعلم متمكناً من اللغتني (ااهدف ،الوسيطة) حبيث حيسن االتصال بالوسيطة على أضعف اإلميان. الطريقة املباشرة وقد ظهرت هذه الطريقة كرد فعل لطريقة النحو والرتمجة واليت كانت تعامل اللغات كما لو كانت كائنات ميتة ختلو َتاماً من احلياة ،ولقد ظهرت دعوات كثرية منذ عام 9850م تنادي جبعل تعليم اللغات األجنبية حيَّة مشوقة وفعالة ،وطالبت هذه الدعوات بتغيريات جذرية يف طرق تعليم اللغات األجنبية ومن الدراسات اليت تعرضت للطريقة املباشرة دراسة سونا يف حبثهألساسيات هذه الطريقة َّ املتعلمة نفسها كوسيلة للتعلم ،كما اعتمدت فذكر"بأن هذه الطريقة نادت بعدم استخدام اللغة األجنبية َ هذه الطريقة على نظرية أساسهاَّ ، أن التلميذ ميكن أن يتعلم منذ البداية ،وأن يفهم بواسطة اللغة األجنبية، مباشرا مبايطابقها أو مياثلها من وذلك عن طريق ربط املوضوعات ،واألشياء واملواقف،واألفكار ،ربطاً ً إن أصحاب هذه الطريقة يرون َّ اللغات أو املصطلحاتَّ ". أن الطالب ميكنهم تعلم وفهم اللغة عن طريق االستماع لكمية كبرية منها .ويتعلم احملادثة عن طريق التكلم هبا مع ربط الكالم مبواقف مناسبة ،ولقد َّ الحظوا َّ كماأوها كانت هي أن هذه الطريقة هي نفسها اليت كان يتعلم هبا الطالب لغاهتم الوطنية أو الرمسية. اليت يتعلمون هبا اللغة الثانية بدون صعوبات كثرية عندما ينتقلون إىل بيئة أجنبية".
ويعضد ذلك دراسة عبد احملسن اسبالني عاملني 1يف حبثه يقول" َّ إن هذه الطريقة تعتمد على تعليم اللغات األجنبية مباشرة وبدون استخدام اللغة األم ،فإذا أراد املعلم تدريس مفردات ،أشار لألشياء املوجودة داخل الفصل الدراسي ،أما األشياء اليت ليس اها وجود داخل حجرة الدراسة فعلى املعلم أن يستعني يف شرحها بالصور ،والرسوم ،أوالعينات والنماذ ،وهكذا تسعى الطريقة املباشرة إىل إقامة صلة مباشرة بدون وسيط بني اللغة األجنبية واحلقائق اليت تُ َّع ِّبر عنها. ولعل ااهدف املنشود الذي حتققه الطريقة املباشرة هو تنمية الثقة بالنفس يف نفسية متعلمي اللغة العربية يف أن يعربوا باللغة العربية مباشرة وليس باللجوء إىل اللغة الوسيطة ،وهذه الطريقة ترجئ مسألة القواعد النحوية حلني يتقوى عود الطالب يف اللغة الثانية أع ي العربية.1وممن تناول الطريقة املباشرة شرقاوي عبد هللا يف حبثه حيث ذكر " أن( )%22يستخدمون هذه الطريقة يف تدريسهم وهو رقم أكثر بكثري من استخدام طريقة الرتمجة اليت سبق ذكرها. ويرى الباحث:ويربز دور املعلم يف الطريقة املباشرة بصورة واضحة ومباشرة أيضاً ،وذلك َّ ألوها ختتلف عن الطريقة الطويلة والو ِعرة (طريقة القواعد والرتمجة) َّ وإمنا يستحدم الطريقة املتَ َعلمة وااهدف بصورة مباشرة َ َ ُ فمثالً يف جمال تعليم اللغة العربية يأيت األستاذ إىل الفصل فيبدأ قائال" بسم هللا الرمحن الرحيم" ويكتبها على س ّْنا اليوم ياطالب عن فوائد "القلم" السبورة فيتعلم الطالب نطقها وكتابتها يف آن واحد ،مث يقول َد َر ُ القلم من جيبه ويقول " هذا قَلَ ٌم" وتلك سبورة ،وهذه فيتساءل الطالب عن ماهية القلم فيخر األستاذُ َ
كتاب..وهكذا. كرسي ،وذلك ٌ طاولة ،وذلك ٌ
ومجلة القول َّ :إن الطريقة املباشرة هي من أنسب الطرق لتعليم اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية ،فاملعلم يف هذه الطريقة يستخدم الكتابة مع الصور ،أو الرسوم داخل حجرات الدراسة ،وما كان خارجها ترتك إلبداعات املدرس وميكن استخدم لغة اإلشارات فيه.
1
الطريقة السمعية الشفوية ومن الدراسات اليت حتدثت عن الطريقة السمعية الشفوية جئ أوسينج 1يف حبثه حيث قال "أن هذه الطريقة جاءت كرد فعل للطريقة التقليدية (الرتمجة) والطريقة املباشرة معاً واهذه الطريقة مسميات أخرى مثل"
534
ILCC 2013
الطريقة الشفوية" أو " الطريقة اللغوية" وكان امسها أول ماظهرت "أسلوب اجليش" ألوها استخدمت أول ما استخدمت يف تعليم العسكريني األمريكيني اللغات األجنبية بغية إرسااهم يف مهمات خار بالدهم بعد احلرب العاملية الثانية .ويشاطره الرأيسونا 1يف حبثه إذ يقول" ختتلف نشأة هذه الطريقة غن غريها من طرق تدريس اللغات األجنبية ،فهذه الطريقة ظهرت أساساً يف الواليات املتحدة األمريكية يف الوقت الذي ظهرت فيه الطرق األخرى السابقة عليها يف أوروبا ،وقد ظهرت حاجة اجليش األمريكي يف النصف األول من هذا
القرن لالتصال بالشعوب األخرى سواءً أكانو أعداءًا أم حلفاء ،ومنها تعددت القوى اليت أسهمت يف إظهارها. وقد ظهرت هذه الطريقة يف مخسينيات أو ستينيات هذا القرن كرد فعل على طريقيت التقليدية واملباشرة معاً ،وكغريها من الطرق اها أكثر من مسمى فمثالً :يسمووها" الطريقة الشفوية" أو " الطريقة اللغوية" أو باألحرى "لغة اجليش" َّ ألوها أنشأت بغرض تعليم العسكرين األمريكني للغات املستع َم ْر حبيث 1 يتم التفاهم معه ال التصادم. وهتدف هذه الطريقة الرتكيز على مهارة الكالم على وجه األساس واخلصوص يقول سونا" لقد سجل الدكتور حممود كامل الناقة (9185م) مخسة أمور َتثل نتائج هامة ،وهي: أَّ - أن اللغة كالم وليست كتابة :فكما تعلم اإلنسان لغة األم ،بدأ باالستماع إليها مث نطق أصواهتا قبل التعرض لشكلها املكتوب .ومن هنا َّ فإن الفرد يتعلم اللغة الثانية بدءًا باالستماع ،فالكالم، فالقراءة مث الكتابة .وهنا يتم الرتكيز على تصحيح عمليات النطق ومهارات األداء والتنغيم. بَّ - ب هذه العادات اللغوية مبثل ما تكتسب العادات إن تعليم اللغة جمموعة من العادات تُكْتَ َس ُ االجتماعية. َعلِّم اللغةَ وليس َع ِن اللغةيع ي َّأن الطالب يقضون وقتهم يف ممارسة اللغة ،وليس يف تعليم قواعدها ،وميكن تأجيل دراسة القواعد للمستويات املتقدمة. دَّ - ارس ،فيتعلمه إن اللغة هي ماميارسه الناطقون هبا بالفعل وليس مايظن البعض أنَّه ينبغي أ ْن ميَُ َ الطالب طبقاً للطريقة السمعية الشفوية لغة احلياة (اللغة العربية االتصالية) كما ميارسها الناس فإن هذه الطريقة السمعية تؤكد على َّ " .وفضالً عن ذلك َّ حي متطور وليست كائن ٌّ أن اللغة ٌ
كتالً جامد ًة من األشكال والتعبريات ،وقد صاحب هذه الطريقة دراسات كثرية قام هبا علماء اإلنثروبولوجيا والذي يبحث عن أصل اإلنسان مثل :معايشه ،أجناسه ،ثقافته ،كأمناط السلوك
اإلنساين .ولعل التدر يف عرض الرتاكيب اللغوية يف الطريقة السمعية الشفوية الُيتلف عن الرتاكيب اللغوية يف الطريقة التقليدية ،ولكن الذي اختلف يف الطريقة السمعية الشفوية هو تركيزها على اللغة الشفوية بدالً من املكتوبة ،وعلى الدارجة بدالً من الفصحي ،والرتكيز باملقام
األول على مهاريت اإلستماع والكالم بدالً من القراءة والكتابة ،واللجوء إىل استخدام اللغة بدالً من حتليلها .واحلقيقة أن هذه الطريقة هتدف إىل إعداد أفراد يتحدثون مع املتحدث األجنيب بلغته بل ويفهمون كالمه إذا تكلم سواءًا كان ذلك ألغراض آنية أودائمة ،وأكثر من هذا َّأوها تنمي مهاريت اإلستماع والكالم قبل غريمها من املهارات.1 ويرى الباحث:ويظهر دور املعلم يف الطريقة السمعية الشفوية يف أنَّه يتكلم أكثر ويروض نفسه على ذلك إن مل تكن سجية له ،مراعياً يف ذلك القواعد النحوية ،والصرفية ،والبالغية ،متدرجاً فيها من السهل
تقوي إىل الصعب وانتها سنة التدر وسالح املرتادفات بغية تزويد املتعلم مبفردات كثرية تفيده يف التفاهم ُو ّ عنده " مهارة احملادثة". واحلق َّ أن هذه الطريقة تساعد املعلم يف تقريب اللغة إىل املتعلم فعندما يتكلم املعلم يستمع الطالب وتستقر يف آذاوهم الكلمات ،وقد اليستطيع البوح هبا يف احلال ،ولكن بعد احملاولة واملران يستجمع الكلمات مث يُ َك ِّو ُن اجلُ َم َل البسيطة مث املعقدة ،واملركبة. طريقة القراءة ومن الدرسات اليت عنيت هبذ املوضوع دراسة سونا سامل يف حبثه إذ يذكر فيها "يرجع التفكري يف هذه الطريقة إىل ٍ عدد من املختصني يف تعليم اللغات األجنبية يف الربع الرابع من القرن العشرين ،إذ نشر مايكل وست كتابه " الثنائية اللغوية" مع إشارة خاصة للبنغال ،ويضيف" َّ إن هذه الطريقة تدعو إىل الرتكيز على القراءة أوالً ،والقواعد النحوية تأيت متأخرة. كما تدعو إىل فهم املعىن من اللغة األجنبية مباشرة بدون الرجوع إىل الرتمجة .ويستمر سونا
1
فيذكر" لقد بدأت طريقة القراءة كاجتاه حنو جودة الرتمجة ودقة التعبري وإعطاء عناية قليلة ٍ لكل من املمارسة
536
ILCC 2013
والتدريب الشفويني ،وكذلك النطق .أما القواعد النحوية فتنظر إليها أي (الطريقة) باعتبارها مرحلة تأيت متأخرة .ولقد تطورت الطريقة شيئاً فشيئاً فأخذت تدرب الطالب على قراءة اللغة األجنبية ،وإدراك املعاين بطريقة مباشرة وبدون تركيز على ترمجة ماقرأوه .ولقد أدى ذلك إىل ظهور العناية بالقراءة الصامتة املوسعة اخلالية من الرتمجة ،وتشجيع الطالب على القراءة احلرة خار الفصل. وَثة دراسة تعضد شهرة هذه الطريقة بني أوساط املعلمني أال وهي دراسةشرقاوي عبد هللا يف حبثهفقال َّ "إن هذه الطريقة يستخدمها ( )% 12,11من املعلمني مبعىن َّأوها أوىل الطرق املستخدمة من قِبَ ِل املعلمني. يقول الباحث :ولعل دور املعلم يربز جلياً يف هذه الطريقة حيث تظهر عبقريته يف التقدمي للدرس، مث عرضه عرضاً شائقاً ،مث طرح األسئلة وبعيارات واضحة .كمايتمثل دور املعلم يف طريقة القراءة يف أنَّه حيث الطالب على القراءة ويعلمهم مهارهتا حيث يقرأ النص املراد تدريسه قراءة صحيحة بصوت ٍ عال مع مراعاة القواعد النحوية أكثر من مرة على حسب مستوى الطالب ،مث يشري إىل الكلمات املستعصية والصعبة، أخريا يطلب من املتعلمني ترديد الكلمات أو النص الذي سبق وأن قرأه قبل أن يقرأه كل طالب مبفرده، و ً ويف كل تلك املراحل يتابع املعلم قراءة املتعلمني ويقوم بالتصحيح املباشر مع التعزيز ،أو التأنيب اللطيف. وقبل هذا أو ذاك يَُزِّود متعلمي العربية مبهارات القراءة والكتابة ضمنياً على وجه التفصيل .وهذه الطريقة جيدا .علماً َّ أن هذه الطريقة جتعل املتعلم يعتمد على نفسه تستقي أمهيتها من استخدام املعلم اها استخداماً ً إذا تشرب مراحلها واستوعبها ويسميها الباحث طريقة" اقرأ" وذلك َّ ألوها أول لفظة نزلت على النيب صلى هللا عليه وسلم يف غار حراء حيث يقول هللا عز وجل يف التنزيل " اقرأ باسم ربك الذي خلق خلق اإلنسان 1 من علق ،اقرأ وربك األكرم الذي علم بالقلم ،علم اإلنسان مامل يعلم طريقة األسئلة (االستجواب) تعرض حممد أمحد عبد القادر يف كتابه ملعىن االستجواب ،وأنواعه ،وتصنيفاته ،فقال "تع ي كلمة استجواب يف اللغة أي طلب منه أن جييب ويستدعي السؤال اجلواب.كما َّ أن اجلواب يستدعي السؤال وهبذا تتضمن أخذ ورد بني السائل واجمليب ،وهذه كلمة "استجواب" معىن السؤال واجلواب ففيها تفاعل وجتاوب ،و ْ الطريقة التنقيبية هي أفضل الطرق لالستنباط واملراجعة وينقسم االستجواب إىل قسمني:
الطالب بأسئلة املعلم َ أ -استجواب استكشاف أي (االكتشاف التوليدي) وهو نوع يستدر ُ فيه ُ تدله على احلقائق وهي الطريقة اليت يطلق عليها (الطريقة السقراطية) ألن سقراط كان حياور هبا تالمذته ،وهذا األسلوب جيعل املعلم ينزل إىل مستوى الطالب ويرتك له العنان إلبداء رأيه، وإظهار ماجيول خباطره. ب -االستجواب االختباري :وهو استجواب يهدف فيه املعلم إىل اختبار معلومات الطالب، ومستوى ثبات املعلومات السابقة يف خميلته.
1
وهنالك دراسة علي النعيمي(6002م) يف كتابه ذكر فيها َّ "أن هذه الطريقة تقوم على السؤال واجلواب ،واملعلم هو احملور األساس يف طرح األسئلة وهو فن من الفنون ،واملعلم الذي الحيسن االستجواب الحيسن التدريس .ومن أهدافها اختبار معلومات الطالب سواءًا كانت حقائق أم أفهام ،وربط اخلربات السابقة باحلالية ،وتوجيه انتباه الطلبة إىل العناصر املهمة يف املوضوع .1وَثة دراسة للباحثني توفيق وحممد حممود (6005م) يف كتاهبما حيث ذكرا فيها" ليست طريقة األسئلة يف احلقيقة طريقة منفردة يف التعليم، بل َّ كثريا ،ويف بعضها إن مجيع الطرائق البد وأ ْن يتخللها عدد من األسئلة ،ففي بعضها يكون عدد األسئلة ً اآلخر قليالًَّ . إن السؤال فن يف التعليم فكفاية املعلم تظهر يف طريقة توجيهه لألسئلة وكيفية صوغها ،وإثارة
الطالب لتلقيها وفهمها ،واإلجابة عنها ،وقد قيل" من الحيسن االستجواب الحيسن التعليم".واحلق من ُرِز َق من املعلمني مقدرةً على صوغ األسئلة ،وكيفية توجيهها ،ومعرفة مواقع إلقائها بشكل يستطيع الطلبة
فهمها فقد ُرِز َق مقدرًة أساسيةً يف التعليم ،كما تعرض ألغراض األسئلة وأنواعها بنوع من اإلطالة 1 واإلسهاب. ِ دور املعلم يف: يقول الباحث:تُ ْربز طريقةُ االستجواب َ جوا تواصلياً بني املعلم وبني الطالب ،وذلك بطرح أسئلة مثرية للطالب سيما يف أ -يف َّأوها ختلق ًّ مادة اللغة العربية ،وبالطبع سيحاول الطالب اإلجابة على السؤال وهنا يأيت دور التعزيز، رشدهم إىل قنوات التفكري اإلبداعي يف أخريا يعطيهم اإلجابة النموذجية ،ويُ ُ والتحفيز ،و ً اكتشاف اإلجابة الصحيحة ،ومثل هذه األسئلة االستفزازية عادة تكون عالقةً بأذهان الطالب حىت وهاية رحلتهم التعليمية للغة ،وذلك َّ ألوهم حتصلوا عليها بعد جهد وإعمال فكر أوالًَّ ، وألن نفوسهم كانت مستعدةً ومشدودة لسماع اإلجابة الصحيحة ثانياً .وعليه ماإن ينطق املعلم بالكلمة إال وتتلقفها الذاكرة احلافظة وتُ ْد ِر ُجها يف مستودعها املكني األمني(الذاكرة).
538
ILCC 2013
ب-عرب هذه الطريقة ميكن للمعلم أن يكسر حاجز اخلوف ،واحلجل بني أوساط الطالب إما ض عليهم ،أو حماولة اإلجابة على األسئلة اليت يتفضل املعلم بطرحها .وهبذه استفسارا ملا َغ ُم َ ً الطريقة يذوب جبل اخلوف الومهي الذي رمبا يتسبب يف خلق حواجز بني املعلم والطالب، ويستبدله جب ٍو من الود واالحرتام ،وهذا النوع من التعليم هو الذي ننشده يف تعليم اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية أع ي" التعليم الذي جيمع بني احلب واالحرتام". طريقة املناقشة يقول حسن شحاتة يف كتاهبعن طريقة املناقشة َّ "إن هذه الطريقة تقوم يف جوهرها على احلوارففيها إثارة للمعارف السابقة ،وتثبيت للمعارف اجلديدة ،واستثارة للنشاط العقلي الفعال لدى الطالب ،وتنمية أفكارهم يف املستقبل ،وهي يف أحسن صورها تتمثل يف اجتماع عدد من العقول حول مشكلة من املشكالت ،أو قضية من القضايا ،ودراستها دراسة منظمة بقصد الوصول إىل حل للمشكلة ،أو االهتداء ض املوضوع ويوجه إىل رأي سديد يف موضوع "ما" .ودور املعلم يف هذه الطريقة عادة يتمثل يف أنَّه يَ ْع ُر ُ اجملاميع إىل اخلط الفكري الذي تسري فيه املناقشة حىت تنتهي إىل احلل املطلوب ،وتنتج الثمرة املرجوة .ومن مزاياها مشاركة كل عضو من أعضاء اجلماعة يف النقاش ،والتدريب على طرق التفكري السليمة ،وثبات اآلثار التعليمية ،واكتساب روح التعاون والدميقراطية ،وأساليب العمل اجلماعي ،والتفاعل إما بني املعلم ستخدم يف نص ُح أ ْن تُ والطالب ،أو الطالب فيما بينهم .فضالً عن َّأوها تَ ْ ُ لح لكل املراحل إال أنه يُ َ ص ُ الصفوف العليا فقط.
1
وَثة دراسة تأصيلية للطريقة تناواها مرسي عبد العليم (9182م) يف كتابه حيث ذكر" َّ إن طريقة األسئلة أسلوب قدمي يف الرتبية ذاوها ،والزال يعتربمن أكثر األساليب التدريسية شيوعاً حىت اآلن رغم مااعرتاه من تغيريات يف نظرياته .وهذا األسلوب يساعد يف انعاش ذاكرة الطالب ُ ِ ائحهم للفهم وحيَ ّف ْز قر َ
واالستيعاب السريع .وإننَّا نقرأ يف األثر َّ أن رسول هللا صلى هللا عليه وسلم ،قد استخدم هذا األسلوب أين أخربتكم َّ أن خيالً االستفهامي مع قومه أثناء دعوته اهم إىل اإلسالم قال صلى هللا عليه وسلم" أرأيتم لو ِّ
فإين نذير لكم بني يدي عذاب ختر بسفح هذا الوادي أكنتم مصدقي؟ قالو ماجربنا عليك كذبا قال ِّ شديد.1
وتسمى هذه الطريقة (بالطريقة السقراطية) حيث استخدمها سقراط مع تالمذته وقد التصقت به، وبأسلوبه ،يف إثارة املستمعني وإثارة الشكوك يف نفوسهم من خالل عدد من األسئلة اليت تُ ْقل ُقهم ،وتتحدى
معلوماهتم ،بقصد البدء والتفكري يف إجياد احللول الناجعة.
معرفاً فقال " طريقة املناقشة هي أن يقوم التلميذ كما تعرض اها حممد عبد القادر (9182م) ّ بتحضري مادة الدرس والبحث عنها ،وجتميعها ،أوحتليلها واملوازنة بني جوانبها ،مث مناقشة ماجاء به التالميذداخل الفصل حبيث يطلع كل تلميذ على ماتوصل إليه زميله من استقصاء .وبذلك يشرتك مجيع الطالب يف إعداد الدروس ،ويتعاونون يف جتميع املادة.
1
وَثة دراسة علي النعيمي يف كتابه تناول فيها الطريقة حيث ذكر" تُ َعد طريقة املناقشة من الطرائق السائدة يف تعليم املواد الدراسية ،وخباصة االسانية منها ،إذ تقوم على تبادل الرأي بني الطلبة ومعلميهم، ت هذه الطريقة بطريقة احملاضرة أمكن أوبني الطلبة أنفسهم ،وذلك لتعزيز مايقدم من معرفة .وإذا ماقُوِرنَ ْ
للمالحظ مدى نشاط الطالب ومحاسه ،وانشداده للدرس مع طريقة املناقشة على الرغم من َّأوها أكثر الحتَِّر ْ اخلجوليني أو االتكاليني من الطالبَّ . إن طريقة املناقشة إذا كانت تع ي استهالكاً للوقت ،كما َّأوها ُ جمرد سؤال من املعلم وإجابة الطالب عليه أصبحت أشبه بلعبة ُكَرة الطاولة ،ولكن ينبغي أ ْن تكون أكثر السلة حيث املعلم يسأل والطالب جييب واالثالث يفند والرابع يضيف ،واخلامس شبهاً بلعبة كرة َّ
ينتقد...وهكذا .ودور املعلم يف هذه الطريقة َّ أن يدفع بالعملية التعليمية بتلميحاته مرة ،وأخرى بتعقيباته.وممن ممَُيِزاهتا َّأوها جتعل الطالب مركز الفاعلية يف الدرس ،وتُ ِ نمي فيه روح املعاونة اجلماعية ،فضالً ّ 1 عن َّأوها تثري التفكري وتدعو إىل اإلبداع ،وتنمي روح القيادة واالجتاهات احملمودة حنو املعلم واجملتمع. أما الباحثان توفيق أمحد ،وحممود حممد 1يف كتاهبما فقد ذكرا َّ "أوها أنشطة تعليمية تقوم على احملادثة اليت يتبعها املعلم مع طالبه حول موضوع الدرس ،ويكون الدرس األول فيها للمعلم الذي حيرص على ٍ اتصال وربط املادة املتَ َعلمة قدر اإلمكان للخرو خبالصة ،أو تعميم للمادة التعليمية ،وتطبيقاهتا على أمثلة األحكام الوجداينة ،وتزيد ربز أحياناً ،ومن خصائصها أيضاً َّأوها توضح احملتوى ،وتعليم التفكري العقالين ،وتُ ُ َ درجة التفاعل بني الطلبة واملعلم باإلضافة إىل مراعاهتا للفروق الفردية بني املتعلمني.
540
ILCC 2013
ويرى الباحثَّ : أرض خصبة إلبراز دور املعلم يف تعليم اللغة العربية إن طريقة املناقشة (احلوار) هي ٌ ٍ وفعالة .فمثالً :معلم اللغة العربية ُح ِس َن استخدامها وطُبَِّق ْ بوصفها لغة ثانية ،إذا أ ْ ت أداةُ احلوار بصورةٍ جيدة ّ ُ بوصفها لغة ثانية يعطي طالبه " نصاً عربياً " .مثّ بعد برهة من الزمن يطلب منهم مناقشة النص كمحاولة
الستخرا الكلمات املهمة ،أوالكلمات الغامضة فضالً عن استنتا اللفتات اللغوية ،أو حماولة اإلجابة إن كانت هناك أسئلة لالستيعاب .مث بعد انتهاء املناقشة يطلب املعلم من كل جمموعة أ ْن تُ َق ِّد َم مالديها من نتائج ِ ت على االستقرآت الصحيحة ،ويفتح اجملال للمجموعات األخرى للتعليق ،أو التعقيب .وهكذا إىل أن بُنيَ ْ ع فكرة القيادة ،وكيف يتعامل األفراد مع تنتهي اجملموعات كلها .احلقيقة ميكن للمعلم عرب هذه الطريقة أ ْن يَْزَر َ
قائد اجملموعة ،فضالً عن تثبيت فكرة قبول الرأي املخالف ،وكيف يتنازل الطالب عن رأيه إن خالفه معظم أو كل أفراد اجملموعة. طريقة التدريس من خالل اللجان (التعليم التعاوين) أو طريقة دلتون
فقد تناواها حسن شحاتة 1يف كتابه فذكر" تنسب الطريقة إىل املربية األمريكية (هيلني باركهرست) حيث قامت بتنفيذها مبدينة (دلتون) بالواليات املتحدة األمريكية ومن ذلك احلني مسيت الطريقة باسم تلك املدينة .والغرض منها تعليم التالميذ مادة من املواد مع مراعاة الفروق الفردية ،وذلك بتقسيم الفرقة الواحدة إىل فصول متجانسة حبسب الذكاء وتكليف التالميذ القيام بأعمال خاصة يف زمن معني ،وإعطائهم حرية البحث وتشجيعهم على القراءة ،واملراجعة بأنفسهم منذ الصغر حىت يكونوا عمليني يف ِ الك َرب ،وبث روح ضيّع وقت التعاون واملساعدة فيما بينهم ،والسري حبسب مقدرة كل جمموعة منهم ،فاليرهق الضعيف ،واليُ َ
الذكي يف انتظار من هم أقل منه ذكاء.
وَثة دراسة مرسي يف كتاهبتعرض فيها للطريقة حيث ذكر" َّ إن هذه الطريقة من األساليب احلديثة واجليدة اليت تعتمد على كثري من أساسيات علم النفس االجتماعي ،واالستفادة من طاقات اجملموعات املختلفة بني التالميذ داخل الفصل الواحد ،آخذة يف االعتبار الفروق الفردية بني الطالب سواءًاكأفراد أو كمجموعات
يتقامسون صفات مشرتكة.
1
ويرى الباحث :يربز دور املعلم يف طريقة التعليم التعاوين عرب تقسيم الفصل إىل جمموعات حسب مستويات الذكاء ،أوالعمر ،مع مراعاة الفروق الفردية بينهم مث تكليفهم بإجناز ٍ لغوي معني ،يعتمدون عمل ٍّ
فيه على مصادهم اخلاصة ،وحتماً سيالحظ املعلم التنوع يف مدارسة املوضوع ،بل وسيكتشف َّ أن هناك عقوالً وقدرات مدفونة ،وقدَتَّ تفعيلها عرب هذه الطريقة ،حىت تفيد بطيئي الذكاء من املتعلمني .وعرب هذه الطريقة يبث املعلم الثقة بني الطالب حبيث يتعلم بعض الطالب من البعض اآلخر .فضالً عن إذابته لروح نقل الطالب مافهمه لقرينه يف الصف. األنانية األكادميية بني متعلمي اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية ،وبذا يَ ُ الطريقة االتصالية تعرضت نورالعي ي يف حبثها بالقول"تُعِد هذه الطريقة نشاطات الصف ،ومناذ التفاعل اليت يتطلبها الدرس يف إطار املدخل االتصايل ،ففي هذه الطريقة متسع للعمل املكثف ،وللعمل العام حول النقاط العامة من مادة الدرس ،كما َّ أن هناك عمالً فرديا يؤديه كل طالب يف الصف ،وعمالً ثنائياً ،وآخر اجتماعياً .وهنالك وقت للعمل التعاوين وآخر للتوجيه واإلرشاد ،واعرتافاً بالفروق الفردية بني املتعلمني ،واعطاء كل منهم الفرصة ليتعلم وفق جهده .كما أشار امساعيل حسنني على الطريقة االتصالية وأوضح َّأوها ينبغي أن تنطلق من اآليت-: أفكارا عن دالالت األلفاظ -9من الضروري أن يتضمن حمتوى املادة الدراسية للغة األجنبية ً وتطورها ،ووظائفها االجتماعية وليس بناءًا لغوياً فحسب. -6أ ْن يعمل الطالب بإنتظام يف جمموعات صغرية لتحويل املعاين إىل مواقف والتعاون على فهم املعىن. -3نشاطات الفصل ومواده غالباً ما تكون أصلية أو واقعية لتعكس مواقف احلياة احلقيقية واملرغوبة. يتم دمج املهارات التعليمية منذ البداية فقد يشتمل النشاط الذي ميارس على القراءة والكالم، ُّ -2 واالستماع ورمبا الكتابة.
542
ILCC 2013
-5هتتم بالنشاطات اليت ختلق مواقف واقعية حقيقية الستخدام اللغة مثل توجيه األسئلة وتسجيل املعلومات ،واستعادهتا ،وتبادل املعلومات ،واألفكار ،واملواقف بطريقة أو بأخرى .وتتاح فيها الفرصة للمتعلم كي ميارس دور املشارك ،واملراقب ،واملالحظ ،واملستمع ،أواملساهم .وتستخدم املهارات اللغوية فيها من أجل فهم وَتثيل وأداء املعلومات والتجارب ،واملشاعر ،وكذلك حلل املشكالت واملناقشة والتنظيم وغريها. ومن مزايا هذه الطريقة َّأوها: -9تعطي الدارسني فرصة للتعبري عن أنفسهم وأفكارهم. -6تربط بني الصف الدراسي واحلياة الواقعية. -3تعلم الدارسني التعاون وتشجع فيهم روح اجلماعة. -2يقدم الدارسون عربها بأداء نشاط إجيايب. ومن خصائصها يف عملية التعليم والتعلم َّأوها جتري يف إطار األنشطة اللغوية التعليمية ،و َّأوها جتعل الطالب حمور الدراسة ،بل من خالاها ميكن إجراء األنشطة الصفية مثل :حل املشكالتَ ،تثيل األدوار، احملاكاة ،املناظرة ،املناقشة ،التعليم التعاوين .كما أكد حسنني ماكتبه حممد صاحل مسك (9111م) مانصه" أن هتتم الطريقة بسيكلوجية املتعلم ومنوه العقلي ،ومقدرته اللغوية ،واستعداده الفطري ،فضالً عن ذلك ينبغي أن يفطن املعلم إىل أن اإلستمرار على طريقة واحدة والتزامها يف مجيع األحوال سيحواها مع الزمن إىل طريقة شكلية عقيمة يسأمها التالميذ وميََلُّوها ،لذلك فالتنوع يف طريقة التدريس أمر البد للمعلم إذا أراد لنفسه النجاح ،وحتقيق الفائدة املرجوة من دروسهَّ ، ألن التعليم اليتم بطريقة واحدة فالفرد يتعلم عن طريق السمع ،والبصر ،وعن طريق التحدث واملشافهة ،بل وعن طريق القراءة ،والتمثيل ،وتعبريات الوجه، واإلشارات ،أو عن طريق الرسوم والصور ،وعن طريق اإليضاح بالوسائل املعينة املتاحة. الطريقة التوليفية
1
وممن تعرض اهذه الطريقة حممد روفيان يف حبثهفذكر" تسمى هذه الطريقة بالطريقة اإلنتقائية َّ ألن املعلم اليعتمد بطريقة واحدةَّ ، وإمنا هذه الطريقة تتغري بتغري املوضوع أو املهارة املعينة.وتنقسم إىل طريقتني اثنتني: الطريقة الشفوية املكثفة ،والطريقة الوظيفية .أما األوىل :فرتكز على مهارة احلديث السلمية ،ومهارة االستماع اليت تسبق مهارة الكالم ،وبعدمها تُدرب املتعلم على مهاريت الكتابة والقراءة. أما الطريقة الثانية فتجمع مايفيد من عناصر الطرق األخرى بشكل حيقق االستخدام الوظيفي للغة، وهدف هذه الطريقة هو الرتكيز على ربط األفكار والقواعد اللغوية ماهي إال وسائل منمية وحمسنة الستخدام اللغة ،ويف هذه الطريقة ينبغي أن يأخذ الكم الكثري من املفردات حىت تساعد متعلمي اللغة على ممارستها خار قاعات الدرس.
1
وممن تناول الطريقة التوليفية مهادي أبوبكر يف حبثه فقال" َّ إن الطريقة التوليفية هي طريقة املعلم اخلاصة واليت يفعلها بإنتقائه مايصلح من الطرق األخرى ،وهذه الطريقة طريقة غري ثابتة وإمنا تتغري بتغري وقسمها إىل قسمني ومها :الطريقة الشفوية املكثفة والطريقة الوظيفية .فالطريقة الدرس امللقى على املتعلمَّ . الشفوية املكثفة يتضح من امسها َّأوها تركز على مهارة احملادثة املكثفة ،وتعطي هذه الطريقة أولويتها على ممارسة اللغة يف عامل الواقع ،والقواعد اللغوية ليست أهدافاً يف ذاهتا َّ وإمناهي وسائل مساعدة ،والكنَّها التلغي ٍ اءة.أما الطريقة الوظيفية وهي تتطلب من املعلم أن يزود حبال من األحوال مهاريت :الكتابة والقر َّ املتعلم بفهم سليم عن اللغة األجنبية حبيث يتمكن املتعلم من ربط أفكاره بالعربية املركبة تركيباً صحيحاً. وقد رتبت أغراض هذه الطريقة طبقاً ألمهيتها من الفهم ،احلديث ،القراءة ،الكتابة. الغرض األول :هو فهم اللغة بشكل عام ومتكامل ،فاملدخل احلقيقي لفهم اللغة اليتم إال عرب األُذن مبعىن الطريقة السمعية الشفوية. الغرض الثاين :هو التحدث بوضوح يف خالل احملدثات اليومية ،وهذا اليتم إال عن طريق اللسان، الذي هو مهارة الكالم ،وحيتا اللسان إىل التعود على أصوات غريبة عن أذن السامع أي حتقيق مهاريت: االستماع واحملادثة.
ILCC 2013
544
الغرض الثالث :هو التعود على قراءة الكلمات اليت سبق وأ ْن تعلمها الطالب ،سواءً كان من املقرر
الذي يدرسه أو من السبورة بعد مايطلب منه املعلم هتجيها أو قراءهتا ،وبالتايل يتعلم مهارة القراءة.
الغرض الرابع :هو السيطرة على املفردات األساسية للغة مع دراية لرتاكيبها حبيث يتم استخدامها استخداماً وظيفياً ،وبالتايل تساعد هذه املفردات املتعلم على قراءة وفهم املواد املناسبة تلبية حلاجات الطالب ،وميواهم ،ويتحقق ذلك إما بالقيام بالواجبات الصفية واملنزلية أو بإعطائهم سلسلة من قطع اإلمالء.
1
وميكن تطبيق األساليب التطبيقية التوليفية فيما يلي: -9يقدم املعلم املادة اجلديدة شفوياً يف سياق ومن خالل وسائل بصرية ،ومسعية أوهبما معاً كعرض َتثيلي ،أو َتثيل صامت أوشرح. -6يكرر املعلم السياق مرة أخرى مركزا على النطق الصحيح للكلمة اجلديدة وحياول أن يتأكد من فهم التالميذ ملعناها ونطقها الصحيح بشكل مجاعي وفردي. -3يقوم املعلم بكتابة الكلمة على السبورة لكي يراها التالميذ ويقرأوها قراءة صامتة. -2يكرر املعلم املوقف بشكل حي ،ويضمنه الكلمة اجلديدة ،مث يبدأ بإلقاء جمموعة من األسئلة املختلفة ،تتسلسل من السهولة إىل الصعوبة ليخترب فهم الطالب للدرس. -5ينبغي على املدرس أن يتجنب الرتمجة يف هذه الطريقةَّ ، ألن الرتمجة تقوي روابط عالقات اللغة األم أكثر من تقوية عالقات اللغة اجلديدة ،وعلى ذلك َتنع الدارس من التفكري يف اللغة اجلديدة ،واليستطيع أي ٍ دارس أن يصل مرحلة اإلنطالق يف احلديث أو الفهم بشكل جهر ٍي أو بشكل صامت ضم ٍ ي ،ولقد يسمح بالرتمجة فقط عندما يفشل املعلم يف توصيل معىن الكلمة عن طريق الصورة أو احملاكاة أو الرتادف.1
اخلامتة وبعد استعراض هذه الطرق هناك من يرجح الطريقة املباشرة يف التدريسَّ ، ألوها تنمي قدرة الطالب على مثال ،حيث ممارسة مهارة الكالم ،والكالم يزيد وينمي الثورة اللغوية ،خبالف الطرق األخرى مثل القراءة ً تقتل اللغة كلما تقدمت هبا األيام ،كما ينبغي على املعلم أن يتجنب استخدام اللغة األم أواللغة الوسيطة داخل فصول املدرسة ،مع َّ أن املدرس الناطق بغري اللغة العربية يقع أحياناً يف نظر بعض طالبه األذكياء ،أو جتد النصوص ختالف الكلمة أو املعىن الذي أعطاه مسبقاً ،وذلك َّ ألن اللغة العربية لغة غنية باملفردات ،ولذا ينبغي أن الييأس معلم اللغة العربية الناطق بغريها عندما جيد كلمات غريبة أو خمالفة ملادرسه ،وإمنا جيب عليه عدم استخدام اللغة الوسيطة ،والغرابة من هفوة بعض املدرسني الناطقني باللغة العربية عند تدريسهم ِ يصح ُحووها هم بأنفسهم للغة ولكنه ليس ناجتاً عن ضعف مفرداهتم أو قصور فهمهم بالقواعد ولذا جتدهم ّ 1 ِ يصح َحها سامعوه. عندما يالحظون اخلطأ أو ّ احلقيقة َّ أن اللغة العربية تتطور بصورة مستمرة ،فاملدرس األجنيب الذي يدرس اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية يكون قد غابت عنه بعض الكلمات املستجدة أو املستحدثة.يقول حممد امساعيل صي ي ،واسحاق حممد األمني " اللغة أي لغة الميكن أن تثبت ثبوت الدين وال أن تستقل استقالل احليَّ ، ألوها ألفاظ يعرب خرصا وهم يرون هبا كل قوم عن أغراضهم اليت التنتهي ،واملعاين التَ ْن َف ُد ،والميكن للناس أن يعيشوا ً األغراض تتجدد ،واملعاين تتولد ،واحلضارة كل يوم تفاجأهم كل يوم مبخرتع جديد ،والعلوم تطالبهم كل حني مبصطلحات لفظية على األقل"
1
ويرى رشدي أمحد طعيمة َّ أن " عدم استخدام اللغة الوسيطة ينبغي أن تعطي لكل متعلمي اللغة الفرصة للممارسة اجليدة للمحتوى اللغوي اجليد حتت إشراف ،وضبط ،إن أفضل أشكال تعلم اللغات هي تلك اليت تتعدى حدود استيعاب املعلومات ،وحفظها إىل تنمية القدرة على تطبيقها"
1
ومن االفضل التخلي عن طريقة الرتمجة ملتعلمي اللغة العربية وإرجاءها إىل وقت متأخر يتمكن فيه الطالب من معرفة تراكيب مجل اللغة العربية اليت يتعلمها ويتمرس يف تطبيقها بصورة كافية ،ذلك َّ ألن اللجوء
546
ILCC 2013
إىل الرتمجة قبل رسوخ القواعد العربية يف ذهن الطالب قد يوقعهم يف أخطاء فاحشة كما َّأوها تعطل التلقائية يف استخدام اللغة اجلديدة.
1
وأحياناً جيد املعلم نفسه بني طرق التدريس اليت ذكرها الباحث سابقاً من (قواعد وترمجة ،قراءة، مسعية بصرية ،مباشرة ،حماضرة ،قياسية ،استقرائية ،تعاوين ،املشروع ،حل املشكالت )،وغريها من الطرق، فلكل طر ٍ يقة مزاياها ولكل منها أوجه قصور ومآخذ ولكن احلقيقة َّ أن بعضها وإن جنح يف أوروبا وأمريكا لبعض الوق ت فليس بالضرورة أن ينجح يف البالد األخرى (ماليزيا مثال) نسبة إلختالف البيئة والنظم الدراسية فضالً عن نقص معامل البحث والتجريب.
1
وهناك من يقول إن أنسب طرائق التدريس الطريقة التوليفية أو كما تسمى الطريقة اإلنتقائية وذلك َّ ألوها تأخذ طرفاً معيناً من كل طرق التدريس ،كما َّأوها تركز على كل املهارات ،فتبدأ مبرحلة االستماع والكالم ومها أول مهارتني يقوم هبما اإلنسان بعد ظهوره يف الوجود ،مث تأيت بعدمها مهاريت الكتابة والقراءة. ولعل هذه الطريقة هي املستخدمة يف مركز اللغات والتنمية العلمية باجلامعة االسالمية العاملية مباليزيا وذلك من خالل حضور –الباحث -لبعض الفصول فقد كان بعض األساتذة يستخدم طريقة الرتمجة والقواعد ،وبعضهم يستخدم الطريقة املباشرة ،أو طريقة املشروع ،والتعليم التعاوين ،أو االتصالية واألسئلة ..إخل ،وقد عضد ماذهب إليه الباحث إجابات املعلمني الذين هم أدرى مبايصلح من الطرق للموضوع الذين يقومون بتقدميه لطالهبم. إذا الطريقة اإلنتقائية اليت تنتقي من الطرق أحسنها ومايناسب لدرسه هي املطبقة يف تدريس اللغة العربية وما أحسن ماقاله سامل حسن اجلابري املشهور "بالشاعر املعلم" حيث يقول: ال بد من دعم املعلم درسه
بطريقة للش رح واإليضاح
فاخرت لدرس ك ما يناسبه
وكن يف شرحه ذا مهة وكفاح
فمعلم مل يس تعن بطريقة
كمقاتل يغزو بغري س الح
1
بعض املصادر واملراجع يف املناهج وطرق التدريس أوالً :الكتب -9النعيمي ،علي ،الشامل يف تدريس اللغة العربية (عمان :دار أسامة للنشر والتوزيع ،ط6002 ،9 م). -6أمحد ،حممد عبد القادر ،طرق التدريس العامة( ،القاهرة :مكتبة النهضة املصرية ،ط9292 ،6ه - .)9115 -3شحاته ،حسن ،تعليم اللغة العربية بني النظرية والتطبيق( ،بريوت :الدار املصرية اللبنانية9292 ، ه – 9113م). -2خرما ،نايف على حجا ،اللغات األجنبية تعليمها وتعلمها( ،الكويت9201 ،ه 9188-م). -5حس ي ،منصور،و زيدان ،حممد مصطفي ،سيكلوجية اإلدارة املدرسية واإلشراف الفين الرتبوي، (االقاهرة :مكتبة عربية ،د.ط9112 ،م). -2علي ،حممد حممود ،أمهية الوسائل التعليمية وضرورة استخدامها يف التدريس( ،جدة :دار اجملتمع للنشر والتوزيع9263 ،ه ). -1شاهني ،توفيق حممد ،عوامل تنمية اللغة العربية( ،القاهرة :مكتبة وهبة ،ط9180 ،9م). ثانيا :البحوث
548
ILCC 2013
-1أبوبكر ،مهادي ،بعض الطرق احلديثة يف تعليم اللغة العربية لغري الناطقني ِبا يف مستوى املبتدئني مراجعة وتقومي(،كواالملبور :حبث تكميلي لنيل درجة املاجستري يف اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية ،قسم اللغة العربية وآداهبا ،اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية ماليزيا -غري منشور 9115م). -2زكريا ،مجال عبد الناصر9115/9112( ،م) طريقة تعليم اللغة العربية يف جامعة السلطان شريف قاسم اإلسالمية احلكومية :دراسة وصفية تقوميية ،حبث تكملي (غري منشور) لنيل درجة املاجستري يف الرتبية ،معهد الرتبية والتنمية البشرية ،اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا. -3سامل ،سونا9112(،م) األسس النفسية لطرق تعليم اللغة العربية لغري الناطقني ِبا ،حبث تكميلي (غري منشور ) لنيل درجة املاجستري يف الرتبية ،معهد الرتبية والتنمية البشرية ،اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية ماليزيا. -2عبد هللا ،شرقاوي (9112م) مشكالت تدريس اللغة العربية يف املدارس العالية الثانوية الدينية احلكومية مبحافظة آتشه-إندونيسيا ،حبث تكميلي (غري منشور) لنيل درجة املاجستري يف الرتبية ،اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية ماليزيا. -5عاملني ،عبد احملسن اسبالني ،تعليم اللغة العربية يف املركز اإلعدادي باجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا :دراسة وصفية تقوميية(،كواالملبور :حبث تكميلي لنيل درجة املاجستري يف الرتبية -حبث غري منشور ،-اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية مباليزيا-غريمنشور 9115 -م). -2حممد ناوي ،نور العي ي ،البحث عن الطرق التعليمية التفاعلية يف دراسة مقرر اللغة العربية ألغراض أكادميية ،شعبة لغة القرءان ،مركز اللغات والتنمية العلمية( ،كواالملبور :حبث تكميلي –غري منشور- لنيل درجة املاجستري يف الرتبية ،معهد الرتبية ،اجلامعة اإلسال مية العاملية مباليزيا6005 ،م).
-1امساعيل ،حممد روفيان ،طرق تعليم اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية بكلية سالجنور دار اإلحسان اإلسالمية :دراسة وصفية حتليلة( ،كواالملبور:حبث تكميلي لنيل درجة املاجستري يف تعليم اللغة العربية بوصفها لغة ثانية ،قسم اللغة العربية وآداهبا ،اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية ماليزيا-غري منشور 6005 -م). -8صي ي ،حممد امساعيل ،واألمني ،حممد اسحاق ،التقابل اللغوي وحتليل األخطاء( ،الرياض :عمارة شؤون املكتبات جامعة امللك سعود(د.ت). -1طعيمة ،رشدي أمحد ،تعليم العربية لغري الناطقني ِبا:مناهجه وأساليبه(،الرباط:املنظمة االسالمية للرتبية والعلوم والثقافة-إيسيسكو9290-ه 9181م). -90أبو خضريي ،عارف كرخي ،تعليم اللغة العربية لغري العرب :دراسات يف املنهج وطرق التدريس(،القاهرة :دار الثقافة والنشر والتوزيع 9112 ،م) د.ط).
550
ILCC 2013
احلكم واألمثال يف املقصورة الدريدية:دراسة أدبية
الدكتور موسى عبد السالم مصطفى أبيكن كلية اآلداب والعلوم اإلنسانية جامعة والية كوغي ،أينغا
والية كوغي ،نيجرييا ملخص املقال : وقد دأب العلماء النيجرييون على الكتب الىت هتدف إىل احلكم واألمثال يف مراكزهم ومعاهدهم افرا هو التعليمية عمال مبقتضاها ،ومن بني الكتب الىت ُيتارووها للطالب الذين قد أخذوا من العلم نصيبًا و ً
املقصورة الدريدية املشهورة بني طلبة العلم يف نيجرييا قدميا وحديثا ملا يف الكتاب من توجيهات سديدة
هامة ,وإرشادات نافعة عامة . ويف الكتاب دروس أخرى منها الوعظ واإلرشاد ,والفخر ,واملدح ,والغزل ،والغرض من هذه املقالة دراسة بعض األمثال ,واحلكم الواردة يف الكتاب املذكور .وقد بدأنا املقالة برتمجة املؤلف وااهدف من تأليفه ،وذكر بعض مصنفاته وما قيل يف احلكم واألمثال من كالم العرب مث َتثلنا بالشواهد الشعرية من الكتاب على حدته.
التعريف باملؤلف ولد ابن دريد عام 663ه بالبصرة ,وظل هبا فرتة من الزمن حىت رحل إىل عمان سنة 651مع عمه احلسني بن دريد بعد أن ظهر الزنج وقتلوا الرياشي أستاذ ابن دريد ,وقد أقام بعمان اثىن عشر عاما مث عاد إىل البصرة وظل مقيما هبا حىت تويف سنة 369ه وقد بلغ من العمر َثانية وتسعني عاما .
1
ويع ّد ابن دريد من أبرز علماء القرنني الثالث والرابع من ااهجرة ,وقد أهلته علومه أن يتصدر ِف العلم ستني سنة ,وقد كان حجة يف اللغة ,حفظ الكثري منها ,وساعده على ذلك حافظته القوية ،وعلمه النادر 1.وكان ابن دريد شاعرا كبريا ,ولغويا عظيما قال الناس عنه يوم وفاته الذي يصادف وفاة أيب هاشم اجلبائي " :مات علم اللغة والكالم مبوهتما " .
شيوخه وتالميذه وقد تتلمذ ابن دريد على كثري من العلماء األجالء مما كان له أثره ِف علو مكانته العلمية ،ومنزلته العالية ،ومن أشهر شيوخه أبو حاَت السجستاين ،وأبو الفضل الرياشي ،وأبو عثمان األشندنداين، وعبدالرمحن ابن أخي األصمعي ،وعمه احلسني بن دريد ،وأبو معاذ .
1
وقد أخذ عن ابن دريد بعد أن وصل إىل مكان الصدارة الكثري من العلماء منهم أبو سعيد السريايف ،وأبو الفر األصبهاين صاحب األغاين ،وابن خالويه أبو عبدهللا احلسني بن أمحد ،والرماين النحوي ,والزجاجي أبو القاسم ،وابن السرا وأبو علىي الفارسي وآخرون ممن ذكرهتم كتب الرتاجم من كبار علماء اللغة واألدب .
1
مصنفاته وقد خلف ابن دريد جبانب تالميذ الكثريين ثروة ضخمة من كتب اللغة أشهرها مجهرة اللغة ,وأدب الكاتب ,وأمساء القبائل ,وأمايل ِف العربية ,وزوراء العرب ,وصفة السحاب والغيث ,وكتاب اإلشتقاق,
552
ILCC 2013
وكتاب األنوار ,وكتاب اخليل الصغري ,وكتاب اخليل الكبري ,وكتاب السر واللجام ,وكتاب السالح ,وكتاب اللغات ,وكتاب املقتبس ,وكتاب املقتىن ,وكتاب املتناهى ِف اللغة ,وكتاب املقصور واملمدود ،كتاب الوشاح .
1
ااهدف من تأليف الكتاب يهدف العالمة ابن دريد بكتابه "مقصورة ابن دريد" إىل مدح األمري أىب العباس إمساعيل بن عبدهللا بن حممد بن ميكال بن عبد الواحد بن جربيل بن القاسم بن بكر بن ديواسىت الذى ذلل له بعض الصعوبات املادية واملعنوية ,واألمري أبو العباس رئيس نيسابور .وإياه أراد املؤلف هبذه األبيات ِف الكتاب قائال: إن ابن م يكال األمي ر ان تاش ي
من بعد ما قد كنت كالشيئ اللقى
وم د ضبعي أب و العباس م ن
1
بعد ان قباض الذرع والباع الوزى
ذاك الذى ما زال ي سمو لل عال
ب فعله حت ى ع ال ف وق العال
م ا إن أتى ب حر ن داه معتف
ع لى أوارى ع لم إال ارت وى
رى ال فدا رى وم ن ت حت السماء ألمي ّ ن فسى ال فداء ألمي ّ وما عدا املديح فقد تطرق الشاعر إىل فنون أخرى كالغزل والفخر والوعظ يف الكتاب .وتصل أبيات إىل ثالثة ومخسني ومائىت بيت ,مجعت كثريا من أخبار العرب ,وأمثااهم وحكمهم ,وقد شرحها كثري من العلماء ,وعارضها غري واحد من الشعراء يقول يف مطلعها :
يا ظبية أشبه شاء بامله ا ترعى اخلزامى بني أشجار النقا
أما ترى راسي حاكى لون ه طرة صبح حتت أذيال الدج ى واشتعل املبيض يف مس وده
مثل اشتعال النار يف جزل الغضا
فكان كالليل البهيم حل ف ي
أرجائه ضوء صباح فاجنل ى
وغاص ماء شريت دهر رم ى خواطر القلب بتربيج اجل وى
احلكمة احلكمة هى العلم النافع الذى مينع صاحبه من الطيش والسفه واخلفة مأخوذة من حكمه أى منعه 1 لسحرا ,وإن من الشعر حلكمة ‘.1واحلكمة قول موجز البيان من إن ’’ : هللا رسول قال وقد مما يريد، ً يتضمن حكما مسلما ِف احلث على اخلري أو الكف عن الشر ،وقد تكون شعرا ،وقد تكون نثرا .
ومن أقدم حكماء العرب الذين عرفت اهم حكم مأثورة ,وأقوال مشهورة تدل على أصالة الرأي، وصواب الفهم ،وصدق النظرة ،وحسن املعرفة بتصرف الدهر ،وتقلب الزمن لقمان بن عاد 1.فاحلكمة عند الفرسان تضرب ِف نسيج رؤيتهم اخلاصة ,وتأملهم للوجود ،وللمبادئ الىت انتهوا إليها وراثة أو ابتداعا وفيها قيل يف احلكمة شعرا قواهم: اخلي ر ي بقى وإن طال الزمان به
ال يصلح الناس فوضى ال سراة َلم تلقى األمور بأهل الرشد ما صلحت ي رى البخيل إذا ما م ات يتبعه وظلم ذوى القرب ى أشد مضاضة
والشر أخبث ما أو عيت من زاد
1
وال سراة إذا جهال هم س ادوا
وإن ت ولوا ف باألشرار ت ن قاد
سوء الثناء وحيوى الوارث اإلبل على النفس من وقع احلسام املهند
ومن حكماء العرب أكثم بن صيفي الذى يقول :وشر امللوك من خافه الربىء ,آفة الرأي ااهوى، خري األعوان من مل يراء بالنصيحة ,مقتل الرجل بني يديه .ومنهم :ذو األصبع العدواين ،وعامر بن الظرب، وقس بن ساعدة اإليادى .وقد تشتهر احلكمة ،وتسري ِف الناس فتصبح مثال .
ILCC 2013
554
واحلكم ختتلف عن األمثال يف أوها ال ترتبط ِف أساسها حبادثة أو قصة وأوها تصدر غالبا عن طائفة من الناس اها خربهتا وجتارهبا وثقافتها .11والعرب من أكثر األمم حكمة وأبلغها قوال ,وأفصحها بيانا، وأسلسها أسلوبا ملا عرف من رجاجة العقل ،وبعد النظر وسداد الرأي . املثل املثل مأخوذ من املثال وهو قول سائر يشبه به احلال الث1اين باألول ،واألصل فيه التشبيه .ومثال ذلك ما قاله كعب بن زهري:
كانت مواعيد عرقوب ل ها مثال
وم ا م واعيدها إال األب اطيل
وجيتمع ِف املثل أربعة أمور ال جتتمع يف غريه من كالم ,إجياز اللفظ ،وإصابة املعىن ،وحسن التشبيه، وجودة الكناية 12.واألمثال عادة صورة صحيحة من صور األمم ,وَتتاز بأوها ال َتثل عقلية طبقة راقية فقط كالشعراء ولكنها َتثل عقليات الشعب مجيعه ألوها تتبع من طبقاته املختلفة 13.واألمثال ختتلف باختالف معيشة األمم اإلجتماعية .فاألمة البحرية أمثااها مشتقة من حياهتا ،واألمة الصحراوية كذلك كما ختتلف باختالف درجة األمة يف الرقي وهكذا .والعرب أغزر األمم أمثاال وكانت أمثااهم إما مجال حكيمة ينطق 14
هبا عقالؤهم وذوو التجربة فيهم وقد اشتهر هبذا النوع زهري بن أيب سلمى شعرا ,وأكثم بن صيفى نثرا .
واألمثال تضرب كما جاءت عن العرب ,وال تتغري فتقول" :الصيف ضيّعت اللنب" بكسر التاء إذا
خاطبت الواحد والواحدة واإلثنني واجلماعة ومن مث يستجيزون ِف املثل خمالفة النحو ،وقواعد التصريف 15
واجلمع .
وقد يشري املثل إىل قصة أو يرتبط حبادثة فهو إما حقيقة أو فرض فاملثل الذى يستند إىل حقيقة ال بد له من أصل معروف ،أما الذى يقوم على الفرض فهو وليد اخليال صنع على لسان طائر أو حيوان أو مجاد أو نبات 16.فاملثل باخلالصة يضرب ألغراض منها اإلصالح اإلجتماعي ،وتنبيه الشخص للصواب,
وتقريب املعىن للذهن أو العربة واإلتعاظ أو ملعرفة ثقافة األمة وجتارهبا أو للحجة ،وإثبات القول عند اخلطب 17
أو لرتيّض العقل وتنشيطه وتثقيفه بثقافة اجتماعية . احلكم ِف الكتاب
َتتد األبيات الواردة ِف الكتاب إىل ثالثة ومخسني ومائتني بيتا على خمتلف األغراض واملقاصد . فأبيات احلكم فيها متعددة وإمنا انتقينا منها عشرين بيتا ميثّل هذا اجلانب: 18
إذا ذوى الغصن الرطيب فاعلمن أن ق صاراه ن فاد وت وى
19
وال شيخ إن ق ومته م ن زيغه ل م يقف الت ثقيف منه ما التوى
21
من ظ لم الناس ت حاموا ظلمه ال ي رفع اللب ب ال ج د وال
وع ّز ع نهم جانباه واحتمى ي حطك اجلهل إذا اجلد عال
66
-5من ل م يعظه الدهر س ينفعه ما من ل م ت فده عب را أي امه
21
راح ب ه الواعظ ي وما أو غدا كان العمى أوىل به من ال هدى
من قاس مال م ي ره ب ما يرى
23
24
أراه م ا يدنوا إل يه ما ن أى
25
من عارض األطماع باليأس رنت
إليه عي ن العز م ن حيث رنا
من عطف النفس على مكروهها
كان الغن ى قرينه حيث انتوى
-90من ل م ي قف عند انتهاء قدره من ضيع ال حزم جن ى لنفسه من ن اط بالعجب عرى أخالقه من طال ف وق م نتهى بسطته
26
تقاصرت ع نه ف سيحات اخلطا 27
ندامة ألذع من س فع ال ذكا
نيطت عرى املقت إىل تلك العرى أعجزه ن يل ال دنا بله القصا
29
28
556
ILCC 2013
من رام م ا ي عجز عنه ط وقه
ملعبء ي وما آض جمزول املطا
31
-95وال ناس أل ف منهم ك واحد
31
وواحد كاأللف إن أمر عن ى
وإن ما ال مرء ح ديث ب عده
فكن حديثا حسنا ل من وعى
32
والل وم لل حر م قيم رادع
والعبد ال ي ردع ه إال العصا
وآفة العقل ال هوى فمن ع ال وال دهر يكبو بالفت ى وت ارة
33
ع لى ه واه عقله ف قد ن جا
ي نهضه من ع ثرة إذا ك با
34
-21ال تعجنب من هالك كيف هوى بل فاعجب ن من سال م كيف جنا يتضح جليا ما يف األبيات من الكلمات الصعبة اليت تدفع القارئ إىل االستعانة باملعاجم اللغوية قبل فهمها ,فهذا ميزة من مميزات الكتاب .وهذه احلكم تربهن جتارب املؤلف العديدة باحلياة ,حلوها ومرها ,وحنكته بالناس مجيعا ،وقد عاش قرابة َثانني سنة أكثرها قضاها يف التدريس والتعامل بالطبقات املتنوعة من ذوي الثقافات العالية ،وأقلهم نفو ًذا يف اجملتمع إضافة إىل النكت البالغية اليت زين هبا القصيدة من طباق كالبيت اخلامس بني راح وغدا ,وبني يدنو ونأى يف البيت السابع ,وبني الدنا والقصا يف الثالث وعلَى ،واملقابلة يف البيت العشرين بني هالك وهوى وسامل عشر ,واجلناس يف البيت الثامن عشر من َعالَ َ وجنا . األمثال ي الكتاب ومن لطائف القول اليت جتذب عقول القارئ إىل اإلقبال بالكتاب والتقدير له ماورد فيه من األمثال السائرة عفوا بال تكلف وغرضنا هنا أن نتمثل ببعضها لتتم فائدة الكتاب .
-1لست إذا ما ب هظتىن غمرة
35
م من " يقول بلغ السيل الزب ى"
على .والغمرة :تع ي الكربة .الزىب :مجع زبية وهي على يقال هبظ ي .األمر أى شق ّ هبظتىن :شقت ّ
حفرة حتفر لألسد يف املكان العاىل من األرض وليس يبلغها إال سيل عظيم وإذا بلغها السيل كان جارفا جمحفا ،ويضرب ملا جاوز احلد وعند اشتداد األمر ويقال ِف املثل " :بلغ السيل الزىب ". 36 -6إن ى "حلبت الدهر شطريه" فقد
أمر ل ى ح ينا وأحيانا حال
37
حلبت الدهر :جربته .شطريه نصفية وأراد بشطريه أول زمانه وآخره أو نعيمه وبؤسه .هذا مستعار من حلب الدهر أشطر الناقة ,وذلك إذا حلب خلفني من أخالفها مث حيلبها الثانية خلفني أيضا ,ونصب " أشطره " على البدل ,فكأنه قال :حلب أشطر الدهر واملعىن أنه اخترب الدهر شطرى خريه وشره .فعرف ما فيه ويرسل هذا املثل فيمن جرب الدهر فيقال " :حلب الدهر أشطره ". 38 " -3لك نها ن فثة مصدور " إذا
39
ج اش لغام من ن واحيها غما
لكنها فااهاء واأللف كناية عن القصيدة الىت مدح هبا الشاعر ممدوحه 41.النفثة :ما يلقيه الرجل من فيه إذا بصق وقد يكون دما أو ريقا عاديا .املصدور :الذى أصابه داء ِف رئته من سل وغريه وهو يسرتيح بالتنفيث ويقال هذا املثل ملن يقلقه أمر وال يشفى منه إال إذا استخف فيقال" :ال بد للمصدور أن ينفث" .41وإياه أراد عبد الرمحن أبو سعيد بن أمحد الفازازي األندلسي يف ختميسه بقوله: ث مار ال هوى للناكلني رذيلة
ثفيجر دم ع منك للوعظ غيلة
ثياب ال تقى للتائبي ن ف ضيلة
ثبات على الدعوى فما فيك حيلة
فإن قلت فاملصدور البد ينفث 26 ألن الشعر كاللغام يف صدر املصدور اليسرتيح إال إذا أخرجه من فمه .رحم هللا الشافعي حني قال :
والشاعر املنطيق أسود سال خ والشعر منه لعابه وجماجه
ILCC 2013
558
-2وال أق ول إن عرتن ي نكبة
43
قول القنوط "انقد يف البطن السال "
انقد :انقطع ,السال بفتح الشني املشيمة اليت تتعلق بالوارد ,وتسقط معه ,والسال إذا انقطع يف بطن املرأة هلكت ,ويرسل هذا املثل إذا بلغ أحدهم ِف الكرب غايته فيقال " :انقد ِف البطن السال ". 44 وهذه األمثال الىت عثرناها يف الكتاب مجعناها مبعثرة تدل على عبقرية املؤلف الشاعر ,وَتكنه يف فنون الشعر واألدب ,وقد تبني يل هذا القدر اليسري من شرح الكتاب وكتب األمثال العربية املتوافرة . اخلامتة أمجع العلماء على نبوغ ابن دريد يف النثر والشعر .وأدل على ذلك كتابه "اجلمهرة" الذى يعترب ثاين املعاجم اللغوية املصنفة على طريقة التقليبات األجبدية ,ويكفيه فخرا أنه أول من ابتكر هذه الطريقة من أصحابه املعاجم اللغويني . فمقصورة ابن دريد من بني منظومات املؤلف وأبعدها صيتا ،وقد تشبب فيه وفاخر ومدح ورثى ومجّس ,وأرسل حكما وأمثاال على سنة األدباء األقدمني ,والشعراء املفلقني .وقد تناولنا ِف هذه املقالة ترمجة املؤلف بإجياز ,وااهدف من الكتاب املذكور ,مث تتبعنا جمرى احلكم واألمثال عند العرب وأخرياَ ,تثلنا بعشرين بيتا من حكمه ,وأربعة من أمثاله على الرتتيب . اَلوامش -9
أمني حممد فاخر :دراسات ِف املعاجم العربية ,الطبعة األوىل ,مطبعة حسان 2029 ه 9182م ص . 38
-6
املرجع نفسه ص . 38
-3
أبوبكر بن حسن دريد األزدى :شرح مقصورة ابن دريد ,شركة مكتبة مصطفى
ألياىب وأوالده 9358ه 9131م ص . 8 -2
أمني حممد فاخر ,املرجع السابق ص . 20 – 31
-5
أبوبكر حممد بن حسن بن دريداألزدى :مجهرة اللغة ,الطبعة األوىل ,اجمللد األول ,دار الكتب العلمية ,بي روت ,ل بنان 6005م 9262ه . 93 – 96
-2
أبوبكر بن حسن بن دريد األزدى :املرجع السابقة ص . 11 – 15
-1
عبداحلميد حممود املسلوت :األدب العريب بي ن اجلاهلية واإلسالمية ,الطبعة األوىل, اجلامعة اللبيية9116 ,م ص .982
-8
حس ي عبداجلليل يوسف :األدب اجلاهلى قضايا وفنون ونصوص ,الطبعة الثانية ,طبعة مؤسسة املختار للنشر والتوزيع ,القاهرة 9262ه 6003م ص . 59
-1
عبداحلميد حممود املسلوت :املرجع السابق ,ص .982
-90
حس ي عبداجلليل يوسف :املرجع السابق ,ص . 53 – 56
-99
حنفى عبدهللا احلنفي وآخرون :النصوص األدبية ,الطبعة األوىل ,وزارة املعارف, اململكة العربية السعودية 9313ه 9113ص .962
-96
أبو الفضل أمحد بن حممد امليداين :جممع األمثال ,اجلزء األول ,بريوت 6006ص . 98
-93
أمحد اإلسكندري وآخرون :املفصل ِف تاريخ األدب العربية للمدارس الثانوية ,اجلزء األول مكان النشر وتارُيه غري مذكورين ,ص . 10
560
ILCC 2013
-92
املرجع نفسه . 10
-95
شوقي ضيف :العصر اجلاهلى ,الطبعة الثامنة ,دار املعارف القاهرة ص . 208
-92
عبداحلميد حممود املسلوت :املرجع السابق ص . 985
-91
موسى عبدالسالم مصطفى أبيكن :األم ثال الواردة ِف مقامات احلريرى دراسة واستعماال, حبث قدم للحصول على شهادة الليسانس ِف اللغة العربية جبامعة عثمان بن فودى صكتو9111,م ص . 95 توى :هالك .
-98
ذوى :جف وذبل .نفاد :فناء
-91
ما التوى :ما تعو منه .
-60
حتاموا ظلمه :تباعدوا عنه وامتنعوا عنه .
-69
اجل ّد بفتح اجلد احلظ .
-66
راح :أتى بالعشي وغدا يع ي به اغتدى ,وقد حذفت التاء من الفعل ليستقيم البيت . ويقصد به أيت بالغدو .
-63
ل م تفده :تكسبه مأخوذ من أفاد يفيد .العرب :مجع عربة وهى التذكرة .العمى :هنا عمي القلب وهو انطماس الذكاء .
-62
ما نأى :ما بعد .
-65
رنت :نظرت .
-62
عطف :أمال .
انتوى :من نوى من النية القصد .
-61
السفع :اإلحراق .الذكاء :التهاب النار .
-68
ناط :علق والصق ،العجب :الكرب ،املقت :أشد البغض .
-61
الدين مجع الدنيا وهو الشئ القريب ،القصا :مجع القصوة وهو الشئ البعيد . آض :رجع جمزول :مقطوع
مطا :ظهر .
-30
طوق :قوة
-39
إن أمر ع ي :قصد وقد يكون من العناء املشقة .
-36
ملن وعى :حفظ قال هللا عز وجل (( :وتعيها أذن واعية )) .
-33
رادع :كاف .
-32
الدهر يكبو :يعثر ويسقط .
-35
أبو بكر بن حسن بن دريد األزدى :املرجع السابق ص . 10
-32
دار املشرق ,املنجد ِف اللغة واألعالم ,الطبعة الثامنة والعشرون بريوت لبنان ص .112
-31
أبوبكر بن حسن بن دريد األزدى :املرجع السابق ,ص . 999
-38
أبو الفضل أمحد بن حممد امليداين ,املرجع السابق ص . 622
-31
أبوبكر بن حسن بن دريد األزدى :املرجع السابق ص . 65
-20
املرجع نفسه . 65
-29
أبو الفضل أمحد بن حممد امليداين :اجلزء الثاين ,ص . 686
-26
ابن أمحد الفازازي األندلسي :القصائد العشريات ,الناشر ,احلا حممد طن أجيى سنة النشر غري مذكورة ص . 95 – 92
-23
أبوبكر بن حسن بن دريد األزدى :املرجع السابق ,ص . 19
562
ILCC 2013
-22
املرجع نفسه ,ص . 16 – 19
-25
أمني حممد فاخر :املرجع السابق ص . 29
حتليل التعبريات اجملازية القرآنية على ضوء أبعاد نظرية التلقي، سورة يوسف أمنوذجا.
نور احلنيلة بنت حممد عصمت يوس نظرية بنت عبدهللا د .فاطمة سو يا مي زاليكا بنت آدم
مل ّخص البحث ومن اجلدير بالذكر أن التعبريات اجملازية من أنواع التعبريات يف النصوص اللغوية .وهي تعبريات شائعة يف النصوص القرآنية .ويتطلب منا إمعان النظر يف تعيني معانيها ودالالهتا املخفية .ويسعى هذا البحث إىل دراسة التعبريات اجملازية القرآنية على ضوء نظرية التلقي يف سورة يوسف .اخرتنا سورة يوسف ألوها من نيب هللا يوسف عليه السالم .وترتكز نظرية التلقي على استجابة أحسن القصص حيث إوها قصة كاملة عن ّ
املتلقي للنص .وهذه الدراسة تغطّي اجلانبني أال ومها جانيب النظري و التحليلي .تكون أمهية هذه الدراسة يف
تطبيق نظرية التلقي على التعبريات اجملازية يف سورة يوسف حتت حماور الثالث وهي القارئ ،وأفق التوقع وبناء املعىن .ومن األهداف اليت تصبو إليها هذه الدراسة هي إبراز دور نظرية التلقي يف حتليل التعبريات اجملازية القرآنية .بنيت هذه الدراسة على منهج وصفي وحتليلي .فاستخدمت املنهج الوصفي يف التعرف على اجملازات القرآنية وماهية نظرية التلقي ،كما طبقت املنهج التحليلي يف حتليل التعبريات اجملازية القرآنية يف سورة يوسف على ضوء نظرية التلقي.
564
ILCC 2013
املق ّدمة: بات من املعروف أ ّن مصطلح التلقي يرتبط ارتباطا وثيقا جبامعة آونستانس األملانية 1،هذه النظرية صدى لتطورات اجتماعية وفكرية وأدبية يف أملانيا الغربية خالل الستينات املتأخرة .و من اجلدير بالذكر أ ّن هذه النظرية هتتم بالقارئ ومبا يثري القارئ يف النص بغض النظر عن النص وشخصية املؤلف ,بل تركز تركيزاً كلياً بكل ما يثري القارئ ,والدور الذي يؤديه يف إَتام النص وغريها من اجلوانب.
1
العوامل املؤثرة يف ظهور نظرية التلقي:
_1املدرسة الشكالنية:
ومن اجلدير بالذكر ،كان للشكالنني مبا قاموا به توسيع مفهوم الش كل ال ذي ين در في ه اجلم ال واجل ذب أن اسهموا خبلق طريقة جديدة للتغري ترتبط ارتباط وثيق بنظرية التلقي .وكان الهتمامهم أيضاً باألداة الفنية وم ا حتدثه من تغريب للتصورات يف العمل األديب ,ومبا يشري هذا التغريب إىل عالقة القارئ ب النص فك ان ل ه دور فع ال يف ه ذه النظري ة .فض ال ع ن للتط ور األديب وتعاق ب األجي ال م ن أج ل إح الل املبت دعات املث رية ل دى ّ املتلقي حمل التقنيات القدمية دور يف نظرية التلقي (. )9
_2ظواهرية رومان اجناردن : ومن العوامل األخ رى ،رظه ور ظواهري ة روم ان اجن اردن ال يت رك زت عل ى العالق ة القائم ة ب ني ال نص والق ارئ . كم ا أ ّك دت عل ى دور املتلق ي يف حتدي د املع ىن ,فض ال ع ن أوه ا اه ا دور يف العم ل األديب وذل ك ح ني يعم ل خيال ه يف مل ئ الفج وات و الفراغ ات يف ال نص ال يت يكتم ل العم ل األديب ( .)6وك ل ذل ك ل ه دور كب ري يف نظرية التلقي. _3مدرسة براغ البنيوية:
ومن املسلّم به،مل يفصل البنيويون وخاصة موكاروفسكي العمل األديب مبا هو بنيه عن النسق الت ارُيي ,وي رى أنه البد من فهم العمل على أنه رسالة إىل جانب كونه موضوعاً مجالياً .وهبذا فهو يتوجه إىل متل ٍق ه و نت ا للعالقات االجتماعية املتغرية ,وهبذا املتلقي ال مبنشئه يفهم املقصد الف ي الكامن يف العمل(.)3
_4هومنيوطيقا جادامر: قام بتطوير مصطلحني كان اهما أمهيتهما يف نظري ة التلق ي مها(الت اريخ العمل ي) و(أف ق الفه م) فالت اريخ وثيق ة تضم خربات ال ميكن اس تبعادها إذا أردن ا الفه م م ن أج ل تغي ري العم ل .ورك ز ه ذا األم ر عل ى عالق ة املتلق ي بالعمل وأن التوجه االجتماعي والنفسي يؤثر يف املتلقي ومن مث يف وعيه التفسريي العمل(.)9
_5سوسيولوجيا األدب:
كما من العوامل األخرى ،الرتكيز على اآلثار اليت أحدثها املنشؤن يف زماوهم ويعد زماوهم ,يف نفوس املتلقيني الذين يدركون قيمة األعمال ويقروروها. واه ذا مل يع د املؤل ف وعمل ه األديب حي تالن مك ان الص دارة ,ب ل انص رف االهتم ام إىل املتلق ي والظ روف االجتماعية اليت َت فيها التلقي(.)6 أبعاد نظرية التلقي:1 أفق التوقعات: ه ي جمموع ة التوقع ات األدبي ة والثقافي ة ال يت يتس لح هب ا الق ارئ ع ن وع ي أو غ ري وع ي يف تناول ه لل نص وقراءته(.)3 والتلق ي ال يتوق ف عن د زم ن ب ل ُُيل ق يف ك ل زم ن ,ولك ل زم ن ق ّراه وه ذا التلق ي ُيتل ف م ن زم ن آلخ ر حس ب الظ روف السياس ية احمليط ة ,..وُيتل ف م ن ق ارئ آلخ ر حس ب تكوين ه النظ ري م ن حي ث املي ول والرغبات والقدرات وحسب خربة املتلقي االجتماعية والتارُيية والثقافية ال يت حيمله ا وك ل ه ذا يش كل خمزون اً لدى القارئ يتم تلقي النص على أساسه ,وتشكل لديه أفق توقع يعمل النص على إخراجه(.)2 وُيربن ا أف ق التوق ع كي ف ك ان العم ل يق يم وي ؤول عن د ظه وره ,وكي ف إن ه ذا التأوي ل ال يعط ي مع ىن وه ائي ويغري ,أو يزداد توضيحه م ع تت ابع األزمن ة ,وم ع ه ذا فإنن ا ال نس تطيع للعمل ,ولكنه قابل ألن يُب ّدل معناه ّ فهم العمل إال بانصهار األفاق بعضها مع بعض من املاضي إىل احلاضر(.)5 وهذا يع ي بأننا ال نستطيع فصل النص ال ذي نق رؤه ع ن ت اريخ تلقي ه واألف ق األديب ال ذي ظه ر في ه ,وانتم ى إليه أول مرة ,فالنص وسيط بني أفقنا واألفق الذي مثله أو ميثله ,وع ن طري ق م ز األف اق بعض ها م ع بع ض تنمو لدى متلقي النص اجلديد ق درة عل ى توق ع بع ض ال دالالت واملع اين ,ولك ن ه ذا التوق ع ل يس بالض رورة نفس التوقع املخزون لدى املتلقي فقد حيدث له شيء من الدهش ة واملخالف ة مل ا ق د توقع ه أوق د يك ون ال نص مطابقاً ملا توقعه ,فيحدث ألفقه تغيري أو تصحيح أو تعديل ,أو يقتصر على إعادة إنتاجه(.)9 وعلى هذا فأن أفق التوقع يتشكل من ثالثة عوامل رئيسية هي:
566
ILCC 2013
.9التجربة املسبقة اليت اكتسبها اجلمهور عن اجلنس الذي ينتمي إليه النص. .6شكل األعمال السابقة وموضوعاته اليت يفرتض معرفتها. .3التعارض بني اللغة الشعرية واللغة العملية أي التعارض بني العامل التخيلي والواقع اليومي(.)6 وتتم عملية بناء املعىن وإنتاجه داخل مفهوم أفق التوقعات ،حيث يتفاعل تاريخ األدب واخل ربة اجلمالي ة بفع ل الفه م عن د املتلق ي .واملع ىن ل يس موض وعاً مادي اً ميك ن تعريف ه وح ده واإلحس اس ب ه فهو يق ع يف منتص ف املس افة ب ني الوج ود الع اري م ن معايش ة امل ادة وإحساس ها وب ني التفك ري وملكت ه حي ث يصبح املوضوع فكرة حمددة ،فال حقائق يف النص وإمنا هناك أمناط وهياكل تثري القارئ حىت يصنع حق ائق . ومن مسات هذه ااهياكل أوها أشكال فارغة يصب فيها القارئ خمزونه املعريف(.)3 ومن هنا فإن بناء املعىن يستند إىل ثالثة أبعاد: .9يتضمن النص يف احتماالته والذي يسمح بتأمل إنتا املعىن . .6استقص اء إج راءات ال نص يف الق راءة ،ليكش ف ع ن الص ور الذهني ة املكون ة عن د حماول ة بن اء هدف مجايل متماسك وثابت(.)2 .3البن اء املخص وص ل ألدب وف ق ش روط حتق ق وظيف ة التواص لية ،وحتك م تفاع ل الق ارئ ب ه وإن هذه العالقة التفاعلية ناجتة عن كون النص ينطوي على مرجعيات خاص ة ب ه ويس هم املتلق ي يف بناء هذه املرجعية عرب َتثله للمعىن وإن الفجوة وهي ع دم التواف ق ب ني ال نص والق ارئ ه ي اليت حتقق االتصال يف عملية القراءة(.)5 ويضاف إىل أفق التوقعات فكرة: نقطة الرؤية املتحركة :
ف النص ال ميث ل س وى افتتاحي ة للمع ىن ،ف النص الميك ن انفتاح ه كموض وع إال يف املرحل ة النهائي ة للق راءة ،عندما جند أنفسنا غارقني فيه ،والقارئ باعتباره نقطة من املنظور يتحرك خالل املوضوعات ،فهو ميثل نقطة رؤية متحركة داخل ما جيب عليه تأوله وهذا ما حيدد فهم املوضوعات اجلمالية يف النصوص(. )9 الفجوات : يوج د يف ال نص جمموع ة م ن الفج وات أو الفراغ ات ال يت يرتكه ا املؤل ف للق ارئ م ن أج ل مأله ا ،فك ل مجل ة َتث ل مقدم ة للجمل ة التالي ة وتسلس ل اجلم ل حياص ر مبجموع ة م ن الفج وات غ ري املتوقع ة ،وال يت يق وم الق ارئ
مبلئها مستعيناً مبخيلته( . )6فيساهم القارئ يف إَتام مع ىن العم ل األديب ،وه ذا امل لء ي تم ذاتي اً حس ب م ا ه و معط ي يف ال نص ،وه ذا ال وعي للق ارئ متك ون م ن األمن اط اجلزئي ة وترابطه ا م ع بعض ها ال بعض ،فيس اهم يف إخرا النص يف صيغة مكتملة ،وذلك ألن ال نص ن اقص مب ا ب ه م ن فجوات،وه ذه الفج وات تنتظ ر مس اعدة الق ارئ م ن أج ل مأله ا ،أم ا ,إذا كان ت ق درة الق ارئ غ ري مت وفرة م ن أج ل مل ئ ه ذه الفج وات ف إن ال نص ينتظر قارئ قادر على تأويله أي إنه يتوقع قارئه ذلك ألن هذه الفجوات هي اليت حتقق عملي ة االتص ال ب ني النص والقارئ(.)3 املسافة اجلمالية: ه ي الف رق ب ني كتاب ة املؤل ف وأف ق توق ع الق ارئ ،مبع ىن أوه ا املس افة الفاص لة ب ني التوق ع املوج ود ل دى الق ارئ والعمل اجلديد (.)2 وميكن احلصول عليها من استقراء ردود أفعال القراء على األث ر ،أي م ن األحك ام النقدي ة ال يت يطلقووه ا علي ه ،واآلثار األدبية اجليدة هي تلك اليت َت ي انتظار اجلمهور باخليبة ،إذ اآلثار األخرى اليت ترضي آفاق انتظارها وتليب رغبات قرائها املعاصرين هي أثار عادية جداً ألوها مناذ تعود عليها القراء(.)5 وعلى هذا ميكن َتييز ثالثة أفعال لدى القارئ : .9االس تجابة :ويرتت ب عليه ا الرض ى واالرتي اح ألن العم ل األديب يس تجيب ألف ق توق ع الق ارئ وينسجم مع معايريه اجلمالية. .6التغيي ب :ويرتت ب عن ه االص طدام ألن العم ل األديب ق د خي ب أف ق توق ع الق ارئ فيخ ر م ن املألوف إىل اجلديد. .3التغيري :أي تغيري األفق املتوقع(.)2
568
ILCC 2013
املتعة اجلمالية: وتعتمد على : فعل اإلبداع :أي املتعة النامجة عن استخدام املرء لقدرته اإلبداعية اخلاصة. احلس اجلمايل :وتشري إىل اعتماد اإلبداع على التلقي . التطهري:وهي اخلربة اجلمالية االتصالية اليت تنتج لذة العواطف املث ارة بواس طة البالغة أو الشعر ،ومها القادران على تعديل اقتناعات املتلقي وحركته(.)9 القارئ الضم ي: أص حاب ه ذه النظري ة ال يش رحون ال نص وإمن ا يش رحون اآلث ار ال يت ُيلقه ا ال نص يف الق ارئ ،واملتلق ي ط رف مالزم للنص يتبادل معه عالقة التأثري والتأثر,فالتفاعل قائم بني النص واملتلقي ،واملتلقي ه و ال ذي تق وم علي ه نظرية الوقع اجلمايل اليت الميكن أن تتحقق خار فعل القراءة أي خار التلقي (.)6 وأية نظرية ختتص بالنصوص األدبية فإوها ال تتخل ى ع ن الق ارئ .فه و نظ ام مرجع ي للنص.وه ذا الق ارئ عن د أص حاب ه ذه النظري ة ه و الق ارئ الض م ي وه ذا الق ارئ ل يس ل ه وج ود حقيق ي ولكن ه جيس د التوجيه ات الداخلية للنص ،فالقارئ الضم ي ليس معروفاً يف اختبار ما،بل هو مسجل يف النص بذاته ,وال يصبح للنص حقيق ة إال إذا ق رأ يف ش روط وق ام الق ارئ باس تخالص م ا يف ال نص م ن مع اين وص ور ذهني ة فكأن ه يعي د بن اء املعىن من جديد(.)3 والقارئ له دور يف فهم األدب ،بعد أن يتخلص من الدالالت املثالية الصرفة أو الواقعية الصرفة ،فهو يسعى إىل اإلمساك بالتصورات العامة اليت جتعل من امللفوظ ما حيق ق اس تجابات مس تمرة لتجربت ه ويض عه يف دائ رة التواص ل ،فالق ارئ الض م ي ل يس شخص اً خيالي اً م در داخ ل ال نص ,ولكن ه دور مكت وب يف ك ل ن ص ويس تطيع ك ل ق ارئ أن يتحمل ه بص ورة انتقائي ة وجزئي ة وش رطية ،وه ذه الش رطية ذات أمهي ة قص وى لتلق ي العمل ،لذلك فإن دور القارئ الضم ي جيب أن يكون نقطة االرتكاز لبنيان استدعاء االستجابة للنص(.)2
نظرية التلقي ونظرية نقد استجابة القارئ:
تعتمد كل من نظرية التلقي األملانية ونظرية نقد استجابة القارئ األمريكية يف األساس األول على دور القا رئ وأمهيته يف فهم ,ولكن هناك جوانب اتفاق بني النظريتني وجوانب اختالف ،وجوانب االتفاق أكثر من االختالف. بعض جوانب االتفاق: .9هتتم كال النظريتني بأنواع القراء الذين تتضمنهم النصوص ،والدور الذي يلعبه القراء الفعليني يف حتديد املعىن األديب ،وعالقة مواضعات القراء بتأمل النصوص ومكانة ذات القارئ .
()9
.6القارئ الصوري لدى نظرية نقد استجابة القارئ وهو القارئ الغري حقيقي ،وهو ال ُيتلف عن القارئ الضم ي لدى نظرية التلقي(.)6 .3القارئ املثايل الستجابة القارئ يطابق القارئ الضم ي لنظرية التلقي(.)3 .2أفق التوقعات وهي جمموعة التوقعات األدبية والثقافية واليت يتسلح هبا القارئ عن وعي وغري وعي ال ختتلف عن مقولة الكفاءة /القدرة املكتسبة لدى نظرية نقد استجابة القارئ(.)2 .5تركز نظرية نقد استجابة القارئ على متتالية القرارات والتنقيحات والتوقعات وعمليات النقص واالستعدادات اليت ينجزها القارئ عندما يفاوض النص,جند هذا عند نظرية التلقي حني جندهم يهتمون بالتعديالت اليت جيريها القراء على التوقعات وهم ميرون بالنصوص،ويهتمون بتوايل الكلمات اليت ختلق أثراً لدى القارئ حني يُعلّق بني معنيني(.)5 .2املعىن هو ذهن القارئ وجتربته يف أثناء القراءة متأثراً بذلك بلغة النص ،ولكن املعىن ال يوجد مستقالً دون عالقة القارئ به ،لذلك فهو الذي حيدد املعىن،وهذا هو املعىن لدى
النظريتني(.)2
.1تتفقان أيضاً يف أن القارئ عندمها هو الذي حيدد بنفسه ما هو املعىن وذلك بتعبريات جتريبية(.)1
570
ILCC 2013
.8املوضوعة ااهوية(الذات)عند نقد استجابة القارئ هي البنية العميقة للشخصية،وتتجلى يف كل فكرة وفعل أو إدراك ،وهي تتفاعل وتستجيب لكل جتربة واقعية كانت أم أدبية ،وهي تعيد بناء نفسها وتأكيدها كما هي احلال يف التكوينات اجلشتالية عند نظرية التلقي(.)8 بعض جوانب االختالف: .9يف نظرية نقد استجابة القارئ الينشغل القارئ مبلء الفجوات اليت يرتكها النص أويضع استنتاجات من تلميحات النص على العكس يف نظرية التلقي
()9
.6القدرة األدبية املكتسبة من الثقافة واخلربات السابقة هي اليت تساهم يف صنع املعىن ،والكشف عن النظام الضم ي يف النص ،غري أن أصحاب نظرية التلقي يرون املعىن إمنا هو حصيلة استجابة القارئ إلملاعات املؤلف (.)6 .3نظرية التلقي جتد الصلة بني النص والقارئ حاصلة يف العرف ،وملا كانت األعراف والقواعد ال ختص شخصاً معيناً أو جماالً حمدداً فإوها ال تستقر كلية يف النص وال كلية يف القارئ بل عن تفاعل بينهما ،يف الصلة بني النص والقارئ يف نظرية نقد استجابة القارئ تكون يف الكفاءة وقدرة القارئ(.)3 وغ ي عن القول إ ّن منهج التلقي والتقبل يركز على القارئ أثناء تفاعله مع النص األديب قصد تأويله وخلق صورة معناه املتخيلة .إذا ،ماهي نظرة التلقي والتقبل؟ ومن هم روادها؟ وما هي مرجعياهتا األبستمولوجية والفلسفية واألدبية؟ وماهي مرتكزاهتا املنهجية؟ وما هي تطبيقاهتا يف الساحة النقدية العربية؟ ظهرت نظرية التأثري والتقبل يف أملانيا يف أواسط الستينيات (9122م) يف إطار مدرسة كونسطانس وبرلني الشرقية قبل ظهور التفكيكية ومدارس مابعد احلداثة على يدي كل من فولفغانغ إيزر Wolfgang Iser )(1وهانز روبري ياوس . )Hans Robert Jauss (2ومنظور هذه النظرية أوها تثور على املناهج اخلارجية اليت ركزت كثريا على املرجع الواقعي كالنظرية املاركسية أو الواقعية اجلدلية أو املناهج البيوغرافية اليت اهتمت كثريا باملبدع وحياته وظروفه التارُيية ،واملناهج النقدية التقليدية اليت كان ينصب اهتمامها على املعىن
وتصيده من النص باعتباره جزءا من املعرفة واحلقيقة املطلقة ،واملناهج البنيوية اليت انطوت على النص املغلق وأمهلت عنصرا فعاال يف عملية التواصل األديب أال وهو القارئ الذي ستهتم به نظرية التلقي والتقبل األملانية أميا اهتمام. ترى نظرية التلقي أن أهم شيء يف عملية األدب هي تلك املشاركة الفعالة بني النص الذي ألفه املبدع والقارئ املتلقي .أي إن الفهم احلقيقي لألدب ينطلق من موقعة القارئ يف مكانه احلقيقي وإعادة االعتبار له باعتباره هو املرسل إليه واملستقبل للنص ومستهلكه وهو كذلك القارئ احلقيقي له :تلذذا ونقدا وتفاعال وحوارا .ويع ي هذا أن العمل األديب ال تكتمل حياته وحركته اإلبداعية إال عن طريق القراءة وإعادة اإلنتا من جديد؛ ألن املؤلف ماهو إال قارئ لألعمال السابقة وهذا ما جيعل التناص يلغي أبوة النصوص ومالكيها األصليني .ويرى إيزر أن العمل األديب له قطبان :قطب ف ي وقطب مجايل .فالقطب الف ي يكمن يف النص الذي ُيلقه املؤلف من خالل البناء اللغوي وتسييجه بالدالالت والتيمات املضمونية قصد تبليغ القارئ حبموالت النص املعرفية واإليديولوجية ،أي إن القطب الف ي حيمل معىن وداللة وبناء شكليا .أما القطب اجلمايل ،فيكمن يف عملية القراءة اليت ختر النص من حالته اجملردة إىل حالته امللموسة ،أي يتحقق بصريا وذهنيا عرب استيعاب النص وفهمه وتأويله .ويقوم التأويل بدور مهم يف استخالص صورة املعىن املتخيل عرب سرب أغوار النص واستكناه دالالته والبحث عن املعاين اخلفية والواضحة عرب ملء البيضات والفراغات للحصول على مقصود النص وتأويله انطالقا من جتربة القارئ اخليالية والواقعية .وجيعل التأويل من القراءة فعال حدثيا نسبيا ال يدعي امتالك احلقيقة املطلقة أو الوحيدة املتعالية عن الزمان واملكان .ألن القراءة ختتلف يف الزمان واملكان حسب طبيعة القراء ونوعيتهم .لذلك يرى أمربطو إيكو U.ECOأن هناك أمناطا من القراءة والقراء يف دراساته عن النص املفتوح والنص الغائب: -9نص مفتوح وقراءة مفتوحة. -6نص مفتوح وقراءة مغلقة. -3نص مغلق وقراءة مغلقة. -2نص مغلق وقراءة مفتوحة)3( . واليكون العمل اإلبداعي إال من خالل املشاركة التواصلية الفعالة بني املؤلف والنص واجلمهور القارئ. ويدل هذا على أن العمل اإلبداعي يتكون من عنصرين أساسني :النص الذي قوامه املعىن وهو يشكل أيضا جتربة الكاتب الواقعية واخليالية والقارئ الذي يتقبل آثار النص سواء أكانت إجيابية أم سلبية يف شكل استجابات شعورية ونفسية ( ارتياح -غضب -متعة -هتييج -نقد -رضى . )...وهذا جيعل النص األديب يرتكز على امللفوظ اللغوي (النص) والتأثري الشعوري (القارئ) يف شكل ردود جتاه محوالت النص.
572
ILCC 2013
وهذا إن دل على شيء فإمنا يدل على أن العمل األديب يتموقع يف الوسط بني النص والقراءة من خالل التفاعل احلميمي والوجداين االتصايل بني الذات واملوضوع أي النص والقارئ .ومن مث ،فالعمل األديب أكرب من النص وأكرب من القراءة ،بل هو ذلك االتصال التفاعلي بينهما يف بوتقة منصهرة واحدة .وإذا كانت املناهج األخرى تركز على اجتاه واحد يف القراءة من النص إىل القارئ فإن منهجية التقبل والقراءة تنطلق من خطني مزدوجني متبادلني :من النص إىل القارئ ومن القارئ إىل النص على غرار القراءة الظاهراتية (الفينومينولوجية) .وال حيقق نص املؤلف مقصديته ووظيفته اجلمالية إال من خالل فعل التحقق القرائي وجتسيده عرب عمليات ملء الفراغات والبياضات وحتديد ماهو غري حمدد ،وإثبات ما هو منفي ،والتأرجح بني اإلخفاء والكشف على مستوى استخالص املعاين عن طريق الفهم والتأويل والتطبيق .ولن تكون القراءة مثمرة جادة إال إذا وجد القارئ االفرتاضي اخليايل الذي يعيد بناء النص عن طريق نقده وتأويله انطالقا من جتربة مجالية وفنية بعيدا عن تصور القارئ املعاصر الواقعي .والقارئ الضم ي" :ليس له وجود يف الواقع ،وإمنا هو قارئ ضم يُ ،يلق ساعة قراءة العمل الف ي اخليايل .ومن مث ،فهو قارئ له قدرات خيالية شأنه شأن النص .وهو ال يرتبط مثله بشكل من أشكال الواقع احملدد ،بل يوجه قدراته اخليالية للتحرك مع النص باحثا عن بنائه ،ومركز القوى فيه ،وتوازنه ،وواضعا يده على الفراغات اجلدلية فيه فيملؤها باستجابات اإلثارة اجلمالية اليت حتدث له"()2 حتليل اجملازات القرآنية على ضوء نظرية التلقي:
األول الذي إن هللا سبحانه وتعاىل هو املخاطب بوصفه مرسل احللم إىل يوسف عليه السالم وهو املتلقي ّ
جل وعلى أراد أن يرسل الرسالة املهمة إىل يوسف يف منامه .وانطالقا حيلم .و من اجلدير بالذكر ،أن هللا ّ
بشريا و ُيرب أباه عن ذلك؛ خربا ً من هذا األمر ،كان يوسف عليه السالم يتوقع بأ ّن ما حدث له يف املنام ً
أنّه رأى عشر كوكبا و الشمس والقمر ساجدين له .وأبوه؛ نيب هللا يعقوب عليه السالم املتلقي الثاين بوصفه
السامع هبذا اخلرب قد توقّع من هذا احللم بأنّه من عالمة النبوة وفضائله على إخوته وسائر الناس يف تلك صحة توقعاته ما ورد يف اآلية بعدها. الفرتة .ودليل على ّ
يتوضح موقف يعقوب من هذه اآلية ّ
بأنّه يشعر بالسرور مبا حدث البنه .وعلى الرغم من ذلك ،كان ُياف من حسد أبنائه اآلخرين ومكرهم السوء جتاه يوسف أل ّن كل ذي نعمة حمسود فضالً عن الشياطني بوصفهم أعداء على األننبياء واملرسلني الذين سوف يضلون إخوة يوسف و يهلكون يوسف مبساعدهتم. ومن جمازات القرآنية يف هذه اآلية يف قوله تعاىل:
...
إذا تأملنا هذه اآلية لوجدنا املخاطب هو النص نفسه وهو كالم هللا .واملتلقي هو اجلماهري والسامع و قارئ هذه اآلية .وقد ّبني هللا تعاىل أ ّن يوسف عليه السالم قد دخل يف السجن ومعه فتيان .ورأى الفىت األول يف
منامه بأنّه يعصر مخراّ ،أما الفىت الثاين فهو يرى بأنّه حيمل خبزا فوق رأسه فتأيت الطري فتأكل منه.
وهذان الفتيان كمخاطب الثاين حيث إوهما أخربا يوسف منامهما ومها متحريان ويتوقعان أشياء كثرية من املنام .وهذه التوقعات تتعلق مبا سيحدث اهما يف احلياة املستقبلية .فاملتلقي الثاين هنا هو يوسف عليه
574
ILCC 2013
السالم .تبدي الفتيان يف هذه اآلية توقّعاهتما يف يوسف حيث فيه قدرة على تعبري األحالم وتأويلها. فطلب كل واحد منهما من يوسف أن يفسر له رؤياه. ومن جمازات القرآنية يف هذه اآلية يف قوله تعاىل... ...:
ويفسر رؤيامها ،بأ ّن الذي رأى أنه يعصر العنب يف رؤياه فإنه يف مطلع هذه اآلية ُياطب يوسف الفتيني ّ ُير من السجن ويكون ساقي اخلمر للملك ،وأما اآلخر الذي يرى أنه حيمل على رأسه خبزا فإنّه يُصلب
يُرتك ،وتأكل الطري من رأسه ،قضي األمر الذي فيه تستفتيان وفرغ منه .فأفق التوقعات هنا تعبري يوسف عليه السالم أحالم الفتيني .ومن اجلدير بالذكر تأويل يوسف عليه السالم عن هذه األحالم توفيقي وهو وجل. من هللا ّ عز ّ
اخلامتة:
* أمهية دور القارئ يف النص ،ودوره يف إكمال العمل األديب الذي يتطلب قارئ يستجيب له ويقرأه،
ويساهم يف ملء فراغات النص اليت يرتكها املؤلف ملن يتلقى عمله ،ويستجيب لنداءات النص وما يتطلبه من معاين حياول القارئ إيضاحها وحماورهتا. * نظرية التلقي على الرغم من أوها تنادي إىل إظهار دور القارئ يف العملية اإلبداعية وهتتم به وبكل العوامل املؤثرة فيه ،إال أوها ال تستطيع أن تلغي تأثر القارئ باآلخر وتأثره أيضاً بالظروف احمليطة باملؤلف ،ومؤثرات النص وما حيمله من ألفاظ موحية واختيارات لغوية توحي بإحياءات خمتلفة. * وعلى الرغم من دور القارئ الفعال يف النص األديب ،إال أن العملية اإلبداعية تتكون من كاتب ونص وقارئ وبتفاعلهم معاً دون فصل عنصر عن اآلخر. * تبدو أبعاد النظرية التلقي يف اآليات القرآنية وهي املرسل(املخاطب /املتكلم) ،املرسل إليه (املتلقي/ السامع /املستجيب) ،أفق التوقعات وبناء املعىن .ومن مثّ يتسىن لنا حتليل اجملازات القرآنية ،سورة يوسف
منوذجاً.
* ومن خالل حتليل التعبريات اجملازية على ضوء نظرية التلقي ،ندقق أنظارنا يف أحداث. * ومن اجلدير بالذكر أننا نفهم أي نص أديب فهما سطحيا ،وهذا األمر يضيق أفكارنا ورؤيتنا عما أراده الكاتب أو املرسل إيصاله .ومن هنا ،تأيت أمهية النظرية التلقي وأبعادها يف توسيع أفكارنا ورؤيتنا عن أي نصوص أدبية. وبعد... فإين أرجو هللا العلي القدير أن يكون هذا البحث قد أقرب من حتقيق ااهدف منه ،وأن يكون نافعاً ،حائزاً على رضاكم. املصادر واملراجع:
576
ILCC 2013
.9أبو أمحد ,حامد :اخلطاب والقارئ ,نظريات التلقي وحتليل اخلطاب وما بعد احلداثة (الرياض ,مؤسسة اليمامة )9111 , .6ابن ج ي:الفتح الوهيب على مشكالت املتنيب ،حتقيق :حمسن غياض(بغداد ،مطبعة اجلمهورية العراقية )9113، .3البازعي ,سعد :دليل الناقد األديب (مكتبة امللك فهد ,ط)6003,9 .2بو حسن ،أمحد :من قضايا التلقي والتأويل (الرباط ،كلية اآلداب والعلوم اإلنسانية ،جامعة حممد اخلامس )9115 ، .5تومبكنز،جني:نقد استجابة القارئ ،ت:حسن ناظم وعلي حاكم ،مراجعة :حممد املوسوي(القاهرة ،اجملاس األعلى للثقافة )9111 ، .2خدادة,سامل :النص وجتليات التلقي (الكويت ,حوليات اآلداب والعلوم االجتماعية)6000, (عمان ،دار الشروق،ط)9118 ،9 .1خضر ،ناظم:األصول املعرفية لنظرية التلقي ّ احلديث(عمان,دار املسرية,ط)6003,9 .8خليل,إبراهيم :النقد األديب ّ .1دراسة,حممود:التلقي واإلبداع قراءات يف النقد العريب القدمي. (عمان،دار الشروق ,ط)9111 ,9 .90سلدن ،رامان :النظرية األدبية املعاصرة ،ت :سعيد الغامني ّ .99سلدن ،رامان:النظرية األدبية املعاصرة،ت جابر عصفور(القاهرة،دار قباء،ط)9118 ، 9 .96السيد إبراهيم:نظرية القارئ (القاهرة ،مكتبة زهراء الشرق)... .93صاحل،بشرى:نظرية التلقي أصول وتطبيقات(الدار البيضاء،املركز الثقايف العريب،ط)6009 ،9
.92العكربي:التبيان يف شرح ديوان أيب الطيب املتنيب ،ضبطه وصححه مصطفى السقا وإبراهيم األنبا ري وعبد احلفيظ شليب(بريوت,دار املعرفة ) .95العمري,حممد :يف نظرية األدب مقاالت ودراسات( الرياض ,مؤسسة اليمامة )9111, .92فضل ,صالح :مناهج النقد املعاصر(.القاهرة ,دار األفاق العربية)9111, .91قطوس ،بسام :دليل النظرية النقدية املعاصرة ( النقرة ،دار العربية ,ط) 6002 , 9 .98هولب ,روبرت ,نظرية التلقي ,ت :عز الدين إمساعيل ( جدة ،النادي األديب ،ط ) 9112 ,9 .91هولب ،روبرت :نظرية االستقبال ،ت:رعد عبد اجلليل(الالذقية ،دار احلوار ،ط)9116 ،9 .60الواحدي :شرح ديوان أيب الطيب املتنيب ،حتقيق :فريد رخ ديرتصي(القاهرة,دار الكتب) .69الواد ,حسني :املتنيب والتجربة اجلمالية عند العرب (تونس ,دار سحنون ,ط )9181, 9 .66الواد ،حسني :يف مناهج الدراسات األدبية (الدار البيضاء ،منشورات اجلامعة،ط)9185 ،6
578
ILCC 2013
غوي الشفوي الرتاكيب النّحويّة ال ّ ّ شائعة ودورها يف حتقيق التّواصل اللّ ّ د .خالد عثمان يوسف
1
حممد هارون د .عبد العزيز ّ الرمحن أ.مرمي عبد ّ
1
1
ملخص البحث:
الرتاكيب النّحو حتليلي هذا حبث غوي ،من خالل ّ وصفي يهدف إىل تعليم وتعلّم التّواصل اللّ ّ ّ ّ اليومي. الشائعة يف لغة التّخاطب يّة ّ ّ األول يف تعليم وتعلّم العربيّة للنّاطقني ب والبحث سوف يكتفي ّ بالرتاكيب املناسبة للمستوى ّ غوي يتطلّب بيئة لغويّة فاعلة َت ّكن املتعلّم من حتقيقه للصورة املرضية ل غريها .وملّا كان التّواصل اللّ ّ غوي املنشو لتّواصل ،فكان لز ًاما علي البحث أن يستعني مبركزية ال ّدارس لتحقيق عملية التّواصل اللّ ّ 1 مادته على كتب النّحو ،واللّغة وآراء خرباء تعليم اللّغة العربيّة للنّا ع مج يف البحث وسيعتمد . د ّ طقني بغربها ،باإلضافة إىل كتب تعليم العربيّة للنّاطقني بغريها .وجتدر اإلشارة إىل أ ّن مركزية ال ّدار حىت يتم ّكن ال ّدارس من اكتساب ال س اليت أشرنا إليها ،سوف تُثْ َرى بالتّدريبات اللّغويّة ّ الشفهيّة ّ الشفهي ،األمر الذي يؤهله إىل التّطلّع إىل مستوى أعل معي تّواصل ّ الفعال عن طريق املدخل ّ ّ الس ّ ى فيما يتعلّق هبدف البحث.
مقدم ة: األول الذي ي الشفهي إ ّن مبدأ القدرة على االتّصال اليومي مع ب ي البشر ،يُع ّد حجر ّ الزاوية ّ ّ ّ االجتاه نبغي أ ْن يكتسبه متعلّم اللّغة من النّاطقني هبا وغري النّاطقني هبا ،أثناء عملية تعلّم اللّغة .و ّ الشفوي هو أفضل ما حي ّقق مهارة االتصال الشفهي يف احلياة اليوميّة ،وهذا االجتاه ليس السمعي ّ علميّة من قبل املتعلّم ،بل هو استماع ،مثّ ترديد ،مثّ قراءة ،مثّ كالم. جمرد استماع فقط للمادة التّ ّ وتَنَ ُاولنا ملهارة الكالم أوالً هنا ،ال يع ي إمهالنا ملهارة الكتابة ،ولكن رأينا أ ّن تعلّم مهارة الكالم أو
الرتبويّني إىل أمهية هذا التّأجيل من قبلنا.1 الً يع ي التّمهيد لتعلّم مهارة الكتابة ،وقد أشار بعض ّ والذي دفعنا إىل كتابة هذا البحث ،ال حظنا من خالل تعليمنا اللّغة العربيّة يف اجلامعة اإلسالميّة فوي عند استخدام تراكيبها األول ،عدم مقدرهتم على التّعبري ّ العامليّة مباليزيا لطّالب املستوى ّ الش ّ الصفة واملوصوف ،واهذا رأينا تقدمي إسعافا خاصة ما يتعلّق باملضاف واملضاف إليه ،و ّ النّحويّةّ ، املع ي يف تصميم تدريبات أخرى لرتاكيب أخر ت أوليّة من التّدريبات علّها تعني معلّمي املستوى ّ الشفهي. ى على منوال طريقة تدريباتنا كي يفيدوا هبا طالّهبم يف تعلّم تراكيب مهارة االتّصال ّ الرتاك السمعي الشفوي ،وطريقة تعليم املفردات و ّ ً ّ وعموما تناولنا يف هذا البحث أمهية املدخل ّ الشفهي يف ما يتعلّق باملضاف واملضاف إليه ،وال الشفهيّة ،وتدريبات تعلّم االتّصال ّ يب التّعبرييّة ّ صفة واملوصوف ،مثّ تناولنا اخلاَتة. ّ
مشكلة البحث:
الشائعة املنطوقة من بالرتاكيب النّحويّة ّ تنبع مشكلة هذا البحث من أ ّن عدم االهتمام الكبري ّ األول ،له د ذ بدء تعلّم الطالب املعنّ يّني أي طالب اجلامعة اإلسالمية العاملية يف ماليزيا بالكتاب ّ ور كبري يف إعاقتهم على اكتساب مهارة االتّصال يف املستقبل ،بل ميكن أن ميتد األمر إىل تأخره أيضا. م يف اكتساب مهارة الكتابة ً أسئلة البحث:
الشائعة املساعدة على اكتساب الرتاكيب النّحويّة ّ ما األسس اليت ينب ي عليها اكتساب ّالشفهي بالنّسبة للطّالب املعنيّني باللغة العربيّة؟ مهارة االتّصال ّ الشائعة هل االهتمام بامساع الطّالب املعنيّني لنصوصللرتاكيب النّحويّة ّ متضمنة ّ ّ الشفهي باللّغة العربية؟ تساعدهم على اكتساب مهارة االتّصال ّ مبسطة من قبل الطّالب الرتاكيب النّحويّة ّ هل مهارة ترديد ّالشائعة من خالل نصوص ّ هي باللّغة العربيّة؟ املعنيني تساعدهم على اكتساب مهارة االتّصال ّ الش ّ
580
ILCC 2013
مبسطة تساعد الطّالب الرتاكيب النّحويّة ّ هل مهارة قراءة ّالشائعة من خالل نصوص ّ املعبيّني على اكتساب مهارة االتّصال الشفهي باللّغة العربيّة؟ ورددوه وقرؤوه حبريّة فيما مسعوه ّ هل إفساح اجملال للطّالب املعليّني ألجل الكالم ّيساعدهم على اكتساب مهارة االتّصال شفهيًّا باللّغة العربيّة؟ يؤدي إىل اكتساهبم ملهارة هل تصميم تدريبات ألجل أن يقوم بأدائها الطّالب املعنيّون ّاالتّصال شفهيًّا باللّغة العربيّة؟
فهي: فهي يف اكتساب مهارة االتّصال ال ّ السمعي ال ّ أمهية املدخل ّ ش ّ ش ّ تذكر دراسة رانكني ،2911وهي األوىل من نوعها يف ميدان االستماع -لدعم الرأي القائ فالشخص يستطيع أن يسمع شيوعا و استخداماّ ، ل -بأ ّن االستماع هو أكثر أساليب االتّصال ً ً 1 املدرسي يش ّكل جزءًا حيويًا؛ نامج رب ال يف االستماع ن أ ذلك إىل ويضاف . ثالثة أضعاف ما يقرأ ّ ّ الشفهي .1وحنن هنا يف اجلامعة اإلسالم ختصص للعمل ّ فمعظم حصص التّالميذ داخل الفصول ّ يّة العامليّة يف ماليزيا يف حاجة إىل تدريب طالب املستوى األ ّول على استخدام اللّغة شفهيًّا بطال ميهد الطّريق إىل التّعبري الكتا ميسرة فيها النّرب والتّنغيم ،األمر الذي ّ قة ،ويف تراكيب لغويّة سليمة ّ يب يف املستقبل القريب .ويف هذا اجملال يشري شحاتة قائالً " :ومن ناحية أخرى فقد ّأدى ال ّدور ال ضروري إخل ...على ا ذي يلعبه االستماع يف عملية االتّصال إىل النّتيجة القائلة بأن تدريسه أمر ّ ِ الرتبويني.1 ّلرغم من ااهجوم الذي ُووجه به من قبَ ِل بعض ّ ضا للتّ تعر ً وتشري بعض ال ّدراسات احلديثة إىل أ ّن بعض األطفال احملرومني من ّ أي شئ أكثر ّ السماع ألمساء األشياء املواكبة لعصرهم ،لذا فتعليم االستما خلّف يف مهارة الكالم بسبب عدم ّ
يتضمن أساسيّات ع ّدة جيب االلتفات إليها ع ضرورة عند عملية التّعلّم .ويالحظ أ ّن االستماع ّ يتم التّم ّكن من حتقيق أهدافه ،1ومنها ما يلي: ّ حىت ّ -
ضروري لعملية إضفاء معىن االنبتاه مطلب رئيس لسماع رسالة وتفسريها ،والتفكري املرّكز ّ يتم مساعه. ملا ّ السرور للمستمع يف مواقف حذف عوامل التّشتّت ،ومن أمثلته االنفعال بإظهار احلزن أو ّ ال تقتضي ذلك. الرئيسة عن التّفاصيل. على الطّالب أن يكتسب القدرة على َتييز الفكرة ّ يؤدي إىل اكتساب مقدار من املعلومات يفوق ما ميكن اكتسابه فعال أي ّ االستماع ّ متغري ّ جمرد الكتابة اإلمالئيّة دون استماع سابق. من ّ السريع ،حيث إ ّن استخدام معاين الكلمات جيب إدراكها ً فورا عن طريق التّخمني ّ القاموس أمر متع ّذر أثناء عملية االستماع.
أيضا ،ومنها املناشط اليوميّة ،1وه وجتدر اإلشارة إىل أنه مثلما لالستماع أسس ،فله مناشط ً وجها لوجه ،التّحيّات ،واملتطلّبات اإلدارية ،وااهاتف ،واالستماع إىل التلفزيون الراديو ،احملادثة ً يّ : سينمائي ،االستماع إيل تسجيالت غنائيّة. أو فيلم ّ الشفوي يف اكساب السمعي ويالحظ أ ّن ّ ّ الرتبويني مل يكتفوا مبا سبق بالنّسبة ألمهيّة املدخل ّ أيضا جوانب أخرى منها ما يلي:1 مهارة االتّصال بل أضافوا إليه ً صورا السليمة أل ّن إيثار الفصحى يف التّدريس يهيّئ للتّالميذ ً التزام الكالم باللّغة العربيّة ّجيّدة للمحاكاة فتسلم عباراهتم. حريّة االنطالق يف التّعبري واالسرتسال يف القول فال يقاطعوا خالاها أن يرتك للتّالميذ ّباإلصالح ،وإّمنا يكون اإلرشاد والتّوجيه بعد أن ينتهي الطّالب من عبارته. ميكن أن يستخدم املعلّم طريقة األسئلة يف معاجلة املوضوع شفهيّا.الشفوي كذلك القراءة اجلهرية ،وهي أحسن وسيلة السمعي ّ ولعل ما يدخل يف دائرة املدخل ّ
582
ILCC 2013
الصفوف األوىل ،كما ّأوها وسيلة للكش إلتقان النّطق ،وإجادة األداء وَتثيل املعىن ،والسيما يف ّ ف عن أخطاء التّالميذ يف النّطق األمر الذي يسهل عالجها.1 والرتكيب التّعبرييّة الشفهيّة طريقة تعليم املفردات ّ أوال :طريقة تعليم املفردات امتالك ٍ عدد جيّ ٍد من املفردا لعل أهم الوسائل اليت َُتَ ِّك ُن املتَ َعلِّ َم من التواصل باللغة األجنبية، ُ ُ ِ اكيب بسيطة َُتَ ّكنه من التعبري عن أهدافه التوا ت الرئيسة ،مث معرفة كيفية استخدامها يف بناء تر َ صلية واملعيشية ،وغريها من األهداف اليت تُ َعلَّ ُم اللغة من أجلها .وتُ َع ُّد قضية املفردات املتضمنة يف الكتب املصممة لغري أبناء اللغة قضية مركزية وحمورية إذا تتأسست هبذه املفردات معرفةُ األجن ِ السؤال عب يب باللغة وعامل َّها وثقافة أهلها .إذن ما معايري انتقاء هذه األلفاظ؟ أجاب عن هذا ّ ّ 1 د احلميد عبد هللا وناصر الغايل :بأ ّن هذه األسس هي كما يلي: -
-
الشُّيوع :استعمال الكل ِ مات األَ ْشيَع واألكثر استعماالً باالعتماد على دراسات قوائم األلفاظ الشائعة يف اللغة العربية على اختالف هذه القوائم. الشمول :أ ْن تتضمن املفردة الواحدة معاينَ متعددة حبيث تغ ي عن تعلم عدد كبري من املفردات اللغوية ،مثل كلمة فاكهة تغ ي عن برتقال وتفاح وموز. االنتشار :أي انتقاء املفردة اليت ترتبط بعالقات كثرية مع غريها من مفردات اللغة ،ومن ذلك كلمة (يشرتي) فإوها ترتبط بعدد كبري من املفردات ،حنو( :يشرتي كتابًا) ،أو قلما) ،إخل ... (يشرتي بيتًا) ،أو (يشرتي ً ص ُد بذلك أ ْن تكون الكلمات مما يكثر ورودها على الطالب ،مثل: ب واملُالصقة :ويُ ْق َ ال ُقْر ُ املِْهنَة والعُ ْمر و اجلِْن ِسيَّة ،واألدوات اليت يستعملها إخل ... االشرتاك :استخدام املفردات املشرتكة بني اللغتني األم وااهدف ،كاستعمال بعض األلفاظ العربية اليت دخلت إىل املاليويّة.
-
-
قمرا يف احلقيقي على تقدمي ّ اجملازي :مثالُ( :رأيت طالبًا يف الفصل) بدالً من (رأيت ً ّ الفصل). فصاحة الكلمة من حيث بنيتها الصوتية وشيوعها وبُ ْع ُدها عن العامية. سهولة النطق والكتابة. صد التدر والتنوع والتكرار .أما التدر فهو البدء باألشيع فاألقل ً شيوعا ،وأما التنوع فَيُ ْق َ به التنويع يف أنواع الكلمات من حيث امسيتها و فعليتها وحرفيتها على حنو متوازن .أما وتستقر عنده. التكرار فيع ي تكرار املفردات اجلديدة حىت يتمكن منها املتعلم ّ اضحا لدى الطّالب. معىن و ً داللة الكلمة :أي أن تكون للكلمة ً اإلسالمي يف اختيار الكلمات. العريب مراعة املبدأ ّ الثقايف ّ ّ
الرتاكيب ثانيا :طريقة تعليم ّ اعتىن الرتبويون و اللّسانيون ،ومعِ ّدو امل َقَّرر ِ ات بالرتاكيب اللُّغويَّة اليت ينبغي أن تتضمنها كتب ُ ُ تعليم العربية ألبنائها وللناطقني بغريها ،فعرضوا معايري انتقاء هذه الرتاكيب ،وطرائق تقدميها ،وم دى مالءمتها لتحقيق كفاية لغوية وتواصلية مناسبة .فمشالً قد نظر حممد عمايرة إىل ثالث درا ِ 1 ٍ ٍ اإلحصائي الذي انطلق البعد على كيزه تر كان و ، حتليلية للرتاكيب العربية من منظوٍر مقارن سات ّ ت منه هذه الدراسات ،وصوالً إىل الرتاكيب العربية الشائعة اليت جندها يف كتب تعيلم اللّغة العر بية حاليًّا ،وكيفية استثمار نتائج هذه الدراسات يف توجيه املقرر ِ ات وتصنيفها .أما داود عبده فقد ّ عددا من املبادئ اليت ينبغي اتَّباعها يف انتقاء الرتاكيب املقدمة يف كتاب العربية لغري الناطق وضع ً ين هبا ،منها ما يلي:1 ب،). اختيار الرتاكيب الشائعة .مثل:الب َكتَ َ طويل ،).أو اسم +فعل ،مثل( :الطّ ُ (القلم ٌ ُ ت فاطمةُ (ر َمس ْ مثلَ : س التّلمي ُذ) ،أو فعل +اسم +اسمُ ، أو فعل +اسم مثل( :جلَ َ لد ،أو حرف استفهام +فعل + فرت ا ْش َرتى الو ُ ً صورًة) ،أو اسم +فعل +اسم ،مثل( :ال ّد َ ب ب البُ ْرتُ َ قال؟) ،أو ضمري +فعل +اسم +اسم ،مثل( :أنا أُ ِح ُّ اسم ،مثل ( :أ ُِحت ُّ
584
ILCC 2013
املشوي) ،أو اسم +رابطة +فعل مقرونًا بضمري ،مثل( :جاءَ الذي َعلَّ َم ِ ي) ،أو ك َّ َّ الس َم َ الشائعة يف الكتب النّحويّة حنو ذلك من ما هو معروف من صور تراكيب اللّغة العربيّة ّ 1 احلديشة ،1أو كتب تعليم اللّغة العربية ،1أو ممّا أشار إليه علماء اللّغة العرب
الرتاكيب حمدودًا. -أن يكون عدد ّ
استعمال الرتاكيب اجلديدة من مفردات غري جديدة.الرتاكيب املختارة. -التكرار أي االلتزام مببدأ تكرار ّ
املوسع. اهتمام بنواة الرتكيب قبل الرتكيب ّ أن نعرف ماذا نعلّم من القواعد والرتاكيب اللغوية ؟ وكيف نعلمها ؟والختيار حمتوي دارسي اللغة العربيّة جيب أن حندد ما يلي: -
أهداف املقرر. الوقت املتاح لتعليم املقرر. املستوى العام التعليمي. نوع املدرسة ،جيب أن يكون مؤثراً يف اختيار احملتوى . خصائص املتعلم أي كاألنثى تغاير الرجل.
مث بعد اختيار احملتوى جيب أن نعرف كيف ندر املادة النحوية يف املقرر ،فهناك تدريج طو يل مثل أن نأخذ املبتدأ وندرسه دراسة مكثفة ،وهناك تدر دوري أو حلقات ،أي أن اللغة ليس ت مفردة بل نظام متشابك ،فمثالً نأخذ املبتدأ أو اخلرب جزءاً أساسياً مث نأخذ غريه ،مث نرجع ونأ خذ شيئاً منه وهكذا ،وهناك التدر الوظيفي ،باعتبار أن اللغة وظيفة ،وهناك التدر املوقفي مث الً يف املطار أو يف املطعم أو يف البيت ..وهكذا .ولكن السائد اآلن هو أ ّن التعليم الوظيفي يُعلِّ م مثالً كيف يشكر املتعلّم سواء يف املطار ،أو يف البيت أو يف املواقف اليت تقتضي ذلك.
شفهي تدريبات تعلّم االتّصال ال ّ توطئة: الصفة واملوصوف واملضاف واملضاف إلي إنّنا يف هذه التّدريبات قصرنا جهدنا على تدريبات ّ ه - ،كما سبقت اإلشارة إىل ذلك يف مق ّدمة البحث -بالنّسبة للطّالب الذين يدرسون يف املس األول يف اجلامعة اإلسالميّة العامليّة يف ماليزيا ،وهذه التّدريبات ما هي إالّ مناذ ليستعني هبا توى ّ املعلمون يف إعداد تدريبات أخرى لرتاكيب أخرى تش ّكل صعوبات للطالب ااملعنيّني يف االتّصا صممت للطّالب املاليويني الذين يدرسون يف امل ل ّ الرغم من أ ّن هذه التّدريبات ّ الش ّ فوي ،وعلى ّ الرتا ألي دارس آخر جيد صعوبات يف االتّصال الشفوي يف ّ املع ي ،إالّ ّأوها ميكن أن تُ َقد َ َّم ّ ستوى ّ كيب املعنيّة اليت أشرنا إليها ،وإشارتنا للطّالب املاليويني هنا جاءت من منطلق أغلبيتهم على ال الشف شىت بذلت يف جمال معاجلة التّعبري ّ ّدارسني اآلخرين حسب مالحظتنا النّظريّة ،وهناك جهود ّ 1 1 فإوها ميكن أن ت الرتكيب واملعىن ،واألصوات والتّصريف ّ . وي للنّاطقني باملاليويّة على مستوى ّ حل معضلة التّعبري الشفهي إذا ابتكرت منها تدريبات شفهيّة اتّصاليّة. سهم يف ّ وجتدر اإلشارة إىل أ ّن هذه التّدريبات اليت سنقوم بتصميمها ال ختر عن معايري اختيار تراكي بالرتاك الصفحات املاضية ،ولكنّنا هنا سوف نكتفي ّ ب اللّغة العربيّة ،وألفاظها اليت أشرنا إليها يف ّ يب اآلتية يف عملية اكتساب مهارة التّعبري االتّصايل كما سبق القول: -2 -1 -4 -3 -5 -1
أكل؟ أداة استفهام +فعل ،مثلَ :ماذا تَ ُ ي ّّا. حلما مش ِو ًّ فعل +موصوف +صفة ،مثل :أ َك َل ً اي البا ِرَد؟ ب ّ حرف استفهام +فعل +موصوف +صفة ،مثل :أ َُحت ّ الش َ اي البا ِرَد، حرف إجياب ،أو سلب +فعل +موصوف +صفة ،مثل :نَ َع ْم ،أ ُِح ُّ ب ّ الش َ البارد. أو الَ أ ُِح ُّ ب ّ اي َ الش َ ف؟ وس ُ أداة استفهام +اسم إشارة مذ ّكر +حرف نداء +اسم ،مثلَ :ما َهذا يا يُ ُ اسم إشارة مذ ّكر +مضاف +مضاف إليه معرف ،مثلَ :هذا َدفْ تَ ر الطّ ِ الب. ّ ُ
586
ILCC 2013
-7أداة استفهام +اسم إشارة مؤنّث +اسم مؤنث مثل :ما َه ِذهِ يا َمْرَميُ ؟ -2اسم إشارة مؤنّث +مضاف +مضاف إليه من ّكر ،مثل ،ه ِذهِ سلّةُ ليم ٍ ون. َ ُ إرشادات للمعلّم: -
األول املاليوي أو غري ااهدف من هذه التّدريبات اكساب الطّالب املاليوي يف املستوى ّ ّ ّ فوي. القدرة على االتّصال ّ الش ّ الصفة هتتم مبعاجلة أخطاء األداء ّ فوي ،يف املضاف واملضاف إليه ،و ّ الش ّ هذه التّدريبات ّ واملوصوف. عشر طالبًا يف الفصل. ينبغي أ ْن ال يتجاوز عدد الطّالب مخسةَ َ مراعاة تقسيم الطّالب إىل جمموعات صغرية ،وكل جمموعة تتكون من مخسة طال ٍ ب أثناء ّ ّ عملية التّدريبات. بأي جهاز مسعي بصري مثل احلاسوب ،أو تلفزيون ال ّدائرة بإمكان املعلّم االستعانة ّ املتحركة. املغلقة ،كما ميكنه االستعانة ّ بالصور النّطقة الثّابتة أو الصور ّ ينبغي االلتزام عند تقدمي التّدريبات بامساع باستماع الطّالب جيّ ًدا ،واالهتمام برتديدهم، السليمة ،وتصويبهم إذا أخطؤوا. وقراءاهتم ّ بالرجوع إليه.1 وَثّة عوامل أخرى يف عملية التّعلّم ذكرها ريتشارد ميكن االستفادة منها ّ
َمن ِّ اذج التَّدر ِّ يبات َّ الش َف ِّهيّ ِّة: فة واملَوص ِّ الش َف ِّهي يف ِّ ِّ ِّ وف: ّ الص َ ْ ّأوال :تدريبات االتّصال َّ ّ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إلَْي ِّه ثَانِّية َوَرِّّد ْده ،مثَّ اقْ َرأْه ِّمب ْف َرِّد َك ،مثّ َمثِّّلْه وار اآليت ،مثَّ ْ التَّ ْد ِّريب األَ َّولْ : (الزمن حسبما تَ ْقتَ ِّ ض ِّيه ك ُّل َمهاَرةٍ) َم َع زَمالئِّ َ ك َش َف َ اهةَ َ ْ َ َ َّ :
َّصِّ :يف املَط َْع ِّم الن ُّ الراوي :قُب يل تَناوِل الغ ِ اجلام ِ اجلامعة يف مطْع ِم ِ ِ دار بَْي نَ ُهم احلِو ُار اآليت: ف ، عة ب ال ط ى ق ت ل ا داء ْ ُ َ ّ َ َْ َ َ ُ َ َ َ ُ َ َ ّ
ي لَ ِذي ٌذ. أمحَد :اللّ ْح ْم امل ْش ِو ُّ َ َ ض امل ْقلِ ُّي ُم ِفي ٌد. فَايْزال :الب ي َْ ْ َ السلَطَةُ الطّا ِز َجةُ ُمغَ ِّذيَةٌ. َعلِ ّيَّ :
َش ْهُرول :األ ُْرُز امل ْقلِ ُّي لَ ِذي ٌذ. َ نُور َعْي ِ ي :البَطاطَا امل ْقلِيّةُ لذيذةٌ. َ َمحد :املاء َّ ِ صح ٌّي. أ َْ الساخ ُن ّ ُ
فاي زالِ : ِ ب. َْ َ العصريُ البا ِرُد طَيّ ٌ التَّ ْد ِّريب الث ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إلَْي ِّه ثَانِّية َوَرِّّد ْده ،مثَّ اقْ َرأْه ِّمب ْف َرِّد َك ،مثّ َمثِّّلْه وار اآليت ،مثَّ ْ َّاينْ : (الزمن حسبما تَ ْقتَ ِّ ض ِّيه ك ُّل َمهاَرةٍ) َم َع زَمالئِّ َ ك َش َف َ اهةَ َ ْ َ َ َّ : ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ دار بَْي نَ ُهم احلِو ُار اآليت: الراوي :قُبَ ْي َل تَنَ ُاول الغَداء الْتَ َقى طُالّ ُ ب اجلامعة يف َمطْ َع ِم اجلامعة ،فَ َ ّ َّص ِّيف املَط َْع ِّم الن ُّ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ دار بَْي نَ ُهم احلِو ُار اآليت: الراوي :قُبَ ْي َل تَنَ ُاول الغَداء الْتَ َقى طُالّ ُ ب اجلامعة يف َمطْ َع ِم اجلامعة ،فَ َ ّ
ِ ضُر. َخ َ ص ٌل أ ْ َعل ّيَ :ه َذا بَ َ
نُور َعْي ِ يَ :وَه ِذهِ فاكهةٌ لَ ِذي َذةٌ. ي. أ َْزُرولَ :وَه َذا َد َجا ٌ َم ْش ِو ٌّ
588
ILCC 2013
فايْ َزالَ :وَه َذا َمَر ٌق َح ٌّار َعلِ ّيَ :وَه ِذهِ َسلَطَةٌ َعَربِيَّةٌ. وخ. نُور َعْي ِ يَ :وَه َذا َحلْ ٌم َمطْبُ ٌ َوانَ :وِه ِذهِ َج َّوافَةٌ لَ ِذي َذةٌ. وان :وهذا لَنب س ِ اخ ٌن. َ َ َ ٌَ َ ِ ضُر. َخ َ إبْ َراهيمَ :وَه َذا فُ ْل ُف ٌل أ ْ اطمة :وه ِذهِ طَم ِ ِ اط ُم َمحَْراءُ. فَ َ َ َ َ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إلَْي ِّه ثَانِّية َوَرِّّد ْده ،مثَّ اقْ َرأْه ِّمب ْف َرِّد َك ،مثّ َمثِّّلْ وار اآليت ،مثَّ ْ التَّ ْد ِّريب الثّالثْ : (الزمن حسبما تَ ْقتَ ِّ ض ِّيه ك ُّل َمهاَرةٍ) ه َم َع زَمالئِّ َ ك َش َف َ اهةَ َ ْ َ َ َّ : ص :يف املطعم النّ ّ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ دار بَْي نَ ُهم احلِو ُار اآليت: الراوي :قُبَ ْي َل تَنَ ُاول الغَداء الْتَ َقى طُالّ ُ ب اجلامعة يف َمطْ َع ِم اجلامعة ،فَ َ ّ
وق. َعلِ ّيَ :ه َذا بَ ِاذ ْجنا ُن َم ْسلُ ٌ عُ َمرَ :وَه ِذهِ بَطَّةٌ َم ْش ِويّةٌ.
فايْ َزالَ :ما َذا تَأ ُك ُل ِيف الغَ َد ِاء يَا َوان؟
ِ ِ َّجا ِ . َوان :آ ُك ُل األ ُْرَز املَْقل َّي بالد َ فَايْ َزالَ :ه ْل األ ُْرُز امل ْقلِ ُّي لَ ِذي ٌذ؟ َ
املقلي لذي ٌذ؟ َوان :نَ َع ْمُّ ، األرز ُّ ِ ني يَا نُور َعْي ِ ي ِيف الغَداء؟ فَايْزالَ :ماذَا تَأْ ُكل َ آكل حلَ ًما َم ْش ِويًّا باأل ُْرِز. نُور َعْي ِ يُ : رب يَا فَايزال ِيف الغَداء؟ َوانَ :ماذا تَ ْش ُ فايزال :أَ ْشرب ع ِ ص ًريا با ِرًدا. َُ َ ْ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إلَْي ِّه ثَانِّية َوَرِّّد ْده ،مثَّ اقْ َرأْه ِّمب ْف َرِّد َك ،مثّ َمثِّّلْه التَّ ْد ِّريب َّ وار اآليت ،مثَّ ْ الربِّعْ : (الزمن حسبما تَ ْقتَ ِّ ض ِّيه ك ُّل َمهاَرةٍ) َم َع زَمالئِّ َ ك َش َف َ اهةَ َ ْ َ َ َّ : َّصِّ :يف املَط َْع ِّم الن ُّ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ دار بَْي نَ ُهم احلِو ُار اآليت: الراوي :قُبَ ْي َل تَنَ ُاول الغَداء الْتَ َقى طُالّ ُ ب اجلامعة يف َمطْ َع ِم اجلامعة ،فَ َ ّ
َعلِيَ :ما َه َذا يَ َاوان؟
َوانَ :ه َذا أ ُْرٌز َم ْقلِ ّي.
نُور َعْي ِ يَ :ما َه ِذه يَا ْأزُرول؟ أَزرول :ه ِذهِ فَ ِ وخة. ُْ َ اصولياءُ َمطْْب َ ُ فَايْزالَ :ماذا تَأْ ُك ُل ِيف الغَ َد ِاء يَا َوان؟ ِ ِ َّجا ِ . َوان :آ ُك ُل األ ُْرَز املَْقل َّي بالد َ فَايْزالَ :ه ِل األ ُْرُز امل ْقلِ ُّي لَ ِذي ٌذ؟ َ َوان :نَ َعم ،األ ُْرُز امل ْقلِ ُّي لَ ِذي ٌذ؟ َ
590
ILCC 2013
ِ ني يَا نُور َعْي ِ ي ِيف الغَ َد ِاء؟ فَايْ َزالَ :ماذا تَأْ ُكل َ نُور َعْي ِ ي :آ ُك ُل َحلْ ًما َم ْش ِويًّا باأل ُْرز.
ب يَا فايْزال ِيف الغَ َد ِاء؟ َوانَ :ما َذا تَ ْشَر ُ
فَايزال :أَ ْشرب ع ِ ص ًريا بَا ِرًدا. َُ َ ْ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إلَْي ِّه ثَانِّية َوَرِّّد ْده ،مثَّ اقْ َرأْه ِّمب ْف َرِّد َك ،مثّ َمثِّّ وار اآليت ،مثَّ ْ التَّ ْد ِّريب اخلَامسْ : (الزمن حسبما تَ ْقتَ ِّ ض ِّيه ك ُّل َمهاَرةٍ) لْه َم َع زَمالئِّ َ ك َش َف َ اهةَ َ ْ َ َ َّ : َّصِّ :يف املَط َْع ِّم الن ُّ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ دار بَْي نَ ُهم احلِو ُار اآليت: الراوي :قُبَ ْي َل تَنَ ُاول الغَداء الْتَ َقى طُالّ ُ ب اجلامعة يف َمطْ َع ِم اجلامعة ،فَ َ ّ
فَايْزالَ :ماذا تَأْ ُك ْل ِيف الغَ َد ِاء؟
ِ بالس َمك. َوان :آ ُك ُل األُْرَز املَْقل َّي ّ فايْزالَ :ه ِل األ ُْرُز امل ْقلِ ُّي لَ ِذي ٌذ؟ َ املقلي لذي ٌذ؟ َوان :نَ َعمُّ ، األرز ُّ ِ ني يَا نُور َعْي ْ ي ِيف الغَداء؟ فايزالَ :ما َذا تَأ ُكل َ ي باأل ُْرِز. نُور َعْي ِ ي :آ ُك ُل حلَ ًما َم ْش ِو ًّ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ وار اآليت مثّ ،ردده ،مثّ اقرأه مبفردك ،مثّ أكمله مع زمالئك، السادسْ : التّدريب ّ
مثّ مثّله:
كل مهارة) ّ (الزمن حسبما تقتضيه ّ
َّصِّ :يف املَط َْع ِّم الن ُّ وان :ماذا ِ فعلت ِ أمس يا نُور َع ْي ي؟ الكبري. نُور َعْي يُ :زرنَا املطعم َ َ فَايزال ______________ :؟ مجيل. نُور َعْي ِ ي :نَ َع ْم، املطعم الكبريُ ٌ ُ ْأزُرول___________________ :؟ يت لَْي ُمونًا با ِرًدا يف املطْ َع ِم ال َكبِري. نُور َعْي يَ :ش ِر ُ َ فايْزالَ :ماذا _________________ ؟ وخا بِاأل ُْرِز. نُور َعْي ي :أَ َك ْل ُ دجاجا َمطْبُ ً ت ً َوانَ :ه ْل ُِحتبِّني اخلُْب َز امل ْح ُشو؟ َ نُور َعْي ي :ال _________________ اف وامل َ ِّ الش َف ِّه ِّي ِّيف امل َ ِّ ثَانيَا :تَ ْدريبات االتِّّ َ ِّ إلي ِّه: ضاف ْ ض َ صال َّ ّ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إلَْي ِّه ثَانِّية َوَرِّّد ْده ،مثَّ اقْ َرأْه ِّمب ْف َرِّد َك ،مثّ َمثِّّلْه التَّ ْد ِّريب َّ وار اآليت ،مثَّ ْ األولْ : (الزمن حسبما تَ ْقتَ ِّ ض ِّيه ك ُّل َمهاَرةٍ) َم َع زَمالئِّ َ ك َش َف َ اهةَ َ ْ َ َ َّ : ص ِّل الن ُّ َّصِّ :يف ال َف ْ
592
ILCC 2013
ِ يف. أْ العَربِيَّ ِة نَ ِظ ٌ َمحَد :فَ ْ ص ُل اللُّغة َ علِيَ :كر ِاسي ال َفص ِل َِ مجيلةٌ. ْ َ ّ َ
نُور َعْي ِىن :م َ ِ ص ِل ُموقَدةٌ. يح ال َف ْ َ صاب ُ ِ ضاءُ. ص ِل بَْي َ َمسريةَ :سبُّورةُ ال َف ْ ص ِل بَا ِرٌد. َْحم ْمودَ :هواءُ ال َف ْ ِ ص ِل َج ِدي ٌد. كاملُ :م َكيِّ ُ ف ال َف ْ ص ِل ُم َؤَّدبُو َن. ب ال َف ْ َش ْهُرول :طُالّ ُ ِ ِ ات. ص ِل ذَكيَّ ٌ ْإد ِريس :طاَلبَ ُ ات ال َف ْ َمحد :لَوحات ال َفص ِل َِ مجيلةٌ. أ َْ َ ُ ْ ِ ص ِل أ ََزَر ُق. إبْراهيم :بِ َسا ُط ال َف ْ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إلَْي ِّه ثَانِّية َوَرِّّد ْده ،مثَّ اقْ َرأْه ِّمب ْف َرِّد َك ،مثّ َمثِّّلْه وار اآليت ،مثَّ ْ التَّ ْد ِّريب الثّاينْ : (الزمن حسبما تَ ْقتَ ِّ ض ِّيه ك ُّل َمهاَرةٍ) َم َع زَمالئِّ َ ك َش َف َ اهةَ َ ْ َ َ َّ : َِمسريةَ :ه َذا َدفْ تَ ر الطَّالِ ِ ب. ُ وسفَ :ه ِذهِ َح ِقيبةُ الطَّالِبَ ِة. يُ ُ َمجالَ :ه َذا ُكْرِس ُي املعلِّ ِم. ُ عُ َمرَ :ه ِذه ِم ْسطََرةُ امل َعلِّ َم ِة. ُ
الر ْس ِم. ْإد ِريسَ :ه َذا َوَر ُق َّ ْأزُرولَ :ه ِذهِ َساعةُ احلائِ ِط. الشبَّ ِ اك. َْحم ُمودَ :هذا ِستَار ُّ ص ِل. باب ال َف ْ أَْميَنَ :ه َذا ُ ِِ ِ ص ِل. فَ ِريدَ :هذه نَاف َذةُ ال َف ْ ِ السبُورةِ. فَ ْر َحانةَ :ه ِذهِ ممْحاةُ َّ َش ِريفةَ :ه ِذهِ َدفَاتِر الطَّالِ ِ ب. ُ فَ ِ اط َمةَ :ه َذا قَلَ ُم امل َعلِّ ِم. ُ استَ ِّم ْع إىل احلِّ ِّ استَ ِّم ْع إلَْي ِّه ثَانِّية َوَرِّّد ْده ،مثَّ اقْ َرأْه ِّمب ْف َرِّد َك ،مثّ َمثِّّلْ وار اآليت ،مثَّ ْ التَّ ْد ِّريب الثّالثْ : (الزمن حسبما تَ ْقتَ ِّ ض ِّيه ك ُّل َمهاَرةٍ) ه َم َع زَمالئِّ َ ك َش َف َ اهةَ َ ْ َ َ َّ : أ َِمرية:أَ َه َذا قَلَ ُم امل َعلِّ ِم يَا إِ ْد ِريس؟ ُ إِ ْد ِريس :الَ َه َذا قَلَ ُم الطَّالِ ِبة. ِِ ص ِل؟ أْ َمحَدَ :ه ْل َهذه َسبُّورةُ ل َف ْ ِ ص ِل. َر ْمحَة :نَ َع ْمَ ،هذه َسبُّوَرةُ ال َف ْ نُور عي ي :هل ه َذا كِ تاب امل َعلِّ ِم؟ َْ َ ْ َ ُ ُ ِ تاب الطَّالِ ِ ب. طاَ ِرق :الََ ،ه َذا ك ُ
594
ILCC 2013
وسىَ :هل َه ِذهِ ِم ْرباةُ الطَّالِ ِ ب؟ ُم َ ْ عُ َمر :الَ َه ِذه ِم َرباةُ الطّالبة. ص َل اجلَ ِام َع ِة؟ َعلِ ّيَ :ه ْل ُِحت ُّ ب فَ ْ
ب فَصل اجل ِام ِ ِ عة. َمجاَل :نَ َع ْم ،أُح ُّ ْ َ َ ص ِل؟ أ َْزُرولَ :ه ْل تنَ ُام َعلَى ُك ِرسي ال َف ْ ِ ص ِل. َمجَال :الَ أنَ ُام َعلَى ُكْرسي ال َف ْ ِّ ِّ ٍ ِّ ِّ ِّ ك التَّ ْد ِّريب َّ مع زَمالئِّ َ الرابِّع :اقْ َرأ ال َكلمات اآلتيةَِّ ،يف َجمْموعات ،مثَّ َك ِّّو ْن م ْنها ح َوارا َش َف ِّهيًّا َ مجيل – ال َفصل – ِمصباح – َِ نَافِذة – املعلِّم – كِتَاب – م ْفتُوحة – َِ َمحَر – امل َعلِّم – مجيل – أ ْ ْ ْ َُ َ َ ُ ِ صل صل – مْرَو َحة – َس ِر َيعة – املُ َكيِّف – َه َواء – بَا ِرد – ُم َؤّدبَات – ال َف ْ قَلَم – َس ِر َيعة – ال َف ْ ِ ِ ِِ ِ ورة – – طَالبات – الطَّالبة – َهذه – كتابَة – بَْي َ ضاء – ال َف ْ صل – َسبُّ َ ___________________ - 2 ___________________ - 1 ____________________ - 4 _____________________ - 3 ____________________ - 5
____________________ - 1 _____________________ - 7 _____________________ - 2 _____________________ - 9 ____________________ - 20 شفهي: وسائل عرض تدريبات االتّصال ال ّ ميكن استخدام أي وسيلة عند تعليم التّدر ِ يات املعنيّ ِة ،ولكن نرى أ ّن أفضل وسيلة لعرض ما ّ ّدة هذه التّدريبات جهاز احلاسوب بعد برجمة هذه التّدريبات ،ووضعها فيما يعرف بربنامج ب E- كبريا من خالل ممارستنا للتّ ، Learningوالحظنا أ ّن مثل هذا التّعلّم املربمج قد ح ّقق ً جناحا ً وعموما تتمثّل مزايا عليم بواسطته ،حيث ساعد الطالب على اكتساب مهاريت القراءة والكتابة. ً التعليم املربمج يف اآليت:1 -
يتيح للمعلم جتريب املادة على ال ّدارسني. حي ّقق التّعليم املربمج للعملية التّعليميّة بشكله اجلديد عنصر التّنويع الذي يصرف امللل الضيق عن نفوس ال ّدارسني. و ّ يتفوق التّعليم املربمج يف الفاعلية والتأثري على التّعليم التّقليدي. كل خطوة يف ال ّدرس. ُمي ّكن املعلّم من التّح ّقق من درجة استيعاب ال ّدارسني يف ّ املادة ،التّعليميّة ،فال ّدارس ال حيقق التّعليم املربمج إجيابية ال ّدارس يف التّفاعل بينه وبني ّ قليدي. ميكن أن يشرد أو ينصرف بتفكريه عند ال ّدرس كما حيدث يف التّعلّم التّ ّ
فعالة لقيادة املتعلّم إىل التّعلم ال ّذايت حيث يستخدم املتعلّم ويالحظ أ ّن التّعلّم املربمج وسيلة ّ آلة التّعلّم ليعلّم نفسه بنفسه من خالل تدريبات خاصة أعدها له معلّمه بعد انتهاء العملية التّع
596
ILCC 2013
تتم بطريقة تقليدية أو بطريقة اآللة .ولكي يتح ّقق جناح التّعلّم ال ّذايت جيب مراعاة اآليت ليميّة اليت ّ :1 -
حتديد األهداف. حتديد احملتويات. اختيار الطّرق والوسائل الفنيّة. التّ ّحكم يف مسار التّحصيل. تقومي التَحصيل. اخلامت ة
تكونت خاَتة هذا البحث من النّتائج ،واملقرتحات والتّوصيات كما يلي: ّ أ – نتائج البحث شيوعا وجدنا من خالل دراستنا يف كتب علماء اللّغة أ ّن االستماع هو أكثر أساليب االتّصال ًالشخص يستطيع أن يسمع ثالثة أضعاف ما يقرأ ،وهذا يشري إىل أولوية تعلّم و استخداما ،أل ّن ّ ً الشفهي عند بدء التّعلّم. مهارة االتّصال ّ ختصص لالتّصال ال عثرنا بأ ّن معظم الرتبويني يشريون بأ ّن حصص التّالميذ داخل الفصولّ ،يقوي عملية اكتساب مهارة الكالم ،ويهيئ املتّعلّم الكتساب مهارة الكتابة. فهي وهذا ّ ّش ّ وجها لوجه ،التّ وجدنا من خالل دراستنا أ ّن مناشط االتّصال ّالراديو ،احملادثة ً الش ّ فوي ،هيّ : سينمائي ،واالستماع إيل ت حيّات ،واملتطلّبات اإلدارية ،وااهاتف ،واالستماع إىل التلفزيون أو فيلم ّ سجيالت غنائيّة ،ونضيف إىل ذلك االنرتنيت. امتالك ٍ عدد جيّ ٍد من املفردات الرئي أهم الوسائل اليت َُتَ ّكِ ُن املتَ َعلِّ َم من التواصل باللغة األجنبيةُ ُ
سة. اكيب بسيطة شفاهةَُ ،تَ ِّكنُه من التعبري عن أهدا مقدرة استخدام املتعلّم للمفردات يف بناء تر َفه التواصلية واملعيشية وغريها من األهداف اليت تُ َعلَّ ُم اللغة من أجلها. تُ َع ُّد قضية املفردات املتضمنة يف الكتب املصممة لغري أبناء اللغة قضية مركزية وحمورية ،إذا تتأساألجنيب باللغة وعا ِمل َّها وثقافة أهلها. س هبذه املفردات معرفةُ ّ احلقيقي عل الشمول والفصاحة واالقرتاض وتقدمي الشيوع واالنتشار و ّ من معايري انتقاء املفردات ّّ در والتّ ّنوع والتّكرار. ى اجملازي والتّ ّ ّ العريب من متطلّبات كتب تعليم اللّغة العربية. قايف اختيار الكلمات ذوات احملتوى الثّ ّاإلسالمي ّ ّ فهي. الشائعة من املبادئ واألسس اليت تسهم يف إجناح التّعبري ّ الرتاكيب ّ اختيار ّالش ّ األو الرتاكيب النّحوية ّ ميكن احلصول على ّالشائعة ملبتدئ تعلّم اللّغة العربيّة من كتب املستوى ّ ل والثّاين لتعليم العربية لغري النّطقني هبا أو للنّاطقني هبا مثل العربية للنّاشني ،وسلسلة القلم ،وسل سلة تعليم العربيّة للنّطقني بغريها ،وأساس م ّكة ومفتاح العربيّة. فوي أو ا أشار بعض الباحثني أ ّن أكثر أخطاء الطّالب املاليويني املبتدئني ،أثناء التّعبري ّالش ّ لكتايب ،تكون يف التّعيني ،عند استخدام (ال) أو اإلضافة أو النّعت أو احلروف ،أو العدد. الشفوي أو الكت أسلوب اجلملة العربية قد يكون سببًا يف الوقوع يف اخلطأ عند عملية االتّصال ّايب لدى غري النّاطقني هبا حبجة أ ّن هذا األسلوب غري موجود يف لغاهتم. ّ وِتطرقت ملشكالت الطّالب املاليويني أثناء ع وخارجها اإلسالمية اجلامعة داخل حبوث دت ج ْ ُ ّ الكتايب بطريقة ختتلف عن الطّريقة اليت سلكناها. فهي أو ملية االتّصال والتّواصل ّ ّ الش ّ املقرتحات والتّوصيات:
598
-
-
ILCC 2013
الصرب عليها وتنفيذها حبذافريها على املعلّم الذي ّ يود استخدام تدريبات هذا البحثّ ، حىت يضمن جناحها إذا رأى ذلك. على املتعلّمني ّ ضروري لعملية إضفاء معىن االنبتاه مطلب رئيس لسماع رسالة وتفسريها ،والتفكري املرّكز ّ يتم مساعه. ملا ّ السرور. حذف عوامل التّشتّت ،ومن أمثلته االنفعال بإظهار احلزن أو ّ وفعال يف العملية التّعليميّة التّعلّميّة، مهم ّ عملية قراءة النّ ّ ص للمتعلّم بصوت واضح ،عامل ّ ألنّه يساعد املتّعلّم يف مرحلة الكالم. مرات ،له دور أساسي يف هتيئة املتعلّم تكرار النّص املراد تعليمه للطّالب ألجل االستماع ّ ملهارة الكالم. ص أثناء قراءة املعلم ،من أساسيات طالقة اللّسان وهتيئته للكالم ،وحبّذا تكرار املتعلّم للنّ ّ لوجاء التكرار مر ٍ ات. ّ إتاحة فرصة للمتعلّم ألجل القراءة بعد عملية مساعه للنّص وترديده كما ينبغي ،عامل مهم من عوامل اكتساب مهارة االتّصال. يعزز عملية التّعلّم، لنص التّعلم تقوًميا إجيابيًّا هذا ّ السليم للطّالب عند قراءته ّ التقومي ّ ويساعد على بناء الثّقة يف النّفس عند ممارسة عملية االتّصال مع اآلخرين ،أل ّن املتعلّم الرتاكيب اليت يستخدمها أثناء عملية التّواصل مع اآلخرين. بالتّقومي يكون حذق األلفاظ و ّ السليمة مهم جدًّا ،أل ّن إيثار الفصحى يف التّدريس يهيّئ التزام الكالم باللّغة العربيّة ّ الشفوي. صورا جيّدة للمحاكاة فتسلم عباراهتم أثناء التّعبري ّ للتّالميذ ً حريّة االنطالق يف التّعبري واالسرتسال يف القول ،فال يقاطعوا خالاها أن يُْت َرَك للتعلّمني ّ باإلصالح ،وإّمنا يكون اإلرشاد والتّوجيه بعد أن ينتهي الطّالب من عبارته. ميكن أن يستخدم املعلّم طريقة األسئلة يف معاجلة املوضوع شفهيّا. املراجع واملصادر
ّأوال :املراجع العربيّة الف ي املدرسي للّغة العربيّة ،ط ،2911 :4دار املعارف ،مصر. - 2إبراهيم عبد العليم ،املوجه ّ الركايب ،طرق تدريس اللغة العربيّة ،ط2921 :1م ،دار الفكر املعاصر ،بريوت ،لبنان. - 1جودت ّ - 4حسن شحاتة ،تعليم اللّغة العربيّة بني النّظرية والتّطبيق ،طبعة مزيدة من ّقحة1003/،3/2 ،م ،ال ّدار املصريّة اللّبنانيّ ة. االجتاهات املعاصرة يف تدريس اللّغة العربيّة واللّغات احلية األخرى لغري الناطقني هبا2972 ،م ،دار - 3محادة إبراهيمّ ، الفكر العريب القاهرة. - 5داوود عبده ،من قضايا اللغة العربية ،ط5005 :1م ،دار الكرمل ،عمان. - 1مسيّة أمحد فهمي ،دراسة جتريبيّة للمقارنة بني أثر الكتابة اإلمالئية واالستماع يف التّنغيم2957 ،م الرابع. جملّة ّ الرتبية احلديثة ،العدد ّ املسماة بالفريدة يف النّحو والتّصري السيوطي على ألفيّته ّ السيوطي ،عبد ّ السعيدة ،شرح ّ الرمحن بن أيب بكر ،املطالع ّ ّ -7 ط ،ال ّدار اجلامعيّة ،االسكندرية. ف واخل ّ - 8عبد احلميد عبد هللا وناصر الغايل ،أسس إعداد الكتب التعليمية لغري الناطقني بالعربية ،دار االعتصام ،القاهرة. األول ،اجل األول ،الكتاب األساسي ّ - 9حممد أكرم سعد ال ّدين ،القلم ،العربيّة الفصيحة للنّاطقني بغريها وهبا ،املستوى ّ ّ امعة اإلسالمية العامليّة ،ماليزيا. عمان. - 10حممد عمايرة ،حبوث يف اللغة والرتبية ،ط5005 :1م ،دار وائل للنشر والتوزيعَّ ، الشباب ،القاهرة. - 22حممد عيد ،النّحو املص ّفى ،ط2972 :2م ،مكتبة ّ الصرفيّة دراسة وصفيّة تقابليّة ،رسالة ماج - 12قمر ّ الزمان عبد الغ ي ،اللّغة العربية واللّغة املاليزيّة من النّاحية الصذوتيّة و ّ ستري2992 ،م ،جامعة القاهرة ،كلّية دار العلوم ،مصر. الشفهي لدى ال ّدارسني املاليويني (رسالة ماجستري)2993 ،م ،اجل - 24وان أمحد رحيمان ،األخطاء اللّغويّة يف التّعبري ّ امعة اإلسالميّة العاملية ،ماليزيا.
ILCC 2013
600
املراجع األجنبيّة:ثانيا 1. Brown, J. The Construction of Diagnostic Test of Listening Comprehension, An
Abstract of Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Colordo. 2. Kimble, Greory A. and Gramezy , Norman. 1963. Principles of General Psychology.
Second Edition. New York: Thr Ronald Press Company. 3. Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers , Theodore S. 1986. APPRACHES AND Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
إذ ت:فية استخدام هذه املفردات فَ َّالت املتضمنة يف الكتب املصممة لغري أبناء اللغة قضية مركية ِ .تأسس هبذه املفردات معرفةُ األجنيب باللغة وعا ِملّها وثقافة أهلها وم ْن أظهر مسائل املفردات ال َ ّ وهذه املعايري هي،ر مفردات كتاب مصمم لغري الناطقني بالعربية:ُتساؤالت التالية ُ
حتديات السياسية واالقتصادية للدراسات العربية يف نيجرييا ألفا حممد الثالث
والدكتور ثالث أبوبكر عبد هللا وعلي عبد الواحد أديبسي
**
***
ملخص إن اللغة العربية مرت وال تزال َتر مبراحل خمتلفة ووسائل عديدة عرب العصور يف نيجرييا ,حيث ندرك بكل جالء أوها قد لعبت دورا يف كل مرحلة لتحقيق ما جيب حتقيقه ,حنو التعليم اإلسالمي لكووها ليست جامدة غري قابلة للتغيري ,بل هي متطورة اها إمكانية كاملة للتكيف مع البيئة اجلديدة ,واها من املفردات ما يغطي املصطلحات العلمية واألدبية والتقنية احلديثة ,وهي أداة التخاطب والتفاهم والتدراس عرب املراحل العلمية إال أن هذه اللغة تعاين حتديات عويصة من النواحي الساسية واالقتصادية اليت تعوقها من تادية أغراضها حنو نشر الدين اإلسالمي بعلومه البناءة سواء من أعداء اإلسالم أم من األنظمة الرتبوية اليت وضعت لتعليمها من مناهجها والوسائل املخططة لتدريسها ووجهات نظر الدارسني حواها ,وحتقري مكانتها جبانب اللغة اإلجنليزية أو الفرنسية أو غريمها. نود أن نقدم هذا البحث ملعاجلة قضية السياسية واالقتصادية حنو العلوم العربية يف هذه الديار حيث نعتقد أننا هبذا نكون قد أتينا إىل ذكر جوانب مفيدة من التحديات اليت تواجه أمة اإلسالمية بواسطة هذه اللغة مع طرح بعض احللول اليت ميكن أن يعتمد عليها يف جتاوز بعض أزماتنا يف تعليم اللغة العربية. املقدمة
للغة العربية تاريخ قدمي يف املنطقة اليت تسمى نيجرييا اليوم اليت تقع يف غرب إفريقيا ,وذلك لعالقة جتارية قدمية بينها وبني مشال أفريقيا قبل دخول اإلسالم يف القارة .ولذا نرى أن ثالثة من أهم طرق القوافل اليت كانت وال تزال خترتق صحراء الكربى جنوبا تلتقي كلها داخل نيجرييا أواها يبدأ من طرابلس مارا بغزان وكوارا وينتهى يف برنو داخل نيجرييا .وثانيها يبدأ من تونس وينتهى يف كنو يف حني أن الثالث يبدأ من تافلت يف املغرب وقد تفرع فرعني ،أحدمها مير بسجلماسة وتغازاة واآلخر بتوات وأودغست فيجتمعان كالمها يف َتبكتو ومنها يتوجه شرقا إىل كنو( )9فهذه العالقة التجارية إذن هي اليت وضعت احلجر األساسي للغة العربية يف إفريقيا ( )6فلما جاء
602
ILCC 2013
اإلسالم وقام العرب بفتح مصر امتدت فتوحاهتم إىل برقة وطرابلس وصار من السهل أن يصل نفوذ اإلسالم إىل غربه على أثر دخوله إىل مشااها اهذه العالقة. ودخل اإلسالم إىل نيجرييا عن طرق القوافل املختلفة على أيدى التجار املسلمني والدعاة الذين أتوا من ممالك غانا ومايل وسنغاى وغريها وذلك بطريقة سلمية وذلك يف ما بني القرن احلادي عشر والرابع عشر امليالديني(.)3 وكلما اعتنقت اإلسالم قبيلة حتملت لواء الدعوة اإلسالمية إىل ما تليها من القبائل اجملاورة ,هكذا فعل الرببر والونغارة والفالنيون وااهوسا(.)2 وكما ذكرنا سابقا أن اإلسالم دخل فيما يسمى بنيجرييا اليوم عن طريق السلم ،طريق التجار والدعاة .وكان التجار قبل دخول اإلسالم قد بدأوا يف وضع احلجر األساسي للعربية ولقد بدأت البذور األويل تنبت وتتسع بانتشار اإلسالم فحينما يضع اإلسالم قدميه يدخل معه التعليم والسيما تعليم اللغة العربية الىت كانت مبنزلة الدم للجسد لإلسالم إذ جيب على كل مسلم أن يتعلم على أقل تقدير ما يكفيه ألداء فرائضه من صالة وغريها فيتعلم بعض اآليات والسور القرآنية وبعض االصطالحات الدينية وال ُيفى أن الدين اإلسالمي دائما يشجع التعليم وجيعله جزءا ال يتجزء من الدين(.)5واهذا عندما دخل اإلسالم يف نيجرييا ساعد على نشر اللغة العربية وتطورها فيها ألن املسلم ال مفر له منها ولو بقدر يسري. ومع هذه العوامل التقدم اليت تتمتع هبا اللغة العربية منذ عهدها يف هذه البالد ,نالحظ أن تعليمها ما زالت تئن حتت وطأة حتديات متعددة من اجتماعية ,وتربوية ,واقتصادية ,وسياسية ,وإعالمية وغريها مما جيب االنتباه إليها ودراستها فاحصة حىت ال تصدق على اللغة العربية بعض الدعوات السلبية كدعوة طالهبا إىل ترك التخصص فيها ,وحث املتخصصني فيها على ثنائية العمل حبجة أن األنبياء والرسل اكتسبوا بأعمال أخرى جبانب مهمتهم اإلبالغية مع أن النظر الصحيح إىل حياة الرسول (ص) الذي ختلى عن رعاية الغنم ,ومزاولة التجارة بعد بعثته رسوال ونبيا يؤدي إىل ختطئة مثل هذه الدعوة ااهدامة ,وأن مهمة اإلبالغ والرسالة ميدان جيب استقالله .وعلى كل حال فإن بغية هذه الورقة هي النظر الفاحص إىل التحديات اليت تعاين الدراسات العربية يف نيجرييا من ناحية السياسية واالقتصادية ,وحماولة اقرتاح بعض احللول اها من خالل العناصر اليت سنناقشها فيما بعد. حالة اللغة العربية يف نيجرييا ماضيا وحاضرا إنه على الرغم أن اللغة العربية ليست لغة نيجرييا الرمسية-حاليا -فإن اها تارُيا جميدا ,وإسهاما قدميا يف حضارة نيجرييا املعرفية .فالعربية وصلت إىل نيجرييا قبل أية لغة خارجية فيها عن طريق التجار العرب والدعاة املسلمني
الذين عربوا صحراء الكربى من مشال أفريقيا إىل غرهبا( .)2هذا ,ليست اللغة العربية حديثة العهد يف جمتمع نيجريي بل هي أقدم مما يسمى باسم نيجرييا اليوم وهي من لغاهتا العتيقة حىت توجد من ينتسب إليها من بني سكاوها املواطنني ,وعلى هذا" ,فليس من اخلطإ إذا اعتربنا العربية لغة حملية يف نيجرييا حيث توجد قبيلة تتكلم ()1 بلهجة عربية يف الشمال الشرقي من البالد" ولقد أفادت اللغة العربية يف هذه البالد -حينا -يف مجيع الشئون االجتماعية والسياسية ,حىت إن احلقائق التارُيية وغري التارُيية يف قارة أفريقية بصفة عامة ويف نيجرييا بصفة خاصة مسجلة باللغة العربية قبل االحتالل .وكما يسجل لنا التاريخ أن احلروف العربية استخدمت لكتابة بعض لغات نيجريي قبل جمئ االستعمار جل سكان االجنليزي .وأوها بال أدىن شك مقبولة لدى مجع غفري من الشعب النيجريي ,والدليل على ذلك أن ّ ()8 هذا الوطن الكبري مسلمون ,واللغة العربية جزء ال يتجزأ من اإلسالم. ويف القرن األخرية قيض هللا للعربية روادها على الرغم من اضطهاد االستعمار األورويب ,فأنشأوا املدارس وخرجوا الرجال األكفاء. احلديثة فألفوا الكتب ّ ومن أثر التليد الذي أوجده العربية يف نيجرييا منذ القدمي هي العالقة الدولية بني نيجرييا وبني الدول العربية الشرقية منها واألفريقية مثل اململكة العربية السعودية ,واملغرب ,ومصر ,والسودان ,وغريها ,واجلدير بالذكر أن هذه العالقة مل تنقطع بعد احلصول طلبة العربية بنيجرييا على املنح الدراسية من البالد العربية.1 ويضاف إىل رفع شأن اللغة العربية يف نيجرييا التخصص فيها بالكليات واجلامعات الفدرالية والواليات وغريها من املعاهد العلمية العالية ,ومن اجلامعات اليت تدرس فيها اللغة العربية كقسم مستقل يف نيجرييا حاليا: جامعة بايرو بكنو ,وجامعة إلورن ,وجامعة أبوجا ,وجامعة ميدغري ,و جامعة عثمان بن فودي بصكوتو ,و وم َيب ,جامعة عمر موسى يرأدوا ,بكتثينا .ومن اجلامعات اليت توجد اللغة جامعة والية ناصراوا ,جامعة والية َغ ْ العربية كوحدة من قسم معني كقسم الدراسات اإلسالمية أو قسم األديان أو قسم اللغات :جامعة أمحد بلّو بزاريا ,وجامعة إبادن ,وجامعة والية كوغي ,و جامعة جوس ,جامعة والية الجوس ...والكليات الرتبوية مما ال نستطيع أن نذكر هنا خشية إطالة املقالة. مث برزت ظواهر فنية أخرى كنشر اجملالت األكادميية العربية واإلسالمية يف هذه اجلامعات واملعاهد العلمية, وتأليف الكتب الفنية القيمة السيما الكتب اليت ألفت عن األدب النيجريي واإلفريقي من القصص والتمثيلية واحلكايات اخليالية والواقعية وكذلك الكتب اليت ترمجت من لغات احمللية كااهوسا واليوربا وغريها إىل اللغة العربية وبالعكس يف نيجرييا ,وإنشاء املطابع العربية وغريها من مظاهر النهضة العربية يف هذه الديار.
604
ILCC 2013
اللغة العربية والسياسية اللغوية يف نيجرييا إن هذا العنوان عبارة عن العقبات والعراقيل اليت تشكل حجر عثرة حنو تطور املرجو ووهوض اللغة العربية يف نيجرييا ,وكانت احلكومة -باعتبارها السلطة العليا -هي املسؤلة عنها –إىل حد كبري -الوها صاحبة احلل والعقد والدولة. يتطرق إليه أدىن شك أن السياسة اها شأن قوي يف إحياء لغة اجملتمع أو إماتتها وخاصة يف جمتمع متعدد ومما ال ّ اللغات مثل نيجرييا. ولقد سبق سرد ما للغة العربية يف هذه البالد من مكانة مرموقة ومنزلة عظمى يف حياة الفرد واجملتمع ويف تدوين حقائق تارُيية اها حني كانت لسان الدين والدولة والثقافة يف العصر الفالين قبل تأثري نفوذ اإلفرنج يف بيئة نيجرييا .وفيما يلي تفصيل القول عن ظواهر هذه املشكلة مع احللول املقرتحة حىت نكون قد وضعنا املعاجلة الناجحة جبنب العلل الفاتكة. عدم تشجيع احلكومة لدراسة اللغة العربية يف مدارسها إن حكومة نيجرييا مل تعط هذه اللغة العناية الالئقة هبا وإن وافقت سياسة التعليم على دراستها للراغبني فيها حىت أدخلتها ضمن مناهجها الدراسية ,ولكن هذه املوافقة بدون أية عناية ورعاية ,يقول أحد أقطاب العلم يف نيجرييا: فالواقع أن املواد يف املرحلة الثانوية مثال قد تبلغ تسعا ,ولكل مادة حصص حمدودة اها وختتلف ما بني اثنتني وثالث ومخس مرات يف األسبوع ,من املواد ااهامة جدا يف قصد احلكومة واليت يف الدرجة األوىل يف عنايتها هي اإلجنليزية واحلساب وتستغرق كل منهما مخس خصص يف األسبوع ,واملواد ااهامة بني الدرجة الثانية كالعلوم الثالثة تشتغل ما ال يقل عن ثالث حصص يف األسبوع ,أما املواد اليت يف الدرجة الثالثة كاللغات احمللية والعربية والدراسات اإلقتصادية واالجتماعية فينال كل من ذلك حصتني يف جدول التدريس األسبوعي يف تلك املدارس 1 احلكومية الثانوية ,فكيف جييد الطلبة هذه اللغة وكيف يتقنها حىت يواصل هبا يف املراحل التعليمية العليا وأما يف املراحل ما فوق الثانوية فيالحظ تباين منهج دراسي من كلية إىل أخرى ومن جامعة إىل غريها, واليستطيع طالب أن يواصل الدراسة يف ظل أي منهج من هذه املناهج الدراسية العليا إال من هو حامل شهادة العربية من املدارس العربية األهلية.
ويضاف إىل ذلك أن الطلبة – يف املرحلة الثانوية -حني يصنفون إىل فصول التخصص من فصل علومي أو ف ي او جتاري حسب رغبتهم التخصصية وقدرهتم العلمية ,فإن سياسة التعليم جترب الطالب على تعلّم لغته األم ولغة نيجريية أخرى ,وملا ال تعطى العربية حقها الكامل فيكون تعلمها إجباريا يقول الدكتور عبد الرزاق أبوبكر: إن استخدام العربية كلغة التعليم سيجلب فوائد علمية كثرية إىل الشعب ,كما أن إجبار تعلم العربية يف املدارس الثانوية ,يع ي ان احلكومة قد أعطت اللغة العربية حقها الوط ي املتوقع من هذه الناحية.90 -عدم العناية باملدارس العربية األهلية:
كانت الثقافة العربية اإلسالمية أول ثقافة عريقة يعرفها أهل نيجرييا قبل دخول االستعمار ,وهبا دونت احلقائق العلمية والثقافية والتارُيية ,وبقدوم التبشري الصلييب واالستعمار نيجرييا عمال جنبا حلل اإلجنليزية حمل العربية ,ومن آية ما فعله صمويل أجاي كراودر الذي عمل جبد ونشاط لوضع األحجار األساسية للتبشري الصلييب بالتعاون مع االستعمار ,ووضع احلروف الالتينية لكتابة لغة يوربا لرتمجة اإلجنيل بدل الكتابة العربية اليت كان املسلمون يكتبون هبا لغة يوربا .99اغرت كثريا هبذا األسلوب املزخرف ,وَت من خالل ذلك إنشاء املدارس االستعمارية والتبشريية .ومبا أن االستعمار قد أعطى التبشري زمام التعليم للثقافة الغربية قد اخذ الطريق على أبناء املسلمني الذين ال حيصلون على التعليم ولو باموااهم إال من رضي بتغيري امسه اإلسالمي إىل اإلسم النصراين أو إىل اإلسم الوث ي األعجمي قبل أن يقبل يف املدرسة مث يرغم على محل اإلجنيل معه وعلى حضور الكنيسة يوم األحد.96 متحريين يف حالتهم تنصر من جراء ذلك مئات من أبناء املسلمني .وخشي املسلمون يف نيجرييا اإلنكليزية ّ فقد ّ هذه إىل أن جاء رجل من سرياليون امسه الدكتور ويلمت بليدن ,وكان مستشرقا كبريا ,كما كان مديرا ملصلحة املعارف يف سرياليون وسبق أن درس مثل هذه املشكلة مع املسلمني يف سرياليون ,فأكسبته خربته ملعرفة طريقة حل هذه املشكلة يف نيجرييا حسب طريقة حلها يف سرياليون فطلب إىل حكومة الربيطانية 9815م إنشاء ّ مدرسة حكومية بتعليم املسلمني املعارف اإلنكليزية إىل جانب ديانتهم اإلسالمية ,فوافقت على هذا الطلب فتعني لنظارهتا الشيخ إدريس أمناشاهن ,من أوائل املثقفني املخلصني فأنشأت املدرسة يف الغوس عام 9811مّ , احلر ألبناء املسلمني أن يتعلموا.93 لإلسالم يف الغوس ,فانفتح الباب ّ احتج املبشرون على ذلك وملا تأسست املدرسة اإلسالمية احلكومية وحتسنّت هبا أحوال املسلمني ثقافيةّ , بأن املدارس احلكومية من شأوها أن تتجرد عن الشارات الدينية ,فالغيت كلمة اإلسالمية من اسم املدرسة, وبقيت حكومية ,واختري ناظرها ومدرسوها من غري املسلمني.92 وهكذا ثنت احلكومة عنايتها عن املدارس العربية األهلية حبجة أن الدراسة فيها خصة باملسلمني إلصالح أمور دينهم ,مع وجود املدارس احلكومية اليت تتسمى بالسمات املسيحية وأمساء األساقفة املسيحيني حىت اليوم. فاستيقظ املسلمون على هذه املؤامرة يف جنوب نيجرييا ,وعملوا على إنشاء اجلمعيات اليت هتتم بفتح املدارس
606
ILCC 2013
اإلسالمية ,فتأسست مجعية أنصار الدين 9163م ,مث الزمرة اإلسالمية 9162م ,مث مجعية نوار الدين 9132م,مث مجعية أنصار اإلسالم 9125م. فمأل املدن والقرى باملدارس اإلسالمية اليت جعلت مهمتها تسلح أبناء املسلمني بالثقافة اإلنكليزية اليت أصبحت ضرورية ألبناء البالد مع اإلملام مببادئ الدين ,والتاريخ اإلسالمي ,وقد اعدت هذه املدارس الطبقة املثقفة من أبناء املسلمني الذين يشاركون أقراوهم املسيحيني يف خمتلف امليادين اليوم.95 نعم ,وإذا كانت احلكومة الربيطانية يف عهدها قد أنشأت مدرسة خاصة باملسلمني يف الغوس ,فإن هذا البحث املتواضع يدعو احلكومة النيجريية الدميقراطية اليت تدعي حبكومة الشعب للشعب إعادة النظر يف أمر املدارس العربية األهلية اليت يتثقف من خالاها مجع غفري من أبناء الوطن الذين استطاعوا بعد مواصلة دروسهم واحلصول على الشهدات العليا يف اجلامعة أن يقوموا بواجبات السفارة والدبلوماسية بني الدول العربية وبالدهم ,وأن تأخذ احلكومة خطوات حنو تنمية هذه املدارس حىت يستطيع غري مسلم أن ينخرط يف سلك التعلم فيها مع املسلمني كما هو احلال يف خار نيجرييا ,مثل مصر ولبنان واجنلرتا وفرنسا وغريها .ألن فكرة معارضة التعليم العريب من أجل عالقته بدين عليلة ,والدعوة إليها مضلة ألوها غري مبنية على أي عقل أو علم بل على ااهوى والكراهة واحلسد.92 اإلهنيار الرَسي للغة العربية:إن مما حيزن الدارس اللغة العربية كثريا ,ويؤرقهم طويال أن تنال اللغة الفرنسية لدى احلكومة اهتماما أكرب من اهتمامها باللغة العربية مع أن الناطقني بالفرنسية يف نيجرييا قلة قليلة ,وها هي اليوم – مبساندة احلكومة حتتل املرتبة الثانية الرمسية لدى الشعب النيجريي والعربية مهملة -إىل حد ما -بني أبناء نيجرييا بالرغم من أن الناطقني هبا كثرة كاثرة. وإن ما قام به العرب وغريهم من املسلمني يف اخلدمة اإلنسانية حىت سار بذكرهم الركبان ,إمنا هو باللغة العربية ,ويف نيجرييا نسمع عن الشيخ عثمان بن فودي وشقيقه عبد هللا ونقرأ عنهما يف املراجع العربية واإلجنليزية ,وغادرا الدنيا وعاش ذكرامها إىل ما شاء هللا .وليس قولنا هنا أننا وهيب باملسلمني أن جيردوا حيا هتم كليا من اإلنكليزية ألوها تفرض نفسها على كل متثقف اليوم يف نيجرييا ,وإمنا نقر يف مسامع الفرد واجملتمع واحلكومة أن اللغة العربية قرية خصبة ليست جافة ملا أثرها اجللي يف إطار االجتماعية واألدبية
والسياسية ,كما عملت يف تقدم العلوم والثقافة واحلضارة وظلت يف تلك املهام إىل أن يرث هللا األرض وما عليها .وهلل در حافظ إبراهيم حني قال على لسان اللغة العربية: أنا البحر يف أحشاءه الدر كامن** وهل سألوا الغواص عن صدفايت؟ مظاهر اإلقتصادية واللغة العربية يف نيجرييا وأما املشكلة اإلقتصادية للغة العربية يف نيجرييا فإوها ال تقل خطرا عن أختها اليت درسناها سابقا إذا وضعناها يف كفيت امليزان لنرى أرجحهما ثقال ,وفيما يلي احملاور الستة ملشكلة اإلقتصادية للغة العربية يف نيجرييا وبعض طريقة حلواها. خبس مثن دارس اللغة العربية يف اجملتمع وآخر قصبة قصمت ظهر البعري هي ظاهرة اجملتمع الذي نعيش فيه ,يعترب التثقف بالعربية داء عضاال ,وذنبا ال يغتفر ,يبخس يف َثن دارسها ,وسنظر إليه بعني االحتقار ,كأنه ارتكب جرمية مزرية ,وصدق فيه قول القائل: وتراه ممقوتا وليس مبذنب** ويرى العداوة ال يرى أسباهبا ولقد اعرتف املنصفون من املفكرين من عرب وغريهم أن اإلسالم بلغته العربية هو الدين الوحيد – من بني األديان -الذي يستطيع أن يقف أمام جربوت العلم الذي وصل يف الفضاء وال يطأطأ رأسه ,ولقد أسهم إسهامات كبرية يف تنمية العلوم التقنية والكونية والثقافية ,يقول غستاف لوبون يف كتابه"حضارة العرب" فيما يتعلق باخرتاعات املسلمني الفنية والصناعية: يف القرون الوسطى ,انتشرت علوم اليونان والروم وفنووهم يف أوربا عن طريق املسلمني ,وظلت مدارس أوربا يعتمد على كتب املسلمني ومصنفاهتم مدة مخسة قرون ,فكان املسلمون هم الذين ثقفوا أوربا من حيث العلم والعمل واألخالق أيضا ...وأن ما جنده يف صناعتهم وحروفهم من الدقة يثبت لنا أن يف تلك الصناعات من اإلبداع ما ال يوجد يف صناعات غريهم. تتجلى هذه التحديات يف مظاهر متعددة ,ومنها على سبيل املثال ال على احلصر ما يلي: النزعة الدينية-:
608
ILCC 2013
إن النظرة الدينية احملضة حنو اللغة العربية جتعل بعض اآلباء منكمشني يف دفع رسوم معقول عن أبنائهم يف املدارس العربية ,كما كان بعض العلماء يرفضون مبدئيا تكليف اآلباء وسؤااهم األجر املعلوم على تعليم أبناء املسلمني القرآن والعربية .ولعل الدافع يف ذلك يرجع إىل بعض النصوص الواردة يف النهي عن أخذ األجرة على الطاعات عامة وعلى تعليم القرآن خاصة ,ومن ذلك سؤال القرآن" :أم تسأاهم أجرا فهم من مغرم مثقلون" 91فالعلماء ذهبوا مذهبا شىت جتاه هذا النص وما لف لفه من النصوص ,منهم من أخذ بظاهرها, فحرم أخذ األجرة على تعليم القرآن ,ومنهم من أباحها إن مل تكن األجرة مشرتطة ,ومنهم اجلمهور الذين أباحوا على وجه اإلطالق استنادا إىل حديث "إن أحق ما أخذَت عليه أجرا كتاب هللا تعاىل" 98وحديث سهل بن سعد أن النيب (ص) قال للرجل الذي خطب املرأة فلم جيد مهرا ":اذهب فقد انكحتكها مبا معك من القرآن" 91وبالتايل كان الفتور ااهمم ,وخشية ضياع القرآن دافعا قويا أدى بالفقهاء املتأخرين إىل إباحة 60 أخذ األجرة دفعا لضرر جهالة املسلمني عن القرآن ال مكافأة للمسلمني حتديد ميدان التوظيف: كاد أن يكون ميدان تطبيق اللغة العربية كلغة الوظيفة الرمسية منحصرا يف املدارس واملساجد .فأبواب البنوك واحملاكم واملصانع واملستشفيات والسفارات مغلقة على وجه املثقفني بالعربية يف نيجرييا إال قليال ,األمر الذي جعل أجورهم غري متكافئة ,ورواتبهم زهيدة ,والشرف كل الشرف أن يكون املثقفون بالعربية حماضري كليات واجلامعات فحسب. عدم ابتكار موارد جديرة للرزق: فمصادر املثقفني بالعربية يف نيجرييا ما زالت بدئية من جانب ,ومبتذلة من جانب آخر ,فهي إما صدقات احلفالت أو هدايا الفجرة ,ويف القدمي يوجد من العلماء من يعيش على دخل استنساخ املصاحف وكتب العلوم وكتابة األوراد الدينية يف األلواح وكما جند يف احلديث األعتماد الكلي على موارد حفالت الوليمة والشهادة ورسوم التعليم امليسور ,ومن مث نالحظ ضرورة ابتكار موارد ومصادر أخرى حلامل لواء هذه الثقافة.
خيانة املسؤلني إن عاملية اللغة العربية ودورها الدي ي يسمح لبعض أبناء نيجرييا طريقة احلصول على املساعدات اخلارجية من العامل اإلسالمي والعريب لتنفيذ مشاريع دعوية واجتماعية وتربوية واليت تكون روافدها اقتصاديا هاما للعامل املباشرين اهذه املشاريع من املثقفني بالعربية وغريهم .إال أنه من املؤسف عليه أن النسبة ااهائلة من هذه املساعدات تصرف يف غري مصارفها خيانة وإضاعة لألمانة. إمهال املعنيني: إن علماء العربية يف نيجرييا من احملاضرين وقضاة وسياسيني ودبلوماسيني أمهلوا جانبا حساسا مما تثري املصادر اإلقتصادية للغة حلاملي الثقافة العريب يف هذه الديار ,فإذا مجع هؤالء األيدي التطوعية وأسسوا بعض املصانع – على مستوى بسيط -تعمل فيها أيدي محال الثقافة العربية ويسدون منها رمقهم ,فإن ذلك يعود بالفائدة اجلسية على أصحاب هذه الثقافة الكرمية. قتل روح اإلنتاج: ومن املالحظة أن عددا غري قليل من املثقفني بالعربية يقتلون روح اإلنتا الذي يدر باملال املعلوم للمؤلفني والكتاب باللغة العربية ,وذلك لرغبة أولئك يف امتالك هذه الكتب عن طريق ااهدية والتقدمي ,فيحصل املؤلف من منتوجاته على مبلغ ال يشجعه على اإلقدام يف اإلنتا والتأليف أو جيعله ذلك من املدينني.
اخلامتة:
لعل االنتباه اإلرادي حنو املظاهر املذكورة ,والعمل إلصالح األوضاع اليت تتكون منها التحديات االقتصادية والسياسية حلاملي الثقافة العربية يف نيجرييا – لعل ذلك كله -يعود باخلري العميم على حاملي ثقافة هذه اللغة يف املستقبل القريب أو البعيد. اَلوامش واملراجع علي أبوبكر .)9116(.الثقافة العربية ي نيجرييا .الطبعة األوىل .مؤسسة عبد احلفيظ ,لبنان ,.ص .92 شيخو أمحد سعيد غالدنثي .)9113( .حركة اللغة العربية وآداِبا ي نيجرييا .الطبعة الثانية .مكتبة إفريقيا ,القاهرة .م ص .91 املرجع نفسه ,ص .61
610
ILCC 2013
آدم عبد هللا اإللوري( ,)9118اإلسالم ي نيجرييا وعثمان بن فودي ,الطبعة الثانية ,أغيغي ,ص.91 املرجع نفسه والصفحة نفسها. أمحد سعيد غالدنث ,املرجع السابق ,ص .91 محزة عبد الرحيم".العربية للتقدم العلمي والتكنولوجية يف نيجرييا يف القرن الواحد والعشرين :آالم وآمال" مشهود حممود حممد6002(,م)" .نقل األدب اليوربوي إىل اللغة العربية :قضايا وآمال" Ilorin Journal of the Humanity, Vol 2, No 4ص .21 األستاذ الدكتور عبد الرزاق أبوكر6009( .م) .حاضر اللغة العربية يف نيجرييا .نتائس ,جملة أكادميية سنوية ملنظمة معلمي الدراسات العربية وإلسالمية نيجرييا العدد , ,2ص .696-699 الدكتور محزة عبد الرحيم ,املرجع السابق ,ص .2 اإللوري ,آدم عبد هللا .املرجع السابق .ص .928 اإللوري ,آدم عبد هللا .اإلسالم اليوم وغدا يف نيجرييا .الطبعة األوىل ,مكتبة وهبة ,القاهرة ,ص .68 اإللوري ,آدم عبد هللا ,اإلسالم يف نيجرييا ,املرجع السابق ,ص .950 املرجع نفسه ,ص.959 املرجع نفسه والصفحة نفسها. إبراهيم إسحاق أواليوال .الطريقة احلديثة يف تعليم القراءة واإلنشاء والرتمجة لطالب املعاهد والكليات بنيجرييا .مطبعة توفيق هللا ,إلورن -نيجرييا ,ص .905 سورة الطور ,األية ,20وسورة "ن" األية .22
رواه البخاري رواه البخاري ومسلم وغريمها ,انظر: اجلبايل ,حممد مصطفى .األسرة املسلمة .منشورات الكتاب والسنة .ص .16 انظر :اجلزيري عبد الرمحن9182( .م) كتاب الفقه على مذاهب األربعة. بريوت لبنان ,ص .961
3دار الفكر ودار الكتب
ILCC 2013
612
COLONIAL IMPACT ON THE SOCIO-COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS OF ARABIC LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA: AN OVERVIEW
ALFA MUHAMMED SALISU DR. HANAFI DOLLAH DR. ABUBAKAR SALISU ABDULLAHI Abstract Before the advent of the colonialist in Nigeria, Arabic language was used as the official language of communication and of daily intercourse. Historical records also confirmed that for about three centuries between 17th and 19th centuries Arabic documents remained the only source of information for European writers on western and central Sudan. A large number of these scholarly works were written by native West African authors in Arabic language, or in their native languages using Arabic scripts. However, the scramble for West African countries by the Europeans in the 19th century brought about the occupation of the areas by the imperialists. This led to change in socio – cultural life of the people of the regions including the Muslims, which in turn has a spillover effect on the communicative functions of Arabic language. Thus, this paper intends to trace a brief history of Arabic in Nigeria, its functions as the language of communication and its subsequent subversion by the European colonialist. Special attention is giving to the present status of Arabic language in Nigeria and the subsequent implications. Introduction: Advent of Arabic Language in Nigeria Historically, Arabic language and Islamic religion came to this part of the world known as Nigeria today through the North African States of Egypt, part of the Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, etc. (Adam 2003:170). This process was heralded through commercial contacts that connected these states and the south of Sahara as far back as before 11th century. It is not easy, however to state precisely when this commercial contacts began between the Arab world and their counterparts in the south of Sahara (Kanem Borno And some Hausa lands). But opinions are unanimous on the fact that Islam came to these parts of the globe (Kanem Borno and Kano Hausa states) between 11th and 14th centuries respectively. Therefore, the history of Arabic language is not far from this because the Arab traders who were sometimes the preachers of Islam introduced their language to their trade counterparts and converts for easy communication. It is believed that with the expansion of Islam, Arabic also spread and eventually became the official language of government and correspondence in some of the defunct kingdoms as far back as 13th century. It is also very important to mention that in the south western part of Nigeria such as Ibadan a lot of Arabic heritage were discovered most of which were letters from the traditional rulers and Ulama’ (scholars) to their counterparts in other places in Yoruba land of Nigeria (Ogunbiyi 2005:6). This is a clear testimony that Arabic has also served as the language of communication in this part of the country. Arabic scholarship in Nigeria, however, started in Borno and other Hausa States and from there spread to other places like Yoruba land where its learning was given a sense of belonging because the Muslims converts then-and up till today- considered Arabic learning as an integral aspect of their religion-Islam. The reason being that some ritual acts in the religion must be
observed in Arabic language, among these acts are call to prayers (Al-Adhan), the recitations of Qur’an in prayers which are key aspects of Islam The system of learning Arabic and Islam in Nigeria then was through traditional system as stated by Galadanci (1993), the system where the schools were established by Muslim scholars, who vary in their educational qualifications. Some of who may be graduates of Qur’anic schools and others with a higher degree of Islamic and Arabic knowledge. Without specific curriculum, knowledge then was whole some and not compartmentalized. Muslim scholars were champions of value –laden knowledge. A learned Muslim scholar for instance, was a jurist, expert in medicine, astronomy, astrology, philosophy, science etc. Graduates of these schools were teachers and most of the times preachers of Islam (Alfa and Abubakar 2011:204). Hence, Muslims learning Arabic then was primarily for proper understanding of their religion. It was equally observed that in Nigeria Arabic was studied to serve Islam. This explains why greater percentages of Arabic works of Nigerian Authorship were concentrated on Islamic subjects. And in cases where other subjects were discussed Islamic terminologies were often used. Example of the situations could be observed from literary works of scholars like Abdullah b. Fudi, Uthman b. Fudi and other great writers of the 19th century. The community of the Nigerian Islamic revivalists of the 19th century was established on Islamic principles subjected to the canons of Islamic Law, which necessitated thorough knowledge before application. Hence, the scholars wrote many texts on Islamic tradition of reforms, as regards politics, ethnography, sociology, education, economy and urbanization, historiography, law, jurisprudence as well as administrative organization. All these subjects were in Arabic. they also produced numerous titles in prose and poetry on subjects that cut across disciplinary boundaries such as history and medicine, apart from the traditional religious themes of Islamic jurisprudence, Qur’anic exegesis and different aspects of the Arabic language itself, including its grammar.(Ogunbiyi 2005:6; ALA 2:2) Before the defeat of the Sokoto Caliphate and the colonization of the Northern region, there existed a very viable culture of learning and scholarship. The founder and leader of the Sokoto Caliphate, Usman dan Fodio and his brother, Abdullahi dan Fodio, and son, Muhammad Bello, were great scholars who had written hundreds of books on the subjects mentioned above. The scholarly contributions of the founding fathers undoubtedly helped the Caliphate to be an important centre for Islamic and Arabic education. Arabic learning in Nigeria in this spirit has exclusive process which has tremendously shaped the destiny of the scholars’ emotion and thoughts as manifested in their literary productions
Arabic Language and Socio-Communication in Nigeria before Colonialism The term social refers to a characteristic of living organisms as applied to populations of humans and other animals. It always refers to the interaction of organisms with other organisms and to their collective co-existence, irrespective of whether they are aware of it or not, and irrespective of whether the interaction is voluntary or involuntary (Morrison, 2009). Communication, on the other hand, is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another; it involves a sender transmitting an idea, information, or feeling to a receiver (U.S. Army, 1983). Communication (from Latin "communis", meaning to share) is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. When it come to normal human communication, we can find two main parts of communication channels. One is verbal communication and the other is non verbal communication. If we think of communication based on style and purpose, however, it can be categorized into two, formal and informal communication. Considering the two main parts of
ILCC 2013
614
channels of communication, verbal communication is also divided into two parts, oral and written communication. Oral communication takes place when two or more parties communicate verbally with words. The other type is written communication. This can happen through normal letter writing or any other form of documented writing. Letters can, however, be formal or informal (Bizymoms, 2013). Looking at the aforementioned definition and other elements of communication, Arabic language has served as the language of communication before the arrival of the colonial masters to Nigeria, as mentioned before. Since the Jihad of Sheikh Uthman bin Fudi of the 19th century, Arabic has become widespread and means of communication in West Africa. Previously it had been the written language of the educated elite and of the government for nearly 500 years. For the fact that Arabic predated any other foreign languages in Nigeria in particular and Africa in general, the language was used officially in administration with which chancery prose, official letters, other materials were documented. Indeed, it then served as the earliest exclusive means of vast record keeping, literature as well as historical record in many centuries before the coming of the Europeans to Nigeria. It remained the first imported language used as the official language of education and of daily intercourse (oral communication) in West Africa and it has contributed a great deal to the reconstruction of the African history. A renowned scholar of history, Professor Dike, commented on the role Arabic had played in Nigerian history thus; The Arabic scholars of the present, drawing upon the writing s of the Arabic scholars of the past, will be able to bring before us the events and happenings of the past ages of Nigeria, and so help us to write a history we may rightly call our own.(Ogunbiyi, 2005:11) He added; As a historian myself , I have taken the keenest interest in this development for it is through the aid of these Arabic documents, and these written in Arabic languages in the Arabic script that the scholar will be aided in his task of unlocking the secrets of African past. It has been a revelation to the whole world of scholarship to realize for the first time that Africa before European penetration, so far from being a “dark continent” was in fact a continent of where the light of scholarship shone brilliantly, as the Arabic work now being discovered bear testimony (R.A. Raji,2002:10). From the statement above it could be deduced that the history of Nigeria would be incomplete without the contribution of the Muslim scholars and their knowledge of Arabic language. This implies that no one can glean the understanding of the true history of Nigeria without the understanding of the original source language which is Arabic. It was the first language used in recording historical events as it was used during the old Empires such as Ghana, Songhai, Borno etc.(Ogunbiyi 2005:6) this is further corroborated by the early Nigerian Historians that Nigeria is greatly indebted to Arabic for its tremendous role played to disprove the notion that Africa was a “dark continent”- without history. Historians further affirmed that West African history would be incomplete without reference to those Arabic scripts by the Arab scholars as stressed above by Professor Dike. (Smith 1989:142-143) also stressed that: All government in western Sudan (that is, including those territories that later formed part of Nigeria) used Arabic for correspondence, and the indication is that written documents played a large part of their administration. According to Hunwick (1970), Almaghili’s letter (in Arabic) to Sultan Ibrahim of Katsina is dated 1492, and in archives of Istanbul (Turkey) a letter from the Ottoman Sultan there to the ruler of Borno, in Kanem Born Empire dated 16th century. In Sokoto, according to Malami (1989) Sarkin Musulumi, Hassan and the Emir of Gwandu Haliru wrote to Fedrick Lord Lugard, acknowledging him of a visit accorded them to England by the Colonial Officers, all in Arabic language. In the
same vein, it was mentioned by Ogunbiyi, as quoted above that in the south western part of Nigeria such as Ibadan a lot of Arabic heritage were discovered most of which were letters from the traditional rulers and Ulama’ (scholars) to their counterparts in other places in Yoruba land of Nigeria. Other works of the Jihadists that cover the Northern Nigeria and some parts of south western Nigeria were all testimony of the service of Arabic language in Nigerian long before the advent of the Europeans. Works on biography such as Muhammad Bello`s infaaqul maysuur contains biographical materials on scholars before the 19th century. Sheikh Abdullah b. Fudi on the other hand has texts like Tazyinul waraqat in which he discussed the brief history of the revivalist movement, the intellectual and military as well as the political concept of the author. (Ogunbiyi, 1976:26-37, al-Iluri, 1971:33) On the intellectual plane Sokoto Jihad succeeded partly because of an effective method of planning in the used of this language as a vehicle of communication. Arabic has in no small measure helped in the growth of local languages such as Hausa, Kanuri, Kiswahili, and Fulfulde. It also became one of the local languages of part of today’s Borno State of Nigeria spoken by over two million indigenes of Nigerians. In the South western Nigeria, particularly among the Yoruba Muslim scholars Arabic became the medium of literary communication and flourished well alongside the precedence of Islam before the advent of the colonialist. In Ibadan, for example, Arabic served as a secondary means of verbal communication after the efflorescence of its literary activities in early 20th century. British Colonial Rulers and the Issue of Arabic If one looks at the activities of the Colonial Rulers in Nigeria from the surface,-especially the Northern part- he would have no option than to be lured into praising them for their positive contributions to the development of Arabic language. Some researchers have done so because of the establishment of the school of Arabic studies, Kano and the introduction of centers of learning such as the universities wherefrom Arabic flourished and a lot of scholarly works are produced. But the fact remains that, prior to the conquest of the Fulani Sokoto Caliphate by the British in 1903 and the subsequent establishment and consolidation of colonial rule, an Islamic educational system, which had Arabic as the language of instruction already existed. A renowned historian on the Sokoto Caliphate, Murray Last (2005), acknowledges the existence of a thriving and broad-based Islamic educational system that also incorporated the teaching of European languages and new sciences in its core curricula. The Caliphate recruited teachers, educational advisors and planners from Egypt, Tripoli and Ottoman Turkey, to help in teaching and reforming the Islamic system of education. This enduring legacy of Arabo-Islamic education from the Sokoto Caliphate continued before and after the advent of colonialism. Scholars established Qurʾanic schools and for so many centuries up to the colonial period, Islamic schooling was the formal educational system in northern Nigeria (Lemu, 2002). In the Northern Protectorates, when Lord Lugard came to take over as the Governor of northern Nigeria in 1914, he found over 25,000 Qurʾanic schools with a total enrolment of 218,618 pupils (Fafunwa, 1991; Paden, 1973). These Qurʾanic schools known as Tsangaya and their students called Almajirai from the Arabic word, Almuhājir or an immigrant, later enrolled in more advanced theological schools, or madrasahs where they studied Islamic Jurisprudence, Theology, History, Philosophy, Arabic Grammar and the Sciences (Umar, 2012). Under the British colonial administration, the system of Qurʾanic schools was maintained in order to avoid destroying the social fabric of the Islamic North. While the children of the aristocracy were educated in the elite schools, the majority of the rural population was able to send their children to Qurʾanic schools (Giroaurd, 1909). Lugard, in the first instance, not only
ILCC 2013
616
acknowledged their existence, but also accorded them official status by paying monthly stipends to the teachers. However, things began to change after the consolidation of British colonial rule in northern Nigeria, with the introduction of colonial education. The British era, however, witnessed a decline in the fortune of Arabic language as the Colonial rulers and the Missionaries decided to confront the two entrance doors of the Arabic language, the Emirates of Northern Nigeria administered by the Caliphate of Borno and Sokoto which were first attacked and conquered by the British. Infact, the strength of Arabic in these part of the world was because of the relationship that existed between them and Egypt to the extent that a hostel was said to be established in Cairo for Borno students, especially in Al-Azhar University between 1242 and 1252 (Raji, 2002:18). With the conquest of the Northern Nigeria, some of the Emirs who posed stiff resistance to the situation were either killed or deposed. These Emirs were replaced by people who were prepared to be puppets or who the European rulers thought would compromise and serve under the colonial rule (Abubakar, M, 2001:2, Raji, Op Cit). The British Rulers, however, later deposed and exiled some of the Emirs who replaced their fellow Muslims in the first instance. With this situation, the role of Northern Emirs changed from the custodian of Arabic and Islamic legacies which had earned them privilege; honour, integrity and influence, manipulated and swept into oblivion by the colonial masters (Raji, op.cit:19). As a cover-up, the British established the Northern Provinces law school in 1934 which later metamorphosed into school of Arabic studies, Kano. This school was established when the religiopolitical propaganda against the interest of the British in Northern Nigeria became imminent. It was, besides teaching the Islamic law which was apparent, to serve the interest of the European and to contain the inflow of "subversive" elements, ideas and cultures into the region from Sudan, Egypt, and the Maghrib (Abubakar, M, op.cit.). They, therefore, put a barrier between the region and the relationship that existed between them and the Arab world of Sudan, Egypt, Maghrib and Ottoman Turkey. The introduction of English language and its literature into the school of Arabic studies Kano as well as employment of some British lecturers like Mr. C.E.J. Whitting, and Mr. M. Hisket to help in the design and implementation of the curriculum mark the beginning of a campaign and propaganda to discredit Al-Azhar University, Egypt. As rightly pointed at, Al-Azhar University used to be a great centre of learning for the scholars of the region. The propaganda was launched and sponsored by Mr. Whitting who called on the Government to make a tour of Educational institution to Egypt and Maghrib. Mr. Whitting was mandated to do the job and submit a report. His assessment report, according to Raji (2002) in 1947 reads thus: It will be folly to give any Government support to sending any of our student to Al-Azhar or other of the Egyptian institutions of Higher Education. They only come in contact with the crudest and extremist forces of Nationalism and 'anti-British propaganda, and so much working time is lost through disturbances, students' strikes and the like, that many courses have only a nominal value. The Sudan were reaping the bitter political harvest of having used the Egyptian facilities for her education, and the retiring Director of Education told him that Bahrain had withdrawn its pupils from Egypt for the above reasons. The Colonialists became instrumental to the stagnation of Arabic because it was denied of the privilege of full administrative support which it has enjoyed throughout the preceding century. Although the British colonial authority adopted a system of indirect rule that initially preserved the pre-1903 administrative structure for purposes of local administration, the loss of political paramountcy by the Muslim rulers in the caliphate and the introduction of western education
marked the beginning of the decline in multifaceted functions of Arabic earlier identified. The decline was further reinforced in 1914 when the northern and southern protectorates were merged to form what is now known as Nigeria. With the objective of evolving a language policy that will gradually replace Arabic with English. The educational policy not only shifted from religious to secular, but also structured in such a way as to favour Western education. Traditional Islamic education in the form of the Qurʾanic school system became marginalized and teachers who taught in the traditional Islamic method were either disregarded or forced to adopt the new system. There were other obstacles, too, one of which was finance. The Qurʾanic Arabic schools were left on their own with very little or no support from the government. They relied on the support of parents which was normally meager as well as on charity which rarely came. Qurʾanic school teachers resorted to sending their pupils to beg for food and money. This tarnished the image of the schools and undermined the integrity of the teachers as well as their pupils up till today. However, despite the limited means of finance, the Qurʾanic schools thrived because the teachers of such schools were dedicated. Not only did they consider their mission as a divine injunction, they were also convinced that their efforts would be worthy of being rewarded in the hereafter. Both strong faith and goodwill helped to sustain the Qurʾanic school system. There was no doubt that these schools served a useful purpose especially from the social, educational and religious perspectives during the period of transition from traditional Islamic education to dual educational system introduced by the British. One of recorded achievements of these Qurʾanic schools, as mentioned above, was that they had an enrolment of approximately a quarter of a million pupils. In addition, Umar 2012 stressed that: These Qurʾanic schools had produced a literary class known as “Mallamai,” learned in Arabic and the teachings of Qurʾan and commentaries, from whose ranks the officers of the Native Administration, the judges of the Native Courts and the exponents of the creed of Islam were drawn. They are a very influential class, some of them very well read in Arabic literature and law, and deeply imbued with the love of learning Galadanci observed the situation of Arabic during this period in the following words The colonial authorities realized the importance of the Arabic language in the north as the language of administration and the language of culture and thus tried everything within their power to replace it with their own language. They therefore made English the official language so that government offices and registries the Sharia courts would use English instead of Arabic. Even the local languages such as Hausa and Fulfulde which were already being written in Arabic script known as Ajami scripts, were now been taught in formal schools in Latin scripts. The same situation was found in the southwest in the formal schools established by Muslim Organizations in response to the challenge posed by Christian schools. Their orientation was largely dictated by the fact that the opportunities for employment in the colonial civil service, in commerce and industry were only open to those literate in English language (Ogunbiyi2005:7-8, al-Ilori1971:151) Present status of Arabic Language in Nigeria Arabic language has faced a lot of challenges in Nigeria over time despite the tremendous services it has rendered as a communication tool in Africa before the Colonialist. The teaching and learning of which ought to be given the topmost priority it deserve especially because of the historical and religious significant but the reverse has always been the case. This is because of political antecedent of the colonialist that had made English the official languages of education, administration, politics and diplomacy in Nigeria. In recent time, the government policy on language in Nigerian educational sector has made it further complicated. This is for the fact that the policy continues to relegate Arabic to the background as French is given priority to be studied as "second official language". Government appreciates the importance of language as a means promoting social interaction and national cohesion, and preserving cultures. Thus every child shall learn the language of the immediate environment. Furthermore, in the interest of
ILCC 2013
618
national unity it is expedient that every child shall be required to learn one of the three languages: Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. For smooth interaction with our neighbours, it is desirable for every Nigerian to speak French. Accordingly, French shall be the second official language in Nigeria and it shall be compulsory in schools. Looking at the aforementioned policy, Arabic language has no place with the Government. Therefore, no provision is made to develop the language. However, in the National Policy on Education published in 1977 (revised 1981, 1988 etc) and the government’s views on implementation of committee’s Blueprint on the document, Arabic is given explicit mention only in relation to its link with Islam. At the primary school level, the Blueprint states that “where Arabic is the medium of instruction in Religion and moral instructions, it will continue to be used (Akinnaso & Ogunbiyi 1990:6) From the above, Arabic is only relevant when it comes to "Islamic Religion and moral instruction. Conclusion The transition from traditional and Arabo-Islamic educational and administrative system from under the Sokoto Caliphate to the modern and secular British system of governance in Nigeria had a tremendous impact on the issue of Arabic language. The British colonial policy of indirect assistance to the Christian missionary at the expense of Islamic education has left an indelible mark on the later until the present time. In summary, of all the non-Nigerian languages, none has more claims to our attention and recognition than the Arabic language. That Arabic is unparalleled by any other language in its role as a communication tool and as a written medium in which much of the Nigerian and African history is recorded; the past thus preserved in this medium is a common national heritage and not a sectional or religious one. That Arabic language is ignorantly misconceived most of the times for Islamic studies by many Nigerians, including the educated elite. These misconceptions as well as religious bias are what had led Arabic to its present state of negligent in the country where some scholars of Arabic feel inferior to their counterparts in other fields. If these misgivings are not corrected and the glory of Arabic restored- to some extent, the future generation might consider it irrelevant to be studied as a school subject. Therefore, causing more harm to Islam in Nigeria. Conferences and workshops can be organised regularly by scholars and Islamic organizations to improve the present status of Arabic language. This can be achieved through agitations to Government and issuing of communiqué to revise the present status of Arabic in Government schools, at least to feature as one of the elective subjects if not compulsory.
REFFERENCES Abubakre, R.D. (2002). Survival of Arabic in Difficult Terrain. 58th Inaugural lecture, Unilorin. AbdulRaheem, H.I. (2005-2007). “Nigerian Literature in Arabic: Concept and Preliminary account of the content”. Anyigba Journal of Arts and Humanities, Vol. 4. Nathadex Publishers. Nigeria. AbdurRahman, M.O. (1989). “An Appraisal of the Style and Features of the Early Arabic works of Ibadan Ulama’ and Notes on their Authors”. Journal of Arabic and Religious Studies. University of Ilorin, Vol. 6,
Akinnaso, F.N. & Ogunbiyi I. A. (1990). ‘The place of Arabic Language in Educational Planning’. Language Problem & Language Planning. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Amsterdan, Holland, vol. 14, No.1. Alfa, M.S. and Abubakar S.A. (2012). 'The Impact of Colonial languages (English & French on the Teaching of Arabic Language in Nigeria'. Anyigba Journal of Arts and Humanities, Kogi State University, Anyigba. Nigeria. Al- Iluri, A. A. (1971). al-Islam fi Niyjiriya wa-Shaikh ‘Uthman b. Fudi. Agege, Lagos. Bizymoms. (2013). Communication. Retrieved 28 Apri, 2013 from http://www.bizymoms.com/computers-and-technology/types-of-communication.html Doi, A. (1992). Islam in a multi-religious society, Nigeria: A case study. Kuala Lumpur: A. S. Noordeen. Fafunwa, A. B. (1991). History of education in Nigeria. Ibadan: New Educational Publications. Festus, A.S.(2001). “Teaching Languages in a Multilingual Setting: the interplay of Language Status, Syllabus Objective and Content”. Alore: Ilorin Journal of the Humanities. Vol.11. University of Ilorin, Nigeria. Galadanci, A.S. (1993). Harakatul Lughat Al-Arabiyya wa Adabuha fi Niyjiriya. Maktabah Ifriqiyya. Cairo, Egypt. Hunwick, J.O. (1965). Report of a Seminar on the Teaching of Arabic in Nigeria, Ibadan and Kano, Nigeria. ----------------. (1996). Africa and Islamic revival: Historical and contemporary perspectives. MSANEWS. Retrieved May 8, 2013 from http://islam.uga.edu /hunwick.html. Lemu, B. A. (2002). Religious education in Nigeria – a case study. Teaching for tolerance and freedom of religion or belief. Report from the preparatory seminar held in Oslo December 7-9, 2002. Oslo: The Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief. Retrieved May 7, 2013 from http://folk.uio.no/leirvik/OsloCoalition /AishaLemu.htm. Malik, S.H.A. (1999). Arabic the Muslim Prayers and Beyond. inaugural Lecture, University of Ibadan. Nigeria. Morrison, K. (2009). Formations of modern social thought. Retrieved 28 April, 2013 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social Mustapha, A. (2001). "Sabotage in Patronage: Islamic Education under Colonial Rule in Nigeria". Journal of Nigerian Association of Teachers of Arabic and Islamic Studies (NATAIS). Vol.6 No.1. Ogunbiyi, I.A. (2005). ‘The Whys and Wherefores of Arabic Language in Nigeria’ Anyigba Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. vol.2 No.2 Oseni, Z.I. (2000) Alma’dubatul Al Arabiyyah lit Tulaabil Arabiyyah fi ifriqiyah al gharbiyyah, Darun Nur, Auchi,
ILCC 2013
620
Raji, R.A. (2002). Tangled Complexities: Muslim-Christian Relations and the Issue of Arabic Language in Nigeria. University of Ilorin Inaugural Lecture series. University of Ilorin, Nigeria Sirajudeen, A. A. (2003). “colonial Impact on the Issue of Arabic in Nigeria” Anyigba Journal of Arts and Humanities. vol. 2, no 2, -----------------, 2010 “Literature and Society: A Survey of Arabic Writings of Nigerian Authorship since Independence” unpublished article. Umar, A. (2012). Religion and language in the transformation of education in northern Nigeria during British colonial rule, 1900-1960. Intellectual Discourse, Vol 20, No 2. Retrieved May 7, 2013.pp165 -188 from http://www.iium.edu.my /intdiscourse/index.php/islam/article/view/299 U.S. Army. (1983). Military Leadership. FM 22-100. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved 28 April, 2013 from htt://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader /leadcom.html
Switching For a Reason: The Socio-Psychological Reasons for Code Switching to English in Malayalam Literary Texts Tania Mary Vivera Assistant Professor, Dept of English, St. Teresa’s College, Kerala, India
[email protected] _______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract Humans are capable of constructing many changes, and language being an ‘overused’ tool, it is only natural that we model and remodel it to confirm to our tastes. In this reconstruction process, switching and mixing other languages with our own is an elementary task. But what is the rationale that drives speakers to select one linguistic variety over another? Are the societal norms engineering the choice or is code switching a reflection of the psychological constructs of the speaker/speech act? Code switching has become a common phenomenon in bilingual and multilingual communities. In Kerala, a southern state in India, the official language is Malayalam. English is widely used as a language of wider communication next in status to Malayalam and the digital acquiescence has made it an absolute necessity to have at least communicative knowledge in English. Thus, it is only natural that English becomes one of the obvious choices for code switching. The objective of the study is to analyze the sociological / psychological reasons behind the act of code switching in Malayalam and the choice of English as the other code. The data is procured from thirty seven literary texts of Malayalam literature. The emotional/mental states and a conscious or unconscious effort of the speaker/hearer decide the code use. Various psychological motivations like anger, sympathy, inhibitions, empathy, formal, informal, superiority, intimacy, alienation, etc. are considered in the analysis. The sociolinguistic approach to this study examines the choice of code in relation to the various social aspects like economic status of the speaker/hearer, education level, social background, generation differences, family/non family relations, taboo words, euphemistic expressions, modern lifestyle, prestige, value, etc.
Keywords: Bilingualism, Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, code switching.
Introduction No language exists in isolation. Just as a biological organism, languages also need to evolve for their survival. And their evolution greatly depends on the surroundings in which they exist and are used. Languages, whether geneologically or typologically related, have a tendency to connect to other languages that are geographically contiguous to them. Studies on various phenomena which occur when languages are in contact -convergence, interference, borrowing, pidginization, code-mixing, code switching, etc. - have been conducted widely (Weinreich 1953, Annamalai 1986, Sridhar 1981). Code switching (CS) is a natural faculty of persons who are comfortable with more than one language as in the case of bilinguals and multilinguals. Code switching can be defined as the use of more than one language in a single conversation, which has its why in the socio-psychological make-up of the bilingual/multilingual speaker/hearer and its how in the structural set up of the matrix language and the embedded language (Scotton 1993). People who code switch are not only expected to have the ability to use (at least minimally) either of the two languages or language varieties but also the ability to mix the two languages, without normally defying the grammatical system rules of both the languages. There are possibly two extremes to this switching faculty (Weinreich 1953), one is a rigid adherence to one language which restricts code switching as an effective communication strategy and the second is an abnormal proneness to switching, resulting from an insufficient adherence to one language, which can result in humor.
s¡´ku¶¶¢¶e ph¡·a¼ vannappaÆ µ¡n s¡mku¶¶¢¶e mautt ®n¼¼e h¡n· k°¸¶ k½°s c®ytu Samkutty's-father-came-i-Samkutty's-mouth-my-hand-with-closed E.g.
When Samkutty's father came, I closed Samkutty's mouth with my hand C-Annie to Joy
ILCC 2013
622
A similar characteristic (abnormal proneness) is found in the constructions of bilingual children (Tracy 1995). It has been found that in bilingual child speech the code switching might occur at the morpheme level where the language is switched alternately at morpheme boundaries. This feature raises the doubt whether the child has learnt to distinguish between the two languages or whether he/she has instead developed one single, fused system which has shared features of both languages. E.g. Ich cover mich(-)self up. (H.2; 4) I..... my..... The social and psychological reasons behind code switching have been discussed by many. Grosjean (1982) discusses the phenomenon of the ‘most available word’ at the moment. If the speaker patiently searches he/she will get the equivalent word in the host language, and the discovery is proved when they use the appropriate native word the second/third time they use it in their speech. E.g. 1) The use of the native word 2) The use of the English word
n¡ra´´amaµµa at the third attempt in the Text 9.
koyinsi·ans¡¸ followed promptly by its Malayalam equivalent in Text 11
Certain topics also trigger a switch as the switched language might be the language frequently used in that particular domain. The various registers like scientific, mechanical, official, etc. ensure a switch. In their study of Mexican Americans, Valdes Fallis (1976) and Lance (1979) had noticed that there is often a switch from Spanish to English where money matters are concerned. Greetings-meeting and parting, discourse markers, politeness markers, etc. are mostly code switched. E.g. Please, yes, ok, all right, thank you, sorry, but, then, so, etc. Gumperz (1970, 1976a) stresses that switching at a particular moment conveys semantically significant information. Gal (1979) adds on by stating that listeners scrutinize code switching as an indicator of the speaker’s momentary attitudes, state of mind, communicative intents and emotions. Anger is considered as a strong motivation for a code switch. Gumperz (1970) also notes that switching emphasizes varying degrees of speaker’s involvement ranging from intimacy to detachment. This feature is specially investigated in the analysis of Text 1 in this study. Hoffman(1991) and Saville- Troike (1986) catalogs the reasons for code switching as talking about a particular topic, quoting somebody else, being emphatic about something, interjection, repetition used for clarification, and intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor, which are reaffirmed by the results of this study. Code switching may also be seen as evidence of solidarity, exclusion, confidentiality, authority, expertise, disagreement, annoyance, etc.
Conceptual Framework Code is a set of symbols and rules intended to carry information. Through an extension of this definition all written and spoken languages are codes. Wardhaugh (1986) defines code as the particular language or dialect used on any given occasion. Thus, if two languages are used in a certain utterance, both of them are codes and the speaker alternates between the two codes in the conversation. Code switching is an aspect of bilingualism which has been studied from various perspectives. Interest on the social aspects of code switching and its definitions began with Weinreich (1953) who had written about a ‘switch’ in the language depending on the situation. The coinage of the term is attributed to Haugen (1956). Gumperz (1982) defines conversational code switching as ‘the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems’. According to him the major functions of conversational code switching are as follows a) quotations, b) addressee specification, c) Interjections, d) reiteration, e) message qualification and f) personalization vs. objectivization. Around the same time, Grosjean (1982) came up with a simpler definition of code switching as ‘the alternate use of two or more languages in the same utterance’. Poplack (1980)used code switching as cover term –‘ I have been using the term “code-switching” here to refer to the alternate use of two codes in a
fully grammatical way, in the same discourse and even in the same sentence’. In the purview of this study, code switching is considered as a cover term including intersentential and intrasentential shifts and the distinction is not accentuated. Code switching boundaries are signaled in the data by a change of font from regular to italics or vice-versa. A gloss and an informal translation accompany each sentence, if the translation happens to be identical to the gloss the latter is not repeated.
Background and Objectives Code switching has become a common phenomenon in bilingual and multilingual communities. In the southern Indian state Kerala, the official language is Malayalam. The language shows a high influence of Sanskrit. Malayalam is used by 95.99% of people in Kerala and the percentage of Bilinguals are 28.75% and trilinguals are 16.6%. The percentage of Malayalam-English Bilinguals are 21.24% as compared to Malayalam-Hindi bilinguals 3.12% (2001 Census). The languages which are used in Kerala other than Malayalam are English, Tamil and Kannada. English is widely used as a language of wider communication next in status to Malayalam. English has jumped up the ladder as ‘the’ language of the Information Technology era and considering the rapid pace at which enormous amount of information is getting transferred digitally, it becomes an absolute necessity to have at least communicative knowledge in English. English is introduced as second language at the primary level of education in Kerala. The teaching of English in schools has turned out to be a sponsored, institutional arrangement and it is the phase of Sponsored bilingualism (Mallikarjun 2004). In this scenario it is only natural that English becomes one of the obvious choices for code switching. This study does a qualitative analysis of the socio-psychological reasons behind the act of code switching to English while using Malayalam language.
Data collection and Methodology The data is procured from a range of literary texts of Malayalam literature. A random selection of various genres of works including novels, short stories, novellas, memoirs, etc. was chosen for the study. Heterogeneity was maintained in the selection of authors to aid further sociolinguistic research on the topic. The author and texts used for the analysis are schematically represented are as follows. Table 1: The author & texts index Sl. no
Author’s name
Gender
Religion
M
Hindu
F
Works Mus
Chr
Text.No. for analysis
Total Works
1-3
3
4-7
4
8
1
9
1
10
10
11
1
12
1
5
13
5
10
14
10
15
1
Short story
1
M.T Vasudevan Nair
x
x
3
2
N.S. Madhavan
x
x
4
3
M.Mukundhan
x
x
4
Vinu Joseph
x
5
Nirmala
6
Sara Thomas
7
Sakariya
x
8
Arshad Bathery
x
9
Madhavikutty
10
Punathil Kunhabdulla Total works
x
x
memoir
1 10
x
x
1
x x x
novella
1 x
x
novel
x x
1
1
37
500 code switched sentences were collected from the above sources and only primary data is used in the study. A total of 37 texts were selected, and these are the creative works of 10 major authors of Malayalam literary field. The texts are in Malayalam and were published in Kerala between 1994-2006. Only the newest editions of the works were considered for the study. All the authors are native speakers of Malayalam. No particular conceptual model, proposed by scholars of bilingualism/code switching, was chosen for the present analysis of data. Though the authors of the literary texts have been chosen from various social backgrounds like religion, gender, etc. the variations in their use of code switching is not studied. Literature is considered as a reflection on the societal language use and analysed for its characteristics rather than the
ILCC 2013
624
medium of delivery. The socio-psychological reasons for code switching-which were determined in this study- are not arranged in their order of preference, further research should be applied to this area.
Literature Review Researchers focused on code switching as it embodies not only variation, but the link between linguistic form and language use as social practice. Psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic perspectives of code switching have been studied since the turn of the century. The psycholinguistic perspective has focused on understanding the nature of the systematicity of code switching, as a way of revealing linguistic and potentially cognitive processes. Research on the psychological and social dimensions of code switching has largely been devoted to answering the questions of why speakers code switch and what the social meaning of code switching is for them. Current research focuses more on code switching aspects in different domains – music, books, advertisement, mass media, and computer mediated communication, etc. Though code switching has been investigated from various dissimilar angles, the number of languages chosen for the research remains a dewdrop in the world languages. Universally recognized languages (English, Spanish, Chinese, etc.) are analyzed more often and less popular languages are left to speculations. The wide variety of topics in terms of their relation to code switching are interesting and can be explored to cover various areas of psychology, anthropology, genealogy, history/comparative studies, information technology, computer mediated corpus and others. Dravidian languages including Malayalam have not been researched extensively regarding their code switching behaviour and the psychological and sociological analysis of Malayalam literary corpus in this study is an attempt at decoding the switching phenomenon in Malayalam.
Analysis Code switching to English in Malayalam is a natural phenomenon in the evolution of Malayalam language. Malayalam chose one of its closest spatial companions, to assist in its convergence process and the phenomenon has been very productive, in terms of vocabulary. 500 code switched sentences were collected from 37 Malayalam literary texts and analyzed thoroughly for the socio-psychological motivations behind code switching. A sample text analysis of Text 1 by Perumazayude Pittenn by M. T. Vasudevan Nair is given below: Characters:
Protagonist/father/Son/taxi-driver
Taxi-driver: Uses airport register in English to exhibit his knowledge of the situation /surroundings. Through his assertiveness and his choice of vocabulary, he gains command/superiority over the protagonist.
l¡n· ceytu, aµcumini¼¼ biph°¼ ¶aim (landed-five-minutes-before-time) Protagonist/father: Code switches only to son and not to the taxi-driver though the latter is well versed in English. This maybe because there is a lack of social/emotional motivation between them (protagonist and taxi driver). The father uses the English language to bond with his son and daughter-in-law. The motivation here is to establish emotional bonding. The father is desperate to build a rapport with his son and code switches in his replies to the son's queries. The code switched sentences are simple in structure and this reflects the awkwardness/diffidence of the protagonist in reaching out to his son as well as in the use of 'new' language between them. The father is slightly disoriented after meeting and interacting with his daughter-in- law. He is confused with the choice of the farewell greetings.
v®lkkaÆ? gu· ¶u s¢ y£? a¶° nais ¶u h®v m®¼¼ y£? (welcome? good to see you? or is it nice to have met you?) Son: He is an ardent code switcher, and CS is employed for mainly two purposes, to establish his US-employed status and to pin down the emotional as well as individualistic differences between father and son. The language choice ( English) is a barrier to their bonding. And it accentuates the emotional distance which is otherwise present between them. Even an intimate matter like his marriage is code switched, and this makes the exchange very formal and solemn. The son's ease with English is evident from his choice of
words and his frequency and complexity of CS constructions. Summary: Two contrasting motivations are behind the use of CS between father and son. The son is employing CS to draw emotional/ psychological/linguistic line between him and his father, while the father is engaging the same to bridge the gap that years of separation had brought between them. In this case, the motivations are that of alienation and de-alienation. The significance of linguistic choice is evident when at the end of the story, the daughter-in-law (Canadian, Mother Tongue is French) uses the Malayalam word 'accha'(Father in Malayalam) to address the father and seek his blessings. The use of the right code, even as minimally as a single word could cross over years of cultural/emotional estrangement.
Research findings and Discussions All 37 texts were analysed likewise for their code switching tendencies and these motivations can be categorized as sociological, psychological and linguistic reasons. Some reasons belong to more than one category, but are classified under one, for enumeration purposes. Sociological reasons
natural to English/convent educated professionals/non-professionals, as a declaration/indicator of economic rise, for its euphemistic quality-code switching to English was preferred over words which are tabooed and terms which carry negative connotations/vulgar/socially stigmatized words, to symbolize urbanization/westernization/consumerism/materialism/nuclear family/globalization/digitalization/trendy/fashionable and modern lifestyle, social/linguistic affiliation- Anglo Indians are expected to be knowledgeable in English and are more prone to code switching because of their linguistic affiliation to English, as an mark of Communist sympathy/interest, because of the prestige/high status value associated with English, the loyal ( pun intended) English educated persons will understand matters only if they are in English and refuse to understand if spoken to only in Malayalam, to maintain professional distance between doctor-patient, superior-subordinate, manager/personal secretary, etc., English is the language of mass media, information technology, advertisements and digital media, influence of Hollywood, Bollywood cinema, to define terms/ concepts unfamiliar to Indian culture, and to indicate superiority of knowledge and the wisdom/seniority of age of the speaker.
Psychological reasons to gain command/superiority over others, to establish emotional bonding with the (English educated) younger generation-de-alienation, used by the younger generation to widen the generation gap with elders-alienation/hostility, the youth is more comfortable with English. It is the language of the youth, used so as not to appear outdated/peer pressure, to foster detachment and depersonalize/ impersonalize the subject, to affect/fake mastery in English language, because the English word is ‘what is most available’ or ‘what comes first’ to the speaker’s mind, to appear informal/casual, for implicit suggestion of matters, when the language of deliberation is English, to maintain subtleness, objectivity, casualness, coyness of matters, for indirect sexual propositions, to indicate cultural/linguistic crisis and personal/cultural estrangement, as human relationships become more casual/ informal, kinship terms/relationship terms are affected, personal/economical freedom/independence extended to language use (switching codes), and under the influence of alcohol.
ILCC 2013
626
Linguistic reasons
used in various domains due to lexical deficiency/lack of equivalents in host language-sports, insurance, real estate, income tax, shares, artistic, religious, official, scientific/mechanical, medical, marketing/sales and publishing/print register. Among religions, Christianity is more prone to switching to English because of its cultural affiliation to English, defective semantic extension, to reproduce the original English quotes/phrases and there by declare mistrust in the faithfulness of translation, for semantic depth/ semantic range-to reach the depths of meaning unrevealed/ unreached by native terms, to achieve stylistic, satirical and creative manipulation of language(s)-whole narrative strategy, when a single English word acts as a ‘trigger’ for switching codes, and for character specifications/portrayal. ex: adventurous/ aloof.
The study of the sociological, psychological and structural reasons for code switching to English indicate the following: Western thoughts and values are transforming the ethnic value system, and the native tongue is considered to be less appropriate at various conversational junctures. The language choice of English determines the world view, but the societal constraints affixes the speakers to their ethnic culture, thus resulting in severe identity/individualistic crisis. For example in Text 10, the primary code switcher in the text is an educated professional. Her narration is intercepted with numerous English verbs like ‘to impress’, ‘adjust’, ‘save’, etc. The phrase ‘excuse me’ is code switched to English. This usage has been more or less adapted to Malayalam language and is comprehended by almost all monolingual speakers. It is another of the politeness phrase/term borrowed from English. The child in the story is code switching while discussing her studies. The excessive prominence given to English medium education, has forced the students to mostly mug up typical English phrases/terms. There is a crisis of identity underlying the text. Though majority of the content words-nouns, verbs and adjectives- ex: comments, slide, critic, dryer, etc. are in English the grammatical structure and word order is that of Malayalam. Very less sentences are used without code switching to English, moreover, no pure English sentences are used in this text. The narrator cannot do without English but cannot forego her native mother tongue too. The word ‘style’ is phonologically naturalized to the extent of unrecognition as in
‘À¼¼ailan kaman¼¼a¶I’. It may be because the word (another related word is ‘fashion’) has many decades of adoption to Malayalam language behind it. The professional distance and the knowledge superiority/prestige attained by the use of English is alien to the family oriented, emotionally binding culture. The naturalness and natural properties/aspects which enrich the native tongues are getting lost due to their being Englishized. In Text 9, the technological/digital term switches, Stephen’s choice of an English poem, the doctor’s animated code switching, and the code preference for sexual advances all suggest that the motivations for code switching to English are as varied as subtility, objectivity, impersonation, alienation, taboo words, medical, educational, professional, lack of term equivalents, religious preference, prestige, globalisation and digitalization. English being ‘the’ language of the mass media, digital media, media communication and cinema, native languages are left to fend for themselves. Their growth and promotion to the digital realm is not adequately supported by the government or the researchers. The economically forward class, fluent in their use of English does not require a native ‘substitute’ for English unlike the economically and socially backward class. The linguistic strategies/techniques (marked choices) of code switching employed by the younger generation to distance themselves or disrespect their parents hit their mark because, the language choice is least expected at that particular situation and the parental adaptation is strenuous. E.g. text 1. Moreover, the children can always escape the guilt by hiding behind the “outlaw” mask which says that “it’s not really me
who’s speaking”. (Myers-Scotton 2001). The parents try to reach out and bridge the generation gap by graduating to code switched utterances in English. The demands of the fast changing, westernized and technologically advanced society has compelled the older generation to learn and use the new tongue so that they can “survive” in their jobs and home. E.g. Text 1 and 10(5) Text 10 (5)is a satire on the unhealthy addiction to consumerism, mass media and technology. The protagonist declares that our lives are directed by TV remote clicks, channels and mega-serials and we are the hungry consumers of ads/serials and War news. This has also changed our attitude towards language and communication. The message in the answering machine is an example of this. It is impolite as well as rude, and unwilling to make a connection. The language use has become more egoistic and people are becoming lonely unconnected islands. The shrinking job market have brought in English terms like resume, bio data, retirement, interview, performance, target, etc. His lack of technical knowledge (computer processing) has forced the Protagonist Vinod to quit his job and this inability to be in tune with the demanding job market has made him gibberish and mentally deranged. The accelerated upsurge of consumerism and information technology had caught him unawares and left him feeling restless and feverish. He is forced to plead for a job as well as use the language of the super power (English) to assist his search. English, the language of globalization/information technology (the linguistic super power) and America, the global super power have joined hands and is looting the whole world/world languages. His hallucination about the American Army looting his hometown and declaring ‘then, we can re-built the city’ is a true reflection of this state. The threat in the text is not just personal but also global and linguistic in nature. The educational institutions imparting English education have strongly advocated the use of English for communication among students, and this has resulted in walled barriers between “those who can speak English nicely” and those who cannot. Students who are unable to rise in their English proficiency are subjected to peer group pressure and taunting. This social pressure prompts one to fake his/her mastery in English by using set phrases/quotes and flaunt his/her half-baked knowledge of English. For example in Text 12, there are phrases like
‘®ll¡Æ °kke °kke (Everything ok, ok) and ‘ma·amm® v¡¶¶¢s yuva¼ neyiÆ? kaÆ hiya¼ ai lau y£.(madamwhat-is-your-name? come-here-I-love-you) and n° menÀan n° menÀan (No mention, No mention).
The non-intimate, casual, unsympathetic, detached characteristics of code switched sentences are because of the unfamiliarity and foreign nature of English. We cannot normally express intimate feelings through a non-intimate language. But extensive use of English is slowly affected the way we think. The language of our thoughts is graduating towards English and the strangeness of the language might prompt an inadequate approximation of our thoughts, leading to misinterpreted actions and vice versa. The frequent use of English terms, shrinks out the native semantic lexicon and ‘what comes first’ will always be used the next time too. There would be a repeated usage of the non native lexicon and the native lexicon diminishes as a result. In Text 11, The two protagonists Appu and Nileena constantly code switch especially using politeness terminology like sorry, please, thanks and greetings/wishes-good morning, good night, etc. They are the epitomes of present generation youth who live a life of adventure, independence-financial and personal- from a very early age. Their personal independence is reflected in the use of their language too. They cannot be bound by linguistic or personal constraints. They possess the freedom to switch between codes as and when they like, however it is interesting to note that they do not jump rules of either language. Code switching to English comes natural to the educated youth and the motivations are sometimes indefinable. It is a regular and effortless process. Nileena code switches at length to Appu using the phrase ‘a sense of belonging’. The characters are very comfortable with English and it has been promoted to the level of ‘belonging’ to the speaker/hearer. Nileena’s feelings are mostly expressed in code switched sentences. The yet undefined and gathering intimacy between the couple is nurtured by the frequent code switching. The motivations for CS are to maintain subtlety and casualness in the relationship. Nileena is thinking of giving a ‘surprise’ to Appu, another evidence of code switched thoughts. Malayalam equivalents carrying similar nuances of excitement and spontaneity are not available. But later, Nileena in her communication with the old man/visitor is careful with her speech. She is unconsciously aware that a switch is made when she uses the term ‘coincidence’ and is also aware that she might be speaking to a monolingual, so she promptly adds the Malayalam equivalent
ILCC 2013
628
after the code switched term. The English term is ‘what comes first’ or the ‘most available word’ (Grosjean 1982) to her; she gets the Malayalam equivalent only on the second attempt. Kinship terms have been vastly affected in Malayalam and this indicates an encroachment to the core of the Malayalam language. The kinship terms of first generation and blood relations are altered more than others. E.g. daddy, mummy, brother, cousin etc. This indicates that maybe the basic and unmarked terms are affected first. This might be because of the frequency of use of these terms and the growing casual and informal nature of all human relationships. The switch is mostly limited to the younger generation speech addressing the older generation and less in the opposite direction. E.g. In text 10(4) the character addresses her mother in the letter as 'dear mummy' but ends the letter by using the native term for 'daughter'. The use of the code switched term ‘godmother’ in Text 11, is another anglicized kinship term used. It is foreign to Indian culture, and so has been adopted. The informal and objective characteristic of the non native language supports this casualness which has become the hallmark of relationships nowadays. Subjects that are tabooed in Indian culture or socially stigmatized such as sex, romance, politics, etc. make use of the implicitness of the English language. The communication which was mainly signaled by sign language or body language earlier is now replaced by the non-native language. This also gives the impression that the person is hiding behind the mask of “I didn’t say it”. The lack of equivalents in the native languages especially in culturally and socially unrelated domains like sports, insurance, real estate, income tax, shares, artistic, non-native religions, official, scientific/mechanical, medical, marketing/sales and publishing have contributed much to the English code switched vocabulary. Since no new words, are created, borrowing them from other languages is the only choice. But sometimes, the code switched terms trigger a switch of the entire utterance. However, even if equivalents are present for some registeral terms, English terms are preferred more because of ease of use and structural complexities of the native terms. The semantics of some English terms are sometimes (historically) extended incorrectly and are used in their mistaken sense by Malayalam speakers, e.g. circuit, weight, power etc. Most of these words are phonologically naturalized adding to their non-acceptance in English vocabulary. This may be due to incorrect understanding of their original meaning. English quotations/phrases/idioms are code switched maintaining their originality, taking into consideration the uniqueness of meaning and the fallacies of the unfaithful translation. E.g. Text 8 and 9. In Text 9, from the beginning, the narrator assumes that most readers are knowledgeable in English. He prefers using original English words in his text, either in the original English script or English words in Malayalam script. His main character Govindhan is prefixed with the word ‘Go-’ to supplement the nature of the character. His inclination towards the literary/stylistic features of English is apparent when he produces a full-fledged English sentence on the initial page of his novel. The adjective ‘ancient’ as well as the prefix “go” is repeated throughout the novel and this is used as an effective stylistic strategy. The author’s comfortability with the second language is obvious. He also presumes his readers to be at a comfortable competence level in English and expects them to understand and appreciate his stylistic manipulations. He is aware of a transition in the nature of readers of Malayalam texts, their shift from monolingual competence to an asymmetrical competence in Malayalam and English. The narrator is disappointed that Malayalam is unable to produce an equivalent for the verb “sai¼¼a¶ikkuka”(wink eyes). He is embarrassed about the imperfections in his language and declares his unsatisfaction to his readers. His is very subtly remarking about the unnatural dependence on English language. Later, The author reproduces a philosophical quote about life from three great philosophers. The quote is in the original English script. The author graduates from phrases that could be read but not understood by monolingual speakers to phrases/quotes that can be neither read nor understood by those readers who are not familiar with the language or script. This technique is also used to maintain the originality of the quote and it should be specially noted that no translation or gloss is added to the quote to aid a monolingual reader. The
author tries to justify his use of English terms in the text (code switching) by giving two reasons a) Lack of equivalent terms in Malayalam b)The linguistic domination of English has reached such an extent that readers/speakers of Malayalam understand things better only if the matter is presented in English. The author’s view on using English is significant because these are some of the reasons why speakers code switch to English while speaking Malayalam. His basic advice is be balanced in the use of a second language. When equivalents are not available, there is no choice but to use English terms, but we should also know that there would always be a limit to our competence of English, so excessive fascination for English language/education is unhealthy. He also believes in maintaining the sanctity of the language and avoiding inappropriate/unsuitable translations.
Conclusion Viewing and constructing the world from one cultural point of view may appear to be more normative and refined and therefore more conventionally accepted. The same constructs can be viewed, however, from two or more world views in a rich bilingual/multicultural environment. In this case, one language might help the other, and sometimes both together may create a new idea, image, thought, behavior, outlook, organization, and adaptation, and thus move culture to new adaptive places in the dynamics of cross-cultural life. Code switching to English, when looked at from a different perspective and foregoing the possibility of a language shift, puts forward many factors which are advantageous to the Malayali community. Their mastery of English and the ability to code switch is a passport to steady income, social recognition, ever-expanding modern/western life style and international travel. The global nature of English has brought the world to the doorstep of its speakers. The influx of social networking sites predominantly in English and their popularity with the youth has led to code switching to English being the ‘norm’ in communication. The transition is witnessed in the code switched lyrics of Malayalam songs, movie screenplay, and Malayalam movie names like ‘Up and Down’, ‘Salt & Pepper’, ‘Cocktail’, ‘English’, ‘Bachelor Party’ etc. Code switching to English is motivated by covert psychological salacity for power and dominance and an overt means to quick societal recognition. Malayalam language, its connoisseurs and patrons has taken this transition in its stride and seems to enjoy its changing yet unchanged linguistic individuality as well as the collateral privileges granted to it by its universally code switched companion.
References Annamalai,E. (1986). Convergence: A Distinctive Process of Language Contact. Revised version of lecturers given in Linguistic Society of India. Census of India (2001). Language: India, States and Union Territories. New Delhi: Office of the Registrar Gal, S. (1979). Language shift: Social determinants of linguistic change in bilingual Austria. New York: Academic Press. Grosjean, F.(1982). Life with Two Languages: An introduction to bilingualism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gumperz, J. (1982). Conversational code switching. In Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Discourse Strategies. Gumperz, J.J (eds.)
Gumperz, J. (1970). Verbal strategies in multilingual communication. Bilingualism and Language Contact, GURT 1970, James E. Alatis (eds.), 129-147. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Haugen, E. (1956). Bilingualism in the Americas: A Bibliography and Research Guide. University of Alabama: The American Dialect Society. Hoffman, C. (1991). An Introduction to Bilingualism. New York: Longman.
Lance, D. (1979). Spanish-English bilingualism in the American Southwest. In Sociolinguisitic studies in language contact, ed. W. Mackey and J. Ornstein. The Hague: Mouton
ILCC 2013
630
Leyew, Z. (1998). Code-Switching: Amharic-English. Journal of African Cultural Studies, Vol. 11, No. 2. (Dec., 1998), 197-216. Mallikarjun, B.(2003). Indian multilingualism, language policy and the digital divide, SCALLA 2004 working conference. Kathmandu, Nepal, January 5-7 2004. Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social Motivations for Code switching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Poplack, S. (1979/1980). Sometimes I’ll Start a Sentence in Spanish y Termino en Español: Toward a Typology of Code-Switching.” Linguistics, 18, 581-618/ In Wei, Li. (eds), The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge, 2000.221-256 Sridhar, S.N. (1981).Language Teaching and literacy in South Asia. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 2. 219-238. Tracy, R. (1995). Language Mixing as a Challenge for Linguistics. In Cross-linguistic structures in Simultaneous Bilingualism. Susanne Dopke (eds.) Studies in Bilingualism Series Vol 21. John Benjamins Company. Valdes-Fallis, G.(1976). Social interaction and code-switching patterns: A case study of Spanish-English alternation. In G. Keller et al. (eds.), Bilingualism in the bicentennial and beyond. New York: Bilingual Press. Wardhaugh, R. (1986). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. Weinreich, U.(1953). Languages in Contact: Findings and problems. New York: The Linguistics circle of New York.
Cross-linguistic and Cross-disciplinary Variation of Lexical bundles in Academic Writing Hadi Kashiha1, Chan Swee Heng2, and Helen Tan3 1
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
[email protected]
2
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
[email protected]
3
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
[email protected] Corresponding Author: Hadi Kashiha, 1
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
[email protected]
Abstract The present paper reviews lexical bundles in academic writing from two different viewpoints namely linguistic and disc ipline, directed at how academic writers belonging to different disciplines or linguistic backgrounds construct their disc ourses through lexical bundles. As cohesive devices, lexical bundles are an indispensible part of the text and play a cruci al role in shaping propositions, evolving the text, guiding readers through the flow of information and gaining the writer ’s proffered meaning. By using lexical bundles, academic writers are able to attain naturalness in their writings and creat e a more reader-friendly approach to the unfolding text. Bearing the significance of lexical bundles in mind, this review paper aims to examine the effect of disciplinary variation and linguistic differences on the use of lexical bundles in acad emic writing. Most researchers believe that the frequency as well as the use of lexical bundles is different across discipli nes and from one language to another language. Therefore, through a review of previous studies, there is a systematic in vestigation of evidence to support the above claims. Possible limitations of previous studies are discussed and some imp lications for further research is presented. Keywords: Academic writing, linguistic variation, disciplinary variations, lexical bundle
1. Introduction Language learners have always been interested in learning and using multi-word expressions to show that they have a good command of the target language. These multi-word fixed expressions are one of the most important aspects of fl uent linguistic production and play an important role in the process of language learning (Hyland, 2008). They also attra ct many academic writers who use the language for specific or academic purposes. With the arrival of computer technology, the calculation and analysis of word-combinations has become much easie r (Jablonkai, 2012). The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber et al., 1999) was the first corpus fra mework for studying and calculating the frequency of longer word combinations. The next step was to introduce lexical bundles as corpus investigation; they are, also known as clusters and chunks (Hyland, 2008) as a new term to differentia te these recurrent word chains from other types of multi-word expressions (e.g. idioms). Biber and Conrad (1999) defin e lexical bundles as “multi-word expressions which occur frequently and with accidental sequences of three or more wo rds (e.g. in the case of the, do you want me to)” (p. 183). Bundles are actually frequently occurring series of ‘unexpected ’ word forms that do not have any special sequence pattern and appear to come together by chance. Nonetheless, they pl ay an important role in understanding the meaning of specific contexts and contribute significantly to the coherence of t he text (Hyland, 2008). In addition, they are manifested differently according to the nature of the text. Phrases like what I want to say or as far as I know would refer to group discussions and conversations while as it noted before or in accor dance with would belong to an academic corpus.
ILCC 2013
632
Recent studies (Biber et al., 1999; Wray, 2000; Biber, 2006; Cortes, 2002, 2004; Hyland, 2008) have witnessed the significance of lexical bundles as a major cause of coherence in academic texts of different discourse communities. A majority of the studies conducted on the notion of lexical bundles have focused on structural and functional analysis of these recurring expressions (Hyland, 2008; Cortes, 2004; Strunkyt & Jurkūnait, 2008; Adel & Erman, 2012; Bal 2010; Chen & Baker, 2010). Structural categorization of bundles was first introduced by Biber and his colleagues (1999). They found lexical bundles structurally complex, usually incomplete and not fixed and they classified them into 8 broad structural categories: noun phrase + of, other noun phrases, Prepositional phrase +of, other prepositional phrases, passive + prep phrase fragment, anticipatory it + verb/adj, be + noun/adjectival phrase and others. (Biber, et al. 1999). Accompanying the identification of the forms, there was also the need to have other frameworks for the analyzing o f the functions or meanings of lexical bundles in a text. Biber, et al. (2004) identified three major discourse functions for lexical bundles. Stance bundles, discourse organizer bundles and referential bundles. They define stance bundles as the ‘‘overt expression of an author’s or speaker’s attitudes, feelings, judgments, or commitment concerning the message’’. They argue that discourse organizer bundles try to “indicate the general overview of the sentence”, while, referential bu ndles “signalize and point out some important features of a unit to be important in a way” (pp. 386-388). Another framework was introduced by Hyland (2008) as a more refined version of Biber’s classification. Hyland’s classification identified three major discourse functions for lexical bundles and introduced sub-categories which specific ally reflect the concerns of research writing. These are: Research-oriented bundles, text-oriented bundles and participan t-oriented bundles. Research-oriented bundles “help writers to structure their activities and experiences of the real world ”. Text-oriented bundles have to do with the cohesion of the text and its meaning in the form of logical arguments and “ Participant-oriented bundles focus on the writer or reader of the text”. (p. 14) In the last 20 years, many researchers have also branched into the issue of disciplinary variation while analyzing le xical bundles (Cortes, 2004; Hyland, 2008; Jalali, Eslami Rasekh, Tavangar Rizi, 2008; Strunkyt & Jurkūnait, 200 8). Some other researchers have considered linguistic variation as a factor that influences the use of lexical bundles (Karabacak & Qin, 2013; Adel & Erman, 2012; Rafiee, Tavakoli & Amirian, 2011; Chen & Baker, 2010). Yet, in the existing studies, little research has been done on roles of linguisti c and disciplinary variation on the use of lexical bundles in academic writing. Therefore, the p urpose of this review is to shed more light on the notion of lexical bundles in academic writing by focusing on two different perspectives, linguistic and disciplinary. The aim is to gather ev idence that can explain how native and nonnative writers from different disciplinary and cultura l backgrounds are influenced in the use of lexical bundles in order to contribute to the coherence in a text, create a realistic academic voice and attain naturalness in their writings. Secondly, it is also concerned with the me thod that enables the investigation.
2. Methodology of Review In meeting the aim of the study, there were some steps taken in finding and synthesizing the reviewed articles relate d to this study. First, different online websites were searched using key words such as lexical bundles, disciplinary varia tion, cultural background, academic writing, functional and structural classification of bundles. Then, reading through re ference sections of the findings introduced some new related articles. The databases and websites used for the search for the related studies were primarily Google Scholar and Sciencedirect. The exploration included 35 published articles tha t spanned the last 20 years and among them, 6 most related articles were picked out of this corpus. The reason for not se lecting the remaining articles was because they were not straightforwardly or directly relevant to the focus of this study. The method of the review in this study started by dividing the selected articles into two sections: disciplinary and studie s that can be identified culturally in terms of being country specific (cross linguistically), on lexical bundles. Each articl e then was reviewed on the basis of its topic, corpus, model, method, and findings. Then next step was to draw the attent ion to positive and negative points and possible shortcomings in the survey. Finally, the last stage discussed those streng ths, flaws, and limitations of the reviewed studies and put forwards some implications for future research.
3. Review of Related Studies on Lexical Bundles Review of related studies was done on the basis of two main categories: 1) Cross-disciplinary studies, and 2) Crosslinguistic studies. The most related studies in each category are reviewed and explained in detail.
3.1 Cross-disciplinary Studies As mentioned, having control over lexical bundles or other multi-word expressions is one of the most important asp
ects in linguistic production that leads to fluency. These recurring expressions are also referred to as extended collocatio ns that can help shape the meaning in context and building coherence in a text (Hyland, 2008). Therefore, they attract m any EAP scholars but only scant attention had been paid to their difference in use across disciplines. Hyland (2008) addressed this issue in his study. He analyzed the forms, structures and functions of 4-word lexical b undles in 120 published papers comprising 30 in the leading journals of four disciplines including electrical engineering and biology from the applied and pure sciences, and business studies and applied linguistics from the social sciences, fo rming a 3.5 million word corpus from research articles, doctoral dissertations and Master’s theses. The purpose was to c alculate the frequency of lexical bundles to find out about the disciplinary variation. The results revealed that electrical engineering articles have the greatest number of bundles, with 213 different bundles. Biology articles on the other hand, have the smallest range of lexical bundles, 131 different bundles. He also found that the other three disciplines did not s eem to use those bundles found in the engineering texts leading to the conclusion that engineering writers appear to hav e more dependence on pre-fabricated structures compared to writers in other fields. To provide a reason for the phenom enon is difficult, but “speculatively it could be a consequence of the relatively abstract and graphical nature of technical communication” (p. 11). Both Biology and Electrical engineering appear to rely more on statistics and visual representat ions to support their arguments. Hyland (2008) concluded that writers of different fields make use of a variety of ways t o “develop their arguments, establish their credibility and persuade their readers, with less than half of the top 50 bundle s in each list occurring in any other list” (p. 19). Addressing the question, --to what extent fixed expressions are exclusive to particular registers and also as to the di fference between disciplinary professional and beginner writing in relation to the use of frequent word combinations --. Cortes (2004) conducted a study on the use of the most frequent four-word lexical bundles (called target bundles) in the writing of university students of two disciplines, history and biology. Through a comparison of the published writings f rom history and biology journals, the results showed some disciplinary differences in the use of epistemic–impersonal/p robable–possible stance markers in Biology articles. To Cortes (2004), these bundles are used in a variety of ways to sh ow “the effect of an affirmation, or to make an affirmation or argument more tentative” (p. 411) in the corpus of publish ed biology writings. History writers, on the other hand, did not use these bundles frequently. The findings propose that i n order for the history writers to communicate the same functions, they prefer to use much ‘simpler’ vocabularies which are probably shorter than those of the lexical bundles investigated. The frequency of occurrence, and structural and functional analysis of lexical bundles are affected by the disciplina ry variation. To affirm this contention, Strunkyt and Jurkūnait (2008) investigated the use of lexical bundles in research articles in two disciplines: humanities, represented by research articles in linguistics and educology, and natural sciences , represented by research articles in physics and astronomy. The research analyzed and compared structural and function al types of lexical bundles in forty research articles (20 from each discipline). The findings revealed that writers in the h umanities used a larger number of lexical bundles compared to those in natural sciences. They also employed more stru ctural types of bundles which indicated that the language of humanities is more mixed and varied than the language of t he research articles in natural sciences. As for the functional analysis and its subcategories, research articles in natural s ciences resorted to more text organizing bundles in order to set up a communication with the reader. Stance and referent ial bundles were more frequent in humanities than in natural sciences. However, the referential bundles included a highe r level of transactional information, such as exemplification, relationship between topics, evaluations, qualifications in b oth humanities and natural sciences.
3.2 Cross-linguistic studies In general, investigation and research in the area of second language acquisition has always been integrated by a co mparison of different or similar aspects of language use among native and nonnative users. Comparing native and nonna tive learners in terms of using combinations of words that carry out specific meaning in a text is also of a great interest i n the area of academic writing. Adel and Erman (2012) compared L1 speakers of Swedish with British native-speakers i n terms of using lexical bundles in advanced academic writing of undergraduate university students of linguistics. The i nvestigation involved both quantitative and qualitative analysis of four-word lexical bundles in the Swedish local corpus ; Stockholm University Student English Corpus (SUSEC) which included 325 essays and over one million words. The r esults revealed that native speakers in general, used more lexical bundles than the nonnatives, with 130 as compared wit h 60. In terms of types of bundles, they also found some similarities and differences between native and nonnative learn ers. Both native and nonnative speakers used bundles such as the result from the and can be used to, while bundles like, as a result of, at the beginning of, the aim of this and to look at the were only more frequently found in the writing of na tive speakers. Non native speakers, on the other hand, employed these bundles using different words that are not in the f orm of lexical bundles (Adel and Erman, 2012). Teaching both L1 and L2 apprentice writers to use lexical bundles in their writing could to a great extent play a cru cial role in competent English academic writing (Karabacak & Qin, 2013). With this concern and on the basis of their h ypothesis, they conducted a comparative study and looked at cross-cultural variations concerning the use of lexical bund les in writings of Turkish (EFL), Chinese (EFL) and American (native speakers of English) university students. To this end, 29,532 articles were collected from the New York Times and SF Gate newspapers as a corpus in order to extract targ
ILCC 2013
634
et bundles out of one million words. Then the students’ papers were analyzed to see the extent they had used such bundl es in comparison. Results showed that there were some considerable differences between three groups of writers concer ning the frequency of the types of bundles. American papers had the largest number of 5-word lexical bundles while the number used is the lowest among the Chinese writers. Regarding target and reference bundles, the result showed that A merican and Turkish students employed these bundles quite similarly. Again, Chinese students used a lower number of t arget bundles, constituting only 3 per paper and about 1% of the whole paper as far as using reference bundles are conce rned. They concluded that natural acquisition of some lexical bundles through simple exposure may be difficult even for advanced English learners. Therefore, they need to be taught explicitly to hasten their acquisition process. Analyzing the frequency of lexical bundles in journalistic writing would be a great help to both native and non-nati ve academic authors and at the same time, guide readers to follow the information in the text and thus get a better under standing of the point of the writer. In regards to this idea, Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011) analyzed lexical bundles to investigate the frequency and distribution of structural types of lexical bundles between English newspapers publishe d in native and non-native contexts. To this end, a 3 million words corpus of four English newspapers, two published in Iran (the Iran Daily and Tehran Times) and the two others published in England (The Times and Independent) from 1/1/ 2009 to 15/1/2010 were used. Both groups of newspapers were compared with regards to the frequency and structural ty pes of lexical bundles. Their first finding was in line with the findings of previous studies conducted by Biber et al. (199 9) and a few others, in that most of the bundles in their corpus were phrasal rather than clausal bundles. In fact, Biber et al. (1999) made an important note in that the register of academic writing is distinguished from other modes such as con versation, in that it includes more phrasal rather than clausal bundles. The investigation showed marked similarities and differences between two groups of journalists in their use of lexi cal bundles. Overall, Iranian journalists used more lexical bundles compared with native speaker journalists. To Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011), the reason for such tendency to use lexical bundles more among non-native writers “could be due to the fact that they have already been exposed to such word sequences several times in their prior readings of v arious kinds of English literature” and thus the ability to use these lexical bundles is well inculcated and influenced by t his EFL experience (p.13). There was a remarkable inclination of using the structural types of lexical bundles among bo th Iranian and English journalists. The analysis based on structural categorization of bundles showed that both Iranian a nd English journalists used the same structural group of lexical bundles, probably showing the high degree of competen ce needed in journalistic writing.
4. Summary of Findings After reviewing the above related studies in regards to their methodology, total data, obtained results, explanation o f ideas, discussion of findings and of course recommendation and implication, the researchers found that each of the abo ve studies has its own strong and weak points. Both the research gap and the purpose of the study were fulfilled and des cribed in all the reviewed studies. From the overlaps, frequency and corpus-based investigation of lexical bundles, many researchers established that such word combinations are very text-dependent in academic writing. On the other hand, th e nature of use of lexical bundles in oral discourse has yet to be firmly established, and this leads to growing interest am ong researchers to study lexical bundles in spoken academic discourse. The supporters of studies on spoken discourse ar gue that the distribution of lexical bundles could be dependent on the, genre and the mode. As Biber and Barbieri (2007) pointed out, “the extent to which a speaker or writer relies on lexical bundles is strongly influenced by their communica tive purposes, in addition to general spoken/written differences. The explanation for the infrequent use of lexical bundle s in the academic written registers (textbooks and academic prose) apparently lies in the restricted communicative goals of those registers—focused on informational communication—rather than the written mode per se”. (p. 273)
Concerning the discussion of findings, among the studies, Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011) and Karabaca k and Qin’s (2013) works suffered from the fact that they did not take draw on the explicit details from the examples an d figures of their corpus while discussing their findings. In contrast, however, Hyland (2008), Cortes (2004), and Adel a nd Erman (2012) supported their results by giving ample examples and explanations exploited from their analyzed data and discussed them in a lucid and comprehensive way. Apart from these differences, almost all the studies have applied the framework proposed by Biber et al. (1999, 2004) to analyze the frequency and distribution of structural types of lexi cal bundles but concerning functional analysis, Hyland (2008) used his own taxonomy which was extended from Biber’ s (Biber 2006, Biber et al., 2004). Studies conducted by Cortes (2004) and Strunkyt and Jurkūnait (2008) also made use of functional categorization designed by Biber et al. (1999, 2004). Studies done by Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011) and Adel and Erman (2012) compared and contrasted their results with those of previous researchers but other studies d id not compare nor contrast their findings with earlier studies. Points of comparison and contrast would have helped in e stablishing greater credence to any findings. From the critique, it is also noted that Biber’s framework stands out as the dominant one in use and modifications are scarce. In terms of the amount of data used in the related studies, findings showed that the corpora used in most of the studi
es such as those by Hyland (2008), Cortes (2004), Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011), and Adel and Erman (2012), w ere sufficiently large and could help in the generalization and representation of the results. Biber (2006) believes “A cor pus must be large enough to adequately represent the occurrence of the features being studied”. The study by Strunkyt a nd Jurkūnait (2008) were restricted in the number of disciplines studied leading to the use of a small corpus thus affectin g the reliability of the claims made. Another study by Karabacak and Qin (2013) also lacked in number of adequate text s (with only two American newspapers) as a reference corpus needed for representing written English in general and the results in specific. For the genre in question, therefore, a larger corpus would be needed to discover lexical bundles wit hin each sub-corpus which could serve as a point of departure for further research. In comparing the findings to point out similarities or differences, some studies such as those by Adel and Erman (2 012) and Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011) were quite lucid, comparing their findings to those of previous studies or evoke similarities and differences between them, but such comparison could not be seen in those by Karabacak and Qin (2013) and Strunkyt and Jurkūnait (2008) whose findings lacked comparison and related elaboration. Cortes (2004) com pared the writing of university students of two disciplines, history and biology, with those of published writing from hist ory and biology journals in terms of using lexical bundles but she actually discussed the differences in separate sections under separate headings. Instead, she could have compared the use of target bundles in history and biology in one specif ic section since she was conducting a disciplinary study. Regarding recommendation and implication, Cortes (2004) and Hyland (2008) did not provide any recommendatio ns for further research but identified some implications for their studies. Hyland (2008) addressed EAP practitioners and course designers to relegate these multi-word units in their EAP courses through exposure and activities like item matc hing and identification, and productive tasks such as consciousness raising which require learners to produce the items i n their extended writing. Adel and Erman (2012), on the other hand, recommended researchers towards several issues in design and methodology but did not talk about the implications of their findings. Karabacak and Qin (2013) also omitte d these two factors. They neither direct researchers to make further studies nor provide any implications. A section on re commendation and implication would be a great help to novice writers and could direct them to future research.
5. Conclusion This paper aimed to look at the effects of disciplinary variation and linguistic differences on the use of lexical bundl es in academic writing. In general, all the above mentioned cross-disciplinary and cross-linguistic studies have been con ducted using different languages, context, frameworks, methodologies, analyses and points of view. However, all the res earchers agree that lexical bundles are one of the most important aspects of fluent linguistic production and thus play an important role in the process of language learning. Lexical bundles also help many academic writers who use the langu age for specific or academic purposes. Scholars also attest to the fact that the manifestation of lexical bundles is restricte d and conditioned by the discipline’s public goals, norms, and conventions and writer’s native language writing culture. It is suggested that more work needs to be done on this notion of lexical bundles cross-disciplinarily and cross-linguistic ally, through other genres of academic writing. This includes textbooks, theses and dissertations in different disciplines. Of some significance is the notion that lexical bundles should be extended in investigation with reference to its use in di fferent genres and modes. As an extension, there is the possibility of giving more details to building a framework that de als with spoken data thus widening the scope on the investigation of lexical bundles for such different text purposes.
References Adel, A. , & Erman, B. (2012). Recurrent word combinations in academic writing by native and non-native speakers of English: A lexical bundles approach. English for Specific Purposes, 31, 81–92 Bal, B. (2010). Analysis of four-word lexical bundles in published research articles written by Turkish scholars. Unpubli shed MA Thesis. Georgia State University. Biber, D. (2006). University Language: A Corpus-based Study of Spoken and Written Registers. Amsterdam: Benjamin. Biber, D. , & Barbieri, F. (2007). Lexical bundles in university spoken and written registers. English for Specific Purpos es, 26(3), 263–286. Biber, D. , & Conrad, S. (1999). Lexical bundles in conversation and academic prose. In H. Hasselgard & S. Oksefjell ( Eds.), Out of Corpora: Studies in Honour of Stig Johansson (pp. 181–190). Amsterdam: Rodopi. Biber, D. , Conrad, S. , & Cortes, V. (2004). If you look at…: Lexical bundles in university teaching and textbooks. Appl ied Linguistic. 25(3), 371-405.
ILCC 2013
636
Biber, D. , Johansson, S. , Leech, G. , Conrad, S. , & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written Eng lish. London: Longman. Chen, Y. , Baker, P. (2010). Lexical bundles in L1 and L2 academic writing. Language learning and technology. 14(2), 30-49. Cortes, V. (2002). Lexical bundles in published and student academic writing in history and biology. Unpublished Ph. D dissertation, Northern Arizona University. Cortes, V. (2004). Lexical bundles in published and student disciplinary writing: examples from history and biology. En glish for Specific Purposes, 23, 397–423. Haswell, R. (1991). Gaining Ground in College Writing: Tales of Development and Interpretation. Dallas: Southern Met hodist University Press Hyland, K. (2008). As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. English for Specific Purposes, 27, 4-21 Jablonkai, R. (2010). English in the context of European integration: A corpus-driven analysis of lexical bundles in Engl ish EU documents. English for Specific Purposes, 29, 253–267 Karabacak, E. , & Qin, B. (2013). Comparison of lexical bundles used by Turkish, Chinese, and American university stu dents. Procedia. Social and Behavioral Sciences. 70, 622-628 Rafiee, M. , Tavakoli, M. , & Amirian, Z. (2011). Structural analysis of lexical bundles across two types of English new spapers edited by native and non-native speakers. Modern Journal of Applied Linguistics. 3(2), 218-236. Strunkyt, G. , Jurkūnait, E. (2008). Written Academic Discourse: Lexical bundles in humanities and natural sciences. Su bmitted thesis. Wray, A. , & Perkins, M. (2000). The functions of formulaic language. Language and Communication, 20, 1–28.
Subset-principle, Positive Linguistic Data and a Good Cue Maryam Jalalifarahani1, Mohammadali Ghovehnodoushan2 1 Taft Branch, Islamic Azad University, Taft, Iran 2 Taft Branch, Islamic Azad University, Taft, Iran Corresponding Author: Maryam, Jalalifarahani, Taft Branch, Islamic Azad University, Taft, Iran, jal
[email protected] ________________________________________________________________________________ Abstract. The difference between L1 and L2 acquisition has spawned a lot of discussions in the field s related to applied linguistics. Subset-principle guarantees L1 acquisition and setting parameters of UG just by positive linguistic data (PLD). This principle is claimed to be inefficient in L2 acquisitio n. Therefore, in some situations where PLD cannot stop some generalizations, negative evidence is essential. This paper is to study the effects of different inputs on the acquisition of the allophones of consonant /l/. For this purpose, 104 young foreign learners of English were chosen from Mehr Lang uage School in Yazd (Iran). The subjects were put in two different input groups and received the tre atment, and after that they were tested. The data were gathered and analyzed. The results show that Subset-principle works properly in the presence of good cues when positive evidence is available, w hereas in the absence of good cues negative evidence is more effective; therefore, Asymmetry Hypo thesis is rejected. Keywords: UG, PLD, allophones, consonants, subset-principle Introduction Learning second language phonology is not a matter of learning individual segments, but the ability to put the individual segments together according to the constraints of the SL. Every sound segment slightly varies according to the positions or the environments it happens in (Young-Sholton 1994). Principles and parameters of UG are accessible to learners in learning L1 phonology, but cases like Joseph Conrad Phenomenon (discussed in Scovel, 1969) raise this question that if the learners and e specially adult learners have access to syntactic UG principles, can they have access to phonologica l principles and parameters? Recent studies on L2 phonology suggest that there is access at least to phonological principles, if no t to UG parameters (see Young-Sholton, 1995). Different views were proposed which deal with the availability or unavailability of UG for second language learners on syntax, and somehow it is tried to generalize them to phonology [Clashen and Muysken (1986) and Schachter (1988a); Bley-Vroma n (1989); and Clashen and Muysken (1989); Flynn (1987); White (1989b) and Schwartz (1993)] Liquids are an interesting case to study in the phonology of different languages. A lot of research is done on the acquisition of liquids by L1 learners, and their perception and acquisition by L2 learner s, especially by Korean and Japanese learners [Sander (1972); Smith (1990) and Dodd (2003); Stoc kman (2006); Brown (1998)]. Since there is a big difference between the articulation of the consonant /l/ in Persian and its counter part in English, some learnability problems will occur for L2 learners whose first language is Persia n. The phoneme /l/ in English has three different allophones: clear [l], dark [ɬ] and syllabic [ļ]. Yarmoh ammadi (2002) counts only two allophones for /l/ in Persian: [l] which appears after voiceless conso
ILCC 2013
638
nants and clear [l] produced in other positions. To Yarmohammadi, the allophone [l] can be heard as the initial sound in the word /la:ne/ ‘ النهnest’. It can be said that for articulating this sound, which is like the lateral in English, the tip of the tongue moves to touch the back of the alveolar ridge. But th e other variant of /l/ in Persian is exemplified by Yarmohammadi (2002) as the final sound in the wo rd [sœtl] ‘سطلbucket’. 2. Main Divisions 2.1. Literature Review 2.1.1. Markedness and the Allophones of /l/ Eckman (1977) defines markedness (or typological markedness) as: “A phenomenon A in some lang uage is more marked than B if the presence of A in a language implies the presence of B; but the pre sence of B does not imply the presence of A” (p.60). According to this hypothesis, the allophones of consonant /l/ in English can be ranked as follows: /l/
Least marked
/ł/ /ļ/ Most marked Fig 1: Contrast Hierarchy of the Allophones of English Consonant /l/ As the figure shows, syllabic [ļ] is the most marked between the allophones of consonant /l/ in Engli sh, and clear [l] is the least marked. In Persian the allophone [l] just occurs after voiceless consonan ts. When the other positions are filled by clear [l] in Persian, for Persian-speaking learners of Englis h clear [l] will be the only unmarked alternative for English dark [ɬ], which occurs after vowels in fi nal position, and syllabic [ļ], which occurs in unaccented syllables. It seems necessary to study the s yllabification and theories about it in detail. 2.1.2. Theories of Syllabification A lot of linguistic research has been done on interlanguage deletion and epenthesis and a majority of cases have been within a typological framework. This framework searches for discrepancies in phon otactics and markedness as the sources of deletion and epenthesis (see Eckman, 1977; Eckman, 198 6). Steele (2000) mentions following weaknesses for this kind of analysis. First, typological account s have little to say about the nature of L2 learner’s grammatical knowledge. Second, they tend to ad opt a linear conception of syllable structure. Finally, while they are descriptively and predicatively a dequate, these accounts lack explanatory power; indeed, they offer no principled explanation or mot ivation for IL deletion and epenthesis phenomena. Steele (2000) presents an analysis according to the principles and parameters framework of UG (Ch omsky, 1981). There are some principles which are relevant to word-final syllabification. They can be grouped under two headings: a) prosodic constituency and b) constraints on syllable structure. H owever, for the purpose of this study just the second group will be dealt with. There are some principles which govern the constituent size on Sonority profile [Binary theorem (K aye, 1990); Sonority Sequencing generalization (Selkirk, 1984); Syllable contact law (Vennemann, 1972); Sonority hierarchy (Clements, 1990); Sonority profile (Venneman, 1972)]. The ones which a re very important for the purpose of this study are Sonority Hierarchy and Sonority profile. The composition of onsets and codas gives us some information about the structure of syllables. Fur thermore, it shows that the similarities among languages mostly come from the Sonority profile. Thi s profile is as follows:
2.1.3. Sonority Profile: The sonority of a syllable increases from the beginning of the syllable onwards, and decreases from the beginning of the pick onwards. Sonority which is related to overall acoustic energy of segments creates a hierarchy among speech s ounds. This hierarchy, proposed by Clements (1990), distinguishes the classes of segments along th e following dimension. Sonority Hierarchy: obstruent < nasal < liquid < glide < vowel As the hierarchy shows, the highest position is for the vowels as the most sonorant sounds, and the l east is for obstruents. The remainder of the consonants takes place between these two dimensions ac cording to their sonority as it was shown above. To add this to the process of syllabicity in English, vowels, liquids and nasals can become the most prominent sonorous sound in a syllable, but obstrue nts and glides cannot enter this group in English. In contrast, just vowels can take the place in nucle us in Persian and be the most sonorant. 2.1.4. Learnability and Subset-principle In L1 acquisition, the learnability problem for the learner to know if his/her language is in a subset or superset position will be overcome by two possibilities. These two possibilities are: a) Markedne ss values b) Subset-principle. The first possibility is that, “the markedness values of parameters” are provided in UG. The value which provides a subset will be the unmarked one. In this possibility, Su bset-principle just orders to use “the unmarked setting” first. The second possibility gives a more im portant role to Subset-principle. In this case, Subset-principle is powerful enough to “compute the p ossibilities each time it is faced with input” so as Wexler and Manzini (1987) propose, markedness values should not be provided in UG. The role of UG is to list “the parameter settings which are pos sible for an item”. However, White (1989) asserts that the researchers show Subset-principle is not operating effectivel y in SLA. The L2 learner will have the parameter setting available because of UG but he/she cannot “calculate” the markedness values of these different settings, so it ends in some choices which have the incorrect parameter for L2. As she states, when the learner’s L1 grammar is in a superset position and L2 in the subset position, it causes some overgeneralizations. According to her, when Subset-principle is not operating effecti vely in SLA and positive input does not contain the right information to put an end to these generali zations, fossilization will occur. To avoid this kind of generalization and fossilization, the learner ne eds some negative evidence in L2. 2.1.5. The Role of the Evidence in L2 Acquisition If White’s (1989) assertion about Subset-principle in L2 acquisition is accepted, L2 learners have to rely on the evidence they receive by the environment. Therefore, the role of input in L2 acquisition would become greater than before. In what follows White’s Subset-superset relationships will be ex amined and the role of input in triggering the L2 acquisition will be studied. Let us imagine the state where the learner adopts the L1 grammar and that grammar is subset to the L2 grammar, which is in superset position. In the absence of Subset-principle, to move from subset t o superset, positive evidence would be the triggering evidence. Since the input is full of evidence fo r the learner to change the value to superset. The experiments done by White (1989a) show the L2 l earners used positive evidence to change the setting value from subset to superset. For the state in w hich some values should be replaced by each other, White (1989) also considers positive evidence a s the triggering evidence. Since Subset-principle does not explain the ultimate attainment in L2 pho nology, Young-Sholton (1994) proposes an asymmetric pattern of L2 phonological acquisition, whic h tries to explain ultimate attainment. In this hypothesis, she rejects the usefulness of negative evide
ILCC 2013
640
nce. According to her, Asymmetry Hypothesis will be as follows: If the L1-L2 situation is such that positive evidence can affect acquisition, then acquisition will ultimately take place. If the L1-L2 situation is such that negative evidence is required, acquisition will not take place. (p.201) In what follows, it is tried to test the effects of different inputs on the acquisition of consonant /l/. T he variants of this sound segment seem to be good cases, since there is a learnability problem in the acquisition of these allophones by Persian-speaking learners of English. As it was put before, clear [ l] is existent in both languages. However, the variants of dark [ɬ] and syllabic [ļ] are non-existent in Persian, and according to subset-superset relationships, they can be matched to the first condition. It means clear [l] in Persian is subset to and less marked than dark and syllabic [ļ] in English, when th ey occur in the same position. As it will be shown below, there is some good cue in syllabic [ļ], whi ch is not observed in dark [ɬ]. It is predicted to see some differences in the acquisition of these two a llophones by Persian-speaking learners of English. However, both allophones which are non-existen t in Persian are in a superset position, and according to the abovementioned views, positive evidenc e will trigger the acquisition. Therefore, it is interesting to check the effect of different inputs, test White’s (1989) ideas about sufficiency of positive evidence and check the role of good cues in the a cquisition. Syllabic [ļ] contains some good cue, which seems to play a part on its acquisition. In the following section, the characteristics of good cues and the alleged cue in syllabic [ļ] will be dealt wi th. 2.1.6. Characteristics of Good Cues Steele (2001) defines acquisition as setting a parameter in the presence of positive evidence, which contains good cues. White (2003) defines a cue or trigger as a kind of input, which is partially or ful ly analyzed, and the one that determines which parameter setting is adopted. Steele (2001) follows Dresher and Kaye’s (1990) Cue-based model of the acquisition of metrical ph onology. He assumes a good cue should be both appropriate and robust. He defines the appropriaten ess of a cue as being in a principled relation with its parameter. Introducing sonority which is releva nt to syllabification, he asserts that an appropriate cue for a syllabification-related parameter may re fer to sonority (e.g. manner, voicing). Therefore, when syllabification and sonority are interrelated, f ollowing Steele (2001), we should try to find an appropriate cue, which refers to sonority. In his exp eriment, Steele finds and shows that “a phonetic property of the input, namely liquid devoicing cons titutes a good cue for the resetting of Onset of an Empty-Headed Syllable (OEHS) Parameter” (p.73 8). OEHS Parameter is the one, which makes the syllabic [ļ] devoiced and branches it under onset. I t seems that this devoiced liquid is the same as the allophone [l] in Persian. 2.1.7. Timing Tiers as a Good Cue For the purpose of our study, we follow the arguments put forward by Gussenhoven and Jacobs (19 98) about the existence of skeletal tiers. One of their arguments is “Compensatory Lengthening Phe nomenon” (CLP). They state that the loss of a segment is incomplete until the time it took before it was deleted is preserved in a neighboring segment. This phenomenon always occurs in the case of s egments deleted from the rime, but it never occurs in the case of segments which are deleted from o nset. In this case, CLP and the result, which is the time put on the neighboring segment (syllabic [ļ]), can be a good cue, which is related to sonority. When the time is preserved in [ļ] as the nucleus, the prob lem of sonority is eliminated, so there is some increasing sonority towards the nucleus, which is syll
abic [ļ]. In other words, Persian [el] is replaced by [ļ]. Therefore, this cue, which refers to sonority, can be a good cue for Persian-speaking learners of English to trigger the acquisition. The second characteristic of a good cue, which was put in Steele (2001), is being robust. Steele state s that, when a cue is not obscured by some language-specific rules or exceptions, it is robust. This c ue can be called robust since it is not obscured by the input from English; above all, there is no exce ption to it. It is considered that the variants of consonant /l/ match whatever needed for this purpose. Ther e is a common variant (clear [l]) which is the least marked. There are two more variants, which are r anked higher on markedness hierarchy, and between these two allophones, one is the most marked ( syllabic [ļ]). Therefore, the order of these allophones on the markedness hierarchy would make the m a good case to study Subset-principle and its efficiency in L2 acquisition. According to White (1989), it can be hypothesized that when [el] is in subset and syllabic [ļ] in supe rset position, because of the good cue, the new value which is in superset position will be set by pos itive evidence. However, in the case of dark [ɬ], since the learners do not receive such a good cue or any good cue with the characteristics mentioned above, no value will be set and because of this, no acquisition will be triggered. 2.2. Methodology 2.2.1. Participants: One hundred and four 7- to 11-year old subjects participated in the experiment. They were 60 boys and 44 girls (the role of sex is not observed in this experiment). They were attending Mehr Languag e School in Yazd. 2.2.2. Procedures: The teachers instructed the subjects differently in different input groups. Three preparatory session s were allocated to teaching forty words in the experiment. In each 100-minute class, one hour was allotted to teach the words to the subjects. The film episode took 10 minutes and it was repeated 6 ti mes. The subjects were going to attend a twenty-session term, two sessions a week. The teaching ph ase was done on the first three sessions. The teachers, who were controlling the positive evidence cl asses, gave no repetition and took no action except running the syllabus. The teachers in negative ev idence classes were supposed to control the class and provide some more information on the pronun ciation of the words, more repetition and correction, and when it was necessary, the teachers provid ed metacognitive information through explanation. The subjects were asked to memorize every wor d and its correct pronunciation, because they were going to attend an exam on the fourth session. Th e testing session was on the fourth session. In the testing session, just a naming task was used. The t est aimed at checking the effect of evidence on the acquisition of the allophones of the consonant /l/ . 2.3 Findings The data collected from the performance of the subjects were analyzed, and the following results Th e data collected from the performance of the subjects were analyzed, and the following results were obtained. Table 1: the Relative Frequency of Clear [l] Produced by the Subjects in all Levels Levels Neg. Ev id Pos. Evi d.
Freque ncy 75/115
Percentage
92/105
87.61
65.21
ILCC 2013
642
Table 2: the Relative Frequency of Syllabic [ļ] Produced by the Subjects in all Levels
Levels
Frequency
Neg. Evid Pos. Evid.
27/115 16/105
Percentag e 23.47 15.23
Table 3: the Relative Frequency of Dark [ɬ] Produced by the Subjects in all Levels Levels Neg. Evid Pos. Evid.
Frequency 94/115 103/105
Percentage 81.73 98.09
As the tables shows the highest fre quency belongs to the production o f Clear [l] in both evidences. The relative frequency of the production of Syllabic [ļ] is in the second rank, an d for this allophone positive evidence group has a higher percentage. The lowest relative frequency of the pro duction belongs to Dark [ɬ] for both evidences
Table 4: The Paired-Samples T-Test for all the Groups
Paired Differences
Std. Deviation 1.7218
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
Std. Error Mean .1688
Lower 1.3767
Upper 2.0464
Pair 1
syllabic L - dark L
Mean 1.7115
Pair 2
syllabic L - clear L
-1.2019
1.6213
.1590
-1.5172
-.8866
t 10.137 -7.560
Pair 3
dark L - clear L
-2.9135
1.3942
.1367
-3.1846
-2.6423
-21.310
df 103 103
103
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
As the tables shows the highest frequency belongs to the production of Clear [l] in both evidences. The relative frequency of the production of Syllabic [ļ] is in the second rank, and for this allophone positive evidence group has a higher percentage. The lowest relative frequency of the production be longs to Dark [ɬ] for both evidences
There was a significant difference in the scores for syllabic L - dark L (M=1.7115, SD=1.7218); t(1 03)= 10.137, p =.000 , for syllabic L - clear L (M=-1.2019, SD=1.6213); t(103)= -7.560, p =.000 , and dark L - clear L(M=-2.9135, SD=1.3942); t(103)= -21.310, p =.000. In the following table, the allophones of the consonant /l/ are ranked according to the frequency of t he subjects’ production.
Table 5: the Production of the Allophones of the Consonant /l/
Clear [l] Syllabic [ļ ] Dark [ɬ]
N
Frequency
52 0 52 0 52 0
469
Percentag e 90.19
326
62.27
160
30.80
As the table illustrates, the percentages are 90.19%, 62.27% and 30.80% respectively for clear, syll abic and dark [ɬ]. The frequency of the production by a great number of the subjects in Positive evidence input group shows that the requirements of Subset-principle are observed. The subjects have acquired an item ju st through positive input and the most marked value is set. This evidence rejects White’s (1989) idea about the inefficiency of Subset-principle in L2. The data show that dark [ɬ] production percentage, among the variants of consonant /l/ and in all gro ups of inputs, is the lowest. This part of experiment shows that White’s (1989) idea about Subset-pri nciple is proved and the principle cannot act properly. Following Steele (2001), we can find a good cue for syllabic [ļ]. In this case, it was discovered that t he additional timing tier left from a deleted vowel could be a good cue for triggering the acquisition of syllabic [ļ]. The results were reviewed and showed that whenever a good cue is present, Subset-p rinciple works properly. Acquisition will be triggered through positive input only, and even the most marked value will be set. However, in the absence of a good cue, the items cannot be acquired throu gh positive input, and the most influential input would be the negative one. In this case, Subset-prin ciple has chosen the least marked value. It shows that when the first possibility proposed by White ( 1989) is accepted, Subset-principle plays its role properly in every situation, because when positive evidence does not trigger acquisition, Subset-principle chooses the least marked value presented in UG. Asymmetry Hypothesis by Young-Sholton (1994) is rejected, because in the situations where p ositive evidence was not effective, negative evidence could trigger acquisition. 3. Acknowledgements We would like to dedicate this research to our dear colleagues and students whose earnest request, s uggestions, and encouragements made us search through extensive research materials. 4. References Bley-Vroman, R. (1989). The logical problem of second language learning. In S.Gass, & J.Schachte r, (Eds.), Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, C. (1998). The role of the L1 grammar in the L2 acquisition of segmental structure. McGill Working Papers in Linguistics 8(2), 109-42. Chomsky, N. (1981a). Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht: Foris. Chomsky, N. (1981b). Principles and parameters in syntactic theory. In N. Hornstein & D. Lightfoo t(Eds.), Explanation in linguistics: The logical problem of language acquisition (pp. 35-75). London : Longman. Clashen, H. & Muysken, P. (1986). The availability of Universal Grammar to adult and child learne rs – a study of the acquisition of German word order. Second Language Research 2, 93-119. Clements, G. N. (1990). The role of sonority cycle in core syllabification. In Kingston, J. & Beckma n, M. (Eds.), Papers in laboratory phonology 1: Between the grammar and physics of the speech (pp .283-333). New York: Cambridge University Press. Dodd, B. (2003). Phonological development: A normative study of British English-speaking childre
ILCC 2013
644
n. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 17, 617-643. Dresher, E. & Kaye, J. (1990). A computational learning model for metrical phonology. Cognition, 34, 137-95. Eckman, F. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning, 2, 315 -330. Eckman, F. (1986). The reduction of word-final consonant clusters in interlanguage. In J. Leather & A. James (Eds.), Sound patterns in second language acquisition (pp.143-162). Dordrecht: Foris. Flynn, S. (1987). A parameter setting model of L2 acquisition. Dordrecht: Reidel. Gussenhoven, C. & Jacobs, H. (1998). Understanding phonology. London: Arnold. Kaye, J. (1990). ‘Coda’ licensing. Phonology, 7, 301-330. Manzini, R. & Wexler, K. (1987). Parameters, binding theory, and learnability. Linguistic Inquiry, 1 8, 413-444. Sander, E. K. (1972). When are speech sounds learned? Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 3 7, 55-63. Schachter, J. (1988a). Second language acquisition and its relation to Universal Grammar. Applied Linguistics, 9, 219-35. Schwartz, B. D. (1993). On explicit and negative data effecting and affecting competence and ‘lingu istic behavior’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 147-163. Scovel, T. (1969). Foreign accents, language acquisition and cerebral dominance. Language Learnin g, 19, 245-253. Selkirk, E. O. (1984). The syllable. In H. van der Hulst & N. Smith, (Eds.), The structure of phonol ogical representations (pp.337-384). Part II. Dordrecht: Foris. Smith, A. B. (1990). The Iowa Articulation norms project and its Nebraska replication. Journal of S peech and Hearing Disorders, 55, 29-36. Steele, J. (2000). L2 learners’ modification of target language syllable structure: Prosodic licensing effects in interlanguage phonology. In J. Leather & A. James (Eds.), New sounds 2000 (pp.315-324) . Klagenfurt, Austria: University of Klagenfurt. Steele, J. (2001). L2 learners’ modification of target language syllable of structure: prosodic licensi ng effects in interlanguage phonology. In A. H. -J. Do, L. Dominguez & A. Johansen (Eds.), Procee dings of the 25th Boston University conference on language development ( pp. 732-743). Cascadill a Press: Somerville. Stockman, I. J. (2006). Evidence for a minimal competence core of consonant sounds in the speech of African American children: a preliminary study. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 20 (10), 1-25 . Venneman, T. (1972). On the theory of syllable phonology. Linguistische Berichte, 18, 1-18. White, L. (1989a). The principle of adjacency in second language acquisition: do L2 learners observ e Subset-principle? In: S. Gass, & J. Schachter (Eds.), Linguistic perspective on second language ac quisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. White, L. (1989b). Universal grammar and second language acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjami ns. White, L. (2003). Second language acquisition and universal grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni versity Press Yarmohammadi, L. (2002). A contrastive analysis of Persian and English: (grammar, vocabulary an d phonology). Tehran: Payame Noor University. Young-Sholton, M. (1994). On positive evidence and ultimate attainment in L2 phonology. Second Language Research, 10, 193-214. Young-Sholton, M. (1995). The effects of ‘positive’ evidence on L2 phonology. In L. Eubank, L. Sel inker, & M. S. Smith (Eds.), The current state of interlanguage (pp. 106-121). Amsterdam: John Ben jamins.
