Enhancing Research-Based Education on Smart Processing of Inferior Timber Proceedings of The 3Rd International Symposium of Indonesian Wood Research Society (IWoRS) Jogjakarta, Indonesia, November 3-4, 2011
Editors Ganis Lukmandaru (Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia) Joko Sulistyo (Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia) Ragil Widyorini (Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia) Cihat Tascioglu (Duzce University, Turkey) Xu Jianying (Central South University of Forestry and Technology, China) Gerry Harris (The University of Melbourne, Australia)
APP FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITAS GADJAH MADA
© 2012 Faculty of Forestry Universitas Gadjah Mada Published by : Indonesian Wood Research Society (IWoRS) Secretariat : Forest Product Department, Faculty of Forestry IPB Kampus IPB Darmaga Bogor 16680 Bogor Telp. : 0251-8621285 Fax. : 0251-8621285 E-mail :
[email protected] Website : http://www.mapeki.org and Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada Jl. Agro No. 1, Bulaksumur, Sleman Jogjakarta ISBN 978-602-1905-30-2 ENHANCING RESEARCH-BASED EDUCATION ON SMART PROCESSING OF INFERIOR TIMBER 1. Inferior Timber 2. Smart Processing 3. Research-Based Education
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Preface The theme of the symposium is “Enhancing Research-Based Education on Smart Processing of Inferior Timber”. As we know, deficit for commercial timber occurs in Indonesia and increases pressure on natural forest. The remaining timber stocks are dominated by those inferior quality timbers which are characterized as small diameter, low durability, poor physical-mechanical. Establishment of industrial plantation and community forests also are composed of those similar characteristics timbers. It is needed an integrated timber processing to upgrade those timber into high value products whilst also increase the product recovery to satisfy society need on timber products. The objective of this symposium is to provide a forum for the discussion of this theme which is deepened into 4 topic fields. The symposium, attended by 165 participants from 6 countries, present an opportunity for researchers, engineers and managers to get advanced information and knowledge about smart processing of inferior timbers and to boost mutual understanding through the discussion and the exchange of scientific information and personal ideas. A total of 97 oral presentations and 33 poster presentations on various topics were made. This Proceedings consist of 36 oral and 12 poster papers presented during the symposium. We heartily say thank you to the all of participant who attended the 3rd International Symposium of Indonesian Wood Research Society (IWoRS). This symposium which is organized by Faculty of Forestry - Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM) and IWoRS, is supported by IM-HERE Project and Asia Pulp and Paper. It is a great pleasure and honor for us to invite all of you in this international symposium. We would like to appreciate all of the contribution from President of UGM, Dean of Faculty of Forestry – UGM, the steering and organizing committee, chairman of IWoRS and all of the supporting enterprises. We would like also to express our thanks to all of the participants, supporting staffs and students.
Jogjakarta, 15 August 2012 Editors
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CONTENTS Preface KEY NOTE SPEAKERS Suitability of Young Inferior Quality Plantation Timbers for Furniture Barbara Ozarska
3
Market, Traceability, and Sustainability of Paper Products Aniela Maria
27
Utilization of Low Grade Timber to Engineered Wood Products (EWP) and Current Situation of Large Scale Timber Structures Made of EWP Kohei Komatsu
37
Biological Performance of Woof-Based Composites Post-Treated with ACQ and CA Cihat Tascioglu and Kunio Tsunoda
48
ORAL PAPERS Wood Basic Properties Microstructure of Charcoal Produced by Traditional Technique Joko Sulistyo, Toshimitsu Hata, Sri Nugroho Marsoem
64
Decay Resistance of Ten Tropical Wood Species against Ceratocystis polychrome Fungi Yusran, Rahmawati, Suwandi Rapetempo, Amrullah
69
The Effect of Burying Time in Peatswap on Physical and Mechanical Properties of Gelam Wood. Wahyu Supriyati, T.A. Prayitno, Soemardi, Sri Nugroho Marsoem
75
Antioxidant Activity of Taxus sumatrana Extract Gunawan Pasaribu
81
α-Glucosidase Inhibitor and Cytotoxic Activities and Phytochemical Screening of Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griff Waras Nurcholis, Dimas Andrianto, Syamsul Falah, Takeshi Katayama
87
Biocomposite The Effect of Bagasse Treatment and Processing Method on the Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene-Bagasse Composite Firda Aulia Syamani, Lilik Astari, Ismadi, Subyakto
96
Physical - Mechanical, Durability and Electrical Properties of Polystyrene Eugenia sp. Wood Widya Fatriasari, Apri Heri Iswanto, Anis S. Lestari, A. Heru Prianto, Ismail Budiman,Yusuf Sudo Hadi
104
Surian (Toona sinensis) as an Alternative Material for Bonded Wood Products in the Future (I):Plywood Eka Mulya Alamsyah, Tati Karliati
117
Characteristics of Binderless Particleboards Made from Heat-Treated Wood Species Ragil Widyorini, Dyah Ayu Satiti
125
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Preparation and Characterization of Polyvynil Alcohol (PVA) Composite Reinforced with Sisal (Agave sisalana Perr) Bleached Fiber Treated by Mechanical Fibrillation Wida B. Kusumaningrum, Lilik Astari, Ismadi
130
Crystal Structure of Pulp Fibers: A Study for Thermoplastic Polymer Reinforced Composites Nanang Masruchin
138
Strandboard Manufacture from Veneer Wasted Ihak Sumardi, Atmawi Darwis
146
Mechanical Properties of Three-Layered Particleboard Made from Different Wood Species Muhammad Navis Rofii, Satomi Yumigeta, Shigehiko Suzuki, T.A. Prayitno
152
Forest Product Processing Laser and its Application to Wood and Paper Nobuaki Hattori Metal Content in Wood and Bleached Pulp of Five Years Old Acacia mangium Nyoman Wistara, Devi Nurmala
164 175
The Prospect for Acacia mangium Willd as a Raw Material of Pulp 183 and Paper Indonesia Sipon Mulyadi, Zainul Arifin, EnosTangke Arung, Yuliansyah, Rudianto Amirta, Agus Sulistyo Budi, Othar Kordsachia, Rudolf Patt The Effect of Temperature on Characteristics of Wood Pellet Syahidah, Wira Pratama, Andi Ismail, Baharuddin, Musrizal Muin
192
Dilute Acid Hydrolysis of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Pulp under Microwave Irradiation Triyani Fajriutami, Yanni Sudiyani, Euis Hermiati
200
White Rot Fungi as Potential Agent for Biodecolorization of Textile Waste Noor Rahmawati, Mustika Dewi
205
The Flextural Strength and Stiffness of Composite Plywood – Bamboo Stress Skin Panel Johannes AdhijosoTjondro, Jefrey Rory Paath
213
The Behaviour of Timber Frame Shearwall Sheated with Horizontal Wood Plank under Cyclic Loading Johannes AdhijosoTjondro, Helmi Hermawan, Tjahjanto Steven Varian Lokanatha
220
The Shear Strength and Stress Distribution in the Glue Adhesive between Hardwood Lamina Johannes AdhijosoTjondro, Edhiansjah Zulkifli, Ivan Saputra
227
Research and Development of the Various Dampers for Wooden Houses 233 Kazuki Suzuki,Takehiro Wakita, Yasuo Kataoka, Chikara Watanabe Experimental Study on Dynamic Characteristics of the Traditional Wooden Frame on Sliding Base between Hardwood Lamina Takehiro Wakita, Etsuko Inoue, Yasuo Kataoka, Hiromasa Fukutani, Satsuya Soda Increasing of Drying Efficiency for Sortimen ABC of Red Meranti Timber through Implementation of Terazawa Method Yustinus Suranto, Eko Teguh Prasetyo viii | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
241 248
Forest Science The Effect of Organic Material Application on Growth and Biomass Increment 260 of Shorea leprosula Seedlings: A Supporting Research for Rehabilitation Program in the Humid Tropics Ika Heriansyah, Hazandy Abdul Hamid, Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ahmad Ainudin Nuruddin, Ismail Harun, Wan Mohd Shukri Wan Ahmad, Salleh Mat Replacement of Planted Invasive Species Using a Commercial Indigenous Species through a Multi-Storied Forest Management: Review on Growth Performance and Productivity Ika Heriansyah
271
Diversity of Termite Species in West Kalimantan Yuliati Indrayani,Tsuyoshi Yoshimura
278
Termite and Mulch Mediated Rehabilitation of Vegetation in Nature Reserved, Indonesia Niken Subekti
282
Productivity of Eucalyptus urograndis Hybrid Plantation Forest Nina Mindawati, Darwo, Riskan Effendi
285
Tree – Based Farming in the Buffer Zone of a National Park: A Case Study in Sumur Sub District –Banten Province Taulana Sukandi
293
Promoting Forest and Non Timber Forest Cultivation to Increase Farmer’s Income on Small Scale Private Forest (A Case study in Tanjung Karya Village, Samarang Sub District, Garut, West Java) Sri Suharti
299
POSTERS Investigation of Biodeterioration in Indonesian Traditional Wooden Structure of “Joglo” Yoshiyuki Yanase, Takuro Mori, Yulianto P. Prihatmaji, Sulaeman Yusuf, Maya Ismayati,Joko Sulistyo, Ziyadatil Inayah, Shuichi Doi
311
The Quality of Active Charcoal of Gelam Stem Alpian, T.A. Prayitno, JP.Gentur, Sutapa, Budiadi
316
Crystalinity Changes of Mangium (Acacia mangium Wild.) and Agathis (Agathis Iorantifolia Salisb.) Wood due to Impregnation Process Anne Hadiyane, Alfi Rumidatul
324
Bioactive Extract from Neutrals of Teakwood (Tectona grandis L.f.) 328 Ganis Lukmandaru Exploring Characteristics of Pulp Fibers as Green Potential Polymer Reinforcing Agents Nanang Masruchin, Subyakto
333
Laboratory Evaluation of Local Isolates of Entomopathogenic Fungi and Their Effect on Subterranean Termite Coptotermes sp. Deni Zulfiana, Anis Sri Lestari, Sulaeman Yusuf
342
Pretreatment of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) using Microwave Irradiation Sita Heris Anita, Lucky Risanto, Euis Hermiati, Widya Fatriasari
348
Microwave Irradiation and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria) 355 Lucky Risanto, Sita Heris Anita, Euis Hermiati, Faizatul Falah
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Changes in Mechanical and Chemical Properties of Betung Bamboo during Soaking in Water and Inoculum Solution of Trametes versicolor Triyani Fajriutami, Yusup Amin, Euis Hermiati
362
Organic Carbon Potential in Production Forest Land of BKPH Majenang, West Banyumas Saefudin
367
Profit Sharing System in Agarwood Plantation Establishment to Increase Social Economic Condition of Forest Dependent Community (A Case Study in KHDTKCarita, Banten) Sri Suharti
372
Malapari (Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre) as an Alternative Species for Forest Plantation Marfuah Wardani, Nurwati Hadjib
385
Production Analysis Cost for Cultivation of Bambu Mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.) Sutiyono, Marfu’ah Wardani
394
The Effect of Soaking to the Seed Germination of Bambu Moso (Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex J. Houz.) Sutiyono, Marfu’ah Wardani
402
APPENDIX The Committee Symposium Agenda List of Participants Pictures
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KEY NOTE SPEAKERS
Suitability of Young Inferior Quality Plantation Timbers for Furniture
Barbara Ozarska Associate Professor Barbara Ozarska, The University of Melbourne
Australian Government
_______________________________ Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Improving added value and SMEs capacity in the utilization of plantation timber for furniture production in Jepara region • The University of Melbourne • DEEDI Qld • FORDA • Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) • Gadjah Mada University (GMU) • Technical College of Wood Technology (PIKA) • Forum Rembug Cluster Jepara (FRK)
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Structure of presentation
1. Global industrial plantations. 2. Requirements and selection criteria for timber used in furniture: can they be met by young plantation timbers? 3. Technical challenges and strategies to meet these challenges.
Productive Forest Plantations • Forest plantations meet an increasing proportion of the growing demand for wood products. • Contribution to global roundwood supply: 35% • In many countries forest plantations are the basis for world-scale forest products industries.
Can timber from short-rotation plantations be used for furniture? Challenges • Tree shape and heavy branching if not properly managed. • Small diameters and low quality resulting in low recovery rate (high proportion of juvenile wood, more knots, gum veins, etc). • High growth stresses causing end-splitting in logs and excessive distortion during sawing. • C o l o u r v a r i a t i o n ( s a p w o o d , heartwood). • Drying degrade – high shrinkage, di stortion, unrecoverable collapse and checks. • High unit shrinkage in products. • High variation in mechanical properties. • Durability issues. 4 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Short-rotation plantation timbers Potential Solutions: • Enhancement of wood properties, • Appropriate processing and manufacturing methods, • New products and • New marketing strategies are required.
Is fast-woodlike fast-food (junk food)?
=
?
Requirements for Timber Used in Furniture Selection Criteria: 1. Appearance characteristics of timber 2. Stability and drying quality 3. Engineering properties 4. Processing characteristics 5. Durability & long term performance Question: Can plantation timber meet these criteria ?
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Criterion No 1: Appearance Characteristics of Timber •
Texture, grain pattern, colour, lustre, features.
Requirements for these characteristics depend on intended application and type of product.
Appearance requirements for various types of furniture 1. Exposed surfaces (e.g. table top, bench top, wardrobe & cabinet doors). 2. Concealed surfaces (e.g. sofa frame, arm chair frame, table frame, etc).
Wood Defects in Furniture Examples: kino veins, sound knots, borer holes, resin pockets, burls and others.
Defects or Features? Can we accept wood features?
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Wood Features in Furniture The acceptance of wood features becomes important in plantation timbers. • “Natural Feature Grade Timber” - Australia • “Character Marks Timber” – USA.
Grading Rules for Furniture Timber AS 2796-1999 Timber-Hardwood-Sawn and milled products, Part 3: Timber for furniture components: • Medium and high feature grade timber.
Use of Natural Feature Grade timber in the structural components of furniture • It is essential that the features do not affect the integrity and performance of wood products (eg. strength). •
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Study on the use of Natural Feature Grade Timber in struc tural components of chairs Aim: To investigate and develop fine furniture design guidelines for manufacturers using Natural Feature Grade hardwood; particularly in chairs. Criterion No 2: Timber Stability and Drying Quality Timber Stability Unit shrinkage (tangential and radial) must be determined: • To predict the timber movement in service. • To select a proper design of the product. Example of Timber Movement Unit shrinkage in tangential direction: • Teak = 0.18% per 1% MC change. • Spotted gum (Corymbia maculata) = 0.38% Thus: If MC of timber changes from 19% to 12%, a 100 mm wide back sawn board will shrink: • Teak = 0.18 x 7 = 1.26 mm. • Spotted gum = 0.38 x 7 = 2.66 mm.
End checks End splits Surface checks
Typical drying defects • Drying Stresses • Checking 1. Surface 2. Internal • Case Hardening • Collapse • Distortion
Internal checks
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Examples of poor Drying
Photos: Gerry Harris
Drying Quality of Timber for Furniture Important: • Selection of the final Moisture Content. • Minimum moisture gradient through the board thickness and within the length. • Minimum drying stresses, internal and surface checks.
Drying young plantation timbers Stress and drying induced end split in sawn plantation E. globulus
Internal checks in drying 11-year-old plantation E. nitens
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Crack from the inner corner
Crack from the outer corner
Possible solutions? The failure of furniture due to shrinkage and improper drying can be minimized by considering the following factors: •
Safe design with an allowance for movement (no restraint elements).
•
Selection of species which have good stability characteristics: relatively small unit shrinkage and low dynamic stability (slow response to humidity changes). Example: teak.
•
Proper drying methods.
Methods suitable for drying young plantation timbers for furniture 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Solar drying. Intermittent drying. Vacuum drying. Microwave drying. Radio-frequency drying. Conventional drying: for some easy to dry species with “special” drying schedules being developed.
Solar drying – opportunity for young plantation timbers • • • • • • •
Lower capital, energy and maintenance costs. Simplicity in use. Drying times shorter than conventional drying. Reduced drying degrade. Rapid on-site assembly/relocation. ‘Low carbon footprint’ manufacture and use. Expandable Design- low cost modules.
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Criterion No 3: Engineering Properties of Timber • Strength (MOR) • Stiffness (MOE) • Hardness Requirements for these properties are highly dependent on type of product and its application.
Strength and Stiffness Requirements Some furniture should be considered as a form of structure, since the primary function is to carry various types of loads. Examples: chairs, sofas, beds, shelves, tables.
Simplicity, Functionality, Comfort and Innovation (example) Table bed unit
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Structural Design of Furniture 1. Calculation of Components dimensions 8 Strength of timber 8 Strength criteria. 2. Joint Design 8 Standard loads 8 Timber properties 8 Cross sections of components 3. Testing of prototypes 8 Relevant standards.
Software for strength analysis of furniture
-979N -833N
“Space Gass” - the Frame Program: Input required: • a model chair, • timber properties, • loads (from standards). Outcome of Stress Analysis: • displacements of components, • shear and axial forces, • bending and torsion moments.
Can we use young plantation timbers for structural furniture components?
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Engineering properties of young Eucalyptus species Species E. globulus E. camaldulensis E. grandis
3
Age
Density (kg/m )
MOE(GPa)
MOR (MPa)
15 mature 17 mature 22 mature
728 (586-880) 843 (673-1012) 778 (596-937) 854 (735-974) 721 (546-922) 751 (543-956)
13 (9-19) 20 11 (8-15) 11 12 (6-17) 16
105(71-151) 146 92 (54-129) 101 78 (42-121) 119
Conclusions 1. Special care should be taken when using young plantation timbers for “highly loaded” furniture components (e.g. chair legs and frames, bed frames). 2. Timber with lower stiffness and strength characteristics can be used for stressed components by increasing cross section sizes, constructing stronger joints or using additional structural elements. For example, the strength of a chair can be significantly increased by using a stretcher (side rail). Hardness Requirements Highly dependent on type of products and service conditions: • High hardness timber should be used for table tops, bench tops, desks. • Low hardness timber used for products not subjected to abrasion and scratching (doors in wardrobes and cabinets, side panels). Enhancement of wood properties Several methods have been developed which can be used for young plantation timbers: • Chemical modification; • Thermal modification; • Surface modification; • Impregnation modification; • Others. Criterion No 4: Processing Characteristics of Timber • Machinability. • Gluability. • Finishing characteristics. • Bending characteristics. • Production of veneers.
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Evaluation of Machinability • Circular sawing. • Planing. • Moulding. • CNC routing. • Drilling (boring). • Turning. • Sanding. Factors affecting machinability of timber • High density. • Silica content. • Interlocked grain. • Some wood features (eg. knots, gum veins) Machining of Timbers Important factors to be considered: • Proper selection of machining tools. • Cutting parameters. • Optimal feed rates.
Example of heavy fuzzy grain.
Generally, machining young plantation timbers is “easier” and more economical than old growth timbers due to a lower density and lower extractive content. Gluing Characteristics Bonding wood products: • Jointing timber elements and components (e.g. chairs). • Wood laminations (e.g. table tops, bench tops). • Ve n e e r e d p r o d u c t s (veneered panels, profile wrapping).
Criteria for Selection of Adhesives for Gluing Furniture Components • Type of furniture (high or low stresses applied during usage). • W o o d g r a i n d i r e c t i o n i n glued components (parallel, perpendicular or angled). • Service conditions (humidity, temperature). 14 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Gluing characteristics of various timber species 1. Highly dependent on the density: • High density species - very difficult to glue (e.g. Eucalyptus cladocalyx: density about 1,100 kg/m3). • Medium and low density timbers - easier to glue. 2. High level of extractives. Research showed that old trees have a higher content of extractives with a lower pH-value than younger trees of the same species (Roffael and Rauch, 1974). For this reason, the wood from younger trees can be expected to be more easily glued. Glue failure - delamination
Innovative gluing technologies applicable to furniture production Wood welding The concept of linear welding, face to face, without any adhesive, was developed as a result of collaborative research between LERMABENSTIB, Université Henri Poincare, Nancy and HSB Biel, Switzerland. It is based on the mechanism of mechanically-induced vibrational wood fusion which is due mostly to the melting and flowing of some amorphous, ells-interconnecting polymer material in the structure of wood, mainly lignin, but also hemicelluloses. Innovative gluing technologies (continued) Surface modification (CSIRO) Application of graft chemicals by “spray-on/brush-on” process to improve surface adhesion properties of difficult to glue timbers. Developed by Assoc. Prof. Voytek Gutowski and his team at CSIRO Material Science and Engineering. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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SOLID WOOD - ADHESION IMPROVEMENT
Finishing Properties 1. Selection of finishes for various products and applications. 2. Discoloration of wood products due to UV light. 3. Effect of extractives on the performance of finishes (e.g. staining in high humidity conditions). Performance requirements for finishes used in furniture 1. Resistance to mechanical damage (abrasion, impact, scraping and cutting). Examples: kitchen bench tops, flooring. 2. Resistance to heat (wet and dry heat). Examples: kitchen and dining tables and bench tops). 3. Resistance to marking by liquids. 4. Adhesion.
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Discolouration of coatings in hot & humid conditions
Performance of finishes: young timbers? Research studies revealed that: • Plantation timbers have lower resistance to mechanical damage than old growth timbers. • High-density timbers with high values of hardness achieved better results in the assessment of the resistance to mechanical damage than the timbers with lower hardness (Ozarska et al., 1998). http://www.dgi.com.au/bench.html Bending Properties of Timbers • Minimum radii of curvature. • Bending quality.
Shaping furniture components 1. Machining desired shape from wide piece of wood. 2. Solid wood bending. 3. Bending laminated veneers (moulded plywood or para llel veneers).
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Solid wood bending process INPUT: Prepared Wood
OUTPUT: Bent Components
Stage1 Softening
Stage 2 Bending
Wood Bending Methods • Steam bending • Chemical softening • Compresswood • Microwave bending
Stage 3 Drying
Microwave Wood Bending Technology
Design: Lotars Ginters Prototype made at the University of Melbourne
Wave guide
Microwave generator (6kW, 2.45 GHz)
Conveyor system
FOP monitor sample temperature
Nortech Quattro fibre optic temperature unit
Wood bending rigs
Automated “spiral” bending rig
“Central Force” bending rig
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Samples Restraint Systems
MW Drying Chamber for drying bent components MW Power: 2 kW Drying time: 3 hrs for 25 x 25mm components
Bending young plantation timbers A study of 8 plantation and regrowth Australian timbers using the microwave wood bending process (Ozarska, B., Daian, G. 2007). Results: • The timbers from regrowth and plantation resources can be satisfactorily used for the production of bent components. • Wood resources from regrowth and plantation forests give better bending performances than mature wood. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Production of Veneers for furniture application Requirements: • Quality of logs. • Drying characteristics. • Gluing characteristics. Can small diameter young timbers meet these criteria?
Veneers for furniture 1. Types of veneers: • Sliced (decorative): difficult to produced from lower quality plantation logs. • Peeled (structural components): technological advances e.g. spindles lathe can be used. 2. Types of uses: • Laminated veneered components or sandwich panels for structural furniture components (appearance not important) or with decorative surface (for appearance components).
Criterion No 4:Performance in various service conditions End-use service conditions. • severe use (e.g. school furniture) • heavy use (office, restaurant, hotel furniture) • medium (domestic dining furniture) • and light use (cabinets, etc). The appropriate product criteria need to be specified taking into consideration timber hardness and stiffness, type of coating and joining methods. 20 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Criterion No 4 (continued) Furniture produced in a factory can be used in various climatic conditions, such as: • Hot, humid climate for an extended period of time. • Dry climatic conditions. • Air-conditioned buildings. • Cyclic humidity in kitchens and bathrooms. It is essential for a manufacturer to ensure that a piece of furniture will remain serviceable over a wide range of changing temperature and relative humidity. Investigation of environmental conditions during manufacture, transport, storage and service. MSc Student: Gary Hopewell, University of Melbourne/ Qld Forestry Research Institute
Location of data loggers in factories and containers Collection of data on relative humidity and temperature
EMC% trend line Brisbane to Bermuda, Nov 02 – Jan 03 (58 days)
Min
6.3%
Max
15.6%
Mean
10.1%
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Testing of Furniture Quality and Long-term Performance
Testing of Furniture Quality and Long-term Performance
Fatigue test of chair arms
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Table strength tests
Fatigue test of drawers and doors
Bed and Mattress Testing
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Value-adding young short-rotation plantation timber? Despite inferior quality and small dimensions, young plantation wood does have potential to meet high-value appearance end-use such as furniture.
Value-adding plantation timber
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What will be the technical challenges? 1. Improved and consistent wood quality: • Tree breeding and vegetative propagation; • Potential of hybrids. 2. Processing small logs: • sawing methods; • drying of back sawn wood & its performance; • treatment (in particular for outdoor furniture). 1. Value-adding wood with defects: • Gluing, laminating, jointing (new products). • Colouring (colour variation). • Wood bending. • Veneer products.
Strategy to meet the challenge
?
•
Determination of best practices and genetic material to meet environmental and wood quality requirements.
•
Research role to develop improved processing practices and product specifications.
•
Technology transfer is the critical link between growers, processors and researchers (three-way Source: Gary Waugh & B. Ozarska, ITTO, 2010 process).
Even at young age, plantation hardwood species have a high potential to be used in furniture •
They can be used for a wide range of products and at a very young age.
•
They can achieve a very fast growth rate and have the potential to be grown even faster.
•
They have a proven adaptability to an extreme range of environmental conditions in many countries.
Source: Gary Waugh
Table and chairs from 10-year-old Eucalyptus camaldulensis - Thailand The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Market, Traceability, and Sustainability of Paper Products Aniela Maria Asia Pulp and Paper APP: World Leader, Committed to Conservation Our vision is to become the 21st Century’s premier, world-class pulp and paper manufacturer – making paper sustainably and delivering superior value to customers, shareholders, employees and the community. 1. Because of its rapid growth in countries relatively new to sustainable plantation forestry, it is often seen as a “game changer” among its competitors, the established giants of the industry. 2. APP-Indonesia and its fiber suppliers have implemented several Conservation Flagship Programs to protect and manage areas of significant and representative biological diversity and/or cultural significance for the benefit of the people of Indonesia. APP-Indonesia and its fiber suppliers have directly contributed to conservation efforts on 250,000 hectares of forest land in Sumatra and in 2007 collaborated on four major large-landscape forest protection programs. 3. In Indonesia, APP employs more than 62,732 workers. In addition, through its exclusive fiber supplier, Sinar Mas Forestry and its partners, APP-Indonesia provides employment for an additional estimated 8,553 workers, bringing the estimated total direct employment of APP in Indonesia to 71,285 persons. APP-Indonesia directly and indirectly provides over one million jobs in the plantation, pulp and paper industries and supporting industries in Indonesia. APP Indonesia Production Facility & Fiber Source
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Evolving Market for Paper Products The market for paper products is evolving, where considerations are now being placed in the sustainability of the products’ sourcing. The degrees of consideration varies depending on different countries, starting from markets that have no demands for sustainability to those that precludes only sustainably sourced products. Government Regulations Driving Market Awareness ● SVLK (Sistem Verifikasi Legalitas Kayu/ Wood Legality Verification System): Indonesia’s national timber legality and traceability standards ● FLEGT-VPA: (Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade- Voluntary Partnership Agreement) - the European Union’s response to the global problem of illegal logging ● EU Timber Regulations 2013 – with SVLK, FLEGT and also VPA, Indonesia will automatically be recognised in the European Union ● Lacey Act –United States legislation making it unlawful for any person to import, export wood materials in violation of a law at the country of origin/harvest. ● Australia Illegal Logging Bill – draft of Bill referred to Committee of Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry. Market demands for sustainable paper products are driven by several factors. One that is an important driving force is government regulations that govern the trade of paper products. In Indonesia, we have the new mandatory SVLK system, which is the national timber legality and traceability standard. In Europe, there is the FLEGT voluntary partnership agreement, that establishes bilateral relationships between EU and exporting countries to prevent trade of illegal products. This is further strengthened by the EU Timber Regulations which will be effective in March 2013. In US, there is also legislation banning illegal wood materials, which is ammended in 2008 to include paper, furniture, and timber. Australia also has a similar bill that is now referred to the Senate, for public inquiry prior to being enacted as law. All these policies and legislation have a similar requirement, which is recognizing legality of the country of origin. In Indonesia’s case, this is the SVLK, which since 2009 has become a mandatory industry standard.
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MARKET DEMANDS FOR SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTS
Another factor that increases importance of sustainable products, are customers emphasis on sustainable sourcing. Which we see in large companies’ procurement policies, for example the consumer goods forum which is a forum of several consumer goods such as unilever, tesco, 3M and others. Locally, we have industry support for legal, sustainable product trade, which was a joint declaration by several industry associations such as the pulp & paper association, the forestry association, sawmill association, and others. As one of the world’s leading pulp & paper industry player, APP also wants to be a leader in its sustainability practices. Scientific Analysis on Paper Products ● Fiber analysis increasing use to highlight product fiber composition - Lack of understanding of general public on analysis results - Mixed Tropical Hardwood (MTH) = Illegal Fiber? “Forensic analysis shows fiber from Indonesian rainforest destruction”
~NGO interpretation of fiber analysis
“(Fiber analysis) is only able to determine the types of fibers present in such samples. (Fiber analyses) have not, and are unable to identify country of origin of the samples. This type of assertion would need to be based on data outside of our findings.”
~Fiber analysis body’s response on NGO interpretation
Another factor for market awareness of sustainable sourcing is the increased use of fiber analysis to determine product’s fiber composition. But, I emphasize here that for the general public, sustainability issues, particularly when it comes to paper products are still in its early days. There is so much complexity to paper products sustainability practice, that there are many misperceptions by customers. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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For example I highlight here a recent campaign by an international NGO on fiber analysis of paper products. In the campaign, a fiber analysis of a packaging shows the product contains mixed tropical hardwood. The interpretation was then made that the packaging is not sustainable. In reality, fiber analysis provides only a snapshot and not the full picture of products’ credential. So then how do we assure sustainability of paper products? What is needed is a traceability system that is independent and credible, and I’m going to discuss this in the next section.
Assuring Sustainability of Paper Products Framework: Sustainability & Responsibility
The basis of any sustainable business is legality. As previously discussed, legality at product origin, is becoming the foundation of what is accepted in several key markets around the world. On top of legality then comes 3 pillars, where we have to balance economic viability, environmental compliance, as well as social responsibility. The measurement for this framework, is acknowledgements and certification. What is Certification? ● Processes and procedures ● Independent third party assurance ● Compliance to particular standards What is Chain-of-Custody (CoC) and CoC Certification? ● Chain of custody (CoC): 30 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Market, Traceability, and Sustainability of Paper Products |
- Chronological documentation/paper trail - Seizure, custody, control, transfer, analysis, and disposition of evidence, physical or electronic. (Wikipedia on Answers.com) ● Wood-based product CoC: - a system - supply chain and production flow - ensuring that the wood-based product is sourced from sustainably well managed forest. ● CoC certification: - an independent third party assurance towards a product - ensuring that the wood-based product is sourced from sustainably well managed forest CoC Flow & Certification
Explain CoC flow. Why is the CoC certification important? The CoC certification ensures that products are: legal, traceable, complies to a set of standard, and is independently audited by a 3rd party. This effectively provides a level playing field in global markets, because it basically provides a set standard that customers can look for and easily understand.
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Industry Implementation – APP’s Certification Commitmentat a glance Chronology of CoC Commitment Legality National Law & International Regulations Result: • Spatial Planning Policy • Supplier Compliance • Legality Documentation • Environmental • Human Rights • Social
Procurement Policy Result: CoC System Implementation
Voluntary & Beyond Compliance
CoC/LoV LEI Audit 2003
CoC/LoV LEI Audit by SGS 2005/06
Major Improvement: • Security Capacity Building • Community Awareness • Multistakeholder Participation • Radar Mapping & Planning • Digital Camera ID • On Line Tracking System • GPL System
Major Improvement: • Radar Mapping & Planning: Data/Procedure Incorporation & Implementation • Digital Camera ID: Replication • On Line Tracking System: Expansion • GPL System: Manual & Implementation Improvement • Wet Land Operation: Weigh Bridge / Weigh Scale
CoC/LoV LEI Audit Annual CoC/LoV LEI & TLTV Gap Audit Audit & TLTV-VLO/ by SGS 2007 VLC SGS Audit Major Improvement: • Plantation planning, man power, health & safety compliance • Set aside area monitoring • Concession inventory methodology • Stakeholder consultation
• 2010: First Certified TLTVVLC in the region: 556,318 hectares. • In total 1,786,365 hectares of independently verified forest areas.
Continual Improvement Result: • GAPs and CARs closing • Scope expansion • Logo use is being planned.
CoC Beyond Compliance Pulpwood
Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute (LEI) CoC/LoV 2007 & LEI SFM Standard
Pulpwood
SGS Timber Legality & Traceability Verification (Verified Legal Origin & Compliance)
Pulp & Paper Products
Green Purchasing Law • 2006: APP conforms with Japan’s 'Green Purchasing Method’ • To certify the legality and sustainability aspects of pulpwood – Standard & Procedures – Fiber Procurement & Sustainability Policy – GPL Certification Policy & Code of Conduct • APP adopts 'Self-Certification’ & launch Oct'06 → 1st in the country • Publication & Multi-stakeholder consultation • Presented to MoF Indonesia & Japan
Pulp & Paper Products
LEI certified
Pulp & Paper Products
PEFC certified & Non – Controversial
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It all starts with legal wood
~35% recycled wood and paper
~30% certified under one of the various leading certification programs: LEI, PEFC, FSC or PHPL
~25% is from noncontroversial sources that meet PEFC guidelines ~10% Verified Legal Origin (legally harvested under Indonesian law)
SVLK: 100% Adherence to Indonesian National Legality Standard SVLK is a system which consist of standard & guidelines ensuring that the wood and wood based product produced by Indonesian concession holder and wood based manufacturer sourced from legal origin; produced, distributed, and marketed in a legal manner based on Indonesian law & regulation. Legality & SFM in Indonesia • Government of Indonesia (GoI) Mandatory Certification on Sustainable Production Forest Management and Wood Legality Verification: -- Minister of Forestry Regulation Number P.38/Menhut-II/2009 regarding Performance Assessment of Sustainable Production Forest Management and Wood Legality Verification towards concession license holder and wood-based industrial license holder -- Directorate General of Forest Product Development Number P.06/Set-VI/2009 regarding Standard for Performance Assessment of Sustainable Production Forest Management and Wood Legality Verification towards concession license holder and wood-based industrial license holder -- Directorate General of Forest Product Development Number P.02/VI-BPPHH/2010 regarding Guidelines on Performance Assessment of Sustainable Production Forest Management and Wood Legality Verification towards concession license holder and wood-based industrial license holder • Wood Legality Verification System (SVLK) is a stepping stone to achieve Indonesian sustainable production forest management Legality & SFM in Indonesia Definition of Legal Wood: Have license to operate Follow system & procedure for felling, harvesting and transporting Legality & CoC verification Reference: Forestry Act Number 41 Year 1999, Minister of Forestry Regulation Number P.55/Menhut-II/2006 The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Indonesian Timber Legality Assurance System (TLAS) • On 04/05/2011 EU and Indonesia signed the Voluntary Partnership Agreement on Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (FLEGT–VPA) • The FLEGT-VPA will implement the new Indonesian timber legality assurance system (TLAS) and the EU forest law enforcement governance and trade policy on timber and timber products in 2013 • APP’s role: -- Pilot project in 2009 with MoF and representatives from EU FLEGT-VPA DFID -- Initiated industry support • APP’s full SVLK certification: 2012
•
• •
The Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute (LEI) is a constituent-based organization promoting sustainable forest management through certification standards that address and integrate social, environmental and market needs. LEI’s mandate derives from four constituent groups: indigenous people and community forest chamber; business chamber; NGO chamber; and eminent persons’ chamber. In 2000, LEI became an accreditation body and a Chain-of-Custody certification system was adopted. Certification for plantation forest was initiated in 2003; LEI’s phased approach to sustainable forest management certification was launched in 2007.
Today
Tomorrow
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Achieving International Certification Standards Our Pulpwood Chain
APP
APP
ISO 14001: international standard for environmental management of businesses.
Timber Legality & Traceability Verification (TLTV -VO): SGS International verifies compliance in forest/timber industry/trade sector.
European Eco-label: life cycle product environmental certification, EC's Sustainable Consumption, Production & Sustainable Industrial Policy
Sustainable plantation forest management verification; Ministry of Forestry Decree 177/ Kpts-II/2003, independently audited.
ISO 9001: internationally recognized standard for quality management of businesses.
NF Environment mark: French ecological certification for products reducing environmental impact yet offering equivalent performance.
Sustainable forest management certification by the Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute (LEI).
ISO 14001: international standard for environmental management of businesses.
Eco-label: certification for reduced environmental impact over product's lifecycle, part of the Global Eco-labelling Network (GEN)
Area of Giam Siak Kecil – BB: Part of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program
Chain of custody certification by Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes (PEFC), world’s largest certification standard.
Eco Mark: Japan Environment Association product certification in accordance with the standard and principle of ISO 14020 & ISO 14024.
Chain of custody certification by LEI, Indonesian Eco-labelling Institute.
Environmental Performance Rating Program of the Ministry of Environment Republic of Indonesia
OHSAS 18001: international certification for occupational health and safety management systems.
US Green Seal science-based environmental certifications are credible, transparent & essential.
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Environmental Credentials
MILL
Indah Kiat Pulp & Paper Mills
CERTIFICATION/ VERIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION
SCOPE
TIMELINE
ISO 9001
QMS
Mill
Achieved
ISO 14001
EMS
Mill
Achieved
SMK3
OSHM
Mill
Achieved
Blue Proper
Pollution Control
Mill
Achieved
Green Purchasing Law - Japan
Product Legality & Sustainability
All products certification
Achieved
Eco-label Indonesian
Product Quality
Uncoated Paper
Achieved
PEFC Non Controversial
Chain of Custody
PEFC Non
Achieved
Controversial Pulp
LEI
Chain of Custody
LEI Certified Pulp & IKPP Paper
Achieved
PEFC
Chain of Custody
IKPP: PEFC Paper
Achieved
IKT: 100% PEFC Certified Paper IKS: PEFC Board Challenges • •
Complexity of issues -- Dozens of certification schemes, but government regulations provide framework Investments -- Industry investment and market acceptance
In closing, Indonesia as a key player in the pulp and paper industry is already well along the way in ensuring that its mandatory standards provide assurances to comply with various international regulations governing paper products. And the industry players itself, for example in APP, are amongst the leaders in making sure that our operations are 100% legal and sustainable, by making use of globally recognized tools, which are product traceability and certification.
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Utilization of Low Grade Timber to Engineered Wood Products (EWP) and Current Situation of Large Scale Timber Structures Made of EWP Kohei Komatsu Laboratory of Structural Function,Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan Email :
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Starting from a short history of glulam both in Europe and Japan then a few examples of utilizations of low grade timber to mixed species glulam in Japan is introduced and typical glulam structures are described from the view points of earthquake resisting function.Topics on engineered timber joints also discussed in relating to this subject. Finally, current situation of new wood products regarding to the latest development of Cross Laminated Timber is introduced briefly. Keywords: e ngineered wood product (EWP), Japanese Cedar, glued laminated timber (glulam), cross laminated timber
INTRODUCTION Everyone knows that timber resources are not homogenous but they are essentially heterogeneous, or in another words, they are composed of various individuals whose mechanical and physical properties are varied from very low grade until very high grade. That is real feature of such natural resources as timber which has been produced by virtue of miracle sustainable recycling system of nature. In order to utilize this variety materials to such usages as large scale timber structures, in which the highest reliability, processing accuracy and dimensional stability are to be required as an industrialized material, we scientist or/and engineer must assort them into some appropriate grades from which each graded materials can be utilized sufficiently enough so as to let their characteristics meet with each corresponding requirements. Glued laminated timber (term of “Glulam” will be used hereafter) is one of the most successful example of EWP which has been showing its success stories in the field of forest products and timber engineering in this world. In this paper, author will describe mainly about glulam as the most successful example of EWP.
SHORT HISTORY OF GLULAM It is well-known that the first patent of glued laminated timber in the world was taken by Mr.Otto Hetzer in 1906 in Weimar, at present Germany, as shown in Figure 1-a) and b). These memorial photographs shown in Figure 1-a), b) were taken from the publication written by a German Professor Wolfgang Rug [Rug 2006] for celebrating 100 years of the great invention of glulam member by a German master carpenter. We can see from Figure-1 a) that the first patented glulam was a curved member,and in addition to this, in the same publication, a drawing of I-shaped cross section can be seen as shown in Figure 1-c). Even now, curved and I-shaped glulam member is thought to be more difficult to produce than straight and rectangular glulam members. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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b)
a)
c)
Figure 1. a) Patent of Otto Hetzer admitted on 22nd June in 1906 as No.197773, b) his portrait and c) an example of cross section of Hetzer style glulam used in anarch structure of 35.5 m span and 6.75 m portal space [Rug 2006].
I wonder why this kind of rather difficult form and cross section member was first selected to produce glulam member. Probably, I suppose that at that time iron or steel arch structures having the same form and cross section as those in Figure 1 were very popular for constructing relatively small scale portal frames. Hence, Otto Hetzer might be affected by such conventional and popular structural form. Anyway, this kind of rather difficult technique for producing glulam member has been expanded from Weimar to another countries, i.e., to another European countries, North America and finally to Japan. Figure 2 shows an example of exciting Hetzer-type glulam arch building (indoor horse training place) constructed in 1917 at St-Moritz, Switzerland.
Figure 2. Exciting Hetzer-type glulam arch structure in St-Moritz, Switzerland. 38 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Utilization of Low Grade Timber to Engineered Wood Products (EWP) and Current Situation of Large Scale Timber Structures Made of EWP |
It is said that the first glulam structure in Japan was constructed in 1951 in Tokyo and its form was also curved glulam arch having rectangular cross section as shown in Figure 3. It is interesting that even in Japan curved glulam member was also first produced in spite of the fact that the production technique of such member must be much difficult than producing straight glulam member. The reason I suppose will be that there were no appropriate joint methods for connecting straight members strong enough.
Figure 3. First glulam structure constructed in 1951 in Tokyo.[Courtesy of Dr.T.Hayashi] After this memorial event, curved glulam members have been used until about 20 years ago in Japan as the most popular form of glulam arch structures. Figure 4, for example, shows typical examples of old-fashion glulam structure in Japan composed of three hinged curved glulam members. Generally speaking, however, curved glulam member is relatively expensive and difficult in the phase of production, because curved glulam requires relatively thin lamina that tends to bring low yield recovery of materials due to much planning loss, much adhesive due to much glue lines, difficult to laminated gluing and spring back after release of laminating press and so on.
Figure 4. Typical examples of old-fashioned curved glulam structure in Japan.
CONVENTIONAL GLULAM Glulam has a lot of advantages as already widely known by the peoples. One of the most important advantages will be its higher reliability compared with that of solid timber.The main reason why reliabity of glulam can be higher than solid timber might be possible to explain as the result The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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of “artificial replacement of appropriate laminae to the optimam position”, hence natural variance of mechanical properies of each lamina could be distributed intentianly due to engineered design. Figure 5 shows an example of structural glulam production process in current Japan. Laminae of glulam must be sawn cut from logs. After kiln dried into about 12% of moisture content, they are graded into several ranks in accordance with their modulus of elasticity through “stress grading machine”. After taking off some serious defects such as “knot”, longitudinally re-assembled with finger joints and planned into about 30 to 35 mm thickness. Finally, graded laminae should be layered-up into appropriate locations so as to make the layered mechanical properties be optimised for its final usages.
Figure 5. Glulam production process in current Japan
MIXED SPECIES GLULAM Looking at step-4 in figure 5, we are aware of the fact that the distribution of sorted laminae has wide variety from very low grade till fairy high Beam depth 300 mm 360 mm 420 mm grade. Let me allow assuming that only 5 to 10% ply 10 12 14 1 L160 L160 L160 of plantation grown timber will be usable for “higher 2 L140 L160 L160 grade laminae” and the rest of resource will be 3 L70 L70 L125 4 L50 L70 L125 categorized as “middle” or “lower grade laminae”. If 5 L50 L50 L70 6 L50 L50 L70 this assumption is true, it will be difficult to produce 7 L50 L50 L50 a most popular structural glulam in which most outer 8 L70 L50 L50 9 L140 L70 L70 2/8 part (25%) should be “higher grade”, outer 2/8 10 L160 L70 L70 L160 L125 11 13.34kN/mm2 should be “middle grade” and inner 4/8 can be “lower 12 L160 L125 grade”, because the expecting yield of “higher grade 2 L160 13 13.26kN/mm 14 L160 laminae” will be less than necessity. In order to 2 Estimated MOE 14.29kN/mm compensate these insufficient higher grade laminae, Douglus fir we have developed so-called mixed species glulam Japanese Cedar in the past [Komatsu and Iijima 2005]. In the mixed Figure 6. A few example of the laminae layout of species glulam project, Douglas-fir imported from mixed species glulam USA was used for higher grade lamina while for inner part Japanese Cedar, (most popular domestic 40 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Utilization of Low Grade Timber to Engineered Wood Products (EWP) and Current Situation of Large Scale Timber Structures Made of EWP |
soft wood species) was used. Figure 6 shows some examples of laminae layout of mixed species glulam developed. Figure 7 shows a feature of flexural test on mixed species glulam and results are shown in Table 1 [Komatsu and Iijima 2005]. Table 1 Flexural test results Specimen Dencity M OR M OE 3 2 kg/m N/mm kN/mm 2 472 49.4 13.02 E120No1 479 52.0 13.32 E120No2 479 44.9 12.78 E120No3 479 51.7 12.93 E120No4 490 45.4 13.07 E120No5 485 52.4 13.41 E120No6 481 49.32 13.09 Average 1.3 6.9 1.8 CV (% )
Figure 7. Flexural strength test on mixed species glulam beam.
Results in Table 1 indicate that the mixed species glulams met with Japanese Agriculture Standard requirement for E120-f330 class glulam, which is required to show MOE value higher than 12kN/mm2 and MOR value higher than 33 N/mm2. These performance seems to be satisfactory, therefore at present this type of glulam is widely used currently in Japan for the beam members of wooden dwelling houses called as “Hybrid Beam”.
MIXED SPECIES GLULAM MADE OF PURE DOMESTIC TIMBERS The first mixed species glulam was developed by using Japanese Cedar for inner layer and exotic species of Douglas-farfor the most outer layersas mentioned above. Recently, however, a success story for developing new mixed species glulam made of only pure domestic timbers was reported by Miyazaki Prefectural Wood Utilization Research Center (MPWURC) by cooperating with commercial company in Mitazaki prefecture [Morita, et. al, 2009]. 50 Miyazaki Cedar n=232032
Relative Frequency (㧑)
40
Miyazaki Cypress n=1054
30 20 10 0
L20 L30 L40 L50 L60 L70 L80 L90 L100L110L125L140 Graded Rank of Laminae Depending on MOE
Figure 8. W ell grown-up man-made forest of Miyazaki Cedar, Miyazaki prefecture.
Figure 9. Comparisons between two distributions of MOEs for Miyazaki Cedar and Cypress
For Miyazaki prefecture, which is proud of No.1 annual production yield of Japanese Cedar, it was the top target to develop any beneficial utilization method of rich provincial Cedar. From this The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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background, researchers in MPWURC paid their efforts to develop a new novel glulam which is composed of Miyazaki Cedar for inner part and Miyazaki Cypress for the most outer part.Figure 8 shows a beautiful man-made Sugi (Cedar) forest in Miyazaki prefecture. Figure 9 indicates a comparison between MOE distributions of Miyazaki Cedar and Miyazaki Cypress. Figure 10 shows examples of laminae lay-up and flexural strength test results on Miyazaki Cedar and Cypress mixed species glulam evaluated for aiming to reveal the equivalent performance of E105-F330 JAS grade glulam. Test results show that target MOE of 10.5 kN/mm2 and target MOR of 33N/mm2 could be sufficiently achieved.Therefore it is clear that this newly developed mixed species glulam could be usable as JASE105-F330 glulam for actual timber structures. 12-layer 10-layers 8-layers 5layers Cypress L125 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cypress L125
Cypress L125 Cypress L110 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cypress L110 Cypress L125
Cypress L125 Cypress L110 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cypress L110 Cypress L125
Cypress L125 Cypress L125 Cypress L110 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cedar L60 Cypress L110 Cypress L125 Cypress L125
Results of flexural strength test Ply 5 8 10 12
MOE (kN/mm2) 11.5 (0.44) 11.4 (0.25) 11.1 (0.20) 11.6 (0.57)
MOR (N/mm2) 46.4 (12.7) 51.2 (4.5) 42.5 (4.9) 39.0 (6.6)
Figure 10. Laminae lay-up and mean value of flexural strength test results on Miyazaki Cedar- Cypress mixed species glulam beam.
Note: figures in parenthesis standard deviation replications.
indicate of 6
Figure 11 -a),b) show actual examples of glulam structures constructed using Miyazaki Cedar and Cypress mixed species glulam.
a) Residential house under construction.
b) Kindergarten completed.
Figure 11. Actual examples of buildings by Miyazaki Cedar and Cypress mixed species glulam.
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CURRENT SITUATION OF LARGE SCALE TIMBER STRUCTURES MADE OF GLULAM In order to construct large scale timber structures not using curved glulam like previous cases but using only straight glulam members from the reason of material production cost, we can choose two methods at this stage. One of the conventional popular and stable methods is to use shear walls or equivalent brace system for resisting against earthquake force. Figure 12-a) shows an example of bracing system, and Figure 12-b) shows an example of shear wall system.
a) Wood Composite Hall, Wood Research Institute, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan
b) Takayama secondary school, Takayama city, Gifu prefecture, Japan
Figure 12. Examples of brace or shear wall systems for large scale timber structure. While in the case where free open spaces are more required, an alternative method using semi-rigid portal frame system for resisting against earthquake force will be recommended. In this case, not only horizontal but also vertical resisting performances entirely depend on the stiffness and strength properties of beam-column as well as column-leg joints. Figure 13 show examples of beam-column and column-leg joints developed by the author for large scale glulam structures. Figure 14-a), b),c) and d) show examples of glulam constructions built using semi-rigid joint systems introduced in Figure 13. a) Beam-column joint by insert-type steel gusset plate with drift-pins
a) Beam-column joint by Lagscrewbolt (LSB) with joint metal box.
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b) Column-leg joint with same joint system
b) Column-leg joint by LSB.
Figure 13. Examples of joints developed by the author for large scale glulam structures.
a) Lattice roof beam structure for assembly hall (Notredame women’s university).
c) S emi-rigid frames in rigid direction for school class room (Mie global high school).
b) Three storey glulam building under construction (Obihiro forestry office).
d) S emi-rigid frames in rigid direction for kindergarten class room (Yumekko land).
Figure 14. E xamples of glulam constructions built using semi-rigid joint systems. Buildings in a) and b) are composed of drift pin joint with steel insert plate, while those in c) and d) are composed of LSB joint.
CROSS LAMINATED TIMBER (CLT)
44 | The 3 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS) rd
| Utilization of Low Grade Timber to Engineered Wood Products (EWP) and Current Situation of Large Scale Timber Structures Made of EWP |
Cross Laminated Timber (denote as CLT hereafter) is relatively new EWP mainly developed in Europe, but its use is likely to spread widely over the world, for example in Canada this material is now eagerly investigated. Figure 15-a),-b) and –c) show an example of CLT which was originally developed by a Japanese glulam company using our domestic Japanese Cedar, and recently by collaborating with the company, we have done some basic research to know basic mechanical and physical properties of this new innovative EWP.
a) CLT made of Japanese Cedar
b) Four points bending test
c) Asymmetrical shear test
Figure 15. CLT made of Japanese Cedar (5 ply). Table 1 shows test results on CLT made of Japanese Cedar. It is clear as expected that out-of plane bending properties of CLT composed with different grade laminae are higher than that composed of uniform laminae. While for the out-of-plane shear properties, as rolling shear at middle part governed its mechanical properties, there was likely to be no effect from different lamina lay-up on shear properties. Table 1. Test results on CLT made of Japanese Cedar Out-of-plane bending 2
ıb(ޓN/mm ) mean SD Uniform grade laminae-(1) Different grade laminae-(2)
Out-of-plane shear 2
E (ޓkN/mm ) mean SD
2
IJ(ޓN/mm ) mean SD
2
G (ޓޓkN/mm ) mean SD
28.30
4.75
4.81
0.22
1.82
0.08
0.20
0.11
35.30
0.83
6.95
0.26
1.71
0.13
0.19
0.01
Uniform grade laminae-(1) Cedar L50 Replication number Cedar L50 was 6 to 7 Cedar L50 Cedar L50 Cedar L50
Different grade laminae-(2) Cedar L80 SD: standard deviation Cedar L50 Cedar L50 Cedar L50 Cedar L80
Figure 16-a) and b) show experimental set-up of CLT specimen (700×900×150 mm) put in a The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| 45
|
Kohei Komatsu |
controlled chamber in which temperature was kept as 20C-degree and relative humidity (RH) was cyclically changed from 45% to 85% within a constant interval of 3 days for measuring shrinkage and swelling properties of CLT. Consequently, most large swelling and shrinkage occurred in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction within range of 1 mm while for the parallel to the longitudinal direction deformation due to humidity change was almost negligibly small. “Cup” was also about less than 0.2 mm. From these data, author concluded that deformation of CLT made of Japanese low grade Cedar and subjecting to varying humidity is very stable and no serious distortions in actual service condition will occur. 1.4
CH008
CH007
CH006
CH005
1.2
CH004
CH003
CH002
CH001
(mm)
1 0.8 0.6
Deformation
ȴ
0.4 0.2 0 Ͳ0.2 Ͳ0.4 Ͳ0.6 Ͳ0.8 Ͳ1 Ͳ1.2
a) Experimental set-up of CLT specimens
8/1
8/8
8/15 8/22 8/29 9/5 Date
9/12 9/19 9/26 10/3
b) Example of measured deformations.
Figure 16. Experimental set-up of CLT specimens put in a controlled chamber and measured data.
CONCLUSION Utilization of forest products taken from man-made forest is our duty for promoting sustainable resource cycle and for restricting CO2 emission. Among many utilization methods, development of large scale timber structures just meets with our government’s requirement which has issued in 2010 declaring that every low-rise public building should be constructed by using wooden material which can store CO2 within structural members so that timber buildings can become equivalent forest in town. The author would be delighted if my paper could give any suggestions for promoting large scale timber structures also in Indonesia by utilizing man-made forest resources.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Author would like to express his sincere thanks to the support from I-MHERE Project by Universitas Gadjah Mada which gave him an opportunity to give a plenary lecture in the 3rd International Symposium of Indonesian Wood Research Society. Also he would like to thank Dr. Hideki Morita very much for his courtesy of experimental data as well as photos on Miyazaki Cedar and Cypress mixed species glulam.
46 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Utilization of Low Grade Timber to Engineered Wood Products (EWP) and Current Situation of Large Scale Timber Structures Made of EWP |
REFERENCES Wolfgang Rug, 2006 : “100 JahreHwtzer-Patent”, Bautechnik, 83 Heft8, 533-540. Kohei Komatsu and Yasuo Iijima, 2005 : “Development of Sugi and Douglas-fir Mixed Species Glulam and the Performance of Portal Frames composed of Mixed Species Glulam”, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Timber Structures “The Utilization of Low Density Timber as Structural Materials” Bandung, Indonesia, 15-16th November Hideki Morita, Akihiro Matsumoto, Shiro Aratake, Yoshiyasu Fujimoto, Toshio Yoshida, Hironari Nobe and Kenji Kashiwazaki, 2009 : “Development of Novel Structural Mized-species Glulam using Sugi and Hinoki, Wood Industry, Vol.64, No.9, 411-415.
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| 47
Biological performance of wood-based composites post-treated with ACQ and CA Cihat Tascioglu1 and Kunio Tsunoda2 Duzce University RISH, Kyoto University 1
2
Outline • •
•
Wood-based composites (WBCs) Preservative treatments of WBCs • Comparison of pre-and post treatments for WBCs Work at RISH • Treatment schedules and solution retentions • Biological (Decay and termite) performance results • Chemical analysis of retentions (ICP data)
Importance of WBCs • Increased utilization of WBCs • Depletion of high quality wood • Wide acceptance in construction • New composite technologies • Protection requirements for WBCs • moisture, weather, biological agents (decay fungi, insects, and marine borers) and fire when used in the exposed outdoor environments
Pre-treatment Hot press WBC treatment methods h d
In-process treatment Hot press Post-treatment
48 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Biological performance of wood-based composites post-treated with ACQ and CA |
Comparison of methods Post-treatment • Advantages • Easy to apply • No modification of manufacturing process • Disadvantages • Envelope protection only • No processing after treatment • Effects on mechanical and physical properties In-process treatment • Advantages • Protection throughout the board thickness • Stable quality of treated materials • Disadvantages • Possible unfavorable chemical interaction with adhesive(s) • Degradation of mechanical properties • Gas emission during manufacturing and processing • The “ideal” treatment • No or minimal effect on physical or mechanical properties of final product • Little or no alteration of the manufacturing process • Cost effective • Leach resistant • No or minimal effect on fasteners used for WBC Objectives • To examine feasibility of post-treatment of WBCs • To investigate the effectiveness of ACQ and CA retention levels on biological performance (decay and termite) in laboratory and field tests • To analyze active ingredient distribution profiles of each composite material
Materials and methods Features of WBCs tested Wood-based composite
Thickness (mm)
Density (g/cm3)
Adhesive
Raw material
Softwood plywood (SWP)
12.1
0.59
PF Type-1
Softwood, 5 ply
Hardwood plywood (HWP)
11.7
0.50
PF Type-1
Hardwood, 5 ply
Medium density fiberboard (MDF)
12.0
0.71
MUF
Hardwood fibers
Oriented strand board (OSB)
12.7
0.63
PF
Aspen
Particleboard (PB)
11.9
0.71
MUF
Hard-/softwood mix
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Cihat Tascioglu and Kunio Tsunoda |
Preservative Chemicals • Alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ) • Copper azole (CA) • Widely accepted as alternatives to CCA • Higher treatment solution uptake and penetration when compared to acidic water-borne preservatives Target retentions • According to JAS 2007, for sugi lumber (solid wood) • 1.3 and 2.6 kg/m3 as ACQ, respectively for K2 and K3 • 0.5 and 1.0 kg/m3 as CA, respectively for K2 and K3 •
For WBCs • 0.65, 1.3 and 2.6 kg/m3 as ACQ • 0.25, 0.50 and 1.0 kg/m3 as CA • Details of Vacuum Treatments Treatment T t t solution
Stainless steel basket
Dry vacuum
Wet vacuum
Water uptake (kg/m3)
SWP
30
60
153
HWP
30
20
193
MDF
10
1
398
OSB
10
1
339
PB
10
1
364
Composite
vacuum pump specimens
Treatment schedule [time (min)]
50 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Biological performance of wood-based composites post-treated with ACQ and CA |
Post-treatment and recovery thickness swelling rates • Post-treatment thickness swelling • Changes in composites thickness due to 5.25 cm preservative impregnation under vacuum • Measured by a micrometer at reference points • Recovery thickness swelling • Measured 8-10 weeks after the treatments when the MC reached equilibrium
5.25 cm
ȥt=t2Ǧt1
Mechanical properties • JIS A 5908 “static three-point bending” • Determination of MOR and MOE • 10 specimens per retention group for each composite group Biological tests • Decay test; JIS K 1571 • White rot: Trametes versicolor (L.:Fr.) Pilat (FFPRI 1030) • Brown rot: Fomitopsis palustris (Berk. et Curt.) (FFPRI 0507) • Termite test; JWPS-TW-P.1 • Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki
Details of chemical analysis Detailsofchemicalanalysis
Details of chemical analysis Sample prep.
surface core splitting
filtration
dilution
AWPA A7-04 g ((nitric acid Wet ashing
digestion +hydrogen peroxide)
grinding
surface f Wood meal
Quantitative transfer
Sieving 60-mesh
ICP elemental Cu in ppm
Computation from ppm to kg/m3
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Cihat Tascioglu and Kunio Tsunoda |
Results Retentions CA treatments Wood-based composite
Target retention (kg/m3)
SWP
HWP
MDF
OSB
PB
0.25
0.26 (0.03)
0.34 (0.06)
0.27 (0.00)
0.24 (0.03)
0.29 (0.01)
0.50
0.52 (0.09)
0.66 (0.08)
0.53 (0.01)
0.49 (0.09)
0.56 (0.02)
1.00
1.00 (0.19)
1.40 (0.19)
1.03 (0.01)
1.00 (0.08)
1.15 (0.03)
ACQ treatments Wood-based composite
Target retention (kg/m3)
SWP
HWP
MDF
OSB
PB
0.65
0.75 (0.08)
0.68 (0.09)
0.77 (0.01)
0.66 (0.06)
0.65 (0.01)
1.30
1.30 (0.15)
1.32 (0.12)
1.52 (0.02)
1.30 (0.07)
1.30 (0.05)
2.60
2.62 (0.42)
2.60 (0.37)
2.98 (0.03)
2.85 (0.38)
2.59 (0.07)
Thickness swelling (right after treatment)
Recovery rates (8-10 weeks after treatment)
20 15
100
Water ACQ CA
Reccovery yRate( (%)
%Sw welling g
25
10 5 0
Water ACQ Q CA
75 550 25 0
Composite
Composite p
Irreversible swelling
*Only highest retentions were presented
Changes in Mechanical Properties (1) Plywoods
7000
60
6000
50
5000
40
4000
30
3000
20
2000
10
1000
0
0
MOR
MOE
80
8000
70
7000
60
6000
50
5000
40
4000
30
3000
20
2000
10
1000
0
0
MOR
52 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
MOE
MOE(MPa))
70
HWP
MOR(MPa))
8000
MOE(MPa)
Pa) MOR(MP
SWP 80
| Biological performance of wood-based composites post-treated with ACQ and CA |
Changes in mechanical properties (2) 60
6000
50
5000
50
5000
40
4000
40
4000
30
3000
30
3000
20
2000
20
2000
10
1000
10
1000
0
0
0
MOR
MOR(M MPa)
6000
MOE(M MPa)
OSB
60
MOE(M MPa)
MOR(M MPa)
MDF
0
MOR
MOE
MOE
Changes in mechanical properties (3) 60
6000
50
5000
40
4000
30
3000
20
10
0
Composite
ACQ*
CA**
SWP
-6.61
-3.91
HWP
-23.0
-15.2
2000
MDF
-2.5
-8.6
1000
OSB
-32.2
-30.9
PB
-16.0
-15.2
0
MOR
MOE
Summary table on MOR reductions (when compared to the untreated controls)
MOE(MPa)
MOR(MPa)
PB
*2.6 kg/m3 **1.0 kg/m3 1 not significant at 0.99
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Cihat Tascioglu and Kunio Tsunoda |
Biological performance of ACQ and CA treated solid sugi ACQ treatments Mean mass loss (%) Retention1)(kg/m3)
Weathering
Trametes versicolor
Fomitopsis palustris
Coptotermes formosanus
0.00
N/A No Yes No Yes No
38.2 (3.68) 2.1 (1.31) 1.6 (0.55) 0.1 (0.12) 0.0 (0.00) 1.3 (0.59) 0.0 (0.00)
41.4 (3.54) 39.0 (4.23) 35.5 (4.52) 1.0 (0.89) 1.2 (0.72) 0.2 (0.31) 1.6 (0.58)
26.3 (5.02) 1.6 (0.93) 1.2 (1.00)
0.67 1.37 2.74 1
Yes
0.7 (0.60)
Calculated from solution uptake
CA treatments Mean mass loss (%) Retention (kg/m )
Weathering
0.00
N/A No Yes No Yes No Yes
1)
3
0.27 0.50 1.00 1 2
Trametes versicolor 37.2 (7.30) 1.3 (1.31)*2 0.0 (0.00)* 0.1 (0.20)* 0.0 (0.00)* 0.0 (0.00)* 0.0 (0.00)*
Fomitopsis palustris 33.2(4.75) 28.1 (4.83)* 33.4 (3.79)* 0.0 (0.00)* 2.1 (3.84)* 0.0 (0.00)* 0.0 (0.00)*
Coptotermes formosanus 21.0 (1.57) 9.9 (1.18)* 10.2 (0.61)* 1.9 (1.20)* 1.1 (0.93)* 0.4 (0.33)* 0.6 (0.42)*
Calculated from solution uptake Values in a column marked with an asterisk are significantly different from the control and/or other retentions (p < 0.01).
Decayresults(1) Decay results (1)
SWP
TRV
FOP
50
Massloss(%)
40 30 20 10 0
HWP 50 40 Masslosss(%)
54 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS) 30 20
TRV
FOP
10 0
| Biological performance of wood-based composites post-treated with ACQ and CA |
HWP 50
TRV
FOP
Masslosss(%)
40 30 20 10 0
Decayresults(2) Decay results (1)
MDF
TRV
PB
TRV
FOP
50
Massloss( (%)
40 30 20 10 0
FOP
50
Masssloss(%)
40 30 20 10 0
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| 55
Decayresults(3) |
Cihat Tascioglu and Kunio Tsunoda |
Decay results (3)
OSB
TRV
60
FOP
Ma assloss(%)
550 40 30 20 10 0
Conssumptionrate (ɑg//termite/day)
120
SWP
Cons.Rate 70 Mortality
60
100
50
80
40
60
30
40
20
20
10
0
0
Treatments
140 Con nsumptionrate e (ɑg g/termite/day)
120
HWP
Cons.Rate 70 Mortality
60
100
50
80
40
60
30
40
20
20
10
0
0
Treatments
56 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
Mortality(%)
140
Mo ortality(%)
\ Termiticidal performance (1)
| Biological performance of wood-based composites post-treated with ACQ and CA |
Termiticidal performance (2)
C Consumptionr rate (ɑg/termite/da ay)
120
Cons.Rate 120
MDF
Mortality
100
100 8 80
80
60
60
40
40 20
20
0
0
Mortality(% %)
140
Treatments
Co onsumptionratte (ɑ ɑg/termite/day y)
120
OSB
100
Cons.Rate 120 Mortality
100 80
80
60
60
40
40 20
20
0
0
Mortality(%)) M
140
Treatments
Termiticidal performance (3)
C Consumptionr rate (ɑg/termite/da ay)
120
PB
Cons.Rate 70 Mortality
60
100
550
80
40
60
30
40
20
20
10
0
0
Mortality(% %)
140
Treatments
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Cihat Tascioglu and Kunio Tsunoda |
Retention profile of ACQ in WBCs Target Retn. (kg/m3)
Calculated (kg/m3)
Analytical overall (kg/m3)
SWP
0.65 1.30 2.60
0.63 1.28 2.58
0.51 0.88 1.63
0.67 0.99 2.02
0.18 0.65 0.85
HWP
0.65 1.30 2.60
0.65 1.33 2.58
0.47 0.83 1.24
0.58 0.95 1.26
0.25 0.59 1.20
MDF
0.65 1.30 2.60
0.76 1.50 2.95
0.42 0.84 1.71
0.37 0.76 1.59
0.53 1.02 1.94
OSB
0.65 1.30 2.60
0.64 1.31 2.62
0.39 0.67 1.48
0.35 0.52 1.44
0.49 0.97 1.57
PB
0.65 1.30 2.60
0.65 1.3 2.61
0.36 0.75 1.22
0.32 0.67 1.28
0.42 0.91 1.10
Composite
Analytical Analytical surface (kg/m3) core (kg/m3)
Retention profile of CA in WBCs Composite
Target Retn. (kg/m3)
Calculated (kg/m3)
Analytical overall (kg/m3)
SWP
0.25
0.25
0.12
0.14
0.07
0.50
0.47
0.33
0.41
0.16
1.00
1.00
0.77
0.89
0.53
0.25
0.29
0.23
0.27
0.15
0.50
0.57
0.50
0.54
0.41
1.00
1.22
0.77
0.80
0.71
0.25
0.26
0.15
0.14
0.16
0.50
0.53
0.36
0.39
0.31
1.00
1.01
0.66
0.70
0.59
0.25
0.25
0.16
0.14
0.22
0.50
0.50
0.28
0.24
0.37
1.00
1.01
0.67
0.57
0.87
0.25
0.28
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.50
0.55
0.21
0.20
0.22
1.00
1.11
0.36
0.34
0.41
HWP
MDF
OSB
PB
Analytical Analytical surface (kg/m3) core (kg/m3)
58 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Biological performance of wood-based composites post-treated with ACQ and CA |
Biocidal gradient (1)
Plywoods High retention Low retention
Composite SWP HWP
Surface/core ratio ACQ CA 2.54 2.08 1.66 1.42
Mapping Cu retention profile on x-sections with copper azurol-S
Biocidal gradient (2)
Fiber or strand boards Low retention High retention
Composite MDF OSB PB
Surface/core ratio ACQ CA 0.76 1.11 0.72 0.65 0.89 0.84
Mapping Cu retention profile on Mapping Cu retention profile on x-sections with copper azurol-S
x-sections with copper azurol-S
Conclusions (1) of all retentions with ACQ and CA were shown to be unsuitable and impractical for OSB and • *Mean Post-treatment PB because of their unacceptable high thickness-swelling rates • Post-treatment resulted in reductions of mechanical properties of WBCs tested with an exception of SWP • Laboratory decay test indicated that MDF was durable and untreated MDF could be usable under mild microbial conditions • ACQ at 2.6 kg/m3 and CA 1.0 kg/m3 improved decay resistance of plywoods against F. palustris with an exception of SWP. • The highest retentions of ACQ and CA failed in protecting SWP from C. formosanus, whereas the termite-resistance of other composites was significantly improved. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Cihat Tascioglu and Kunio Tsunoda |
Conclusions (2) • Plywoods exhibited a sharp biocidal gradient between surface and core sections with ratios from 2.54 to 1.42. • MDF, OSB and PB, on the other hand, did not exhibit a sharp biocidal gradient with ratios from 0.65 to 1.11.
60 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
ORAL PAPERS
Wood Basic Properties
Microstructure of Charcoal Produced by Traditional Technique 1
2
1
Joko Sulistyo , Toshimitsu Hata , and Sri Nugroho Marsoem 1
Department of Forest Products Technology, Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, INDONESIA 2 Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, JAPAN ABSTRACT Charcoal which is produced from wood, a renewable material, is potential for many engineering applications. In developing countries, charcoals are produced by traditional techniques. It is estimated that the charcoal produced by traditional techniques are inappropriate for engineering materials. This study was conducted to observe the microstructure in charcoal prepared by traditional technique by using Raman spectroscopy for further development. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) estimated that most of charcoals produced by traditional technique were prepared at low temperature around 300-500 ºC indicating by the weight loss above 300 ºC for charcoal from acacia wood and above 500 ºC for charcoal from mahagony and sonokeling woods. Carbonization temperature determined degree of order of graphitic crystallite and disorder and distorted structure in the microstructure of charcoal. Charcoal from mahagony and sonokeling wood which were estimated prepared at 500 ºC showed similar degree of order of graphitic crystallite and disorder and distorted structure with charcoal of Japanese cedar wood which were prepared at 700 ºC in laboratory, as showing by the similar position of the Raman G band and the width of G and D bands. Keywords: microstructure, thermogravimetric analysis, Raman spectroscopy,
INTRODUCTION Charcoal which is produced from wood, a renewable material, is potential for many engineering applications. The non graphitic carbon with porous structure in carbonized wood provides high reactivity in the adsorption of heavy metals from aqueous solution (Pulido et al, 1998), high reactivity for production carbide ceramics for applications such as high temperature filter, catalyst for bioengineering process (Greil, 2001), for electromagnetic shielding material (Wang and Hung, 2003), for fuel cell (Kercher and Nagle, 2002), etc. These variety applications of carbonized wood are determined by the microstructure in carbonized wood. The control microstructure in carbonized wood may lead to the proper utilization for engineering applications. In developing countries, charcoals are mostly produced by traditional techniques. The characteristics of charcoal prepared by traditional techniques include having high contents of volatile matters and ash; and in the contrary having low content of fix carbon (Marsoem et al, 2003). The traditional techniques with low carbonization temperature are estimated to influence the inferior characteristic of charcoal produced. Therefore it is predicted that the charcoal produced from traditional techniques is inappropriate for engineering materials. It is required a study on the microstructure in the charcoal produced by traditional technique by using Raman spectroscopy
64 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Microstructure of Charcoal Produced by Traditional Technique |
for further developments. The carbonization condition and heating temperature in the production of charcoal by traditional technique was observed by thermogravimetric analysis.
EXPERIMENTAL Charcoal samples produced by traditional technique were obtained from Yogyakarta area. The charcoal samples were prepared from acacia (Acacia auriculiformis, sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia) and mahagony (Swietenia mahagony) woods by mound kiln technique from different charcoal makers. Oil palm shell charcoal was obtained from the solid waste of pyrolytic liquid production at temperature 300 ºC. Japanese cedar wood (Cryptomerial japonica) particles were carbonized at a heating rate of 4 ºC/min and were then maintained constant at a temperature of 700 ºC for 1 h in Argon gas flowing at a rate of 100 mL/min in a laboratory scale electric furnace. The experiment of thermal decomposition of charcoal used thermogravimetric equipment (Mettler TGA-2050). A small sample of wood charcoal (around 15 mg) was heated from 25 to 800°C using thermogravimetric equipment under Nitrogen gas flow 200 cm-3 min-1.
Weight (%)
A Raman spectroscope (Renishaw inVia, England) equipped with an air-cooled CCD detector was used to analyze the carbon structure of carbonized wood and graphite before and after the 100 heat treatment process. An argon laser (514.5 nm) was adopted as an excitation source. The laser was focused to approximately 1 lm in diameter at a power of less than 1 mW on the sample surface 95 in order to prevent irreversible thermal degradation. Spectra were measured in the 1,100–1,800 TG cm-1 range. Six 30-s accumulations gave adequate signal-to-noise ratio of the spectra. The 90 wave number was calibrated using the 520 cm-1 line of a silicon wafer. Spectral processing was Acacia 85 performed using WiRE 2 software. Cedar Sonokeling Mahagony Oil palm
80
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Thermogravimetric Analysis
75 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Thermogravimetric (TG) and derived thermogravimetric (DTG) curves of all samples of charcoal Temperature (˚C) were recorded from 25 to 800 ºC, as shown in Fig. 1. The curves show the non-isothermaldegradation of charcoal in nitrogen gas flow accompanied by mass losses. 0.16 Derived Weight (%/C)
100
Weight (%)
95
TG
90
Acacia Cedar Sonokeling Mahagony Oil palm
85 80
0.12
DTG
0.10 0.08
Acacia Cedar Dalbergia Mahagony Oil palm
0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00
75 0
0.14
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Temperature (˚C)
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Temperature (˚C)
erived Weight (%/C)
Fig. 1.TG and DTG curves of charcoals from acacia, mahagony, and sonokeling woods producing by traditional charcoal technique; from Japanese cedar wood prepared at laboratory at 700 0.16 Acacia ºC; and from the solid waste of pyrolytic liquid production of oil palm shell, under dynamic 0.14 Cedar conditions from 25 to 800 ºC 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04
DTG
Dalbergia The 3 Mahagony INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS) Oil palm rd
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Charcoal from Japanese cedar wood (Cryptomeria japonica) shows the occurrence of two regions of weight loss in the temperature ranges 25-100 ºC and 500-800 ºC with the cumulative weight loss only 7 wt.%. The first region 30-100 ºC corresponds to desorption of water. Less weight loss in the second region of Japanese cedar charcoal indicated the less degradation of charcoal which was already carbonized at 700 ºC during the preparation in the laboratory. Charcoal from mahagony and sonokeling wood also show similar regions of weight loss. But they show slightly higher weight loss in the region 500-800 ºC with the cumulative weight loss of 13 wt.%. The weight loss of charcoal of mahagony and sonokeling wood above 500 ºC corresponds to the degradation of lignin (Byrne and Nagle, 1997). The weight loss indicated a continuation of carbonization process started from 500. The charcoal of oil palm shell prepared at 300 ºC shows three regions of weight loss in the temperature ranges 25-150 ºC and 150-700 ºC, and 700-800 ºC with the cumulative weight loss 25 wt.%. The TG and DTG curves of charcoal of acacia wood seem similarities with those of oil palm shell with the second region in the range from 300 to 700 ºC. The change in weight loss above 200 ºC until approximately 290 ºC corresponds to the decomposition of hemicellulose (Byrne and Nagle, 1997), as shown in the second region of oil palm shell charcoal. Above 290 ºC the change in weight loss corresponds to the decomposition of cellulose and lignin. The further thermal decomposition of wood component in charcoal can be evaluated from TG and DTG curves recorded in nitrogen gas flow. It is obviously that most of wood charcoals which were produced by traditional technique were prepared at low temperature around 300-500 ºC indicating by the weight loss above 300 ºC for charcoal from acacia wood and above 500 ºC for charcoal from mahagony and sonokeling wood. Improvement for traditional charcoal makers is necessary to increase the carbonization temperature up to 700-800 ºC as obtaining by the charcoal from Japanese cedar wood. Microstructure of Cell Wall of Charcoals Figure 2 shows Raman spectra of charcoals from acacia, mahagony, and sonokeling woods producing by traditional charcoal makers; from Japanese cedar wood prepared at laboratory; and from the solid waste of pyrolytic liquid production of oil palm shell. The two Raman bands corresponding to the disordered and strongly distorted structure of turbostratic carbon (D band) and stacking disorder of the basic structural units (BSU) of the aromatic layers (G band) were distinctively observed at positions around 1586 - 1603 cm-1 and 1346 - 1363 cm-1, respectively (Paris et al. 2005). The position of the Raman G band, the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the Raman G and D bands and the peak intensity ratio of G and D (Id/Ig) are the characteristic Raman parameters for the carbon structure of carbonaceous materials (Ishimaru et al., 2007). Table 1 shows the values of these Raman parameters of charcoal of Japanese cedar wood prepared at laboratory at 700 ºC; charcoal of oil palm shell from the solid waste of pyrolytic liquid production; charcoal of acacia, mahagony and sonokeling woods produced by traditional charcoal makers.
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| Microstructure of Charcoal Produced by Traditional Technique |
G band
Acacia M ahagony Sonokeling C edar O il palm
1000
1100
1200
1300
D band
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
Fig. 2. R aman spectra of charcoals from acacia, mahagony, sonokeling and Japanese cedar woods and from oil palm shell. The carbonization conditions of each charcoal refer to Fig. 1. Table 1. Raman parameters of charcoals from acacia, mahagony, sonokeling and Japanese cedar woods and from oil palm shell. The carbonization conditions of each charcoal refer to Fig. 1.
Acacia Mahagony Sonokeling Oil palm shell Japanese cedar
G band position 1586 1603 1602 1598 1601
D band position 1363 1346 1356 1357 1356
G band width 75 62 66 76 62
D band width 121 117 110 136 113
Id/Ig 0.54 0.53 0.58 0.64 0.63
There were little difference in the position of the Raman G band and the width of G and D bands observed from charcoal of Japanese cedar, mahagony and sonokeling woods. The position of the Raman G band of charcoal from acacia wood and oil palm shell shows difference with those of charcoal from Japanese cedar, mahagony and sonokeling woods. Moreover, the width of G and D bands of charcoal from acacia wood and oil palm shell were broader than those of charcoal from Japanese cedar, mahagony and sonokeling woods. The Raman parameters of charcoal from acacia wood and oil palm shell indicates that their microstructure possess a low degree of order of graphitic crystallites and less improvement on their disordered and distorted structures. The higher temperature of carbonization of Japanese cedar, mahagony and sonokeling woods influenced on the increasing degree of order of graphitic crystallites in the BSU and improving the disorder and distorted structure in the microstructure of charcoal indicating by the narrow of G and D bands width. In disordered carbon materials, the Id/Ig is inversely proportional to the development of the carbon crystallites during carbonization. In the present work, the similar values of Id/Ig between charcoal of acacia, mahagony and sonokeling and that of between charcoal of oil palm shell and Japanese cedar wood imply that the carbonization temperature did not affect on the lateral growth carbon crystallite. The opposite result reported by Karcher and Nagle (2003) by X-ray diffraction The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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technique that showed the increase of lateral carbon crystallites with increasing the carbonization temperature from 400 to 800 ºC. The relation between lateral crystallite size with the Raman intensity ratio might not be applicable (Paris et al., 2005).
CONCLUSION The TGA curves in temperature range 25-800 ºC were able to estimate the carbonization temperature in the preparation of charcoal. Most of charcoal produced by traditional technique were prepared at low temperature around 300-500 ºC indicating by the weight loss above 300 ºC for charcoal from acacia wood and above 500 ºC for charcoal from mahagony and sonokeling woods. Carbonization temperature determined degree of order of graphitic crystallite and disorder and distorted structure in the microstructure of charcoal. Charcoal from mahagony and sonokeling wood which were estimated prepared at 500 ºC showed similar degree of order of graphitic crystallite and disorder and distorted structure with charcoal of Japanese cedar wood which were prepared at 700 ºC in laboratory, as showing by the similar position of the Raman G band and the width of G and D bands. Charcoal from acacia wood and oil palm shell showed less degree of order of graphitic crystallite and disorder and distorted structure in their microstructure as indicating by the position of G band and the broad width of the G and D bands.
REFERENCES Byrne, C.E.; D.C. Nagle, 1997, Carbonization of Wood for Advanced materials Applications, Carbon 35 (2): 259-266. Greil, P., 2001, Biomorphous ceramics from lignocellulosic, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 21:105-118. Ishimaru, K., T. Hata; P. Bronsveld; Y. Imamura, 2007, Microstructural study of carbonized wood after cell wall sectioning, Journal of Material Science 42:2662–2668. Kercher, A.K.; D. C.Nagle, 2003, Microstructural evolution during charcoal carbonization by X-ray diffraction analysis, Carbon 41:15–27. Marsoem, S.N.; J. Sulistyo; D. Irawati, 2003, Status and Prospects of Charcoal in Indonesia, in Proceeding of The International Workshop on “Better Utilization of Forest Biomass for Local Community and Environments” ISBN : 979-3132-10-8, Bogor. Paris, O.; C. Zollfrank; G. A. Zickler, 2005, Decomposition and carbonisation of wood biopolymers—a microstructural study of softwood pyrolysis, Carbon 43:53-66. Pulido, L.L.; T. Hata, Y. Imamura, S. Ishihara, T. Kajimoto, 1998, Removal of mercury and other metals by carbonized wood powder from aqueous solution of their salts, J. Wood Sci. 44:237-243. Wang, S.Y.; C.P. Hung, 2003, Electromagnetic shielding efficiency of the electric field of charcoal from six wood species, J. Wood Sci. 49:450-454.
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Decay Resistance of Ten Tropical Wood Species againts Ceratocystis polychroma Fungi Yusran*), Rahmawati, Suwandi Rapetempo, and Amrullah Department of Forestry. Forestry Faculty, Tadulako University Jl.Soekarno-Hatta Km.8 Palu, Sulawesi Tengah 94118 Email address :
[email protected] *) Corresponding author
ABSTRACT Indonesia has around 4000 wood species but only few of them have been known and classified on decay process caused by fungi. Regarding on the use of wood eficiently and to decrease the excessive of wood consumption from forest area, its needed to protect and prevent the woods from deterioration process. In this study, in vitro evaluations on the resistance of wood to fungal decay were made based on mass loss value of post-decay wood blocks. Several species of wood were subjected to fungal decay by exposing them to Ceratocystis polychroma. This paper is intended to present the decay resistance of 10 tropical wood species against C. polychroma in a laboratory experiment. From this study is also expected that laboratory experiment will shorten the time needed to determine the natural durability of wood. There were 10 wood specimens. Each specimen consisted of 10 samples as replication, in the form of small blocks measuring of 2.5 (width) × 1.5 (thick) × 5 cm (length in the direction of wood grain). Wood samples were evaluated for their resistance against C. polychroma attacks using Kolle-flask method (DIN 52176-modified standard). The results showed that the highest wood weight loss percentage was founded at Octomeles sumatrana Miq (18%) and then followed by Pterospermum spp. (17,8%), Shorea javanica (14%), Palaquium spp. (12%), Koordersiodendron pinnatum (10,5%), Lophopetalum spp.(10%), Durio spp. (8,9%), Heritiera spp (8,5%), Diospyros herbecarpa A Cunn (6,4%) and Diospyros celebica Bakh (2,8%) respectively. It was also found that from the 10 wood samples tested against C. polychrome, one species, D. celebica Bakh, was categorized as resistant wood (class II), 3 species, D. herbecarpa A Cunn, Heretiera sp. and Durio spp. were categorized as moderately resistant wood (class III), 6 species, O. sumatrana Miq., Pterospermum spp., Shorea javanica, Pallaquium spp., Koordersiodendron pinnatum and Lophopetalum spp were categorized as non-resistant wood (class IV). In addition, the expectancy of service life of one wood species (D. celebica Bakh,.) are between 6 – 7 years, 3 species (Palaquium spp., Heritiera spp and D. herbecarpa A Cunn) are between 4 – 5 years and 6 species (O. sumatrana Miq, Pterospermum spp., S. javanica, Palaquium spp., K. pinnatum and Lophopetalum spp.)) are between 2 – 3 years. Therefore, studies concerning the natural decay resistance of several woods, it should be important for assessments of resistance to fungal decay to carried out using a various wood and fungal species. Keywords: decay, resistance, tropical Wood, Ceratocystis polychroma
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INTRODUCTION Some tropical wood species have interesting properties like natural durability which is an important property for constructions purpose of the woods and in situation where there is a high risk of fungal and insect infestation. The endurance of a wood species to attacks by degrading organisms such as termite, powder-post beetle, marine borer and fungi will determine its natural durability (Martawijaya 1996). There are some factors that influence wood resistance include site, growth rate, age of tree, portion of wood (heartwood and sapwood), extractive contents in wood and the environment of the wood to be tested. Wood for building material is assessed by its durability and a low durability would mean a short service life. Therefore, Seng (1990) stated that natural durability against decaying organism is an important property in wood where it is divided into five classes (Class I to V). A wide range of fungi can infect wood, including wood-decay fungi and staining fungi (Zhou, et al., 2006). Ceratocystis spp. is a host specialized species that causes wilt and canker of woody species and rot diseases of storage roots and corms of many economically important plants worldwide. Many of these species attack trees but some species are also symbionts of conifer infesting bark beetles. For example, Ceratocystis polychroma sp. nov., is resides in a genus of very well known as pathogens of woody plants and reported as a new species from Syzygium aromaticum in Sulawesi (Kile, 1993; Van Wyk et al., 2004). However, not much emphasis is given to the classification of natural resistance of Indonesian woods against fungal attack. Therefore, in this study, in vitro evaluations on the resistance of 10 tropical woods to fungal decay were made based on weight loss value of post-decay wood blocks.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Ceratocystis polychroma used in this study was obtained from Silviculture Laboratory, Forestry Faculty, Tadulako University, Palu, Indonesia. Wood stakes of ten wood species, from a single tree from some origin in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, were cut into separate test blocks containing heartwood. Each specimen consisted of 10 samples, and considering the surface action of fungi to wood block, the form of small blocks was decided at 2.5 (width) x 1.5 (thick) x 5 cm (length in the direction of wood grain). Samples were treated by one fungal species of Ceratocystis polychroma (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2) with ten replicates for each wood specimen. Fig. 1. Pure culture of Ceratocystis polychroma at Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium. The decay test was conducted based on the Kolleflask method by DIN 52176 standard which has been modified by Martawijaya (1975), Djarwanto and Suprapti (2004) and Suprapti (2010). For this study, culture media used was made by using sterile Potato Dextrose Agar Medium (PDA) and it was poured into petri dish (35ml for each petri dish). Furthermore, the sterilised medium in each petri dish was inoculated by pure culture of C. polychroma. The inoculated medium was then incubated until the mycelium growth of C. polychroma on the surface of the medium was distributed. Each of the 70 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Decay Resistance of Ten Tropical Wood Species againts Ceratocystis polychroma Fungi |
sterile wood block was put in the middle part of petri dishes. Hence, petri dishes were conditioned in a conditioning incubator maintained at 25±2°C and 65-75 relative humidity overnight for a period twelve weeks. At the end of the test period, the decayed wood blocks, cleaned and removed of mycelium, were dried to constant weight in a preconditioned room and oven. To classify wood decay resistance, average weight loss of wood samples was determined by formula according to Martawijaya (1975) and Djarwanto & Suprapti (2004);
Where mi and mf are are the oven-dry weights of the sample before and after decay test. The expectancy of service life for each class was determined according to Seng (1990) as explained in the following Table 1.
Table 1. Classification of wood resistance based on weight loss caused by fungi Average weight loss (%) Non or negligible <5 5-10 10-30 >30
Decay resistance Very resistant Resistant Moderately resistant Non-resistant Perishable
Resistance class I II III IV V
Expectancy of service life (years) ≥8 6-7 4-5 2-3 <2
Statistical Analysis The experimental design was a completely randomized design pattern consisting of ten wood species as treatments, i.e; K1= Dyospiros celebica Bakh, K2= Palaquium sp., K3= Lophopetalum sp., K4= Dyospiros herbecarpa A Cunn., K5= Pterospermum sp., K6= Heretiera sp., K7= Shorea javanica, K8= Koordersiodendron pinnatum, K9= Octomeles sumatrana, K10= Durio sp. All data were statistically analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the mean value of each property was separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) test to determine the differences between treatment levels. The analysis was carried out using the statistical analysis software (SAS).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The present study shows that the average of weight losses of each wood samples varied depending on the wood species. Weight losses of ten tropical woods exposed to Ceratocystis polychroma ranged from 2.8 to 18 percent (Table 2). These results much more lower compared to the data obtained by Freitag and Morrell (2006) who reported that weight losses of ponderosa pine exposed to Gloeophyllum trabeum ranged from 7.2 to 44.5 percent. As explained by Takahashi and Nishima (1967) and Pildain et al., (2005) that weight losses of wood caused by fungal attack influenced by not only wood species but also species of fungi. Hence, to justify the resistance of wood species on fungal attack, it must be stated clearly from which part the wood in the log and species of fungus to be tested. In our experiment, the wood samples taken from the heart wood of the same position in the log. In general, the weight losses of ten wood samples in our experiment due to the attack of C. polychroma were low. These findings were supported by Suprapti (2007), Coggins (1980) and Khan (1954) who reported that weight losses of heartwood due to fungal attack The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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was generally lower than that sapwood. In addition, the result indicate that one of the wood sample (D. celebica Bakh) was categorized as resistant wood (class II), while other wood samples were categorized as moderately resistant wood (class III) and non-resistant wood (class IV). Table 2. Percentage of weight loss and resistance class of the samples after exposure to Ceratocystis polychroma fungi. Different small letter in the same column indicate significant differences between the treatments. Wood Species Dyospiros celebica Bakh
Average weight loss (%) 2.80 h
Decay resistance
Resistance class
Expectancy of service life (years)
Resistant
II
6–7
Palaquium sp.
12.00 c
Non-resistant
IV
2–3
Lophopetalum sp.
10.00 d
Non-Resistant
IV
2–3
Moderately Resistant
III
4–5
Non-resistant
IV
2–3
Moderately resistant
III
4–5
Dyospiros herbecarpa A Cunn Pterospermum sp. Heretiera sp.
6.40 g 17.80 a 8.50 f
Shorea javanica
14.00 b
Non-resistant
IV
2–3
Koordersiodendron pinnatum
10.50 d
Non-Resistant
IV
2–3
Octomeles sumatrana
18.00 a
Non-resistant
IV
2–3
Durio sp.
8.90 ef
Moderately Resistant
III
4–5
Fig. 2. G rowth of Ceratocystis polychroma at ten wood species on PDA medium (K1= Dyospiros celebica Bakh, K2= Palaquium sp., K3= Lophopetalum sp., K4= Dyospiros herbecarpa A Cunn., K5= Pterospermum sp., K6= Heretiera sp., K7= Shorea javanica, K8= Koordersiodendron pinnatum, K9= Octomeles sumatrana, K10= Durio sp.). Wood deterioration could be indicated by its weight loss due to fungal attack. The average weight loss of wood samples varied depending on fungal and wood species (Table 2). Wood which suffered either by brown or by white rot has the common feature of loss in weight and strength (Coggins 1980). Depolymerisation of cellulose by brown rot fungi causes the collapse of wood strength (Highley 1991). Cartwright & Findlay (1943) reported that due to shortening and degradation of wood fibres, Polyporus hispidus was able to decrease 20% of impact bending 72 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Decay Resistance of Ten Tropical Wood Species againts Ceratocystis polychroma Fungi |
strength (toughness) of ash wood after only two weeks of exposure. This was caused mainly by depletion and alteration of the cellulose and its associated pentosans. Hence, Martawijaya (1996) stated that impact bending strength of sengon wood (Paraserianthes falcataria) decreased 80% 24 weeks after being inoculated with S. commune. Generally, weight loss of wood caused by fungal attack depends on wood species and also species and strain of fungi (Takahashi & Nishimoto 1967, Pildain et al. 2005). The natural durability results primarily from the extractive constituents of the heartwood (Charter and Smythe, 1974; Rudman, 1966). Because these constituents are not distributed evenly within the heartwood, its durability can be influenced by many factors as the tree age, growth rate, the conditions under which it was grown, and the position of the tree from which it was cut. Hence, Suhirman and Eaton (1984) stated that durability against one organism or group of organisms cannot be used to predict durability against other organisms. To fully understand the natural decay resistance of woods, it should be important for assessments of resistance to fungal decay to carried out using a various wood and fungal species in laboratory and field scale.
CONCLUSIONS There was some variation of weight losses of ten tropical woods caused by C. polychroma. One species, D. celebica Bakh, was categorized as resistant wood (class II), 3 species, D. herbecarpa A Cunn, Heretiera sp. and Durio spp. were categorized as moderately resistant wood (class III), and 6 species, O. sumatrana Miq., Pterospermum spp., S. javanica, Pallaquium spp., K. pinnatum and Lophopetalum spp were categorized as non-resistant wood (class IV). In addition, the expectancy of service life of one wood species (D. celebica Bakh,.) are between 6 – 7 years, 3 species (Palaquium spp., Heritiera spp and D. herbecarpa A Cunn) are between 4 – 5 years and 6 species (O. sumatrana Miq, Pterospermum spp., S. javanica, Palaquium spp., K. pinnatum and Lophopetalum spp.) are between 2 – 3 years. Therefore, studies concerning the natural decay resistance of wood should be continued by using various wood and fungal species.
REFERENCES Carter, F.L and R.V. Smythe. 1974. Feeding and survival responses of Reticulitermes flallipes (Kollar) to extractives of wood from 11 coniferous genera. Holzforschung 28:41-45. Cartwright S.K.G and Findlay W.P.K. 1943. Timber decay. Biological Reviews. 18:145-158. Djarwanto and Suprapti S. 2004. Laboratory testing on the resistance of wood against fungi. Pp. 15 – 22 in Herjanto E et al. (eds.) Prosiding Seminar Nasional IX MAPEKI. 11-13 August 2006, Banjarbaru, Fakultas Kehutanan Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjar Baru. (In Indonesian). Freitag C. and Morrell J.J. 2006. Decay resistance of China-fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lambert) Hooker). Forest Product Journal. 56:29-31. Highley TL. 1987. Changes in chemical components of hardwood and softwood by brown-rot fungi. Material und organismen. 22: 39 – 45 Kile., 1993. Kile GA., 1993. Plant disease caused by species of Ceratocystis sensu strico and Chalara, In: Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma: Taxonomy, Ecology, and Pathogenicity (Wingfield MJ, Seifert KA, Webber JF, eds.) APS Press, St. Paul, Minessota: 173 – 183. Martawijaya A., 1975. Laboratory testing on the resistance of wood against fungi. Pp. 775 – 777 in Kehutanan Indonesia. The Ministry of Agriculture, Jakarta. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Pildan MB., Novas MV and Garmaran CG. 2005. Evaluation of anamorphic state, wood decay and production of lignin-modifying enzymes for diatrypaceous fungi from Argentina. Journal of Agricultural Technology 1 : 81 – 96. Martawijaya A. 1996. Durability of wood and several factors that affect it. Pp. 1 – 47 in Petunjuk Teknis. Lembaga Penelitian Hasil Hutan, Bogor. Rudman, P. 1966. The causes of variations in the natural durability of wood: inherent factors and aging and their effects on resistance to biological attack. Mater. Organismen Suppl. 1:151-162 Seng OD., 1990. Specific Gravity of Indonesian woods and its significance for practical use. Communication No. 13, Forest Products Research and Development Centre, Bogor. Suhirman, and R.A. Eaton. 1984. The natural durability of selected Indonesian timbers exposed in terrestrial and marine environments and under laboratory conditions. Material und Organismen 19(4):291-314. Suprapti S., 2010. Decay resistance of 84 Indonesian wood species against fungi. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 22(10: 81 – 87. Suprapti S., Djarwanto & Hudiansyah., 2007. The resistance of five wood species against thirteen wood destroying fungi. Journal of Forest Product Research 25: 75 – 83. Takahashi M and Nishimoto K. 1967. Studies on the mechanism of wood decay in infrared spectra of EDNA and SDGI wood as decay proceeds. Wood Research 42: 1 – 12. Wyk Mv., J Roux, I Barnes, B.D Wingfield, E.C.Y. Liew, B. Assa, B.A. Summerrell, M.J. Wingfield., 2004. Ceratocystis polychrome sp. nov., a new species from Syzygium aromaticum in Sulawesi. Studies in Mycology. 50:273 – 282. Zhou, X., Beer, W. Z. and Wingfield, J. M. (2006). DNA sequence comparisons of Ophiostoma spp., including Ophiostoma aurorae sp. Nov., associated with pine bark beetles in South Africa. Studies in Mycology, 55, 269-277.
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The Effect of Burial Time in Peat-Swamp on Physical and Mechanical Properties of Gelam Wood Wahyu Supriyati1, T.A. Prayitno2, Soemardi 2, and Sri Nugroho Marsoem2 1
Faculty of of Agriculture, Department of Forestry, Palangka Raya University 2 Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University
ABSTRACT Gelam wood is found abundantly growing on peat-swamp forest area. It is classified into III wood durability class and expected to withstand up to three years of wood utilization in wet environment. It was found in local community in Palangka Raya of Central Kalimantan Province, however, that gelam wood used for house poles (wood poles for housing foundation) could be still strong enough for a longer time. Local people claimed that the wood appeared still strong enough when it was buried in peat-land more than 30 years. For that reason, this research is focused on looking for what happening in buried gelam wood. rd
The research was conducted by sampling gelam wood which was buried in peat-swamp land for several years namely 10,19, 31 and 38 years long. The diameter of gelam wood poles ranged from 6-11 cm. They were procurred from West Kapuas, Kuala Kapuas, Central Kalimantan. Wood properties parameter tested were moisture content, specific gravity at three moisture content levels namely oven dry, air dry and maximum moisture content, MOR, stress at proportion limit (PL), MOE and hardness. The testing procedure followed the British Standard No. 373 . The analysis used SPSS. The result showed that wood specific gravity of gelam wood at three moisture content level increased with the length of peat-swamp burial time. The longer burial time (ten years up to 38 years), the higher wood specific gravity (0.51 to 0.75). However, wood moisture content behaved negatively, meaning the longer burial time, the lower MC (154.26 to 80.16% from ten year to 38year burial time). The effect of burial time on MOR and stress at proportion limit were parallel with wood specific gravity, while the effect on MOE was almost similar to MC of gelam wood. Keywords: gelam wood, burial time in peat-swamp soil, physical, mechanical properties.
INTRODUCTION Gelam wood is found abundantly growing on peat-swamp forest area in Kalimantan. This condition might be the result of mega rice project in peat-swamp land (Akbar, 2004). The gelam forest is currently producing gelam wood for many wood utilization. The gelam wood has been used dominantly in housing construction, while in small portion used for oil extraction (Anonymous, 1999). The gelam wood is classified into IIIrd wood durability class and expected to withstand up to three years in wet condition (Anonymous, 1976). It was found in local community however, that gelam wood used for housing poles for house foundation on peat-swamp land was still strong enough after buried more than 30 years. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Wood degradation occurs while wood in service which under influences of all factors environment in service. Factors of time period of wood service or so-called life service can effect to properties of wood. Longer burial time can make higher possibility to degradation of wood properties in such a way that wood quality changes accordingly. This research was focused on looking for what was occuring in buried gelam wood. The aim of the study was to know the effect of burial time on the physical and mechanical properties of the gelam wood.
MATERIALS AND METHODS The research was conducted by taking some samples of gelam wood which were buried in peat-swamp land for several years namely 10,19,31 and 38 years. The diameter of wood poles range were from 6-11 cm. They were chosen for gelam wood samples. They were procurred from West Kapuas District, Kuala Kapuas, Central Kalimantan Province. Wood physical properties parameter tested were specific gravity based on three levels of MC condition namely, wood volume at maximum MC (SG max MC), at air dry volume (SGAD) and oven dried volume (SGOD). Wood mechanical properties parameters tested consisted of MOR, stress at proportional limit (PL), MOE and hardness. The small clear specimens were prepared following testing procedure refered to British Standard Specifications (British Standard No 373, 1957) as shown in Figure 1. The samples preparation are listed in Table 1. All mechanical tests were carried out using Universal Testing Machine. In static bending test, the load at proportional limit (PL), maximum load (Pmax) and deflection (∆) were obtained from load–deflection curves. The modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) were calculated using the equations presented in Table 1. Data analysis used SPSS 12.
Figure 1. Sampling of physical and mechanical properties Note : a =MC sample
b = SG sample
c = hardness sample
d = static bending sample
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| The Effect of Burial Time in Peat-Swamp on Physical and Mechanical Properties of Gelam Wood |
Table 1 Dimension of test specimens and parameters formula
Dimension (cm) Cross Length 2x2 30
Test Bending Hardness
2x2
PPL = load at proportion limit L = specimen span, 28 cm b&h = breadth and depth of specimen MOE = modulus of elasticity MOR = modulus of rupture
Parameters calculation MOE=(PPLxL3)(4xDxdxh3) MOR= (3xPmax)(bxh2) Stress at PL=(3PPL)/ (2bh2) 4 Max strength used JankaBall tester Pmax = maximum load ∆ = defleksi Stress at PL = stress at proportion limit
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wood Physical Properties In terms of maximum moisture content of the wood, the research result showed that the effect of burial time period on this variable behaved similarly to wood drying time. In other word, the longer burial time, the lower maximum MC of the wood. It is well known in wood drying technology that longer drying time of the wood, then the lower moisture content of the wood. Research data shows that the average of maximum MC of the wood samples is 154.26% at 10 years burial time period then it decreases to 79.26 % at 38 years burial time. This burial time factor affects significantly the maximum moisture content (Figure 1 and Table 2). However, air dry wood moisture content (AD-MC) is not significantly affected by burial time. This result proves that at air dry condition the gelam wood moisture content is still at equilibrium condition with the air surrounding condition.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Effect of burial time on specific gravity and moisture content In terms of wood specific gravity (SG), this wood physic variable shows an increasing trend and reciprocal to the gelam wood maximum moisture content (Figure 2). Wood specific gravity increased with length of peat-land burial time. The longer burial time (from ten year up to 38 years), the higher wood specific gravity. The effect of burial time on wood specific gravity is highly significant (Table 2). Nasser et al (2010) conducted research on the effect of water composition on Melia azedarach trees. Kayad et al (2005) also conducted a research on the effect of water quality on the growth of Melia azedarach. It was concluded that the SG of wood increased when the trees were watered by primary treated sewage-effluent irrigation. This increasing SG was due to the addition of particles The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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containing in the sewage water. Parallel to this, gelam wood which is buried in peat-swamp land might be experiencing the same condition wherein some peat-soil content is penetrating to the gelam wood and resulting in added weight of wood at oven dry condition. Wood specific gravity based on several condition of gelam wood moisture content such as maximum moisture content (SG maximum), air dry moisture content (SGAD) and oven dried condition (SGOD) behaved positively to the burial time. This means, the longer burial time, the higher the SG. Max MC SG increased from 0.45 of 10 years up to 0.62 of 38 years burial time. The SG of OD condition increased from 0.51 of 10 years to 0.75 of 38 years burial time. Burial time factor highly significantly influenced wood specific gravity at three level of moisture content (Figure 2 and Table 2). Table 2. Summarized ANOVA of burial time effect on the wood physic parameters Parameter
Df
F calculated
Maximum wood specific gravity
3
9.600**
Air dry wood specific gravity
3
9.779**
Oven dried wood specific gravity
3
10.574**
Maximum wood moisture content
3
10.025**
Air dry wood moisture content
3
0.811ns
Note : ** significant differences at 0.01 probability level; ns: not significant Wood Mechanical Properties In terms of wood mechanical parameters, the means of MOR and stress at PL (Proportional Limit) increased according to burial time period (Fig. 3). For example, MOR in ten years burial time was 606.42 kg/cm2, while MOR at 38 years burial time was 983.03 kg/cm2. Panshin and de Zeeuw (1980) stated that the higher wood SG, the higher wood mechanical properties. For this reason the effect of burial time on MOR and stress at proportion limit are parallel with wood specific gravity. However, wood hardness is not significantly affected by burial time period.
(a)
(b )
Figure 3. Pattern of mechanic properties on burial time in peatland Gelam wood MOE behaved negatively to the burial time factor. This means the longer burial time, the lower MOE (19,730.8 kg/cm2 at 10 years to 10,634.8 at 38 years burial time). The behaviour of MOE could not be attributed to behaviour of gelam SG but similar with maximum MC of the gelam wood. 78 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Effect of Burial Time in Peat-Swamp on Physical and Mechanical Properties of Gelam Wood |
One way ANOVA has shown that static bending (MOR, stress at PL, MOE) and hardness are not significantly affected by burial time (Table 3). This result proves that numerical increase in MOR and stress at PL is not followed by statistical analysis. The detailed analysis shows that this ANOVA has high values of error source of variance (SV). The error SV is expected to decrease if the number of replication is increased significantly. Generally, most mechanical properties of wood are closely correlated to SG. With increasing SG, wood strength also increases accordingly. The results are in line with those of Panshin and de Zeeuw (1980). Wood Specific Gravity (SG) is a measure of the wood substance contained in a giving volume wood. Thus increasing wood SG will produce higher strength (Pometti et al., 2009). Table 3. Summarized ANOVA on burial time on the wood mechanics parameters Parameter
Df
(F-calculated)
Hardness
3
0.929ns
MOE
3
0.979ns
MOR
3
2.055ns
Stress on PL
3
1.098ns
compression // grain
3
0.598ns
Note :** significant differences at 0.01 probability level; ns: not significant Petrification is the process in which organic substances, such as wood and shells, are replaced by silica (Osburn & Pugh, 2007). Thus wood petrification is substitution or replacement of organic materials such as cell wall in wood by silica materials. In geology science, petrification or silicification is the process by which organic material is converted into stone by impregnation with silica. It is a rare form of fossilization. Gelam wood might be experiencing petrification process as wood fossil. Gibson (2004) explained that alder tree has been observed to become petrified in less than 36 years. To explain of the change of properties, measurement percentage of silica content in gelam wood is done. The result showed that numerically, wood silica increased with the length of the peatswamp burial time (Figure 4). The longer burial time (from 10 year up to 38 years burial time), the higher wood silica content (from 1.65 to 2.19 %). The effect of burial time on wood silica content is parallel with wood specific gravity. ANOVA of wood silica content however, silica content is not significantly affected by burial time.The detailed observation resulted in high error source variation in ANOVA that might be responsible for non significant result.
silica content (%) 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 10
19
31
38 years
burying time (years) Figure 4. Silica content of gelam wood The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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CONCLUSIONS Specific gravity increased with the length of peat-swamp burial time. The longer burial time (from 10 years up to 38 years burial time), the higher the oven dry wood specific gravity (0.51 to 0.75). All wood specific gravity at other moisture condition namely maximum moisture content and air dry moisture content. However, wood moisture content behaved negatively, meaning the longer burial time, the lower the MC (154.26 % to 79.26 %). The effect of burial time on MOR and stress at proportion limit are parallel with wood specific gravity; while the effect on MOE almost similar to that of max MC. Wood silica content increased with the length of peat-swamp burial time.
REFERENCES Akbar, A. 2004. Recovery Alternative Land Use of Peat-land Ex-Mega Rice Project (MRP). Proceeding Science Seminar Technology Readiness to support Forest and Area Swamp-peat Rehabilitation in Central Kalimantan. Palangka Raya.3p 3. Gibson, J, 2004. Rapid Wood Silification in Hot Spring Water. Sedimentation Geology 169: 219-228. Anonymous, 1976. Vademecum of Forestry. Department of Forestry. Jakarta. Anonymous, 1999. Plant Resources of South East Asia No. 19 Essential-oil plant. Bogor Indonesia. hal 126-131 British Standard 373. 1957. Methods of Testing Small Clear Specimen of Timber. London. Kayad, G.R., M.H.Khamis and SS Hegazy, 2005. Effect of water quality on growth and wood properties of Melia azedarach L. Trees grown in southwest Alexandria city. Egypt J. Appl.Sci, 20: 326-340. Nasser, R., H.A.Meffarrej, M.Abdel-Aal and S.Hegazy. 2010. Chemical and Mechanical Properties of Melia Azedarach Mature Wood as Affected by Primary Treated Sewage-Effluent Irrigation. American-Eurasian J.Agric.& Environ.Sci.,7(6):697-704. Osburn, J and H. Pugh, 2007. Petrified Wood. Panshin, A.J., and C. de Zeeuw, 1980. Textbook of Wood Technology Third Edition. Volume 1 : Structure, Identification, Uses and Properties of The Commercial Woods of United State and Canada. McGraw-Hill. New York. Pometti, C.L., B. Pizzo, M.Brunetti, N. Macchioni, M. Ewens and B.O. Saidman, 2009. Argentinean native wood species: Physical and mechanical characterization of some Prosopis species and Acacia aroma (Leguminosae; Mimosoideae). Bioresource Technology 100:1999-2004
80 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
Antioxidant Activity of Taxus sumatrana Extract Gunawan Pasaribu Aek Nauli Forestry Research Institute, The Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia Jl. Raya Parapat, KM 10.5 Sibaganding-Simalungun-SUMUT
ABSTRACT Some of Taxus, especially Taxus brefivolia, have been used in producing natural medicine such as anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant. In this study, methanol extracts from leaves, twigs and barks of Taxus sumatrana were evaluated for their potency as antioxidant using DPPH free radical scavenging effect. The results show that Taxus sumatrana has IC50 from 2.88 to 18.07 ppm and the highest activity was obtained from bark extract. Keywords: Taxus sumatrana, phytochemical and antioxidant
INTRODUCTION Taxus sumatrana (Miquel) de Laub are divided into three variants based on differences in leaf size and color: var Sumatra, var. atrovirens and var. concolorata. In Indonesia, Taxus sumatrana var. Sumatra is found in Sumatra and Sulawesi. Based on some research, Taxus genera can be potentially used as raw material for anticancer drug such as Taxus brevifolia, Taxus baccata, Taxus mairei, Taxus wallichiana, Taxus cuspidata, etc. Studies on bioactive of forest plants are required in order to find the sources of natural medicine. Drugs from natural raw materials are assumed to have minimal side effects compared with the use of synthetic drugs. One of the natural medicine sources from Indonesian is found in North Sumatra and it is known potentially to be used as raw material for anticancer, antioxidant and a natural dye. Taxus sumatrana is part of the forest product resources. As we know, forest products are divided into two major categories namely timber forest products and non-timber forest products. Log is the main product of wood forest product. Non-timber forest is a forest product that includes the resin, essential oil group, group of fatty oils, starches and fruits, the fat oil, tannin group, medicinal plants group and ornamental plants, rattan, bamboo group and animal group. Medicinal product is part of wood forest product which is produced from derivatives extractive. There are many kinds of utilization from extractives, one of which is as medicinal product. Taxus sumatrana is one type of potential medicinal plants that will be developed. In comparison with other species, for example, Taxus brevifolia in America region has been used as a chemotherapy drug (called paclitaxel) for lungs, ovary and breast cancer. This species has never been taken from the wild in a large number, but the drug is made from semi-synthetic way. Instead way is made from yew plant extracts that have developed a semi-synthetic compound. The antioxidant source comes from natural product such as Taxus sumatrana. Antioxidant compounds found in plants such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, tocopherol and tannins are derived from various parts of plants such as leaves, roots, stems, seeds, and flowers (Sidik, 1997 in Kurtubi 2006). Antioxidants can be interpreted as an electron donor compound required free The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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radicals without making itself dangerous, so that the compound is a stable free radical and inhibits the chain reaction of free radical formation. The presence of free radicals that are reactive and unstable in the body can cause cell damage, tissue mutation and genetic mutation. Antioxidants provide protection to the body from free radicals and neutralize them because our body naturally produces antioxidant compounds. However, an antioxidant produced by the body is not strong enough to fight free radicals (Hernani & Rahardjo, 2005). Lack of antioxidants in the body can be resolved through the intake from outside that contains lots of antioxidants. The objective of this research was to elaborate the phytochemical and antioxidant activity of Taxus Sumatrana extract.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant Material Plant materials used was that from Taxus sumatrana sample, including the leave, bark, and twig, collected in September 2010 from Dolok Sibuaton, Karo Regency, North Sumatra Province at 1300 m above sea level. The herbarium specimen was determined in Botany Laboratory at FORDA, Bogor. Extraction There are three steps in finding out the crude extract. Firstly, the dried Taxus sumatrana (leaves, twigs and bark) samples were powdered using a milling machine to find 40-60 mesh in size. Secondly, the powders were extracted with 96% methanol applying maceration technique at room temperature for 4x24 hour and we can result the filtrate. Finally, the extract was obtained by separating the extract and solution using a rotary vacuum evaporator at 540C. Phytochemical Qualitative Testing The testing was done on crude extract of Taxus sumatrana (leaves, twigs and bark) extract that resulted from maceration methods. The phytochemical compound was qualitatively examined in the crude extract included flavonoid, tannin, saponin, triterpenoid, steroid, hydroquinone and alkaloid (Harborne, 1987). Antioxidant Activity Testing The free radical scavenging activity of the extract was based on the scavenging activity of the stable 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical that was determined by Blois (1958) method. Crude extract of Taxus sumatrana bark was made in many concentrations (5, 7.5, 10, 15, 25, 50, and 75 ppm). Each extract was put into tubes to which 500 µ condensations DPPH 1mM in methanol was added. The volumes was made sufficient until 5 ml, and were then incubated at 370C temperatures for 30 minutes; and absorption was measured with UV-VIS spectrophotometer at 515 nm wavelength. The IC50 value was calculated by using formula equation of regression and was conducted in three replications. The reaction mechanism of DPPH method (Molyneux, 2004) is shown at Figure 1.
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| Antioxidant Activity of Taxus sumatrana Extract |
Figure 1. The reaction mechanism of DPPH method
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Extract Yield The moisture content of Taxus sumatrana King extract was 12.5%. According to Hornok (1992), draining of natural drug can be better done at the moisture content of 10-14% because in this condition most of drugs can be kept for a long time period without damage. The low moisture content was not only endangering extract, but also efficient. Extraction method of maceration was selected to separate the active compounds of Taxus sumatrana due to its effectiveness, practicality, security and being economical. It is also aimed at avoiding the damage of active compounds which can not stand heat. The extract yield with maceration (MeOH 96%) equals 10.5%. Methanol has two polarity groups; the first is polar hydroxyl group and the second is non polar of alkyl group. It makes the compounds with different polarities would be extracted into methanol. Qualitative Phytochemical Testing Phytochemical is a secondary metabolite of plants that is known to exhibit diverse pharmacological and biochemical effects on living organism. Qualitative phytochemical testing was done for crude extracts with Harborne (1987) method. The result shows that crude extract generally contains flavonoids, tannin, saponin, triterpenes, steroid, hydroquinone and alkaloids (Table 1.). Table 1. Qualitative phytochemical of Taxus sumatrana Compound
Leaves + + + + +
Flavonoids Tannins Saponins Triterpenes Steroids Hydroquinone Alkaloids: Dragendorf Wagner Meyer
+ +
Part of tree Twig + + + + + -
Bark + + + + + -
Note: (-): none; (+): positive The compound of Vitamin C, Vitamin E, β-carotene, flavonoid, isoflavones, flavones, anthocyanin, and isocatechin had been reported as antioxidant (Kahkonen, et.al., 1999 in Winarsi, 2007). Furthermore, Peteros and Uy (2010) reported that flavonoids, (a large group of naturally The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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occurring plant phenolic compound including flavones, flavonols, isoflavones, flavonones and chalcones), are also known as nature’s tender drugs, possesing numerous biological/ pharmalogical activities. Recent reports of antiviral, antifungal, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antiallergenic, antithrombic, anticarcenogenic, hepatoprotective, and cytotoxic activities of flavonoids have generated interests in studies of flavonoids-containing plants. Antioxidant Activity Testing The principle in determining antioxidant activity is measured to see the ability of extract in catching DPPH free radical. Ability of radical catch of DPPH by an antioxidant is shown in percent of radical catch. The result of antioxidant activity is shown in Table 2. Table 2. Antioxidant activity of Taxus sumatrana
No
Part of tree
IC50 (ppm)
1 2 3
Leaves Twig Bark
18.073 5.103 2.866
DPPH method was selected because this method is simple, easy, quick, sensitive and needs small number of sample. The parameter used to see the antioxidant activity is inhibitory concentration (IC). The IC50 is the sample concentration solution that causes decreasing activity of 50% DPPH. It was obtained from curves of relation between catch of radical percentage with concentration in ppm using regression equation. The smaller solution concentration to reduce the 50% DPPH showed a higher activity. The result of antioxidant activity research that is shown in Table 2 indicates the Taxus sumatrana extract has IC50 from 2.88 to 18.07 ppm. It was shown that the antioxidant activity has strong because the IC50 is less than 200 ppm. In comparison with the other antioxidant activities such as vitamin C, its activity is similar to that of vitamin C has IC50 5.35 ppm. The leaf extract showed that its antioxidant is better than vitamin C that has the IC50 2.88 ppm. There have been some researches on antioxidant from natural products. Hasan et.al. (2009) reported the DPPH radical scavenging activities of some Bangladeshi medical plants that are shown in Table 3.
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Table 3. DPPH radical scavenging activities of some Bangladeshi medical plants
Plant name Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham.
Family Moraceae
Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Caesalpinia pulcherrima Linn. Cocos nucifera Linn.
Phyllanthaceae Papilionaceae
Commelina benghalensis Linn. Curcuma alismatifolia Gangnep. Feronia limolia Linn. Hopea odorata Roxb. Ipomoea quamoclit Linn. Michelia champaca Linn. Punica granatum Linn. Syzygium cumini Linn. Tinospora cordifolia (Wild.) Miers. Xanthium indicum Koenig.
Part (s) used Leaves, Fruit pericarp. Fruit pericarp Leaves
IC50 54.74 (Leaves) 39.93 (Pericarp) 31.38 25.96 16.0 13.67
Commelinaceae Zingiberaceae Rutaceae Dipterocarpaceae Convolvulaceae Magnoliaceae Punicaceae Myrtaceae Menispermaceae
Leaves Developing kernel Aerial parts Leaves Leaves Leaves Aerial parts Leaves Fruit peel Seeds Aerial parts
Asteraceae
Leaves
23.44
Ceasalpiniaceae Arecaceae
21.53 18.72 17.60 33.03 25.96 22.43 10.82 4.25 29.87
Next, the research on antioxidant activity of Burahol flower and fruit (Burahol blume Hook Stelechocarpus & Thomson) was reported by Tisnadjaja et.al (2006). The analysis result of antioxidant using DPPH method yielded IC50 lowest at n-butanol flower extract equal to 22.44 ppm; and acetate ethyl fruit extract equal to 29.12 ppm. The ethyl acetate flower extract showed that the IC50 was equal to 35.07 ppm. Furthermore, Kuncahyo and Sunardi (2007) reported antioxidant activity of belimbing wuluh with the same method. It has IC50 at ether fraction equal to 50.36 ppm and at water fraction equal to 44.01 ppm.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the result of testing antioxidant activity, it can be concluded that the Taxus sumatrana has the potency as natural antioxidant source. It has IC50 from 2.88 to 18.07 ppm nearly equal to vitamin C that has IC50 5.35 ppm. The result in antioxidant of Taxus sumatrana also shows the potency in anticancer. In the future, there should be more research before it is used as natural medicine. It is possible to develop the medicine from Taxus sumatrana in herbals or semi-synthetic.
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REFERENCES Blois, M.S. 1958. Antioxidant Determinations by the Use of a Stable Free Radical. Nature 181: 1199-1200 Darmawan, A. 2004. Isolasi dan Identifikasi Senyawa Aktif Antioksidan Metode Peredaman Radikal Bebas DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) dari Ekstrak Daun Benalu Cemara (Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq.) Hasan, S.,M, Hossain, M.M., Akter, R., Jamila, M, Mazumder, M.E.H and Rahman, S. 2009. DPPH free radical scavenging activity of some Bangladeshi medical plants. Journal f Medicinal Plant Research 3(11): 875-879. Harborne, J.B., 1987. Metode Fitokimia: Penuntun Cara Modern Menganalisa Tumbuhan. Edisi ke-2. Penerjemah Padmawinata K. Bandung: ITB. Kuncahyo I. Dan Sunardi. 2007. Uji Aktivitas Antioksidan Ekstrak Belimbing Wuluh (Averrhoa ilimbi, L.) terhadap 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picrylhidrazyl (DPPH). Seminar Nasional Teknologi 2007 (SNT 2007). Yogyakarta. Molyneux P. 2004. The use of the stable free radical diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) for estimating antioxidant activity. J Sci Technol. 26(2):211-219. Peteros, N.P and Uy, M.M. 2010. Antioxidant and cytotoxic and phytochemical screening of four Philippine medicinal plants. Journal of Medicine Plants Research 4(5): 407-414. Tisnadjaja, D., Edward S., Silvia dan Partomuan, S. 2006. Pengkajian Burahol (Stelechocarpus burahol Blume Hook & Thomson) sebagai Buah yang Memiliki Kandungan Senyawa Antioksidan. Biodiversitas 7: 199-202. Winarsi, H. 2007. Antioksidan Alami dan Radikal Bebas. Potensi dan aplikasinya dalam Kesehatan. Penerbit Kanisius.
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α-Glucosidase Inhibitor and Cytotoxic Activities and Phytochemical Screening of Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griff Waras Nurcholis1,2, Dimas Andrianto1, Syamsul Falah1, and Takeshi Katayama3 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor-Indonesia 16680 2 Biopharmaca Research Center, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor-Indonesia 16151 3 Department of Applied Biological Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Kagawa University, Kagawa-Japan 1
ABSTRACT The crude aqueous and ethanol (30%, 70% and 96%) extracts of Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griff leaves were examined for their α-glucosidase inhibitor activity by measuring the p-nitrophenol release from p-nitrophenyl-α-D-glucoside (PNPG) at 400 nm, and cytotoxicity using brine shrimp lethality test (BSLT). Percent inhibition values for α-glucosidase inhibitor activity ranged from 40.03 to 65.89%, with the ethanol 70% extract having the highest value, and the aqueous extract having the lowest value. LC50 values for BSLT ranged from 488.0 to 982.2 μg/ mL, with the ethanol 30% extract having the lowest value and therefore the most potent, and the ethanol 70% extract having the highest value. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins and steroids, which could be responsible for the bioactivities shown by the aqueous and ethanol extracts of G. pictum. Keyword: Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griff, α-glucosidase inhibitor activity, brine shrimp, cytotoxicity, phytochemical screening
INTRODUCTION Diabetes mellitus is a desease due to abnormality of carbohydrate metabolism which is characterized by hyperglycemia (excessive hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis) resulting from the deficiency in the production of insulin by the pancreas or its action. More than 285 million people worldwide are currently believed to be afflicted with desease of diabetes mellitus (WHO 2010) and it is estimated that the number will rise to 366 million by 2030 (Shinde et al., 2008). Inhibitors of intestinal α-glucosidase enzymes retard the rate of carbohydrate digestion, thereby providing an alternative means to reduce postprandial hyperglycaemia (Krentz & Bailey, 2005). Several α-glucosidase inhibitors, such as acarbose (Schmidt et al., 1977), miglitol (Pogano et al., 1995), and valiolamine (Horii et al., 1987) have been isolated and used in the management of diabetes mellitus. Traditional medicines derived mainly from plants play major role in the management of diabetes melitus (Kim et al., 2011; Shokeen et al., 2008; Anam et al., 2009; Umar et al., 2010). World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the evaluation of traditional plant treatments for diabetes as they are effective, non-toxic, with less or no side effects and are considered to be excellent candidates for oral therapy (Day, 1998). Makil et al., (2006) have reviewed many medicinal plant The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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possessing experimental and clinical antidiabetic activity that have been used in traditional system of medicine. The present work was undertaken to explore the antidiabetic potential of a plant, Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griff in α-glucosidase enzymes inhibitor. The brine shrimp (Artemia salina) has been utilized in various bioassay systems. The invitro toxicity test using brine shrimps lethality assay is a simple, common, inexpensive, and rapid method to predict the antitumor and pesticidal activities (Meyer et al., 1982). It has also been used to evaluate the cytotoxicicity and pesticidal activity (Ghisalberti, 1993). The species G. pictum (L.) Griff, also know as “daun ungu” in Indonesia, is a traditional herbaceous plant distributed in Indonesia. The botany of the plant has been described (Weaver & Anderson, 2007). The plant is ornamental and grows profusely during the raining season in the tropic region in the world (Olangbede-Dada et al., 2011). The leaves plant have been used in traditional medicine for treatment of constipation, rheumatism, menstruations, hemorrhoid, urinary infections, scabies, swelling, maturing boil process, smooting skins, wound, dermatitis, hepatomegaly, ear disease, laxative, and chancre (PT Eisai Indonesia editor, 1995). Studies on extracts from leaves of plant have revealed the analgesic and anti-inflamatory (Ozaki et al., 1989), uterotonic and abortifacient (Olangbede-Dada et al., 2009), and hypoglycemic (Olangbede-Dada et al., 2011) activities. Hence, this present study was to perform detailed studies on the α-glucosidase inhibitor and cytotoxic activities and the phytochemical screening from aqueos and ethanol extracts of G. pictum.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Materials The leaves of G. pictum (L.) Griff were collected from The Conservation and Cultivation Unit of Biopharmaca Research Center, Bogor Agricultural University, in March 2011 and the material was identified by taxonomist of Herbarium, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bogor-Indonesia. The voucher specimen was deposited in the Herbarium, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, BogorIndonesia. The α-Glucosidase, p-nitrophenyl glucopyranoside (pNPG), Na2CO3, and bovine serum albumin were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, USA. The Ethanol, DMSO, HCl, and H2SO4 were purchased from E Merck, Germany. While, Artemia salina eggs and acarbose were obtained from aquarium and pharmacy shops Bogor-Indonesia, respectively. All the chemicals and solvents used were analytical grade. Preparation of aqueous and ethanolics (30%, 70%, 96%) extracts Fresh leaves of plant materials were washed with water, cut into small pieces and dried for 5 days in the sun (the moisture: < 10%). They were then ground in a grinder to be obtained in a powder form (the size: 80 mesh). Thirty grams of the powder leaves were macerated using 10 x 30 mL aqueous and ethanol (30%, 70%, 96%) in a tightly closed round bottom flask at room temperature for a period of 24 h and filtered with Whatman filter paper (type 4). The whole process was repeated one times and the filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure on rotavapor (BUCHI, R-250, Switzerland) at 50 °C temperature. The concentrated extracts were then used for the experiments. Phytochemical screening The phytochemical screening of the aqueos and ethanol extracts of G. pictum was carried out using standard phytochemical methods described by Harborne (1998). 88 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| α-Glucosidase Inhibitor and Cytotoxic Activities and Phytochemical Screening of Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griff |
Inhibition assay for α-glucosidase activity The inhibition assay for α-glucosidase activity were conducted in April 2011 at Biopharmaca Research Center, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia. The enzyme inhibition activity for α-glucosidase was evaluated according to the method previously reported by Shibano et al., (1997) with modification. The reaction mixture consisted of 50 μl of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), 25 μl of 0.5 mM PNPG (dissolved in 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.0), 10 μl of test sample/ and or standard (acarbose) (1% in DMSO) and 25 μl of α-glucosidase solution (a stock solution of 1 mg/ml in 0.01 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, was diluted to 0.1 U/ml with the same buffer, pH 7.0, just before the assay). This reaction mixture was then incubated at 37°C for 30 min. The reaction was then terminated by the addition of 100 μl of 0.2 M sodium carbonate solution. The enzymatic hydrolysis of the substrate was monitored based on the amount of p-nitrophenol released in the reaction mixture by observation at 400 nm using a microplate reader. Inhibition percentage was calculated using the equation: [(C – S)/ C] x 100%, with S = the absorbance of sample (S1-S0; with S1 = absorbance of samples with enzyme addition and S0 = absorbance of sample without enzyme addition) and C = absorbance of control solution (DMSO), without sample (blank). Brine shrimp lethality test (BSLT) The assay was carried out according to the principle and protocol previously described by Krishnaraju et al., (2005); Meyer et al., (1982); and Ara et al., (1999) with slight modifications. Brine shrimp eggs (Artemia salina) were placed on one side of a small tank which was filled with boiled, filtered sea water, covered with aluminum foil, and fully aerated. After 48 h incubation at room temperature and under illumination, the resulting nauplii (larvae) were attracted to the other side of the tank with a light source and collected with a Pasteur pipette. Ten shrimps were transferred to each sample vial and artificial sea water was added (where the extract was made in organic solvent) to make a concentration of 10, 100, 500, 1000 mg/mL (in the case of ethanolic extract a dilution of 2000 mg/ml was also prepared). Survivors were counted under the stereomicroscope after 24 h and the percent death at each dose was determined. The lethal concentrations of plant extracts resulting in 50% mortality of the brine shrimp (LC50) was determined from the 24 h counts by probit analysis (SPSS 17).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Phytochemical screening In order to prove the estimation that there is a correlation between phytochemical content of aqueos and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves and its antidiabetic, the phytochemical screening extracts of G. pictum leaves was conducted. Phytochemical screening on the crude aqueos and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves were done using test tube. Result (Table 1) revealed the presence of secondary metabolites such as alkaloid, flavonoid, tannin, saponin, and steroid. No tannin, saponin and steroid were detected in aqueos extract of G. pictum leaves. No tannin and steroid were detected in 30% ethanol extract of G. pictum leaves. All phytochemicals such as alkaloid, flavonoid, tannin, saponin, and steroid were present in 70% ethanol extract of G. pictum leaves. No saponin was detected in 96% ethanol extract of G. pictum leaves. Inhibition assay for α-glucosidase activity The aqueos and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves was considered as potential α-glucosidase inhibitor as the percent inhibition values are below 96% which was comparable to acarbose as the The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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reference compound. The result of the percentage of α-glucosidase inhibition from aqueos and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves is as seen in Figure 1. The highest percentage of α-glucosidase inhibition (% inhibition, 65.89%) was shown by 70% ethanol extract ; this was followed by 96% ethanol extract and 30% ethanol extract, with % inhibition values of 60.91 and 58.54, respectively. The lowest percentage of α-glucosidase inhibition was shown by aqueos extract (% inhibition, 40.03%). The previous study in type 2 diabetic on alloxan-induced diabetic rats reported that after intake aqueos extracts of G. pictum leaves, fasting plasma glucose decreased significantly (Olangbede-Dada et al., 2011). The present study showed a possible mechanism in α-glucosidase inhibition. Based on the result in Figure 1, 70% ethanol extract of G. pictum leaves is the most active α-glucosidase inhibitor and it is chemical contents is different from other extracts of G. pictum leaves. This is an important information as G. pictum leaves has not been evaluated for its α-glucosidase inhibitory activity previously. In order to prove the estimation that there is a correlation between phytochemical content of the G. pictum leaves and its antidiabetic activity, the phytochemical screening of G. pictum leaves was conducted. Table 1 Phytochemical screening of the aqueos and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves Phytochemical content Alkaloid Flavonoid Tannin Saponin Steroid
Aqueos extract + + -
30% Ethanol extract + + + -
70% Ethanol extract + + + + +
96% Ethanol extract + + + +
+: Present, -: Absent Brine shrimp lethality test The brine shrimp lethality test (BSLT) has been used routinely in the primary screening of the crude extracts as well as isolated compounds to assess the toxicity towards brine shrimp, which could also provide an indication of possible cytotoxic properties of the test materials. Brine shrimp nauplii have been previously utilized in various bioassay systems. Among these applications have been the analyses of pesticidal residues, mycotoxins, stream pollutants, anesthetics, dinoflagelate toxins, morphine-like compounds, carcinogenicity of phorbol esters and toxicants in marine environment. A number of novel antitumor and pesticidal natural products have been isolated using this bioassay (Meyer et al., 1982; Sam 1993).
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Figure 1. P ercentage of α-glucosidase inhibition on crude aquoes and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves. The results of BSLT on crude aqueous and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves (% mortality at different concentrations and LC50 values) are shown in Table 2. The percentage mortality increased with an increase in concentration. LC50 values ranged from 488.0 to 982.2 μg/mL, with 30% ethanol extract of G. pictum leaves having the lowest value (most potent); this was followed by 96% ethanol extract of G. pictum leaves (531.8 μg/mL), then by aqueous extract of G. pictum leaves (538.2 μg/ ml) and lastly 70% ethanol extract of G. pictum leaves (982.2 μg/ml). The variation in BSLT results may be due to the difference in the amount and kind of cytotoxic substances present in the crude aqueous and ethanol extracts. Moreover, this significant lethality of the crude plant extracts (LC50 values was 1000 μg/mL or less (Meyer et al., 1982) to brine shrimp is indicative of the presence of potent cytotoxic and bioactive compounds which warrants further investigation. BSLT results may be used to guide the researchers on which crude plant extracts/fractions to prioritize for further fractionation and isolation of these bioactive compounds. Other cytotoxicity tests and specific bioassays may be done on the isolated bioactive compounds later. Table 2. Results of Brine Shrimp Lethality Test on crude aquoes and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves % Mortality at Different Concentrations* 10 μg/mL 100 μg/mL 500 μg/mL 1000 μg/mL 6.7 23.3 36.7 90.0 3.3 3.3 56.7 96.7 3.3 13.3 16.7 53.3 10 23.3 46.7 83.3
Extracts of G. pictum leaves Aqueos extract 30% Ethanol extract 70% Ethanol extract 96% Ethanol extract
LC50, 24h μg/mL 538.2 488.0 982.2 531.8
* mean of 3 determinations
CONCLUSION The study indicates the presence of α-glucosidase inhibitor, cytotoxic and secondary metabolites in crude aquoes and ethanol extracts of G. pictum leaves. Percent inhibition values for α-glucosidase The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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inhibitor activity ranged from 40.03 to 65.89%, with the ethanol 70% extract having the highest value (65.89%); this was followed by 96% extract ethanol, 30% ethanol extract and aqueos extract with values of 60.91, 58.54, and 40.03%, respectively. The cytotoxicity as LC50 values for BSLT ranged from 488.0 to 982.2 μg/ mL, with the ethanol 30% extract having the lowest value and therefore the most potent, and the ethanol 70% extract having the highest value. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins and steroids, which could be responsible for the bioactivities shown by the aqueos and ethanol extracts of G. pictum.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge Prof. Dr. drh. Maria Bintang, MS and dr. Mira Dewi, MSi. for their excellence technical support. This research was supported by grants from the Health Reseacrh and Development Agency, Ministry of Health Republic of Indonesia. Dimas Andrianto was the recipient of Riset Pembinaan Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi Kedokteran (Risbin Iptekdok) program year 2011
REFERENCES Anam K, Widharma RM, Kusrini D. 2009. α-Glucosidase inhibitor activity of Terminalia species. Int J Pharmacol 5 (4): 277-280. Ara J, Sultana V, Ehteshamul-Haque S, Qasim R, Ahmad VU. 1999. Cytotoxic activity of marine macro-algae on Artemia salina (brine shrimp). Phytother. Res. 13: 304-307. Day C. 1998. Traditional plant treatments for diabetes mellitus: pharmaceutical foods. Br J Nutr 80: 203–208. Ghisalberti EL. 1993. Detection and isolation of bioactive natural products. In SM Colegate & RJ Molyneux (Eds.), Bioactive natural products: detection, isolation and structure elucidation (pp. 15-18). Boca Raton: CRC Press. Harborne JB. 1998. Phytochemical Methods. London: Chapman and Hall. Horii S, Fukasse K, Matsuo T, Kameda K, Asano N, Masui Y. 1987. Synthesis and a-D-glucosidase inhibitory activity of N-substituted valiolamine derivatives as potent oral antidiabetic agents. J. Med. Chem. 29: 1038–1046. Krentz AJ & Bailey CJ. 2005. Oral antidiabetic agents current role in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs 65: 385–411 Kim JS, Yang J, Kim MJ. 2011. Alpha glucosidase inhibitory effect, anti-microbial activity and UPLC analysis of Rhus verniciflua under various extract conditions. J Med Plant Res 5 (5): 778-783. Krishnaraju AV, Rao TVN, Sundararaju D, Vanisree M, Tsay HS, Subbaraju GV. 2005 Assessment of bioactivity of Indian medicinal plants using brine shrimp (Artemia salina) lethality assay. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. 3(2): 125-134. Meyer BN, Ferrigni NR, Putnam JE, Jacobsen LB, Nichols DE, McLaughlin JL. 1982. Brine Shrimp: A convenient general bioassay for active plant constituents. Planta Med. 45: 31-34. Olangbede-Dada SO, Ogbonnia SO, Coker HAB, Ukpo GE. 2011. Blood glucose lowering effect of aqueous extract of Graptophyllum pictum (Linn) Griff. on alloxan-induced diabetic rats and its acute toxicity in mice. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 10(6): 1039-1043. 92 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Ozaki Y, Sekita S, Soedigdo S, Harada M. 1989. Anti-inflammatory effect of Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griff. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 37(10): 2799-2802. Pogano G, Marena S, Corgiant-Mansin L, Cravero F, Giorda C, Bozza M. 1995. Comparison of miglitol and glibenclamide in diet-treated type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Metab. 21: 162-167. PT Eisai Indonesia editor. 1995. Medicinal herbs index in Indonesia. PT Eisai Indonesia editor, Jakarata-Indonesia. Sam TW. 1993. Toxicity testing using the brine shrimp: Artemia salina. In: Colegate SM and Molyneux RJ (Eds.), Bioactive Natural Products Detection, Isolation, and Structural Determination. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 1993, FL: 442-456. Shokeen P, Anand P, Murali YK, Tandon V. 2008. Antidiabetic activity of 50% ethanolic extract of Ricinus communis and its purified fractions. Food Chem Toxicol 46: 3458-3466. Shibano M, Kitagawa S, Nakamura S, Akazawa N, Kusano G. 1997. Studies on the constituents of Broussonetia species. II. Six new pyrrolidine alkaloids, broussonetine A, B, E, F and broussonetinine A and B, as inhibitors of glycosidases from Broussonetia kazinoki Sieb. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 45:700-705. Schmidt D, Former H, Junge B, Muller M, Wingender W, Trusheit E. 1977. A-glucosidase inhibitor: New complex oligosaccharides of microbial origin. Naturwissenschaften 64: 535–536 Umar A, Ahmed QU, Muhammad BY, Dogarai BBS, Soad SZBM. 2010. Anti-hyperglycemic activity of the leaves of Tetracera scandens Linn. Merr. (Dilleniaceae) in alloxan induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 131: 140-145. Weaver RE and Anderson PJ. 2007. Botany section. Tri-Ology 46 (3): 1-12. WHO [World Health Organization]. 2010. Diabetes Programme. [terhubung berkala]. http://www. who.int/diabetes/facts/world_figures/en/index5.html. [1 Agustus 2010]
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Biocomposite
The Effect of Bagasse Treatment and Processing Method on the Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene-Bagasse Composite Firda Aulya Syamani*, Lilik Astari, Ismadi, and Subyakto Reseach and Development Unit for Biomaterials Indonesian Institute of Sciences Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, Cibinong, Indonesia *Corresponding author; e-Mail:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT The sugar cane residue, bagasse is an underutilized renewable agricultural material. In this work, an attempt has been made to upgrade the value of this agricultural residue by bonding with polypropylene to produce composites for suitable applications. Three different treatments on bagasse fiber were conducted, soaking bagasse fibers in water, soaking bagasse fibers in 5% NaOH solution and boiling bagasse fibers in 5% NaOH solution. Polypropylene (PP) and maleated polypropylene (MAPP) were disc refined and screened to obtain 40 mesh powder. In the sample preparation, 40% wt bagasse powder, 58% wt PP and 2% wt MAPP were mixed, hot pressed at 1MPa, 185oC for 10 minutes to produce composites with 3 mm thickness. Another processing method was conducted by making 3 layers of PP, PP-MAPP-bagasse, PP prior to one step hot pressing. Composite’s mechanical properties were examined based on ASTM D-790 and ASTM D-638 standards. Keywords: bagasse powder, polypropylene, composite, mechanical properties.
INTRODUCTION The need for economically feasible degradable products, which do not adversely affect the enviroment upon disposal, has intensified the attention of finding an alternative source of raw materials. In recent years, natural fibers and powders have been widely used as reinforcing fillers in place of inorganic fillers and synthetic fibers in thermoplastic polymer matrix (Ramaraj 2007). These natural fillers have several advantages, such as renewable, biodegradable, abundance, nonabrasive during processing, having low density, improving the stiffness and the strength of thermoplastics and low cost, especially natural fibers originated from agricultural residues (Blezdki and Gassan 1999; Mohanty et al. 2005; Mohanty et al. 2001). A fibrous residue of cane stalks is left over after cruching and extraction of sugarcane juice in sugarcane milling process. The sugar cane residue, bagasse, is mainly combusted to provide energy for boilers in the sugarcane plant. However, their calorific value is relatively low in comparison with other fuels (Vazquez et al. 1999). Others utilization of this material are for animal feeding, pulp and paper inpowderries and recently several researchers conducted transformation of lignocellulosic from bagasse for second generation of biofuel as a bioethanol (Masruchin et al. 2010). From 10 parts of crushed sugarcane will yield about 3 parts of wet bagasse. In 2009, Indonesian national production of sugarcane was 2,849,769 ton (BPS, 2011). From those data, the estimation of bagasse availability is about 854,900 ton of wet bagasse. Processing bagasse to become 96 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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composite reinforcing agent will give significant added value. The utilization of natural fibers as reinforcing agent in thermoplastic polymer based composite, have some limitations. Natural fibers compatibility to polymer matrices is low. The polar and hygroscopic natural fibers are incompatible with the non-polar and hydrophobic polymer matrices (Luz et al. 2007). The natural fibers tend to form aggregates during composite processing which results insufficient fibers dispersion into the matrix (Vazquez et al., 1999). The hygroscopic property of natural fibers drive swelling and water absorption then affect the dimensional stability of the composite. Cellulose, as main component of natural fibers limit the process manufacturing at below 200o C before decomposed. Natural fibers also have wide variation in strength values depend on planting location and plant age (Mohanty et al. 2001). There are several methods of surface modification to improve fibers and polymer matrices compatibility, which can be physical or chemical according to modification technique to reduce the hydrophilic character. Frequently treatments are bleaching, estherification, silane treatment, use of compatibilizer, plasma treatment, acetylation, alkali treatment and treatment with other chemicals (Cerqueira et al. 2011). In this study, bagasse was used for reinforcing agents in matrix polypropylene. The effect of fibers treatment which are soaking in water, soaking or boiling in NaOH solution on composite physical and mechanical properties were investigated. The effect of bagasse-PP composites processing methods on its physical and mechanical properties were also evaluated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Bagasse fibers were obtain from sugar cane mill in Magetan, East Java, Indonesia. NaOH for fiber treatment was at technical grade. The recycled polypropylene was used as composite matrix. Maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) as compatibilizer in bagasse-PP system. Bagasse Fibers Treatment Three different treatments on bagasse fiber were conducted. For the first treatment, bagasse fibers were soaked in water for 24 hours at room temperature, dried at 100oC, disc refined and screened to collect the bagasse powder fibers that passed through 80 mesh screen. The 2nd treatment was soaking bagasse fibers in 5% NaOH solution for 24 hours at room temperature, washed, processed in beater hollander for 2 hours, dried at 100oC and disc refined. The 3rd treatment was boiling bagasse fibers in 5% NaOH solution for 2 hours, washed, processed in beater hollander for 2 hours, dried at 100oC and disc refined. Bagasse fibers untreated were disc refined and screened to collect the bagasse powder fibers that passed through 80 mesh screen. Spectra of treated and untreated bagasse fiber were examined by Bruker Tensor 37 FTIR spectrometer. Composite Preparation In the sample preparation, 40% wt bagasse fibers, 58% wt PP and 2% wt MAPP were mixed, hot pressed at 1 MPa, 185oC for 10 minutes to produce composites with 3 mm thickness. Another processing method was conducted by preparing 3 layers of PP (1/5 part), PP-MAPP-bagasse, PP (1/5 part) prior to one step hot pressing with the same condition with the first processing method.
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Testing Composite tensile properties were examined based on ASTM D-638 standard. Four specimens of composites were analyzed using an universal testing machine “Shimadzu” at a cross-head speed of 2 mm/min and a gauge length of 5 mm. Composite flexural properties were examined based on ASTM D-790 standard. Flexural testing of four composite specimens were carried out using an universal testing machine “Shimadzu” at a cross-head speed of 1.3 mm/min. The sample dimensions for water absorption experiments were (20 x 20) mm2. At least four sampels were tested for each composite. Samples were weighted (M0) and then soaked in water at room temperature. After 24 h soaking in water, samples were dried and weighted (M1). Percentage of water absorbed was calculated as follows : WA = (M1-M0)/Mo x 100%. Data were subjected to Mean, standard error and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Means were separated with Tukey’s HSD.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION Evaluation of Fiber Treatment Marrinan and Maan in 1956 were the first to describe the differences in the infrared (IR) spectra of native cellulose from a variety of sources and they conclude that the structure of cellulose depends on its origins (Horikawa et al. 2006). Panaitescu et al. (2007) described the FTIR spectra of commercial microcrystalline cellulose and microfibrils cellulose from hardwood. They found that the band at 1735 cm-1, which associated with carbonyl stretching of acetyl groups, specific to hemicelluloses. The characteristic absorption band of lignin at 1595 cm-1 associated with the aromatic C-O stretching vibration at 1510 cm-1. The band at 1640 cm-1, attributed to the absorbed water in cellulose. The band at 900 cm-1 is associated with the antisymmetric stretching out-of-plane ring of amourphous cellulose. The band at 750 cm-1 is associated with the Ia crystalline cellulose. The band at 700 cm-1 is associated with the Ib crystalline cellulose.
Figure 1. FTIR spectra of untreated and treated bagasse powder : (blue line) soaked in water, (black line) soaked in NaOH, (red line) untreated, (green line) boiled in NaOH. FTIR spectra of untreated and treated bagasse fibers are shown in Figs. 1. The band at 1735 cm-1, which associated with carbonyl stretching of acetyl groups, specific to hemicelluloses, appears in untreated, soaked in water or soaked in NaOH bagasse fiber, but absent in NaOH boiled bagasse fibers, which indicates that hemicellulose has been extracted. The band at 1635 98 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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cm-1, attributed to the absorbed water in cellulose, presents in the 4 types of bagasse fibers. The characteristic absorption band of lignin at 1595 cm-1 associated with the aromatic C-O stretching vibration at 1605 cm-1 appears only in untreated or soaked in water bagasse fibers, but absent in NaOH soaked or NaOH boiled bagasse fibers, which indicates that lignins has been extracted. In the 4 types of bagasse fibers, the peak at 897 cm-1 appears and associated with the antisymmetric stretching out-of-plane ring of amourphous cellulose. However the band at 833 cm-1 only appears in untreated or water soaked bagasse fibers. A possible reaction scheme of cellulose with NaOH according Vazques et al. (1999) is the following Cell-OH + NaOH → Cell-O-Na + H2O
Figure 2. Optical micrographs of bagasse fibers at 100x magnification: (a) untreated, (b) soaked in water, (c) soaked in NaOH, (d) boiled in NaOH The results of the optical microscopic observations of the untreated and various treated bagasse fibers are reported in Fig. 2. Untreated (Fig. 2A) and soaked in water bagasse fibers (Fig. 2B) appear no difference. Soaking fiber into water only washed out of dirt and water soluble components from bagasse fibers but not affected the fibers structure. NaOH treatment caused bagasse fibers fibrillation. In both soaked in NaOH fibers (Fig. 2C) and boiled in NaOH fibers (Fig. 2D), the average fiber diameter decreases after the treatment due to the separation of the bundle into small fibers. Mechanical Properties of Composites The flexural strength test results of bagasse-PP composites with different treated fibers and different processing methods are given in Fig. 3. NaOH boiled bagasse powders used in bagasse-PP composite resulted the highest flexural strength, 38.2 N/mm2, among other treated bagasse fibers. Untreated, soaked in water or soaked in NaOH bagasse powders produced bagasse-PP composites with flexural strength of 26.7 N/mm2, 27.3 N/mm2 or 28.1 N/mm2, respectively. According to FTIR spectra, hemicellulose and lignin of NaOH boiled bagasse fibers were extracted. In consequence NaOH boiled bagasse fibers had more pure cellulose, which contributed as reinforcing agent in The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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composites. The flexural strength of NaOH boiled bagasse powders-PP composite in this study was slightly higher than bagasse-PP composite made by Nourbaksh and Kouhpayehzadeh (2009), which were 38.2 N/mm2 compare to 37 N/mm2, on the same bagasse loading percentage. Nourbaksh and Kouhpayehzadeh produced bagasse-PP composite by compounding bagasse fibers and PP in a kneader then followed by compression molding technique.
Flexural strength (N/mm 2 )
On the other hand, NaOH boiled bagasse powders-PP composites which were processed with layered compounding had the lowest flexural strength value, 17.2 N/mm2. Bagasse fibers boiled in NaOH, were fibrillated then processing in beater hollander produced pulp of bagasse. The structure of pulp bagasse different from powder of untreated or soaked in water bagasse fibers. Pulp bagasse had larger surface area than bagasse powder on the same weight. One third of provided PP in producing layered composite were not enough to cover bagasse pulp surface and revealed to the poor interaction between bagasse pulp and the polypropylene matrix. 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Usual Layered
Bagasse Control
Soaked in water
Soaked in NaOH 24 h
Boiled in NaOH
Bagasse treatment
Figure 3. Effect of fiber treatment on the flexural properties of the composite The effect of fiber loading on the flexural strength for bagasse-PP composites are given in Fig.4. It should be noted that untreated, water soaking or NaOH soaking bagasse fibers produced composites with a slight increment of flexural strength compare to PP sample flexural strength, by 3.22%, 5.47% or 8.48%, respectively. On the other hand, introduction NaOH boiled bagasse fibers into PP matrix increased the flexural strength by 47.73% and proved the effectiveness of NaOH boiling treatment for increasing flexural strength. 50 Flexural strength (N/mm 2 )
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 PP
Bagasse Control
Soaked in water
Soaked in NaOH 24 h
Boiled in NaOH
Figure 4. Effect of fiber loading on the flexural properties of the composite 100 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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The tensile strength test results of bagasse-PP composites with different treated fibers and different processing methods are given in Fig. 5. The composites tensile strength show the same phenomenon as the composite flexural strength. NaOH boiled bagasse powders used in bagassePP composite resulted the highest tensile strength, 9.8 N/mm2, among other treated bagasse fibers. Untreated, soaked in water or soaked in NaOH bagasse powders produced bagasse-PP composites with tensile strength of 7.2 N/mm2, 8.7 N/mm2 or 8.3 N/mm2, respectively. The pure cellulose in NaOH boiled bagasse fibers contributed as reinforcing agent in composites. Meanwhile, NaOH boiled bagasse fiber-PP composites which were processed with layered compounding had the lowest tensile strength value, 3.9 N/mm2. In this study, tensile strength values of bagasse-PP composites are very low. The mechanical properties test result revealed to the un-effectiveness of layered compounding for making bagasse-PP composite. The tensile strength of bagasse-PP composite were lower than the composite flexural strength. The contrasting behavior between flexural strength and tensile strength of the composites may be due to the orientation of this short fibers. In case of tensile test the force applied is parallel to the direction of fiber orientation, while in the case of flexural strength, the force applied is perpendicular to the fiber orientation (Ramaraj 2007).
Tensile strength (N/mm 2 )
12 10 8 6 Usual
4
Layered
2 0 Bagasse Control
Soaked in water
Soaked in NaOH 24 h
Boiled in NaOH
Bagasse treatment
Figure 5. Effect of fiber treatment on the tensile properties of the composite The effect of fiber loading on the tensile strength for bagasse-PP composites are given in Fig.6. It should be noted that the 4 types of bagasse fibers in this study produced composites with a lower tensile strength compare to PP sample tensile strength. The reduction in tensile strength may be due to the poor interaction between bagasse powder and polypropylene matrix. For irregularly shaped fillers, the strength of the composite decreases because of the inability of the filler to support the stress transferred from the polymer matrix. Poor interfacial bonding causes partially separated microspaces between filler and matrix polymer, which obstrucs stress propagation, when tensile stress is loaded and induces brittleness (Ramaraj 2007).
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20 Tensile strength (N/mm 2 )
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 PP
Bagasse Control
Soaked in water
Soaked in NaOH 24 h
Boiled in NaOH
Figure 6. Effect of fiber loading on the tensile properties of the composite Physical properties of composites. Composite water absorption was affected by the type of fiber treatments and processing methods and significant difference at 95% confidence level. The PP did not absorb any moisture as a result of different levels of water absorption, indicating that moisture is absorbed by the bagasse component in the composite. NaOH boiled bagasse fibers induced the higher composite water absorption, 12.14% for single layer composite and 31.15% for three layers composite. Alkali treatment exposed cellulose into fiber surface and exposed hydroxyl group. The water presence, led to hydrogen bonds occurence between hydroxyl group from NaOH boiled bagasse fiber and water. Compare to single layer composite, three layers composites showed higher water absorption properties. One third of provided PP in producing layered composite were not enough to cover bagasse fibers surface and revealed to the poor interaction between bagasse fibers and the polypropylene matrix. 40 Water absorption (%)
35 30 25 20 15
Usual
10
Layered
5 0 Control
Soaked in water
Soaked in NaOH 24 h
Boiled in NaOH
Bagasse treatment
Figure 7. Effect of fiber treatment on the water absorption properties of the composite
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CONCLUSIONS Bagasse fibers as reinforcing agent of PP composite was examined with several fiber treatments. NaOH boiled bagasse fibers produced PP composite with higher flexural strength and higher tensile strength compared to untreated, water soaked or NaOH soaked bagasse fibers. On the other hand, NaOH boiled bagasse fibers induced highest composite water absorption among other bagasse fiber types in this study. Layering bagasse-PP composite proved to be not effective to improve composite properties. Hot pressing method can be an alternative of composite production methods that produced composite with properties comparedabled with composite produced by compression molding technique.
REFERENCES [BPS]. 2011. Produksi Perkebunan Besar menurut Jenis Tanaman, Indonesia 1995-2009. http:// www.bps.go.id/tab_sub/view.php?tabel=1&daftar=1&id_subyek=54¬ab=2 [25 October 2011]. Bledzki, AK and J Gassan. 1999. Composites reinforced with cellulose based fibers, Progress in Polymer Science, 1999, 24(2), 221-274. Cerqueira, EF., CARP Bapsita, DR Mulinari. 2011. Mechanical Behaviour of Polypropylene Reinforced Sugarcane Bagasse Fibers Composites. Procedia Engineering 10 (2011) : 2046-2051. Fitria, DHY Yanto, RA Ermawar, E Hermiati. 2007. Pengaruh Perlakuan Pendahuluan dengan Jamur Pelapuk Putih (Trametes versicolor) dan (Pleurotous ostreatus) terhadap Kadar Lignin dan Selulosa Bagas, Final Annual Report of Research and Development Units for Biomaterials, LIPI, Jakarta:UPT Biomaterial LIPI. Luz, SM., AR Goncalves, AP Del Arco Jr. 2007. Mechanical behavior and microstructural analysis of sugarcane bagasse fibers reinforced polypropylene composites. Masruchin, N., WB Kusumaningrum, Ismadi, Subyakto. 2010. Characteristics of Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber (Saccharum officinale) Reinforced Polypropylene Composites. Journal of Tropical Wood Science and Technology, Vol. 8, No. 1 January 2010. Mohanty, AK., M Misra, LT Drzal. 2001. Surface Modification of Natural Fibers and Performance of The Resulting Biocomposites: An overview, Composite Interface 8(5):313-343. Mohanty, AK., M Misra, LT Drzal. 2005. Natural Fibers, Biopolymers and Biocomposites. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, FL. Nourbakhsh, A., M Kouhpayehzaedh. Mechanical Properties and Water Absroption of FiberReinforced Polypropylene Composites Prepared by Bagasse and Beech Fiber. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 114, 653-657 (2009). Ramaraj, B. 2007. Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Polypropylene/Sugarcane Bagasse Composites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 103, 3827-3823. Vasquez, A., VA Dominguez, JM Kenny. 1999. Bagasse Fiber-Polypropylene Based Composites. Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, Vol. 12, Nov. 1999. Panaitescu, DM., D Donescu, C Bercu, DM Vuluga, M Iorga, M Ghiurea. 2007. Polymer Composites with Cellulose Microfibrils. Polymer Engineering and Science: Aug 2007; 47, 8; ProQuest Science Journals, pp 1228-1234. Horikawa, Y., T Itoh, J Sugiyama. 2007. Preferential uniplanar orientation of cellulose microfibrils reinvestigated by the FTIR technique. Cellulose (2006), 13:309-316. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Physical- Mechanical, Durability and Electrical Properties of Polystyrene Eugenia Sp. Wood Widya Fatriasari1, A. Heri. Iswanto2, Anis S.Lestari1, A. Heru Prianto1, Ismail Budiman1, and Yusuf Sudo Hadi3 R & D Unit for Biomaterial LIPI Cibinong Forestry Department, Agricultural Faculty, North Sumatera University 3 Forest Product Department, Forestry Faculty, Bogor Agricultural Institute E-mail:
[email protected] 1
2
ABSTRACT The study is to evaluate the properties of Eugenia sp (Ki Bolong) wood which was impregnated with styrene monomer using K2S2O8 (sodium peroxodisulfat) as an initiator. The specimens were vacuumed for 30 minutes, and then pressurized at 10 atmospheres for 1 hour, followed by closing pressure for 15 minutes. The wood specimens were wrapped with aluminum foil and heated at 600C for 24 hours after which the solution was polymerized in situ. Polymerization performance was evaluated with its polymer loading (PL) and dimensional stability (anti-swelling efficiency, volumetric swelling, water absorption and thickness swelling). Subsequently the mechanical properties (British standard (BS-373) of styrene wood were determined. The wood-plastic was then exposed to subterranean termite (Coptotermes sp) and brown-rot fungi (Fomitopsis palustris) using SNI standard and their weight loss after treatment were quantified. Besides that, the electrical properties were measured by LCR Meter KRISBOW KW06-489. The styrene impregnation improved the durability and physical properties of wood compared to those of the untreated one. In addition, the mechanical properties of styrene wood increased. The styrene wood had better insulator properties compared to control. Keywords: s tyrene impregnation, Eugenia sp, polymerization performance, physical-mechanical properties, durability and electrical properties
INTRODUCTION There was a decline of the wood supply from natural forest (Iswanto et al. 2009) in the last recent years, with the deficit of national wood demand is 11.3 million m3 per year (Ministry of Environment 2007). Since 2000s the log production was dominated from plantation forests compared to natural forest (Hadi et al. 2009a). On the other hand, the demand of wood products increased by 20% in 2010 (FAO 1997 in Yanto et al. 2008). Deficit of the national demand for wood could be substituted by wood from plantation and community forests i.e. fast growing species (Winarno and Waluyo 2007). The potential of wood from community forest was estimated 7 million m3 per year, while the area of this forest is 1,568,415 ha (Tinambunan et al. 2006). However, in general, this wood has lower quality than mature wood from natural forests (Hadi et al. 2010b) because of a large portion of juvenile wood (Tinambunan et al. 2006). Chemical modification of wood i.e. impregnation is a non toxic technique to improve the physical-mechanical properties and the biodegradation resistance (Hill 2006). Chemicals of wood modification should be able to swell and facilitate the wood penetration quickly to react with 104 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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hydroxyl (OH) group in the cell wall to form a stable chemical bond without byproducts. Besides that this modification is expected to provide the product which has the desired properties (Devi and Maji 2002). Styrene is one kind of monomers that can be used to fill the lumen cell, capillaries, cell cavities, hollow-wood cells and the subsequent process occurs in situ styrene polymerization which form cross linking to produce wood plastic composite (Baysal et al.2006; Feng Li, 2010; Hill 2006; Ibach and Elis 2005).This styrene impregnation does not alter the chemical structure of the natural wood (Hill 2006). Styrene monomer can be polymerized in wood using catalyst (vazo/ peroxide) and heat, or radiation (Ibach and Elis 2005; Feng Li 2010). Impregnation technique is expected to change the substrate chemically mainly on the hydroxyl groups of cell wall and there is no enzymatic reactions by destructive microorganisms (Takahashi 1996). Styrene monomer impregnation of wood and non wood materials in various combinations of techniques, catalyst and crosslinker has been reported by several studies. Styrene Impregnation on bamboo was reported by Lawniczak and Kozlowski (1993) in Hartono et al.(2010); Hadi et al.(1997) used gamma irradiation as an initiator of polymerization reaction; pine wood impregnation was reported by Devi and Maji, (2002); Jemi et al.(2008); and Sari et al. (2009) terbutyl-hydroperoxide as a catalyst of polymerization reaction. This catalyst was also used in Pine impregnation which was studied by Hadi et al. (2002, 2003), while at the same time they also studied the mixing of styrene monomer and vinyl acetate. Pinus silvestris impregnation using hot catalyst and N-metylolmetacrilamide as an initiator has also been reported by Hadi et al.1998. In addition, Yildiz et al.(2005) has impregnated the maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.). Rubber wood was impregnated with glycidyl methacrylate as a crosslinker (Devi and Maji 2002; Devi et al. 2003), while the rubber impregnation using the catalyst-hydroperoxide terbutyl was reported by Hadi et al.(2002),(2003). Impregnation of poplar wood (P. ussuriensis Komarov) with a two-stage impregnation with MAN (maleic anhydride) and GMA (glycidyl methacrylate) and styrene was reported by Feng Li (2010), while Populus wood impregnation was reported by Yildiz et al.(2005), angsana (Pterocarpus indicus) and kapok (Ceiba pentandra) wood by Hartono et al. (2010); rambutan by Jemi et al.(2008) and Sari et al.(2009), coconut wood inside part using hot catalyst by Lawniczak (1995) in Hartono et al. (2010), sengon (Iswanto 2008; Hadi et al.2002, 2003), African wood (Iswanto 2008), Mindi (Melia azedarach) and sugi (Cryptotmeria japonica) were also impregnated by Hadi et al. (2009b). Palm wood impregnation has also been carried out by Purnama (2009). Styrene impregnation on Alnus glutinosa, Populus maximowiczii, Salix alba have also been carried out by Hadi et al. (1998). Treatments of five kinds of wood from Syria have also been done by Bakraji et al. (2001). These studies generally investigate changes in mechanical-physical properties, thermal properties, as well as microorganisms resistance (brown rot, white rot, subterranean and dry wood termites and marine borer). There is improvement in physical- mechanical properties, biological resistance and thermal properties of wood and non wood impregnated with styrene monomer. The results of different studies were depending on the wood species, treatment condition, catalyst, or type and concentration of crosslinking for styrene polymerization. This technique has some positive effect in the wood properties (Venas and Rinnan 2008). Based on the previous studies, styrene monomer impregnation on the community forest wood i.e. Eugenia sp (Ki Bolong) using sodium peroxodisulfat as an initiator of polymerization reaction has not been investigated to date. The work is to evaluate the physical-mechanical properties, and biological resistance as well as the electrical properties of styrene wood. This modification technique is expected to improve the wood inferior properties in order to broaden the utilization of the community wood. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Preparation Specimens of Eugenia sp. Wood (Ki Bolong) collected from community forest located on Cibeureum, Bogor was used for styrene monomer impregnation. Samples were then dried to obtain the moisture content target (<10%). The sample preparation of physical-mechanical properties testing referred to the British standard (BS-373), while the biological properties sample referred to SNI 01-7207-2006. The physical property testing consisted of density, moisture content, and shrinkage, while the mechanical properties (MOE and MOR) were also determined. The replication of physical-mechanical properties testing was 8 times, whereas the biological and dielectric properties were tested for triplicates. Impregnation and polymerization reaction Before application, the styrene monomer solution was mixed with initiator (potassium peroxodisulfat) (K2S2O8) of 0.5% by volume of styrene monomer. Air dried wood specimens were subjected to initial vacuum for 30 minutes and then impregnated with styrene monomer solution. Pressure of 10 atm for 1 hour were applied and followed by application of final vacuum for 15 minutes. Wood Samples were wrapped by aluminum foil and inserted in an oven at 60 ± 2 0C for 24 hours to remove residual styrene monomer and then conditioned for 1 week at room temperature. Final weight of wood samples was determined to calculate the polymer loading (PL) (Yildiz et al.2005), anti-Shrink Efficiency (ASE) (Rowell 2005) and water absorption (WA). PL (%) = [(WAP – WBP) / WBP] x 100 %
(1)
Where, WAP is the oven dry weight sample after polymerization, WBP is the oven dry weight sample before polymerization. ASE (%) = (S-S0)/S0 x100%
(2)
Where, S is the volume swelling coefficient of styrene wood and S0 is the volume swelling of wood with no styrene treatment Volume swelling coefficient (S) was calculated by this equation S = (V – V0)/V0 × 100%
(3)
Where V is wood volume after immersion and Vo is wood volume before immersion WA (%) = [(Wwf – Woi)/Woi] x 100%
(4)
Where, WWF is the weight of wet wood after water immersion in water for 24 hours and Woi is the initial dry weight of wood. Sample test to subterranean termite (Coptotermes sp) in the laboratory test and brown-rot fungi (Fomitopsis palustris) Samples were exposed to subterranean termite (Coptotermes sp) using SNI 01-7207-2006 standard for laboratory test. Weight loss is calculated based on the difference of wood weight between pretreatment to post treatment. Determination of the durable grade sample on the laboratory-scale test to subterranean termites followed the classification of SNI 01-7207-2006 standard, as presented in Table 1. The termite’s mortality classification based on the percentage 106 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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of living termites was presented in Table 2 (Sumarni and Roliadi 2002). The test of styrene wood resistance to brown rot fungi attack (Fomitopsis palustris) based SNI 01-7207-2006 as well. Weight loss (%)= [(Wo – W1) / Wo] x 100 Where, Wo is oven dry weight samples before feeding test and W1 is oven dry weight samples after feeding test Table 1. The classification of sample durability based on its weight reduction Durability grade I II III IV V
Weight loss interval (%) < 3.521 3.521-7.502 7.502-10.961 10.961-19.938 19.938-31.891
Score interval (%)
Resistance classification
>14.6 11.2-14.6 7.8-11.2 4.4-7.8 1-4.4
highly resistant resistant moderately resistant poorly resistant very poorly resistant
Table 2. Classification of sample durability based on the living termite percentage Durability grade I II III IV V
Weight loss interval (%) < 20.818 20.818-33.100 33.100-50.600 50.600-63.300 >63.300
Score interval (%) >13 10-13 7-10 4-7 <4
Resistance classification highly resistant
resistant moderately resistant poorly resistant very poorly resistant
Electrical Properties Calculation of the dielectric constant was performed using an LCR meter Krisbow KW06-489. Samples were enclosed by a metal using an electrode at room temperature 250C. Value obtained from the device was the capacitance (C). While the value of the dielectric constant was obtained by the following formula (Markiewicz et al., 2009):
e’ = (Cd)/ e0S Where e' is the dielectric constant or electrical permittivity, C is the capacitance, d is the sample thickness, e 0 is the vacuum electric permittivity (8.85 x 10-12 F / m) and S is the sample area.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Biological Properties Wood that has been impregnated by styrene monomer showed increase resistance to subterranean termite attack in the laboratory test. The decrease in weight loss of impregnated sample proved this tendency (Table 3). Impregnated wood is more resistant to subterranean termite attack in the laboratory test compared to un-impregnated one, while the data for the grave yard test has not yet been obtained because of inability to achieve the standardized time testing of 6 months. Referring to Table 1, there was no increase in the classification of durable grade (highly resistant/grade 1). The mortality of subterranean termites on the impregnated styrene wood was 70.83%, whereas mortality of untreated one was 45.50%. The styrene wood tends to be not favored by termites and the styrene impregnation is able to prevent termite attack effectively. The The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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possible mechanisms are the changes in chemical structure of cell wall polymer causes termites lose their ability to digest wood as their food. This condition affects the death of termite; with the polymer loading (PL) is 26.35%. The chemical structure changes of cell walls on the impregnated wood are due to the styrene polymerization process. Possible mechanisms are the styrene monomer fills the void cell of wood and replaces the hydroxyl group of the cell wall polymers. The effectiveness of chemical modifications to improve the biological resistance is often assumed as the effect of cross-linking, bulking or a combination of these. The hydroxyl groups of cell wall polymer acts not only to absorb water but also to provide condition where biological enzymatic reaction takes place (Hadi et al. 2003). The chemical structure changes of the substrate caused inhibition of termite feeding activity on the cell wall polymers. Polystyrene leads to wood hardening, makes the termites unable to penetrate into the lumen cell wall to digest the wood (Kartikasari et al. 2009). The results are in line with Hadi’s et al. (2002) which reported that the polystyrene modification of wood increased biological resistance to termites and marine borer. Table 3. R esistance comparison of styrene monomer impregnated wood against subterranean termite attack in laboratory test Wood species Ki bolong Salix alba Alnus glutinosa P. maximowiczii Pinus silvetris
Weight loss (%) Impregnated wood 1.49 5.672 4.072 2.072 4.472
Testing Method Untreated wood 3.13 43.22 49.02 55.42 50.62
Referrence
SNI 01-7207-2006 SNI 01-7207-2006 Hadi et al. (1998)
The previous studies also had a same tendency in the resistance improvement of impregnated wood against subterranean termite both on the laboratory scale and grave yield. The different levels of results are reflected in Table 4 (Kartikasari et al. 2009; Hadi et al.1998). The polymer loading (PL) level of polymerization process is probably also influenced them. The high PL is expected give a high resistance to termite attack. Ki Bolong wood impregnated with styrene monomer has better fungi resistance than the untreated wood. The reduced weight loss of impregnated wood compared to untreated ones was 63.29%. These same results were also reported by previous studies which have exposed the styrene wood against white rot and brown rot fungi in the varying levels (Hadi et al.1998, 2003; Baysal et al. 2006; Yildiz et al. 2005). Polymerized wood have relatively better resistance to white rot fungi than brown rot fungi attack. Nevertheless fungi used impregnated wood as its food because the styrene wood is not toxic to the fungi; the weight loss persistence of wood due to fungal attack shows this phenomenon (Baysal et al.2006).
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Table 4. Resistance comparison of impregnated wood to fungal resistance Wood species
Ki bolong Karet Sengon Pinus Alnus Populus Salix alba Pinus silvetris
Weight loss of White rot fungi test Untreated Impregnated Wood Wood 27.6 4.2 7.9 3.3 5.7 2.7 3.0 2.73 3.24 3.14 3.26 2.98 2.38 2.31
Weight loss of Brown rot fungi test Untreated Impregnated wood wood 13.16 4.83 49.6 15.3 64.0 15.0 38.4 6.5
Reference
Hadi et al.2003
Hadi et al.1998
The ability of styrene-impregnated wood to resist fungi attacks occurs through the bulking effect of plastic polymers as physical barriers for the fungi hyphae to penetrate the axial system of wood (Dharma et al.2002). In addition, the chemical changes of impregnated wood are also suspected to contribute to the reducing of the occurrence of specific enzymatic reactions to degrade the wood cell wall polymers into their monomers. The hydroxyl groups of cell wall polymer are the main site of enzymatic reaction, so the replacement with styrene monomer to the hydroxyl groups changes their chemical structure. The water absorption capacity reduction of the impregnated wood supports it. The resistance enhancement to other microorganisms such as bacteria (Bacilllus spp) strengthens the biological properties improvement (Devi et al.2003). Mechanical Properties The following table shows that the increase of flexural modulus (MOE) and the flexural strength (MOR) of impregnated wood was 18% and 30.5% respectively. The same results have also been reported by previous studies (Jemi et al.2008; Hadi et al. 2003; Hartono et al. 2010; Devi et al. 2003; Baysal et al. 2006; Yildiz et al. 2005). The improvement both of them are likely due to lumen cell filling by styrene monomer although this reaction doesn’t occurs extensively with wood (Baysal et al. 2006; Devi et al. 2003). The addition of bulking vinyl polymers in the wood voids enhances the mechanical properties of impregnated wood. Styrene polymerization produces grafting styrene to cellulose, lignin and pentose (Meyer 1984; Ibach and Ellis 2005). The mechanical strength improvement is related to the level of the polymer loading; the higher polymer loading of wood plastic, the better strength of it (Bakraji et al. 2001).
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Table 5. The mechanical properties comparison of styrene impregnated wood Wood species Ki Bolong Rambutan Pine Randu Angsana
Treatment Impregnated Untreated Impregnated Untreated Impregnated Untreated Impregnated Untreated Impregnated Untreated
Compression parallel to grain (kg cm-2) 359.62 359.12 657.27 560.33 138.26 124.69 444.81 431.69
Flexural Flexural modulus strength (kg cm-2) (kg cm-2) 35,047.64 252.89 29,600.32 193.75 63490.33 775.21 40815.14 761.63 107685.23 1131.94 118217.07 1346.04 18825.22 271.59 16336.71 225.48 69925.48 969.29 67865.66 944.95
Reference Jemi et al.2008 Jemi et al.20081;Hadi et al.20032 Hartono et al.2010
The flexural modulus difference of styrene wood is relatively lower than the strength of other community wood species such as Randu wood with relatively similar density. The difference in anatomical structure (permeability) of wood and the impregnation conditions utilization affects it. Permeable structure of wood allows the occurrence of polymerization reactions well in the C-C bonds (free radicals) with wood polymers (Ibach and Ellis 2005; Meyer 1984; Lawniczak et al. (1987) in Jemi et al. (2008). However it is necessary to examine the anatomical structure of impregnated wood for verifying this allegation. Generally the lower density wood tends to have bigger pores, thinner cell wall, and lower content of extractives (Pandit 1996). The previous researchers also stated that the styrene polymerization in the wood contributes increase the wood strength properties (Baysal et al. 2006). In the further study of Yildiz et al. (2005) stated that the polymer distribution homogeneity of wood structure is more dominant than the levels of polymer loading. Thus the selection of suitable wood types is very important to obtain a homogeneous impregnation. Physical Properties The decline in moisture content of styrene impregnated wood is 60% (Table 6). This trend is also occurred in the study reported by Hartono et al. (2010). It can be caused by the hydrophobicity properties increasing of styrene impregnated wood. Besides that there is also an increase in density (9.76%) and specific gravity (12.82%) of impregnated wood. Our result has a same tendency with the previous studies on other wood (Jemi et al .2008; Hadi et al. 2003; Hartono et al. 2010; Yildiz et al. 2005). This increase in specific gravity and density of impregnated wood is expected due to styrene monomer bulking in a void or cell wall polymers grafting.
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Table 6. The comparison physical properties of styrene impregnated wood Wood species
Treatment
MC (%)
Density (gcm-3)
Ki Bolong Impregnated 2.92 Untreated 7.33 Rambutan Impregnated Untreated Pine Impregnated Untreated -
0.45 0.41 -
Randu
11.72 13.86 9.90 11.63 -
0.45 0.24 0.47 0.81 -
-
-
Angsana Karet Albizia
Impregnated Untreated Impregnated Untreated Impregnated Untreated Untreated
Sg 0.44 0.39 0.74 0.49 1.09 0.651; 0.432
0.61
Water Volume Thickness absorption swelling swelling (%) (%) (%) 46.71 55.29 17.15 42.37 12.41 47.5 -
7.03 10.48
5.29 13.86
Reference Jemi et al.2008 Jemi et al.20081;Hadi et al.20032 Hartono et al.2010 Hadi et al.2003
0.22
Styrene monomer bulking effect in the wood is going to lead to improve dimensional stability of wood plastic. Styrene monomer can penetrate in the cell wall and copolymerize with other monomers for providing a reactive site for cross linking. This bond will lead superior performance i.e. resistant to high temperatures (Jani et al. 2007). In addition the water diffusion of the plastic wood is limited, and it leads some improvement of physical properties in the wood (Yildiz et al. 2005) by improving the properties of wood hygroscopicity (Iswanto 2009) because of the covered surface of wood by styrene monomer (Baysal et al.2006). The improvement of styrene wood properties shows by decrease in water absorption properties (15.5%), volume swelling (32.9%) and thickness swelling (61.8%) compared to untreated one. Water absorption improvement is also found in previous studies (Jemi et al. 2008; Hadi et al. 2003; Baysal et al. 2006; Devi et al. 2003) with a greater percentage value. Vinyl monomers type treatment followed by curing (radiation or catalysts) are very significantly improve the water resistance of wood (Meyer, 1984 and Baki et al.1993 in Devi et al.2003). Polymerization and Stability Dimensions Styrene impregnation process in wood has been done by evaluating the level of polymer loading (PL). Impregnated wood which has higher polymer loading reflects the better bulking process of monomer styrene in cell lumen of wood. This condition causes the possibility of reaction with cell wall polymers is more likely to happen. No further examination of the extent of reaction was done in this study. A high PL of impregnated wood could be obtained by variation of the vacuum, monomer concentration, and initiator (Devi at al. 2003). Wood plastic (Ki Bolong) had a lower polymer loading level than its other impregnated wood that used the different conditions (catalyst and initiator). This result indicates that the selection of process conditions was not quite optimal, caused by none catalyst occupied.
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A polymer formation (polystyrene) was done by using the catalyst and the storage treatment at high temperatures. Styrene can be polymerized by heat, sunlight and catalysts (Crowd 1991). In addition, factors which determine monomer penetration were the wood species in case their anatomical structure, the monomers kinds used to impregnate into Ki Bolong wood, density as well. Wood whose have which has lower density tends to have permeable anatomical structure because of its large pores so that the monomer absorption in lumen cell of wood was easier. The density of Ki Bolong wood includes into the category of being. The lower polymer loading of Ki Bolong wood was necessary to be ensured to study the anatomical structure changes between impregnated wood and un-impregnated wood. PL is highly correlated with biological properties and physical-mechanical improvement of the impregnated wood. Polymerization and the dimensional stability of Ki Bolong wood impregnated styrene monomer summarized in the following table. Table 7. C omparison of polymerization and the dimensional stability of wood impregnated styrene monomer Wood species Ki Bolong Rambutan Pinus Randu Angsana Karet Sengon Salix alba Alnus glutinosa Populus maximowiczii Pinus silvetris
Catalyst
Initiator
PL (%)
-
K. peroxodisulfat 0.5% v/v -
26.35
ASE References (%) 49.02 -
36.08
20.96
t.hydroperoxide 0.5% v/v t.hydroperoxide 0.5% v/v t-hydroperoxide 0.5% v/v t.hydroperoxide 0.5% v/v
-
37.271;118.42; 39.63
-
92.43 68.71 71.21;40.42
-
185.91;30.52
N-metylolmetacrilamide 0.5 w/w N-metylolmetacrilamide 0.5 w/w N-metylolmetacrilamide 0.5 w/w N-metylolmetacrilamide 0.5 w/w
123 106 135
Jemi et al.2008; 1 Kartikasari et 23.60 -
Hartono et al.2010 Hadi et
1
Hadi et al.1998
88
The pressure of impregnation process was used to penetrate styrene into the cell wall of wood to replace water and air both in the cavity and the cell wall. Archer and Lebow, (2006) in Kartikasari et al. (2009) also stated that the method of vacuum pressure caused deep penetration of the wood and the pressure affected air in the lumen was replaced by the liquid preservative. ASE (Anti swelling efficiency) shows the value of the dimensional stability of the plastic wood. The high ASE will improve dimensional stability of the plastic wood. The mechanism of dimensional stability is to increase its hydrophobic properties due to styrene bulking in the cell lumen. In addition the polymerization process was possible to produce the bond with the cell wall polymers so that 112 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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this bond could block the water penetration and bind with hydrogen groups of cell wall polymers (Jemi et al. 2008). ASE values of impregnated wood were much higher than both rambutan and pine wood. The process of the styrene monomer filling in the lumen cell was expected to occur better and the impregnated wood will obtain a high dimensional stability. Water absorption rate of plastic wood is quite high compared to Rambutan and pine wood. This phenomenon is expected to be related to imperfect styrene monomer grafting with the polymer wood. Electrical properties Dielectric constants of unimpregnated wood and impregnated wood were not different significantly. The dielectric constant of untreated wood was 6.23 ± 1.35, while styrene wood was 9.22 ± 3.07. The styrene impregnation in wood makes its properties changes into insulator. It is related to lumen filling by styrene monomer so that the water diffusion was limited and the wood hygroscopicity improves. These results were supported by physical properties improvement of plastic wood. Styrene monomer penetration in the cell wall allowed copolymerizing with other monomers to provide a reactive site for cross-linking. When we compared with dielectric constant of composites made polypropylene (PP) with hemp and flax was in the range of values 2 through 9 (Markiewicz et al. 2009), it can be argued that the dielectric constant value of untreated wood and the treatment ones was much more lower. The dielectric constant of wood increased significantly with moisture content but no significant difference was observed in the case of WPC (wood plastic composites) within the range of moisture contents studied. The dielectric constants of untreated wood also increased their densities (Khan et al.1991).
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS Styrene monomer impregnation of Ki Bolong wood (Eugenia sp.) can improve physicalmechanical properties, and durability of impregnated wood compared to untreated ones. This treatment makes this wood to be more insulators. Although the polymer loading of styrene wood was relatively high, the wood was not protected against subterranean termites and brown rot fungi attack caused the styrene is not toxic to the organism. ASE values of styrene wood are relatively high therefore not providing a good dimensional stability. It is possibly associated with wood permeability and less perfect polymerization reaction (grafting) with cell wall polymers. Selection of permeable wood species and impregnation conditions was expected to improve the properties of styrene wood. It is required to analyze the anatomical structure of wood between untreated and treated wood in order to ensure the distribution patterns penetration of styrene monomer. The bond types formed in the polymerization process are also need to be ascertained by further testing such as by FTIR.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Jasni, MS and the technicians in the wood preservation laboratory, Bogor Forest Products Research and Development Center (P3HH) for the assistance during the wood impregnation process. In addition the author also wishes to thank to Lilik Astari, S.Si, and Fitria, M.Sc.Food for their English checking.
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REFERENCES ASTM D-143-94. 2000. Standard method of testing small clear specimens of timber.USA: American Society for Testing and Materials Bakraji, E. H., N. Salman, H. Al-kassiri.2001.Gamma-radiation-induced wood–plastic composites from Syrian tree species. Radiation Physics and Chemistry 61:137–141 Baysal, E., M.K. Yalinkilic, M.Altinok, A. Sonmez, H. Peker and M. Colak. 2006. Some physical, biological,mechanical, and fire properties of wood polymer composite (WPC) pretreated with boric acid and borax mixture. Journal Construction and Building Materials (article in Press) British Standar. 1957. Methods of Testing Small Clear Specimens of Timber. Serial BS 373. British Standar Instituition. London. Crowd, M.A. 1991. Kimia Polimer. Terjemahan Harry Firman. Penerbit ITB Bandung Darma T. I G. K., Y. S. Hadi dan A. T. Atmojo.2002. Ketahanan komposit kayu plastik polistirena terhadap serangan jamur pelapuk coklat Tyromyces palustris. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika 8(1): 31-38 Devi R. R and T. K Maji. 2002. Studies of properties of rubber wood with impregnation of polymer. Bull. Mater. Sci. 25(6): 527–531. Devi, R.R., Ali, I. and Maji, T.K. 2003. Chemical modification of rubberwood with styrene in combination with a crosslinker: effect on dimensional stability and strength property. Bioresource Technology 88:185-188 Djarwanto & S.Abdurrohim.2000. Teknologi pengawetan kayu untuk perpanjangan usia pakai. Buletin Kehutanan dan Perkebunan 1(2) Feng Li, Y. Yi-Xing Liu,X.-M. Wang,Q.-Lin Wu,H.-P. Yu,Jian Li.2010.Wood–polymer composites prepared by the in situ polymerization of monomers within wood. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/aboutus/ppvarticleselect.html Hadi, Y. S. 2010a. Forest products research achievement and trend in Indonesia. Proceedings of the First International Symposium of Indonesian Wood Research Society. Bogor, 2nd– 3rd November, 2009. Pp 10-22 Hadi, Y.S , T. Nurhayati , Jasni , H Yamamoto & N Kamiya.2009a. Smoked wood resistance against termite. Prosiding Simposium Nasional I Forum Teknologi Hasil Hutan (FTHH).Bogor, 30-31 Oktober 2009. Pp 527-534 Hadi, Y.S , T. Nurhayati , Jasni , H Yamamoto & N Kamiya.2010b. Smoked wood resistance against termite. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 22(2): 127–132 Hadi, Y.S. and K. Tsunoda. 2009. A review:some considerations for subterranean termite and fungi tests of indonesian national standard SNI 01.7207-2006. Prosiding Simposium Nasional I Forum Teknologi Hasil Hutan (FTHH).Bogor, 30-31 Oktober 2009.pp 544-547 Hadi, Y.S., D.S. Nawawi, E.N. Herliyana and M. Lawniczak. 1998. Termite Attack Resistance of Four Polystyrene Impregnated Woods from Poland. Forest Products Journal 48(9):60-62 Hadi, Y.S., I. Wahyudi, F. Febrianto, E.N. Herliyana, and M. Utama. 1997. Effect of radiation doses and position in the culm on polystyrene betung bamboo properties. Presented at the XI World Forestry Congress, Antalya ,Turki, 13-22 October 1997 Hadi,Y.S., I.G.K.T. Darma, N. Hadjib and Jasni. 2003. Polystyrene wood resistance fungal attack. 114 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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SNI (INDONESIAN NATIONAL STANDARD). 2006. Wood and wood products resistance test to wood destroying organism (SNI 01.7207–2006). Indonesian National Standard Bureau, Jakarta. Sumarni, G. dan H. Roliadi. 2002. Daya tahan 109 jenis kayu Indonesia terhadap serangan rayap tanah (Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren.). Buletin Penelitian Hasil Hutan 20 (3): 177-185 Takahashi, M. 1996. Biological Properties of Chemically Modified Wood. In Chemical Modification of Lignocellulosic Materials (Hon, D. N. S. ed.). Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York. pp. 331 - 359. Tinambunan, D., Dulsalam, J.Balfas, A.P.Tampubolon, Suhariyanto, Krisdianto, Sudarmalik.2006. Rumusan Seminar Hasil Litbang Hasil Hutan: kontribusi hutan rakyat dalam kesinambungan industri kehutanan. Bogor 21 September 2006 Venås, T. M. and Å. Rinnan.2008. Determination of weight percent gain in solid wood modified with in situ cured furfuryl alcohol by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems xx (2008) xxx–xxx (in press) Winarno, B. dan E.A.Waluyo. 2007. Potensi pengembangan hutan rakyat dengan jenis tanaman kayu lokal. Prosiding seminar hasil-hasil penelitian hutan tanaman. Departemen Kehutanan, Badan penelitian dan pengembangan Kehutanan, Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hutan Tanaman. Pp 28-34 Yanto, D. H. Y., Fitria, Ismadi, Subyakto, dan E.Hermiati.2010. Karakterisasi dan asetilasi pulp bambu betung,abaca dan sisal. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Mapeki XI. Palangka Raya 08-10 Agustus 2008. Pp 24-34 Yildiz, U. C., S. Yildiz, E. D. Gezer. 2005. Mechanical properties and decay resistance of wood– polymer composites prepared from fast growing species in Turkey. Bioresource Technology 96:1003–1011.
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Surian (Toona Sinensis) as an Alternative Material for Bonded Wood Products in the Future (I): Plywood Eka Mulya Alamsyah and Tati Karliati School of Life Sciences and Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology Jl. Ganesa 10 Bandung 40132, Indonesia
[email protected] and
[email protected]
ABSTRACT The purpose of recent study was to evaluate the performance of plywood made from surian compared to the common species used sengon (P. Falcataria) and rubber (H. Braziliensis) wood which bonded with the common PF and UF adhesives. The 40 x 40 cm plywood was assembling from 5 plies veneer with the final moisture content (MC) of about eight percent. Plywood performance evaluation of MC, density, percentage of delamination, MOR, MOE, tensile strength and formaldehyde emission were evaluated under the Japan Agricultural Standard (JAS) using four panels and four specimens repetition in each panel for each testing. For PF-surian plywood, results show that the average of air-dried MC and density were 11.89% and 0.55 g/cm3, respectively. The average values of MOR in long and cross direction were 48.09 and 24.22 N/mm2, respectively. While MOE in long and cross direction were 5209.82 and 1532.79 N/mm2, respectively. Tensile strength was 1.98 N/mm2 with zero percent of delamination and 0.04 mg/l formaldehyde emission. For UF-surian plywood, results shows that the average of air-dried MC and density were 12.16% and 0.56 g/cm3, respectively. The average value of MOR in long and cross direction were 50.99 and 29.18 N/mm2, respectively. While MOE in long and cross direction were 5052.25 and 2014.47N/ mm2, respectively. Tensile strength was 1,82 N/mm2 with zero percent of delamination and 0.21 mg/l formaldehyde emission. Values of MOR, MOE, and tensile strength of both PF and UF-surian plywood were lower than rubber plywood, however it was higher than sengon plywood. The most interesting finding in this research was that the value of formaldehyde emission of both PF and UF-surian plywood were lower than PF and UF rubber or sengon plywood due to their F4S classification of JAS. Except MOE in the cross direction for surian and sengon plywood, all the results had met the JAS requirement Keywords: physical-mechanical properties, plywood, T.sinensis.
INTRODUCTION Development of industrial forest plantation and community forest in Indonesia has been increased due to the lack of wood material supply from the natural forest (Subyanto et.al, 2004). In the year 2000, the commitment of Indonesian government on the development of industrial forest plantation and community forest showing by the contribution of 5 percent of 56 percent forest in Asia region of the development of forest in the world (Charle, et.al, 2002). This contribution will affect the positive development of forest products industry not only in Indonesia but also in the world for the future. In Indonesia, studies on the utilization of small diameter log from industrial forest plantation and from community forest have been done since 1998 due to the deacreasing of large diameter log from natural forest as materials for Indonesia wood industries (Kliwon, et.al, 1998). The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Surian is one of the popular wood species in West Java Province, Indonesia. It has been growth and planted frequently in the people forest in the district of Sumedang. Hidayat (2005), mentioned that surian could be extracted for twelve to fifteen years with an unique texture characteristics similar to the teak wood. It means that surian can be used as a substitute material for fancy teak wood, interior ornament or face/back veneer due to its grain texture characteristics. Unfortunately, since a long time ago many people in Indonesia use surian for only part of building and furniture due to the limited information on the research of its wood base properties, wood bond quality and wood bonded products / wood composite. In the latter case, the adhesive wood compatibility, necessary for satisfactory bonding, depends on many factors: wood species, physical-chemical properties of the wood and its surface, adhesive characteristics, bonding condition, etc. (Vick, 1999). In the future, utilization of surian for other bonded wood products such as for plywood, LVL and glulam is widely open due to their excellent and good bond quality classification as reported by Alamsyah et al (2007). The purpose of recent study was to evaluate the performance of plywood made from surian compared to the common species used sengon (P. falcataria) and rubber (H. Braziliensis) wood which bonded with the common PF and UF adhesives.
MATERIALS AND METHODS This study have been done at Jatinangor Campus, Bandung Institute of Technology and at the R and D Laboratory, PT.Sumber Graha Sejahtera (SGS), Tangerang, Banten. Details of study were reported as follows. Veneer Preparations Twelve years old surian wood logs with diameter about 25 cm and 140 cm length were cut in Cibugel community forest, Sumedang District and brought to the Jatinangor Campus of ITB to check decay, damage and measured their wood base properties i.e. moisture content and density. In PT. SGS, after logs debarked, they sent to the spindless to get appropriate shape and peeled using rotary cut machine with 1.7 mm in thickness and 240 cm in length dried immediately until the MC of veneer reached about 8 percent and stored in veneer room behind sengon and rubber veneers prepared previously by the company. Plywood Manufacturing Four panels of 40 x 40 cm of 5 plies-plywood were made from each surian (0.40 g/cm3), sengon (0.32 g/cm3) and rubber (0.59 g/cm3) wood bonded with each PF and UF adhesives. Total panel produced were 24 pieces. Initially, setting core, face and back were done to detect MC, number and performance of veneer. Then glue was spread on both sides of core veneer followed immediately by covering face and back veneer. After that cold-pressurized at 6 kgf/cm2 on surian and sengon panels and 8 kgf/cm2 on rubber panel for 900 seconds and followed immediately by hot pressurized at 5 kgf/cm2 in surian and sengon panels and 6 kgf/cm2 in rubber panel for 800 seconds. Then they were conditioned at room temperature for 1 day before tested. Details adhesives application is shown in Table 1.
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Table 1. Adhesives application Adhesive Spread rate Cold-Press Cold Press o Type (g/f2) Temperature ( C) Time (second)
Hot-Press Temperature (oC)
Hot Press Time (second)
PF
32
26
900
120
800
UF
32
26
900
100
800
Plywood Performance Testing Moisture content (MC) and density Four pieces of 50 x 50 mm specimen for each panel of each wood species for both PF and UF adhesives were used. The MC of the manufactured boards was determined by the gravimetry method. The MC was calculated using the following equation: MC= , where MC is moisture content, W1 is the weight before drying (g) and W2 is the bone dry weigth (g). In density test, 4 pieces of 50 x 50 mm specimen in each panel of each wood species for both PF and UF adhesives were used. Specimens taken from air-dried weight panel then measured the air-dried , where ρKU is density (g/cm3), Wad is airvolume and calculated using this equation: 3 dried weight (g) and Vad is air-dried volume (cm ) MOR and MOE Two type of specimens were used for MOR and MOE test. They were long direction and cross directon specimens. Four specimens from each panel were used. The type long direction has a length 50 mm perpendicular to the grain direction and a length of 50 mm added to 24 times of the thicknes parallel to the grain direction of the face veneer. The cross direction type has a length of 50 mm parralel to grain direction and a length of 50 mm added to 24 times of thickness perpendicular to the main fiber direction of the face veneer. MOR was calculated using this equation:, where MOR : Modulus of rupture (kgf/cm2), Pb : Maksimal load (kgf), l : span (cm), b : width of test specimens (cm) and h : Thickness of test specimens (cm). MOE was calculated using , where MOE : Modulus of elasticity (kgf/cm2), ∆ Y : Deflection at the this equation: center of span corresponding to ∆ P (cm), ∆ P : The difference between upper and lower limits of load within proposional range (kgf). Tensile strength and delamination percentages Test specimens, after being immersed in boiling water for 72 hours, were immersed in water of room temperature to cool down. Then adhesive strength test was applied to the test specimens under wet condition to obtain the tensile strength and wood failure. Bonding strength was calculated . Where, a; width of test using this equation: specimen (cm); and b: distance between kerfings (cm). Four specimens from each panel with the size of 75 x 75 mm were used for delamination testing. In plywood bonded with PF, specimens boiled for 4 hours, dried at 60±3°C for 20 hours. Boiled again for 4 hours and then immersed in the water of room temperature for 15 minutes). Oven-dried at 60±3°C for 24 hours, until their MC reached below or equal to 8%. For plywood bonded with UF, specimen immersed in to hot water at 70±3°C for 2 hours. Oven dried at 60±3°C for 24 hours, until their MC reached below or equal to 8%. Ratio of delamination was calculated using this equationt: Delamination Ratio= TotaL length of Delamination at the 4 Side X 100%
Total length of Glue Layer at the 4 Sde
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Formaldehyde emission Ten pieces of plywood sample of 15 x 5c m were cut from each panel of each wood species for each adhesive types and wraped in plastic bag then conditioned in room temperature (20±1oC) for more than one day. After that arranged samples on the top of cristallizing dish of 300 ml aquadestilate and put in glass desicator. They were conditioned in room temperature (20±1oC) for 24 hours. After that, 25 ml liquid sample of aquadestilate was put in to erlenmeyer glass plus 25 ml acetil aceton ammonium acetate and warmed in waterbath at 60±2oC for 10 minute then was conditoned until reached of room temperature in the dark room. In order to detect formaldehyde emission, absorbance of samples measured based on the 412 nm wave-length using by spectrofotometry. The concentration of emission calculated based on curve standard for plywood. Classification of formaldehyde emission according to JAS is shown in Table 2. Table 2. Classification of Formaldehyde Emission Classification F**** F*** F** F*
Code F4S F3S F2S F1S
Average (mg/l) 0.3 0.5 1.5 5.0
Max (mg/l) 0.4 0.7 2.1 7.0
Source : JAS for Formaldehyde Emission (2003)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Veneer Performance There were differences of performance among veneer used as shown in Figure 1. In Surian veneer, sapwood and heartwood distinct; sapwood pale yellow, heartwood brownish-pink, fragrant. Annual rings conspicuous and sweet-smelling essential oil. So far, surian veneer has high chance to be used for fancy veneer, face/back veneer or ornament part of the building due to its grain texture characteristics.
Surian
Sengon
Rubber
Figure 1. Appearence of Veneer Moisture Content (MC) and Density Compared among wood species used, MC of both PF and UF surian plywood was in around 12 percent showing consistent values weather different adhesives were used. For PF and UF sengon 120 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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plywood the MC values were 12.,84 and 9.74%, while for PF and UF rubber plywood were 11.54 and 10.31%, respectively. Those values showed that MC of all plywood were lower than 14% and had met the JAS requirement. The density values for both of PF and UF surian, rubber and sengon plywood were in around 0.55; 0.60 and 0.45 g/cm3 respectively (Fig, 2 and 3).
14 12 10 8
PF
6
UF
4 2 0
Surian
Rubber
Sengon
Figure 2. MC (%) of Plywood
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
PF
0.3
UF
0.2 0.1 0
Surian
Rubber
Sengon
Figure 3. Density (g/cm3) of Plywood Those results showed that the plywood density increased with the increasing density of their solid wood. Another reason was shown by the increasing of weight of sample due to adding adhesives during the plywood production. MOR and MOE Values of MOR for both PF and UF surian plywood were 48.09 and 50.99N/mm2 in long and 24.22 and 29.18 N/mm2 in cross direction respectively, while values of MOE were 5209.82 and 5052.25 N/mm2 in long and 1532.79 and 2014.47 in cross direction respectively. In sengon plywood, values of MOR for both PF and UF were 34.64 and 40.93 N/mm2 in long and 16.77 and 23.68 N/mm2 in cross direction respectively, while values of MOE were 4160.71 and 4973.28 N/ mm2 in long and 1312.86 and 1877.67 N/mm2 in cross direction respectively. The highest MOR and MOE was obtained from rubber plywood (68.60 N/mm2 in long and 50.00 N/mm2 in cross direction both for UF plywood and 8001.06 N/mm2 in long direction of PF plywood and 3853.20 N/mm2 in cross direction of UF plywood) (Table 3). The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Table 3. Average Values of MOR and MOE of Plywood No
Species
1
Surian
2
Rubber
3
Sengon
Direction Long Cross Long Cross Long Cross
MOR (N/mm2) PF UF 48.09 50.99 24.22 29.18 65.82 68.60 42.62 50.00 34.64 40.93 16.77 23.68
MOE (N/mm2) PF UF 5209.82 5052.25 1532.79 2014.47 8001.06 7330.60 3472.85 3853.20 4160.71 4973.28 1312.87 1877.67
Those values indicated that MOR and MOE increased with the increasing plywood density. Except MOE of surian and sengon plywood, the values mentioned above had met the JAS requirement. Bond Strength and Delamination Percentages Values of bond strength (tensile strength) for both PF and UF surian plywood were 2.50 and 1.82 N/mm2, respectively, while in sengon plywood were 1.48 and 1.27 N/mm2. The highest value of tensile strength for both PF and UF was obtained by rubber plywood (2.56 and 2.74 N/mm2) (Table 4). Those values indicated that tensile strength increased with the increasing of plywood density. The zero percent of delamination of all species used for both PF and UF adhesives indicated that all plywood had passed Type 1 and type 2 delamination test, respectively. Thus, all plywood had met the JAS requirement showing by the value of their tensile strength were higher than 0,7N/mm2 and zero delamination percentages. Table 4. Average Value of Tensile strength and Ratio of Delamination No
Species
1
Continuous Boiling (N/mm2)
Ratio of Delamination (%)
PF
UF
PF
UF
Surian
2.50
1.82
0
0
2
Rubber
2.56
2.74
0
0
3
Sengon
1.48
1.27
0
0
Formaldehyde Emission Formaldehyde emission released 1.2 from both PF and UF surian plywood were 1 0.04 and 0.21 mg/l, respectively, and had 0.8 met F4S classification of the JAS standard showing by the emission values lower 0.6 PF than 0.3 mg/l. Formaldehyde emission 0.4 UF For both PF and UF sengon plywood were 0.2 0.34 and 0.52 mg/l, respectively. These value had met F3S classification of the 0 JAS standard. Differences classification Surian Rubber Sengon showed by rubber wood species where the value of formaldehyde of PF was 0.21 mg/l had met F4S classification, while the Figure 4. Formaldehyde Emission (mg/l) value of formaldehyde of UF was 0.98 mg/l had met F2S classification of the JAS standard (Fig. 4 and Table 5). 122 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Table 5. Classification of Formaldehyde Emission No
Species
1 2 3
Surian Rubber Sengon
Judgement PF UF F4S F4S F4S F2S F3S F3S
This differences might be caused by the chemical contain in adhesives react with the rubber wood chemical or extractives content. So far, the most interesting finding in this study was shown by surian plywood with the lowest value of formaldehyde emission compared to sengon and rubber plywood.
CONCLUSION It is possible to use surian for plywood production according to the JAS requirement. However, further studies using various thickness of plywood and veneer will contribute on the effective surian utilization. Based on the veneer performance, surian is also has high chance to be used for veneer fancy, face/back or interior ornament due to its good texture of veneer grain.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to express their special thanks to the following individuals for providing the wood materials: Mr. Yoyo Suhaya from the School of Life Sciences and Technology ITB and Mr. Sutarno from the General affairs of Jatinangor Campus ITB; Mr. Eko Sudoyo (Head of R and D PT.SGS), Mr. Ardi and Mr. Abdul Rojak from PT.SGS for their unvaluable assistance and idea during plywood preparation. Very special thanks due to the LPPM ITB for their financial support during this study. Note: the 1st part of this study have been presented at the 14th annual meeting of Indonesian Wood researcher Society
REFERENCES Anonim. 2003. Japanese Agricultural Standard for Formaldehyde Emission. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan. Alamsyah EM, Liu CN, Yamada M, Taki K, Yoshida H. 2007. Bondability of tropical fast-growing tree species I: Indonesian wood species. Journal of Wood Science, Vol.53 No.1, pp.40-46 Anonim. 2008. Japanese Agricultural Standard for lywood. Notification No.1751. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan. Charle J, Vuarinen P, Lung AD. 2002. Status and Trend in Global Forest Plantation Development. Forest Products Journal 52(78): 13-23 Hidayat, Y. 2005. Kefektifan Ekstrak Daun Surian (Toona sinensis) dalam Pengendalian Larva Boktor (Xystrocera festiva. Pascoe). Jurnal Agrikultura 16 (2) : 133-136. Volume 16, Nomor 2. Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Padjadjaran. Bandung. Hidayat, Y. 2005. Tree Improvement Strategy of Surian (Toona sinensis. Roem) Preliminary result. Journal Wanamukti Forestry. 3 (2) : 103-109 The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Kliwon S, Iskandar MI. 1998. Processing of small diameter logs for laminated veneer, veneer andplywood production. Proceeding of the Second International Wood Science Seminar, Serpong, Indonesia, pp C30-C35 Subiyanto B, Firmanti A. 2004. Perspective of the sustainable production and effective utilization oftropical forest resource in Indonesia, and the role of LIPI-JSPS core university program.Proceeding of the Fifth International Wood Science Seminar, Kyoto, Japan, pp 18-24 Vick CB. 1999. Adhesive Bonding of Wood Materials. In: Wood Hand Book,Wood as an Engineering Material. Forest Products Society, Madison, USA.
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Characteristics of Binderless Particleboards Made from Heat-treated Wood Species Ragil Widyorini and Dyah Ayu Satiti Forestry Faculty, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta
ABSTRACT Extractives gave a different effect on the properties of binderless particle boards. This research was designed to investigate the characteristics of binderless particleboard from biomass waste of three wood species. To investigate the effect of its extractive, two kinds of particles were used in this research i.e particles with and without boiling pretreatment. Binderless particleboards were made by using hot pressing system at temperature 1800C for 15 minutes. Sengon, jackfruit, and teak particles were used as raw materials. The method used was completely randomized design by two factors, which the first factor was wood species (sengon, jackfruit wood, and teak wood), while the second factor was pretreatment of the raw materials (with and without boiling pretreatment). Boiling pretreatment was done by soaking the particles in hot water with the temperature of 100±20C for 3 hours. The physic and mechanics properties of those boards were then evaluated based on JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard for Particleboard) A 5908. The results showed that interaction of both factors affected significantly on modulus of rupture. Wood species affected on density and internal bonding of the binderless particleboards. It showed that removing extractives by boiling pretreatment could increase modulus of elasticity of particleboard.
INTRODUCTION Binderlessboard is well known as composite, which its self-bonding is improved only by activating the chemical components of the board constituents during steam/heat treatment. No synthetic resin is added in the manufacture of the boards, therefore the properties of the composites were significantly affected by the chemical composition of its raw material. Degradation of hemicellulose during steam/heat treatment to produce furan products is believed to play an important role in self-bonding (Shen, 1986). Therefore, binderless boards are usually prepared from non-wood raw materials, which are rich in hemicellulose. Widyorini et al. (2005a) found that partial degradation of the three major chemical components of the kenaf core by mild steam injection treatment increased the bonding performance and dimensional stability of the binderless boards. In addition, cinnamic acid, that ususally found in non-wood materials, was also contributed to the self-bonding mechanism (Widyorini et al., 2005b). So far it was still a few reports on manufacture of binderless board made from wood with good performance, especially by hot-pressing. Angles et al. (1999) found that by thermomechanically pretreatment, binderless panels made from mixture of softwood (spruce and pine) could be produced with good properties. Ando and Sato (2010) produced sugibinderless particleboards by hot-pressing at 200 0C with relatively high internal bonding, but lower properties in water resistance. In Indonesia, a large amount of woody biomass waste is generated in the manufacturing process of wood industry. Sengon, jackfruit, and teak wood from community forest are now commonly used in wood industry. Therefore, it is desirable to manufacture these boards without using any synthetic resins. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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The removal of extractives is usually an important point to produce the good quality of resinbonded boards. The extractives may not be compatible with the conventional resin binders, and may interfere the bonding properties of the composites. Extractives usually consist of extracted sugars, tannin, flavonoids, waxes, resin- and fatty acids, etc. Considering that no synthetic resin is applied in the binderlessboard, the effect of extractive in self-bonding mechanism is interesting to be investigated. It was still a few paper concerned on the effect of extractive on the self-bonding of binderlessboard. Widyorini et al. (2006) showed that removing extractive could improve bonding properties of bagasse binderlessboards, while it did not affect on properties of kenaf core binderlessboard. It also showed that after removal of ethanol-benzene extractive from bagasse rind, which usually contains silica and waxes, the mechanical properties of its boards were increased significantly. This research was designed to investigate characteristic of binderless particleboards made from sengon, jackfruit, and teak wood particles. The effect of the removal of hot water-extractives on the board properties is also discussed.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Sengon, jackfruit, and teak wood particles were used as raw materials. Particles were screened to pass 2 mm. In order to investigate the effect of the removal hot water extractives on the binderlessboard properties, two kinds of particles were used in this research i.e particles without and with boiling pretreatment. Boiling pretreatment was done by soaking the particles in hot water with temperature 100±20C for 3 hours. Extractive content was calculated by weighing the samples before and after pretreatment. After pretreatment, all of particles were then air-dried for about 10 days. The particles were then hand-formed into a mat by using forming box, followed by hot pressing into particleboard. Binderless particle boards were made using hot pressing system at temperature 1800C for 15 minutes. The target densities of all binderless boards were 0.7 g/cm3, with the dimension size was 25 cm x 25 cm x 0.7 cm. Three boards were manufactured in each condition. Prior to the evaluation of the mechanical and physical properties, the boards were conditioned at ambient conditions for about 10 days. The properties of the binderless particleboards were then evaluated basically according to the JIS A 5908-2003.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Hot water extractive content of particles could be shown in Table 1. Table 1. Percent hot water extractive of particles Wood species
Hot water extractives (%)
Sengon
9.8
Jackfruit
6.28
Teak
4.68
Hot water extractives of sengon particles in this research were higher when compared to jackfruit and teak particles. Figure 1 shows the condition of untreated and heat-treated particles. It showed that after pretreatment, the particles size become smaller and darker.
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| Characteristics of Binderless Particleboards Made from Heat-treated Wood Species |
Figure 1. Untreated and heat-treated particles Physical properties All of binderless boards in this study could be manufactured without any delamination, with the range of board densities was 0.66–0.73 g/cm3. The moisture content of the binderlessboards in the range of 6.8 to 8.4%, meeting the requirements of JIS A 5908 for particleboard. There are no significant differences between the moisture of the different panels with a probability of 95%. The thickness swelling and water absorption are shown in Table 2. Thickness swelling varies between 5.8 and 14.7%. Almost of binderlessboard could meet the requirements of JIS A 5908 for particleboard. After pretreatment, the thickness swelling of sengon and teak binderlessboards tend to increase. However, pretreatment did not affect significantly on the thickness swelling value. These binderlessboards had a good dimensional stability compared to spruce and pine binderlessboard (Angles et al.,1999), which its thickness swelling varies between 12 and 37%. Water absorption values of binderlessboards in this research are between 45 and 75% (% weight gained), which is relatively same with spruce and pine binderlessboards (Angles et al.,1999). However, the values were higher compared to bamboo binderlessboard (26 to 35%). Wood species, pretreatment and its interaction were not significantly affected on the water absorption value of binderlessboards. However, in case of sengon and teak binderlessboards, the water absorption of boards tend to increase when using the particles after pretreatment. Particles after boiling pretreatment become more smaller than before. This trend were also found in the bamboo particleboard, where binderlessboard made from fine particles had higher water absorption compared to board made from coarse particles (Widyorini et al., 2011). Table 2. Thickness swelling and water absorption of binderless particleboard Binderless particleboard Sengon
Thickness swelling (%) No Boiling pretreatment pretreatment 7.9 14.7
Water absorption (%) No Boiling pretreatment pretreatment 58.6 74.7
Jackfruit
7.5
6.1
48.1
44.9
Teak
5.8
10.5
51.9
64.3
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Mechanical properties
Internal Bonding (kgf/cm2)
Figure 2 shows internal bond strength of binderlessboard. Binderlessboard made from jackfruit provided highest internal bond strength compared to other binderlessboard and met the requirements of JIS A 5908 for particleboard. Binderlessboards made from teak and sengon have relatively same in internal bond strength. Based on the Figure 2, it showed that after removal the hot water extractives, the internal bond strength of jackfruit binderlessboard became increase. The mean value of internal bond strength of binderlessboard made from jackfruit particles without and with boiling pretreatment was 1.73 kg/cm2 and 1.96 kg/cm2, respectively. Otherwise, the pretreatment didnot affect on the value of internal bond strength of teak and sengon binderlessboards. Hot water extractive usually contains tannins, gums, sugars, starches, and coloring matter. Removing extractive could improve bonding properties of bagasse binderlessboards, while it did not affect on properties of kenaf core binderlessboard (Widyorini et al., 2006). It showed that effect of extractive on self-bonding would depend on the type of extractive component. Further chemical analysis on the extractive of jackfruit particle is interesting, considering that only jackfruit binderlessboard could meet requirement of standard.
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Sengon Jackfruit Teak
Pretreatment Figure 2. Internal bond strength of binderlessboards Table 3 shows the values of modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity of binderlessboards. The mean value of modulus of rupture varies between 27 to 67 kgf/cm2. Statistical analysis showed that interaction of wood species and pretreatment affected significantly on modulus of rupture. In case of jackfruit and teak binderlessboard, removal of extractives could increase the modulus of rupture of binderlessboards. Table 3 also shows that removal of extractives tends to increase modulus of elasticity. Pretreatment affected significantly on the value of modulus of elasticity of binderlessboards. Modulus of elasticity of binderlessboards in the range of 7,935 to 17,246 kgf/cm2, which its were relatively low compared to standard for particleboard. Based on the result, it showed that removal of extractives could improve only the properties of jackfruit binderlessboard. Widyorini et al. (2006) found that by removing the hot water extractives in bagasse particles, which were highly contained residual sugar, the mechanical properties of binderlessboards were increased. It is interesting to further analyze the extractives of jackfruit wood that affected in the self-bonding. 128 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Table 3. Modulus of Rupture and Modulus of Elasticity of binderless particleboard Binderless particleboard Sengon
Modulus of Rupture (kgf/cm2) No Boiling pretreatment pretreatment 67 52
Modulus of Elasticity (kgf/cm2) No Boiling pretreatment pretreatment 13,023 14,091
Jackfruit
42
62
7,935
12,886
Teak
27
48
10,797
17,246
CONCLUSIONS The interaction of wood species and pretreatment affected only on modulus of rupture of binderless board.Binderless particleboard made from jackfruit had highest internal bond strength compared other binderlessboards. Removing of hot water extractives could increase modulus of elasticity of the boards. The optimum properties could be obtained for jackfruit binderlessboards with boiling pretreatment, where the properties of the binderlessboards were 6% of thickness swelling, 45% of water absorption, 1.96 kgf/cm2 of internal bonding, modulus of rupture 62 kgf/ cm2, and modulus of elasticity 12886 kgf/cm2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was supported by World Class Research University research grant, Faculty of Forestry UniversitasGadjahMada.
REFERENCES Ando, M. and M. Sato. 2010. Evaluation of the self-bonding ability of sugi and application of sugi powder as a binder for plywood. J Wood Sci (56): 194-200 Angles, M. N., J. Reguant, D. Montane, F. Ferrando, X. Farriol, dan J. Salvado. 1999. Binderless Composites from Pretreated Residual Softwood. Journal of Applied Polymer Science (73): 2485-2491 Japanese Standard Association. 2003.Japanese Industrial Standard for Particleboard JIS A 5908. Japan. Shen. 1986. Process for manufacturing composite products from lignocellulosic materials. US Patent 4627951. Widyorini, R, J. Xu, T. Watanabe, dan S. Kawai. 2005a. Chemical Changes in Steam-Pressed Kenaf Core Binderless Particleboard. J Wood Sci (51):26-32. Widyorini, R, T. Higashihara, J. Xu, T. Watanabe, S. Kawai. 2005b. Self-bonding characteristics of binderless kenaf core composites. Wood SciTechnol (39): 651-662. Widyorini, R., K. Kaiho, K. Umemura, S. Kawai. 2006. Manufacture and Properties of Binderless Particleboard –Effect of Extraction Treatment on Mechanical Properties. The 56th annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society (extended abstract). Akita, Japan. Widyorini, R., A.P. Yudha, T.A. Prayitno. 2011. Some of the properties of binderless particleboard manufactured from bamboo. Wood Research Journal (2) in printing.
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Preparation and Characterization of Polyvynil Alcohol (PVA) Composite Reinforced with Sisal (Agave sisalana Perr) Bleached Fiber Treated by Mechanical Fibrillation Wida B. Kusumaningrum, Lilik Astari, and Ismadi Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, LIPI Jl. Raya Bogor Km.46 Cibinong Bogor 16911 Email :
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Nanomaterial is widely discussed in recent times and has been investigated in several years because of its characteristic which have high strength, large surface to volume ratio, and light. Nanomaterial is a material which has 1– 100 nm in size. The utilization of sisal fiber is very wide in applications and the existences are widespread in Indonesia. Sisal bleached pulps were exceed many chemist treatment in order to eliminate extractive content and to simplify nanofiber processing. The objective of this research was to investigate the mechanical properties of polyvynil alcohol reinforced with sisal bleached pulp by filler loading in determined concentration. Preparation of fiber were conducted with ultraturrax and ultrasonic treatment. Polivinyl alcohol composites with treathed sisal fibers was produced in 1, 3, 5% concentration by weight of 10% polivinyl alcohol solution. Light Microscope was occupied for morphological investigation. Mechanical properties was determined using Universal Testing Machine with ASTM D882 standard. Mechanical properties were increased by the addition of sisal bleached fibers for ultrasonic and ultraturrax in various of time. PVA composite with 3% fiber concentration of 30 minutes ultraturrax, sisal bleached which have a highest strenght 24.14 MPa was the greatest performance than others. Keywords: polyvynil alcohol,sisal bleached, composite, ultraturrax, ultrasonic
INTRODUCTION Lignocellulosic material from nonwood resources are potentially to be developed in many application especially on composite uses as a reinforcement or filler purpose. Fiber utilization as a reinforcement purpose has been widely investigated because of the properties which light weight, degradable, renewable, low cost, and excessively existance in the world. The added significances of fiber resources are low density, nonfood uses, low processing energy compared with synthetic polimer, and high strenght (Kamel, 2007). Various kind of fiber have been improved for composite reinforcement such as kenaf, pineapple, rami, jute, hemp, sisal, and coconut in many industrial field some otomotif part, medical, and pacakging area. Sisal (Agave sisalana. Perr) produces 1000-1200 bundles of fibers from 200-250 leafes each plant. Subyakto et.al (2009). Sisal fibers are consist of 50-74% celullose, 10-14% hemicelullose, 8-11% lignin, 1% pectin, and 2% wax (Bledzki and Gassan 1999). The great cellulose component and existance sustainability of sisal fibres classified as a potential fiber to be improved. Great component on lignocellulosic material are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose isolation from fiber bundle is widely investigated due to fibers on small diameters enhance the 130 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Preparation and Characterization of Polyvynil Alcohol (PVA) Composite Reinforced with Sisal (Agave sisalana Perr) Bleached Fiber Treated by Mechanical Fibrillation |
composite strenghtness (Cheng et al 2009). Microfibrillated cellulose which has high aspect ratio, diameter and lenght fiber comparison deliver high strenght in polymer composite. Fibrillation treatment could exceed in several method such mechanical, chemical, and chemomechanical treatment. Refiner, ultraturrax, ultrasonication, and high pressure homogenizer could be ordinary mechanical treatment on fibrillated cellulose (Kamel 2007). Cellulose nanofiber from kraft pulp was obtained after repeated passes through (16 to 30) a refiner and produced high mechanical composites based on phenolic resin (Nakagaito et al 2004). Nanosize unbleached sisal and bamboo fiber could be obtained by ultraturrax fibrillation process (Subyakto et al 2009). Lyocell fiber, pure cellulose fiber, and microcrystalline cellulose could isolated cellulose from first resources with high intensity ultrasonication (HIUS) (Wang et al 2009). Length and width of lyocell fiber was significantly decreased and obtained various size of diameter on microscale and nanoscale with HIUS fibrillation treatment (Cheng et al 2009). Polyvynil alcohol (PVA) is potentially as a matrix polymer in composites purpose due to water soluble, biodegradable, light weigth, and good chemical resistance (Frone et al 2011). PVA has high tensile strenght in transparant formed, good adhesive, and good fastener (Flieger et al 2003). The utilization of PVA polymer has been developed in several uses such automotive part, medical field, and packaging area. Non toxic action on human body of PVA makes a good opportunities in medical manufacture such medicines cachets, surgery yarn, and controlled drug delivery system (Tang et al 2009). Treated fibrils reinforced with PVA matrix were showed the 3 times higher MOE and 5 times higher tensile strength than pure PVA (Zimmermann et al 2004). Composite PVA reinforced with fiber deliver an excellent mechanical properties compared with neat PVA (Sedlarik et al 2006). PVA composites with various fiber such kraft pulp, rutabaga, flax, and hemp treated with high ultrasonication have been investigated and resulted high strengthness and modulus of elasticity (Cheng et al 2007). Plain method preparation for PVA with regenerated cellulose fiber isolated by high intensity ultrasonication exhibit enhancement of composite properties (Cheng et al 2009). The enhancement PVA composites reinforced with microcrystaline cellulose isolated by ultrasonication revealed the mechanical properties (Frone et al 2011). PVA was chosen as a matrix because of the competable advantageous and produced an excellent composite. Preparation of fiber was determined with ultraturrax and ultrasonic treatment. Treated fiber was examined for further uses as reinforced substance. The objective of this research was to investigate the mechanical properties of polyvynil alcohol reinforced with sisal bleached fiber by filler loading in determined concentration.
MATERIAL AND METHOD Materials Bleached sisal fiber pulps was used as raw materials for preparation of fibrillated fiber as reinforce substance. Pulping and bleaching processes was done in Research and development for Pulp and Paper, Industrial Ministry in Bandung, West Java. Pure analysis of Polyvynil Alcohol as polymer matrix was acquired from Biochemica. Molecular weight of polyvynil alcohol was 72.000 g/mol. Method Fiber fibrillation passed through several mechanical treatments. First of all, bleached sisal pulps were milled with disc refiner for 30 times in circulation and 0.4% in fiber concentration. Fiber The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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solution then was diluted for further treatment using ultraturrax and ultrasonic. Ultrasonic fibrillation process were conducted in 15 and 30 minutes with 0.05% in fiber concentration. Sonicator was set in 50% amplitudo level with probe distance 3 cm from container surface. LABSONIC from B. Braun Biotech International was used as sonicator. For the next, milled fibers were treated using ultraturrax in 15 and 30 minutes and 0.05% in fiber concentration. Digital ultraturrax IKA type 25 was occupied as fibrillaton equipment. Fibrilated fibers were characterized with light microscope Nikon eclipse 80i and the diameters determined by Motic Image Plus 2.0 ML, 100 fibers were manually measured and presented as averange diameters. Composites of Polyvynil alcohol with bleached sisal fiber were done in film casting method. Treated bleached sisal fiber were mixed with 10% of polyvynil alcohol solution. Fiber concentrations were 1, 3, 5% based on polyvynil alcohol dry weight. Polynynil alcohol and bleached sisal fiber were then mixed in 300-500 rpm in a stirrer plate, 800C in temperature for 3 hours. Composites were mated in 15 x 10 cm mold dimension and dried in room temperature for 24 hours, advance drying was conducted in oven with 40-500C for 24 hours. Test specimens were cut in 10 x 2,54 cm and tested with Universal Testing Machine based on ASTM D 882 – 75b (Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic Sheeting). Crosshead speed was run in 50 cm/minute. Composite appearances were investigated with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Merk Jeol JSM – 5310 LV.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Fiber Characterizations Sisal fibers diameters approximately in 100 – 300 μm for each bundle, and every bundle of fiber could be obtained in several microfibril cellulose (Moran et al. 2008). The lenght of sisal fiber could reach 2.88 mm and chemical content obtained was 81.80% for holocellulose and 3.58% for lignin (Munawar et al. 2004). Whereas chemical component of sisal bleached pulp was providabled for holocellulose in 91.02% and lignin in 2.1%. Mechanically and chemically treatment could degrade the amorphous part of fiber especially on lignin content that decrease significantly than untreated sisal fibers. Chemically treated for flax and hemp fibers reduced amorphous region and resulted 95% of cellulose compared to the original 75% (Bhatnagar et al 2005). High cellulose content could achieve better stiffness and strength of fibers. Chemical method of fiber isolation such acid hydrolysis could remove the amorphous regions of cellulose fiber and produces nanosize fibrils (Cheng et al 2009). Moreover the mechanical and chemical treatments could increase cellulose content of sisal bleached fiber and facilitate further processes. Integrated fibrillation processes were determined with disc refiner continued with ultraturrax and ultrasonic treatments. Disc refiner treatment was chosen as primary step since fibrillated fiber in large quantities could be occured. High pressure drop between stator and rotor degraded the fiber diameters and exposed the fiber surface. Refining process aimed to separate the bundle of fiber on to single fiber which then called as microfibrillated cellulose (Jonoobi et al. 2009). Diameters degradation of sisal fibers pulp were increased by the addition of circulation time (Kusumaningrum et al. 2010). Significantly diameters degradation was occured in sisal fiber since the diameters distribution 85% ranging in 0-10 μm were obtained compared with untreated fiber which diameters ranging in more than 100 μm. Fibrillation with ultrasonication was exposed the fiber by the continuously sound radiation created by acoustic cavitation. Ultrahigh sonication wave affected fiber shock that could enhance the surface fibrillated fiber. Ultrasound is a part of the sound spectrum of 20 kHz – 10 MHz generated by transducer that convert mechanical or electrical 132 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Preparation and Characterization of Polyvynil Alcohol (PVA) Composite Reinforced with Sisal (Agave sisalana Perr) Bleached Fiber Treated by Mechanical Fibrillation |
energy on to high frequency acoustical energy (Wang et al 2009). Fibrillation with ultraturrax was based on high rotation speed, approximately 24.000 rpm. Fiber crashing was occured by the high rotation caused torned fibrillation and internal degradation. Morphological investigation (Fig. 1) exhibited that fiber become separated each fiber and formed like a network fiber due to disc refiner, ultrasonic, and ultraturrax treatment. Bleached sisal fiber was degraded by the ultrasonic treatment that diameter distribution achieve 40% range on 0-5 μm both in 15 and 30 minutes of ultrasonication time. Whereas by the ultraturrax treatment was significantly diameter degradation that distribute for 45% in 15 minutes and 95% in 30 minutes of process time range on 0-5 μm. Ultrasonic power level determination might strongless for separated the fiber on to small parts. Six factors that may affect of fibrillation efficiency using ultrasonic are power, temperature, time, concentration, size of fibers, and probe distance those power level and temperature were significantly casted on fibrillation progress (Wang et al (2009). The length and width of treated lyocell and avicel cellulose were decreased with the HIUS treatment (Cheng et al 2009).
Figure 1. S isal Bleached Pulp with disc refiner fibrillation in 30 times circulation (a) ultrasonic fibrillation (b) 15 minutes, (c) 30 minutes and ultraturrax fibrillation (d) 15 minutes, (e) 30 minutes Composite Characterization Polyvynil alcohol composites reinforced with sisal bleached fiber was formed in transparent films which are strong and flexible. (Fig 2). The dimension of PVA composites was obtained in 15 x 10 cm and thickness varied in 0.2 – 0.4 mm. Water content for all composites were revolved in 8% and achieved density varied in 1.1-1.3 gram/cm3. The composites appearances were exhibited as a clean and transparent plastic films. The addition of fiber in PVA composites even in a small amount of fiber loading and delivered unclearly film compared to neat PVA (Fig 2b, 2c). PVA composites reinforced with bleach and unbleach pulps of empty fruit bunches fiber was influenced the main colour of the composites, and unbleached fiber considered caused unclearly films compare with bleached fiber and neat PVA (Kusumaningrum et al 2011). The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Figure 2. C omposite appearances (a) neat PVA, (b) PVA with 3% fiber concentration by ultrasonic treatment, (c) PVA with 3% fiber concentration by ultraturrax treatment Fracture surface was showed that the fibers embedded on PVA composites and surrounded by polymer matrix. SEM observation was unrevealed the gap and interphase between the fibers. Tensile fracture surface of reinforced fiber with PVA exhibits that the fibrils to be surrounded by the matrix material (Zimmermann et al 2004).
Figure 3. S EM micrograph (20kV and mag 1000x) on surface fracture of PVA composites (a) 30 minutes of ultrasonic treatment with 3% fiber loading (b) 30 minutes of ultraturrax treatment with 3% fiber loading. Mechanical Properties Mechanical fibrillation process such ultrasonic and ultraturrax could improve the cellulose part of fiber component. Composite with sisal bleached fiber exhibited the enhancement of tensile strenght than neat PVA for all of ultrasonic and ultraturrax treatment in 1, 3, 5% of fiber loading (Fig 4). As a fiber loading in 1, 3, and 5% of sisal bleached fiber resulted 124.83, 100.62, 98.72% respectively with ultraturrax in 15 minutes and 79.87, 130.18, 58.16 %, respectively with ultraturrax in 30 minutes. For ultrasonic treatment by 1, 3, and 5% fiber loading achieved 74.63, 89.38, 44.62% respectively in 15 minutes and 75.35, 114.75, 20.53% respectively in 30 minutes. Tensile strength of Microcrytalline cellulose treated using ultrasonication were increased as addition 1, 3, and 5 % of fibers (Frone et al 2011). PVA composites with ultraturrax treatment in 30 minutes of times and 3 % in filler loading was revealed the highest tensile strenght among other composites and reached 130.18% than neat PVA. It could be caused by the exposed fibrillation that achieved 95% diameter degradation than others treatment due to higher aspect ratio could be able to increase strenghtness of composites. Small fibrils of lyocell resulted better reinforcement for strength of PVA than big fibrils that not much change in mechanical properties (Cheng et al 2009). Strenghtness 134 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Preparation and Characterization of Polyvynil Alcohol (PVA) Composite Reinforced with Sisal (Agave sisalana Perr) Bleached Fiber Treated by Mechanical Fibrillation |
descendent was almost occured for all treatment both ultrasonic and ultraturrax in 5% fiber loading. Overfiller loading might cause ununiform fiber distribution and weaken the hydrogen bonding between polymer matrix with hydroxyl groups of fiber. Exposed and fibrillated fiber could increase the surface area contact of fiber and facilitate hydrogen bonding.
Tensile strenght (MPa)
30 25 20 15
SBUT 15 SBUT 30 SBUS15 SBUS 30
10 5 0 0
1
2 3 Fiber concentration (%)
4
5
Figure 4. Tensile strenght of PVA composite reinforced with sisal bleached fiber in 1, 3, and 5% fiber loading. Elongation indicates the length increment as testing toward to initial length. Elongation at break was exhibited equal result as tensile strenght. PVA composite reinforced with sisal fiber bleached were increased than neat PVA for all treatment and fiber loading variation. Figure 5 revealed significantly enhancement of elongation at break for 1% fiber loading. The elongation was achieved 277.86% for sisal fiber treated by ultraturrax in 1% fiber concentration than neat PVA which reached 64.37%. Uncertain result in this properties could be explained that the elongation might less affected by addition of fibers. Elongation decreasing in composite PVA with MCC might occur because of lenght degradation with ultrasonic treatment on high time process (Frone et al (2011). Modulus of elasticity value was exhibited maximal force magnitude given when the materials reached on maximal elasticity. The addittion of fibers increased the modulus of elasticity almost for all treatments (Fig 6). Modulus elasticity was significanty increased by the addition of 3% sisal bleached fiber for ultrasonic and ultraturrax treatment in 15 and 30 minutes of time. It might be caused by the addition of fiber on PVA composite which enhanced the stiffness of composite toward to deformation. The modulus value of ultrasonic treatment lower than ultraturrax treatment, it might be affected by the diameters degradation occured in ultraturrax treatment more effective than ultrasonic treatment. Furthermore, the composites treated using ultrasonic were resulted much bubbles and porous part that might influence the load endurancy of composites. Four to fivefold increases in modulus was observed in nanofiber reinforced with polymer matrix compared with pure PVA (Bhatnagar et al 2005). Regenerated cellulose fiber (RCF) was better than pure cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose in modulus properties, it could cause of aspect ratio RCF higher than other fibers mentioned (Cheng et al 2009). The fiber concentration and homogeneous dispersion of the cellulose filler could improve the mechanical properties of composites (Zimmermann et al 2004). There are several factors that influence the enhancement of mechanical properties such the uniform distribution, aspect ratio, fibers orientation, and degree of fiber crystalinity (Cheng et al 2007). The higher surface area and larger probability of hydrogen bonding of smaller size fibers could reveal higher renforcement effect (Frone et al 2011). The hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups of cellulose fiber and The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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similar groups of PVA matrix was the main reason to improve the interface adhesion and resulted properties improvement (Lee et al 2009).
Figure 5. E longation at break of PVA composite reinforced with sisal bleached fiber in in 1, 3, and 5% fiber loading. Modulus of Elasticity (MPa)
200 150 100
SBUT 15 SBUT 30 SBUS 15 SBUS 30
50 0 0
1
3 (%) Fiber 2concentration
4
5
Figure 6. M odulus of elasticity of PVA composite reinforced with sisal bleached fiber in 1, 3, and 5% fiber loading.
CONCLUSION Mechanical treatment for fiber defibrillation could pass through in several step such disc refiner, ultraturrax, and ultrasonic. Exposed and fibrillated fiber enhanced the surface area and aspect ratio that might improve mechanical properties of composites due to the high abilty of hydrogen bonding between polymer matrix and hydroxyl groups of fiber. Mechanical properties were increased by the addition of sisal bleached fiber for ultrasonic and ultraturrax in various of time. PVA composite with 3% fiber concentration of 30 minutes ultraturrax sisal bleached exhibited the greatest performance than others since have a highest strenght reached 24.14 MPa, elongation 202.68%, and MOE 149.6 MPa. As a flexible composite, it might provide advantages in many applications such medical uses and packaging field. Renewable material, low cost, and high performance were obtained in PVA composite reinforced with natural fiber.
REFERENCES Bhatnagar. A, M. Sain, 2005, Processing of Cellulose Nanofiber reinforced composites, Journal of Reinforced Plastic and composites 24(12) Bledzki, A.K, Gassan, J. 1999. Composite Reinforced With Cellulose Based Fibres. Prog Polymer Science 24:221-275. 136 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Preparation and Characterization of Polyvynil Alcohol (PVA) Composite Reinforced with Sisal (Agave sisalana Perr) Bleached Fiber Treated by Mechanical Fibrillation |
Cheng. Qingzheng, Siqun Wang, Timothy G Rials, Seung Hwan Lee, 2007, Physical and Mechanical properties of polyvynil alcohol and polypropylene composite materials reinforced with fibril aggregates isolated from regenerated cellulose fibers, Cellulose, (14) 593-602 Cheng. Qingzheng, Siqun Wang, Timothy G Rials, 2009, Poly(vynil alcohol) nanocomposites reinforced with cellulose fibrils isolated by high intensity ultrasonication, Composites Part A (40) 218-224Flieger, M, M. Kantorova, A. Prell, T. Rezanka, J. Fotruba, 2003, Biodegradable Plastic from Renewable Sources. Folio Microbial.(4891), 27-44 Frone. A.N, D.M. Panaitescu, D. Donescu, C. I. Spataru, C. Radovici, R. Trusca, and R. Somoghi. 2011. Preparation and Characterization of PVA Composites with Cellulose Nanofibers Obtained by Ultrasonication, BioResources 6(1), 487-512 Jonoobi. M, J. Harun, A. Shakeri, M. Misra, K.Oksman, 2009, Chemical Composition, Crytallinity, and Thermal Degradation of Bleached and Unbleached Kenaf Bast (Hibiscus cannabinus) Pulp and Nanofibers, Bioresources 4(2): 626-639 Kamel. S, 2007, Nanotechnology and Its Applications in Lignocellulosic Composites, a Mini Review, Express Polymer Letters 1 (9) : 546-575 Kusumaningrum W.B., Lilik Astari, Subyakto, 2010, Pengembangan Proses Fibrilasi Serat Selulosa dari Sisal (Agave sisalana. Perr) yang Telah Diputihkan, Prosiding Seminar Nasional MAPEKI XIII Bali, 353-360 Kusumaningrum W.B., Lilik Astari, Sasa Sofyan Munawar, Ismadi, 2011, Mechanical Properties of Polyvinylalcohol Composites Reinforced Bleached and Unbleach Empty Fruit Bunches Fiber, Proceeding The 1st Internasional Sustainable Humanosphere Symposium, 93-97 Moran, J., Alvarez, V., Cyras, V., Vazquez, A. 2008. Extraction Of Cellulose And Preparation Of Nanocellulose From Sisal Fibers. Cellulose 15 : 149-159 Munawar, S.S., Subyakto, Bambang Subiyanto, Mohamad Gopar, Lisman Suryanegara, Kurnia Wiji Prasetyo. 2004. Karakterisasi dan Pengembangan Teknlogi Pengolahan Serat Alam sebagai Bahan Baku Industri Biokomposit. Laporan Teknik UPT Biomaterial LIPI. Nakagaito. A.N, H. Yano, 2004, The Effect of Morpohological Changes from Pulp Fiber Towards Nano-scale fibrillated Cellulose on the Mechanichal Properties of High Strength Plant Fiber Based Composites, App.Phys.A. 78(4), 547-552 Sedlarik. V, N. Saha, L. Kurika, P.Saha, 2006, Characerization of polymeric biocomposite based on poly(vynil alcohol) and poly(vynil pyrolidone), Polym Compos, 27(2), 147-152 Subyakto, Euis Hermiati, Dede Heri Yuli Yanto, Fitria, Ismail Budiman, Ismadi, Nanang Masruchin, Bambang Subiyanto, 2009, Proses Pembuatan Serat Selulosa Berukuran Nano dari Sisal (Agave sisalana) dan Bambu Betung (Dendrocalamus asper), Berita Selulosa 44 (2), 57-65 Tang, Y., Du,Y. Li,Y., Wang. X., and Hu,X., 2009, A thermosensitive chitosan/ poly(vynil alcohol) hydrogel conatining hydroxyapatite for protein delivery, Journal Biomedic Material Resources, 91(4), 953-963 Wang. S., Qingzheng cheng, 2009, A novel process to Isolate Fibrils from Cellulose Fibers by High Intensity Ultrasonication Part I : Process Optimization,Journal of Applied Polymer Science 113, 1270-1275. Zimmermann. T., E. Pohler, T. Geiger, 2004, Cellulose Fibrils for Polymer Reinforcement. Advanced Engineering Materials 6 (9) : 754-761 The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Crystal Structure of Pulp Fibers: A Study for Thermoplastic Polymer Reinforced Composites Nanang Masruchin UPT Balai Litbang Biomaterial, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jl. Raya Bogor KM 46 Cibinong 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT In a previous study, chemical and surface compositions as well as morphology of three kind pulp fibers (i.e. kenaf, pineapple and coconut fiber) were done investigated. Therefore, this study was conducted for further analysis on crystal structure of those pulps and determines the orientation index (fc) of cellulose by using instrument of X-ray Diffraction (XRD). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was used for further analysis on allomorph of cellulose pulps as well as z-Discriminate of XRD analysis. From this study, all pulp samples shown cellulose I type structure. Kenaf pulps shown higher degree of crystallinity (%Xc) compare to pineapple and coconut pulps, respectively. Higher %Xc was desired to obtain higher modulus reinforcing agent composites. From XRD (z-Discriminant) and briefly FTIR study shown that Iβ allomorph cellulose was obtained from these three pulps fiber. Therefore, it is proofed that kenaf pulps will be the most suitable candidate for thermoplastic polymer reinforcing agents compared to pineapple and coconut pulps. Finally, fully understanding pulp fiber characteristics as reinforcing agent in polymer were needed to obtain better interface between matrix and filler, which lead to better mechanical, physical and thermal properties of composites. Keywords: cellulose, composite, XRD, FTIR, interface
INTRODUCTION The use of natural-renewable filler (i.e lignocellulosic) incorporate polymer has gained to be large attention recently. One thing that we must always remember, when it comes to cellulose, is that it is cheap and abundant. Both of these are primary considerations in any industrial application [Eichhorn et al. 2001]. However, commercial product of natural fiber polymer composite is not yet fully applicable due to some drawbacks, especially the incompatibility between the matrix and filler [John et al. 2008]. In addition, the morphology of hollow tube natural fibers comparable to the solid synthesis glass fiber resulted in complicated understanding of these composites [Munawar et al. 2007, Zadorecki et al. 1989]. Therefore, characterization of natural fibers is an important way to understand the mechanism of reinforcing agent in polymer [Reddy et al. 2007, Jacob et al. 2005]. In our previous study, characterization of pulp fibers i.e. chemical compositions, morphology, and diameter was shown that the choice of perfect fibre as source for reinforcing agent will lead to best performance of composite compare to other fiber with lower properties [Masruchin et al. 2011]. The best choice of using natural fibre also require easy of processing the fiber such as its defibrillation process. In this study, further characterization of the pulp fibers was focus on the crystal 138 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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structure. There is a general agreement that native cellulose is a composite of two distinct crystalline modifications, namely Iα and Iβ, whose fractions vary depending on the origin of the cellulose sample. The Iα and Iβ structures assigned to one-chain triclinic, and two-chain monoclinic cells, respectively. The two crystalline domains are known to coexist in a single microfibril [Gumuskaya et al. 2006]. The study of Sassi et al. (2000) pointed that the reactivity to acetylation of the Iα phase was substantially higher than that of the corresponding Iβ component. The presence of transcrystallinity layer (TCL) on the surface of natural fiber reinforced polymer is still debated on the improvement performance of composites, which was the correlation of degree crystallinity of cellulose to TCL shown does not seem significantly affected [Zafeiropoulos et al. 2001]. However, higher degree of crystallinity will influence the strength and stiffness of the fiber [Wang et al. 2007]. Papirer et al. [2000] studied the surface of cellulose by using Inverse Gas Chromatography, shown that the surface energy of cellulose is a function of the degree of crystallinity. Whereas, surface energy of the fiber relates directly to the thermodynamic work of adhesion (WA), between fibre and matrix, with a high WA is desirable, since WA is directly correlated to the practical adhesion [Heng et al. 2007]. So, in generally speaking that the crystal structure of natural fiber will influence the degree of bonding that exists between the matrix and the reinforcement. Even though this bonding is strongly influenced by the surface treatment of the fibres [Lenes et al. 2006], understanding of the crystal structure of cellulose is still important to optimize the performances of composites, especially the degree of thermal stability of the reinforcement. The aim of this study is to characterize the crystal structure of three kinds of pulp fibers that potential as reinforcing agent in polymer composites. By this analysis, it is desire to obtain higher degree of crystallinity of natural fibers to obtain higher modulus reinforcing agent. In addition, understanding the allomorph of cellulose will give the information to the susceptible of the filler to chemical treatment and its thermal stability. Our result shows that Kenaf pulps have the higher degree of crystallinity and all pulp samples had Iβ allomorph. This result was proofed that kenaf pulp fiber is the best candidate to be the reinforcing agent in the polymer composites.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Coconut fibers and Pineapple fibers were collected from local industry in Sukabumi and Subang, respectively. While, Kenaf bast fibers was collected from PT. Abadi Barindo Autotech (ABA), Pasuruan. All fibers were obtained as received and processed into pulp fibers to obtain homogenous size (diameter and shape) among the fibers. Converted bulk fibers into pulp fibers also resulted in a flexible fibers, higher mechanical properties [Page et al. 1971], and also higher thermal stability due to the removal of non cellulosic compound [Mothe et al. 2009], which were all filler requirement for reinforcing agents in polymer composites. Pulping Process Dried fibers were cut into 3-5 cm long. Kenaf and Pineapple fibers were processed using soda process; active alkali parameter was 17% and 10%, respectively. The ratio liquid and material was 4:1 for all pulping process. Different temperature conditions were chosen for Kenaf and Pineapple fibers. Kenaf fibers were processed for 1.5 hours to reach 170oC, and then were kept at 170oC for 1.5 hours. While, Pineapple fibers were processed for 2 hours to reach 160oC, and then were kept at 160oC for 1.5 hours. Coconut fibers were processed in kraft pulping method. This method was chosen to obtain higher yield of pulping process and due to the higher lignin content [John et al. 2008]. The pulping parameter as follows; active alkali was 18% and 30% of sulfidity, the ratio liquid The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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and material was 4:1. Temperature for coconut pulping is 1.5 hours to reach 165oC and then was kept at 165oC for 2.5 hours. After pulping process, all fibers were fibrillated using disc refiner in 8 cycles for each pulp. Pulps then were filtered and formed it into sheet and then dried in an oven at 75oC for three days. Dried pulps were subjected for further characterization. X-ray Diffraction Analysis Pulps samples obtained were used for X-ray analysis. Due to the difficulties of milling into particles size, therefore X-ray samples were prepared in the form of sheet of paper which very smooth surfaces. This proofed that flexible pulps obtained after processing. X-ray diffractograms were recorded with a Shimadzu XRD-700 MaximaX. The radiation was Ni-filtered CuKα of wavelength 0.1542 nm. The X-ray unit operated at 40 kV and 30 mA. Angular scanning was continued 5-40o at 2o /min. Crystallinity of cellulose in pulp samples was calculated from diffraction intensity data, follows this equation:
% Xc =
I cr x100 I a + I cr
(1)
where %Xc is the degree of crystallinity of cellulose, Icr is the total intensity of ordered cellulose (crystalline part) and Ia is the total of disordered cellulose (amorphous). The total intensity was calculated using software included in Shimadzu MaximaX diffractometer. The average size of crystallite was calculated from the Scherrer equation. This is a method based on the width of the diffraction pattern in the X-ray reflected crystalline region. In this study, the crystallites size was determined by using diffraction pattern obtaining from 101, 10-1, and 002 lattice planes of pulp samples. The Scherrer equation:
D( hkl ) =
kλ B( hkl ) cos θ
(2)
where D(hkl) is the size of crystallite, k is the Scherrer constant (0.84), λ is X-ray wavelength, B(hkl) is the FWHM (full width half maximum) of the reflection (hkl) measured in 2θ is corresponding Bragg angle [Gumuskaya et al. 2006]. Determination of allomorph cellulose by X-ray Diffraction In this study, z-Discriminant function developed by Wada et al. [2001] for distinction of crystalline structure (monoclinic and triclinic) of cellulose in three pulp samples was used. z-Discriminant function was built up separating cellulose Iα and Iβ by using d-spaces obtained from X-ray analyses (two equatorial d-spacings: 0.59-0.62 nm (d1) and 0.52-0.55 nm (d2)). The function used to discriminate between the two groups is represented as:
z = 1693d 1 (nm) − 902d 2 (nm) − 549
(3)
where z > 0; indicates the algal-bacterial (Iα- rich) type and Z < 0 indicates the cotton-ramie (Iβdominant) type. Determination of allomorph cellulose by FTIR spectroscopy The powder of pulp samples obtained was used for FTIR spectroscopy measurements. The dried these samples were embedded in KBr pellets, and were analyzed by using a Bruker Tensor 37. They were recorded in the absorption mode in the range 800–400 cm-1 with an accumulation of 32 scans, resolution of 4 cm-1. The two absorbance peaks presence at 710 and 750-760 cm-1 are characteristics of Iβ (monoclinic) and Iα (triclinic) allomorphs, respectively [Sassi et al. 2000]. 140 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Determination degree of crystallite orientation cellulose The degree of crystallite orientation index (fc) was calculated as follows according to the description given by Bohn et al. 2000 and Tanaka et al. [2006] :
(180 o − fc = 180 o
c
)
(4)
where, β c is the full width at half maximum the azimuthal direction of the equatorial (200) reflection in the diffractograms.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Cellulosic materials from various sources and treatment differ considerably in their degree of crystallinity. Since the superstructure of cellulose (i.e. hydrogen-bonding system) has important consequences for the pulping, purification and papermaking process, as well as for the cellulose reactivity in the end use, this study will discuss the crystal structure of our pulp samples and the correlation to the final performance of composites [Gumuskaya et al. 2006]. Figure 1 shows the XRD profiles of the three pulp samples, i.e. kenaf pulps, pineapple pulps and coconut pulps. It is shown that all pulp samples were paracrystalline, as well as reported other publications [Gumuskaya et al. 2006, Wang et al. 2007]. Pulp fibers contain several peaks with different intensity that correlate to the lattice plane of cellulose crystals. However, it was found that the values of crystallite orientations (fc) were the same as that of crystallinities for two pulp fibres in sequence (see Table 1). Three strongest peaks were detected on 2θ angles at 15.4o, 16.6o, and 22.8o which were assigned to (101), (10-1) and (002) planes, respectively. It can be seen that the all pulp samples showed cellulose I structure. Among the three peaks, (002) plane shown the highest intensity and become identity of cellulose, where it is very sensitive subjected to chemi-thermo-mechanical treatments [Gumuskaya et al. 2006, Wang et al. 2007]. The crystallite size and %Xc of pulp samples are tabulated on Table 1. Crystallite size of pulp samples show differs and not forms some typical trend. This might be caused by the different fiber used with different pulping process. Whereas, D(hkl) was very influenced rapidly by temperature and method of cooking [Gumuskaya et al. 2003]. Coconut pulps sample shown the lowest peaks intensity compare to other pulps. This is indicating that it is contain of a lot of amorphous part than ordered portion. From previous study [Masruchin et al. 2011], coconut pulp fibers still contain a lot of lignin content after pulping process, which lignin is an amorphous [John et al. 2008]. The presence of lignin on surface of fiber will accelerates the degradation of fibers when they are exposured to heat and light [Reddy et al. 2007], since the processing of polymer composites will include of using temperature to melt the polymer. Therefore, amorphous lignin will show the lower thermal stability of fibers [Saheb et al. 1999]. The degree of crystallinity of coconut pulp is only 32.26%. With the lower percentage of ordered cellulose, from literature; the stiffness of coconut was the lowest compared to other fiber. However, due to the high microfibril angle (MFA─ the direction of the helical windings of cellulose microfibrils in the secondary cell wall of fibres and tracheids and the long axis of cell─) coconut fiber have higher strain during mechanical testing and it is important to produce high impact composites. Pineapple pulps had degree of crystallinity 63.33%, this result is comparable with cotton linter pulps with soda pulping method with %Xc around 63.1% [Gumuskaya et al. 2003]. From Figure 1, XRD analysis supported the previous result for the lowest hemicellulose content of pineapple pulps; it is shown that the separation of the two peaks observed at 2θ angles 14.7o and 16.3o for pineapple pulps were clearly showed compare to the other pulps. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Kenaf pulps show the highest degree crystallinity cellulose index up to 71.31%. Therefore, it could be predicted that kenaf pulps will give the highest modulus that is suitable for reinforcing agents. However, in the case of composites, higher crystallinity of fiber not always gives higher in tensile properties. Interface and interphase between the two components (matrix and filler) is the most important thing to assure stress transfer from matrix to the fiber. The effect of degree of crystallinity of natural fiber on the formation of better interface between matrix and filler is still debatable. Zafeiropoulos et al. [2001] stated that the crystallinity of the fiber does not seem to significantly affect the formation of transcrystalline layer (TCL) on thermoplastic polymer, whereas TCL could increase the interfacial stress transfer (IFSS) between matrix and filler [Zafeiropoulos et al. 2001, Felix et al. 1994], despite of, this is also still on debating too [Zafeiropoulos et al. 2001]. If the %Xc is not effect the formation of TCL, the presence of compatibilizer such as maleic anhydride grafting polymer (MAPP) is shown could induce the formation of TCL [Sanadi et al. 1995]. Therefore, higher %Xc is still preferable to obtain higher modulus of reinforcing agent and better interface could be formed by introducing compatibilizer into composites. In addition, it must be pointed out that the technique used for measuring %Xc only measure the %Xc of the fibre as a whole (bulk fiber), not at the surface of the fiber where TCL is formed. Differences in the crystal structure at the surface of fiber can still exist and have a pivotal role in the formation of TCL [Zafeiropoulos et al. 2001]. In addition, as declare as before, that all pulp samples are cellulose I type structure, Quillin et al. [1993] and Felix et al. [1994] explained that cellulose I induce the the formation of TCL, whereas in the case of cellulose II type structure, transcrystallinity did not occur.
Figure 1. Equatorial X-ray diffraction profiles of pulp samples To obtain higher degree of crystallinity, pulping process known could increase the %Xc. Gumuskaya et al. [2003] reported that organosolv pulping produce higher crystallinity and crystallite size. Ethanol presence on pulping process protects carbohydrates against during the cooking process and recrystallization of amorphous glucans occurred concurrently during pulping. This will be our next topic research to know how the effect pulping process in properties of composites. 142 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Table 1. Crystallite size, degree of orientation and crystallinity pulp samples Pulp Coconut Pineapple Kenaf
D (101) (nm)
D (10-1) (nm)
D (002) (nm)
fc
% Xc
43.31 14.08 38.85
11.26 13.13 20.49
11.74 13.59 12.20
0.9907 0.9914 0.9916
32.26 63.33 71.31
The allomorph of crystalline cellulose pulp samples were studied using two different methods, by XRD and by FTIR analysis. The result of XRD (z-Discriminant) analysis was presented in Table 2. Whereas, FTIR study of allomorph cellulose pulp shown in Figure 2. It is noted that by using z-Discriminant analysis, the value obtained that z < 0, indicated the Iβ type allomorph. As can be seen on Figure 2, there is supported by FTIR which observed absorbance peak present on the 710 cm-1 which indicated the allomorph of Iβ type. Monoclinic cellulose (Iβ) is thermodynamically stable than triclinic (Iα), since it is not only dense, but also invariably tends to be final product in the heat annealing of all celluloses [Sassi et al. 2000]. Generally suggest that Iα is more degradable than Iβ. Besides sensitive to heat treatment, Iα also is more reactive to chemical treatment such as acetylation as well as reported by Sassi et al. [2000]. However, it could not be concluded that Iβ are not suitable for chemical treatment, degree of acetylation process was influenced by the presence of hydroxyl groups (-OH) in the surface of fibers, which amorphous region such as hemicellulose and lignin are toke large responsible on it [Zafeiropoulos et al. 2002]. Table 2. Crystalline allomorph of pulp fibers Pulp Coconut Pineapple Kenaf
d (101) (nm)
d (10-1) (nm)
z
Crystal allomorph
0.57627 0.58153 0.56965
0.53422 0.53938 0.55479
-55.2413 -50.9905 -85.0031
Iβ Iβ Iβ
Figure 2. FTIR spectra of pulp samples The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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CONCLUSIONS Characterization crystal structure of three pulp fibers was successfully using XRD and FTIR. It shown that Kenaf pulp shows higher degree crystallinity compare to Pineapple and Coconut pulps fiber, which is reported that all pulp samples shown cellulose I type structure. z-Discriminant analysis and FTIR shows that allomorph of all pulp sample are Iβ. From this study, it is shown that Kenaf pulp was the best candidate for reinforcing in polymer composites. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wish to thank to Mr. Didik AS-FORDA Litbang Hasil Hutan, Bogor, for the guidance on XRD characterization. REFERENCES Bohn A, Fink H.P, Ganster J, Pinnow M, 2000, X-ray texture investigations of bacterial cellulose, Macromolecular Chemistry and Physic, 201: 1913–1921. Eichhorn SJ et al, 2001, Review-Current international research into cellulosic fibres and composites, Journal of Material Science, 36: 2107-2131. Felix JM, Gatenholm P.1994, Effect of transcrystalline morphology on interfacial adhesion in cellulose/polypropylene composites, Journal of Materials Science, 29: 3043-3049 Gumuskaya E, Usta M, 2006, Dependence of chemical and crystalline structure of alkali sulfite pulp on cooking temperature and time, Carbohydrate Polymers, 65: 461–468 Gumuskaya E, Usta M, Kirci H, 2003, The effects of various pulping conditions on crystalline structure of cellulose in cotton linters, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 81: 559–564. Heng JYY, Pearse DF, Thielmann F, Lampke T, Bismarck A, 2007, Methods to determine surface energies of natural fibres: a review, Composite Interfaces, 14: 581–604 Jacob M, Joseph S, Pothan LA, Thomas S, 2005, A study of advances in characterization of interfaces and fiber surfaces in lignocellulosic fiber-reinforced composites, Composite Interfaces, 12: 95–124. John MJ, Thomas S, 2008, Biofibres and biocomposites, Carbohydrate Polymers, 71: 343–364. Lenes M, Gregersen WO, 2006, Effect of surface chemistry and topography of sulphite fibres on the transcrystallinity of polypropylene, Cellulose, 13: 345 –355. Masruchin N, Subyakto, 2011, Exploring Characteristics of Pulp Fibers as Green Potential Polymer Reinforcing Agents, submitted to The 3rd International Symposium of Wood Research Science, Jogjakarta. Mothe CG, de Miranda IC, 2009, Characterization of sugarcane and coconut fibers by thermal analysis and FTIR, Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 97: 661-665. Munawar SS, Umemura K, Kawai S, 2007, Characterization of the morphological, physical, and mechanical properties of seven nonwood plant fiber bundles, Journal of Wood Science 53: 108–113. Page DH, El-Hosseiny F, Winkler K, 1971, Behaviour of single wood fibers under axial tensile strain, Nature, 229: 252-253.
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Papirer E, Brendle E, Balard H, Vergelati C, 2000, Inverse gas chromatography investigation of the surface properties of cellulose, Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, 14: 321 –337. Quillin DT, Caulfield F, Koutsky JA, 1993, Crystallinity in the polypropylene/cellulose system. I. Nucleation and crystalline morphology. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 50: 11871194. Reddy N, Salam A, Yang Y, 2007, Effect of Lignin on the Heat and Light Resistance of Lignocellulosic Fibers, Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 292: 458–466. Saheb DN, Jog JP, 1999, Natural Fiber Polymer Composites: A Review, Advances in Polymer Technology, 18: 351–363. Sanadi AR, Caulfield DF, Jacobson RE, Rowell RM, 1995, Renewable Agricultural Fibers as Reinforcing Fillers in Plastics: Mechanical Properties of Kenaf Fiber–Polypropylene Composites, Industrial Engineering Chemical Research, 34: 1889-1896 Sassi JF, Tekely P, Chanzy H, 2000, Relative susceptibility of the Iα and Iβ phases of cellulose towards acetylation, Cellulose, 7: 119–132. Tanaka T, Fujita M, Takeuchi A, Suzuki Y, Uesugi K, Ito K, Fujisawa T, Doi Y, Iwata T, 2006, Formation of Highly Ordered Structure in Poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-(R)-3-hydroxyvalerate] High-Strength Fibers. Macromolecules 39: 2940–2946. Wada M, Okano T, Sugiyama J, 2001, Allomorphs of native crystalline cellulose I evaluated by two equatorial d-spacings, Journal of Wood Science, 47: 124-128. Wang L, Han G, Zhang Y, 2007, Comparative study of composition, structure and properties of Apocynum venetum fibers under different pretreatments, Carbohydrate Polymers, 69: 391–397 Zadorecki P, Michell AJ, 1989, Future prospects for wood cellulose as reinforcement in organic polymer composites, Polymer Composites, 10: 69-77. Zafeiropoulos NE, Baillie CA, Matthews FL, 2001, A study of transcrystallinity and its effect on the interface in flax fibre reinforced composite materials, Composites: Part A, 32: 525–543. Zafeiropoulos NE, Williams DR, Baillie CA, Matthews FL, 2002, Engineering and characterisation of the interface in flax fibre/polypropylene composite materials. Part I. Development and investigation of surface treatments, Composites: Part A 33: 1083–1093
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Strandboard Manufacture from Veneer Wasted Ihak Sumardi and Atmawi Darwis School of Life Sciences and Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology E-mail:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT This research is part of a general study on the properties of random strandboard using wood strands of species from plantation forests (e.g Parasarianthes falcataria). In this particular part of the study, the strand used wasted veneer from plywood factory. The high veneer wasted from plywood factory up to 55% biomass is a potential material for producing composite product. Manufacturing processes of veneer wasted to be strandboard is a focus in this study. A homogenous random strandboard were fabricated in a plywood factory at three strands thickness, used phenol-formaldehyde resin at three levels of resin content (6%, 8% and 10%). Strandboard was made from mixer veneer strand with weight ratio of 50:25:25 for thickness of strand 0.3:1.6:2.2 mm, respectively. The physical and mechanical properties were conducted in accordance with the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS A 5908-1994) for particleboard. The result indicated that bending properties increased with increasing density and resin content. The resin content of 8 % on strandboard manufacture fulfils requirements for commercial structural in internal bond. Manufacturing process of thin thickness was difficult especially for density of 0.7 g/cm3. In general, veneer wasted from plywood factory was visible in strandboard manufactured and these values are comparable to or lower than values for commercial strandboard. Keywords: veneer wasted, density, resin content, dimensional stability, and mechanical properties.
INTRODUCTION Decreasing of wood supply from natural forest and less development of plantation forest affects to production of plywood industry. Its condition forced plywood industry change the machine those according to wood characteristic of people forest. Utilization of wood from forest people resulted degrading production from 45-50% to 35-40% from input log. Abundantly of wasted more influenced by small diameter, log cylindrically and worse quality of veneer produced. Utilize of wasted veneer from plywood industry usually used for boiler material up to 30%, and others was thrown at industry area and burned. Its activity made environment problem and added cost. All of production process of plywood product resulting wasted such as log end, round up, core reject, and veneer reject. One of solution to utilize of veneer wasted was to reconstruction of those to be a board such as flake board or strandboard. Research of strandboard from veneer wasted not yet a lot of conducted especially from wood of people forest. However, study of strandboard many conducted to wood sub tropic as like aspen and birch (Hse et al 1973, Wang and Winistorfer 2000). Brunette (1992) investigated the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) at variants flake thickness, density and mechanical 146 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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properties (Au dan Gertjejansen 1989). Suzuki (2000) and Kajita (1987) reported MOE of oriented stranboard was higher 2-3 time than random strandboard. The MOE increases with increasing flake length and decrease with flake thickness (Brumbaugh 1960). The higher compaction ratio affect to cell structure and degrading the mechanical properties (Kawai et al. 2001, Suematsu et al 1992). Improvement of resin content less impact on elastic constant and greatly affect to internal bond properties (Lee et al. 1996 and Sumardi et al. 2006). The overall study was conducted for veneer wasted especially from fast growing species and low density. The greatly wasted veneer on plywood industry is interesting to study for alternating news product of strandboard. The objective of this specific study was to determine the influence of various densities and resin content on physical, mechanical, and other properties of random strandborad from veneer wasted.
MATERIAL AND METHOD Board Fabrication Strands were prepared from veneer wasted (Parasarianthes falcataria) collected from a plywood industry in Tangerang city of Banten Prefecture, Indonesia. The density of veneer flake used as raw material was approximately 0.32 g/cm3. Strands were made manually from veneer thickness of 0.3 mm, 1.6 mm and 2,1mm. Target strands dimension were 50 mm long and 10-20 mm wide. Strands were screened on a 10-mesh sieve before being dried in a 60°C oven to a moisture content of less than 3%. Strandboards were fabricated using a commercial liquid phenolic resin with 51% solid content to the nominal dimensions of 400 × 400 × 12 mm. No waxes or other additives were applied. Hand-formed mats were pressed for 10 min at a temperature of 140°C; the maximum pressure applied was 8 MPa. No surface sanding was performed. A homogenous random strandboard were fabricated in a plywood factory at three strands thickness at three levels of resin content (6%, 8% and 10%). Strandboard was made from mixer veneer strand with weight ratio of 50:25:25 for thickness of strand 0.3:1.6:2.2 mm respectively. Specimens were manufactured to have three density levels: 0.40, 0.50 and 0.7 g/cm3. Three panels were produced for each densities level and each type of strand composition. Evaluation of Mechanical Properties Prior to physical and mechanical property tests, specimens were conditioned for at least 3 weeks at 25◦C±2◦C and 65±2% relative humidity. Air-dry density, thickness swelling, three-point static modulus of rupture, (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and internal bond strength were evaluated according to the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS A 5908-1994) for particleboard. To determine dimensional stability and the thickness swelling (TS) in seven specimens was measured at each step of a wet–dry cyclic aging treatment. During the first cycle of this process, boards were soaked in water at 20°C for 24 h (W1) and then dried at 50°C for 22 h (D1); during the second cycle, boards were soaked in water at 70°C for 2 h (W2) and then dried at 50°C for 22 h (D2); during the third cycle, they were soaked in water at 100°C for 2 h (W3) and dried at 50°C for 22 h (D3). After these treatments, specimens measuring 50 × 50 mm were conditioned at 25°C and 65% ± 5% RH until they reached equilibrium.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Mechanical Properties
30 25 20
DRY WET
15 10 5 0 0,40
0,50 Density (g/cm3)
0,70
Modulus of Elastivity (N/mm2)
Modulus of Rupture (N/mm2)
The static bending (MOR and MOE) properties of strandboard for three different densities are illustrated in Figure 1. The relationship between board density and bending of the specimens tested under air-dried and wet conditions. In general, bending properties increase with increasing board density. Previous research (Vital et al. 1974) reported similar results regarding the relationship between compaction ratio and mechanical properties for particleboard, which may be applicable to mat-formed products made from veneer wasted. 3500 3000 2500
DRY WET
2000 1500 1000 500 0 0,40
0,50 Density (g/cm3)
0,70
Figure 1. E ffect of density on bending (MOR and MOE) properties. DRY: tested under air-dried conditions; WET: tested under wet-bending conditions after boiling in water (JIS-B) The MOR increases at a board density 0.40, 0.50 and 0.70 g/cm3 were 18, 20 and 28 N/ mm2 respectively. However, for board at density more than 0.7 g/cm3 getting difficulty on board manufacture, these are getting blister. One explanation of these phenomenons on strandboard manufactures from Parasareanthes falcataria wood is compaction ratio. The compaction ratio more than 2.0 was limited for standboard manufacture cause of the raw material in strandboard usually used density ranged of 0.4-0.6 g/cm3 for board density manufacture of 0.7-0.8 g/cm3. However this phenomenon is interesting to deeply research especially for low density materials. The similar trend with dry conditions, the JIS-B Wet-Bending test under wet conditions was plotted for different board densities in Figure 1. The bending retention remained with range of 8 22%. Those were lower than reported Sumardi (2006) in that retention range remained of 35-50%. As mentioned before, the reason for this result can be related to the low density of veneer strand which causes more densification at the surface.
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0,40
0,50
Internal bond (N/mm2 )
Internal Bond (N/mm2 )
0,50 IB
0,30 0,20 0,10
0,40
mix
control
0,30 0,20 0,10 0,00
0,00 0,40
0,50 Density (g/cm 3)
0,70
0,4
0,5 Density (g/cm 3)
Figure 2. E ffect of density on internal bond strength (IB) using resin content of 8%. DRY: tested under air-dried conditions; WET: tested under wet-bending conditions after boiling in water (JIS-B); mix: strand thickness ratio 0.3:1.6:2.2 as 50:25:25 weight ratio; control: strand thickness 1.6 mm (100%) Internal bond strength was conducted in dry and wet conditions as shown in Figure 2. Internal bond strength increases with increasing board density (Figure 2 left). The values were 0.22, 0.30 and 0.43 N/mm2 for density of 0.4, 0.5 and 0.7 g/cm3, respectively. This expected finding is due to the increasing bond between the veneer strand and hardening of the resin efficiency during hot pressing. Similar results were determined in previous studies (Au and Gertjejansen 1989). Figure 2 (right) shows an example of the internal bond strength (IB) of a board used combination strand thickness manufacture in dry condition tests. No significant result both of mix strand and control boards for density of 0.5 g/cm3 with value approximately 0.30 N/mm2 and these values meet requirement of JIS 5908-1994. Strandboard manufacture for thiness strand (0.3 mm) was suggested effect to low IB strength. The reason for this can be related to the higher volumeous of this strand due to getting difficulty for resin distribution. Thickness Swelling After Aging The thickness swelling (TS) after the cyclic test was shown in Figure 3. The TS of samples made using various resin contents and density under the cyclic wet-dry treatment. The results showed that the TS increased with increasing treatment cycles for all resin contents. For a resin content of 8 percent, the TS under the three wet conditions was 32, 52, and 65 percent for W1 (water immersion), W2 (hot water immersion), and W3 (boiling water immersion), respectively. The results also showed that the TS at each step of the treatment decreased with an increasing resin content, and leveled off between 8 and 10 percent resin content. The boards with 8 and 10 percent resin content showed similar TS values: 28, 40, and 45-55 percent for the three respective dry conditions. For boards with 8 and 10 percent resin content, the TS under dry conditions was about 45-55 percent. A higher resin dosage can reduce the TS of mat-formed panel products in general (Kawai et al. 1986, Lee et al. 1996); however, a TS of 45-55 percent after these aging treaments must be lower to those value for strandboards made from veneer wasted. Similar trend with resin content, higher density improve the TS at each step of the treatment increase with an increasing board density (Figure 3 right). The board density of 0.5 and 0.7 g/cm3 had closed values for all condition treatment. The higher pressed on veneer strand affect to TS The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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value, for board density of 0.4 g/cm3 the compaction ratio was 1.25 (wood density 0.32) and TS after aging treatment 28%. Those values were lower than board density of 0.5 and 0.7 g/cm3 with compaction ratio 1.56 and 2.18 respectively. 125
75
6%
0,4 0,5
8% 10%
0,7
60
Thickness Swelling (%)
Thickness Swelling (%)
100 75 50 25 0
45 30 15 0
0
W1
D1
W2
D2
W3
D3
D4
0
Wet dry cyclic
W1
D1
W2
D2
W3
D3
D4
Wet dry cyclic
Figure 3. E ffect of resin content (left) and board density (right) on TS tested under a cyclic wet-dry aging treatment. First cycle: soaked in ambient- temperature water at 20°C for 24 hours (W1) and ovendried at 50°C for 22 hours (D1); second cycle: soaked in 70°C water for 2 hours (W2) and ovendried at 50°C for 22 hours (D2); third cycle: soaked in boiling water for 2 hours (W3) and ov- endried at 50°C for 22 hours (D3). After these treatments, the specimens were conditioned at 25°C and 65 ± 5 percent RH until equilibrium was reached (D4).
CONCLUSIONS In this study, the strandboard manufacture from veneer wasted was investigated. In general strandboard could be made from veneer wasted of Paraserianthes falcataria. The bending properties of the board increased with increasing density. However for board of 0.7 g/cm3 or more and strand thickness of 0.3 mm get difficulty in board manufacture. The IB strengths after the aging treatment increased with increasing density, while as the bending strength retention quality of the veneer-strandboard needs to be improved. The TS of a board subjected to cyclic wet-dry treatment decreased with increasing RC, and the TS of a board with a high resin dosage demonstrated good dimensional stability. Resin content of 8% and board density of 0.5-0.7 g/cm3 was optimum for strandboard manufacture from veneer wasted of Parasarianthes falcataria .
REFERENCES Au KC, Gertjejansen RO. 1989. Influence of wafer thickness andresin spread on the properties of paper birch waferboard. Forest Prod J 39(4):47–50 Brumbaugh, J. 1960. Effect of flake dimension on properties of particleboard. Forest Prod J 10(5):243-246. Brunette G.1992. Properties of strandboard from mixtures of aspen, balsam poplar, and white birch. Research report. Forintek Canada Corp., Qu´ebec, QC, 39 p CSA (1993) Standards on OSB and waferboard CSA O437 Series-93. Canadian Standards Association Hse CY, Koch P, McMillin CW, Price EP (1973) Laboratory-scale development of a structure exterior flakeboard from hardwoods growing on southern pine sites. Forest Prod J 23(6):29–30
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Japanese Industrial Standard. (1994). Particleboards. JIS A 5908-1994. Tokyo, Japan. Kajita, H. (1987). Oriented particleboard with sugi thinning (Cryptomeria japonica) I: effects of degree of particle alignment and board density on physical and mechanical properties. Mokuzai Gakkaishi. 33(11): 865-871. Kawai, S., Ohmori, Y., Han, G.P., Adach, K. and Kiyooka, T. (2001). A trial of manufacturing highstrength bamboo fiber composite. In: Proceedings of the utilization of agricultural and forestry residues, pp. 124-129. Nanjing, China. Lee, A.W.C., Bai, X. and Peralta, P.N. (1996). Physical and mechanical properties of strandboard made from moso bamboo. Forest Prod J 46(11/12):84-88. Suematsu, A. and Okuno, M. (1992). Mechanism of low-density particleboard formation IV: bending strength of low-density particle board. Mokuzai Gakkaishi (in Japanese). 38(9):847-853. Sumardi, I., Suzuki, S. and Ono, K. (2006). Some important properties of strandboard manufactured from bamboo. Forest Prod J. 56(6):59-63. Suzuki, S., Takeda, K. (2000). Production and properties of Japanese oriented strand board I. Effect of strand length and orientation on strength properties of sugi oriented strand board. J Wood Sci 46(4):289-295. Wang SQ, Winistorfer PM (2000) The effect of species and species distribution on the layer characteristics of OSB. Forest Prod J 50(4):37–4 Vital, B.R., W.F. Lehman, and R.S. Boone. 1974. How species and board densities affect properties of exotic hardwood particleboards. Forest Prod. J. 24(12):37-45
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Mechanical Properties of Three-Layered Particleboards Made from Different Wood Species Muhammad Navis Rofii1, Satomi Yumigeta2, Shigehiko Suzuki2, and T.A. Prayitno1 1
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 2 Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, Japan
ABSTRACT The most commonly used particleboard has three layers: two face layers and one core layer. Structures of these layers differ markedly. There are two differents elastic bodies (surface and core layer) in the three-layered particleboards. This study is aimed to examine the effect of layer structure according to shelling ratio on mechanical properties of particleboards made from different wood species. The materials used in this study were hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) strand and knife-milled douglas fir (Pseudotsuga manziesii) particles as surface layer, and hammer-milled matoa (Pometia sp.) particles as core layer. Those wood particles were collected from wood companies. Adhesive used was MDI resin (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate) 6% content in mat. Pressing condition were: temperature of 180 °C, pressure of 3 MPa, pressing time of 5 minutes. The target density was 0.72 g/cm³ with board size of 340 mm x 320 mm x 10 mm. Factors used in this study were layer structure according to shelling ratio and wood species. The parameters of this study were: Young’s modulus, modulus of rigidity, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and internal bond. This study showed that all boards meet the requirements of JIS A 5908-1994. Improvement of mechanical properties of matoa particleboard could be conducted by adding surface layer using higher quality wood particles such as hinoki strands or douglas fir particles. Higher shelling ratio at approximately 0.67 resulted higher performance of three-layered particleboard. Utilization of hinoki strand as surface layer resulted higher particleboard performance than that of douglas fir. Dynamic Young’s modulus as non-destructive evaluation (NDE) test can be used to predict the elastic bending of particleboard by specific equation for adjustment the proper values with deviation of about 3-20%. Keywords: three-layered particleboards, shelling ratio, wood species, mechanical properties
INTRODUCTION All sawmills produce a lot of residue in the form of chips, sawdust and slabs. Wood waste materials such as flakes, particles, sawdust, planer shaving, which are residue from furniture industry can be utilized to manufacture many composites such as particleboard. Particleboard is mainly composed of wood particles and an adhesive. Wood particles are mixed or coated with an adhesive, and then formed into a mat that is further hot-pressed to form a panel products (Youngquist, 1999). The most commonly used particleboard has three layers: two face layers and one core layer. Structures of these layers differ markedly. The face layers consist of fine particles, and the core layer is made of coarse particles. The face layers, made of smaller chips with a higher resin content, 152 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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have a greater compaction ratio and density, and in consequence better mechanical properties (Wilczynski and Kociszewski, 2010). Cai et al. (2004) reported that three-layer particleboards have better mechanical properties than single-layer particleboards made from eastern red cedar. Important indicators of particleboard quality are their mechanical and physical properties. One of the most important properties of three-layer particleboard is certainly the bending strength. It is well known that wood species and particle size used influence the bending strength of three-layer particleboard. Suzuki and Takeda (2000) noted that surface layer property dominated the bending properties of the board. Since bending strength is influenced by the structure of surface layer, the most consideration should therefore be oriented towards the structure of that layer. It means that such wood species and particle size should be selected that can contribute to achieve higher bending strength (Ghalehno et al., 2010). Matoa, one of hardwood species, has possibility to be used for particleboard production. Matoa particles are low quality because the original density is high. Moslemi (1974) and Maloney (1993) explained the negative effect of the high density of raw materials on the mechanical properties of particleboard. Therefore, in order to minimize the negative effects of the utilization of high density particles, particleboard can be produced by combining the low quality particles, such as matoa, and the high quality particles, such as hinoki or douglas fir. Hinoki is a softwood species which its structure is uniform and the original density is low (0.39 g/cm³). This is the second famous wood and most abundant tree species in Japan (Kojima et al., 2009) and its waste wood can be easily found from furniture industry in Japan. Kojima et al. (2010) also stated that the material properties of hinoki are better than or similar to that of Japanese cedar (Sugi). Douglas fir, also one of softwood species, is commonly used as material for particleboard production (Maloney, 1993). Layering concept should be used as consideration to make high quality particleboard. It can be conducted by manufacturing particleboard in multilayer or mixing the different particles. According to Moslemi (1974), there are several options in order to obtain high quality particleboards according to layering such as: (a) a higher adhesive content in the face layer, (b) different particles in the face layer (smaller, thinner), (c) lower density wood species in the face layer, (d) processing techniques which reduce compression strength of the face particles, and (e) surface particle orientation kept constant. Bowyer et al. (2003) also stated that in order to produce a board with highest bending strength, the surface layer should be made denser than the core. It is thought that better bending strength can be achieved by utilization of hinoki strand in the surface layers in three-layer particleboard with hammermilled matoa particle as core layer. This is because of the higher slenderness ratio and lower density of hinoki strand which promote better adhesion and densification. Several studies have been reported to investigate bending properties of wood and wood-based composites such as particleboard by non-destructive evaluation (NDE) test (Ross and Pellerin, 1988; Texeira and Moslemi, 2001; Hu et al., 2005a, 2005b; Moya et al., 2010). Since experimental work has shown good correlation between NDE and the static MOE of wood-based composites as noted from several studies by Texeira and Moslemi (2001), the possibility of the use of NDE test would be examined for three-layered particleboard with different particle type and wood species in this study. There are two differents elastic bodies (surface and core layer) in the three-layered particleboard made from matoa as core layer and hinoki/douglas fir as surface layer. It is hoped that better particleboard properties can be achieved by adding hinoki or douglas fir on surface layer. This study is aimed to assess the effect of layer structure according to surface portion or shelling ratio in enhancement the mechanical properties of 3-lay board with high density core layer (matoa) The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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and to determine the effect of particle type on the properties of particleboard made from different sources of wood particles
MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials and Boards Manufacturing Materials used in this study were hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) strand and knife-milled douglas fir (Pseudotsuga manziesii) used for surface layer and hammer-milled matoa (Pometia sp.) used for core layer (Fig. 1). Those wood particles were collected from wood company. Adhesive used was MDI resin (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate), 6% content in mat. A blending box was used to mix the particles and resin adhesive. The adhesive mixed wood particles were placed in a forming box by hand to form a one and three layer of wood particles mat. The resulting three-layered wood particle mat was hand-pressed with a flat plywood panel and then hot-pressed. Figure 2 illustrates the configuration of three-layered particleboard manufactured. Pressing condition were: temperature of 180 0C, pressure of 3 MPa and pressing time of 5 minutes. The target density was 0.72 g/cm³ with board size of 340 mm x 320 mm x 10 mm. Three particleboard panels were prepared for each experimental variable. After manufactured, the boards were kept into conditioning room during approximately two weeks.
Figure 1. M aterials used in the study; hammer-milled matoa particle (M), hinoki strand (H) and knife-milled douglas-fir particle (D)
Hinoki Strand/Douglas Fir Particles Matoa Particles Hinoki Strand/Douglas Fir Particles Figure 2. Configuration of three-layered particleboard Specimen Preparation and Boards Evaluation Prior the evaluation, the boards were cut into 280 x 280 mm in size, and then measured the density (ρ) by measuring its weight (g) and volume (cm³). The boards then tested for dynamic Young’s modulus (Ed) and dynamic modulus of rigidity (Gd). The boards then tested for plate shear strength/static modulus of rigidity (Gs) according to ASTM D-3044-94 (ASTM, 2006). The testing used FFT analyzer SA-78 to obtain the f value. The boards were then cut into 280 x 50 mm in 154 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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size. The number of samples were five of each boards for determining the bending/longitudinal vibration (E1). The samples then measured its size and weight to obtain its density. The value of f1 was measured by FFT analyzer then the E1 values were calculated. After measuring the nondestructive evaluation of particleboards, the boards then prepared for static bending properties (MOE and MOR) and internal bonding (IB) evaluation. First was randomizing samples for static bending and IB to determine the number of samples for each testing. Furthermore, measuring weight and size to obtain current density of each samples. Bending test to get MOE and MOR of particleboards was conducted according to JIS A 5908 (JIS, 1994). Six specimens of each board were chosen for static bending test. Seven specimens measuring 50 x 50 mm of each board were chosen for IB test. Prior the testing, the samples were put in conditioning room and measured its density. The IB testing was conducted according to JIS A 5908 (1994) and the loading rate was controlled at 2 mm/min.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION There were two kinds of mechanical evaluation applied in this study. First was nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and second was static test. In this study, the NDE technique used wave frequency to determine the dynamic Young’s modulus (Ed), dynamic modulus of rigidity (Gd) and bending vibration (E1) as predicted values. Then the actual values were obtained by static bending test to obtain the MOE and MOR of particleboards. Relationship between NDE values and static bending test values then were determined. Mean values of mechanical properties of particleboards are summarized in Table 1. Tabel 1. Mechanical properties of particleboards manufactured Spec S-L M H/M Comp
S-L H Df/M Comp S-L Df
1 3 3 3 3 3 1 3
Ed (GPa) 2.51 3.15 4.01 4.22 4.59 5.32 5.31 3.56
E1 (GPa) 2.81 4.44 4.98 5.11 6.01 7.01 7.52 4.23
1
4.10
5.43
Name
La-yer
M 100 H/M 1/7:6/7 H/M 1/4:3/4 H/M 1/3:2/3 H/M 1/2:1/2 H/M 2/3:1/3 H 100 Df/M 1/3:2/3 Df 100
G (GPa) Gd Gs 0.91 1.05 1.26 1.34 1.57 1.64 1.58 1.73 1.74 1.82 2.04 2.20 2.09 2.02 1.38 1.52 1.24
1.64
MOE (GPa) 2.39 3.76 4.25 4.35 5.35 6.00 6.60 3.44
MOR (MPa) 14.59 24.03 33.14 34.84 46.52 56.45 63.73 21.58
IB (MPa) 1.10 1.06 1.36 1.19 1.23 1.64 2.20 1.01
4.53
34.33
1.34
Note: S-L: single layer M: matoa, H: hinoki, Df: douglas fir, Ed: dynamic Young’s modulus, G: modulus of rigidity (d: dynamic, s: static), E1: Young’s modulus of flatwise bending vibration, MOE: modulus of elasticity, MOR: modulus of rupture, IB: internal bonding. Young’s Modulus It can be seen from Table 1, that all boards manufactured meet the minimum requirement of JIS standard A 5908 (JIS, 1994) with the minimum value of 2.51 GPa for Ed and 2.81 GPa for E1 is resulted from single layer particleboard made of matoa and the highest of 5.31 GPa for Ed and 7.52 GPa for E1 were resulted from single layer particleboard made of hinoki. Statistical analysis by Anova resulted that Young’s modulus was affected by different shelling ratio and wood species. Higher shelling ratio resulted higher Ed and E1 value, and hinoki strand resulted higher Ed and The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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E1 value than that of douglas fir particle. 9.0 8.0 7.0
E (GPa)
6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0
Ed Hinoki Ed Douglas Fir E1 Hinoki E1 Douglas Fir
2.0 1.0 0.0 -0.1
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
1
1.1
Shelling ratio of Surface Layer (w/w)
Figure 3. Young’s modulus of particleboards at various particle type and shelling ratio. Ed, dynamic Young’s modulus; E1, flatwise bending vibration; circle, particleboard with hinoki strand as surface layer; triangle, particleboard with douglas fir particle as surface layer Modulus of Rigidity Modulus of rigidity or plate shear modulus (G) related to performance of a board when used as wall sheathing (Sumardi et.al., 2008). Gd is dynamic modulus of rigidity and Gs is static modulus of rigidity. Gd was determined by hit sound using FFT analyzer according to spectrum peak of wave frequency and Gs was determined by applying load on the edges of the boards then calculating the plate shear modulus using relationship between load and deflection. The highest Gd and Gs values were resulted from hinoki particleboard (2.09 GPa) and from hinoki with shelling ratio of 2/3 (2.20 GPa), respectively, while the lowest Gd and Gs values were resulted from matoa particleboard (0.91 GPa and 1.05 GPa, respectively). The G values meet the requirements for OSB as noted by Berglund and Rowell (2005) which requires a minimum shear modulus of 1.2 GPa, except for matoa particleboards. Figure 4 shows that there was no difference between Gd and Gs values, although Gs value were higher than those of Gd. Higher proportion of surface layer both hinoki and douglas fir increased the G values. Hinoki results higher G value than douglas fir. 2.5
G (GPa)
2.0 1.5 1.0
GD Hinoki GD Douglas Fir
0.5
GS Hinoki GS Douglas Fir
0.0 -0.1 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Shelling Ratio of Surface layer (w/w)
1
1.1
Figure 4. M odulus of rigidity of particleboards at various particle type and shelling ratio. Gd, dynamic modulus of rigidity; Gs, static modulus of rigidity; circle, particleboard with hinoki strand as surface layer; triangle, particleboard with douglas fir particle as surface layer 156 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Static Bending The MOE and MOR are used to determine the static bending of flexural strength in this study. Anova results showed that the MOE and MOR in this study were significantly influenced by particle type, shelling ratio and interaction between them. Figure 5a shows the MOE values of particleboards. It can be seen that increasing shelling ratio of surface layer increased the MOE. It was agreed with the study of Suzuki and Takeda (2000), who stated that MOE in parallel direction increased with an increase in face layer ratio. In other hand, hinoki surface layer in this study used strands. According to the study of Sackey et al. (2011) for the MOE of hybrid boards, it indicates that the MOE was significantly affected by the proportion of strands in the boards. There was no significant increment of MOE after shelling ratio of 2/3. Increasing shelling ratio improves MOE-parallel, but the change of MOE is negligible after SR reaches approximately 0.7 (Xu, 2000).
MOE MOE(GPa) (GPa)
8.0 8.0 7.0 7.0
aa
6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0
-0.1 0 0 -0.1
MOR MOR(MPa) (MPa)
80 80 70 70
0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 1 1 Shelling Ratio of Surface Layer (w/w) Shelling Ratio of Surface Layer (w/w)
1.1 1.1
b b
60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10
0 0
-0.1 0 0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 -0.1 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 1 1 1.1 1.1 Shelling Ratio Ratio of of Surface Shelling Surface Layer Layer (w/w) (w/w)
Figure 5. M odulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture of particleboards at various particle type and shelling ratio. Circle, particleboard with hinoki strand as surface layer; triangle, particleboard with douglas fir particle as surface layer Figure 5b shows the MOR values of particleboards manufactured. Similar to MOE values, it can be mentioned that increasing surface layer portion of hinoki strand and douglas fir increased the MOR. Generally, the increasing of surface layer portion of both hinoki strand or douglas fir particle increased the bending strength of particleboards. Utilization of hinoki strand as surface layer of three-layered particleboard with matoa core enhanced its bending properties higher than that of douglas fir particle. Moslemi (1974) stated that the performace of particleboards is the reflection of particle characteristics. Slenderness ratio and flatness ratio of particles are important. The three wood The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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species used in this study have different characteristic related to its particle shape and size. According to the data, slenderness ratio influences the particleboards manufactured. Hinoki strands have the highest slenderness ratio followed by douglas fir and matoa, respectively. It results difference properties of single layer hinoki board especially on mechanical properties with great difference to that of douglas fir and matoa. A study conducted by Kojima et al. (2010) using hinoki particle resulted MOE and MOR of approximately 4.3 GPa and 40 MPa, respectively. It means that the bending properties of hinoki boards in this study were higher of approximately 50%. Internal Bonding Figure 6. shows the IB values of particleboards as the effect of layer structure and wood species. The increasing of shelling ratio of surface layer increased IB values. It can be seen on three-layered particleboards with hinoki strand as surface layer, but no difference to particleboards with douglas fir as surface layer. It implies that utilization of hinoki strand enhanced the IB properties of three-layered particleboards with matoa as core layer than that of douglas fir. This phenomenon might be related to the vertical density profile (VDP). The higher surface portion of hinoki strands in three layer particleboard with matoa core layer resulted greater difference between surface and core layer. This can cause variation in IB strength. Almost all of the IB specimens failed in the core layer. It implies that lower densification took place in the core layer. The low density core layer causes the low IB strength. By adding high density layer in surface layer with higher quality wood particles such as hinoki strand, it results higher IB strength of the boards.
Internal Bonding (MPa)
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 Hinoki Douglas Fir
0.5 0.0 -0.1 0.1 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Shelling Ratio of Surface Layer (w/w)
1
1.1
Figure 6. Effect of layer structure and wood species on IB of particleboards Relationship between NDE and Static Bending MOE Relationship between Ed and MOE, E1 and MOE can be seen in Fig. 7. According to Fig. 7a, it seems that there is no difference between Ed and MOE values on each point except that of single layer hinoki board. The same trend can be seen in Fig. 7b, but in that figure the E1 value as NDE is higher than MOE value as static bending test. Ed values were lower than MOE values with deviation of about 3 – 20% and E1 values were higher than MOE values with deviation of about 12 – 31%. Those figures show that both testing resulted a similar or no different values with high coefficient of determination (R²). This implies that NDE testing can be used succesfully to predict the static bending of particleboards and in this case Ed value is more acceptable to predict bending strength of particleboards for determining the load limit. 158 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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7.0
MOE (GPa)
a
y = 1.322x - 0.827 R² = 0.948
6.0 5.0 4.0
y = 1.294x - 0.937 R² = 0.963
3.0 2.0 1.0 2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Ed (GPa)
6.0
7.0
b
MOE (GPa)
6.0
y = 1.223x - 0.065 R² = 0.996
5.0
y = 0.891x - 0.153 R² = 0.996
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
E1 (GPa)
6.0
7.0
8.0
Figure 7. R elationship between NDE and static MOE of particleboards. Ed, dynamic Young’s modulus; E1, Young’s modulus of flatwise bending vibration; circle, boards with hinoki strand as surface layer; triangle, boards with douglas fir as surface layer
CONCLUSION In this study, enhancement the quality of particleboard made from low quality matoa particles was examined. The improvement can be conducted by adding surface layer of matoa core layer using higher quality wood particle such as hinoki strand or douglas fir particle. Surface portion or shelling ratio have substantial effects on mechanical properties of particleboard. Higher shelling ratio of surface layer at approximately 0.67 results higher performance of three-layered particleboards. Particle type and wood species significantly influences the properties of particleboard. Hinoki strands as surface layer contribute on higher enhancement of three-layered particleboard with matoa as core layer than that of douglas fir particles. Therefore, improvement of low quality materials for particleboard production can be conducted by adding high quality materials as surface layer. Dynamic Young’s modulus as non-destructive evaluation (NDE) test can be used to predict the elastic bending of particleboard by specific equation for adjustment the proper values. Comparison between nondestructive evaluation (NDE) results and actual static bending data showed thatthe NDE adequately predicted the static bending MOE with deviation of about 3 – 20%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was supported by Jenesys Program in cooperation between Shizuoka University and Universitas Gadjah Mada. Special thanks addressed to Prof. Shigehiko Suzuki and all member of Laboratory of Wood Biomass Utilization, Department of Environment and Forest Resource Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 2006. Standard Test Method for Shear Modulus of Wood Based Structural Plywood, ASTM D-3044-94. Bowyer, J.L., R. Shmulsky and J.G. Haygreen, 2003. Forest Products and Wood Science: An Introduction, 4th edition, Iowa State Press. Cai, Z, Q. Wu, J.N. Lee and S. Hiziroglu, 2004. Influence of Board Density, Mat Construction, and Chip Type on Performance of Particleboard Made from Eastern Redcedar, Forest Prod J 54(12):226-232. Ghalehno, M.D., M. Nazerian and A. Bayatkashkooli, 2010. Influence of Utilization of Bagasse in Surface Layer on Bending Strength of Three-Layer Particleboard, Eur. J. Wood Prod., Springer-Verlag. Hu, Y., T. Nakao, T. Nakai, J. Gu and F. Wang, 2005a. Dynamic Properties of Three Types of WoodBased Composites, J. Wood Science 51:7-12. Hu, Y., F. Wang, J. Gu, Y. Liu and T. Nakao, 2005b. Nondestructive Test and Prediction of Modulus of Elasticity of Veneer-Overlaid Particleboard Composite, Wood Sci Technol 39:439-447. Japanese Industrial Standard, 1994. Particleboards, JIS A 5908, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo. Jayne, B.A. and J. Bodig, 1982. Mechanics of Wood and Wood Composites, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Kojima, Y., S. Nakata and S. Suzuki, 2009. Effects of Manufacturing Parameters on Hinoki Particleboard Bonded with MDI Resin, Forest Prod. J. 59(5):29-34. Kojima, Y., S. Nakata and S. Suzuki, 2010. The Durability of Diphenylmethane Diisocyanate- and Phenol Formaldehyde-Bonded Japanese Cypress Particleboard, Forest Prod. J. 60(3):282-288. Kollmann, F.F.P., E.W. Kuenzi, and A.J. Stamm, 1975. Principles of Wood Science and Technology, Vol II: Wood Based Material, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York. Maloney, T.M., 1993. Modern Particleboard and Dry-Process fiberboard Manufacturing, Freeman, San Francisco. Moslemi, A.A., 1974. Particleboard, Vol 1: Materials, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale. Moya, L., W.T.Y. Tze and J. E. Winandy, 2010. Predicting Bending Stiffness of Randomly Oriented Hybrid Panels, Wood and Fiber Science 42(4):536-549. Ross, R.J., and R. F. Pellerin, 1988. NDE of Wood-based Composites with Longitudinal Stress Wave, Forest Prod J 38(5):39-45. Sackey, E.K., C. Zhang, Y. Tsai, A. Prast and G.D. Smith, 2011. Feasibility of A New Hybrid Wood Composite Comprising Wood Particles and Strands, Wood and Fiber Science 43(1):1120. Sumardi, I., Y. Kojima and S. Suzuki, 2008. Effects of Strand Length and layer Structure on Some properties of Strandboard Made from Bamboo, J Wood Sci 54: 128-133. Suzuki, S., and K. Takeda, 2000. Production and Properties of Japanese Oriented Strand Board I: Effect of Strand Length and Orientation on Strength Properties of Sugi Oriented Strand Board, J Wood Sci 46:289-295.
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Texeira, D.E. and Al Moslemi, 2001. Assessing Modulus of Elasticity of Wood-Fiber Cement Sheet Using Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE), Bioresource Technology 79:193-198. Wilczynski, A. and M. Kociszewski, 2010. Elastic Properties of The Layers of Three-Layer Particleboards, Eur. J. Wood Prod, Springer-Verlag. Youngquist, J.A., 1999. Wood-Based Composites and Panel Products, In Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material.
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162 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
Forest Product Processing
Laser and Its Application to Wood and Paper Nobuaki Hattori Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan E-mail :
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Laser is one of special processing machines, though the popular usage is information technology. In this paper, the characteristics of laser light, mechanism of oscillation, types and devices of laser are generally reviewed in order to raise audience of a fantastic application. Laser technologies in practical use in Japan are introduced in the fields of plywood cutting, engraving of board and perforation of paper. Then, two types of applied researches about laser are briefly introduced. The former group belongs to a CO2 laser processing. They are laser incising of lumber to improve permeability and saccharification of cellulose. The latter one belongs to a YAG laser processing. They are laser ablation for reuse of used printed paper and laser induced brake down method to identify heavy metals in preservative impregnated lumber from demolished wooden houses and exterior structure. The difference between the two lasers is only the wavelength and they are 10.6 µm and 1.06 µm, respectively. Keywords: CO2 laser, YAG laser, dye-board, incising, ablation
INTRODUCTION Laser is one of special processing machines, though the name of laser is very popular. The application of laser to wood processing started in 1969 about lumber cutting (Lunau, 1969) and in 1970 about die-board production (anonymous, 1970). Most of applications used CO2 laser whose wavelength is 10.6 µm because of high optical absorption against organic substance. On the other hand, YAG laser whose wavelength is 1.06 µm is very popular for metal processing in a wide range from macro scale to micro scale, though the difference is only the wavelength. The reason why laser is used for various types of processing is a coherent light, though the laser efficiency is not so high except laser diode. In this paper, the basics of a laser and its application to wood and paper will be reviewed.
WHAT IS LASER ? A laser is an acronym of “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation” and a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of photons or a light from the device. The wavelength of laser is usually discontinuous because laser oscillation is based on spacing between energy levels and resonance in a resonator.
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Who invented a laser? Maiman announced about the first laser in Nature entitled “Stimulated Optical adiation in Ruby” in August 6, 1960, though maser was invented earlier. The New York Times reported “The first laser shone with the brilliance of a million suns.” This means laser is most pure light, coherent we get on the earth. Why laser light is so coherent? A laser usually consists of laser body with medium whose both ends are covered with reflective mirrors, pumping source and cooling system as shown in Fig.1. Because of optical resonance happens between both mirrors, we can get light with single wavelength and coordinate phase in Fig. 2. Therefore, a laser light is called coherent in terms of wavelength and phase.
Fig. 1. Basic structure of a laser.
Fig. 2. Characteristics of laser light Laser is usually classified by the state of body, kind of medium, type of emission, wavelength, usage and safety standard.The classification by the IEC 60825-1 standard are class 1 (safe under all conditions of normal use), class 2 and 2M (safe because of the blink reflex), class 3R and 3B (avoid eye exposure) and, class 4 (avoid eye or skin exposure to direct or scattered radiation). Therefore, all lasers for material processing are classified to class 4. On the other hand, as a laser pointer is categorized as class 2, you have to take great care not to irradiate human eye with the beam.
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What theories are needed for laser? Stimulated emission and negative temperature distribution are essential to laser oscillation. There are three interactions between photons and particles (atoms or molecules). Those are absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission in which the last one is an indispensable factor. When a photon hits to a particle in the ground state, the particle is excited to higher energy level instantaneously with the probability which is called absorption and occurs anywhere. The excited particle drops into the ground state emitting the photon which is equal to the photon in absorption.This phenomenon occurs with the probability and is called spontaneous emission. On the other hand, when a photon hits to an excited particle, the particle dropped into the ground state and emitted a photon whose quality is the same as the hitting photon with the probability. If you observe this phenomenon from outside, a photon was amplified double which is called stimulated emission as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Physical phenomena between photons and particles (atoms or molecules) If we want to get a laser beam, we need billions of stimulated emission. However, the numbers of particles with higher energy level are less than those of lower energy level in nature according to the theory of Boltzmann distribution as shown in left of Fig. 4. In fact, we could get an inverse phenomenon when strong energy was pumped to laser medium as shown in right of Fig. 4. As theresult, we have to construe this phenomenon when the absolute temperature is negative value in Boltzmann equation. This is why this phenomenon is called negative temperature distribution.
Fig. 4. Relation between energy level and particle number
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How to process a material by laser? A laser processing system usually consists of laser, processing head and numerical control table as shown in Fig. 5. Among them, processing head is a custom-made item and has to be designed suitable for the products with expert help about laser processing. The laser beam emitted from laser is reflected to downward on gold-plated Cu mirror and focused on to a processed material with a lens usually made from single crystal zinc selenide through which visible light can pass. The focal length of a lens is relatively short for thin materials and long for thick ones. As a lens has to be kept clean at all times from dust or fume, an assist gas is blown to a lens and blows out through a nozzle on to a processed material. The type of assist gas is air or oxygen for processing under oxidation such as cutting and hole making, and nitrogen or inert gas for processing without oxidation such as welding and surface heat treatment. Favorable power density for a continuous wave or fluence for a pulsed laser varies considerably for type of processing. The characteristics of laser processing are thermal processing and noncontact one with high energy which leads to smooth processed surface and less heat affected zone compared than those of conventional processing methods.
Fig. 5. Typical laser processing system
APPLICATION OF LASER IN JAPANESE WOOD INDUSTRY Practical applications of laser relating with wood and paper industry are die-board production, laser engraving and perforation of paper for cigarette. Paper containers and jigsaw puzzles are produced by stamping out of printed paperboard with a die-board and folding the pressed extensive form. A die-board is made of linden plywood in which slits are sawn with jig saw machine along the lines of developed diagram of boxes. Processing machine to make slits in die board has been replaced from jig saw to CO2 laser since around 1970. The share of laser die-board in Japan is now about 80 % in which about 120 CO2 lasers have been used according to my informal survey. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Production time of a die board was reduced to one-seventh of traditional production method. After laser slitting, knives are inserted to slits as shown in Fig. 6. Engraving by CO2 laser has already been put to practical use in which masking method like in Fig. 7 and pointillism are available. Paper cutting like dress fabric made of chemical fiber is partly inpractical use such as making ventilation holes in cigarette paper. As shown in Fig. 8. This technology may produce cellulose polysaccharides around a hole according to my experiment for filter paper in Fig. 8 (Hattori, 1988).
Fig. 6. Inserting knife to laser die-board Fig. 7. Name board of our faculty by laser engraving.
Fig. 8. V entilation holes in paper around filter (Left) and solid droplets deposited on edge of filter paper cut by CO2 laser (Right).
APPLIED RESEARCH ON WOOD AND PAPER Characteristics of wood are flammable, decayed by fungi, attacked by termite and dimensional change with humidity. Therefore, these are demerits in use, but merits after demolished. In order to overcome demerits in use, it is necessary to improve performances suppressing environmental 168 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Laser and Its Application to Wood and Paper |
loads as low as possible. An impregnation of chemicals to limited area of lumber is one of the solutions. But, the problem will be impermeability that differs in species and area in lumber. So, we developed laser incising by high power CO2 laser as shown in Fig. 9 (Hattori, 1991). Laser incising Laser incising is one of pre-treatment for lumber, but quite different technique from conventional knife incising in impregnating ability.Standard procedure of laser incising is to know the relation between laser power and shape of the hole made for specimen, to measure impregnated area of a liquid from a hole in fiber direction and orthogonal direction statistically and to determine the incising pattern or distance between holes. The holes can be used for pass of fluid not only from inside to outside but also the reverse direction multiple times, though many charred pinholes are visible on surface. As laser incisings non-contact processing, it is easy to change depth in lumber and the incising pattern thanks Fig. 9. Laser incising through the to numerically-controlled processing table. length and breadth to Douglas fir The applied technologies derived from laser incising are lumber of 90 × 210 mm for bench the steam injection drying (Hattori, 2000) and the passive impregnation (Islam, 2007). Laser incising could develop one hour fire proof glulam made of only combustible Japanese cedar (Kamikawa, 2010). Laser incising is a noncontact processing while incising with knife or needle is a mechanicalprocessing. Therefore, the incised surfaces by both methods varied greatly as seen from the half surface in Fig. 10.
Needle incising
Laser incising
Fig. 10. Inner surfaces of incised holes by SEM Steam injection drying Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don, Japanese cedar) square posts of 110 x 110 mm whose initial m.c.were 70 to 110 % were incised with CO2 laser and dried by injecting steam of different temperature through the incised pin holes. Internal temperature rise and drying speed were as shown in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively. It was clear that internal temperature rose to the steam temperatures within 10 minutes and lumber could be dried to about 20 % in m.c. within eight hours. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Therefore, the steam injection drying is characterized as completely different drying method from the conventional one (Hattori, 2000).
Fig. 11. Temperature rise during steam injection. Fig. 12 Drying speed of Sugi 110 mm square lumber Passive impregnation During the steam injection, lumber temperature rise toward to the steam temperature and air in cell lumen is forced out. When the lumber was dipped in liquid, it would be cooled and the internal pressure decreased rapidly because of condensation of the vapor in lumen which brings to impregnate the liquid passively as shown in Fig. 13 for laser incised lumber (Islam, 2007). The absorption in outside part of lumber may not so high by natural cooling during the moving from the injection press to container for dipping.Therefore, you can impregnate chemicals easily by the passive impregnation without using any pressure cylinder though you need laser incising.
Fireproof glulam When you build a wooden building of more than three-story or bigger than 100 m2 in total floor 170 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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area in fire preventive district in Japan, one hour fireproof performance to the building is required after the revision of the Building Standard Law of Japan in 2000. Some 1-hour fireproof wooden construction materials have been developed, but most of them use steel or concrete somewhere in construction material, and thus, these are not wooden building. The fireproof glulam developed consists of layer for burn out, layer for fireproof and center layer to support load asshown in Fig. 14. All laminae were made of Sugi which is a common conifer but characterized by variation in physical and mechanical properties. The outlook in heating test and temperatures of furnace and glulam were shown in Fig. 15 and 16, respectively. Temperature control in furnace is controlled by thermo couples stick out of walls in conformity with ISO 834-1. If temperature of center layer exceeded 260 ℃ or lamina color changed from its original somewhere in center layer, the fire-resistive performance was not approved. In case of glulam without laser incising as shown left in Fig. 16, the temperature exceeded the maximum permissible value during the first eleven hours of testing. On the other hand, the glulam with laser incising exceed neither the limit nor half of the limit in center layer. The first fireproof glulam will come into practical use in a building by Tamachi station under the redevelopment district plan of Minato Ward from next fiscal year.
Fig.14. Basic structure of fire proof glulam.
Fig. 15. One hour heating test of fireproof glulam. Size (mm): 350 x 900 x 3,300, Thickness of fireproof layer: 50 mm The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Fig.16. Temperature change in conventional (Left) and fireproof (Right) glulam during heating test. Laser ablation A large quantity of used printed paper has incinerated every year. As this disposal method may be a waste of resources, we have started to develop a reuse method of PPC paper by laser ablation (Hattori, 2005). The secrets of success about laser ablation are whether you can find or not a proper wavelength which is absorbed to toner and reflected by paper as shown in Fig. 17 and a proper laser which emits a pulse with high fluence and short duration.The qualitative results were shown in Fig. 18. As the results, the wavelength of 532 nm or 355 nm with higher fluence are preferable than that of 1064 nm judging from the recovery rates of brightness, R, G, B.
Fig. 17.Absorption spectra of toner and paper.
Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy A framework wooden house is most popular detached house in Japan. CCA impregnated lumber had been used to still
Fig. 18. Laser ablation of toner on paper.
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and exterior purpose from 1963 to 1997. As CCA impregnated lumber contains chromium and arsenic, hexavalent chromium and arsenious acid emit in incinerated ash and combustion gas in incineration. Therefore, separation and proper treatment of CCA lumber are required by the basic policy of Construction Material Recycling Act in Japan, though there is not a good judging method usable in demolition site. We have developed a sophisticate judging method for CCA treated lumber from 2006 using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) (Aono, 2011). Fluorescence from arsenic and chromium in lumber could be detected in spectra for various kinds of samples by LIBS as shown in Fig. 19. The results were verified by X-ray fluorescence analysis. As we knew the big difference in intensity between CCA lumber and the others, we could clearly separate CCA lumber from others as shown in Fig. 20.
Fig. 19. LIBS spectra of all samples measured.
Fig. 20. Separation of CCA-treated wood from others.
CONCLUSIONS As previously mentioned, laser light is most coherent light on earth, though the energy efficiency is not so high except laser diode. Because of this, laser processing is one of special processing and thus, we should use a laser only to a process which is difficult to do by conventional methods. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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The cases reviewed in this paper are the typical processes which are very difficult to treat by conventional methods. As the development of laser devices improves from day to day, a new processing technology is expected to appear soon. We habitually say “Necessity is the mother of invention”.
REFERENCES Aono, Y., Ando, K., Hattori, N. : Development of Instant Identification Method of CCA-TreatedWood using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, Proc. the 20th International Wood Machining Seminar, Skelleftea, Sweden, June 7-10, 155-159 (2011). Anonymous : Laser Die-Cutting for the folding carton industry, Paperboard Packaging, March, 29-31,38-41 (1970). Hattori, N., Matano, T., Okamoto, H., Okamura, K. : Microscopic Observations of the Solid Products Deposited on the Edge of Papers by CO2 Laser Cutting, Mokuzai Gakkaishi, 34 (5), 417-422(1988). Hattori, N., Ida, A., Kitayama, S., Noguchi, M. : Incising of Wood with a 500 Watt CarbonDioxide Laser, Mokuzai Gakkaishi, 37 (8), 766-768 (1991). Hattori, N., Soga, K., Ando, K., Kitayama, S., Yamauchi, H., Kobayashi, Y. : Rapid Drying of Laserincised Sugi Square Lumber by Steam Injection, Poster Abstracts Vol. 3, XXI IUFRO World Congress, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, August, 7-12, 215-216(2000). Hattori, N. (Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan;
[email protected]), Kawabe,T. (Forestry Agency, Japan), Kosaka, T., Ando, Keisuke (Tokyo University of Agriculture andTechnology, Japan) and Yahagi, Susumu (Toshiba Corporation): Trial ablation on a printed popular paper with pulsed Nd:YAG laser, International Forestry Review, 7 (5), ISSN 1465 5489, Abstracts of XXII IUFRO World Congress, Brisbane, Australia, August, 8-13, 124 (2005). Islam, Md. Nazrul, Ando Keisuke, Yamauchi Hidefumi, Kobayashi, Yoshinori, Hattori, Nobuaki:Passive impregnation of liquid in impermeable lumber incised by laser, Journal of Wood Science, 53 (5), 436-441 (2007). Kamikawa, D., Harada, T., Miyabayashi, M., Kakae, Y., Nishimura, M., Miyamoto, K., Ouchi, T.,Ando, K., Hattori, N. : Development of Fireproof Glued Laminated Lumbers with Fire-Retardant Lamina One and two hour loaded fire resistance tests on Japanese cedar laminated lumber columns, J. Environmental Engineering, AIJ, 75 (657), 929-935 (2010). Lunau, F.W., Paine, E.W. : CO2 Laser Cutting, Welding and Metal Fabrication, 37(1), 9-14 (1969).
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Metal Content in Wood and Bleached Pulp of Five Years Old Acacia mangium Nyoman Wistara and Devi Nurmala Department of Forest Products, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia Corresponding author:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Previous works on metal content of Acacia mangium ages 3 – 9 years old indicated that five years old wood contain the lowest metal content detrimental to bleaching process. Thus, it would be the least problematic with the application of TEF process in the future. However, the fate of metals in bleaching process needs to be well understood. The present experiments were intended to determine metals content of pulp resulted from every stage of an ECF bleaching of five years old Acacia mangium Wild. Five years old mangium wood was divided into tree division, i.e. bottom, middle and upper divisions. Wood pulps were chipped and kraft pulped to achieve kappa number of 14 + 0.5. The resulting pulps were then bleached following an elementally chlorine free (ECF) method consisted of five stages (D0, EO, D1, D2 and P). Measurement of metals content was carried out with Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) type Optical Emission Spectrometry (OES) Optima 4300DV. Brightness and viscosity of bleached pulps were measured in accordance with TAPPI T 525 om - 92 and TAPPI T 230 om-89 standard procedures, respectively. It was found that, metals content of five years old Acacia mangium tended to increase from the bottom to the upper divisions of the stem. Beyond the EO stage, the content of Mn reduced to below detrimental limit required in peroxide bleaching, which is of 1 ppm. However, the content of Cu and Fe of pulp from every stage of bleaching sequences were much higher than their detrimental limit, i.e. 0.5 ppm and 2 ppm, respectively. Metals content were also found to reduce brightness gain in ECF bleaching. Keywords: Acacia mangium, metals, brightness, viscosity
INTRODUCTION Toxic organochlorine compounds from elemental chlorine based pulp bleaching have encouraged the practice of environmentally friendly bleaching methods such as those of ECF and TCF. Even though in ECF bleaching, Cl2 has been replaced by a more environmentally benign ClO2 (Smook 1994), the ultimate goal of pulp production technology is the application of totally effluent free (TEF) technology. The use of TCF bleaching method and close loop cycle is the primary requirement of TEF technology. Counter current washing has been part of the in-plant control method supporting the close loop cycle system and it has been well known to decrease pulp mill effluent. The presence of trace elements such as metallic component will impede the practice of close loop cycle system. Trace elements can be originated from pulp wood, process water and chemical used in pulp production. Many metal ions reduce the brightness and strength properties of pulp, mainly when pulp is bleached with oxygen, ozone and peroxide (Yokohama et al. 1999). Dahl (1999) reported that the The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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detrimental limit of Cu2+, Mn2+, and Fe2+ and Fe3+ in peroxide bleaching were 0.5 ppm, 1 ppm, and 2 ppm, respectively. Furthermore, metal ions are corrosive and may damage iron or steel based equipments (Bryant and Edwards 1996). The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by transition metal such as Fe, Cu and Mn proceed through Fenton reaction. In this reaction, metal ions continuously alter their oxidation degree and decompose hydrogen peroxide to produce hydroxyl radical and other radicals (Liden and Ohman 1997). Hydroxyl radical readily reacts to cellulose and brings about depolimerization processes, thus reducing the strength properties of pulp (Sanden et al. 2000). In these modes, metal ions are also increase the consumption of bleaching chemical and decrease the selectivity of oxygen based bleaching (Ni et al. 1996). At high concentration, Ca, Mg and Al are corrosive to bleaching equipments. Regardless of its corrosive nature, Mg can act as a stabilizer for hydrogen peroxide; however, Ca can be a problematic for heating elements of digester and evaporator effects (Bryant and Edward 1996). Several lignin components such as veratryl alcohol, biseugenol, vanillyl alcohol and catechol formed complexes with metals (Yoon et al. 1999). Iron forms colored complexes with lignin that reduces the brightness of pulp (Sanden et al. 2000). The appearance of color from lignin-metal complexes was due to the d-d interaction (between the d-electron of metal ion and ligan) or charge transfer between metal ion and ligan or both (Gosh and Ni 1998). These authors also found that the influence of Mn and Al on pulp brightness is negligible. Fast growing tree such as mangium wood (Acacia mangium) is the preferred pulp wood plantation in Indonesia. It can be grown in both infertile and fertile lands. Further, the preference of mangium wood for the raw material of pulp production is supported by its high cellulose content (above 45 %) and medium lignin content (18 – 33 %) (Siagian et al. 1999 in Malik 2009). As for other tropical woods (Fengel and Wegener 1984), the ash content of mangium is relatively high and has been reported to reach 0.38-0.46 % (Wistara and Yustiana 2010). These authors have also found that the 5 years old mangium contained the lowest ash content. Ash content is indicative of the metals content of wood. The present works were intended to determine the content and distribution of metal ions in every stage of an ECF bleaching sequences for 5 years old mangium wood. Prediction of pulp quality was carried out through the determination of pulp viscosity.
MATERIALS AND METHODS The present works consisted of the determination of metal content in chips, unbleached and bleached kraft pulp. Mangium wood of 5 years old used in the present experiments was donated by Perhutani BKPH Parung Panjang – Indonesia (a state own plantation forest). The wood was divided into 3 divisions, i.e. bottom, middle, and upper division. Each division was chipped and screened. Chips of the accepted size distribution were then cooked to a kappa target of 14 + 0.5 by kraft pulping process. Pulping was carried out with L/W, active alkali, sulphidity, maximum temperature, and cooking time of 6/1, >22 %, 30 %, 165 oC, 190 minutes, respectively. The resulting pulp was washed and screen for 1 hour. Kappa number, effective alkali and total solid content were determined based on the standard procedures of TAPPI 236 cm-85, Western Lab 4.1.1996 and TAPPI 625 cm-85, respectively. The screened pulp was then air dried, homogenized and oxygen delignified. Temperature, pH, time, consistency, and pressure of oxygen delignification stage were 100 oC, + 11, 60 minutes, 10 % and 8 bar, respectively. Upon completion of oxygen delignification, 176 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Metal Content in Wood and Bleached Pulp of Five Years Old Acacia mangium |
the pulp was then bleached with ECF method consisting of Do(EO)D1D2P sequences. Table 1 indicates the bleaching conditions and parameters. Table 1. Parameters and condition of bleaching processes Parameter
Do 65 60 2.5-3.5 10 66-67 65-75
Temperature, oC) Time, minute pH Consistency, % ClO2, ml NaOH, ml H2O2, ml Brightness, %
(EO) 80 90 10.8-11 10 26-33 78-80
Stage D1 80 180 4-5 10 3-7 89-90
D2 80 180 4-5 10 2-3 90-91
P 80 180 10-11 10 0.12 >91
Metal content, brightness, and viscosity of pulp resulted from each bleaching stage were determined. Pulp brightness and viscosity were determined following the standard procedures of TAPPI T 525 om-92 and TAPPI T 230 om-89, respectively. In metal content determination, an ashing process of the sample at 525 oC for 5 hours was initially carried out, and 3 drops of HNO3 was then added and diluted into 250 ml of volume. The solution was then injected into Optical Emission Spectrometry (OES) Optima 4300 DV Inductively Coupled Plasma. The wave length of each metal ion radiation was detected and converted into concentration unit (mg/l). The concentration in mg/l total element (mg / l ) x (250 / 1000) was then converted into ppm following the formulae of: ppm =
oven dried weight of sample ( Kg )
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ash Content. Ash content represents inorganic substances in wood and pulp. Ash content of wood is usually not more than 1 % of the oven dried weight of wood. Table 2 indicates the ash content of wood and pulp resulted from every bleaching stage and division of wood. Table 2. Ash content (%) of wood and pulp. Stage Wood Pre-ODL Post-ODL Do EO D1 D2 P
Bottom 0.44 0.52 0.69 0.10 0.31 0.02 0.02 0.02
Division of Wood Middle 0.47 0.65 0.70 0.42 0.33 0.02 0.02 0.02
Upper 0.60 0.61 0.92 0.63 0.38 0.05 0.02 0.02
It can be seen in Table 2 that following the post oxygen delignification (Post-ODL), the ash content tends to decrease with the advancing of bleaching sequences. This can be an indication that metal was washed out in every bleaching stage. Ash content tended to increase from the bottom division to upper division of the stem. Upper division is dominated by sapwood that consists of physiologically active wood cells (Pandit and Ramdan 2002). These cells require higher amount The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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of metal ion to carry out metabolic processes (Sunden et al. 2000). Pulp at the stage of Pre- and Post-ODL contained highest amount of metal possibly due to the higher level of residual lignin content as indicated by the kappa number of pulp (Figure 2). Metal ions in wood attached to the functional groups of lignin and acid of hemicelluloses (Bryant and Edwards 1996). Metal Content in Wood and Pulp Present results indicated that the content of Ca and Mg reached 1000 ppm and 200 ppm, respectively. This result is in contrary to those found by Wistara and Yustiana (2010), in which the content of Ca of the 5 years old wood was the lowest and Mg was the highest. Differences in growing site could be the origin of this variation. Metal content is influenced by factors such as wood species, soil type, wood maturity, cooking chemical and process water (Chiral and Lachenal 1997 in Dahl 1999).
Figure 1. Kappa number of oxygen delignified pulp. Based on its content, metal in wood is classified as micro and macro metal. The content of macro and micro metal resulted from the present research are listed in Table 3. Table 3 indicates that the content of Ca, K, and Mg of the 5 years old mangium wood was higher than those of other metals. This finding agreed to that reported by Sjostrom (1993). Although Ca is important for the wood growth, however when its content in pulping and bleaching system is high, it is very corrosive to digester, bleaching and evaporator effect equipments (Bryant and Edwards 1996). The highest Ca content was found in unbleached pulp (Pre-ODL), and its content then tended to decrease with the following bleaching stages. The use of NaOH in EO and P bleaching sequences certainly brought about the higher content of Na in EO and P bleached pulp (Bryant and Edwards 1996). Mg is a stabilizer of hydrogen peroxide in oxygen based bleaching (O, P and Z stages). Present results indicated that its highest content was in the Do-bleached pulp. Fe is the highest micro element found in the present works, and then followed by the content of Cu. The highest content of Fe, Cu and Mn was found in the D1, P and Do bleached pulp, respectively. These three metals ion can decompose hydrogen peroxide through Fenton reaction to form hydroxyl radical (Liden and Ohman 1997). Hydroxyl radical is very reactive and brings about the depolimerization of cellulose. Furthermore, Fe, Cu and Mn do not just increase the consumption of bleaching chemical, but also reduce the reaction selectivity of oxygen toward lignin (Ni et al. 1996). 178 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Metal Content in Wood and Bleached Pulp of Five Years Old Acacia mangium |
The Brightness and Viscosity of Pulp. The efficiency and selectivity of oxygen based bleaching is strongly influenced by the presence of transition metals in the system. Transition metals decrease the stability of hydrogen peroxide and can bring about cellulose degradation (Yokohama et al. 1999). Figure 2 indicates that a significant increment of pulp brightness occurred from post-ODL treatment to the subsequent bleaching stages. However, the brightness increment among Do, EO, D1, D2 and P stages were not significant. The content of Fe and Cu sharply decreased after oxygen delignification of pulp. Fe in pulp negatively affects pulp brightness more than that of Cu. Meanwhile the influence of Mn and Al on brightness is negligible (Gosh and Ni 1998). Dahl (1999) reported that the detrimental limit of Cu2+, Mn2+, and Fe2+ and Fe3+ to P bleaching stage was 0.5 ppm, 1 ppm, and 2 ppm, respectively. The content of Fe and Cu found in the present works were much higher than the reported detrimental limit. Table 3. Micro and macro metal content of pulp from 5 years old mangium wood. Bottom Division Sample
Macro element (ppm) Ca
Wood Pre-ODL Post-ODL Do EO D1 D2 P
769.42 1931.72 1763.64 322.29 261.94 237.61 228.85 272.38
Wood Pre-ODL Post-ODL Do EO D1 D2 P
915.74 2057.12 1758.52 342.34 310.71 260.27 222.98 226.04
Wood Pre-ODL Post-ODL Do EO D1 D2 P
1015.93 2380.41 2016.12 408.82 359.55 349.60 286.20 303.42
Na
K
Micro element (ppm) Mg
Al
B
Cu
Fe
Mn
Zn
310.95 233.13 104.87 0.00 13.33 1.79 26.08 6.47 4.70 90.73 0.00 201.41 0.00 0.00 10.58 23.61 7.54 45.73 849.42 0.00 176.88 0.00 0.00 8.15 12.98 6.08 38.63 102.80 0.00 36.31 0.00 0.00 4.58 6.29 1.18 11.10 997.28 45.66 25.70 0.00 0.00 3.01 14.78 1.14 12.40 535.72 26.16 28.02 21.01 0.00 3.40 15.78 0.70 13.71 280.18 0.00 27.43 8.94 0.00 4.09 5.68 0.67 16.03 277.68 20.83 29.48 17.40 0.00 4.36 10.46 0.74 10.44 Middle Division 227.81 292.70 111.56 18.36 12.42 1.51 35.64 8.50 2.57 134.09 0.00 184.32 0.00 0.00 4.74 15.36 7.87 28.85 856.33 0.00 156.75 0.00 0.00 4.64 12.09 6.90 29.47 154.65 0.00 34.06 0.00 0.00 4.62 7.06 1.20 10.01 945.73 41.96 28.42 0.00 0.00 2.11 8.99 0.83 10.50 466.45 27.42 26.84 14.93 0.00 2.29 17.58 0.68 12.19 161.66 0.00 24.06 13.81 0.00 2.40 7.04 0.64 12.26 575.75 24.19 25.87 15.10 0.00 4.87 8.42 0.58 11.36 Upper Division 141.10 720.16 203.32 0.00 13.97 2.06 36.31 13.32 5.00 113.32 27.45 344.28 0.00 0.00 5.26 19.35 13.52 45.56 870.48 0.00 281.51 0.00 0.00 4.91 12.69 10.54 39.55 136.02 0.00 60.36 0.00 0.00 4.41 6.57 2.64 11.94 983.35 72.89 47.00 0.00 0.00 2.95 6.69 2.76 15.40 586.85 39.82 48.20 21.79 0.00 4.15 14.52 1.73 15.43 241.73 0.00 42.95 10.42 0.00 2.70 10.99 1.44 15.74 440.18 28.69 48.23 12.08 0.00 5.86 12.04 1.62 12.30
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Figure 2 Brightness of unbleached and bleached pulp. Transition metal has been reported also to reduce strength properties of pulp (Yokohama et al. 1999). However, in the present works, pulp viscosity was measured instead of directly measuring pulp strength. Viscosity of pulp is indicative of depolimerization degree of cellulose, thus can be related to the strength of pulp. Strong pulp is generally made up of pulp with high viscosity value (Smook 1994). Figure 3 indicates the histogram of pulp viscosity resulted from the present works. It can be seen that pulp viscosity decreased with bleaching stages. Cellulose degradation is unavoidable when delignification proceeds in pulping and bleaching processes.
Figure 3. Pulp viscosity of unbleached and bleached pulp. In peroxide based bleaching, transition metal can oxidize hydrogen peroxide and results in radical formation that bring about cellulose degradation and reduce pulp strength (Sunden et al. 2000). Figure 3 indicates that starting from oxygen delignification, the viscosity of pulp was sharply decreased. It could be due to the degradation of lignin carbohydrate complex and the presence of high concentration transition metals. It has been indicated early that the concentration of harmful metal ion to hydrogen peroxide bleaching were beyond the stated detrimental limit. 180 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Metal Content in Wood and Bleached Pulp of Five Years Old Acacia mangium |
CONCLUSIONS Metal content of 5 years old Acacia mangium wood tended to increase from the bottom division to the upper division of the stem. Subsequent to the EO bleaching stage, Mn content of pulp decreased and was found lower than its detrimental limit of 1 ppm in peroxide stage. However, the content of Cu and Fe was higher than its detrimental limit in every bleaching stage. Metal content decreased the brightness and viscosity of pulp in the present ECF bleaching of pulp.
REFERENCES Bryant, P.S., Edwards, L.L. 1996. Cation Exchange of Metals on Kraft Pulp. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, 22(1):37 – 42. Dahl, O. 1999. Evaporation of Acidic Effluent from Kraft Pulp Bleaching, Reuse of The Condensate and Further Processing of The Concentrate. Disertasi. University of Oulu, Oulu Yliopisto. Fengel, D., Wegener, G. 1984. Wood: Chemistry, Ultrastructure, Reaction. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter & Co. Gosh, A., Ni, Y. 1998. Metal Ion Complexes and Their Relationship to Pulp Brightness. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, 24(1):26 – 31. Ni, Y, Kang, G.J., Van Heiningen, A.R.P. 1996. Are Hydroxyl Radical Resposible for Degradation of Cardohydrates during Ozone Bleaching of Chemical Pulp?. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, 22(2):J53 – J57.
Lidén, J., Öhman, L.O. 1997. Redox Stabilization of Iron and Manganese in the +II Oxidation State by Magnesium Precipitate and Some Anionic Polymers. Implication for the Use of Oxygen-Based Bleaching Chemical. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, Vol 23, No.5 : J193-J199. Malik, J, Santoso, A., Rachman, O. 2009. Sari Hasil Penelitian Mangium (Acacia mangium Wild). http://www.dephut.go.id. [4 Februari 2010]. Pandit, I.K.N., Ramdan. 2001. Anatomi Kayu: Pengantar Sifat Kayu Sebagai Bahan Baku. YPFK Kampus Fakultas Kehutanan IPB. Bogor. Sjostrom, E. 1993. Wood Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications. Second edition. Academic Press, Inc. London. Smook, G.A. 1994. Handbook for Pulp and Paper Technologists. Second Edition. Angus Wilde Publication, Inc. Canada. Sunden, A., Brelid, H., Rindby, A., Engström, P. 2000. Spatial Distribution and Modes of Chemical Attachment of Metal Ion in Spruce Wood. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, 26(10): 352 – 357. Yokohama, T., Matsumoto, Y., Meshitsuka, G. 1999. The Role of Peroxide Species in Carbohydrate Degradation During Oxygen Bleaching. Part III: Effect of Metal Ions on The Reaction Selectivity Between Lignin and Carbohydrate Model Compounds. Journal Pulp and Paper Science, 25(2): 42 – 46. Yoon, B.H, Wang, L.J., Kim, G.S. 1999. Formation of Lignin-Metal Complexes by Photo-Irradiation and Their Effect on Colour Reversion of TMP. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, Vol 25, No.8 : 289-293.
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Wistara, N., Yustiana, E. 2010. Trace Elements in Acacia Detrimental to Bleaching Processes. In: Wistara N., Massijaya, M.Y., Nawawi, D.S., Arinana, Rahayu, I.S., Suhasman, nd Darmawan, W. (eds). Proceedings of the 2 International Symposium of Indonesian Wood Research Society: Developing Wood Science and Technology to Support the Implementation of Climate Change Program, 12 – 13 November 2010, Inna Grand Bali Beach Hotel, Sanur, Bali, INDONESIA. Pp:431-440
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The Prospect for Acacia mangium Willd as a Raw Material of Pulp and Paper in Indonesia Sipon Muladi1, Zainul Arifin1, E.Tangke Arung1, Yuliansyah1, Rudianto, Amirta1, Agus Sulistyo Budi1, Othar Kordsachia2 and R. Patt2 1
Forest Products Department, Forestry Faculty, Mulawarman University, Samarinda East Kalimantan, Indonesia 2 Hamburg University, Germany
ABSTRACT This paper shows the results of research on Acacia mangium Willd in the pulping process, wood chemistry, anatomical properties, physical properties and analysis of the elementary chlorine free bleaching using the KRAFT and ASAM (Alkali, Sulfite, Antraquinone and Methanol) process. The pulping process used KRAFT and ASAM methods determined by TAPPI and Zellcheming standards. The stages of elementary chlorine free bleaching with 6 combinations used bleaching process such as oxygen bleaching, sulfuric acid, Chlordioxide, Oxygen/hydrogen Peroxide-, second step of Chlordioxide and hydrogen Peroxide bleaching (O-A-D1-OP-D2-P). Analysis of wood chemistry component and wood anatomy were determined by TAPPI and IAWA Standards. The results of the Kraft pulping process on 8 years old Acacia mangium were 53.42% total yield; 0.01% wood reject; 16.45 Kappa number; 862 mg/l CED – Viscosities and 24.16% ISO brightness. Paper strengths properties at 30 oSR beating degree interpolation were 8.84 tensile strength km, 410 kPa bursting strength and 86,4 cN tearing strength. The 15 years old of Acacia mangium has lower qualities in pulp and paper than 8 years old timber. The bleaching process used several stages; the first stage of bleaching used oxygen in an alkaline condition. It decreased the Kappa number from 16.5 – 27.5 to 4.2 – 11.1, as well as increased the brightness from 18.1 – 24,2 %ISO to 40.2–46.5 %ISO. Nevertheless, it also decreased 6–123 point pulp viscosity and showed 0,5–1,4% yield. The Chlordioxide was used for the second stage of the bleaching process and the hexauronic acid and other sugar that derived from hemicelluloses were not solved, only a part of them. It had an increased Kappa number of pulp. In order to dissolve this acid, a washing method can be used to reduce the Kappa number and give slightly increased brightness. The next stage was a combination process of Chlordioxide at the final stage, oxygen/peroxide, and Chlordioxide at the second stage and peroxide only at the end of stage. The results showed that the bleaching process with 6 combinations obtained 0.5–1.4 Kappa number, 571–863 ml/g viscosities and 89–90,9 %ISO brightness. The anatomical properties of fiber from Acacia mangium have 982-1027 µm length, 20.76-21.67 µm fiber diameters, 13.79-18.48 µm lumen diameters, and 3.42-3.58 µm thickness of fiber wall. The chemical properties were 27% lignin, 1 - 5% extractive (soluble in hot water). The physical properties including moisture content of green wood were 94% - 111% with 0.45-0.49 g/ cm3 wood density (oven dry). Keywords: Acacia mangium, pulping, ECF Bleaching.
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INTRODUCTION The pulp and paper industry is one of the high capital industries that have tended to grow quickly in recent times. To become one of the 10 biggest producers in the world, we need many strategies, such as, planting fast growing species over large areas, as in Plantation forests. Paraserianthes falcataria, Gmelina arborea, Acacia mangium, Eucalyptus deglupta and other species were chosen to be planted in order to fulfill the raw material needs of pulp and paper factories. Good planning in choosing species and accurate information were needed to avoid a great risk in this program. Based on these reasons, research was conducted to determine the optimum condition for the Kraft-pulping process as well as the quality of pulp and paper, fiber anatomy, physical properties of wood and bleaching of plantation forest species, especially Acacia mangium Willd.
METHODOLOGY Tools and Materials The pulping process used Acacia mangium Willd (6, 7, 8, 9 and 15 years after being planted) from International Timber Corporation Indonesia Ltd.Co, NaOH, Na2S, H2SO4, Antraquinone (AQ), Ethanol, KMnO4, KI and Na2S2O3, whereas for determining of Kappa Number, Sulfuric, Hydrogen Peroxide, Chlordioxide, Oxygen etc. were used within the bleaching process. Digester, refiner, screener, centrifugal, Yokromuhle, paper handset machine, and apparatus for testing of tensile, tearing, and bursting strengths, beating degree, analytical balance were used in this experiment. Procedures Logs without bark were converted into chips in (20-30) x (15-20) x (2-6) mm dimensions. Chips were dried to ≤ 12% of moisture content, and stored in a constant room to determine the moisture factor before pulping using the Kraft/sulphate and ASAM method. The pulping conditions were regulated as follows: Active alkali : 12-18% Na2O or 16-24% NaOH Sulfidities : 25% Na2O or 40% NaOH Antraquinone : 0.0 - 0.1% per wood weight (oven dry) Pulping temperature (max.) : 170 - 175oC Pulping time (t-max.) : 1 - 2 hours Weight of chip : 300 - 800 gram (OD) Ratio of chip : liquor : 1:4 Table 1. The Testing Methods for Pulp and Paper Type of Test Methods of Merkblatt Screened yield, wood reject and total yield No. 1/15/63 Kappa number No. IV/37/80 Beating degree No. V/7/51 Paper making No. V/8/76 Weight, thickness and density of paper No. V/11/57 Strength of paper No. V/12/57 Data Analysis The data was analyzed within the average values, tabulated, and figured in simple graphics. 184 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wood Chemical Component Based on results of wood chemical analysis (Table 2), Acacia mangium had medium to high extractives and lignin content. Mostly, tannin and other phenolic made up composed the wood extractives content from Plantation forest species. Table 2. The Wood Chemical Composition of Acacia mangium Willd. at Different Ages. Wood Chemical Wood extractives (%): Cold water solvent Hot water solvent Alcohol benzene solvent 1% NaOH solvent Ash (%) Lignin (%) Holocellulose (%)
Years
6
7
1.28 2.26 10.12 0.25 27.55 -
1.46 4.77 12.80 0.33 27.53 -
8
9
1.64 3.09 3.03 15.95 0.62 27.40 69.52
1.15 1.07 15.60 0.45 27.06 -
The ash content was extremely low, whereas holocellulose was at a medium to high content. Technically, Acacia mangium could be used as pulp raw material for pulp with a medium to high yield of pulp. Fiber Anatomy Table 3 shows that at each age, fiber dimension and derivatives of fiber dimension did not show different values. Fiber diameter was classified into middle class, thickness of fiber wall into thin class, fiber length into middle class, whereas Coefficient of Rigidity, Muhlsteph Ratio, and Felting Power were classified into third class, Flexibility Ratio in the second class, and Runkel Ratio in the first class. Table 3. Fiber Dimensions of Acacia mangium Age of Fiber Lumen Thickness Fiber Tree Diameter Diameter of Fiber Wall Length (Years) (µm) (µm) (µm) (µm) 6 7 8 9 Average Age of Tree (Years) 6 7 8 9 Average
21.67 21.63 20.76 21.38 21.36
14.82 18.84 13.79 14.45 14.39
3.42 3.58 3.49 3.46 3.49
983.76 989.10 982.33 1027.29 995.62
Fiber Proportion (%) 74.94 77.59 76.09 76.13 76.19
Axial Parenchyma Proportion (%) 10.17 10.18 9.99 10.85 10.30
Ray Fiber Coefficient Muhlsteph Flexibility Parenchyma Length Of Runkel Ratio Proportion Ratio (%) Ratio Rigidity (µm) (%) 983.76. 8.56 0.160 53.53 0.677 0.501 989.10 6.53 0.169 55.49 0.662 0.540 982.33 7.73 0.172 56.27 0.656 0.551 1027.29 7.57 0.165 54.60 0.670 0.511 995.62 7.60 0.167 54.97 0.666 0.526
Pore Proportion (%) 6.33 5.69 6.21 5.40 5.91 Felting Power 47.02 47.12 48.85 49.28 48.07
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Physical Properties Table 4. Physical Properties of Acacia mangium Physical Properties DBH (cm) MC green wood (%) ρ green wood (g/cm3) ρ OD (g/cm3)
6 14.58 111.50 0.87 0.45
Years 7 19.99 94.80 0.89 0.49
8 21.10 105.20 0.91 0.47
9 21.74 98.70 0.88 0.47
Average 19.35 102.6 0.88 0.47
Table 4 shows that at each age of the trees, the physical properties did not have different values. Pulping Process Preliminary Pulping Process The pulping results of Acacia mangium can be seen in Table 5 (6 - 9 years) and the physical and mechanical properties of pulp and paper in Table 6. The best quality of pulp and paper for Acacia mangium 6 - 9 years old obtained were more than 50% total yield, below 20 kappa number, and above quality standard for mechanical properties of paper. Table 5. Physical Pulp and Physical Mechanical Paper Properties from Acacia mangium Willd. at Difference Age. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Physical Properties of Pulp and Physical Mechanical of Paper Screened yield (%) Unscreened yield (%) Total yield (%) Kappa number Beating degree (oSR) Tensile strength (m) Bursting strength (kPa) Tearing strength (cN)
6 53.62 0.02 53.64 14.58 30 6083 349 56.9
Years
7 51.66 0.01 51.67 16.10 30 6263 377 57.5
8 51.23 0.10 51.33 19.37 30 7349 368 73.8
9 52.16 0.04 52.20 16.00 30 7295 432 55.7
Average 52.16 0.04 52.21 16.51 30 6748 382 68.0
Pulping Conditions: 16% Active alkali; 25% sulfidities; 175oC temperature; 1 hour pulping time and ratio of Liqour : Wood Chip = 4 : 1 Table 6. The Physical-Mechanical Properties of Pulp and Paper from Acacia mangium Willd. Thickness of Paper (mm) Density (gr/cm3) Gramatur (gr/cm2) Years Unbeaten 30oSR Unbeaten 30oSR Unbeaten 30oSR 6 85.19 0.09 0.14 79.22 0.62 0.87 7 82.88 0.09 0.13 80.89 0.63 0.88 8 84.24 0.13 0.14 81.85 0.60 0.64 9 82.09 0.09 0.13 80.97 0.61 0.87 Average 83.60 0.10 0.14 80.73 0.62 0.82 Years Tearing Strength (mN) Bursting Strength (kPa) Tensile Strength (m) 6 241.91 568.81 88.75 348.75 1257.26 6083 7 241.91 575.34 103.75 377.88 1548.43 6263 8 346.51 738.79 117.50 268.75 1361.53 7349 9 359.59 555.73 103.75 432.50 1323.06 7295 Average 297.48 609.67 103.44 356.97 1372.57 6747.5 186 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Table 7. Kraft and ASAM Pulping Process of Acacia mangium in Differents Age. No A. 1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Descriptions Method of Process Number Chip (g oven dry) Moisture Factor Chemical: Active Alkali as NaOH (%) Sulfidities (%) Na2SO3 : NaOH (%) Methanol (%) volume) Antraquinone (% 0f wood) Ratio (Liquor : wood) Pre-hydrolysis (Min) Pulping Time (to T max, Min) Pulping Time (T max, Min) Pulping Temp. (T max, oC) Results Screened Yield (%) Wood Reject (%) Total Yield (%) PH (End of Pulping) Moisture Factor Kappa Number Brightness (%ISO) Viscosities (ml/g) Tensile Strength (Km), 30 oSR Bursting Strength 80 gr (kPa) Tearing Strength 100 gr (cN) Opacities 80g/m3 LSC (m2)
15 Years Old 15 Years Old 15 Years Old 15 Years Old 8 Years Old Acacia Acacia Acacia Acacia Acacia KRAFT KRAFT KRAFT ASAM ASAM AM5 AM2 AM4 AM1 AM3 700 700 700 700 700 0.9090 0.8850 0.9090 0.9090 0.9090 25 70 : 30 20 0.1 4:1 30 66 120 175
25 70 : 30 20 0.1 4:1 30 85 120 180
22 40 0.0 4:1 30 60 120 170
22 40 0.1 4:1 30 60 120 170
22 40 0.1 4:1 30 60 120 170
45.54 2.89 48.43 10.6 0.3302 30.6 18.11 975 9.89 556 66.4 99.4 15.6
42.54 3.52 46.06 10.5 0.3159 28.2 21.38 996 9.10 525 71.9 99.7 20.1
46.27 0.56 46.83 12.6 0.3121 28.2 22.27 852 8.67 456 74.5 99.8 22.1
43.7 0.71 44.41 12.5 0.3114 27.5 18.82 928 8.42 433 59.9 99.7 19.8
53.42 0.01 53.43 12.5 0.3140 16.45 24.16 862 8.84 410 86.4 99.3 20.6
Table 7 explain that the antraquinone addition of 0.1% raw material decreased the pulp yield by 2% - 4% and the kappa number by 0.7 point, the strength of the paper as relatively stable for tensile strength and bursting strength, but the tearing strength decreased. The viscosities of Kraft pulp for Acacia mangium were lower than ASAM pulp at the same age. Bleaching of Pulp Reduction of Chlorine by Using Oxygen in Bleaching Process and Sulfuric Acid in Washing Treatment The researched conducted in Germany focused on reducing use of chlorine with oxygen bleaching through arranging the NaOH concentration as a media of bleaching. The result showed that increasing the NaOH concentration also made pH and brightness of pulp increase, but decrease the kappa number and viscosity. This research is based on Lehnen’s experiments in 1993-1998 at Hamburg University, German. After bleaching with oxygen, the pulp from tropical wood changed their hemicelluloses to become hexauronic acid and other sugars that derived from hemicelluloses, then it decreased The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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brightness and viscosity and needed to be washed in a low concentration of sulfuric acid. Table 8. Bleaching of Pulp with Alkali/Oxygen Number
NaOH
AM5 01 02 03 04
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
pH Initial pH Final pH 12.6 12.9 13.0 13.1
Kappa Number
GZV (ml/gr)
Brightness (% ISO)
16.5 9.9 7.2 7.0 6.9
862 779 729 706 663
24.2 45.1 50.4 52.1 52.8
9.9 11.3 12.1 12.3
Remarks: Unbleached of Pulp from AM5 Consistency: 15 % Temp: 100 oC, and Time: 90 min MgSO4 = 0.3% O2 = 0.6 Bar Table 9. Washing Treatment using Sulfuric Acid After Oxygen Bleaching (The Effect of Consistency) Number AM5 Oxygen A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
PH Consistencies (%) Initial pH Final pH 3 2.52 3.2 5 2.46 2.9 7 2.40 3.1 9 2.10 2.2 11 1.90 2.0
Kappa Number 16.50 6.61 3.83 3.75 3.63 3.34 3.22
GZV (ml/gr) 862 720 685 654 635 624 617
Brightness (% ISO) 24.20 55.75 55.92 55.84 55.74 54.75 53.69
Remarks: Unbleached pulp from AM5 (0,50 N H2SO4 of Pulp OD) Temp. : 95 oC, and Time: 90 min Table 10. Washing Treatment Using Sulfuric Acid After Oxygen Bleaching on Normal Sulfuric Acid and pH Code
H2SO4 (N)
AM5 Oxygen A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11
0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Initial pH 4.3 3.2 3.0 2.5 2.3 2.1
PH
Final pH 7.3 6.4 4.1 3.2 3.0 3.2
Kappa Number 16.50 11.93 11.33 10.99 10.55 10.23 9.75 9.19
GZV (ml/gr) 862 1054 978 973 970 964 953 946
Brightness (% ISO) 24.20 41.81 43.97 43.08 41.54 44.62 44.82 44.26
Remark: Unbleached Pulp from AM5; Consistency = 10 %; Temp = 95 oC, and Time = 90 minutes 188 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Prospect for Acacia mangium Willd as a Raw Material of Pulp and Paper in Indonesia |
Bleaching Combinations Using 6 Stages Bleaching was conducted using a six stages combination. The numbers are shown in Table 9 are bleaching results within optimum value. Tropical wood pulp after being bleached by oxygen, obtained hexauronic acid and other sugars, which were not able to completely removed in the chlordioxide stage. Based on references, acid and sugar could be solved in light hot sulfuric acid. The results indicated that Acacia mangium pulp needed to be washed in sulfuric acid after the oxygen bleaching stage. The sulfuric acid treatment was able to decrease the Kappa number of pulp effectively and it made the next bleaching stage easier, as well as achieving an extremely high increase in pulp brightness. The next stage of pulp bleaching used the chlordioxide method. This method improved pulp brightness quality over unwashed pulp. Furthermore, the next stage of bleaching using oxygen/ peroxide increased brightness. It was due to the relatively low lignin content that remained in the pulp. The second stage was bleaching using chlordioxide and it obtained an increase in brightness and a less reduction in the Kappa number The final stage was peroxide treatment; the paper obtained 89% – 90.9% ISO brightness, 0.9 – 1.4 kappa number and 571 – 863 ml/g viscosities. The addition of 0.1% MgSO4 and 0.05% DTMPA in the final stage extremely stabilized the peroxide, and caused very high peroxide consumption. The paper strength of Acacia mangium was in 20, 25, and 30 0SR beating degree interpolation as seen in Figure 1. The unbleached paper had 3.9 – 9.89 km tensile strength, 162 - 556 kPa bursting strength, and 49 – 96 cN tearing strength. The bleaching process decreased the paper strength, due to changes in cellulose structure, as seen in the decrease of viscosities from the first to the last stage. Moreover, each stage has decreased the Kappa number and viscosity, increased paper brightness diversely, but as a whole, the final paper quality was of a good standard. Table 11. The Combination of Pulp Bleaching using 6 Stages Acacia mangium Acacia mangium (AM5)- Kraft Acacia mangium (AM3)-Kraft Acacia mangium (AM2) - ASAM Bleach- Kappa Visco- BrightKappa Visco- BrightKappa Visco- BrightYield Yield Yield ing Num- sities ness Num- sities ness Num- sities ness (%) (%) (%) ber (ml/g) %ISO ber (ml/g) %ISO ber (ml/g) % ISO Un 16.5 862 24.2 53.4 27.5 928 18.8 44.4 30.6 975 18.1 48.4 O 4.2 786 46.5 52.9 11.1 805 40.2 43.0 11.7 969 43.3 45.7 A 3.8 678 49.7 52.4 8.2 765 44.5 41.5 9.4 941 43.8 44.9 D1 1.4 658 68.0 51.7 5.1 787 57.8 41.0 5.7 930 54.5 44.7 OP 0.9 656 80.3 51.5 3.3 752 73.6 40.1 2.9 894 73.6 44.2 D2 0.6 645 87.5 51.3 2.1 749 84.9 40.0 1.1 804 86.8 44.1 P 0.5 571 89.9 50.3 1.4 701 90.9 39.9 0.9 863 89.0 44.0 Remarks: Un = unbleached of Pulp Acacia mangium (Kraft and Asam method) O =o xygen bleaching, 0.6 mPa, 2.5% NaOH for AM5, 3% NaOH for AM3 and AM2, 0.3% MgSO4; 90 min, 15%consistency; 100oC. A = Sulfuric Acid Washing 0,5 N H2SO4 Pulp, pH = 3.0, 120 min, consistency = 10%, 95oC. = Chlordioxide bleaching = 0.5%, pH 1.6, 45 min, consistency = 10%, 60oC. D 1 OP = Oxygen/Peroxide bleaching, 0.6 mPa 0 2, 2% NaOH, 0.3% MgSO4; 90 min; 12% consistency, 90oC. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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D 2 P
= Chlordioxide bleaching = 0.4%, pH 4.2, 45 min, 10% consistency, 60oC =P eroxide bleaching, 1% H2O2, 1% NaOH, 0.1% MgSO4, 0.05% DTMPA, 90 min, 12% consistency, 70 min
ASAM, 15 years
Kraft, 15 years
♦ Unbleached
Kraft, 8 years
Bleached
Figure 1. Relationship between Beating Degree and Strength of Bleached and Unbleached Paper
190 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Prospect for Acacia mangium Willd as a Raw Material of Pulp and Paper in Indonesia |
CONCLUSIONS 1. T he best quality of pulp and paper from 6 - 9 years old Acacia mangium obtained more than 50% total yield, below 20 kappa number, and above quality standard for mechanical properties of paper 2. T he elementary chlorine free bleaching process using six stages combination had 90% ISO brightness. 3. Based on IAWA Standard, the quality of fiber was classified into II - III class.
REFERENCES Abbot, J.: Catalytic Decomposition of Alkaline Hydrogen Peroxide in Presence of Metal Ions : Binocular Complex Formation. J. pulp Paper Sc. 17 (1), J10-J17 (1991). Anderson, R.: Peroxide Delignification and Bleaching. Non-Chlorine Bleaching Conf. (Hilton Head, S.C.0 Proc., 11p (1992). Gierer, J. und F. Imsgard : The Reactions of Lignins with Oxygen and Hydrogen Peroxide in Alkaline Media. Svesk Papperstadn. 80 (16) 510-518 (1977). Gratzl, J.S. : Abbaureaktionen von Kohlenhydraten und Lignin durch Chlorfreie Bleichmittel – Reaktionsmechanismen sowie Moglichkeiten der Stabilisierung. Das Papier 41 (10A), 120-130 (1987). Gratzl, J.S.: Die Chemischen Grundlagen der Zellstoffbleiche mit Sauerstoff Wasserstoffperoxid und Ozon-ein kurzer Uberblick. Das Papier 46 (10A), V1-V8 (1992). Vuorinen, T.; Buchert, J.; Teleman, A.; Tenkanen, M. und Fagerstrom, P: Selective Hydrolysis of Hexauronic Acid Group and Its Application in ECF and TCF Bleaching of Kraft Pulp. Proceed. Int. Pulp Bleaching Conference, (Washington), 43-51 (1996)
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The Effect of Temperature on Characteristics of Wood Pellet Syahidah, Wira Pratama, Andi Ismail, Baharuddin, and Musrizal Muin Faculty of Forestry, Hasanuddin University Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan Km. 10 Tamalanrea Makassar 90245
[email protected]
ABSTRACT One way to minimize negative impact of wood waste and increase its value, is processing it and convert it into something with higher economic value. One of such products is called wood pellet. This study aims to determine the characteristics of wood pellet made from acacia (Acacia mangium Wild) and pine (Pinus merkusii) woods, namely moisture content, calorie, density, ash content, ignition time and burning time. Firstly the wood waste milled by Hammer Mill machine and screened to 22 and 40 mesh size. The wood mill is then molded in a mould and hot pressed under three different temperatures; 90oC, 110oC and 130oC for 25 minutes and triplicate samples were taken for each temperatures. The results indicate that the temperatures affected the characteristics of wood pellet at different levels to depending on the species of wood samples. Density of acacia wood pellets are 0.83, 0.85 and 0.85 g/cm3, ash contents are 0.73, 0.73 and 0.74%, moisture contents are 2.97, 2.48, 2.26%, calorie are 18.99, 19.43, and 19.87 MJ/kg, ignition time are 8.14, 7.12 and 4.96 seconds, and burning time are 7.97, 6.43, and 6.38 minutes, respectively. Density of pine wood pellets are 0.83, 0.84 and 0.84 g/cm3, ash contents are 0.76, 0.79, 0.84%, moisture contents are 7.91, 2.05 and 1.47%, calorie values are 17.71, 18.07 and 18.96 MJ/kg, ignition time are 4.19, 3.51 and 2.98 seconds, and burning time are 7.91, 2.05 and 1.47 minutes for each temperature. Wood pellet made from both of acacia and pine woods did not meet wood pellet standard provided by Austria, Sweden and New Zealand. Keywords : wood pellet, density, ash content, temperature, moisture content
INTRODUCTION Increasing daily consumption of energy while supply of fossil energy is decrease has causing energy problems that must be faced by all countries, both developed and developing countries. Household sector is the largest consumer of conventional fuels such as fuel, firewood, charcoal and gas (Sartikasari (1995) in Masturin (2002). The source of energy from unrenewable materials very limited in number and a time will run out, so it is necessary to discover of alternative energy sources from renewable materials by diversifying fuel and energy conservation. One source of energy that has been used by Indonesian society is wood, but in present wood supply decrease, thus the use of wood as fuel has begun to be replaced by other energy sources. Nevertheless wood waste resulted by forest exploitation and wood processing industry is still great potential use as an energy source. It is known that wood waste is organic material formed from carbon compounds such as holocellulose, lignin and carbohydrate compounds, so it could potentially be used as an energy source. 192 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Wood waste resulted by forest exploitation activities is estimated to reach 30% of the total amount of wood harvested. In addition it also has the potential to produce industrial sawmill waste by 50.2% of the raw materials are processed, while the plywood industry has the potential to resulting waste by 60% (Dephut, 1990). Data from the Ministry of Forestry and Plantations for the year 1999/2000 show that Indonesia’s plywood production reached 4.61 million m3, while sawn wood reached 2.6 million m3 per year. Assuming that the amount of waste wood that resulted reached 61%, then the wood waste resulted is estimated to reach more than 4 million m3. Based on the data resulted waste from wood processing industry, if not used properly, it is may leading pollute to the environment. Waste resulted during this generally just stacked on the ground and mostly discharged into the river so it could potentially lead to a narrowing of the flow and siltation of rivers and pollutes the water, and some even burned directly so it would increase emissions of carbon gases in the atmosphere (Pari, 2002). Thus the utilization of wood waste into a product that has added value should continue to be pursued, in addition to reducing the negative effects of the existence of such waste, as well as to create new revenue sources for the community. One form of wood waste utilization potential to be developed is the wood pellets that can be used as an alternative energy source. The fuel is more easily ignited when compared with conventional wood. The burning of the fuel pellets produce 2000 kg of heat energy equal when compared with 3200 kg of wood burning, 957 m3 of gas, 1,000 liters of diesel, and 1370 liters of fuel oil (Gardner, 2009). In this regard it is necessary to study the characteristics of wood pellets from various types of wood, especially pine and acacia wood pellets according to standard being used in Sweden, New Zealand and Austria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials used in this study are pine and acacia wood waste. The samples are made of mill by using a hammer mill, then screening and drying until air dry moisture content. The mill screened using a sieve into 22 and 40 mesh size. The mill were used as the sample is a pass 22 mesh sieve and retained on 40 mesh sieve. Samples were weighed to ± 1.5 gram weight and then inserted into each hole of the mould which consists of 9 holes with a diameter of each hole is 0.8 cm and height of the mould is 6 cm. The mould is heated before inserted into the hot press with three different temperatures (90oC, 110oC and 130oC). The temperature measured by a thermometer and then the mould is inserted into the hot press. A buffer of 2 cm height placed between press plates and mould as buffer to the hot press during pressing. Besides that, the buffer also was done to get a pellet length of 2.5 cm. Once the sample is pressed, the sample was allowed to stand for about 20 minutes so that the mill can be bound and then mould removed from the hot press. After that the samples are removed from the mould and triplicate samples were taken for each temperature. Observed variables are the moisture content, density, ash content, ignition time and burning time, and calorific value.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Moisture Content Increasing temperature above 90oC causes moisture content of pellets are decreasing, but temperature above 110oC tend not to reduce moisture content significantly. Increasing of the temperature causes removing the water bounded to the hydroxyl groups of cellulose. Therefore, the higher temperature will cause more water regardless of the hydroxyl groups of cellulose. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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This is consistent with the statement of Hill (2006), that wood heating causes decrease of wood hygroscopicity. The amount of reduction in hygroscopicity of wood is dependent on heating time and temperature. In addition, thermal modification of wood causing the wettability of wood also decreases caused by reduced hydroxyl groups. This is influenced by the increasing degree of crystallinity so that the amorphous part of the wood which has a free hydroxyl group decreased. This decline led to decreased ability to absorb moisture content of the wood. The results of moisture content of acacia and pine wood pellets as can be seen in Figure 1 below:
Fig. 1. Mositure Content of Acacia and Pine Wood Pellets The moisture content of wood pellets greatly affect to the calorific value. The high moisture content will cause a decrease in calorific value. This is caused by the heat stored in the pellet is first used to remove water that existed prior to then resulting heat that can be used as the heat of combustion (Cornburning, 2010). Austria, New Zealand, and Sweden Standard each require a maximum moisture content of 12%, 8%, and 10%. Thus, the moisture content of acacia and pine wood pellets produced from the three different temperatures of 90oC, 110oC and 130oC have met the established standards. Density of Wood Pellet Data on the density of acacia and pine wood pellets can be seen in Figure 2 below: 1
0.9
0.83
0.83
0.85
0.84
0.85
0.84
0.8 0.7
0.6
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 900 C
1100 C
1300 C
Fig. 2. Density of Acacia and Pine Wood Pellets 194 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Effect of Temperature on Characteristics of Wood Pellet |
Increasing of the temperature resulted moisture content decrease by reduces the hygroscopic properties of wood so that water absorption is decrease. This fact causes the cavities between mill particles more tightly so there is no gap/space between the particles. This is consistent with the statement of Hill (2006), that heating with high temperature will cause broken of the carbon bonds in the lignin structure. Where, when more and more carbon C decomposes, it will cause a high crystallinity so the bonding between lignin structure that would otherwise be tighter and tighter. This proves that the modification of thermal or temperature will increase the density of a compacted mill pellets because it would be able to cover the cavities of the cells compared with solid wood. In addition, the compaction of mills to form a pellet can also remove water and form a stronger bond between the OH group (hydroxyl group) of cellulose and other chemical components. Materials contained in the wood to form a pellet, consisting of a polymer material (lignin). This material has a function as an adhesive in the process of pressing. Lignin is then extracted and spread to every particle of mill which can bind a single particle with other particles. The fact causes wood mill was became more solid. Minimum density requirements of New Zealand and Sweden Standards are 641 kg/m3 (0.641 g/cm3) and 600 kg/m3 (0.600 g/cm3), respectively. The pellets produced in this study on the temperatures of 90oC, 110oC and 130oC are 0.83 g/cm3 (830 kg/m3), 0.84 g/cm3 (840 kg/m3) and 0.84 g/cm3 (840 kg/m3), respectively. Thus, the density of pellets that was produced in this study have met the standards established by the state of New Zealand and Sweden. Ash Content of Wood Pellets Study of the percentage ash content of pellets showed as seen in Figure 3 below:
1
0.9 0.83 0.79
0.8 0.73
0.75
0.74
0.73
0.7 0.6 0.5 900 C
1300 C
1100 C
Fig. 3. Ash Content of Acacia and Pine Wood Pellets According Martawijaya, et al. (1981), ash content indicates the amount of minerals, particularly metal elements in the material. Ash as a part of the combustion process that is no longer has the carbon element. The main element of ash are silica and its effect is less well against the heat generated. The lower the ash content of the higher quality pellets. In addition, according to the statement of Smook (1994) that the process of changing dimensions of the logs into chips and mill causes minerals content of wood are decrease. The silica content The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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greatly influence of ash content. Pine wood contains silica by 0.2%. The ash content of wood pellets resulted in this study has met quality standard by New Zealand which is maximum of 1%, but did not meet the standards of Austria and Sweden with the maximum 0.5% and 0.7% ash content. Calorific Value of Acacia and Pine Wood Pellets
Calorific value of acacia and pine wood pellets can be seen in Figure 4 as follows:
Fig. 4. Calorific Value of Acacia and Pine Wood Pellets Temperature increase in each treatment affect to reduce moisture content of the pellets, thus causing density of pellet is increasing. The higher density the higher calorific value. Increased density caused by the compaction process, which the carbon content increases and need energy to burn perfectly the material with oxygen that known as calorific value. The calorific value will determine quality of wood pellets. The higher calorific value the better quality of the pellets. According to Nurhayati (1974) in Triono (2006), the calorific value is affected by moisture content and ash content of pellets. The higher moisture content and ash content the lower calorific value of pellets. The calorific value of wood pellets according to Austrian, New Zealand, and Sweden Standards are at least 18 MJ / kg, 19.1 MJ / kg, and 16.9 MJ / kg respectively. Based on the standards, the calorific value of pellets resulted in this study have met the standards set by these countries. Ignition Time of Acacia and Pine Wood Pellets Test results of ignition time of acacia and pine wood pellets showed that the higher temperatures, the faster ignition time of the pellets. This fact occured estimated because of particle surface area difference that influence the difference ignition time. Pratoto, et al. (2010) states that this is caused by the high surface density of small particles which increases contact area between particles with biomass gasification agent, so the higher density the slower ignition time (Widiarti et al. 2010). Besides that, differences of ignition time are also caused by moisture contentof pellets that resulted in each temperature. This is consistent with the statement of Hill (2006), that the higher moisture content, it will be reduce the flame ability of a material.
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Results of ignition time of acacia and pine wood pellets is presented in Fig. 5. 10 8
8.14
7.12 5.2
6
3.92
4
4.96 2.49
2 0 90o C
110o C
130o C
Fig. 5. Ignition Time of Acacia and Pine Wood Pellets Burning Time
Burning time of acacia and pine wood pellet, as shown in Figure 6 below: 10 8
7.97
9.42 7.84 6.43
6.38
6
5.3
4 2 0 90o C
110o C
130o C
Fig. 6. Burning Time of Acacia and Pine Wood Pellets The results of burning time test showing that the burning rate of acacia and pine wood pellets tend to similar trend where the higher temperature, the shorter of burning time. This is assuming that evaporation of volatile compounds of extractive that causing reduced contents of extractives, while presence of extractive can cause burning time is shorter. As a statement of Sudrajat (1983), that the lower contents of extractive the shorter burning time. In addition, differences in burning time are also thought due to other factors. Saptoadi and Himawanto (2011) suggest that there are some factors influence the burning time of solid fuels such as particle size, air velocity, temperature, fuel type, pressure, oxygen concentration and the nature of the elementary reactions that occur. Moreover, the burning time is also influenced by differences in the weight pellet that resulted in each temperature. The higher ratio between weight and surface area, it will produce shorter burning time, whereas in this study the surface area tends to similar in pellets that produced. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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CONCLUSIONS 1. In general, temperature affect the characteristics of the wood pellets, where the higher temperature provided the better characteristics of pellets produced 2. W ood pellets produced by the temperature of 110oC has better characteristics compared to the temperature of 90oC and 130oC 3. T he pine pellets only meet the standards of Sweden and New Zealand, unless the water levels that meet the standards of Austria, New Zealand and Sweden, while the acacia pellets for moisture content and calorific value at temperature of 110oC meet the standards of the third State.
REFERENCES [BPS] Biro Pusat Statistik. 2000. Laporan Produksi Industri Kehutanan. Jakarta. Cornburning. 2010. Wood Pellet. http://forum.iburncorn.com/wiki/indeks.php. [22 Februari 2010] [Dephut] Departemen Kehutanan. 1990. Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hasil Hutan. Laporan Tahunan. Bogor. Gardner, B. 2009. House Of Your Dream. GreenGarden Tools. Com. [22 Februari 2010] Hill, C. 2006. Wood Modification. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. England Iriawan, B. 1993. Pemanfaatan Limbah Industri Kayu Lapis dan Industri Penggergajian sebagai Bahan Baku Papan Partikel. Makalah Seminar Mahasiswa Kehutanan Indonesia III, Samarinda. Malik, J. 2007. Sari Hasil Penelitian Mangium (Acacia mangium Willd.). Martawijaya, A., I. Kartasujana, K. Kadir, dan S.A. Prawira. 1981. Atlas Kayu Indonesia. Jilid I. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kehutanan, Bogor. Masturin, A. 2002. Sifat Fisis dan Kimia Briket Arang Campuran Arang Limbah Gergajian Kayu. Skripsi Jurusan Teknologi Hasil Hutan, Fakultas Kehutanan Institut Pertanian Bogor. (Tidak diterbitkan). Pari, G. 2002. Teknologi Alternatif Pemanfaatan Limbah Industri Pengolahan Kayu. Makalah Falsafah Sains (PPs 702). Program Pasca Sarjana/S3. Institut Pertanian Bogor. Pratoto, A., A. Sutanto, E. H. Praja, dan D. Armenda. 2010. Rancang Bangun Tungku Gasifier Untuk Pemnafaatan Tandan Kelapa Sawit Sebagai Sumber Energi. http://www.akademik. unsri.ac.id/download/journal/files/ft/snttm2010/359_PROSIDING%20DIGITAL%20 SNTTM%20IX.pdf. [16 April 2011] Saptoadi, H. dan A. Himawanto. 2011. Pemodelan Matematis Distribusi Temperatur pada Proses Pembakaran di Rangka Bakar (Bagian 1 : Distribusi Temperatur pada Permukaan atas Bahan Bakar). http://eprints.ums.ac.id/970/1/5_Harwin_Saptoadi_Dwi_Aries_ himawanto_Pemodelan_Matematis_di.doc. [24 Maret 2011]. Smook, B. A. 1994. Hand Book for Pulp and Paper Technologists. Sudrajat, R. 1983. Pengaruh Bahan Baku, Jenis Perekat dan Tekanan Kempa terhadap Kualitas Briket Arang. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hasil Hutan. Bogor. Triono, A. 2006. Karakteristik Briket Arang dari Campuran Serbuk gergajian Kayu Afrika (Maesopsis eminii Engl.) dan Sengon (Parasecianthes falcatarial L. Nielsen) dengan Penambahan Tempurung Kelapa (Cocos nucifera L). Skripsi Departemen Hasil Hutan. Fakultas Kehutanan. Institut Pertanian Bogor. 198 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Widiarti, E. S., Sarwono, dan R. Hantoro. 2010. Studi Eksperimental Karakteristik Briket Organik Dengan Bahan Baku Dari PPLH Seloliman. http://digilib.its.ac.id/public/ITSUndergraduate-12999-Paper.pdf. [16 April 2011]
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Dilute Acid Hydrolysis of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Pulp under Microwave Irradiation Triyani Fajriutami1, Yanni Sudiyani2, and Euis Hermiati1 Research & Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, Cibinong, Bogor, Indonesia. 2 Research Center for Chemistry, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Kawasan PUSPITEK Serpong, Tangerang, Indonesia. Corresponding author’s email:
[email protected]
1
ABSTRACT The cellulose component in oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp can be converted to ethanol in a two-step process where the cellulose is first converted to glucose sugars by hydrolysis and then the resulting sugars can in turn be converted to ethanol by fermentation. Many research reports showed that microwave can help in cellulose hydrolysis. The effects of microwave irradiation can be further enhanced by addition of organic acids, sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide, inorganic ion and aqueous alcohols to the medium depending on the targeting products. The objective of this research was to find out the effects of sulfuric and oxalic acid catalyst, microwave power, and heating time on hydrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp. Research showed that the higher the power and the longer the time of heating, the more reducing sugar produced. Reducing sugar produced from microwave-assisted hydrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp in sulfuric acid is higher than that in oxalic acid. The highest reducing sugar yield (30.49%) was produced from hydrolysis using sulfuric acid with 50% microwave power for 15 minutes. Keywords: oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp, dilute acid, hydrolysis, microwave, reducing sugar
INTRODUCTION Lignocellulosic waste materials contain cellulose as predominant polymer in combination with lignin and hemicellulose in smaller amount. The cellulose component in these materials can be converted to ethanol in a two-step process where the cellulose is first converted to glucose sugars by hydrolysis and then the resulting sugars can in turn be converted to ethanol by fermentation. However, due to the close association of cellulose and hemicellulose with lignin in the plant cell wall, pretreatment is necessary to make these carbohydrates available for enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation (El-Zawawy et al. 2011). The oil palm plantations generate huge amount of wastes such as chopped trunks, dead fronds, empty fruit palm bunches, shell and fibers. These wastes comprise of biomass in the form of cellulose and lignocelluloses (Goh et al. 2010). Indonesia produces about 5 million metric tons of oil palm empty fruit bunch (Sudiyani et al. 2010). Pulping in this study was to recover cellulose by removing as much as possible lignin and hemicellulose from OPEFB, then the cellulose would be much easier to be hydrolyzed.
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After the pretreatment process, there are two types of processes to hydrolyze the cellulosic biomass for fermentation into bioethanol. The most commonly applied methods can be classified in two groups: chemical hydrolysis (dilute and concentrated acid hydrolysis) and enzymatic hydrolysis. In addition, there are some other hydrolysis methods in which no chemicals or enzymes are applied. For instance, lignocellulose may be hydrolyzed by gamma-ray or electron-beam irradiation, or microwave irradiation (Demirbas 2005). Microwave irradiation has been attracted much attention as a tool for degradation of biomass for its environment friendliness, known as green technology. Microwave heating is based on non-contacted irradiation of electromagnetic waves in a frequency range from 300 MHz to 300 GHz, wavelength about 1 m to 1 mm. Microwave irradiation method is a kind of autohydrolysis to separate hemicellulose and lignin from lignocellulose and it is utilizable as pretreatment before enzymatic saccharification to produce fermentable carbohydrates as well as an extraction method for biomass components such as polysaccharides (Tsubaki and Azuma 2011). The effects of microwave irradiation can be further enhanced by addition of organic acids, sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide, inorganic ion and aqueous alcohols to the medium depending on the targeting products (Tsubaki and Azuma 2011). Using a dilute acid process with 1% sulfuric acid in a continuous flow reactor at a residence time of 0.22 minutes and a temperature of 510 ºK with pure cellulose provided a yield over 50% sugars (Demirbas 2005). The aim of this study was to find out the effects of sulfuric and oxalic acid, microwave power, and heating time on hydrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Materials Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber was cut and then digested using kraft process (NaOH and Na2S 22% as active alkali, suldifity 30%, fiber:cooking liquor = 1:5). The main chemical composition of the OPEFB pulp based on dry weight was 84.12% alpha cellulose, 10.25% hemicellulose and 9.96% lignin, respectively. The concentration of sulfuric acid and oxalic acid for hydrolysis was 1% (v/v). Acid hydrolysis assisted by microwave irradiation A microwave oven (SHARP Model R-360J(S), 2450 MHz) was used in this research. The oven’s power could be adjusted to 30% and 50%. Prior to the hydrolysis experiments, the OPEFB pulp (3% dry weight) was mixed in sulfuric acid or oxalic acid solution for 2 hours. The mixture was then heated by microwave irradiation for 5, 10, and 15 minutes and then cooled as soon as possible. Analysis of hydrolisates After hydrolysis reaction the soluble fraction was filtered for measurement of its reducing sugar, HMF, and brown compound. The total reducing sugar was quantitatively determined by using Nelson-Somogyi method. Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) was analyzed by using SNI 013545-2004 based on AOAC Official Method 980.23-1999. Appearance of brown compound was determined by measuring absorbance at 490 nm (HITACHI Model U-2001) according to Warrand and Janssen (2007).
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION Reducing sugar yield increased by adding power microwave and prolonging heating time. ElZawawy et al. (2011) reported that acid hydrolysis in microwave for 10 minutes results in a higher glucose concentration compared to that carried out for 2 hours in the traditional method. It caused by microwave fields usually affecting hydrogen-bonding networks which may lead to an increase in the rate of breakage of the cellulosic structure, additionally microwaves are known to increase the rate of reactant and product diffusion (Orozco et al. 2007). The maximum yield of reducing sugar, both of catalyzed by sulfuric acid and oxalic acid, occured at 50% microwave power and heating time of 15 minutes (Figure 1). The prior mixing in room temperature with dilute acid, before hydrolysis under microwave, did not have any effect to reducing sugar yield (data not shown). It means the hydrolysis was not starting yet because dilute acid hydrolysis (0.7–3.0%) requires high operating temperatures around 200–240 ºC (El-Zawawy et al. 2011). Sulfuric acid was catalyzed the hydrolysis better than oxalic acid, in term of producing reducing sugar yield. Oxalic acid is strong enough to catalyze hemicellulose hydrolysis, but under mild conditions it is selective enough to avoid extensive cellulose degradation (Lee et al. 2010). Figure 4 showed the penetration of acids on OPEFB pulp fibers was observed by scanning electron micrograph (SEM). The fibers before and after hydrolysis are seen to retain the original fibrous structure although the fibers were broken into smaller fragments by acid catalyst. But the sulfuric acid broke the fibers harder than oxalic acid. Based on Mohagheghi et al. (1992), calculation of theoritical yield of cellulose of the oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp was 92.53%. In this research, the highest reducing sugar yield from hydrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp only one third of its theoritical yield. The highest yield (30.49%) was achieved at 50% microwave power for 15 minutes heating and catalyzed by sulfuric acid. At that point, the decomposition reaction was achieved the highest point too. The decomposition was represented by brown compound and HMF content at hydrolysates (Figure 2 and Figure 3). HMF is a well known by-product formed in acid hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials. It is formed from hexoses in acid catalyzed processes. HMF and furfural are the most important inhibitors during fermentation of dilute-acid hydrolyzates, therefore lower amounts of HMF are desirable in the hydrolysates (Karimi et al. 2006).
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Figure 1. Reducing sugar yield obtained after hydrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp under microwave irradiation during 5, 10 and 15 minutes and catalyzed by (a) sulfuric acid 1% and (b) oxalic acid 1% 202 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Figure 2. Formation of brown compound after hydrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp under microwave irradiation during 5, 10 and 15 minutes and catalyzed by (a) sulfuric acid 1% and (b) oxalic acid 1%
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Figure 3. HMF content after hydrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp under microwave irradiation during 5, 10 and 15 minutes and catalyzed by (a) sulfuric acid 1% and (b) oxalic acid 1%
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Figure 4. S canning electron micrographs (SEM) of (a) OPEFB, (b) OPEFB after hydrolysis by sulfuric acid 1% and (c) OPEFB after hydrolysis by oxalic acid 1%; under 50% microwave irradiation and during 15 minutes of heating at 1000 x magnification. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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CONCLUSION This research showed that the higher the power and the longer the time of heating, the more reducing sugar produced on hydrolysis of OPEFB pulp. Reducing sugar produced from hydrolysis under microwave irradiation of oil palm empty fruit bunch pulp in sulfuric acid is higher than that in oxalic acid. The highest reducing sugar yield was achieved by using sulfuric acid as catalyst on hydrolysis reaction of oil palm empty fruit bunch under 50% power of microwave and 15 minutes heating time, but only one third of the theoritical yield of cellulose conversion. After 10 minutes heating time using 50% microwave power, the decompostion of hydrolisates was significantly detected.
REFERENCES Demirbas, A. 2005. Bioethanol from Cellulosic Materials: A Renewable Motor Fuel from Biomass. Energy Sources, 27:327-337. El-Zawawy, W.K., Ibrahim, M.M., Abdel-Fattah, Y.R., Soliman, N.A., Mahmoud, M.M. 2011. Acid and Enzyme Hydrolysis to Convert Pretreated Lignocellulosic Materials Into Glucose for Ethanol Production. Carbohydrate Polymers 84:865–871. Goh, C.S., Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T., Bhatia, S. 2010. Bio-Ethanol from Lignocellulose: Status, Perspectives and Challenges in Malaysia. Bioresource Technology 101:4834–4841. Karimi, K., Kheradmandinia, S., Taherzadeh, M.J. 2006. Conversion of Rice Straw to Sugars By Dilute-Acid Hydrolysis. J. Biomass and Bioenergy 30:247-253. Lee, J.W., Rodrigues, R.C.L.B., Kim, H.J., Choi, I.G., Jeffries, T.W. 2010. The Roles of Xylan and Lignin in Oxalic Acid Pretreated Corncob During Separate Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Ethanol Fermentation. Bioresource Technology 101:4379-4385. Mohagheghi, A., Tucker, M., Grohmann, K., Wyman, C. 1992. High Solids Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation of Pretreated Wheat Straw to Ethanol. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 33:67-81. Orozco, A., Ahmad, M., Rooney, D., Walker, G. 2007. Dilute Acid Hydrolysis of Cellulose and Cellulosic Bio-Waste Using A Microwave Reactor System. Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety and Environmental Protection 85(B5):446-449. Sudiyani, Y., Fitria, I., Idiyanti, T., Haroen, W.K., Hermiati, E. 2010. Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Fiber Kraft Pulp to Produce Ethanol. J. Ilmu dan Teknologi Kayu Tropis 8(1):21-27. Tsubaki, S., Azuma, J. 2011.Application of Microwave Technology for Utilization of Recalcitrant Biomass. Advances in Induction and Microwave Heating of Mineral and Organic Materials. Intech, pp 697-722. http://www.intechweb.org/books/show/title/advancesin-induction-and-microwave-heating-of-mineral-and-organic-materials. Warrand, J., Janssen, H.G. 2007. Controlled production of oligosacc harides from amylose by acid-hydrolysis under microwave treatment: Comparis on with conventional heating. Carbohydrate Polymers 69:353–362.
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White Rot Fungi as Potential Agents for Biodecolorization of Textile Waste Noor Rahmawati and Mustika Dewi School of Life Sciences and Technology, Forest Engineering, ITB Jatinangor
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to look for white rot fungi that have a high ability in decolorization syntethic dyes. In this research, two kinds of white rot fungi, Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trametes versicolor, and two types of textile dyes, Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR) and Rhodamin B were used. The results showed that both fungi are used to grow on media that has been mixed with the dye in various concentrations. The greater the concentration of dye added to the media, will inhibit the growth of fungi. This occurs in both the fungi, P. chrysosporium and T.versicolor. Growth on the media without dye (control) is greater than the growth of fungus on media mixed dyes. T.versicolor growth on the control reached a diameter of 82.5 mm on day 10, while the media mixed Rhodamin B at 50 ppm level only reached 37 mm on day 10. While P Chrisosporium on the control reached 45 mm and 37 mm in the mixed media 50 ppm. Almost the same growth also occurred on media added RBBR dye. Based on spectrophotometry tests conducted it has seen that either the fungus T. versicolor and P. chrisosporium able to decolorize Rhodhamin B and RBBR dyes tested. This is shown by the decrease in absorbance at the dye tested. T.versicolor can decrease Rhodamin absorbance around at 51.7 -59.5%. While P. Chrisosporium successfully decolorized dye substance of 42.5 to 52.9%. RBBR absorbance was decreased occurs at 25-59 % by T. Versicolor while P. chrisosporium successfully decolorized dye substance of 19-31%.
BACKGROUND Manufacture of textiles and textile products (TPT) in Indonesia plays a significant role for the economy of Indonesia. In 2006, the textile industry contributes for 11.7% of total national exports and 20.2% of the national trade surplus, and 3.8% against the formation of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) nationwide. While the absorption of the industry workforce is also large enough to reach 1.84 million workers. By 2006, the number of Indonesia’s textile industry reached 2669 companies with a total investment of Rp 135.7 trillion. This amount is only slightly increased compared to the previous year, amounting to 2656 companies. Location textile industry is concentrated in West Java (57%), Central Java (14%) and Jakarta 17%). The rest are scattered in eastern Java, Bali, Sumatra and Yogyakarta. The total production capacity was 6.1 million tons with 69.8% utility (Ermina Miranti, 2007). Apart from its role as a dependable commodity exports, the textile industry raises serious problems for the environment, especially problems caused by the liquid waste generated such as BOD, COD, suspended solids and color are relatively high. In the effort to remove pollutants, sewage treatment done in physics, chemistry and in biology. Physico-chemical waste that already exists is very expensive, and can provide new environmental problems. Decolorization of chemical using coagulant will result in sludge in relatively large quantities and are classified as B3 waste (PP. 19 in 1994), thus requiring further treatment of waste sludge is formed. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS) | 205
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To solve the problem above, it required a new alternative for treating wastewater of textile industry that was effective and efficient in degrading organic pollutants and dyes White rot fungi was known to have the ability of bioremediation (Asamudo et al, 2005). The ability to remove color (decolorization) of 4 types of synthetic colors (Phenol red, blue van, eoshin Yellowish, and Polly B 411) was found in Pleurotus ostreatus (Eichlerova et al, 2002). The success of bioremediation of wastewater containing phenolic by Trametes versicolor was found to be dependent on many factors including the growth of mildew, old culture, the production and activity of laccase enzime. The use of guaiacol as an inducer of laccase activity increased 780% without inhibiting growth. Decolorization level of the local textile industry wastewater depends on the LIP and MnP production and growth of the fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium (Blood and Ibrahim, 1998). Pasczynky et al (1992) reported that fungi P.chrysosporium is a very potential in degrading a number of Azo dyes. Azo dye degradation by these fungi occurred during the stage of secondary metabolites and coincides with the phase ligninolitic which found two extracellular peroxidase, so-called lignin peroxidase (LiP) and Manganese peroxidase (MnP) Glen and Gold (1983) also reported that P chrysosporium can remove the color of some dyes polymer (polymeric dyes). Laccase has been used over the past two decades to eliminate the aromatic components in a variety of wastes. Laccase is known to oxidize phenolic components that generate fragments that reactive Chinoid with low molecular weight. pH optimum in color removal was pH 5 for Diamond Black PV 200. Biodegradation capability, greatly depends on the structure of the dye (Kandelbauer et al, 2004). Laccase (P-diphenol oxidase, EC 1.10.3.2) catalyzes the oxidation of aromatic amine component and phenolic and receive a wide range of substrates (Claus, 2004 in Kandelbauer 2004). Laccase from Pleurotus ostreatus supplementated with copper and ferulic acid dyes are used to decolorize anthraquinone (Antraquinon dye) remazol brilliant Blue R (RBBR) (Palmieri et al, 2005). Phanerachaete chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor and Pleorotus ostreorotus in previous studies successfully to decolorize methylene blue dye in solid and liquid media (Rahmawati and Dewi, 2010). Based on the reasons both economic and ecological, biological degradation becomes an attractive alternative and environmentally friendly in tackling pollution / hazardous waste. In Indonesia, research on the ability of fungi in the degradation of organic components for handling waste has not been widely implemented. So, in this study we tried to examine the ability of white rot fungi in removing color of textile dyes Rhodamin and Remazol brilliant blue R (RBBR)
PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH The purposes of this study are: 1. To determine the ability of white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trametes versicolor in removing the color (decolorization) of textile dye Rhodamin and RBBR. 2. To determine the rate / speed decolorization synthetic dyes from each - of the tested white rot fungus (Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor and Pleurotus ostreatus)
MATERIALS AND METHODE Fungus used in this research, consisted of 2 types of Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor. Dyes used in this study is the substance commonly used by the textile industry, namely Rhodamin B and Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR). Fungus were grown in Potato Dextrose Agar at 28 º C for 7 days before use. 206 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Effication Assay In testing the efficacy of white rot fungus toward dyes was used four dye concentrations of 20 ppm, 30 ppm, 40 ppm and 50 ppm and without dye as a control. The medium used is a PDA. White rot fungus that have been incubated for one week removed and grown on PDA medium that has been mixed with dyes with various concentrations of as many as 1 piece of mycellium with a diameter of 7 mm. The growth of fungi and dye discoloration that occurs in PDA medium was observed. To determine the effect of dyes on the growth of fungus was observed inhibition power. The percentage of inhibition was calculated by using the following formula: DH = R 1 - R 2 x 100% R1 DH = Inhibiton (%)
R1 = Diameter of untreated fungus (mm)
R2 = Diameter of treated fungus mm)
Decolorization Assay Two milliliters of cell-free extracts of culture was transferred and dilute with 10 drops aquades and absorbance was measured at an appropriate wavelength using UV Visible spectrophotometer. Rodhamin wavelength is 590 nm and the wavelength 520 nm is for RBBR. To measure the speed decolorization dyes, measurements were made on days 2, 4, 6 and 8.
RESULTS White rot fungi can grow well On PDA medium, because growth media made from Pottato Dextro Agar containing a carbon source in the form of sucrose (sugar) which is also a food source for fungi. So in this study, we used PDAs as white rot fungal growth media. Observation of fungal growth was carried on everyday for 10 days. Because after 10 days, there were no growth anymore, so we assumed that was maximum growth. The results of micellia growth with and without treatment with RBBR and Rodhamin were provided at Figure 1 and Figure 2. Figure 3 explained how synthetic dyes gave effect on the growth of fungal.
Figure1. Graph of micellia growth with and without treatment with RBBR dyes The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Figure 2. Graph of micellia growth with and without treatment with Rodhamin dyes
Figure 3. The effect of sinthetic dyes on growth of fungi It was seen from the graph 1 above, Trametes versicolor and Phanerochaete chrysosporium can grow properly. It can be seen by the graph continues to rise, only a slight decreased in diameter. The graph above shows the growth Trametes versicolor and Phanerochaete chrysosporium diameter increasing from day to - 1 up to day - 10 observation. This showed that T. versicolor and P.chrisosporium can grow on PDA media treated with RBBR and Rodhamin Dyes (Figure 1 and 2). Based on the chart above it is clear that T.versicolor growth rate is less than optimal due to a decrease in diameter of fungal colonies despite not fall until it reaches the point of death. The growth of that fungal on medium treated with sinthetic dyes was less than fungal growth on medium without sinthetic dyes. Its means that sinthetic dyes (RBBR and Rodhamin) gave negative effect on growth of fungal when RBBR and Rodhamin were added on medium (Figure 3). Inhibition Force Assay of sinthetic dyes towards The growth of Fungal At the beginning, fungal growth inhibition by the dye is still zero. On the second day a significant increase of the fungal growth inhibition was happened. The process of growth inhibition 208 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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by synthetic dyes is dependent on the type and concentration of dye added (Figure 4). Growth inhibition by RBBR dye was higher than when the media was mixed with Rodhamin dye. The higher concentration of the dye will increase the percentage of growth inhibition. This is thought RBBR dye components have toxicity more that could further inhibit the growth of fungi than that of Rodhamin dyes. Increasing dye concentration will increase the amount of poison that works in that medium.
Figure 4. Growth Inhibition By synthetic dyes Decolorization Assay Decolorization assay was carried on using UV visible spectrophotometer measuring tool. The result of decolorization assay were presented at Figure 5 and 6.
Figure 5. Decolorization of RBBR dyes By Fungi
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Figure 6. Decolorization of Rodhamin Dyes By Fungi Based on the graph above it can be seen that the white rot fungus Trametes versicolor and Phanerochaete chrysosporium can decolorize textile dyes, both RBBR and Rodhamin. This can be seen from the decrease in absorbance value at the maximum lambda value in accordance with the dyes used. Since each dye has a characteristic wavelength respectively. Decolorization process of RBBR and rodhamin dyes occured at all concentration levels tested, which is about 20-50 ppm. In Rodhamin B dye, Trametes versicolor and Phanerochaete chrysosporium can perform dye decolorization better than the decolorization of RBBR. The higher concentration the dye in the medium, the slower decolorization. This happened in both T. versicolor and P. chrysosporium. At Rodhamin dyes, T.versicolor have higher rate of decolorization compared with P. chrysosporium. Meanwhile, decolorization rate of RBBR dyes by T.versicolor and P. chrysosporium were similar.
DISCUSSION The results showed that on PDA medium, the two fungus used in this research P.chrysosporium, and T.versicolor interact with the dye RBBR and Rodhamin B. This is indicated by the inhibition of fungal growth after synthetic dyes added to the medium. Fungal growth inhibitory power vary depend on the type of fungi, types of synthetic dyes and the concentration of the dye. Basically the two fungus used are capable of living in a medium that has been added by synthetic dye RBBR and Rodhamin with concentrations of 20, 30, 40 and 50 ppm, although the growth is smaller than the fungus living in media without addition of synthetic dyes.The ability of white rot fungus, P.chrysosporium and T.versicolor to degrade RBBR and Rodhamin was indicated by the color change is visually observed every day and by spectroscopy on days 2, 4 and 6. The results showed that the color was changed in media added synthetic dyes RBBR and Rodhamin overgrown the fungus. This happened on both fungi tested, although the rate of discolorization were different . The same result is also indicated by changes in the absorbance at a wavelength of 590 nm (RBBR) and 520 nm for Rodhamin. Absorbance of control was greater than the absorbance on the media treated by sinthetic dyes. At a dye concentration of 20 ppm, all white rot fungi capable of degrading the dye. Color degradation ability starts to decline when the concentration increases. 210 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Color is affected by the rate of degradation of synthetic dyes (type and concentration) and the type of fungi used. The results are in line with previous research that revealed that white rot fungus (Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor and Pleurotus ostreatus) were able to degrade synthetic dyes methylene blue (Rahmawati and Mustika 2010). The ability of color removing (decolorization) 4 types of synthetic colors (Phenol red, evan blue, eoshin Yellowish, and Polly B 411) in five strains of Pleurotus ostreatus [1 parent strain (parental), and 4 are derived from these strain] found. Evan’s blue and Yellowish Eoshin strongly suppress the growth of strains, while Phenol red and Poly B 411 decreased growth only a little or not at all (Eichlerova et al, 2002). The ability of color degradation by white rot fungi influenced by enzymes produced by fungi degrade lignin as in the enzyme laccase, MNP and LIP enzymes. Succeded on bioremediation of wastewater containing phenolic by Trametes versicolor was found to be dependent on many factors including the growth of fungi, age rather than culture, production and laccase enzyme activity. Pasczynky et al (1992) reported that P chrysosporium is a very potent fungi that can completely degrade a number of Azo dyes. Azo dye degradation by these fungi occurred during the stage of secondary metabolites and coincides with the phase ligninolitic. During this phase ligninolitic found that the second extracellular peroxidase block, referred to as lignin peroxidase (LIP) and Manganese peroxidase (MNP) is synthesized.
CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of research on the ability of fungi to remove color on synthetic textile dyes obtained the following results: 1. Types of fungi (T. versicolor and P. Chrysosporium), types of dyes and the concentration of synthetic dyes (RBBR and Rodhamin) affect the growth inhibitory power of diameter micellium and fungal growth. 2. For this type of species, Trametes versicolor have a better growth rate compared with Phanerochaete chrysosporium. 3. Each type of fungus at a concentration of 20, 30, 40 and 50 ppm when compared with controls had a lower absorbance value so it can be concluded that both types of fungus (Trametes versicolor and Phanerochaete chrysosporium) has ability to decolorize the synthetic textile dyes . 4. RBBR was more difficult to decolorize compared with Rodhamin by T. versicolor and P. chrysosporium because of its complexity.
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REFERENCES Andreas Kandelbauera, Angelika Erlacher, Arthur Cavaco-Paulo and Georg M, Guebitz. , 2004 Laccase-catalyzed Decolorization of the Synthetic Azo-dye Diamond Black PV 200 and of some Structurally RelatedDerivatives Asamudo, N. U.1, A.S. Daba2 and O.U. Ezeronye1.2005. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 4 (13), pp. 1548-1553, December 2005 Eichlerova, L. Homolka, F.Nerud. 2002. Decolorization of Synthetic Dyes By Pleurotus Ostreatus. Isolates. Differing in Lignolytic Properties. Folia Microbiol. 47 (6) 191-195. Eliana Pereira Chagasa and Lucia Regina Durrant. 2001. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. Volume 29, Issues 8-9, Ermina miranti. 2007.Mencermati Kinerja Tekstl Indonesia. Antara Potensi dan Peluang. Economic review No 209. September 2007. WWW.BNI.co.idDarah, I dan Ibrahim , C.O. 1998. Decolorization of Wastewater From Local textile Milles by Cultures of Phanerochaete chrisosporium. Annales Bogorienses.n.s vol 5 no 2 Glenn J.K & Gold, M.H. 1983. Decolorization of Several Polymeric Dyes by Lignin Degrading Basydiomycete phanerochaete chrysosporium. Appl. Environ Microbiol.45. 1741 -1747 E Gohnar , . Vohra *8z P . Sharma Department of Microbiology, Panjab Universityand *Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh-I60014, India Pauli Ollikka, Kirsi Alhonmäki, Veli-Matti Leppänen, Tuomo Glumoff,Timo Raijola and Ilari Suominen.1993. Decolorization of Azo, Triphenyl Methane, Heterocyclic, and Polymeric Dyes by Lignin Peroxidase Isoenzymes from Phanerochaete chrysosporium Appl Environ Microbiol. 1993 December; 59(12): 4010-4016 Palmieri G, Giardina P, Sannia G . 2005.Biotechnol Prog. 2005 Sep-Oct;21(5):1436-41 Paszczynski, A. Maria B. Pasti-Grigsby. Stefan Goszczynski. Ronald L Crawford and Don L Crawford. 1992. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Vol 58, No 11. , Vol. 58, No. 11. p. 3598-3604 Rahmawati Noor & Mustika Dewi. 2010. Kemampuan jamur pelapuk putih dalam mendekolorisasizat pewarna sintetik . Laporan Dosen Muda Dikti. Renita manurung, rosdanelli hasibuan, Irvan. 2004. Perombakan zat warna azo reaktif secara an aerob-aerob. Fakultas Teknik-jurusan Teknik Kimia Universitas Sumatera Utara. E-USU Repository. Ryan, D. and Leukes, W. and Burton, S. (2006) Improving the bioremediation of phenolic wastewaters by Trametes versicolor. Bioresource Technology, 98 (3). pp. 579-587. ISSN 0960-8524 Siswanto, Suharyanto Dan Rossy Fitria. 2007. Produksi dan Karakterisasi Lakase Omphalina sp. Menara Perkebunan. 75(2) 106-115
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The Flexural Strength and Rigidity of Composite Plywood-Bamboo Stress Skin Panel Johannes Adhijoso Tjondro1 and Jefrey Rory Paath 2 Department of Civil Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Indonesia e-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected] 2 Alumni, Department of Civil Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Indonesia 1
ABSTRACT The double stress skin panel floor specimen in 500 x 2400 mm2 dimension was made from 6 bamboo-stringers and 2 sheets of plywood. The composite action between plywood and bamboostringer was connected with screws at 250 mm distance. The three double stress skin panel floor specimens were tested under third point loading. The flexural strength at proportional and ultimate load was observed. The failure mode was splitting in bamboo near support, and crushing of the bamboo at loading point. Some screws were pulled out after a large deformation. No flexural failure happened either in bamboo or plywood. The floor has a small ductility factor before failure. The comparison of allowable load and displacement between design and experimental result was presented. The rigidity correction factor was suggested in the calculation of the design load and displacement for more accurate prediction. Keywords: flexural strength, rigidity correction factor, proportional load, ultimate load.
INTRODUCTION Most parts of Indonesia are located within a region of intense seismic activity. In the last decade, Indonesia has been a subject to the three major earthquakes: the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake of Richter magnitude 9.0; a magnitude 6.3 earthquake that devastated the Yogyakarta area in 2006; and last September 2009, the magnitude 7.3 earthquake that damaged much of Padang and surrounding districts. Since Indonesia was located in the active seismic area and many casualties happened, it was necessary to improve the seismic performance of the building. One of the principles of seismic design is using a lightweight material such as wood to reduce the floor mass of the building which also reduces the earthquake inertial force. The fabricated floor can made from a wood composite stress skin panel. Composite action between plywood and merantistringer connected with strong-epoxy glue was analyzed and tested under both non-destructive and destructive test was done by Tjondro (2011). In this experimental study, three specimens of composite stress skin double panel consist of two 50 mm x 2400 mm sheet and six bamboo stringers was introduced, see Figure 1. The fabricated floor such as heavy precast concrete floor also can be used to reduce the site work and speed of the construction. These bamboo-plywood stress skin panels are light and easy to be erected by manual. Fabrication of the panel made as was illustrated in the Figure 2. The floor was made by joining two sheets of 12 mm thickness of plywood to the bamboo stringers by mechanical connection using flat-head screws at 250 mm distance. The average weight of the floor specimen was 35 kg, which is about one fourth of concrete floor weight. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Figure 1. Cross section of the floor consist of six bamboo stringers and two sheets of plywood
Figure 2. Six bamboo stringers and connecting plywood to the stringers by screws
MATERIALS AND METHOD The stringer of the specimen was made by Tali bamboo species and unknown plywood wood species. The bamboo and plywood has a specific gravity around 0.60. The shear strength of screw based on shear test was 2.13 kN. The mechanical properties such as bending, tension and compression strength parallel to the grain and modulus of elasticity of the bamboo and plywood were tested. The values of mechanical properties divided by 4 was used to approximate the allowable stress for design purpose. The modulus of elasticity used was the average. The rolling shear of plywood was assumed and was taken from APA (1990). The average properties of bamboo, plywood and screw were shown as in Table 1. Table 1. Average properties of bamboo, plywood and screw
The design calculation of this stress skin panel was based on the allowable stress design (Ozelton, 2006). The rigidity of the panel with solid assumption was calculated as equation (1)
EIpanel = EIstr + ∑ ( E A ) h x
2
(1)
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| The Flexural Strength and Rigidity of Composite Plywood-Bamboo Stress Skin Panel |
Where: EIpanel = panel rigidity (Nmm2)
EIstr
= stringer rigidity (Nmm2)
E
= modulus of elasticity (MPa)
A
= panel section area (mm2)
hx
= distance to the neutral axis (mm)
The calculation of bending stress, shear stress and deflection based on the common theory of the strength of materials (Gere, 2001). The second moment of area was calculated by transformed section area. The rigidity correction factor was introduced to get the actual rigidity of the floor. The floor specimen was tested under third point loading with a clear span length of the beam L = 2200 mm and the two point loads position was one third from the support as was illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3. The schematic of beam on the third point loading test The calculation of central point deflection due to the two points loading and neglected the shear deformation was: (2) where: E = modulus of elasticity (N/mm2)
F = point load (N)
L = span length (mm)
I = second moment of area (mm4)
k = rigidity correction factor
Table 2. Dimension, allowable stress and displacement for design calculation Diameter of bamboo stringer dstr 80 mm Allowable bending stress of skin Fbskin Thickness of bamboo stringer tstr 10 mm Allowable shear stress of stringer Fvstr Width of plywood skin bskin 500 mm Allowable rolling shear stress Fr.a Elastic modulus of stringer Estr 11422 MPa Allowable displacement Δtot Elastic modulus of plywood Eskin 11218 MPa Allowable skin displacement Δskin 13.20 MPa Allowable screw shear stress Fscrew Allowable bending stress of Fbstr stringer
8.70 MPa n.a. 0.52 MPa 7.33 mm n.a 140 MPa
The allowable stress design for concentrated load was 4.552 kN which is critical in the allowable displacement of 1/300 of the span length (Paath, 2011). This design value was found by using rigidity correction factor k = 0.60. The corrected rigidity (EI) was found by equation (1), by measuring central point deflection by LVDT and total load of 2F. This research based on the theoretical and experimental study. The small clear specimen for material properties test based on the ASTM D143- 94 (2008) as was illustrated in Figure 4 and 5. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Figure 4. Bending, tension and compression of bamboo material properties test
Figure 5. Bending, tension and compression of plywood material properties test The floor specimen was tested under third point loading to get the load and displacement curve of the floor. The clear span length of the beam was L = 2200 mm and the two point of loads position was one third from the supports as was illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6. The floor specimen under loading test
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| The Flexural Strength and Rigidity of Composite Plywood-Bamboo Stress Skin Panel |
RESULT AND DISCUSSION The load vs. displacement curves in Figure 7 and Table 3 presented the load at service (Pa), proportional load (Pp), ultimate load (Pu), displacement related to each load, ratio of loads and ductility. The total load of P was 2 times F. Displacement at the proportional limit (öp) was exceeded the sevice-ability requirement of öa = 7.33 mm but the load at this point was greater than the design load (Pd) of 4.55 1(N. The allowable stress design method was suitable when using rigidity correction factor of 0.60. The average displacement ductility factor at ultimate (µu-avr) was 1.68.
Figure 7. Load vs. displacement curve (P = 2F) Table 3. The proportional load (Pp) and ultimate load (Pu) compared to allowable load (Pa). No S-1 S-2 S-3
Pa(1(N) 4.87 4.38 4.59
öa(mm) Pp(1(N) öp(mm) Pu(1(N) öu(mm) Pa/Pp Pa/Pu 7.33 18.29 32.52 23.15 54.84 0.27 0.21 7.33 16.30 31.16 19.39 51.56 0.27 0.23 7.33 20.11 31.52 25.10 53.80 0.23 0.18
I-tu I-tu1.69 1.65 1.68 1.71
From the proportional and ultimate load at experimental test, bending stress was calculated by the analytical theory. The result was shown that the ultimate bending stresses in panel were lower than ultimate bending stress of plywood. The failure mode was splitting in bamboo near support, and crushing of the bamboo at loading point. Some screws were pulled out after a large deformation. No flexural failure happened either in bamboo or plywood.
Figure 8. Bamboo crushing at point of loading and splitting at support The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Comparison of floor rigidity (EI) was done as presented in Table 4. The theoretical rigidity value (EI)solid compare to the rigidity resulted from test k(EI)solid. Simple approach was done to predict the bending stress and displacement at service load and ultimate load. This k factor was introduced to make correction of the rigidity. Table 4. Rigidity correction factor (k) No
Pp (kN)
k.EI (N.m2)
EI (N.m2)
k
S-1
18.29
32.52
106280612
184730000
0.58
S-2
16.30
31.16
98850992
184730000
0.54
S-3
20.11
31.52
120563747
184730000
0.65
δp
(mm)
By using k factor, the theoretical bending stress and rolling shear in plywood and bamboo at Pa and Pp from experimental test was compared to the allowable and ultimate stress of the materials as in Table 1 and 2. The bending stress at allowable load was closed to the allowable bending stress of plywood of 8.70 MPa and 13.20 MPa for bamboo. The rolling shear is far away from the allowable rolling shear of 0.52 MPa. The ultimate bending stress of plywood was 34.7 MPa and 52.7 MPa for bamboo was closed to the theoretical calculation, see Table 5. Table 5. Theoretical stresses at allowable load and proportional load Plywood No
Pa (kN)
Pp (kN)
S-1
4.87
S-2 S-3
Fb-a (MPa)
Fr-a (MPa)
18.29
8.902
0.059
4.38
16.30
7.957
4.59
20.11
8.362
Bamboo Fb-p (MPa)
Fr-p (MPa)
Fb-a (MPa)
Fb-p (MPa)
34.799
0.232
6.972
27.256
0.052
30.959
0.206
6.232
24.248
0.055
38.312
0.256
6.549
30.006
CONCLUSION Transform section method with rigidity correction factor of 0.60 give a good prediction of the actual rigidity. The failure mode of all specimens was crushing and splitting in bamboo. The deflection controls the design which is match with the design prediction. The interaction between plywood skin and bamboo and the rigidity of the floor seems influenced by the screw spacing. The screw between bamboo stringers and plywood was pulled out because of the small thickness of plywood and bamboo. Stress concentration made crushing failure of bamboo near supports and points of load.
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REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials. (2008). ASTM D143-94: Standard Methods of Testing Small Clear Specimens of Timber. Annual Book of ASTM Standards volume 04.10. Baltimore, U.S.A. American Society for Testing and Materials. (2008). ASTM D198-99: Standard Test Methods of Static Tests of Lumber in Structural Sizes. Annual Book of ASTM Standards volume 04.10. Baltimore, U.S.A. APA Engineered Wood Association. (1990). Plywood Design Specification Supplement 3: Design and Fabrication of Plywood Stressed-Skin Panels. New York. Gere, J.M., 2001. Mechanics of Materials. 5th ed. Brooks/Cole, USA. Ozelton, E.C. and Baird, J.A. (2006). Timber Designers’ Manual. 3rd ed. Blackwell Publishing. Paath, J.R. (2011). Studi Eksperimental Kekakuan dan Kuat Lentur Stressed Skin Panel dengan Stringer Bambu. Skripsi, Fakultas Teknik Jurusan Teknik Sipil Universitas Katolik Parahyangan, Bandung. 2011. Tjondro, J.A., Widarda, D.R., and Dharma, L.E. (2011). The Flexural Strength and Rigidity of Plywood – Meranti Stress Skin Panel. Proceeding of The 3rd International Conference of European Asian Civil Engineering Forum. Yogyakarta 20 – 22 September 2011.
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The Behaviour of Timber Frame Shear Wall Sheathed with Horizontal Wood Plank under Cyclic Loading Johannes Adhijoso Tjondro1, Helmy Hermawan Tjahjanto2, and Steven Varian Lokanatha 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Indonesia e-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected] 2 Department of Civil Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Indonesia 3 Alumni Department of Civil Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Indonesia 1
ABSTRACT Indonesia is in the active seismic area, the building must have the capability to resist the earthquake loading. The timber shearwall is the most effective way to resist earthquake or wind loading. In this experimental study a frame sheathed with albasia wood planks was constructed as a shear wall. The wood planks were connected with nail to the frame. Three specimens of WP shear wall were tested under a cyclic loading, and the parameters in the hysteresis rule such as yield force, ultimate force, unloading-reloading parameters and ductility factors were observed. The stiffness and the ductility factor of the shearwall only sufficient for timber houses in the low to moderate seismic area. Significant degrading of strength and large slip occurred after the ultimate force. The failure mode and strength of this shear wall was depending on the number of nail, holddown angle and framing connections. Keywords: WP shear wall, cyclic loading, hysteresis rule parameter, ductility factor.
INTRODUCTION Many of traditional houses in Indonesia used to be built with light building materials, such as wood plank and bamboo mats. During the Aceh 2004, Jogjakarta 2006, Padang 2009 earthquakes, many of houses collapse because of lack of awareness, knowledge and skills in built the houses. Particularly, non-engineered houses were built using non-seismic resistant techniques. These types of traditional houses normally survive under strong earthquakes but if it is not designed and constructed properly it may suffer from major damage during strong ground shaking (Wijanto et al. 2010). This research was investigated how strong this wood plank as a wall that can resist lateral forces such as earthquake or wind. Since timber shearwall is an effective element to resist lateral load in timber building, many research has been done (Stewart 1987, Dean and Tjondro 1988, Tjondro and Onky 2011 and others). The hysteresis curve can be used for simulate the behaviour of the shear wall in the numerical analysis, such as dynamic analisis by step by step time history analysis. In the “RUAUMOKO” inelastic dynamic time history analysis computer program, Stewart and Carr developed the Stewart hysteresis rule as in Figure 1 (Carr 1998). This hysteresis rule basically based on the shearwall frame sheathed with plywood. The parameters was forces at yield (Fy), ultimate (Fu) and at intercept (Fi) and elastic stiffness (ko), unloading-reloading stifness factor r, γUNL and γTri , see Figure 1. The other curve was three-linear model proposed by Fukuda as in Figure 2. 220 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Behaviour of Timber Frame Shear Wall Sheathed with Horizontal Wood Plank under Cyclic Loading |
Figure 1. Stewart hysteresis model (Carr 1998)
Figure 2. Fukuda degrading three-linear hysteresis model (Carr, 1998) From the test result the behavior of shear wall was investigated either closed to the Stewart or three-linier Fukuda model.
MATERIAL AND METHOD The wood plank was made from Albasia and the frame from Sengon. The cross section dimension of wood plank was 18 x 180 mm2. The frame was made from 60 mm x 100 mm bottom and vertical member The wood plank was connected to the frame by nails. The nail has a diameter of 2 mm and 35 mm in length. The nail spacing was 50 mm (3 nails per each side of wood plank) for WP-SW1 specimen and 25 mm (5 nails per each side of wood plank) for WP-SW2 and WP-SW3 specimens. Three specimens have different hold down angle, WP-SW1 and WP-SW2 without hold down angle and WP-SW3 using hold down angle. In between the wood planks has a tongue and groove to form the overall dimension of 1240 mm x 2400 mm of WP shear wall, see Figure 3.
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Figure 3. Wood plank shear wall
Figure 4. WP shear wall under cyclic loading
The test was done in the structural laboratory in the Research Institute for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works, Bandung. The setting of the WP shearwall specimen as was seen in Figure 5. The loading cell with 100 kN capacity was used to give the cyclic horizontal static load and 5 kN of vertical constant load was applied to simulate the gravity load. Ten transducers were used to monitor the horizontal and vertical displacements.
Figure 5. Test setting of WP shearwall (Lokanatha, 2011) The cyclic static loading displacement schedule was based on the cyclic static loading displacement schedule as in Figure 6. It was a modification from ASTM E2 126-05 Test Methods for Cyclic (Reversed) Load Test for Shear Resistance of Walls for Buildings. Each amplitudo level of loading increase by 1 kN and repeated until three cycles per amplitudo of loading.
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| The Behaviour of Timber Frame Shear Wall Sheathed with Horizontal Wood Plank under Cyclic Loading |
Figure 6. Cyclic static loading displacement schedule.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The load–displacement (F-Δ) curve from the three specimen of WP shear wall was plotted as hysteresis curve as in Figure 7 to 9. The parameters in the hysteresis curve such as yield force, ultimate force, unloading-reloading parameters and ductility factors were observed. The parameters of the hysteresis curve quite similar with the Stewart hysteresis model. The curve in the WP-SW1 specimen was unsymmetric, this may be happened because of unperfect fixity of the bottom chord to the test frame. The difference of wood properties or some defect in the wood may also resulted different stiffness and strength in difference direction of loads. The curve in the WP-SW2 and WP-SW3 specimens was better than the first specimen before.
Figure 7. Hysteresis curve of WP-SW1 specimen
Figure 8. Hysteresis curve of WP-SW2 specimen The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Figure 9. Hysteresis curve of WP-SW3 specimen The WP-SW1 specimen with nail spacing of 50 mm (3 nails per each side of wood plank) has a lower strength and stiffness then WP-SW2 and WP-SW3 specimens with a 25 mm nail spacing (5 nails per each side of wood plank). In the specimen WP-SW1 and WP-SW2 without hold-down angle the bottom frame connection was failed and then following by tension failure perpendicular to the grain. Hold-down angle at WP-SW3 specimen prevented the failure in the frame connections and guarantee that the failure mechanism was a horizontal slip between the wood planks.
The first yield force (Fy), ultimate (Fu) and maksimum load (Fmax) was in between (3.90 – 5.05) kN, (5.89 – 7.10) kN and (6.21 – 8.10) kN respectively. The drift at the first yield and ultimate load was under 0.31% and 0.83% respectively, and the maximum displacement at failure can be achieved (25 to 92) mm.
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Table 1. Data in the trilinier curve and intercept point
The elastic stiffness of this WP shearwall was in between (0.639 – 1.256) kN/mm, see Table 2 for other stiffness factors. The average value of k0, r.k0, γTRI. k0 and γUNL. k0 was 0.857, 0.246, 0.052 and 0.596 kN/mm respectively. The stiffness factor of r, γTRI and γUNL was 0.303, 0.061 and 0.691. The average intercept factor was 0.253 and the softening factor β was 1.242. Table 2. The stiffness and unloading-reloading parameters
The average ductility factor of this WP shearwall at ultimate can achieve the value of µu = 2.93 9 and at failure µmax = 8.891. Those values will be sufficient for ductility limit in the timber shear wall earthquake design requirements.
Figure 12. The envelope of three-linear curve of WP-SW specimens. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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The envelope of three-linear curve of WP-SW specimens in the Figure 12 showed that the elastic stiffness and the yield strength were quite similar. The ultimate and maximum strength of WP-SW2 and WP-SW3 specimens by closer nail spacing increased about 10% to 25%.
CONCLUSIONS The elastic stiffness and the yield strength of this Wood Plank shear wall specimens was not significantly depend on the hold-down connection but on the nail spacing of wood planks to the frame. The ultimate and maximum strength increased by closer nail spacing. The ductility at ultimate of the WP-SW3 specimens with hold-down angle was greater than without hold-down angle. The stiffness and the ductility of the WP shearwall were sufficient for drift control and ductility limit in the timber shearwall earthquake design requirements. The hysteresis rule parameters in this paper may be used for earthquake inelastic dynamic time history analysis using a computer program such as RUAUMOKO.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author would like to thank to LPPM Parahyangan Catholic University for the financial support and The Research Institute for Human Settlements. Ministry of Public Works. Bandung for supporting using structural laboratory facilities.
REFERENCES ASTM E 2126 – 02a. Standard Test Methods for Cyclic (Reversed) Load Test for Shear Resistance of Walls for Buildings Carr. A.J.1998. RUAUMOKO. Computer Program Library. University of Canterbury. New Zealand. Dean. J.A. and Tjondro. J.A. 1988. The Seismic Design of Timber Frame Shear Walls Sheathed with Gibraltarboard; Refinements to the CSE 87/7 Procedures. Research Report. University of Canterbury. New Zealand. Lokanatha. S. V. 2011. Experimental Study of Wood Plank Shear Wall. Thesis. Civil Engineering Department Parahyangan Catholic University. 2011. Tjondro. J.A. and Onky. A. 2011. The Behaviour of Cross Nail-Laminated Timber (CNLT) Shearwall Under Cyclic Loading. The 2nd International Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Disaster Mitigation. Surabaya 19 -20 Juli 2011. Tjondro. J.A. and Nathanael. 2011. Perilaku Dinding Geser Plywood dengan Bresing Diagonal Tulangan baja Akibat Beban Siklik. Seminar MAPEKI XIV. Jogjakarta 2 November 2011. Wijanto S.. Andriono T.. and Tjondro. J.A.. 2010. A Strategic Way For Promoting Improved Seismic Resistant Techniques To Indonesian Builders. The 9th U.S. National and 10th Canadian Conference on Earthquake Engineering to in Toronto. Canada. Juli. 25-29. 2010.
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The Shear Strength and Stress Distribution in the Glue Adhesive between Hardwoods Lamina Johannes Adhijoso Tjondro1, Ediansjah Zulkifli2, and Ivan Saputra 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Indonesia email:tjondro@unpar. ac. id,
[email protected] 2 Department of Civil Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia 3 Alumni, Department of Civil Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Indonesia 1
ABSTRACT Since the shear failure mode may be happened in the glue adhesive layer between the lamina or between the glue and wood, the shear strength of small clear specimens based on the ASTM D143-94 and specimens with variation in the glue length of 100 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm and 250 mm made from three hardwood species namely Durian, Afrika and Puspa was observed in this research. The shear strength of glue adhesive layer among wood lamina was tested through the specimens based on the method developed in this research. The small clear specimens was made from twelve Indonesian hardwood species such as Pete, Meranti merah, Nyatoh, Durian, Meranti kuning, Mahoni, Meranti putih, Rengas, Puspa, Afrika, Johar and Bangkirai with the specific gravity range in between 0.41 to 0.87 and 13.2 % average moisture content. The glue adhesive used was strong epoxy and white PVAc. Failure in the adhesive layer was found in all specimens except for nyatoh specimens with strong epoxy adhesive some were failed in woods. The shear strength of glue adhesive observed from small clear specimen was dependent on the surface condition of wood species. The shear stress distribution with the glue length variations decreased rapidly due to the increased of adhesive length. Keywords: shear strength, shear stress distribution, reduction factor, shear ratio.
INTRODUCTION Glue adhesive is commonly used for wood connection such as in tension member. This connection sometimes needs longer length due to low shear strength of the adhesive, such as in bolt connections the effective strength should be multiplied by group action factor. The effect of the moisture content in the wood and also the surface condition and the thickness of glue may influence the strength of the adhesive. The connections shear failure mode may be happened in the glue adhesive layer between the lamina or between the glue and wood or in the wood itself. Normally no strong correlation between the specific gravity and the shear strength of adhesive is found.
MATERIALS AND METHOD In this experimental study 12 species of Indonesian hardwood namely Pete, Meranti merah, Nyatoh, Durian, Meranti kuning, Mahoni, Meranti putih, Rengas, Puspa, Afrika, Johar and Bangkirai with the specific gravity range in between 0.41 to 0.87 and 13.2% average moisture content was used as in Table 1. The shear strength of wood was taken as Fv = 12.33 G0.84 (Tjondro 2007). The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Table 1. Wood species, specific gravity (G), moisture content (mc) and shear strength, (Saputra 2010)
There was 2 types of specimen, as illustrated in Figure 1, firstly single shear single shear specimen based on the ASTM D143-94 (left) and secondly double shear specimen (right). Total of 144 specimens of single shear specimen was made from 12 species. Each species has 6 specimens using Strong Epoxy (SE) and the other 6 specimens using PVAc. The thickness of the adhesive was 0.2 mm to 0.3 mm.
Figure 1. Typical shear test specimens: single shear specimen based on ASTM D143-94 (left) and double shear specimen (right). Total of 72 specimens made from three species; Durian, Afrika and Puspa and glued by PVAc was tested for double shear. The variation of length was 100 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm and 250 mm as was shown in Figure 2.
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| The Shear Strength and Stress Distribution in the Glue Adhesive between Hardwood Lamina |
Figure 2. D ouble shear specimens with variable in length of 100 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm and 250 mm All the specimens were tested under compression loading using Universal Testing Machine as in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Shear specimens under compression test: ASTM D143-94 (left) and modification (right)
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Total of 144 specimens of single shear specimen made from 12 species were observed. The average shear strength of 6 specimens using Strong Epoxy (SE) and the other 6 specimens using PVAc for each species was presented in Table 2 and Figure 4 and compare to the Fv-wood. Table 2. Average shear strength of glue adhesive compare to Fv-wood
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The result showed that no significant correlation between specific gravity to the shear strength of adhesive. The shear strength of the adhesive seems highly influenced by the wood surface condition.
Figure 4. The comparison of adhesive and wood shear strength (MPa) Total of 72 specimens were tested for double shear was chosen from three species; durian, puspa and afrika and the glue was PVAc only. These three species has closed average shear strength when glued by PVAc, which is 4.0 MPa, 4.5 MPa and 4.9 MPa. The effect of length variation in shear strength was observed by reduction factor RL. Reduction factor RL was used to make a correction of shear strength with longer length specimen to the shear strength from small clear specimen. The data for RL was generated and simple linear regression was done as presented in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Adhesive length (L) vs. reduction factor (RL) Shear distribution along the length of adhesive between wood lamina proposed by Volkersen theory shown as in Figure 6 (Thelandersson 2005). A parabolic distribution was assumed with maximum shear was equal to the shear strength Fv which is based on the small clear specimen test ASTM D143- 94. The shear stress in the middle of length was Fva. The parabolic equation was, 230 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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......
(1)
Figure 6. Volkersen theory (Thelandersson 2005) The area (A) under parabolic curve, (2) And the shear strength (Q) for double shear was Q=2BA
(3)
And the shear stress in the middle of length was, (4) Fva normalized as shear ratio (a) by divided Fva with Fv, and the shear ratio (a) was, (4) where : Fv = shear strength based on small clear specimen test ASTM D143 Q = total shear strength and equal with load test at failure B = width L = half of the adhesive length The shear ratio (a) was presented in Figure 7 and Figure 8. The chart in Figure 7 based on the average value of Fv-PVAc and the chart in Figure 8 based on the lower value of Fv-PVAc. The good result only showed by specimen using Durian wood. The value of (a) decreased rapidly from 50 mm length to 250 mm length of specimen.
Figure 7. Adhesive length (L) vs. shear ratio (a) based on average value of Fv-PVAc The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Figure 8. Adhesive length (L) vs. shear ratio (a) based on lower value of Fv-PVAc
CONCLUSION The shear strength of wood for all specimens was higher than the adhesive, except for Nyatoh species. Failure in the adhesive layer was found in all specimens except for Nyatoh specimens with strong epoxy adhesive were failed in woods. The shear strength of glue adhesive observed from small clear specimen of twelve Indonesian hardwood species depend on the surface condition of wood species. The shear stress distribution with the glue length variations decrease rapidly due to the increased of adhesive length. The best performance showed by specimen using Durian wood species.
REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials. (2008). ASTM D143-94: Standard Methods of Testing Small Clear Specimens of Timber. Annual Book of ASTM Standards volume 04.10. Baltimore, U.S.A. Saputra, I. (2010). Studi Kuat Geser Lem Dan Distribusi Tegangan Geser Lem Pada Jenis Kayu Berdaun Lebar. Skripsi, Civil Engineering Department, Parahyangan Catholic University. Thelandersson, S. and Larsen, H. J. (2005) Timber Engineering: part three, Joints and structural assemblies. John Wiley & Sons 2005. Tjondro, J. A. (2007). Behavior of Single Bolted Timber Connection with Steel Sides Plates under Uni-Axial Tension Loading. Dissertation, Parahyangan Catholic University.
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Research and Development of the Various Dampers for Wooden Houses Kazuki Suzuki1,Takehiro Wakita1, Yasuo Kataoka1, and Chikara Watanabe2 1 Dep. of Architecture, Chubu University 2 Nisshinn Steel
ABSTRACT In Japan one of the most important agendas for wooden houses is to enhance earthquake-proof performance. Purpose of our investigation is to develop the dampers for wooden houses. Remarkable point is energy absorption due to the plastic strain of the low yield point steel, and damping force of viscoelastic material. By using these features, we propose the dampers which have an advantage in the cost and the workability. In order to evaluate seismic performance of these dampers, we conducted the static loading test and the dynamic loading test of full-scale wooden flames reinforced with dampers. This test made us command structural characteristics of each damper. Keywords: wooden house, damper, low yield point steel, seismic retrofit
INTRODUCTION In this study, we would like to propose dampers made into the seismic strengthening of wooden houses. Damper using energy absorption capacity low yield point steel with the large energy absorption capacity in large amplitude, Damper of viscoelastic material with the large energy absorption capacity in small amplitude, each damper analyze structural characteristic at the static loading test. Furthermore, combination low yield point steel and viscoelastic material, we propose the damper which has favorable energy absorption capacity from small amplitude to large amplitude.
LOW YIELD POINT STEEL DAMPER Specimens and test method outline We propose three kinds of damper (hereinafter called open type damper) by using energy absorption capability by the plastic deformation of low yield point steel. As shown in Fig.1 damper is composed of low yield point steel (board thickness 2.3 mm) and out-of-plane deformation prevention cover (steel plate 1.6 mm).The horizontal force which acts on wooden flame as shown in Fig. 2 serves as a mechanism transmitted as shear deformation which is not used as low yield point steel. They are three types of W910 attached to the horizontal clearance of 910 mm, and W1365 and W1820 which use a stringer for a damper part. The installation model of a damper is shown in Fig.3.Understand structural characteristic of three dampers by the static loading test of full-scale wooden flames reinforced with dampers. By examination, it is a sine wave about an input wave. Load cyclic schedule is as being shown in Table 1.
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Fig.2. Transmission of power
Fig.1. Mechanism of the damper
Fig.3. Specimens model
Table.1. load cyclic schedule Input amplitude (rad)
1/450
frequency (Hz)
1/300 0.05
1/200
1/150
1/100
1/75
1/50
0.03
1,30
1/17,5
0.01
Test results The superposition of Load displacement relationship of W910 specimen is shown in Fig.4.Here you can see a stable record roop without a decline of strength. In Fig.5, the superposition of the equivalent viscous damping factor in second loop of each specimen is shown. The three graphs have shown same kind of changes. Middling amplitude you can see a slight decline, it is considered to be the reasons that shear force which a column this and it does not make efficient to damper by modification was not transmitted. Maximum strength and short-term allowable shear force is shown in Fig.6. You can see from this Fig.6 that the more horizontal clearance becomes large, the more both maximum strength and short-term allowable shear force incline to decline.
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Fig.4. Load displacement relationship
Fig.5.Equivalent viscous damping factor
Fig.6. Maximum strength and short-term allowable shear force of each specimens Rough outline of specimen Here we propose a brace type damper, which combination with aperture type damper W910 and steel brace. The model is shown in Fig.7. This brace type damper is also analyzed by the static loading test.
Fig.7.Brace Type Damper The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Test results In Fig.8, figure of Load displacement relationship is shown. The strength has not declined to large amplitude. However, due to the breakage of brace, a decline of strength could be seen. Comparing to W910, we have figured out that the strength can increase more than twice bigger by installing brace. In Fig.9, figure of equivalent viscous damping factor is shown. Small amplitude and large amplitude showed a little high value, but there was almost no difference at middling amplitude. Although strength goes up by installing in a brace from these, it turns out that attenuation of energy does not change mostly.
Fig.8. Load displacement relationship (L: Open type, R: Brace type)
Fig.9.Equivalent viscous damping factor (L: Open type, R: Brace type)
VISCOELASTIC MATERIAL DAMPER Specimen and test method outline We propose viscoelastic material insertion compound steel plate damper (hereinafter called compound steel plate damper), which using the butyl rubber system viscoelastic material. In figure.10, mechanism of the compound steel plate damper is shown. Damper is made by installing 2.5mm viscoelastic material between 0.6 mm steel plate and 0.4 mm steel plate. This compound steel plate damper is also analyzed by the static loading test. Specimen model is shown in figure.11. In an examination, only from 1/450 to 1/200 also do the repeated force application test of ten cycles shown in Table 2. 236 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Fig.10. Mechanism of the compound steel plate damper
Frequency (Hz)
Table.2. load cyclic schedule 1/450 1/300 0.3 0.5 1 3
Fig.11.Specimen model 1/200
Test Results In Fig.12, a figure of Load displacement relationship is shown. Small amplitude showed strength, however it turns out that strength seldom goes up as it is set to large amplitude after 1/75 rad. In figure.13, equivalent viscous damping factor of the compound steel plate damper is shown. Comparison by frequency is shown in Fig.14. The percentage (%) is the figure of equivalent viscous damping factor. The left figure shows frequency of 0.05 Hz. The right figure shows frequency of 3 Hz. From this figure, with 3Hz, it is more effective as the strength is coming out right after excitation. The difference is obvious by comparing equivalent viscous damping factor as well. From these results, vibration control has a bigger capacity comparing to high frequency in small amplitude by using viscoelastic material.
Fig. 12. Load displacement relationship
Fig.13. Equivalent viscous damping factor
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Fig.14. Comparing hinge on frequency (L: 0.05Hz, R: 3Hz)
HYBRID DUMPER Specimen and test method outline We propose hybrid damper which combined a viscoelastic material and steel plates. In figure.15, mechanism of the damper is shown. Hybrid damper made by installing 2.5mm viscoelastic material between 0.6mm steel plates. At large amplitude, it is low yield point steel, at small amplitude, it is compound steel plate damper that absorb shear energy. Transmission of power is shown in figure.16.
Fig.15. Mechanism of the damper
Fig.16. Transmission of power
Test Results In Fig.17, a figure of Load displacement relationship is shown. They exercised high rigidity and strength from small amplitude to large amplitude. The maximum strength was approximately about 18 kN. Transition of equivalent viscous damping factor is shown in Fig.18. Equivalent viscous damping factor goes over 15 % from small amplitude and decline after 1/100 rad. In Fig.19, a graph of comparison by frequency is shown. The percentage (%) is the figure of equivalent viscous damping factor. Strength is the more rise frequency the more reduce, but also by small amplitude, strength is exercise and the effect of viscoelastic material is often seen. Also comparing 238 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Research and Development of the Various Dampers for Wooden Houses |
to equivalent viscous damping factor, viscoelastic material has higher effect. Also in case the frequency is high, you can see that decreasing of energy excels. When frequency becomes high, things also understand equivalent viscous damping factor highly from Fig. 20.
Fig.17. Load displacement relationship
Fig.18. Equivalent viscous damping factor
Fig.19. Comparing hinge on frequency (L: 0.05Hz, R: 3Hz)
Fig.20. Distortion angle and equivalent viscous damping factor The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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CONCLUSION We figured out mechanical properties from repeated force application test. Low yield steel damper ticked up strength that installing brace, but there was no great difference in energy absorption. They are useful in the case of earthquake retrofit to mechanical properties and workability. Damping ability of compound steel plate excels in small amplitude as high frequency, so it is effective to a comparatively small vibration which takes place daily. Hybrid damper is high strength and good energy absorption, so use in various scenes is possible.
REFERENCES Akihiro Adachi, Takehiro Wakita, Yasuo Kataoka. 2010. Research And Development of Damping Device For Wooden Houses, Chubu University Faculty-of-Technology Bulletin, vol.46, pp37-40.
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Experimental Study on Dynamic Characteristics of the Traditional Wooden Frame on Sliding Base Takehiro Wakita1, Etsuko Inoue2, Yasuo Kataoka1, Hiromasa Fukutani1, and Satsuya Soda3 １ Dep. of Architecture, Chubu University ２ Ito Heizaemon Architect’s Nagoya Office 3 Dep. of Architecture, Waseda University
ABSTRACT In order to examine the seismic behavior of Japanese traditional temple gate to an intense earthquake, we have conducted shaking table tests using 1/3 scaled model of the temple gate of Eihei-ji in Fukui pref. The bottom of the columns of this gate is not connected to the foundation. This is one of the most important features of Japanese traditional wooden buildings. In additional to this, we inserted ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene between the foundation and the bottom of the columns. The purpose of this investigation is to control low friction coefficient between the foundation and the bottom of the columns. As a result, it becomes possible the superstructure can move from the foundation and reduce the damage when strong earthquake happens. The results from the examination are as follows: 1. We evaluated dynamic characteristics and damping properties of traditional wooden frame from small amplitude to large amplitude. 2. According to the result of shaking table tests and simulation, the input energy was dissipated through sliding motion between foundation and the bottom of the columns by inserting ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene. As a result the damage of the superstructure was reduced. Keywords: traditional wooden architecture, vibration test, sliding base, damping
INTRODUCTION The purpose of this research is evaluation of the dynamic characteristics of a traditional wooden frame in Japan by shaking table tests, and study on seismic response reduction of sliding base which is a simple quake-absorbing construction method. This experiment was conducted with the 1/3 scaled model that is made in part based on the temple gate in Eihei-ji which is the most famous temple in Fukui Prefecture, Japan. This temple gate was consisted by the traditional wooden frame using the penetrated beams and the bracket complexes which support the roof. This temple gate was rebuilt in 1749. So it has passed about two hundred fifty years. In the meantime this temple gate has experienced big earthquakes such as the Fukui earthquake (M7.2, in 1948). In the structure investigation conducted before, the columns have inclination which reaches 1/64 rad. at the maximum. There are a lot of crack and slack of the wedges and the serious damage of the wooden footing beds. In order to preservation and succession of this structure for the future, large-scale repairing work is required now.
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Fig.1. The temple gate of Eihei-ji
MODEL AND METHODS OF EXPERIMENT The setup of shaking table test and 1/3 scaled model of the temple gate were shown in Fig. 3. This model is altogether made from Japanese zelkova like the real structure except for the wedges. Only the wedge was made by the oak. The bottoms of the columns were not connected between wooden footing bed and foundation stones made by granite. First of the experiments, we evaluated the dynamic characteristics of the model under changing interlocking force of pressure by the wedges in the holes which “neck penetrating tie beam” and “middle penetrating tie beam” penetrate. Interlocking forces and the model names are shown in Table 1. This test was carried out using the Micro-Tremor Measurements and shaking tests by white noise waves whose PGA (Peak Ground Acceleration) is 50 gal, and bandwidth is 0.1-10 Hz. The additional mass of the weight of 22 kN was placed on the head of the model. Next, the shaking table tests by seismic waves were carried out. The models used in this test were A4 and B4. B4 model have ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene between wooden footing beds and foundation stones. The seismic wave used in this test was Kobe Earthquake in 1995, Japan. As shown in Table 2, this wave was scaled the levels to 25 kine (Lv1), 50 kine (Lv2), and 91 kine (Original) at PGV(Peak Ground Velocity). The first additional mass of the weight of 4.9 kN was placed on the head of the model and the second additional mass of the weight of 11.34 kN was put on the middle penetrated tie beams in order to prevent a rocking behavior. These shaking table tests were performed using a single-degree-of-freedom shake table.
Fig. 2. Experimental setup of shaking table test using1/3 scaled model 242 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Experimental Study on Dynamic Characteristics of the Traditional Wooden Frame on Sliding Base |
Table1. Parameters of the test Interlocking force of pressure by the wedges Model Neck hole Middle hole A1 With out With out A2 Not interlocked Not interlocked A3 Interlocked Not Interlocked A4 Interlocked Interlocked
Table 2. Levels of the Input waves (Kobe) Wave name Lv1 Lv2 Original
PGV 25kine 50kine 91kine
PGA 22gal 448gal 818gal
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The influences of the dynamic characteristics in changes of the interlocking force The dynamic characteristics were analyzed using the results of Micro-Tremor Measurements and shaking tests by White-noise. Natural frequency and structural stiffness of the model were evaluated using Curve Fitting method (CF) that is analyzed by amplification ratio curve of Fast Fourier Transform. Damping ratios were evaluated using CF and Random Decrement method (RD) that is the method of making a free vibration wave form from repeating the divided random vibration waves. As an example, Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show Frequency-amplification ratio and Free vibration waveform by RD method of A4. Fig. 5 shows evaluation results of structural stiffness of respective models. It shows that structural stiffness increases with increase of interlocking force by wedges and the evaluation values by Micro-Tremor Measurement are lower than that of shaking tests by White-noise. Fig. 6 shows the evaluation results of damping ratio of respective models by the both method of CF and RD. It can be seen that the damping ratios evaluated by shaking tests of White-noise becomes lower with increase of interlocking force by wedges.
Fig.3. Frequency-amplification ratio(A4)
Fig.4. Free vibration waveform by RD(A4)
Fig.5. Structural stiffness of respective models Fig.6. Damping ratio of respective models The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Shaking table tests by Kobe earthquake This section shows the result of the shaking table test by the each level waves of Kobeearthquake. A4 and B4 model were used in this experiment. But the test of A4 by the original level wave was not done in consideration of the safety of an experiment since there was a possibility that the deformation of the superstructure might become excessive. Fig.7 shows load-story drift relationship of superstructure by each test. The response of A4 in the Lv2 wave test was larger than that of B4 in original wave test. The sliding base shows the effect to reduce the response of superstructure. Fig.8 compares the acceleration response of the both models in the Lv2 wave test. In this figure, the acceleration histories of the model’s top part, footing bed, and the shaking table were drawn in piles. It turns out with B4 that the maximum acceleration in about 10 to 20 seconds was especially reduced as compared with A4. Fig.9 shows the time-history of the slippage of sliding base. In Lv2 and original wave test, B4 slid on one side a lot in the around 10 seconds that ground acceleration became bigger. Fig.10 shows the coefficient of friction and the slippage relationship in the sliding base. This coefficient of friction was calculated from the inertial force and the amount of weight which acted on the sliding base. This result shows that the coefficient of friction of the B4 was about μ= 0.3 at themaximum. It turns out that the coefficient of friction is changed at the time of sliding. As this reason, the influence of that the friction surface is uneven, changing field pressure by change of pillar axial tension, and the superstructure’s rocking behavior can be considered. Fig.11 shows the time-history of cumulative energy absorption by Lv2 wave test. About A4, the amount of energy absorption of the superstructure is very larger than that of the sliding base. On the other hand, about B4, the amount of energy absorption of the sliding base is larger. This can be considered that the behavior of the sliding base reduced a lot of the energy input to the superstructure.
Fig.7. Load-story drift relationship of the superstructure
Fig.8. Acceleration time-history (Lv2 wave test) 244 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Fig.9. Slippage of the sliding base time-history .
Fig.10. Coefficient of friction-slippage relationship in the sliding base
Fig.11. Cumulative energy absorption time-history (Lv2 wave test) Study on time history response analysis using two lumped-masses model Analysis model of the superstructure and the sliding base This chapter describes the study on time history response analysis using two lumped-masses model made by examination result of preceding chapter. The superstructure was modeled by linear model and viscous damping model, the sliding base was modeled by friction model which made static and dynamic friction coefficient equivalent as shown in Fig.12. Fig. 13 shows comparison of an experimental result and an analysis result in original wave of Kobe earthquake. The validity of an analysis model can be seen from this result.
Fig.12. Analytical model of superstructure and sliding base
Fig.13 Load-story drift relationship of experimental result and analytical result
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The relationship between seismic response reduction and coefficient of friction of sliding base It was analyzed that the response at the time of considering the coefficient of friction of the sliding base as μ= 0.05, 0.15, 0.3, 0.45, 0.6, and fixed base. Fig.14 shows coefficient of friction-the maximum story drift angle of the superstructure relationship. Fig.15 shows Coefficient of frictionthe maximum slippage of the sliding base relationship. These results shows that the maximum story drift angle became larger, and the maximum slippage became smaller as coefficient of the friction reduced. In case of coefficient of friction is μ=0.3 or more, there is no slippage in the Lv1 wave test and the maximum story drift angle is the same as the case of fixed base. Fig.16 shows the maximum response of the acceleration in each part of the model that is input wave, on the footing bed, and on the top of the superstructure. It shows that the smaller the coefficient of friction becomes, the higher the reduction of the response of acceleration becomes.
Fig.14. Coefficient of friction - the maximum story drift angle
Fig.15. Coefficient of friction - the maximum slippage
Fig.16 The maximum response of acceleration
CONCLUSION The shaking table test and time history response analysis of the model of traditional wooden frames and sliding base showed the following things. As the interlocking force increases, structural stiffness becomes higher, damping ratio becomes lower. The sliding base using ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene has μ=0.3 of coefficient of friction and can reduce the story drift angle and the acceleration response of the superstructure. 246 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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The reduction of the response is higher as the coefficient of friction is low. On the other hand, it is necessary to prevent the slide at the time of a small-scale earthquake or a strong wind, etc. which may arise frequently. With considering these things, μ=0.3 is right just as for the coefficient of friction of the sliding base. In addition, since the amount of the maximum slippage of the sliding base may become about 300mm in case of a big earthquake, the sufficient clearance to circumference is required so that it may not collide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In this research, we received great supported by Mr. Daijo Ohta “Kanin (Admininstrator)” , Mr. Mitsunori Harada “ex-master of building and repairs section.”, and Norimasa Asai “ master of building and repairs section.” of Eihei-ji Temple. The model of the temple gate was made by Mr. Toshihide Ookubo “master builder of Eihei-ji Temple”. The shaking table test was conducted in cooperation with Tomohiro Honda, Yuuichiro Mori, Yuuya Yamaguchi. We thank here noted.
REFERENCES Satsuya Soda, Hirosuke Fujita , Emi Miyamoto : Study on Seismic Response Reduction of Building on Sliding Base by Full Scale Shaking Table Test, Summaries of Technical Paper of annual Meeting Arch. Institute, B-2, 623-624, 2009 , Architectural Institute of Japan Satoru Nishioka, Toshiyuki Moriyama, Hidekazu Nishizawa: SHAKING TABLE TESTS OF A FULL SIZE MODEL OF TAI-AN OF MYOUKI-AN IN KYOTO : Experimental study on seismic behavior of traditional wooden house whose base is not connected to foundation : Collection of papers of structural engineering(608), 93-100, 2006-10-30, Architectural Institute of Japan Naohiro Yoshida, Kyosuke Mukaibou, Yoshiyuki Suzuki: Study on Seismic Behavior of Traditional Wooden Frame Placed Free on Foundation ,Part I: Shaking Table Test, Summaries of Technical Paper of annual Meeting Arch. Institute, C-1 , 175-176, 2008, Architectural Institute of Japan
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Increasing of Drying Efficiency for Sortimen ABC of Red Meranti Timber through Implementation of Terazawa Method Yustinus Suranto1 and Eko Teguh Prasetyo2 Lecturer of Forest Product Department Alumny of Forest Product Department Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta Email:
[email protected] 1)
2)
ABSTRACT Red meranti (Shorea spp) is one type of tropical rain forest wood used as raw material for building construction industry to make a product for international markets. The processing of wood, especially drying process, has been done in modern dry kiln, but did not accommodate the specific nature and dimensions of the timber. This study aimed to improve the efficiency of wood drying process by applying a drying schedule prepared based on Terazawa method. Red meranti logs of as many as 150 m3 from Buru Island were sawn as ABC lumber sized of 8 cm thick, 13.4 cm width and 400 cm length. Lumber was divided randomly into two groups. The first group was dried in conventional dry kiln with the implementation drying schedule owned by the Timber Industry in Makassar. The second group was dried in the same conventional dryers with the application of drying schedule formulated based on the Terazawa method. The study of water content and specific gravity was performed according to British Standard and formulation of drying schedules according to Terazawa method. Observations of the drying process carried out on 21 samples from each group. Observation of drying parameters include: the speed of drying, final moisture content, shrinkage and the intensity of defects. The resulted data were analyzed by one way classification and t test. The results showed that the initial water content was 58.86% and specific gravity was 0.76. Temperature of drying schedule owned by industry were 43.3 up to 71.1 o C and relative humidity were 84 up to 22%, while the Terazawa drying schedule were 45 up to 79 o C and relative humidity were 90.8 up to 44%. Compared to industrial drying schedule, Terazawa’s drying schedule produces a higher rate and 98 hours shorter on duration of drying, and a smaller degree of tangential shrinkage and of amount of deformation, end-crack and honey-comb as well. Clearly, that the result of drying process operated by Terazawa’s drying schedule was better than the industry’s drying schedule. Keywords: Terazawa, drying schedule, red meranti, ABC sawn timber.
INTRODUCTION Red meranti wood is one of the Dipterocarpaceae group of 260 eminent type of wood used as raw material for the timber industry producing construction materials for international trade (Anonymous, 2011). This type of timber is produced from Indonesian tropical forests (Whitmore, 1975), especially from the island of Sumatra, Kalimantan and the Moluccas (Soerianegara and Indrawan, 2005). Red meranti wood is produced from 22 species of trees, among others, Shorea acuminata and S. uliginosa. Based on its density, red meranti grouped into two, namely a light 248 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Increasing of Drying Efficiency for Sortimen ABC of Red Meranti Timber through Implementation of Terazawa Method |
red meranti which its density is less than 0.60 and a heavy red meranti which is more than 0.60. Up to 12% water content, the radial shrinkage was 2.0 to 3.5% and tangential were 6.0 to 7.0% (Martawijaya et al, 1981). Tropical rain forests in Indonesia, especially in the island of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Sulawesi currently are experiencing serious degradation as a result of inappropriate tropical forest management (Anonymous, 2011a). Degradation of forest conditions in the three islands degraded its ability to provide the red meranti wood as raw material for various national timber industries. A unit of a relatively big timber industry located in Makassar managed to make agreement on timber trade transactions with buyers from overseas, namely red meranti timber of the type with the specifications sortimen ABC in oven dry conditions which yield a maximum of 12 % water. ABC is a sawn timber sortimen which has a thickness of 8 cm, width of 13.4 cm and a length of 400 cm. In an attempt to satisfy this trade transaction, the timber industry was buying red meranti log harvested on Buru island forests. In the context of providing red meranti wood with the specifications mentioned, the timber industry timber sawed log to turn it into sortimen ABC lumber. Sawn wood is then dried in a conventional kiln drying so as to achieve its maximum water content of 12%. In the process of drying, the timber industry was to apply the temperature and humidity schedule they have. Observation on the drying process produces two interesting realities about the character of the wood drying. First, the drying takes place in long time duration and the final water content of dry wood was not uniform. Second, this drying produces a relatively dry wood with a lot of drying defects. Character wood drying as presented above was a character with less qualified drying. Wood drying otherwise qualified if it fulfills the following criteria. First, the drying takes place in a short time. Second, the final moisture content of wood is relatively uniform among the wood dried. Third, the shrinkage of wood is relatively low. Fourth, dry wood free from defects wood drying, either deformation, cracked, honey-com and split (Gorisek and Straze, 2007). Considering that the drying of wood was held in the new and standard conventional dryers, the drying of wood which was accompanied by inferior drying character should be assumed that it is caused by the application of inappropriate drying schedule. Drying schedule is inappropriate when the schedule does not coincide with the character of dried wood. This assumption is based on a theory which states that the drying schedule is one of the main factors determining the quality of wood drying (Rasmussen, 1961). The research was carried out to achieve two goals. First, to arrange drying schedules based on Terazawa methods that are intended for drying the ABC lumber of red meranti grown on Buru island. Second, to compare the quality of drying process which was done based on the industry’s drying schedule and the Terazawa’s drying schedules.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Materials research were red meranti logs with a total of 150 m3 cut from the Buru island. The logs was sawn with through and through sawing by using a band saw, in order to obtain one type of sawn timber, i.e ABC sortimen in dimensions of 8 cm thick, 13.4 cm wide and 400 cm length. Three ABC lumbers which were fully composed of heart-wood were randomly selected. These lumbers functioned as sample’s to formulate drying schedule which were elaborated based on the Terazawa’s method.
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The other ABC lumbers were sorted into two groups equally. The first group were dried in conventional dryers are operated by industrial drying schedule. The second group was dried in the same dryers which were operated under the drying schedule formulated based on the Terazawa’s method. Each of three samples were then cut longitudinally on each length of 50 cm, thus obtained eight pieces each measuring 50 cm long, 8 cm thick, 13.4 cm wide. Two pieces from both ends of custody, which cuts at the base and the tip, were disposed to avoid the influence of differences in water content, which was caused by the end evaporation. Thus, six pieces of sortimen obtained from each sample. The six pieces are tightly wrapped in plastic. The same activity also applies to the second and the third samples. Thus, there are three packages of wood. All three packs of lumber were transported from Makassar to the Laboratory of Wood Drying and Preservation, Department of Forest Products Technology, Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University in Yogyakarta. In the laboratory, the first sample package was opened. One piece of wood is selected randomly among the six pieces, and this selected one will be the object of research. Activities conducted on the first sample package also applied to the second and third sample packages. Research was conducted on physical properties and drying properties of wood. To obtain samples for testing of some aspects of the wood physical properties and for drying schedule determination, a 50 cm long piece was selected then cut again into seven pieces. Sequentially, each piece has a length (1) 11 cm, (2) 2 cm, (3) 2 cm, (4) 20 cm, (5) 2 cm, (6) 2 cm and (7) 11 cm. Two pieces each 11 cm long on both ends of this section, namely the piece number (1) and (7), were disposed to avoid the influence of differences in water content caused by the evaporation of moisture through the tip. Two pieces each 2 cm long, namely the piece number (2) and (6), will be used as test sample for the measurement of initial moisture content. The next two pieces, each 2 cm long, namely pieces number (3) and (5), will be the part that used to make samples for specific gravity measurements. A piece measuring 20 cm long, namely the piece number 4, was functioned as a test sample to the quick drying test. The piece number 4 is planed on both faces, sawn longitudinally, to get a test sample in size of 8 cm thick, 13.4 cm wide and 20 cm long. Each sample was immediately weighed. Equipments used in the research were band saw, circular saw, planning machine, calipers, Memmert electric oven, desicator, O’Hauss analytical scales and Aluna Engineering 75 m3 capacity conventional dry kiln. Wood Physical Properties Testing. Determination of woof physical properties including moisture content, specific gravity and shrinkage of the samples was carried out from the wet conditions leading to the dry kiln conditions. These determinations were done by the method of British Standard (BS) number 373 (Anonymous, 1957). Quick Drying Test and Drying Schedule Formulation Quick drying test is the empirical method used to determine the drying schedule. This method is used as a starting point for formulation of actual and proper drying schedules as a basis for drying of any species of sawn timber (Terazawa, 1965). The procedure for formulating drying schedule based on Terazawa’s method consists of several steps as follows: 1. The sample size of 8 cm thick, 13.4 cm wide and 20 cm long was placed in an electric-powered oven set at 103 + 2 ° C temperature conditions. 250 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Increasing of Drying Efficiency for Sortimen ABC of Red Meranti Timber through Implementation of Terazawa Method |
2. Samples were weighed and the appearance and development of surface cracks and end-crack were observed periodically every 2 hours during the drying process until the sample reaches a constant at 1 percent moisture content. 3. At the end of the drying process, samples were counted and measured the amount of surface cracks and end-crack (expressed as Defect 1), is also the deformation defect (expressed as Defect 2). Sample is then cut exactly at the center of the longitudinal direction to identify and measure the honey-comb (expressed as a Defect 3). Determination of the level of damage for each type of defect is based on the number and size of defects that occur on the surface of the absolutely dry condition wood. 4. Defect levels are determined and ranked based on the value scale that ranges from 1 to 8 for surface cracks and edge defects (defects 1) and also for the deformation defects (defects 2), and between 1 to 6 for honey-comb (defects 3) . The determination was based on a table set by Ferguson (Terazawa, 1965). The value on the rating signifies that the lower the value, the lower the defects, or conversely, the higher the value on these ratings, the higher the defects that occurs. 5. Based on two things, namely the result of the above tables and dry bulb temperature (DBT) and wet bulb depression table (WBD) as presented in the Forest Products Laboratory manuals (Rasmussen, 1961), the minimum and maximum dry bulb temperature and wet bulb depression for ABC lumber were determined. Those two things, namely the minimum and maximum temperature and also wet bulb depression then were used as a basis to develop an appropriate drying schedule for red meranti wood. Comparison of Wood Drying Characteristics Comparison of drying characteristics of wood is meant to compare between two different kiln drying processes.. First, drying is carried out based on the Terazawa’s drying schedule. Second, drying is carried out based on the industry’s drying schedule. Character drying were seen from several parameters, namely (1) the rate of drying, (2) the final moisture content, (3) shrinkage, (4) deformation defects, (5) end-surface defects, (6) honey comb defects. Terazawa’s drying schedule is the schedule resulting of this research, while the industrial drying schedules were the schedule owned by industry. Both of these schedules are presented in the following tables.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Physical properties of wood Physical properties of red meranti wood samples are presented in Table 1 as follows. Table 1. Physical Properties of Red Meranti Wood. Sample 1 2 3 Average
Moisture Content (%) 57.01 59.65 59.93 58.86
Specific Gravity 0.76 0.75 0.76 0.76
Table 1 shows the results as follows. The average value of the moisture content is 58.86%. Value of the average specific gravity is 0.76. Based on the value of moisture content, this wood can be expressed as still in wet conditions. Based on its density, the wood is classified as heavy wood of red meranti The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Quick Drying Test The results of the rapid drying is presented as follows: 1. Status and classification of defects Defects type and it’s rank of the drying test sample, either in the form of crack - crack - split ends, deformation and honey-comb are presented in Table 2. Based on the existence of the defect, the test drying sample is classified as a rank 7.3 (8) in terms of initial crack, ranked third in terms of deformation and ranked second in terms of honey-comb.
Table 2. Drying Defect Intensity and Rank Sample
Initial Crack (cracksplit surface-end)
Deformation
Honey-comb
Amount
Rank
Dimension (mm)
Rank
Amount
Rank
Crack 8 Crack 7 Crack 7
8 7 7 7.3
0.61 0.73 0.66 0.67
3 3 3 3
2 1 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 3 Average
2. Determination of the initial temperature, wet bulb depression and the final temperature Based on the results of the above classification, the minimum temperature, maximum temperature and wet bulb depression at the beginning and end of drying process can be determined. Determination was carried out based on a reference made by Terazawa (1965) as presented in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Relationship between types of defects, initial and final temperatures, depression Defect Variation Inital Crack Deformasion Honey-comb
Drying Condition (oC) Initial temperature Wet Bulb Depresion Final temperature Initial temperature Wet Bulb Depresion Final temperature Initial temperature Wet Bulb Depresion Final temperature
1 70 6.5 95 70 6.5 93 70 6.5 95
2 65 5.5 90 66 6.0 88 55 4.5 83
Defect Rank 3 4 5 60 55 53 4.3 3.6 3.0 85 83 82 58 54 50 4.7 4.0 3.6 83 80 77 50 49 48 3.8 3.3 3.0 77 73 71
6 50 2.3 81 49 3.3 75 45 2.5 70
7 47 2.0 80 48 2.8 73 -
8 45 1.8 79 47 2.5 70 -
Based on Table 3 above, with initial cracks belonging to the 8th grade, the initial temperature and wet bulb depression and the final temperature were 45°C and 1.8°C and 79oC, respectively. Based on the deformation belonging to the class 3, the initial temperature and wet bulb depression and the final temperature were 58°C and 4.7oC and 83oC respectively. Based on the honey-comb belonging to the class 2, the initial temperature and wet bulb depression and the final temperature were 4.5oC and 55oC and 83oC, respectively. By comparing the figures presented by each rank, it is clear that aspects of the initial crack defects produce the most secure numbers that reflect the most mild drying conditions. For that reason, the aspect of initial crack defects was chosen as a determinant for setting a drying schedule. Therefore, the initial temperature of 45°C and wet bulb depression of1.8 C and final 252 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Increasing of Drying Efficiency for Sortimen ABC of Red Meranti Timber through Implementation of Terazawa Method |
temperature of 79°C was chosen as the drying conditions. 3. Determination of moisture content at each step of the drying process. Mean of the initial moisture content of the sample is 58.86%. Based on the classification of moisture levels created by Terazawa (1965) as shown in Table 4 below, the initial moisture level of 58.86% is consequential on the election of a class D as a constituent of drying schedules. Class D for the water content is comprised of the following decline measures: 80-50: 50-43: 43-36: 36-30: 30-25: 25-21: 21-18: 18-16: 16-14; 14-12; and less than 12% as the final step in the drying process.
Table 4. Classification of moisture content and a step change Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Classification of moisture content based on initial conditions (%) A 40-30 30-28 28-26 26-24 24-22 22-20 20-18 18-16 16-14 14-12 < 12
B 50-35 35-32 32-29 29-26 26-23 23-20 20-18 18-16 16-14 14-12 < 12
C 60-40 40-35 35-31 31-27 27-24 24-21 21-18 18-16 16-14 14-12 < 12
D 80-50 50-43 43-36 36-30 30-25 25-21 21-18 18-16 16-14 14-12 < 12
E F G H 100-60 120-68 140-75 170-90 60-47 68-55 75-60 90-70 47-40 55-45 60-45 70-55 40-34 45-38 45-38 55-45 34-29 38-32 38-32 45-35 29-24 32-27 32-27 35-27 24-20 27-22 27-22 27-22 20-16 22-18 22-18 22-18 16-14 18-14 18-14 18-14 14-12 14-12 14-12 14-12 < 12 < 12 < 12 < 12
I 220-110 110-80 80-65 65-50 50-40 40-32 32-25 25-20 20-15 15-12 < 12
4. Determination of wet bulb depression Wet bulb depression at the initial stage was 1.8 ° C for samples sortimen thickness of 8 cm. Based on its thickness, wood boards were quite thick, so the Chart D is selected. According to Terazawa (1965), Chart D as a reference for selecting wet bulb depression is presented in Table 5 below.
Table 5. Classification of wet bulb depression and changes step in the Chart D Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4,5 6 8 10 12 15
2 2 2.5 3 3.5 4.5 6 8 10 12 15 20
Clasification of Wet Bulb Depression (oC) 3 4 5 6 2.5 3 3.5 4 3 3.5 4.5 5.5 3.5 4.5 6 7 4.5 6 8 9 6 8 10 11 8 10 12 13 10 12 14 16 13 15 17 20 18 20 20 20-25 20 20 20-25 20-25 20-25 20-25 20-25 25-30
7 5 6.5 8.5 11 13 16 20 25 25-30 25-30 25-30
8 7 9 11 13 16 20 25 25 25-30 25-30 25-30
Based on the depression of 1.8°C, column 1 is selected. Appearance the changes steps in term of wet bulb depression after modified is as follows: 1.8: 2.3: 2.8, 3.3; 4.05; 5.3; 7.05; 9, 11.05; 13.5; 17.5°C. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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5. Determination of temperature changes during the drying process. Based on the drying sample, the initial temperature obtained on the dry bulb thermometer was 45°C and final temperature is 79°C. To determine the change in temperature during the drying process, Initial Temperature Classification and its modification during drying were required. This tool was made by Terazawa (1965) as presented in Table 6 below.
Table 6. Classification of Initial Temperature and Its Changing step. Changing of Moisture content (%) Fresh-40 40-35 35-30 30-25 25-20 20-15 15-12 < 12
Iniitial temperature klasification (oC) and Its Changing on drying T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
35 35 35 35 38 40 45 55
40 40 40 43 48 53 60 60
45 45 45 48 53 58 65 65
50 50 50 55 60 65 70-80 70-80
55 55 58 63 68 70 70-80 70-80
60 60 65 70 75 80 80-90 80-90
65 65 70 75 80 85 85-90 85-90
70 70 75 80 85 95 105 105
80 85 90 95 100 110 120 120
85 90 100 110 120 120 120 120
Based on the classification of the temperature in Table 6 above, then the temperature region between 45°C as the initial temperature and 79°C as the final temperature bring a consequence on the selection of T3 columns to express the change in temperature during the drying process. These steps temperature changes with adjustments are: 45, 45, 45, 45, 48, 55, 63, 65, 71, 77, 79°C. 6. Drying Schedule Formulation Based on several criteria as presented above, the drying schedule for ABC red meranti timber dimensions 8 cm thick and 13.4 cm in width can be formulated as T3D1. Assisted by a relative humidity table presented by Bollmann (1977), appearance T3D1 drying schedule are presented in Table 7 below.
Table 7. Drying Schedule coded T3D1 Steps
Moisture Content (%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
80-50 50-43 43-36 36-30 30-25 25-21 21-18 18-16 16-14 14-12 < 12
Dry Bulb Temperature (oC) 45 45 45 45 48 55 63 65 71 77 79
Wet Bulb Depression (oC) 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.3 4.0 5.3 7 9 11 13.5 17.5
Wet Bulb Temperature (oC) 43.2 42.7 42.2 41.7 44 49.7 56 56 60 63.5 61.5
Relative Humidity (%) 90.8 88.2 85.2 82.2 79 76.4 70.2 63 58.5 53.9 44
Comparing Characteristics of Wood Drying Benchmarking is the comparison between the drying characteristics of the observation process of wood drying in a conventional kiln which was carried out by applying two kinds of drying 254 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Increasing of Drying Efficiency for Sortimen ABC of Red Meranti Timber through Implementation of Terazawa Method |
schedules. First, Terazawa schedule as presented in Table 6 and industry’s drying schedule was presented in Table 8 below. The results of comparison of the drying characteristics are presented in Table 9 below. Table 8 Drying Schedule Owned by Timber Industry Steps 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Wet Bulb Wet Bulb Relative Moisture Dry Bulb Content (%) Temperature (oC) Depression (oC) Temperature (oC) Humidity (%) > 50 43.3 2.8 40.5 84 50 – 40 43.3 3.9 39.4 79 40 – 35 43.3 6.1 37.2 68 35 – 30 43.3 10.6 32.7 49 30 – 25 48.9 19.4 29.5 32 25 – 20 54.4 27.8 26.6 22 20 – 15 60 27.8 32.2 15 < 15 71.1 27.8 43.3 22
Observations on the drying characteristics can be seen in Table 9 below. Table 9 Characteristics of Drying Process by Industry’s and Terazawa’s Drying Schedule No
Parameter
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Final Moist. Content (%) Drying Rate (%/hour) Drying Durasion (hour) Thinkness Shrinkage (%) Width Shrinkage (%) Length Shrinkage (%) Number of bowing defects Large of bowing defects Number of cupping defects Large of cupping defects Number of crooking defects Large of crooking defects Number of diamonding Large of diamonding (o) Number of end-crack Average length end crack (mm) the longest of end-crack (mm) Total length of end-crack (mm) Number of surface cracks Average length of surface-crack (mm) Longest of crack surface (mm) Total surface-crack length (mm) The number of honey comb Average length honeycomb (mm) Honey comb longest (mm) Total length of honey comb (mm)
Drying Schedule Industry Terazawa 7.9 0.60 1024 4.16 3.34 0.256 9 0.0038 14 0.0094 7 0.0008 13 1.14 3.19 32.91 41.1 125.55 1.67 18.98 22.18 38.04 1.19 22.25 26.68 46.12
7.85 0.69 926 3.89 3.23 0.26 8 0.003 10 0.0068 5 0.0005 12 1.00 1.57 38.08 44.45 82.87 1.38 17.14 19 26.95 0.95 16.76 19.59 31.02
Statistical significance of test results NS ** ** * NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS ** NS NS * NS NS NS * * * * *
Note: N S (Non Significantly different), * (Significantly Different), ** (Very Significantly Different)
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From Table 9 appear five facts related to the drying characteristics as follows. First, the final moisture content of drying on schedule industries (7.9%) higher than the Terazawa schedule (7.85%), but they did not differ significantly, mean while they still meet the criteria because its value is less than the standard provision that is equal to 12%. Second, the rate of drying on schedule industries (0.6% per hour) was significantly lower than the Terazawa schedule (0.69% per hour). Third, the duration of drying elaborated with industry schedule (1024 hours) is longer than the duration of the Terazawa schedule (926 hours), so that drying elaborated with Terazawa schedule lasted 98 hours (4.08 days) faster than the industry schedule. Thus, the drying-based Terazawa certainly be more efficient in terms of energy consumption and drying cost. Fourth, all the parameters related to wood shrinkage due to Terazawa’s drying schedule was significantly lower, particularly thickness shrinkage, rather than that on a industry schedule. Thus, the volume of dry wood resulted on the Terazawa drying schedule is higher than that the industry schedule. Fifth, all the parameters that refer to the level of wood damage as a result of the drying process carried out with the Terazawa’s schedule was significantly lower than that on the industry schedule, especially in the form of end-crack, surface cracks, and honey-comb. Thus, the quality of the resulting dry wood on the Terazawa drying schedule is higher than the industry drying schedule. Based on these five facts above, it can be concluded that wood drying with the application of Terazawa’s drying schedule result: a shorter drying duration, more efficient on energy consumption and the drying cost, shrinkage is lower, and intensity of dry wood defects is also lower than the wood drying carried out by application of industry’s drying schedule. Thus, the drying characteristics of ABC red meranti wood is done with the implementation schedule Terazawa is better than the application of industrial schedule.
CONCLUSION Some items conclusions are presented as follows. First, red meranti has a 58.86% initial moisture content and specific gravity of 0.76. Second, Terazawa based drying schedules can be formulated as T3D1, with initial temperature of 45°C and 1.8° C wet bulb depression and the final temperature of 79oC. Third, the rate of drying on the schedule Terazawa (0.69% / hour) is higher than the industry schedule (0.6% /hour). Fourth, the duration of wood drying carried out with Terazawa’s schedule (926 hours) is 98 hours shorter than duration of the industry schedule (1024 hours). Fifth, thickness shrinkage (3.89%) on the Terazawa’s drying schedule is lower than the industry drying schedule (4.16%). Sixth, the intensity of the end crack, and surface crack in the Terazawa’s drying schedule is lower than the drying industry, so the quality of dried wood of Terazawa’s schedule is higher than the industry’s schedule. Seventh, the characteristics of wood drying carried out with Terazawa’s schedule are better than the industry’s drying schedule.
REFERENCES Anonimus. 1957. British Standard (BS) nomor 373 Methods of Testing Small Clear Specimen of Timber, London. Anonimus, 2011. http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daftar_kayu_di_Indonesia. Accessed on September 16, 2011. Anonimus, 2011a. Degradasi Hutan Tropis di Indonesia. http://pdf.wri.org/indoforest_chap3_id.pdf. Accessed on September 16, 2011. 256 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Bollmann, 1977. Manual for Technical Drying of Timber. Ludwig Bolmann Kg. Maschinenfabrik. Rielasingen. West Germany. Rasmussen EF. 1961. Dry Kiln, Operator’s Manual. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook, 188. Terazawa S. 1965. An Easy Method for the Determination of Wood Drying Schedule. Wood Industry Japan. Martawijaya, S., Kartasujana, I., Kadir, K., Suwanda A.P., 1981. Atlas Kayu Indonesia. Jilid I. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kehutanan. Direktur Jenderal Kehutanan. Bogor. Whitmore, T.C. 1975. Tropical Rain Forest of Far- East. Oxford Univ. Press. New York. Gorisek, Z. dan Straze A., 2007. Influence of wood Drying Technique and Process Condition on Drying Quality of Beech Wood (Fagus silvatica L). Conference on Quality Control For Competitivenes of Wood Industries. Warsaw, 15 – 17 Oktober 2010. Accessed on September 13, 2011. http://www.coste53.net/ downloads/ Warsaw/Warsawpresentation/COSTE53-ConferenceWarsaw-Presentation-Gorisek.pdf Soerianegara I dan A. Indrawan. 2005. Ekosistem Hutan Indonesia. Laboratorium Ekologi Hutan, Fakultas Kehutanan. Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor.
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Forest Science
The Effect of Organic Material Application on Growth and Biomass Increment of Shorea Leprosula Seedlings: A Supporting Research for Rehabilitation Program in The Humid Tropics Ika Heriansyah1,2,*, Hazandy Abdul Hamid1,3, Shamsudin Ibrahim4, Ahmad Ainudin Nuruddin1,3, Ismail Harun4, Wan Mohd Shukri Wan Ahmad4, and Salleh Mat4 1
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400.Selangor, Malaysia 2 Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA), Jl. Gunung Batu No. 5, Bogor, 16610, Indonesia 3 Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400.Selangor, Malaysia 4 Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong 52109, Selangor, Malaysia *Corresponding author:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Restoring degraded logged-over forest which is indicated by low in soil fertility and organic matter due to imbalance nutrient cycle are of paramount importance as there has been increasing attention towards these forests as the sustainable use of these resources. Forest rehabilitation through reintroduces tree species lost, especially fast growing dipterocarp is implemented to curtail degraded logged-over forest and improve the soil fertility through organic material application is important but only few information is available on rehabilitation of degraded forest. The objectives of this study were: (1) to evaluate the growth and biomass accumulation on different kind and application rate of organic materials; and (2) to determine suitable application for rehabilitation of degraded forest in the humid tropics of Peninsular Malaysia. This study was conducted at Shorea leprosula seedlings in Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) research station in Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia. To evaluate the effects of organic materials on survival, growth and biomass increment, mineral soils that taken from rehabilitation site in Tekai Forest Reserve, Pahang were amended with different application rates of organic materials, such as pulp mill sludge, compost, oil palm mesocarp and their combinations. Application rate of each organic materials were 0, ⅓, ½, ⅔, and ¾ of v/v. Growth measurement was conducted in every month for early growth up to 3 months after application and continued for every three months, while biomass were measured on initial, 3-, 6- and 12-month after application by destructive sampling method. Plant growth and biomass accumulation was increased by all amendments, however their rates was decreased during early growth as a result of adaptation process. Up to 1 year analyses, the best diameter growth performance appeared by compost 66.67% (treatment 9) and combination 33.33% (treatment 17), followed by treatment 10 (compost 75%) and 18 (combination 50%), while the best height growth performance appeared by treatment 18 and 17 and followed by treatment 9. The biggest biomass increment was on treatment 9, followed by treatment 18 and 17. The treatment that should be avoided for rehabilitation program were control (treatment 1; only mineral soil), all application rates of pulp mill sludge and mix organic materials which high rate of sludge. Root formations on sludge medium shown in broken-down condition since they absorb water and dissolved minerals from pulp mill sludge medium, moreover all leaves shown unhealthy and burned down. Treatment 9, 260 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Effect of Organic Material Application on Growth and Biomass Increment of Shorea leprosula Seedlings: A Supporting Research for Rehabilitation Program in the Humid Tropics |
18 and 17 was the best three growth performance with high survival rate and recommended for rehabilitation technique in Tekai Forest Reserve, Pahang, Malaysia or other comparative areas. Keywords: r ehabilitation, organic matter, Shorea leprosula, growth performance, survival, biomass increment, compost
Introduction Forest use and management practices in the past which were concentrated more on timber production than forest services resulted in a number of environmental problems such as land degradation, biodiversity loss, and greenhouse gas emissions. This problem is facing us today and a threat to life worldwide, so stopping deforestation in the tropics has become an international movement. To realize the target, we must be willing to conserve and manage the remaining forest resources on sustainable basis and to conduct extensive reforestation program in degraded lands. Enrichment planting is a highly effective technique for the rehabilitation or reforestation of degraded forest vegetation which reintroduces tree species lost into the forest land due to disturbances and aims to restore degraded vegetation and stock timber for the future (Appanah and Weinland, 1993). Dipterocarps which make up most of the tropical forests of South East Asia have been commercially logged for many years and has suffered a massive population reduction mainly because of the rate of exploitation of its timber is one of the most important species in the tropical South East Asia in terms of both ecological and economic aspects (Symington et al., 2004). The initial growth performance of planted Shorea leprosula as a fast growing dipterocarp species in the rehabilitation area of Tekai Forest Reserve, Pahang State Malaysia is affected not only by applying of organic materials but also by various environmental factors. Since soil organic matter, nutrients, and biological activity contribute to ecosystem-level process and are important for productivity, community structure, and fertility in terrestrial ecosystems (Stevenson, 1994), experiment in nursery stage is recommended to be established in order to determine suitable treatment for the rehabilitation program. In recent years, the application of organic wastes with a high organic matter content to infertile soils has become a common environmental practice for maintaining soil organic matter, reclaiming degraded soils, and supplying plant nutrients. Organic matter has been identified as a key attribute in numerous soil propertis and processes, including bulk density, structure, temperature, water relations, nutrient availability and biological activity (Johnston, 1986; Heynes, 2005). However, the influence of organic matter on soil properties depends on amount, type, and size of added organic materials (Nelson and Oades, 1998; Barzegar et al., 2002). In this study, we conducted experimental planting and evaluated seedling mortality, growth performance and biomass increment with Shorea leprosula species in four types of organic materials: pulp mill sludge, compost, oil palm mesocarp and their combinations. We attempted to answer the following two questions: (1) Which organic materials affect seedling mortality, growth and biomass increment during the initial 12 months (the most important period for the growth of planted Shorea leprosula seedlings)? and (2) Do planted seedlings shows any inter-specific differences in their growth performance? Based on the results, we then discussed suitable organic materials application for rehabilitation tecnique in Tekai Forest Reserve, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia.
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| 261
| Ika Heriansyah, Hazandy Abdul Hamid, Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ahmad Ainudin Nuruddin, Ismail Harun, Wan Mohd Shukri Wan Ahmad, Salleh Mat |
Materials and methods Study site The study site was located in the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) research station of Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia (3o58’406’’ N and 102o35’448’’ E), about 250 km Northeast of Kuala Lumpur. The climate is classified as the humid tropics, and the site is quite similar condition to rehabilitation area of Tekai Forest Reserve, Pahang. Experimental Design And Growth Performance Measurement The study used a 4 x 5 factorial combination of organic materials and application rate in a randomized complete block design. This design was replicated with three blocks which consist of 10 individual seedlings for regular measurement and another 10 seedlings for destructive sampling. The four levels of organic materials were: (1) Pulp mill sludge (S), (2) Compost (C), (3) Oil palm mesocarp/empty fruit bunch (Mesocarp), and (4) Combination (Mix). The application rates based on volume by volume ratio (soil : organic material) for easily application in the field were: (1) Control (0.00%), (2) 1 : 2 (33.33 %), (3) 1 : 1 (50.00 %), (4) 2 : 1 (66.67 %) and (5) 3 : 1 (75.00 %). Soil was taken from rehabilitation site of Tekai FR and mixture with organic materials by using medium capacity mixer. Trees were planted as seedling approximately 60 cm high. Growth parameters such as diameter at 10 cm above medium level (D), total height (H) and height of lowest branch (Hb) were collected in every month up to 3 months starting from initial growth of 2 week after planting, and continued in every three months, while destructive sampling for biomass estimation was conducted on 0-, 3-, 6- and 12-month-old. There was no other treatment except weed control to avoid intra-specific competition. Biomass measurement and Allometric Equations Development Based on D and H data distribution, 10 representative seedlings were extracted at initial growth and 5 seedlings for each treatment were extracted at 3-, 6- and 12-month-old. Totally, 265 seedlings were extracted. After harvested, D, H, Hb and weight of tree components of the sample trees were measured in the field using digital caliper Mitutoyo, standard tape Richter, and analytic balance DIGI DS-425, respectively. All tree-components were brought to the laboratory to record the ovendry weight. Fresh samples were dried at 85°C in a constant temperature oven for about 36 hours. D and H were tested as independent variables. Preliminary analysis of alternative equations indicated that the best fitted was power equation y = axb (where y is biomass (gr), x is D (mm) or D2H (mm2 cm), and a and b are coefficients estimated by regression). The specific best fitted equation was used to estimate biomass accumulation of each seedling. Statistical Analysis The general linear model (GLM) was used to evaluate the seedling responses to treatments. The analyses were performed with a commercially available statistical package (SPSS Ver 15.0).
Seedling mortality
Results and discussion
In the sludge, mesocarp and combination applications, all applications were high survival rate (≥ 90%) at the end of survey (12 months), except the 75% application rate of sludge that sharply decreased until 2 months with 87.67% of the average and the 66.67% application rate of combination that decreased between 6 to 9 months then remained rather constant over time (Fig. 1). On the 262 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Effect of Organic Material Application on Growth and Biomass Increment of Shorea leprosula Seedlings: A Supporting Research for Rehabilitation Program in the Humid Tropics |
other hand, the compost and mesocarp showed similar mortality patterns with the highest mortality occurred in 33.33% application rate; the average mortality at 12 months was 30% and 10% in the compost and mesocarp, respectively. In contrast, the mortality of Shorea leprosula in control, in application rate of 50% of sludge and combination, and in 75% application rate of mesocarp was the lowest value among the treatments at 12 months (0%). It means, Shorea leprosula seedlings could be planted in degraded lands without organic material applications. Seedling Growth The diameter and height increment of the seedlings increased linearly in all treatments and almost higher values compared with control (Fig. 1). The biggest diameter increment (≥ 9 mm) was in compost and combination treatments with application rate of 66.67 and 75.00% for compost and 33.33 and 50% for combination, respectively at 12 months. Whereas, the highest height increment (≥ 90 cm) was in compost of 66.67% application rate and in combination treatment of 33.33 and 50% application rate. Pulp mill Sludge
Combination
Oil palm mesocarp
100
100
100
90
90
90
90
80
80
80
80
70
70
70
70
60
60
60
60
Survival rate (%)
100
50
50 Height increment (cm)
120 0
3
6 month
9
50
50
12 0 120
3
6 mont h
9
12 0 120
3
6
9
mont h
100
12 120 0
100
100
80
80
80
80
60
60
60
60
40
40
40
40
20
20
20
20
0
0 12 0 Diameter increment (mm)
Compost
3
6 month
9
3
10
6 mont h
9
12 12 0 10
6 mont h
9
1212 0
8
6
6
6
4
4
4
2
2
2
0 3
6 month
9
12
0 0.00%
3
6 9 month 33.33%
12 0 50.00%
12
3
6 mont h
9
12
3
6 month
9
12
10
8
0
9
0 3
8
0
6 mont h
100
0
12 0
3
0
3
6 month 66.67%
9
12 0 75.00%
Fig. 1. M ortality (%), diameter increment (mm) and height increment (cm) of planted S. leprosula seedlings under different application rates of organic materials
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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| Ika Heriansyah, Hazandy Abdul Hamid, Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ahmad Ainudin Nuruddin, Ismail Harun, Wan Mohd Shukri Wan Ahmad, Salleh Mat |
In the sludge treatments, the average growth of diameter and height increment was less than 5 mm and 6 cm, respectively and was the lowest growth performance compared with other treatments except control. Moreover, leaves shown unhealthy and burned down at all application rates starting from 6 months after application. In mesocarp treatments, the average growth increment rate was lower growth compared to compost and combination treatments but was higher than sludge treatments. Applied organic materials are needed for stimulate growth rate of Shorea leprosula planted on reforestation program in degraded lands. Compost is one of the best organic materials that have positive relationship to growth performance. The similar performance was also shown in mix treatment with application rate less than 50%. Compost breaks down slowly in the soil and is very good at improving the physical condition of the soil (whereas manure and sludge may break down fairly quickly, releasing a flush of nutrients for plant growth). In many circumstances, it takes time to rejuvenate a poor soil using these practices because the amount of organic material being added is small relative to the mineral proportion of the soil. Compost has also ameliorative effects on soil fertility and physical, chemical and biological soil properties. Well-made compost contains all the nutrients needed by plants. It can be used to maintain and improve soil fertility as well as to regenerate degraded soil. Allometric Relationships and Biomass Increments We developed two different kinds of specific equations to estimate biomass accumulation, using single variable D and combination D and H. As shows in Fig. 2 - 5, the model of spesific relationship indicated that using D alone as the predictor variable produced stable relationship, and the inclusion of H as a second predictor variable did not significantly change on the performance of the model.
264 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Effect of Organic Material Application on Growth and Biomass Increment of Shorea leprosula Seedlings: A Supporting Research for Rehabilitation Program in the Humid Tropics | 12000
Control
12000
yT = 16,52252x2,42926 R² = 0,93848
10000
Control
10000
yA = 2,10925x 0,81790 R² = 0,83118
8000
yA = 1,11171x 0,86358 R² = 0,85522
6000
yR = 1,58640x 0,66820 R² = 0,53298
R² = 0,92755 5,11946x2,23524
yR = R² = 0,76338
6000 4000
Total
2000
Root
5
Sludge 33%
D (mm)
10
12000
yA = 11,56755x2,45983 R² = 0,95837
8000 6000
yR = 4,23034x2,28541 R² = 0,94280
4000
Total
2000
Root
6000
Sludge 50%
5
D (mm)
10
Biomass (gr)
yT = 1,63857x0,84793 R² = 0,96102 yA = 1,16314x 0,86106 R² = 0,95768
8000 6000
yR = 0,50719x 0,79841 R² = 0,93836
4000
Total AGB Root
6000
5000
10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
2 2 Sludge 50% D H (mm .cm)
5000
yT = 1,47397x 0,85197 R² = 0,94914 yA = 0,92460x 0,87715 R² = 0,94276
4000
yR = 5,83553x 2,13382 R² = 0,86245
2000
Total
2000
Total
1000
AGB
1000
AGB
0
Root
0
7000
Sludge 67%
5
D (mm)
10
6000
Biomass (gr)
D2 H (mm2.cm)
3000
8000 0
15
yR = 5,56162x2,09529 R² = 0,88337
4000 3000
yR = 0,65089x0,76920 R² = 0,87335
3000
Root
8000 0
yT = 18,94771x2,29850 R² = 0,96295
y A= 13,54358x2,35450 R² = 0,96907
5000
7000
5000
10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
2 2 Sludge 67% D H (mm .cm)
6000
yT = 2,20157x 0,81254 R² = 0,96302
yA = 1,47226x 0,83416 R² = 0,97338
5000 4000
yR = 0,82788x 0,73333 R² = 0,86593
3000
2000
Total
2000
Total
1000
AGB
1000
AGB
0
Root
0
8000
0
5
Sludge 75%
7000
D (mm)
10
15
yA = 12,96256x2,35263 R² = 0,97934
5000 4000
Root
8000 0
yT = 16,48839x2,34310 R² = 0,98241
6000
Biomass (gr)
yT = 15,85361x2,39066 R² = 0,95904
4000
10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Sludge 33%
7000 0
15
yA = 10,51217x 2,46879 R² = 0,95837
5000
5000
0
Biomass (gr)
7000 0
Root
0
2000
AGB
0
AGB
10000
Biomass (gr)
Biomass (gr)
15 yT = 15,70691x2,42322 R² = 0,96244
10000
Total
0
Biomass (gr)
0
4000 2000
AGB
0 12000
Biomass (gr)
8000
7000
5000
10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
2 2 Sludge 75% D H (mm .cm)
6000
Biomass (gr)
Biomass (gr)
yA = 10,83913x2,51384
yT = 1,16644x 0,87678 R² = 0,95285
yA = 0,89394x0,88218 R² = 0,95383
5000 4000
yR = 0,28739x 0,84668 R² = 0,86970
3000
yR = 3,55031x2,28612 R² = 0,91538
2000
Total
2000
Total
1000
AGB
1000
AGB
0
Root
0
0
5
D (mm)
10
15
3000
Root
0
5000
10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
D2H (mm2.cm)
Fig. 2. Biomass equations of control and sludge treatments in different application rate, using D (left) and D2H (right)
yT = Total biomass, yA = Aboveground biomass and yR = Root biomass
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| 265
| Ika Heriansyah, Hazandy Abdul Hamid, Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ahmad Ainudin Nuruddin, Ismail Harun, Wan Mohd Shukri Wan Ahmad, Salleh Mat |
Compost 33%
12000
yA = 7.76725x2.70020 R² = 0.92258
8000
yR = 2.95254x 2.31992 R² = 0.87203
6000
Total
4000
Root
0
Compost 50%
10
D (mm)
15
25000
yT = 12.67493x2.56945 R² = 0.97700
20000
yA = 10.31682x 2.57113 R² = 0.96998
15000
yR = 2.31720x2.54685 R² = 0.92520
10000
Total
5000
AGB
30000 0
5
Compost 67%
10
D (mm)
15
Biomass (gr)
yA = 12.28378x2.43348 R² = 0.96869
15000
yR = 2.56495x 2.54745 R² = 0.94775
10000
Total
5000
AGB
0
5
Compost 75%
10
D (mm)
15
Biomass (gr)
10000
Total
5000
AGB Root
0 0
5
10
D (mm)
15
20
20000
40000
Compost 50%
60000
80000
D2H (mm2.cm)
100000 yT = 0.82027x0.93206 R² = 0.97392 yA = 0.66180x 0.93349 R² = 0.96865
20000 15000
yR = 0.15473x 0.92301 R² = 0.92059
10000
Total AGB Root
20000
40000
Compost 67%
60000
80000
D2H (mm2.cm)
100000
yT = 0.93556x 0.90782 R² = 0.98661
20000
yA = 0.78331x 0.89948 R² = 0.97616
15000
yR = 0.15367x 0.93412 R² = 0.93992
10000
Total
5000
AGB Root
0 25000
yR = 2.18172x 2.54931 R² = 0.94758
Root
0
25000
20
yA = 14.62694x 2.32357 R² = 0.94760
15000
AGB
30000 0
yT = 16.42269x2.37285 R² = 0.95183
20000
Total
2000
0
Root
0
4000
5000
20
20000
yR = 0.24322x 0.83792 R² = 0.86277
6000
25000
yT = 14.94078x2.45941 R² = 0.98176
25000
8000
30000
Root
0
yA = 0.37173x 0.99168 R² = 0.94377
0
20
Biomass (gr)
5
Biomass (gr)
Biomass (gr)
30000 0
yT = 0.55285x0.96521 R² = 0.95126
10000
AGB
2000
Compost 33%
12000
0
20000
40000
Compost 75%
60000
80000
D2H (mm2.cm)
20000
Biomass (gr)
Biomass (gr)
10000
25000
14000
yT = 10.57301x2.63208 R² = 0.93271
Biomass (gr)
14000
100000
yT = 1.04219x 0.88743 R² = 0.96576
yA = 0.98796x 0.86843 R² = 0.96020
15000
yR = 0.11051x 0.95571 R² = 0.96606
10000
Total
5000
AGB
0
Root
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
D2H (mm2.cm)
Fig. 3. Biomass equations of compost treatments in different application rate, using D (left) and D2H (right)
yT = Total biomass, yA = Aboveground biomass and yR = Root biomass
266 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Effect of Organic Material Application on Growth and Biomass Increment of Shorea leprosula Seedlings: A Supporting Research for Rehabilitation Program in the Humid Tropics | 10000
Mesocarp 33%
yT = 18.97598x 2.36316 R² = 0.97015
6000
y R= 5.34163x 2.13253 R² = 0.80901
4000
Total AGB Root
2000 0 5
Mesocarp 50% D (mm)
10
Biomass (gr)
15
yA = 11.77491x2.50348 R² = 0.95956
6000
y R= 6.16376x 2.19441 R² = 0.88150
4000
Total AGB Root
2000 0 12000 0
5
Mesocarp 67% D (mm)
10
Biomass (gr)
yR = 4.93074x2.18492 R² = 0.95067
6000 4000
Total AGB Root
2000 0 12000 0
5
Mesocarp 75% D (mm)
10
Biomass (gr)
6000
yR = 7.23485x2.05595 R² = 0.81306
4000 Total
2000
AGB Root
0 0
5
D (mm)
10
15
AGB Root
0
10000
20000
30000
Mesocarp 50% D2H (mm2.cm)
40000 yT = 0.99795x0.91617 R² = 0.95123 yA = 0.58198x 0.95000 R² = 0.95448
6000
yR = 0.49356x0.81888 R² = 0.84793
4000
Total AGB Root
0 12000 0
10000
20000
Mesocarp 67% D2H (mm2.cm)
30000
10000
40000
y T= 0.95594x 0.90759 R² = 0.96631
yA = 0.62519x0.93349 R² = 0.95661
8000 6000
yR = 0.41733x 0.80306 R² = 0.95404
4000 Total
2000
AGB Root
0
15
yA = 12.88790x2.41663 R² = 0.94257
8000
Total
2000
12000 0
yT = 19.85290x2.32607 R² = 0.93576
10000
y R= 0.50921x 0.77397 R² = 0.77547
4000
8000
15
yA = 10.90998x2.54550 R² = 0.95752
8000
6000
10000
yT = 15.45316x2.47341 R² = 0.96609
10000
yA = 0.75365x0.90718 R² = 0.97413
0
y T= 17.89101x2.42184 R² = 0.96224
8000
yT = 1.20769x 0.87644 R² = 0.97106
2000
Biomass (gr)
10000 0
Biomass (gr)
yA = 13.27184x2.43636 R² = 0.96552
Biomass (gr)
Biomass (gr)
8000
Mesocarp 33%
8000
10000
20000
Mesocarp 75% D2H (mm2.cm)
30000
40000 yT = 1.60188x 0.85070 R² = 0.96115
10000
Biomass (gr)
10000
8000
yA = 0.96356x0.88124 R² = 0.96250
6000
y R= 0.73724x 0.75889 R² = 0.85069
4000 Total
2000
AGB
0
Root
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
D2H (mm2.cm)
Fig. 4. Biomass equations of mesocarp treatments in different application rate, using D (left) and D2H (right)
yT = Total biomass, yA = Aboveground biomass and yR = Root biomass
The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| 267
| Ika Heriansyah, Hazandy Abdul Hamid, Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ahmad Ainudin Nuruddin, Ismail Harun, Wan Mohd Shukri Wan Ahmad, Salleh Mat |
Combination 33%
yA = 22.98719x2.11219 R² = 0.96853
8000
4.86697x2.25628
yR = R² = 0.93503
6000 4000
Total AGB Root
2000
16000 0 14000
5
10
Combination 50%D (mm)
15
Total AGB Root
10
Combination 67%D (mm)
15
Biomass (gr)
yA = 13.10615x2.38950 R² = 0.96435
10000 8000
yR = 2.27984x 2.54389 R² = 0.92613
6000 4000 0 6000 0
5
10
Combination 75%D (mm)
15
Biomass (gr)
yA = 13.67893x2.35729 R² = 0.94134
3000
yR = 7.01666x 2.02694 R² = 0.86686
2000 Total
1000
AGB Root
20000 0 18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
Combination 50% D2H (mm2.cm)
yT = 2.26492x0.80857 R² = 0.99097
yA = 2.02756x 0.79724 R² = 0.98904 yR = 0.27514x0.85595 R² = 0.94418
Total AGB Root
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
Combination 67% D2H (mm2.cm)
yT = 1.09476x0.88778 R² = 0.96506
yA = 0.94732x0.87920 R² = 0.96980
10000
yR = 0.15574x0.92247 R² = 0.90461
8000 6000 4000
Total
2000
AGB Root
0
20
4000
Total
12000
6000
yT = 19.98953x 2.28656 R² = 0.93423
5000
4000
14000
Total AGB Root
2000
yR = 0.30617x0.85953 R² = 0.94713
6000
16000 0
20 yT = 15.31347x 2.42019 R² = 0.96552
12000
yA = 1.82415x 0.79821 R² = 0.96545
8000
0
yT = 26.48385x 2.22983 R² = 0.99105
yR = 3.55075x2.38037 R² = 0.96023
yT = 2.03447x0.81544 R² = 0.97451
2000
20
yA = 23.09892x2.19491 R² = 0.98581
5
10000
Biomass (gr)
Biomass (gr)
0
Combination 33%
12000
Biomass (gr)
10000
20000 0 18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
14000
yT = 27.28794x 2.15404 R² = 0.97425
0
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
D2H (mm2.cm) Combination 75%
5000
Biomass (gr)
Biomass (gr)
12000
Biomass (gr)
14000
yT = 1.55839x 0.85153 R² = 0.91052 yA = 0.94782x 0.88271 R² = 0.92760
4000
yR = 0.82281x0.74012 R² = 0.81222
3000 2000
Total
1000
AGB
0
Root
0
5
10
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Depending on allometric equations in each treatment, root-, aboveground- and total-biomass of every tree component could be calculated. These data could be used to calculate biomass increment of each treatment (Fig. 6). As indicated in Fig. 6, the highest biomass increment was on treatment 9 and followed by treatment 18, 17 and 10, while the lowest biomass increment was on treatment 20 and followed by treatment 12, 1, 5 and 7.
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| The Effect of Organic Material Application on Growth and Biomass Increment of Shorea leprosula Seedlings: A Supporting Research for Rehabilitation Program in the Humid Tropics | 120
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Fig. 6. Biomass increment of tree component in different application rate Plant productivity is linked closely to organic matter (Bauer and Black, 1994). Organic matter also contributes to the stability of soil aggregates and pores through the bonding or adhesion properties of organic materials. Moreover, organic matter intimately mixed with mineral soil materials has a considerable influence in increasing moisture holding capacity. In soils with less compaction, plant roots can penetrate and flourish more readily. High organic matter increases productivity and, in turn, high productivity increases organic matter.
Conclusion A consequence of forest use and management practices for timber production is the disappearance of the litter layer, with a consequent reduction in the numbers and variety of soil organisms. Studies have shown that as soil biodiversity declines, adapted species may take over from the indigenous species and the composition may change drastically (Curry and Good, 1992). Soil resilience depends on a balance between restorative and degrading processes (Elliot and Lynch, 1994) and can be grouped in two categories: endogenous and exogenous. Endogenous factors are related to inherent soil properties (rooting depth, texture, structure, topography and drainage) and microclimate and mesoclimate. Exogenous factors include land use and management practice, technological innovations and input management (Lal, 1994). Hence, appropriate silvicultural practices can influence these factors in order to enhance soil resilience. The establishment of a forest cover under good management is an effective means of increasing organic matter production. However, the land must have the productive capacity to support an appropriate forest type, which differs according to climate, soil, slope and the specific purpose of the forest. Therefore, the choice of species and the selection of an appropriate site are of particular importance for successful rehabilitation of degraded forest. Reforestation program in tropical degraded forest land using Shorea leprosula without applied organic material indicated poor growth rate and biomass accumulation, then organic material application to be one of the requirement treatments needed for better results. Initially, applied sludge and mesocarp on reforestation can stimulate growth rate, however applied sludge with application rate 67% and more will raise mortality rate. Growth rate of Shorea leprosula increased with decreasing application rate of mix organic materials, consequently. The best performance of mix organic materials was on application rate less than 50%, and in contrast, 75% application rate of it can be obstructed growth rate. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Based on this study, applied compost with application rate of 67% and 75% and mix organic materials with application rate less than 50% were the best four performances on growth and biomass accumulation, then recommended to be used for reforestation program of degraded lands in Tekai Forest Reserve and other comparative areas. The maintenance of soil organic matter levels and the optimization of nutrient cycling are essential to the sustained productivity of silvicultural systems. Maintaining soil organic matter content requires a balance between addition and decomposition rates. As changes in forest management practices can engender marked changes in both the pool size and turnover rate of soil organic matter, it is important to analyse their nature and impacts.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Funding for this research was received from Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) through Intensive Forest Management Project (RMK-9). We also appreciate the FRIM and UPM staff who help us with the field work. Thanks to Mr. Kamil Ismail for laboratory and field assistant.
REFERENCES Appanah, S. and G. Weinland. 1993. A preliminary analysis of the 50-hectare Pasoh demography plot: I. Dipterocarpaceae. For. Res. Inst. Malaysia, Res. Pamph. No. 112. Barzegar, AR., A. Yousefi and A. Daryashenas. 2002. The Effect of Addition of Different Amounts and Types of Organic Materials on Soil Physical Properties and Yield of Wheat. Plant Soil., 247: 295-301. Bauer, A. and AL. Black. 1994. Quantification of the effect of soil organic matter content on soil productivity. Am. J. Soil Sci. Soc., 5: 185-193. Curry, JP and JA. Good. 1992. Soil faunal degradation and restoration. Adv. Soil Sci., 17: 171-215 Elliot, LF. and JM. Lynch. 1994. Biodiversity and soil resilience. In J. Greenland and I. Szabolcs, eds. Soil resilience and sustainable land use, pp. 353-364. Wallingford, UK, CAB International. Haynes, RJ. 2005. Labile organic matter fractions as central components of the quality of agricultural soils: an overview. Advance in Agronomy 85: 221-268 Johnston, AE. 1986. Soil organic matter, effects on soils and crops. Soil Use and Management 2: 97-105 Lal, R. 1994. Sustainable land use systems and soil resilience. In J. Greenland and I. Szabolcs, eds. Soil resilience and sustainable land use, pp. 41-67. Wallingford, UK, CAB International. Nelson, PN. and JM. Oades. 1998. Organic matter, sodicity and soil structure. In M.E. Sumner and R. Naidu Eds. Sodic Soils: Distribution, Processes, Management and Environmental Consequences. Oxford Uni. Press, New York, U.S.A. p. 51-75. Stevenson, FJ. 1994. Humus Chemistry: genesis, composition, reactions. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley. 496 p. Symington, CF., PS. Ashton, and S. Appanah. 2004. Forester’s Manual of Dipterocarps. Malaysian Nature Society. 519 p
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Replacement of Planted Invasive Species Using a Commercial Indigenous Species through a Multi-Storied Forest Management: Review on Growth Performance and Productivity Ika Heriansyah Research and Development Center for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation, Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA), Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia, Bogor. 16610. Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Multi-storied forest management (MSFM) is a promising silviculture techniques to promote forest development and management in the tropics as well as replacement of invasive species. MSFM was established in Chikus Forest Reserve, Perak Malaysia in 1992 to convert planted invasive species of Acacia mangium forest into commercial indigenous forest plantations in order to conserve biodiversity and environment, to meet the future demand of general utility timber and to combat global warming. The experimental plots were set up to demonstrate five different planting designs, namely type A; one row of indigenous high quality timber species planted (Shorea leprosula) and one row of 3 years old exotic trees retained (Acacia mangium), 1:1, type B; 2:2, type C; 4:4, type D; 8:8 and type E; 16:16 in two different planting directions north to south and west to east. Each plot has an area of approximately one hectare with 3.0 m x 3.7 m spacing. The direction of planting row was not differed each other for both growth rate and survival. In the early growth up to 8 years old, diameter and height growth tends to be increase with number of row from type A to type E, except for tree height of type E, as a result of low inter-specific competition. At the age of 18 years old, S. leprosula was almost dominant in all planting designs of multi-storied forest and replacing the exotic species of A. mangium. The competition for both inter- and intra-specific was high as depicted by survival rate which decreased with increasing number of row from type B to type E as well as mean annual increment. The best performance of tree growth was type C, which is four rows of S. leprosula and four rows of A. mangium with 21.99 cm, 20.09 m and 66.4% of average diameter, total height and survival rate, respectively. The study was also derived specific equations through destructive sampling method of 15 representative trees to estimate stand productivity such as volume, biomass and carbon. Biomass proportion were 56.88, 14.92, 3.48, and 24.85% for stem, branches, leaves and root, while average carbon content were 43.77, 42.63, 43.55 and 41.02%, respectively. The volume of best planting design was 152.23 m3 ha-1 and the total biomass was 79.42 tonnes ha-1 (≈39.76 tonnes net C ha-1), 59.62 tonnes ha-1 of aboveground biomass and 19.80 tonnes ha-1 of root biomass. The best planting design can absorp 145.60 tonnes net CO2 from atmosfer. The study concludes that S. leprosula was sound to be one of the promising species for replacing invasive species as well as for rehabilitation, and type C of planting design is recommended for optimum growth performance, stand productivity and capacity of CO2 absorption in multi-stored forest management. Keywords: tropical rehabilitation, planting design, indigenous species, invasive species, allometric model, carbon content The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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| Ika Heriansyah |
INTRODUCTION Climate change and forests are intrinsically linked. On the one hand, changes in global climate are already stressing forests through higher mean annual temperatures, altered precipitation patterns and more frequent and extreme weather events. At the same time, forests and the wood they produce trap and store carbon dioxide, playing a major role in mitigating climate change. Destruction of forests, on the other hand, adds almost six billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year, and preventing this stored carbon from escaping is important for the carbon balance and vital in conserving the environment. This can be achieved not just by preventing forests from being cut down, but through afforestation and reforestation of non-forested lands. Moreover, according to Evans (1999), forest rehabilitation through forest plantation establishment serves to sequester large amount of carbon. Many extensive rehabilitation program in degraded lands conducted using exotic fast growing species for rapidly recovery, however some of them aggressively invaded and dominated natural areas. Moreover, invasive species can alter ecological relationships among native species and can affect ecosystem function, structure, and economic value (Pimentel et al 2001). Since an understanding on the growth patterns of species planted in different planting designs on degraded forestland is crucial to achieve multiple benefits of rehabilitation in terms of conservation of biodiversity, productivity and potential carbon sequestration. The best design for rehabilitation is not only to obtain the optimal timber productivity but also potentially for increasing carbon carbon sink in forest ecosystems as well as conservation of biodiversity and environment. Multi-storied forest management has attracted great attention as an effected forest management method in order to conserve biodiversity and environment and also producing high quality timber. Hence, purpose of the study were to evaluate the effect of planting design of multi-storied forest management on growth patterns and replacement potential, to estimate forest productivity in terms of volume and biomass by specific allometric equation development, and to calculate carbon sequestration.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Sites The study was conducted in 200 ha demonstration plot of Multi-storied Forest Management (MSFM) project, located in the Chikus Forest Reserve, Perak State, Malaysia (Fig. 1). The site has an overall elevation of 10 to 30 m with slighty undulation and soil is classified as Acrisols. The mean annual rainfall was 4,639 mm with temperature consistent around 26oC and relative humidity varies from 70 to 98% during the wet period and during the dry period could fall as low as 50%. Fig. 1 Multi-storied forest site
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| Replacement of Planted Invasive Species Using a Commercial Indigenous Species through a Multi-Storied Forest Management: Review on Growth Performance and Productivity |
Description of History and Planting Design The Chikus Forest Reserve has a total area of approximately 2,000 ha and was originally classified as lowland dipterocarp forest. In 1988, an area of 1,500 ha was convert into Acacia mangium plantation and remaining 500 ha were left intact as natural secondary forests. The plantation was completed in November 1989 with 900 seedlings per hectare at a spacing 3.0 m x 3.7 m after clear felling and burning of the area. Since the Multi-storied Foret Management (MSFM) project started in November 1991, 500 ha of A. mangium plantation was clear-felled in lines and eight indigenous high quality timber species were planted, one of them was Shorea leprosula.
Fig. 2. Planting designs of multi-storied forest management Multi-storied forest by under-planting in A. mangium forest were set up to demonstrate 5 different planting designs (Fig. 2), namely type A; one row of indigenous high quality timber species planted (S. leprosula) and one row of 3 years old exotic trees retained (A. mangium), 1:1, type B; 2:2, type C; 4:4, type D; 8:8 and type E; 16:16. Two direction of planting row, i.e. north to south and west to east were arranged for each planting design. Each plot has an area of approximately one hectare. Growth Measurement The three plots of 30 x 37 m/plot were established randomly within each stand. All of the trees within each plot were measured for diameter at breast height (D) at 1.3 m above the ground, total height (H) and height at the lowest branch (Hb) to evaluate growth patterns in each planting design. D was measured using diameter tape and height was measured using an ultrasonic hypsometer vertex III. Destructive Sampling Based on D distribution, fifteen representative sample trees from the lowest to the highest were chosen for destructive sampling to formulate specific allometric relationships. The improved technique for destructive sampling that developed by Heriansyah et al. (2010) was used for more effective and efficient in field work. Basically the technique is by using aboveground biomass as a power to completely and easily unearthing the root system. After tree sample felt down, a sample tree was separated into each component as logs: 0–0.3 m, 0.3–1.3 m, 1.3–3.3 m, etc. every 2 m to the top, and was divided into living branches and twigs, dead branches and twigs, leaves and roots. Tree height, height and diameter of lowest branch, diameter of the logs and weight of tree components of the sample trees were measured in the field. A set of sub-sample was brought to the laboratory to record the oven-dry weight. Fresh samples were dried at 85°C in a constant The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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temperature oven. Drying of leaves and wood biomass < 10 cm in diameter required 48 hours, whereas wood biomass > 10 cm diameter required 96 hours (Heriansyah et al. 2007). Ratios of dry/fresh mass were calculated and used to convert fresh mass into dry mass. Data Analysis Specific allometric equations was used to estimate tree component biomass and stem volume of S. leprosula were established using the independent variable D and combination of D square and H. The allometric equation was described by a power function Wi=a (D)b and Wi=a(D2H)b, where a and b are the regression constants, D is tree diameter at breast height (cm), H is tree height (m), and Wi is the amount of biomass of component i (kg) or stem volume (m3). The aboveground biomass was determined by calculating the sum of the biomass of the stem, branch and leaf. Total biomass was calculated as the sum of aboveground biomass and root biomass (Kira & Shidei 1967, Ogawa & Kira 1977). The total biomass and stem volume in each plot was calculated from the summed biomass and stem volume of all trees in the plots. These data were converted into hectares.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Growth Performance of Shorea leprosula
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Fig. 3 shows the initial growth performances of S. leprosula stand in terms of mean D and mean H which tended to be similar between different planting design and different planting direction. Mean annual increment (MAI) of D and H was between 1.77 to 2.08 cm and between 1.42 to 1.58 m for all planting designs in west to east direction, while MAI at north to south direction was between 1.76 to 2.17 cm and between 1.39 to 1.66 m, for D and H in all planting designs, respectively. The decrease in survival was influenced by adaptation process, especially for initial duration between 1 to 2 years. Planting direction was not differed significantly for survival rate, but number of planting row had positive related to mortality rate. The best survival rate was planting type A and B, and the planting type that should be avoided was E type. Based on the result, replacing planted A. mangium plantations into S. leprosula plantations can not be conducted by clear cutting method in term of shading needed and avoiding intra-specific competion.
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Fig. 3. Stand characteristic in different planting design and planting direction (Source: Forestry Department Malaysia and JICA, 2002) Compared to other site, growth performance of S. leprosula in the present study indicates faster growth. For example, S. leprosula stand on 3 x 3 m spacing of monoculture planting on 700 m above sea level in Gunung Dahu site, West Java, Indonesia can achieve an average of 1.32 cm and 0.99 m for MAI of D and H, respectively (Heriansyah et. al., 2010). 274 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Replacement of Planted Invasive Species Using a Commercial Indigenous Species through a Multi-Storied Forest Management: Review on Growth Performance and Productivity |
Volume and Biomass Accumulation According to the regression analysis, using D or D2H as independent variable, the stem volume was significantly higher than 99% at the level P<0.01 (Fig. 4). This means that the stem volume proportionately increased with the increase in D or D2H. Coeficient correlation value was not differed between equations using D and D2H, therefore, both equation can be used for estimating stem volume in the sample plot, but using only D as independent variable will be practical, simple and economical to fieldwork and analysis. The proportion of each tree component biomass of planted 18-yr-old S. leprosula in multistoried forest was 56.88, 14.92, 3.48 and 24.72% for stem, branches, leaves and roots, in average respectively. According to the regression analysis, using D as independent variable, the stem, branches and root were significantly higher than 90% at the level P<0.01 (Fig. 5). However, the leaves biomass was significantly less than 90% at the level P<0.05. Tree component biomass equation developed using D has a slightly different in r-square value compared with allometric equation using D2H as independent variable. Therefore, we considered using allometric equation with D as independent variable for estimating the tree component biomass. V = 0,000052D2,845429 R² = 0,993113
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Fig. 6. Relationship between stem volume and biomass Forest Productivity and Carbon Sequestration The productivity of S. leprosula stand in multi-storied forest were calculated using the best fit of allometric equation. The growth characteristics, stem volume, biomass and carbon stock of 18-yr-old S. leprosula are shown in Table 1. MAI of D and H was lower than that at 8-yr-old as a result of higher competition, but slightly bigger for D and quite bigger for H if compared to other stand in Gunung Dahu, West Java, Indonesia (Heriansyah et al., 2010). For instant, the best planting type of multi-storied forest was C type that accumulated 152.23 m of wood with 79.42 tonnes of biomass. This value is equivalent to 39.71 tonnes of carbon stock (C = 50% biomass), then has CO2 absorption capacity about 145.60 tonnes. However, when compared with Gunung Dahu site, productivity in present study indicates lower productivity for both volume and carbon, i. e. 0.83 and 0.78 times in MAI respectively as a result of fewer number of stand density. 3
Tabel 1. Forest productivity and carbon sequestration by 18-yr-old Shorea leprosula in multi-storied forest Planting
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(m)
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19.34 18.57 21.99 19.97 22.41
20.49 20.45 20.09 19.48 19.57
11.66 12.30 11.01 10.65 9.35
67.71 75.51 66.44 49.72 39.84
56.91 61.95 152.23 82.70 83.47
Biomass (Tonnes ha-1) C stock Above Stem Root Total (T ha-1) ground 18.12 19.91 6.48 26.38 13.19 19.73 20.45 6.62 27.07 13.50 48.22 59.62 19.80 79.42 39.71 26.35 30.77 10.00 40.77 20.38 26.53 34.03 11.20 45.23 22.61
At the age of 18 years, inter-specific competition higher than intra-specific competition as showns in survival rate which decrease with increasing number of planting row. Even survival rate of 21 years old A. mangium was less than 30% and canopy gap was occured, but there were not natural regeneration of A. mangium in all plots of A, B and C of planting designs. Moreover, lower layer of S. leprosula have started been develop from natural regeneration. In contrast, planting design of D and E type was nearly fully occupated by natural regeneration of A. mangium.
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| Replacement of Planted Invasive Species Using a Commercial Indigenous Species through a Multi-Storied Forest Management: Review on Growth Performance and Productivity |
CONCLUSION Multi-storied forest management is a promising rehabilitation technique to promote forest development and management in the tropics, both to convert marginally poor forest into forest plantation and to replace the exotic invasive species into indigenuos high quality timber species. In the study site, shading was an important environment for initially growth of Shorea leprosula, especially during first 2 years. Mean annual increment of D and H was increased up to 5 years old and decreased after that as a result of competition. The value of MAI in the study area was higher than other stand of Gunung Dahu site in West Java that planted in monoculture system and higher in elevation of 700 m above sea level. The best planting type of multi-storied forest was C type, four row of indigenous high quality timber species planted (Shorea leprosula) and four row of 3 years old exotic trees retained (Acacia mangium). These findings suggest that replacement of invasive species and productivity seems to be affected by suitability of species to site condition and planting technique. Thus, to ensure sustainability in producing high productivity as well as replacement of invasive species, these factors should be considered for future forest rehabilitation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Funding for this research was received from Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) and Fundamental Research Grant Scheme from the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia (MOHE). We also appreciate to the staff of FRIM, Faculty of Forestry of UPM and Forestry Department of Perak who help us with the field work.
REFERENCES Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia and JICA. 2002. Multi-storied Forest Management Project Report. Unpublished Heriansyah I, Hazandy AH, Subiakto A and Ibrahim S. 2010. Growth performance, production potential and biomass accumulation of 12-yr-old Shorea leprosula from stem cuttings in different silviculture treatments: Case study in West Java, Indonesia. Proceeding International seminar on Research on Plantation Forest Management: Challenges and Opportunities. 5 – 6 November 2009, Bogor – Indonesia. Heriansyah I, Miyakuni K, Kato K, Kiyono Y and Kanazawa Y. 2007. Growth characteristics and biomass accumulations of Acacia mangium under different management practices in Indonesia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 19 (4): 226 – 235. Kira T and Shidei T. 1967. Primary production and turnover of organic matter in different forest ecosystems of the Western Pacific. Japanese Journal of Ecology 17 (2): 70–87. Ogawa H and Kira, T. 1977. Methods of estimating forest biomass. Pp. 15–25 in Shidei, T. & Kira, T. (Eds.) Primary Productivity of Japanese Forests: Productivity of Terrestrial Communities. Japanese Committee for the International Biological Program (JIBP) Synthesis Vol. 16. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. Pimentel, D., S. McNair, J. Janecka, J. Wightman, C. Simmonds, C. O’Connell, E. Wong, L. Russel, J. Zern, T. Aquino and T. Tsomondo. 2001. Economic and environmental threats of alien plant, animal, and microbe invasions. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 84 (1): 1-20. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Diversity of Termite Species in West Kalimantan Yuliati Indrayani1 and Tsuyoshi Yoshimura2 1
Faculty of Forestry, Tanjungpura University, Jl. Imam Bojol, Pontianak 278124, Kalimantan Barat, E-mail:
[email protected] 2 Research Institue for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011, Japan
ABSTRACT A preliminary survey to determine the diversity of termite species in tropical forest in Pontianak, West Kalimantan was initiated from 3-13 June 2009. The survey was conducted according to Jones & Eggleton (2000). The insect were collected from fallen logs, leaf litters, mud trails, etc. in several locations in tropical forest in Pontianak, West Kalimantan. A total of 160 samples of termite were used in the survey. We found a total of 13 species of subterranean termites which belong to 10 genera (Coptotermes, Schedorhinotermes, Prohamitermes, Dicuspiditermes, Macrotermes, Microtermes, Nasutitermes, Globitermes, Subulitermes, Pericapritermes) and 5 subfamilies (Coptotermitinae, Rhinotermitinae, Macrotermitinae, Nasutitermitinae, and Termitinae,). Of interest, 2 species were new records for West Kalimantan, i.e. Prohamitermes mirabilis and Dicuspiditermes nemorosus Keywords: Species diversity, Termite, Tropical Forest, West Kalimantan
INTRODUCTION Termites are an important group of insects to the natural ecosystem (Sugimoto et al. 2000). Besides being pests to forest, agriculture and urban structures, termites also play an important role through nitrogen fixation by bacteria present in their gut, accumulation of minerals in their mounds, and improvement of soil texture through their tunneling activities (Lee et al. 2003). In addition, Williams (1994) stated that termites are useful recyclers of organic compounds (i.e., cellulose) because their activities accelerate the soil rehabilitation process by (1) breaking up of surface crusts, (2) reducing soil compaction, (3) increasing soil porosity, (4) improving water infiltration into the soil and (5) enhancing water holding capacity of the soil, thereby reducing surface runoff. However in their natural habitat, in many settings, they have severely disrupted the ecological system and/or caused significant economic damage. Termites are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. The number of species and their biomass are especially large in the tropical zone (Krishna and Weesner, 1969; Pearce, 1999). Indonesia is located within the tropical climatic zone with various types of forest ecosystems that are suitable for termite growth and development, and termite nests can easily be found everywhere in the forest, farmland, and rural shelters or even in city buildings. Due to the high diversity of termite species in this region, it is common to find several termite species. Nandika et al., (1996) reported 13 species of termites in Jakarta. However, little is known about the termite fauna of West Kalimantan.
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There has been limited effort to enhance information on termite fauna in West Kalimantan. The aim of this study was to measure termite species richness in tropical forest in West Kalimantan. This study also provides the first insight into the diversity of termite fauna in West Kalimantan.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Sites Sites were located at or near Pontianak city in West Kalimantan Province. The areas surveyed include three tropical forests represented by secondary forest and dominated by trees from Dipterocarpaceae family, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) and durian (Durio sp). Soils are mostly peat and ultisol. The study was conducted between 3-13 June 2009. Site Selection and Survey Protocol A transect of 100 x 2 m was marked out for termite survey using the protocols according to Jones & Eggleton (2000). The transect was divided into twenty (5 x 2 m) sections each of which was systematically explored by two collectors for 30 minutes. Species richness is the number of species and morphospecies obtained over the whole transect. Relative abundance is the number of encounters per transect, where the presence of a species in one section represents one encounter. Collection of worker and soldier termites were made on fallen logs, leaf litters, mud tubes, peel-off tree bark etc., at three different locations in the forest located in Anjungan, Teluk Pak Kedai and Pontianak. The collected termites were kept in 70% alcohol. Termites were identified to species level at LIPI Biology Cibinong. The transect method is effective because it utilizes collecting expertise within a protocol that standardizes sampling effort and area. The protocol provides a much more rapid and costeffective method for studying termite assemblage structure than sampling regimes designed to estimate population abundances. The termite transect has potential as a useful addition to any suite of organisms recommended for monitoring functional processes in tropical forests (Jones & Eggleton 2000).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS A total of 13 species of termites from 5 subfamilies and 10 genera were collected from this study (Table 1).
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Table 1. List of termite species collected from tropical forest in West Kalimantan Family Rhinotermitidae
Subfamily Coptotermitinae
Termitidae
Rhinotermitinae Termitinae
Macrotermitinae Nasutitermitinae
Species Coptotermes curvignathus Coptotermes sp Schedorhinotermes malaccensis Globitermes globosus Microcerotermes havilandi Prohamitermes mirabilis Dicuspiditermes nemorosus Pericapritermes speciosus Macrotermes sp Nasutitermes sp1 Nasutitermes sp2 Subulitermes complex Soil feeder termite (Unidentified)
Table 1 shows the list of termite species collected from tropical forest in West Kalimantan, while the general characteristics of each genus of soldier termites are represented in Table 2. Among the 5 subfamilies, 5 species collected were from subfamily Termitinae, followed by subfamily Nasutitermitinae (4 species), 2 species for subfamily Coptotermitinae and 1 species each of subfamilies Rhinotermitinae and Macrotermitinae. Two species of genus Coptotermes were found in this study. The Coptotermes is an important genus of subterranean termite in Indonesia with 6 species (C. curvignathus Holmgren, C. havilandi Holmgren, C. kalshoveni Kemner, C. travians Haviland, C. heimi, and Coptotermes sp.) (Nandika et al., 1996) and those termite being important structural pests which cause significant economic losses. One soil feeder termite in this study is unidentified. Soil-feeders, as reported by Wood (1978) are very common and abundant in many tropical rain forests. In the South-east Asian regions, soilfeeders are dominated by the Termitinae with a small number of Nasutitermitinae and Apicotermitinae (Abe, 1987). We also found species of Prohamitermes mirabilis and Dicuspiditermes nemorosus which were new records for West Kalimantan. This paper presents an insight into the diversity of subterranean termite species in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. The relatively small number of sites and the lack of replication of sampling do not favor a complete survey. More detailed studies should be executed in the future to further substantiate current findings as well as producing a checklist of termite species of this area.
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Table 2. General characteristics of soldier termites of genus Genus Coptotermes Schedorhinotermes Globitermes Microtermes Macrotermes Nasutitermes Subulitermes Prohamitermes Dicuspiditermes
Pericapritermes
General characteristics Large and conspicuous fontanelle Both mandibles with prominent marginal teeth (2 at left and 1 at right mandible); dimorphic soldiers (minor soldier moves very fast) Both mandibles with a single marginal tooth at the mid of mandibles; soldier`s abdomen with bright yellow coloration Head rectangular; Inner margins of mandibles serrated Labrum with hyaline tip; meso and metanotum greatly expanded laterally; soldiers distinctly dimorphic Head with nasus; head not constricted behind antennal sockets; left mandible without a rudimentary tooth on apical portion Head with nasus; Head somewhat pear-shaped Mandibles long, strongly curved Antero-lateral corners of head with pointed projections below antennal sockets with its lateral corners produced into long needle-like projections; anterior margin of labrum deeply concave Labrum with anterior margin straight; anterolateral corners very short; tip of left mandible broad, not strongly bent
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to late Ir. Anggoro who assisted identification of termites and we thank the student of Faculty of Forestry for supporting the survey.
REFERENCES Abe, T. 1987. Studies on the distribution and ecological role of termites in a lowland rain forest of west Malaysia. I. Faunal composition, size, coloration and nest of termites in Pasoh Forest Reserve. Kontyu, 46:273-290. Jones & Eggleton. 2000. Sampling termite assemblages in tropical forest: testing a rapid biodiversity assessment protocol. Journal of Applied Ecology. 37:191-203. Krishna, K. and F.M. Weesner. 1969. Biology of Termites. Vol. I. Academic Press. Inc., New York. 598 p. Lee, CY, Ngee PS and Jall Z. 2003. Foraging colonies of a higher mound-building subterranean termite, Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland) (Isoptera: Termitidae) in Malaysia. Jpn. J. Environ. Entomol. Zool. 14:105-112. Nandika, D, Soenaryo, Aswin S. 1996. Wood and wood preservation. Department of Forestry, Jakarta. Pearce, M. J. 1999. Termites: Biology and Pest Management. CAB international, London.172 pp Sugimoto A, Bignell DE and MacDonald JA. 2000. Global impact of termites on the carbon cycle and atmospheric trace gases. In: Abe T, Bignell DE and Higashi M (eds). Termites: evolution, sociality, symbioses, ecology. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 409-435. Williams, DF. 1994. Exotic Ants: Biology, impact and control of social introduced species. Boulder, Co., Westview Press, USA. 332 pp. Wood, T.G. 1978. Food and feeding habits of termites. Production Ecology of Ants and Termites (ed.M.V. Brian). 55-80 pp. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Termite and Mulch Mediated Rehabilitation of Vegetation in Nature Reserved, Indonesia Niken Subekti Biology Department, FMIPA, Semarang State University, Indonesia
ABSTRACT The rehabilitation of vegetation on structurally crusted soils by triggering termite activity through mulch was studies in a nature reserved, Indonesia. A split plot design was used in a fenced environment for the experiment. Termite mound distribution survey was conducted in strip transect, 50 m width interval, and supported by Global Positioning System. The mound of M. gilvus was distributed clusterly with density of 5 mound/Ha. These families, Myrtaceae 47.47%, Moraceae 34.33%, Tiliaceae 33.28%, Rubiaceae 21.34% and Verbenaceae 18.38% were the most represented families. We concluded that termite is primary decomposers and contribute to litter fragmentation and the recycling of nutrient into the soil. The important role that termites play as primary decomposer. Termites play an important role as a source of heterogeneity in this nature reserved ecosystem. Keywords : Termite, mulch, rehabilitation, vegetation.
INTRODUCTION Termites are super abundant soil insects and play an important role in the process of litter decomposition in tropical terrestrial ecosystems. The energetic basis of their abundance lies in the symbiosis with microorganisms which allows them to utilize cellulose, the most abundant organic matter on the earth. Fungus growing termites (Macrotermitinae) are important in the grassland and forests of tropical Asia and Africa (Noirot & Darlington 2000). Fungus growing termites of Macrotermes gilvus Hagen (M. gilvus) are dominant soil insects and sometimes construct very large mounds up to 2 meters in height in Yanlappa Natural Reserved, West Java Indonesia. Soil modification by mound building termites has a marked effect on vegetation and also on the other animals. This is consistent with their territoriality, considering that very large mound building colony of Macrotermes construct territorial galleries extending up to 50 m from the nest (Darlington, 1991).
MATERIALS AND METHODS The study site was located in Natural Forest, West Java, Indonesia. Field colony mound of Macrotermes gilvus Hagen on the natural forest of Indonesia, was selected for the object of this study. Termite mound distribution survey was conducted at least 32 Ha was conducted in strip transect, 50 m width interval, and supported by Global Positioning System (Turner 2000). These zonations were digitized and the mound termite data from the survey transects were overlaid using GIS prosedures. Leaf area index was done using a hemyphot method, vegetation analisis was transect, elevation class was GPS facilities (Macquire & Goodchild 1991). Data processing and analysis were conducted using ANOVA. In order to normalize the data, counts were transformed using the natural logarithm (Steel & Torrie 1980). 282 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION Table 1. A comparison of the species diversity among the different areas in Nature Reserve, Indonesia Higher density Low density Tree Artocarpus elastica 34.33 Artocarpus elastica Pentace polyantha 33.28 Mallotus oblongifolius Knema intermedia 29.17 Knema intermedia Chrysophyllum Vitex quinata 18.38 roxburghii Euonymus javanicus 17.37 Polyalthia lateriflora Ixora grandifolia 14.38 Croton argyratus.
No density 57.41 Uncaria gambir 24.65 Diospyros frutescens 23.23 Chrysophyllum roxburghii
37.21 32.58 29.43
21.50 Planchonia valida
25.38
20.20 Kihuut 20.12 Artocarpus elastica
23.09 22.33
A total of 226 spesies and 169 families were identified in the study subplot. These families are Myrtaceae 47.47%, Moraceae 34.33%, Tiliaceae 33.28%, Rubiaceae 21.34% and Verbenaceae 18.38%, respectively. To compare the species diversity among the different areas, the specific density was calculated as species richness at the unit of 100 m2 of area for the mounds and surroundings. The mean density of tree community showed no significant difference by distribution mound termites in our study subplots (P > 0.05). Vegetation, measured as biomass, coverage, and number of species, performed better in termite straw than in termite composite and termite woody material. This is probably because straw decomposed at a faster rate than woody material, probably because of the higher lignin content of the latter (Berendse et al. 1987). The protective effect of mulch and its biological effect on soil characteristics decline as the mulch decompose. Tian et al. (1993) have established that termite prefer mulch that decomposes slowly and thus can retain its protective effect longer. M. gilvus is primary decomposer and contribute to litter fragmentation and the recycling of nutrient into the soil. The important role that termites play as primary decomposer. Decomposing microbes are secondary receivers of carbon compounds fragmented by the termites. M. gilvus are less dependent on these factors because of mound architecture and fungal symbiosis. Termites are also able to patchily changes soil properties in the environment. The interaction of passing on of nutrient rich particles across a decreasing size spectrum enables the movement of nutrients through the terrestrial ecosystem. In modifying the distribution and availability of soil nutrients, soil engineer influence ecosystem services such as maintenance of biodiversity, stability and nutrient cycling. It is therefore necessary to study the links between their impact on ecosystem functioning and their ecological requirements, their ability to respond to their environment, as well as their relationships with other soil engineers in order to understand the structure of heterogenity and then the functioning of ecosystem (Jouquet et al. 2006). These results of data that can be used to evaluate the role that a particular species of termite plays in an important natural ecosystem. This is major contribution to provide data on an invertebrate component of the ecosystem.
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CONCLUSIONS From the research on distribution of mound termites Macrotermes gilvus Hagen in natural forest ecosystem, there were some conclusions: The mound of M. gilvus was distributed clusterly with density of 5 mound/Ha, density mainly located at elevation 3% - 5%, and under Leaf Area Index of 0-2. M. gilvus is primary decomposers and contribute to litter fragmentation and the recycling of nutrient into the soil. The important role that termites play as primary decomposer.
REFERENCES Berendse, FB; Bosatta E. 1987. The Effect of Lignin and Nitrogen on the Decomposition of Litter in Nutrient Poor Ecosystem: a theoretical approach. Canadian journal of Botany 65: 1116-1120. Jouquet P., J. Dauber, J. Lagerlof, P. Lavelle and M. Lapage. 2006. Soil invertebrates as ecosystem engineers: intended and accidental effects on soil and feedback loops. Applied Soil Ecology 32, 153-164. Macquire O.J., Goodchild. 1991. Geographical Information System. Longmann Scientific and Technical. New York: John Wiley & Son Inc. Schaefer, C.E.R., 2001. Brazillian latosols and their B horizon microstructure as long term biotic constructs. Australian Journal of Soil Research 39, 909-926. Tian GL; Kang BT. 1993. Mulching Effects of Plant Residues with Contrasting Chemical Composition Under Humid Tropical Conditions: Effect on Soil Fauna. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25:731-737 Traore S., R. Nygard, S. Guinko and M. Lapage. 2008. Impact of Macrotermes termitaria as a source of heterogeneity on tree diversity and structure in a sudanian savannah under controlled grazing and annual prescribed fire (Burkina Faso). Forest Ecology and Management 255, 2337-2346. Turner J.S. 2000. Architecture and morphogenesis in the mound of Macrotermes michaelseni (Isoptera : Termitidae) in Northern Namibia. Cimbebasia 16, 143-175.
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Productivity of Eucalyptus urograndis Hybrid Plantation Forest Nina Mindawati1, Darwo2, and Riskan Effendi3 Center for Forest Productivity Improvement R&D Bogor. Email:
[email protected] Center for Forest Productivity Improvement R & D Bogor. Email :
[email protected] 3 Center for Forest Productivity Improvement R & D Bogor. Email:
[email protected] 1
2
ABSTRACT The productivity of a stand can be characterized by its growth. The growth of stand is a change of selected properties of a stand occurred during a certain period of time. Stand productivity (volume and biomass) of E. urograndis species has been calculated based on allometric equation and maximum volume rotation has been determined based on intersection point between current annual increment (CAI) and mean annual increment (MAI). The results showed a decline in standing merchantable volume and biomass of E. urograndis if the cutting rotation is 5 years from rotation 1 to rotation 2. Decrease in volume by 10.8% from 159.69 m3/ha at rotation 1 to 142.49 m3/ha at rotation 2 and a decrease in total biomass production by 10.5% from 175.5 tonnes/ha in rotation 1 to 157.0 tonnnes/ha. Those biomass decrease were mostly (6.3%) is a decline in merchantable wood biomass as raw material of pulp industries of E. urograndis hybrid. Cutting rotation with maximum volume for E. urograndis hybrid rotation 1 occured at the age of 5.4 years, while at rotation 2 occurred at the age of 6 years. Keywords: biomass, cutting rotation, productivity, volume.
INTRODUCTION High productivity of fast growing plantation forests species is a very important indicator in of plantation forest management as raw material for pulp industry in Indonesia because at this moment pulp industry requires a high supply and sustainable raw materials. Measure of plantation forest productivity can be obtained through gross primary production which is the result of total photosynthesis of a forest, and the net primary production of biomass which is biomass after reduced by plant respiration. In forest management concession rights, a measure of productivity often used, is timber volume increment. Increment of timber volume consists of mean annual increment (MAI) and current annual increment (CAI). All productivity measure, its election is highly dependent on the intended use or designation of wood raw material. Eucalyptus urograndis hybrid a fast-growing species resulted from crossing between E. urophylla and E. grandis that has been developed in operations scale of PT Toba Pulp Lestari and has entered the third rotation as pulp industrial raw material. Research results on productivity of E. urograndis stands has been widely conducted in Australia, Brazil and China, while in Indonesia research results are still very limited and partial. Research on the productivity of E. urograndis hybrid is important to be implemented because it would be very useful in planning the management of E. urograndis hybrid forest plantations and is one of the keys supporting the success of sustainable The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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plantation forests development in Indonesia in the future. Therefore study on productivity of E. urograndis hybrid has been conducted on data from permanent sample plots (PSP) of PT Toba Pulp Lestari with the purpose of knowing the comparative results between rotation 1 and rotation 2 both volume and biomass per unit area (ha). This information is expected to be useful in determining management policies of E. urograndis HTI in Indonesia.
RESEARCH METHOD Location and Time of Research Research was conducted in Industrial Plantation Forest (Hutan Tanaman Industri, HTI) area of PT Toba Pulp Lestari, Aek Nauli, Simalungun, Medan, North Sumatra. Research area was located at about 160 km from Medan and 35 km from Pematang Siantar. Geographically, the study site is located between 20o 40’ 00 “- 20 50’ 00” North latitude and between 980 50’ 00 “- 980 10’ 00” East longitude with an altitude of 1200 m above sea level (Toba Pulp Lestari, 2009). Research was carried out from July to October 2009 in the field and in the laboratory for analysis of soil chemical properties. Materials and Research Equipment Research materials used were stand growth data of E. urograndis hybrid at various stand ages at rotation 1 and rotation 2 of permanent plots (PSP) as secondary data, and E. urograndis stands ages 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 years in the field. Research equipments consisted of the stands map, compass, tree height measuring tool, soil borer, plastic bags and others. Research Procedures Data collection was done by taking secondary data namely measurements results of E urograndis permanent sample plots (PSP) at Aek Nauli sector, each PSP area ranged from 0.02 to 0.08 hectares per age class. The collected data are the entire growth data of E. urograndis species PSP in Aek Nauli sector and are assumed to represent the overall stands condition for each age stands in rotation 1 and 2. The total number of PSP data collected for this study were as many as 43 PSP consisted of 14 plots in rotation 1 and 29 plots in the rotation 2 at various stands ages ranged from 1.8 months until 6 years age. Stand growth parameters data collected from each PSP were height and diameter of all trees in each PSP. In addition, measurements were also taken directly (primary data) from stands biomass in field samples. Biomass calculations were conducted at tree parts to know the merchantable wood production (stems and branches with diameters ≥ 5 cm with bark), stems <5 cm, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers and fruit using stand biomass estimators model of sample trees. Biomass measurement is done by selecting sample trees which represent diameter class distribution. Selected sample trees were as many as 30 trees, consisting of three trees of each age class, so that all sample trees amounted 30 trees. Determination of sample trees was done to trees which meet the following criteria: 1. Grow normally and healthy appearance (not attacked by pests and diseases) 2. Represent the characteristics of trees in population area 3. Represent distribution of class diameter and height of trees existed within the stands. All trees were given circle marks at the stems and height and diameter measurement were conducted. Then the trees were felled and weight their wet weight of stand part consisted of stem 286 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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diameter ≥ 5 cm, stem diameter < 5 cm, branches, twigs, flowers and fruit. Measurement of stand biomass dry weight was calculated from the results of weighing wet weight of tree parts. Data Analyses Stand height was calculated based on Husch et al. (2003) who stated that stands height is the average height value of all trees within the involved stand. Stands diameter is the average value of diameter of all trees within stands in question (Avery and Burkhart, 2002; Husch et al., 2003). Stand merchantable volume of each tree is calculated based on the diameter and height of the tree involved using the equation that has been produced by the company (Toba Pulp Lestari, 2010) as follow: where: vmij dtij htij
: : :
merchantable volume j-th trees in i-th PSP. Diameter of j-th trees in i-th PSP Height of j-th trees in i-th PSP
Merchantable stand volume (Vm) of each PSP is the total volume of all trees utilized in the PSP concerned, and the predictions stand volume per hectare is the result of their transformation based on PSP area.
V mi =
Vmi Ni vmij
10 . 000 200
Ni j =1
v m ij
where: : prediction of stand volume each ha based on stand merchantable volume of i-th PSP : Number of trees in i-th PSP : merchantable volume of j-th tree in i-th PSP
Total biomass is calculated by summing the dry weight of biomass stem diameter > 5 cm, stems <5 cm, branches, leaves, fruits and flowers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Merchantable Volume and Maximum Volume Rotation Based on calculations of mean height, mean diameter and merchantable volume, the estimation of volume and increment (MAI and CAI) E. urograndis species was presented in Table 1. In this study merchantable volume is the volume of timber harvested and taken up into industry with stem diameter equal or larger than 5 cm, referred to as volume. Volume estimation of E. urograndis stand ready to cut of 5 years age reached about 159.69 m /ha with MAI increment of 31.94 m3/ha at rotation 1 and approximately 142.49 m3/ha with MAI increment of 28.50 m3/ha at rotation 2. There was a decline in volume from rotation 1 to rotation 2 if the cutting is done at 5 years as much as 10.8 % or as much as 17.2 m3/ha. Based on temporary stand table for Eucalyptus spp. species, the growth is said to be good if at 5 years age reach 93 m3 /ha and increment MAI of 18.6 m3/ha/year; growth is said to be moderate if the volume reaches 27 m3/ha/year and increment MAI of 5.4 m3/ha/year (Center for Forest and Nature Conservation 2000), so the growth of E. urograndis in PT Toba Pulp Aek Nauli sectors in this research include 3
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the category of species with good growth because at 5 years age can produce larger stand volume and MAI increment. Table 1. Estimation volume E. urograndis stand rotation 1 and 2. Age (year) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Volume (m3/ha) 0.02 2.79 15.05 34.99 58.04 81.33 103.49 123.99 142.71 159.69 175.08 189.04 201.71 213.24
Rotation 1 MAI (m3/ha) 0.04 2.79 10.04 17.49 23.22 27.11 29.57 31.00 31.71 31.94 31.83 31.51 31.03 30.46
CAI (m3/ha) 0.04 5.54 24.53 39.87 46.10 46.58 44.32 41.00 37.43 33.97 30.78 27.91 23.07 25.34
Volume (m3/ha) 0.00 1.39 9.57 25.11 44.79 65.88 86.77 106.69 125.30 142.49 158.30 172.80 186.11 198.32
Rotation 2 MAI (m3/ha) 0.01 1.39 6.38 12.56 17.92 21.96 24.79 26.67 27.84 28.50 28.78 28.80 28.63 28.33
CAI (m3/ha) 0.01 2.77 16.36 31.08 39.36 42.17 41.81 39.84 37.21 34.38 31.61 29.01 26.61 24.44
Stand maximum volume rotation is determined based on intersection point between CAI and MAI curves because it is a rotation where the maximum volume increment can be achieved. The intersection curve between CAI and MAI of E. urograndis stands in PT Toba Pulp Lestari in rotation 1 and rotation 2 can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. Maximum volume rotation of E. urograndis at rotation 1 Increment (m3/Ha/Yr)
50 40 30
MAI
20
CAI
10 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 Age (year)
Figure 1. Maximum volume rotation of E. urograndis species at rotation 1 Maximum stand volume increment of E urograndis at Aek Nauli sector occurred in the range of 5-6 years ages where at that age the intersection between MAI and CAI graphs occurred. In the first rotation, maximum volume rotation occurred at 5.4 years age and produced wood with highest volume increment of 31.85 m3/ha/year and and for the rotation 2 occurred at 6 years age with volume increment of about 28.80 m3/ha/year. This suggests that the determination of 5 years cutting rotation is right at rotation 1 economically because it will produce volume of approximately 159.25 m3/ha with the highest increment, while at rotation 2 using 5 years cutting rotation is not 288 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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appropriate because it will produce a smaller volume resulting in production decrease. At rotation 2 it should use 6 years which will produce volume of 173.8 m3/ha with the highest increment in that rotation.
Riap (m3/Ha/Th)
Daur volume maksimum urograndis padaat Rotasi 2 2 Maximum volume rotationE.of E. urograndis rotation Maximum volume rotation of E. urograndis at rotation 2
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Maximum volume rotation of E. urograndis at rotation 2
MAI CAI
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 Age(Tahun) (year) Umur
Figure 2. Maximum volume rotation of E. urograndis species at rotation 2 If we compare the results of volume estimation of E. urograndis in this study with its parent E. urophylla species at the same age and location (Darwo 1999), where maximum volume of E. urophylla species occurs at 5 years age with MAI of 26.29 m3/ha/year and stand volume of 131.44 m3/ha, the estimation volume of E. urograndis species was 18% higher after conversion from E. urophylla stands to E.urograndis stand. The higher volume of E. urograndis due to differences in seeds quality genetically, because E. urophylla seedlings originated from seeds, whereas that of E. urograndis from vegetative seedlings with superior clones. According Hardiyanto (2009), the contribution of genetically improved seedlings on the productivity of E. grandis species in Brazil could increase by 15-20% and if the seed is accompanied by nitrogen fertilization and intensive plant maintenance, the increase can reach 100%. Productivity of E. urograndis is largely determined by soil type and annual rainfall (Fisher and Binkley 2000). But compared with the site conditions in Aek Nauli having Inceptisol soil types with an average annual rainfall of 2825 mm, E. urograndis should grow better with higher productivity because in addition to high rainfall also Inceptisol soil type which is still relatively young and fertile. Therefore, the smaller productivity of E. urograndis in Indonesia is estimated due to several factors such as: the produced clones was still low their genetic diversity compared with clones in Brazil; nutrient inputs are still low; indiscipline of the executors on the ground in applying valid operational standards and imperfect operational standards (APHI 2010). Biomass Production The calculation of wood biomass production is based on stand dimensional data of sample tree at temporary sample plots. The amount of biomass of each stand section based on dry weight is presented in Table 2. Increase in total biomass occurred from 1 year age and keep increase in line with increasing stands age up to 5 years old either at rotation 1 or at rotation 2. There was a decline in total biomass from rotation 1 to rotation 2 when logging is done at 5 years age. Decrease in biomass at harvest from rotation 1 to rotation 2 occurred for : stem diameter ≥ 5 cm by 6.3%; stems <5 cm The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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down 1.8%; branch by 0.2%; twigs down 57.6 %; leaf fell 26.97 % and fruit fell 79.1%. Decrease in total biomass reached 10.5%. These results are consistent with the results of stand volume, which declined from rotations 1 and 2 as much as 10.8%. Table 2. Average biomass (tons / ha) stand part of E. urograndis Rotation 1
2
Age (year) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Stem d≥5cm 1.92 36.02 58.67 89.83 151.28 3.81 31.37 80.92 98.79 141.81
Stem d<5cm 1.56 2.11 2.84 2.39 0.99 2.03 2.76 2.21 1.52 0.97
Branch
Twigs
Leaf
Fruit
1.00 7.11 7.55 10.71 8.04 4.19 4.95 8.21 7.50 6.66
0.95 2.22 2.65 2.18 7.70 1.06 3.20 2.21 2.92 3.26
2.13 5.35 5.28 3.43 5.31 4.99 8.47 5.67 6.16 3.88
0.02 0.07 2.21 0.06 0.01 0.71 0.46
Total of Biomass 7.56 52.83 77.06 108.54 175.53 16.08 50.81 99.23 117.60 157.04
Biomass of bark and stem diameter ≥ 5 cm harvested at 5 years age reached 142-151 tons / ha, stem diameter <5 cm of 1 ton/ha, branch 7-8 tons / ha, twigs 3-8 tons / ha and leaf 4 -5 tons. The above results when compared with other Acacia mangium species planted in Riau at the same age, 5 years, could produce harvested stem weight about 197 tonnes/ha (Mindawati and Pratiwi 2008) and A. mangium species in South Sumatera can produce at 146-190 tons / ha (Hardiyanto et al. Koranto 1999 in 2003), so the productivity of E. urograndis species was smaller, whereas when compared with Gmelina arborea planted in Kalimantan which produced stem biomass at 6 years age of 120 tons/ha in fertile soil (Koranto 2003), so the productivity of E. urograndis was greater. The results of this study was greater when compared with the same biomass grown in Congo at of 4.5 years age which reach an average weight of 77.4 tons of dry stems/ha, bark 11.8 tons/ha, 15.2 tons of branches/ha and leaf 3.3 tons/ha (Spangenberg et al. 1995). It is more due to differences in site conditions, especially local climate of both countries. According Koranto (2003), although the chemical and physical properties of soil in tropical regions is lower than in temperate regions, but in general the productivity of biomass in the tropics is greater than in temperate regions due to temperature, rainfall, humidity, amount of microorganisms and the grow period is higher in tropical than temperate regions. The largest biomass was in the stem diameter ≥ 5 cm. The longer stands age the larger biomass ≥ 5 cm diameter transported out of the land. At 1 year age stem biomass ≥ 5 cm diameter was about 24-25%, 2 years age approximately 62-68%, 3 years old approximately 76% -82%, 4 years approximately 83-84% and 5 years age about 86 - 90% of the total stand. These results are relatively similar to short rotation species in India, where the contribution of stem and branches around 82-96 % of the total stand (Garg and Singh 2003). However, it was larger if compared to Gmelina arborea species in Kalimantan, where stem is the largest component, about 80% of the total biomass (Koranto 2003) and against A. mangium species at the 5 years age which has the percentage of stems ≥ 8 cm approximately 70.6% of the total biomass (Mindawati and Pratiwi 2008). According to Sanchez (1976), in tropical regions like Zaire, Ghana and Panama the amount of forest biomass are relatively fixed that is about 75% stem biomass, 15-20% root biomass, 4% leaf biomass and of about 1-2% litter biomass. Overall, these results support the statement of Ruhiyat (1993) that stem component of a stand is the main constituent of stand biomass. 290 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Productivity of Eucalyptus urograndis Hybrid Plantation Forest |
Based on Coledette et al. (2008), the yield produced from E. urograndis species ranges from 51-53 % of the biomass so that stem diameter ≥ 5 cm in about 142-151 tons /ha, so it is estimated to produce pulp as much as 74-79 tons of pulp /ha.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. The productivity of E. urograndis hybrid if cutting rotation at 5 years age its volume was 159.69 m3/ha with mean annual increment (MAI) as many as 31.94 m3/ha at rotation 1. The total biomass production was 175.5 tonnes/ha in rotation 1. 2. Cutting rotation with a maximum volume for E. urograndis hybrid of first rotation occured at of 5.4 years age, while in the second rotation occured at six years age. 3. In developing E. urograndis hybrid plantation forest it is suggested to use six years cutting rotation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thanks to the ITTO Japan. This international organization has provided budget for research activities of this study.
REFERENCES [APHI] Asosiasi Pengusaha Hutan Indonesia. 2010. Perkembangan Produktivitas Hasil Hutan Kayu Industri dan Permasalahannya. Kontribusi Litbang Dalam Peningkatan Produktivitas dan Kelestarian Hutan. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Peningkatan Produktivitas Hutan. Badan Litbang Kehutanan. Bogor. Avery TE, Burkhart HE. 2002. Forest Measurements. McGraw-Hill. New York. Coledette JL, Magaton A, Gomes AF, Gomide JL, Morais PHD. 2008. Eucalyptus Wood Quality and Its Impact on Kraft Pulp Production and Utilization. Federal University of Viçosa. Vicoça. Brazil. Darwo 1999. Kajian Riap dan Pertumbuhan Tiga Jenis Tanaman HTI . Prosiding Ekspose Hasil Penelitian Balai Penelitian Kehutanan Pematang Siantar, Medan, 30 Maret 1999. Balai Penelitian Kehutanan Pematang Siantar, Badan Litbang Kehutanan dan Perkebunan. Departemen Kehutanan dan Perkebunan. Jakarta Fisher RF, Binkley D. 2000. Ecology and Management of Forest Soil. John Willey & Sons, Inc. Grag VK, Singh B. 2003. Macronutrient Dynamics and Use Efficiency in Three Species of Short Rotation Forestry Developed on Sodic Soils In North India. Journal of tropical forest science 15(2): 289-302. Hardiyanto EB. 2009. Bahan Ajar : Pemuliaan untuk Peningkatan Produktivitas Hutan Tanaman. Fakultas Kehutanan. Universitas Gajah Mada. Jogyakarta Husch BT, Beers W, Kershaw JA. 2003. Forest Mensuration. Fourth Edition. John Wiley and Sons. Inc. New York . Koranto CAD. 2003. Nutrient Dynamics in Short Rotation Gmelina arborea plantations in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. [Disertation] Tokyo University of Agryculture and Technology . Tokyo. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Mindawati N, Pratiwi. 2008. Kajian Penentuan Daur Optimal Hutan Tanaman Acacia Mangium Ditinjau dari Kesuburan Tanah. Jurnal hutan tanaman Vol. 5 No.2. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hutan Tanaman. Bogor. Ruhiyat D. 1993. Dinamika Unsur Hara dalam Pengusahaan Hutan Alam dan Hutan Tanaman : Siklus Biogeokimia. Rimba Indonesia Vol. XXVIII No. 1-2 : 47-56. Spangenberg A, Grinum U, Sepeda JR, Silva D, Folster H. 1996. Nutrient Store and Export Rates of Eucalyptus urograndis Plantations In Eastern Amazonia (Jari). Forest Ecology and Management 80 : 225-234. TPL [Toba Pulp Lestari]. 2010. Rencana Kerja Usaha Pemanfaatan Hasil Hutan Kayu Hutan Tanaman Industri (RKUPHHK-HT) Untuk Jangka Waktu 10 (Sepuluh) Tahun Periode 2010-2019. PT Toba Pulp Lestari. Propinsi Sumatera Utara
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Tree–Based Farming in the Buffer Zone of a National Park: A Case Study in Sumur Sub District – Banten Province Taulana Sukandi Centre for Conservation and Rehabilitation Research and Development Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA) Jalan Gunung Batu No. 5 - Bogor (Indonesia) Ph. 62 251 8315-222 Fax. 62 251 8638-111 e-mail:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Degradation of a national park is generally caused by illegal logging and illegal forest land cultivation. An alternative to overcome such issues is by optimizing the utilization of natural resources surrounding national park area such as private land. A study on tree-based farming in the buffer zone of a national park was conducted in the villages of Cigorondong and Taman Jaya (Sumur Sub District) which are located surrounding the Ujung Kulon National Park (UKNP) area. The aim of this study was to identify the tree species found in local people’s gardens and observe the management of gardens. Data were collected through interview and field observation. Villages, respondents, and gardens were selected purposively. The Important Value Index was used to analyzed tree species dominance and composition. Other data were analyzed descriptively and quantitatively using frequency tabulation. The results showed that there were 24 tree species found in eight gardens. The six highest rank was mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.), teak (Tectona grandis L.f.), kapok (Ceiba pentandra Gaertner), and bungur (Lagerstroema speciosa). Formerly, parts of the area of UKNP were managed by Perum Perhutani (a state owned forest corporation) which planted a timber-producing species i.e. mahogany. Many people planted this species because of wood quality. However, there was a tendency to plant a timber tree of fast growing species, which is inferior, i.e. sengon. The reason was that the tree could be harvested faster and the market was good in that time. Keywords: timber-producing species, Ujung Kulon, garden.
INTRODUCTION Some national parks in Indonesia have been degraded since they have been utilized unwisely, without considering consevation function of such national parks. Degradation is mainly caused by illegal logging and illegal forest land cultivation. Ujung Kulon National Park Office or UKNPO (BTNUK, 2007) mentioned that, two main issues related to community are conflict with local people and community empowerment program that has not been conducted optimally. Conflict with local people has been raised since local people have inhabited forest land in UKNP area. In Gunung Honje and Legon Pakis there are 109 households and 79 households respectively. Forest encroachment in Gunung Honje covers 6.000 ha. According to Setiawan dan Sarbini (2005), changes of zonation from forest area to be illegal garden and rice field, even illegal settlement have occured in Gunung Honje. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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An alternative to overcome such issues is by optimizing the utilization of natural resources surrounding a forest area, e.g. private land, to generate more income for local people. Optimizing the utilization of private lands could be through improving land productivity with suitable species and proper cropping pattern. A study on tree-based farming in the buffer zone of a national park was conducted surrounding Ujung Kulon National Park (UKNP) in Banten Province. The aim of this study was to identify the tree species found in local people’s gardens and observe the management of gardens. It is expected that the results of this study will be useful for planning land management development in a buffer zone to support the effort for sustaining a national park.
METHODOLOGY Study Site The study was carried out in Sumur Sub District, Pandeglang District, Banten Province, in the year 2007 and 2009. The sub district of Sumur is one of the two sub districts located in the periphery of the UKNP. Two villages in Sumur Sub District were selected purposively for study sites i.e. Cigorondong and Taman Jaya. Field Proceedure Observation was mainly for tree-based farming managed by local people in the form of garden. This study focused on three main subjects: 1. Local characteristics, consisting of respondent information, land utilization for tree species, and institution, 2. Garden and its product management, including tree species composition and dominance, productivity, cropping and harvesting pattern, post harvest processing, and product diversification, 3. Farmer’s preference on tree species. Secondary data were collected by visiting related institution/organization to have either the published or unpublished information. Primary data were collected through: 1. Interview, which was done toward the owner and or the cultivator of garden unit and other sources to gain the data of productivity, cropping and harvesting pattern, post harvest processing, product diversification, and farmer’s preferences on tree species. For farmer’s preferences, each respondent was asked three tree species mostly preferred. Respondents were selected purposively. 2. Field observation, which was done to gain the data of tree species dominance and composition in each garden. Sampling units of 10 m x 10 m were established in each unit of garden with the sampling intensity of 5 – 10 %. Tree measurement was done for the trees which have diameter of ≥10 cm (Dephut, 2002). Eight units of garden (four unit each village) were selected purposively for this study. Data Analysis Data of land utilization, productivity, cropping and harvesting pattern, post harvest processing, product diversification, and farmer’s preference on tree species were analyzed descriptively and quantitatively using frequency tabulation. The Important Value Index (Soerianegara and Indrawan, 2002) was used to analyze data of tree species found in local people’s gardens. 294 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Tree --Based Farming in the Buffer Zone of a National Park: A Case Study in Sumur Sub District -- Banten Province |
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Research Site Description The area of UKNP is 120,550 ha, of which 63.2 % is terrestrial area and the other is waters territorial. The buffer zone of the UKNP is private lands (outside the UKNP area), covering the area of 23,850 ha. It consists of 12 villages in Cimanggu Sub District and seven villages in Sumur Sub District (BTNUK, 2006). Two villages in Sumur Sub District i.e. Cigorondong and Taman Jaya were selected for the sites of this study. The number of inhabitants in Sumur Sub District was 22,173 people (6,374 households), whereas 2,076 people (807 households) were in Cigorondong Village and 2.748 people (871 households) were in Taman Jaya Village (BPS Kab. Pandeglang, 2009). Local Characteristics Respondent The age of most respondents (84,6% of 39 respondents) ranged 26-55 years old, the others was more than 55 years old. The main livelihoods of respondents were farmer (56.4%), fisherman (12.8%), trader/entrepreneur (10.3%), employee (10.3%), labor (5.1%), and others (5.1%). The education of most respondents was elementary school (74.3%). Land utilization for tree species Farmers usually plant tree species in their homeyards and gardens. The range of homeyard areas of 39 respondents was 20-1,950 m2 with the majority of ≤ 200 m2 (56.4 %) and that of garden areas was 0.04-2.60 ha with the majority of > 0.2-3.0 ha (53.8 %). It is assumed that the minimum area of land to be managed for tree-based farming in the form of homeyard is >200 m2 and of garden is >0.2 ha. Based on this assumpsion, the percentage of respondents who had potential to develop tree plantation in their homeyards was 43.5 % and that in their gardens was 53.8 %. Institution There were farmer groups in both villages and some farmer groups were united in a farmer group association (GAPOKTAN). A cooperative was established in Taman Jaya for tourism and agricultural bussines. In 2008 some groups of tourism guide, bee keeping, and medicine herbal plant were also established. According to BTNUK (2011, 2006), programs of local people empowerment had been introduced by related institutions, but these were partial programs which were not continued by following steps. In tree or cattle program, for example, farmers were introduced to plant trees or to raise cattles. However, there were no guidance during the production process and no marketing plan. Monitoring and evaluation of the progams were mostly not done. Farmers usually sell garden products through middlemen. Farmers did not sell the products directly to local market since the amount of their products was small and the tansportation cost was high. It was also happened to tree products (timber and fruit). Garden and its Product Management Important value index of tree species Observation of eight gardens (four gardens each village) indicated that there were 24 tree species (Table 1.). Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.), teak (Tectona grandis L.f.), kapok (Ceiba pentandra Gaertner), and bungur (Lagerstroema speciosa) was the six highest Important Value Index (IVI). Besides having the highest IVI, mahogany had also the widest distribution, found in all observed gardens. If the rank is based The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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on the timber-producing species, the five highest rank was mahogany, teak, bungur (Lagersroemia speciosa), sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielson), and bayur (Pterospermum sp.). Mahogany is a tree species planted by Perum Perhutani (a state owned forest corporation) in the area of national park before the area was inserted into the management of UKNP. Local people have known that the quality and the price of this species are better than those of fast growing tree species such as sengon. Due to its quality, besides selling the timber of mahogany, local people also used the timber for their own needs. The prices of melinjo and coconut products were not so high, but these two products generated stable income. The fruits of these two species could be harvested more than once a year and their markets were good. Productivity Most respondents had not applied fertilizer and other inputs optimally, even for their annual plants such as rice. Maintenance of tree species such as thinning was also not done well. Therefore, land productivity in study sites was low. Cropping and harvesting pattern The application of proper cropping pattern is to optimize the utilization of space and time. In cropping pattern plan, tree spacing, planting lay out as well as root and crown development should be arranged well in order that nutrients, water, and air could be used optimally and then optimal production could be gained. Cropping pattern in study sites generally has not been arranged well. As a result, harvesting has not provided good flow of product, so that the products could not be planned for short, mid, and long terms. Table 1. Important Value Indices and distribution of tree species in eight local people’s gardens in Cigorondong and Taman Jaya Villages, Sumur Sub District, Banten Province No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Species Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.) Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) Kapok (Ceiba pentandra Gaertner) Bungur (Lagerstroema speciosa) Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielson) Bayur (Pterospermum sp.) Salam (Syzigium polyanthum (Whight) Whalp) Kenanga (Cananga odoratum) Jengkol (Archidendron jiringa (Jack) Nielson) Gempol (Nauclea orientalis Blume) Johar (Cassia siamea Lamk.) Kihiang (Albizzia procera Benth.) Petai (Parkia speciosa Hassk.) Pinang (Areca catechu)
Important Value Index (%) Total Average 771.8 96.5 314.1 39.3 180.9 22.6 147.3 18.4 113.1 14.1 110.0 13.7 90.9 11.4
Distribution (Garden unit) 8 4 4 2 4 2 1
84.3 78.9
10.5 9.9
3 3
58.5 52.5
7.3 6.6
2
49.8 43.6 38.0 34.8 30.8
6.2 5.5 4.8 4.4 3.9
1 2 1 1 1
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| Tree --Based Farming in the Buffer Zone of a National Park: A Case Study in Sumur Sub District -- Banten Province |
17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Manglid (Manglietea glauca Blume) Lamtoro (Leucaena leucocephala) Cerelang (Pterospermum diversifolium Willd.) Pulai (Lame, Alstonia scholaris) Aren (Arenga pinnata) Ketapang (Terminalia katappa) Asam jawa (Tamarindus indica L.)
29.3 24.2 17.4 13.2
3.7 3.0 2.2 1.7
2 2 2 1
12.8 5.2 4.6 4.6
1.6 0.7 0.6 0.6
1 1 1 1
Source: Processed primary data Post harvest processing Local people in study sites usually sell garden’s products in the form of raw materials, therefore, there were no added value of such products. The capacity of local people to process raw material had been improved through dissemination and training programs. However, the programs had not been followed with marketing process, therefore, local people sell again the raw products to middlemen. Product diversification It was mentioned before that post harvest processing generally was not done by farmers in study sites. Therefore, almost there was no product diversification of one commodity. Product diversification of a garden was found by planting many species in a garden, but the number of species in a garden had not been limited to those which have benefit for either financial or ecological purposes. Farmer’s Preference on Tree Species Twenty tree species were preffered by respondents (Table 2.). Mahogany, sengon, melinjo, and teak were the four highest rank. It seems that local people was interested in planting a timber tree of fast growing species i.e. sengon. Recently local people tended to plant sengon since at the age of 4-5 years it could be harvested and sold. Its market were also good in that time. However, this species is an inferior one, therefore it needs certain treatments to improve the quality. Table 2. Tree species preffered by respondents (n=39) No.
Species
1.
Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielson) Melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.) Teak (Tectona grandis) Others (16 species)
2. 3. 4. 5.
Preffered by Number of Respondents
%
28
71.8
27
69.2
23 8 23
59.0 20.5 59.0
Note Multiple answers (each responden was asked 3 species mostly preffered)
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 1. The percentage of respondents who had potential to develop tree plantation in their home yards was 43.5 % and that in their gardens was 53.8 %. Related institutions i.e the management of UKNP and the local government (Pandeglang District) should utilize this potential to support the effort to sustain the function of UKNP, supply the demand of timber, and generate more income for local people. 2. Garden and its products had not been managed well in terms of intensification, cropping and harvesting pattern, post harvest processing, product diversification, and marketing. Management of garden and its products should be improved to reach high productivity and high benefit. 3. There were 24 tree species found in eight gardens. Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.), teak (Tectona grandis), kapok (Ceiba pentandra Gaertner), and bungur (Lagerstroema speciosa) was the six highest Important Value Index (IVI). There was a tendency to plant a timber tree of fast growing species i.e. sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielson) since it could be harvested faster (4-5 years old) and the market was good in that time. However, this species is an inferior one, therefore it needs certain treatments to improve the quality.
REFERENCES Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) Kab. Pandeglang. 2009. Pandeglang Dalam Angka Tahun 2008. BPS Kab. Pandeglang. Balai Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon (BTNUK). 2011. Laporan Tahunan Balai Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon Tahun 2010. Balai TNUK, Labuan - Pandeglang. Balai Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon (BTNUK). 2007. Laporan Tahunan Balai Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon Tahun 2006. Balai TNUK, Labuan - Pandeglang. Balai Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon (BTNUK). 2006. Laporan Analisa Potensi Ekonomi Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Daerah Penyangga Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon (Studi kasus di Desa Cimanggu dan Desa Kertajaya). Balai TNUK, Labuan - Pandeglang. Departemen Kehutanan (Dephut). 2002. Manual Kehutanan. Dephut, Jakarta Setiawan, I. dan B. Sarbini. 2005. Review zonasi kawasan taman nasional dengan menggunakan Sistem Informasi Geografis (Studi kasus Gunung Honje – Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon). Silvika III (43): 19-25. Soerianegara, I. dan A. Indrawan. 2002. Ekologi Hutan Indonesia. Laboratorium Ekologi Hutan, Fakultas Kehutanan, IPB.
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Promoting Forest and Non Timber Forest Cultivation to Increase Farmer’s Income on Small Scale Private Forest (A Case Study in Tanjung Karya Village, Samarang Sub District, Garut, West Java) Sri Suharti Centre for Conservation and Rehabilitation Research and Development Jl. Gunung Batu 5, Bogor, 16610. Phone: 62-251-8633234; 62-251-8315222; Fax: 62-251-8638111 Email:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT More than 60% of Javanese population with relatively small land holding depends on agricultural sector (0.3 ha/household). They live in dense populated villages surrounded by forest; resulting pressure towards forest becomes so awful. Consequently, incidents of social conflict become so frequent and forest condition has become deteriorated and prone to flood, erosion and landslide incidents. One alternative solution to accommodate rehabilitation of forest function and fulfilling community needs is cultivation of forest trees together with non timber forest plant simultaneously. This new cultivation technique is introduced to farmers through demonstration plot establishment. The research objective is to study cultivation of Eucalyptus urophylla together with Andropogon zizanioides (vetiver oil plants) on small scale private forest in Tanjung Karya Village, Samarang sub district, Garut, West Java. Participatory approach is used in developing the model; hence involved farmers could participate actively in all stages of model establishment. Series of discussions (individual interviews and continued with Focus Group Discussion/FGD) were carried out in advance to gain better mutual understanding about the purpose of the research. Further information about people’s preferences towards tree crops combination was also previously collected. The results showed that although a light demanding species, vetiver oil plants could grow well under E. urophylla stands until it has been harvested (13 months old) for three rotation periods. By integrating tree stands and non timber forest plants, farmer could improve not only soil condition but also their income significantly. Keywords: Eucalyptus urophylla, A. zizanioides (vetiver oil plants), rehabilitation, farmer’s income, small scale private forest
INTRODUCTION Disturbance of natural forest resources which has multi functions would give negative impacts not only on the existence of flora and fauna living in it, but also to community living in, around and even far from the forest. Forest devastation causes declining in forest function in providing life resource for the people and its role as source of foreign exchange of the country. Forest deterioration even might cause damage in ecological function especially as community life underpinning, which in turn could generate serious disaster for human being. In dense populated area surrounded by forest like in Java island, it has resulted pressure towards forest land becomes so awful. Average land holding in Java is only 0.3 ha/household (60% The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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of Javanese population) (Raswa, 2006; Getteng, 2011; Jemabut, 2011). With this small land holding, it is difficult for the farmers to fulfill their daily necessities. To be able to meet basic necessities each household should have/cultivate at least 2 ha of land (Sumarno and Kartasasmita, 2010; Getteng, 2011). The figure is much less if compared with farmers in Thailand, Malaysia and Australia which in average cultivate 5 ha, 4 ha and 100 ha respectively (Sumarno and Kartasasmita, 2010). With minimum land holding, it is difficult also for the farmer to cultivate their land efficiently. In Tanjung Karya village, Garut, most people get used to cultivate annual crops (vegetable and fruit crops) and also other cash crops like vetiver oil plants (A. zizanioides) with minimum input application. Consequently, after some years, soil condition has become deteriorated and production decreases significantly. In addition, topography in Tanjung Karya Village is mostly steep and undulating (Fig.1). Intensive farming cultivation together with extreme landscape has caused the area is prone to land slide, flood and soil erosion like what happened in the area in January 2010 (Fig.2).
Figure 1. Land condition in research site
Figure 2. Landslides in Tanjung Karya , Jan 2010 with steep and undulating topography Since last three decades, Government of Indonesia has initiated several programs aiming to overcome the problem of deforestation and forest degradation. However, so far it has not provided successful and satisfying result. Conflict of interest between ecological and economic consideration often had become obstacle that hindered the success of the programs. Therefore, 300 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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more comprehensive and reasonable efforts are required to resolve it. The question is then, how to adapt those two concerns properly. Alternative solution to solve the problem is needed to accommodate and link between ecological consideration in one hand and urgent social economic needs on the other hand. This could be done by introducing a new cultivation technique which is adaptive and applicable for the farmers through combining long life tree stands with non timber forest plant (cash crop) simultaneously. In order to show farmers this new farming technique, a participatory demonstration plot is needed to be established. Before its establishment, discussions with local people were carried out to gain better mutual understanding about the purpose of the research and what people could learn and what benefits they might get from it. Further information about people’s preferences towards tree crops combination was also collected beforehand. It is expected that by accommodating people’s expectations and desires, it would increase their awareness about the importance of integrating forest and non timber forest cultivation to rehabilitate soil condition, to prevent from natural disaster and to increase farmer’s income simultaneously. The objective of the research is to promote intercropping cultivation of forest and non forest product to increase farmer’s income on small scale private forest while rehabilitating degraded forest land.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Location and Time The research was conducted in Tanjung Karya Village, Samarang Sub District, Garut Regency at approximately 6º56’49’’ - 7 º45’00’’ South latitude and 107º25’8’’ - 108º7’30’’ East longitude with elevation of about 1300 m above sea level. Average annual rainfall in the village is 2589 mm with 9 wet months and 3 dry months. Average monthly temperature varies from 24oC – 27oC. Topography of research site varies from flat, hilly and mountainous. In general, soil condition in the village is relatively fertile and most of it is private owned and cultivated with annual food crops. Total area of the village is 477.869 ha (Pemerintah Kabupaten Garut, 2011). The research has been doing since 2006 – 2012. Approach The research is an action research through establishment of participatory demonstration plot on small scale private owned forest land. It was implemented in two main phases i.e. survey and demonstration plot establishment. First stage (interviews and discussion with candidates of participants) was intended to study about biophysical condition of the research site, social economic and cultural condition of local community, people’s dependency upon land (both agricultural and forest land) and to investigate prospect of community participation. From the initial research phase, description about existing farming system, land productivity, constraint and problem people commonly face could be anticipated before. Next step is formulation of plot design including species combination which is going to be planted in the research plot. By owning this information, it is expected that candidates of participants would really understand about the purpose of the research and eventually could increase their active participation in demonstration plot establishment. Method of Data Collection and Analysis Data presented in this paper were collected from field survey (primary data) and literature study (secondary data). Primary data was collected through direct interviews with selected respondents (local farmers, key persons, and intermediate trader) including social economic condition of the The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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people, farming system commonly applied, productivity of tree crop planted (tree age, price, height and diameter) and marketing prospect. Whereas secondary data was collected from several publications. All data collected then would be analyzed descriptively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Social Economic Condition of the People in the Research Site In 2010, total population of Tanjung Karya village was 8335 consisting of 4174 man and 4161 woman. Average population density in the village was 46.25 persons/km2. Level of education of the people in the village is relatively low. Most of them do not finish their basic education/elementary school (59.7%) and there is only 14.2% who could reach Senior High School. Main occupations of the people are farmers or on-farm labours. Most of the land is intensively cultivated for paddy, maize, cassava, sweet potato, vetiver oil pant and other fruit and vegetable crops like tomato, eggplant, chilly, long bean and peanuts. For fulfilling their daily needs, people totally depend on their on-farm job (Desa Tanjungkarya, 2010). Size of landholding is relatively not so wide ranging from 210 – 850 tumbak/bata (1 tumbak/ bata ≈ 14 m²) or around 2940 m² - 11.900 m² but most of them has less than 0.5 ha/household. Even some of the people in the village are landless. In order to meet daily necessities, landless people used to rent land and develop benefit sharing cultivation. After cultivated for several periods (usually 4 – 5 years) with limited input application, usually soil fertility declines very rapidly and land tenant then just abandon those degraded land. Agreement Achieved Based on the baseline survey and initial information gathered, a 2.5 ha demonstration plot with E. urophylla and A. zizanioides (vetiver oil plant) combination was established. E. urophylla and A. zizanioides were planted together with 3 x 3 m and 0.5 x 0.5 m spacing respectively. There are 8 farmers involved in research plot establishment. Eucalyptus trees were planted first and vetiver oil plant was planted three months afterwards (Fig. 3 and 4).
Figure 3. Vetiver oil plant (Andropogus ziza) intercropped with vetiver oil plant
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Figure 4. E. urophylla tree stands Location of the plot is on private owned forest. Hence, success key of plot establishment is willingness of the people to maintain tree-crop in the research plot. A mutual agreement was designed in advance to guarantee that Eucalyptus trees will not be cut before research is finished (6 years). To achieve mutual agreement was not an easy process since average land holding of participating farmers are in general not so wide (less than 0.5 ha) and vetiver oil pant is light demanding species which they prefer more than Eucalyptus trees. General Description about Tree-Crop Planted in the Research Plot Selection of E. urophylla and A. zizanioides (vetiver oil plant) are based on several considerations both social economic and ecological aspects. Description about those species is as follow: Eucalyptus urophylla E. urophylla is an evergreen tree up to 45 m tall, or, in unfavorable conditions, a shrub; bole straight, branchless for up to 30 m. E. urophylla frequently occurs as dominant species in open, often secondary mountain forests. It grows on mountain slopes and in valleys and is commonly found on basalt, schists and slates, but rarely on limestone. Spacing varies with purpose of the plantation. For pulpwood, 3 x 2 m is commonly used, and for fuel wood or poles spacing may be closer. It is essential to keep the field free of weeds until the trees are 6 months old. Thinning is done every 2 years from the age of 3 years onwards. E. urophylla has good coppicing ability and can be expected to produce at least 3 coppice rotations after the initial seedling rotation. E. urophylla actually is a multipurpose tree species (MPTS). It makes satisfactory fuel wood and charcoal. It is also suitable as a source of mid-density to low-density eucalypt fiber for pulp and paper production. In Timor, the wood is used in heavy construction, bridging, flooring and framing. The round wood is used for building poles and fence posts. The bark has a tannin content of over 10%, but it is not used commercially. The leaves yield a pale yellow oil. The essential oil is a good source of paracymene, which possesses disinfectant properties and is utilized in soap making and in the perfumery industry (World Agroforestry Centre, 2004). •
Specific reasons were mentioned by farmers to select E. urophylla: A great demand of forest products, which may be manufactured from Eucalyptus sp. wood (67% of respondents) The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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• • • •
E. urophylla is very potential and preferred as pulp and paper raw material since it contains full filament (23% of respondents) Price of timber product including E. urophylla tends to increase from time to time (93% of respondents Fast growing, good coppicing and drought resistant tree species (70% of respondents) Planting of Eucalyptus is can be used to reclaim the degraded lands (17% of respondents)
Several studies also go along with those reasons and indicate that E.urophylla in the future would become one promising species and the popularity of this species has increased markedly for plantations in humid and sub-humid tropical climates that endure several months of drought annually (the wet/dry tropics) such as parts of Indonesia, Brazil and southern China (Eldridge et al. 1993 in Anonym, 2004). Yields of 20-30 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ of Eucalyptus have been reported under favorable growing conditions (Anonym, 2004). Other mentioned it can improve soil fertility, especially when planted on marginal agricultural lands or other areas with degraded soils. Eucalyptus nutrient use is efficient and its consumption is lower or comparable to other planted tree species and agricultural crops (Anonym, 2009). This species is also reported use water more efficiently than other vegetations (FAO Regional Office For Asia and The Pacific Bangkok, 1993). A. zizanioides (vetiver oil plant) A. zizanioides grows naturally in swamp areas of northern India, Bangladesh, Burma (Myanmar) and occurs probably naturalized in many parts of South-East Asia. Under favorable field conditions vetiver clump cuttings (splits) start sprouting a week after transplanting, but growth is generally slow during the first 3 months. In one year the root system becomes well developed. Some roots may reach a depth of up to 4 m. A. zizanoides is grown for its oil mainly in Haiti, West Java, India, Réunion, China and Brazil. From the rhizome and roots, vetiver oil is steam-distilled, which is used in perfumes, deodorants, soaps and other toilet articles. Its scent is heavy and woody (Sulistyawan, 2010). Traditionally, A. zizanioides is planted in southern India in strips as permanent field boundaries and occasionally in contour strips to control erosion, while in Java it is planted to protect sloping drains. The use of vetiver in erosion control spread first from India to the Caribbean and Fiji and later to many tropical areas, including all countries of South-East Asia. Since the late 1980s, its planting for erosion control has been promoted strongly, not only around fields, but also to protect terraces and road shoulders. Strips of densely packed, stiff and tough grass stems break the speed of run-off water and divide it evenly, reducing the risk of formation of run-off streams and gully erosion. Very dense root system has a strong tendency to grow downwards and effectively anchors strips of plants and soil behind it (Damanik, 2005; Emmyzar, et.al, 2006). Indonesia and Haiti export the largest quantities of vetiver oil, about 50—100 t/year each, while China exports about 20 t/year. The largest area of production in Indonesia is in Garut Regency in West Java where it is grown on about 20,000 ha land. The main importing countries are the United States and Western Europe (each with 100 t/year), and Japan (10 t/year). The price of vetiver oil varies between years and sources. In the 1990s, it was valued at about US$ 135—155/kg, oil from Haiti at US$ 90—100/kg and oil from Indonesia at US$ 54—62/kg; vetivery acetate at US$ 160/kg (Anonym, 2004). The average maximum temperature required for good growth is 25°—35°C; absolute maxima may be about 45°C. It should not be shaded permanently, although healthy hedges of vetiver can 304 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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be maintained in sugar-cane plantations, as the plants recover quickly after the harvest of the cane. The species is tolerant of very poor and adverse soil conditions. It can survive fire, rough trampling and grazing. For the production of vetiver oil, light sandy soils are required to facilitate harvesting of the smaller roots, which contain most oil. To establish vetiver, early weeding is important. Weeding is done 3—4 times in the first year and a few times in the second. The final weeding is done just before harvesting to avoid roots of weeds in the harvested vetiver roots. Intercropping with short-duration pulses can be done during the early stages of growth. Intercropping in coconut and areca palm plantations having a relatively open canopy is sometimes practised. Irrigation is sometimes economic. For erosion-control hedges it is essential to fill gaps between plants. Roots and rhizomes of vetiver are harvested 15—18 months after planting when their essential oil content is highest. In Java harvesting is sometimes done already after 12 months, elsewhere it is sometimes postponed until after 24 months, which results in lower yields, but higher quality oil, being heavier and darker coloured. The use of a single disk plough digging to 40 cm depth has been time efficient and effective in trials. However, on sloping land, harvesting can cause serious erosion. The average yield of air-dried roots of vetiver varies from 1—2.4 t/ha, commonly yielding 12—17 kg oil (Sulistyawan, 2010). The Growth of Tree-Crop in Demonstration Plot A. zizanioides (vetiver oil plant) is mostly preferred by the community in the village. This species could provide cash income fast. Harvesting period varies from 8 – 13 month after cultivation. Beside already widely planted and easy to cultivate, price of vetiver oil plant tends to increase intermittently. Marketing this product is not difficult as demand for vetiver oil plant also tends to increase from time to time. Even, consumers (intermediate trader, local industry) are willing to buy it long before harvesting period. Unfortunately the species has adventitious root, hence if planted on sloping land, monoculture and incautiously harvested, it will unintentionally take away/remove soil under it and causes the soil becomes loose (unsolid). When rain comes, it will cause awful surface erosion. Therefore intercropping planting with tree stands having long and deep root is needed in such area to maintain solidity of the soil after harvesting.
Fortunately, despite those disadvantages, vetiver oil plants could grow well under E. urophylla stands until it has been harvested even until three rotation periods, although its production tends to decrease gradually. Description of growth of vetiver oil plant E. urophylla is presented in the picture below.
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Fig 5. Production and income gained from vetiver oil plant The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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As a light demanding species, cultivating vetiver oil plant under E. urophylla decrease its production gradually from 100%; 75% and 40% respectively during its three rotation periods (Fig.5). However the decrease is compensated by the production of Eucalyptus tree stands which its growth tends to increase significantly (Fig.6).
Figure 6. Growth of Eucalyptus urophylla Income Gained from Integrating Tree-Crop Cultivation As already mentioned before, although planted under tree stands has declined production of vetiver oil plant gradually, this loss is substituted by tree production. Preliminary rough calculation of income obtained with 6 year rotation period (without calculating present value of money/interest rate) is presented in Table1 and 2. Table 1. Income obtained from monoculture cultivation of A. zizanioides (vetiver oil plant)/ha No 1 2 3 4 5 6
Monoculture cultivation of A. zizanioides (0.5x0.5 m) Average production of vetiver oil plant Current price of dried roots of vetiver oil plant Total income gained for one rotation period Cost of production until harvesting 20% Total net income Total income gained during 6 years monoculture cultivation/ha (5 rotation)
Total Income 2.8 ton/ha*) Rp 4000*) Rp 11,200,000 Rp 2,240,000 Rp 8,960,000 Rp 44,800,000
Source: Primary data analysis; Note: Assumed, price and level of production is stable during 6 years rotation period
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Table 2. Income obtained from intercropping of E. urophylla and A. zizanioides during 6 years cultivation No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Intercropping cultivation of E. urophylla (3x3) and A. zizanoides (0.5x0.5 m) Survival rate of tree stands (± 70%) Average diameter of tree stands Average height Estimation of volume/tree stand Total of volume/ha Current price of E. urophylla (Rp/m3) Estimation of Gross income/ha Estimation of cost of production until harvesting 20% Estimation of net income from E. urophylla (Rp) Average production of dried roots of vetiver oil plant Current price of dried roots of vetiver oil plant (Rp/kg) Total net income gained for first rotation period (Rp/ha/year) Average production of dried roots of vetiver oil plant at second period (75 % of initial production) Total income gained for second rotation period (Rp/ha/year) Average production of dried roots of vetiver oil plant at third period (40% of initial production) Total income gained for third rotation period (Rp/ha/year) Additional income obtained from intercropping cultivation (9 +12+14+16) Additional income obtained if compared with Monoculture cultivation of A. zizanioides (during 6 years cultivation)
Description 770 trees/ha*) 20 -25 cm 15 – 20 m 0.1 m3*) 77 m3 Rp 1,000,000,-*) Rp 77,000,000 Rp 15,400,000 Rp 62,600,000 2.8 ton/ha*) Rp 4,000 Rp 8,960,000 2.1 ton/ha Rp 6,720,000 1.12 ton/ha Rp 3,584,000 Rp 81,864,000 Rp 37,064,000 (82.7% increase of income)
Source: Primary data analysis; Note: *) Assumed production and price Table 1 and 2 shows, intercropping cultivation of E. urophylla and A. zizanioides could increase total income of the farmers significantly (82.7%) compared with monoculture vetiver cultivation. It could also guarantee sustainable income for the farmers although main portion of income will be attained at the end of E. urophylla rotation period (6 years).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
1. Although a light demanding species, A. zizanoides still could grow well under tree stands. 2. By integrating tree stands and non timber forest plants, farmer could increase their income significantly although major part of income would be obtained at the end of tree rotation period (6 years). 3. Intercropping tree-crop cultivation between E. urophylla and A. zizanoides could maintain stability of the soil in the research plot and prevent from erosion and land slide incidents 4. Further study to compare soil condition between monoculture cultivation of A. zizanoides and intercropping cultivation with E. urophylla need to be done to investigate how far the decrease in erosion level. 5. More demonstration plot with different combination of timber and non timber species cultivation need to be introduced on areas prone to natural disaster like in Tanjung Karya. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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REFERENCES Anonym, 2004. Eucalyptus Species.http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/AC121E/ac121e04.htm Accessed, July 8, 2011. Anonym, 2009. Eucalyptus Facts. http://www.eucalyptusfacts.org/?page_id=5 Accessed July 2011 Damanik, S. 2005. Kajian Usahatani Akar Wangi Rakyat Berwawasan Konservasi di Garut. Jurnal Pen. Tan Industri Vol. 11 (1): 25-31. Desa Tnjungkarya, 2010. Profil Desa Tanjungkarya 2010. Emmyzar, Yulius Ferry, dan Daswir. 2006. Prospek Pengembangan Tanaman Akar Wangi. Perkembangan Teknologi Tanaman Rempah dan Obat. Vol. XVIII (I) : 1-11. FAO Regional Office for Asia and The Pacific Bangkok, 1993. Research Experience on Eucalyptus in Indonesia Premont I, B and Ag. Pudjiharta. 1993 in White, K, Ball, J and Kashio, M. Proceedings Regional expert consultation on Eucalyptus. http://www.fao.org/ docrep/005/ac777e/ac777e0e.htm Accessed August 10, 2011 Getteng, M. 2011. Kemiskinan Petani: Faktor Lahan. http:// ekonomi.kompasiana.com/ agrobisnis/2011/03/30/kemiskinan-petani-faktor- lahan/ Accessed August 2, 2011 Jemabut, I. 2011. Lahan Pertanian, Pemerintah Jangan Hanya Berwacana http://www.kpa.or.id/ berita-115-lahan-pertanian-pemerintah-jangan-hanya-berwacana.html?PHPSESSID =02aedc6ee0055bf7c61f0268c4a0a8e2 Accessed August 2, 2011 Raswa, E. 2006. 35 Persen Masyarakat Sekitar Hutan Miskin http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/ ekbis/2006/08/19/brk,20060819-82218,id.html Accessed August 5, 2011 Rosiana, N. 2008. Kelayakan Pengembangan Usaha Akarwangi (A. zizanioides) Pada Kondisi Risiko di Kabupaten Garut. Program Studi Manajemen Agribisnis Fakultas Pertanian Institut Pertanian Bogor, Sulistyawan, D, 2010. Akar Wangi Penghasil Minyak Atsiri. http://suaramerdeka.com/v1/index.php/read/cetak/2010/10/29/128376/Akar-Wangi-PenghasilMinyak-Atsiri Accessed July 7, 2010 Sumarno dan Kartasasmita, U.G. Kemelaratan Bagi Petani Kecil di Balik Kenaikan Produktivitas Padi. Sinar Tani (Edisi 30 Des ’09 - 5 Januari 2010; No. 3335 Tahun XL, hal. 18) Pemerintah Kabupaten Garut, 2010. Letak Geografis dan Klimatologi. http://www.garutkab.go.id/ pub/static_menu/detail/sekilas_geografi_climatologi. Accessed August 12, 2011 World Agroforestry Centre, 2004. AgroForestree Database. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre. org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=821 Accessed July, 2010
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POSTERS
Investigation of Biodeterioration in Indonesian Traditional Wooden Structure of “Joglo” Yoshiyuki Yanase1, Takuro Mori2, Yulianto P Prihatmaji2, Sulaeman Yusuf3, Maya Ismayati3, Joko Sulistyo4, Ziyadatil Inayah4 and Shuichi Doi5 Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Japan
[email protected] Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, JAPAN,
[email protected] 2 Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Japan 3 Research and Development Unit for Biomaterial, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Indonesia 4 Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia 5 Graduate School of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan 1
ABSTRACT At present, there are few wooden houses or buildings in Indonesia, although wood beams are often used in the building materials. In contrast, many traditional wooden joglo buildings exist in the city of Yogyakarta. Joglo-style building is the traditional Javanese wooden post and beam construction style. Joglo buildings use teak wood (Tectona grandis) as the primary construction material of the structural beams, sub-beams, and ornaments. These buildings employ a mortise and tenon construction technique. Joglo were originally constructed for members of the upper class, e.g., sultans’ palaces. The roof utilizes complex and sophisticated construction techniques. As such, it is assumed that they will have sustained damage as a result of fungi caused by leaks in some areas. It is also assumed that attacks by termites will be common because of the exposed wooden beams. In this study, damage of biodeterioration to teak wood used in wooden structure of joglo-style building was investigated by evaluating ultrasonic velocity, moisture content, acoustic emission, and so on. Damages by dry-wood termite or fungi were found in traditional wooden structure of “Joglo” in sultans’ palaces and in the area of Kotagede. The relationship of damages by dry-wood termite or fungi to ultrasonic velocity in the teak wood and to moisture content was discussed. The monitoring of acoustic emission generated by dry-wood termite attack was also carried out for the detection of termite attack in the wooden structure. Keyword s: Joglo building, biodeterioration, drywood termite, fungi, non-destructive measurement
Introduction At present, there are few wooden houses or buildings in Indonesia, although wood beams are often used in the building materials. In contrast, many traditional wooden joglo buildings exist in the city of Yogyakarta. Joglo-style building is the traditional Javanese wooden post and beam construction style. Joglo buildings use teak wood (Tectona grandis) as the primary construction material of the structural beams, sub-beams, and ornaments. These buildings employ a mortise and tenon construction technique. Joglo were originally constructed for members of the upper class, e.g., sultans’ palaces. The roof utilizes complex and sophisticated construction techniques. As such, it is assumed that they will have sustained damage as a result of fungi caused by leaks The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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in some areas. It is also assumed that attacks by termites will be common because of the exposed wooden beams. In this study, an investigation of the posts of a sultan’s palace joglo (Figure. 1) and the posts of a house-style joglo (Figure. 2) that includes guest houses and main buildings in the area of Kotagede were carried out in order to examine the biodeterioration.
Guest house Main building
Figure 1. Sultan’s palace joglo at Srimanganti Hall
Figure 2. Joglo guest house and main building
MEASUREMENTS Moisture content and ultrasonic velocity were measured on the surface of the teak posts at approximately 300, 1000, and 2000 mm from the ground. A wood moisture tester (HM-530, Kett Electric Laboratory) was utilized to measure the moisture content of teak wood; the specific gravity was set to 0.65. The propagation time of an ultrasonic wave in the teak post was measured using an ultrasonic sound timer (Dr. Wood, Akita SKK Moisture content Ultrasonic velocity Inc.) with an ultrasonic transmitter and receiver. The transmitter and receiver were attached to the surface of the teak post and the propagation time of the ultrasonic wave between the transmitter and the receiver was measured. Ultrasonic velocity was calculated from the propagation time and the distance between the transmitter and the receiver, namely, the width of the teak post. Acoustic emission (AE) generated by termite feeding activity in the wood was also detected using AE measurement apparatus on the teak post. The Figure 3. Measurement of moisture content measurement results of moisture content and and ultrasonic velocity ultrasonic velocity are presented in Figure 3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Five Sultan’s palace joglo and six house-type joglo were investigated and the results for two joglo constructions of a palace joglo and a house-type joglo were introduced and discussed in this report. 312 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Srimanganti Hall, as shown in Figure. 1, is one of the five Sultan’s palace joglo and it is used for sultans to welcome the arrival of important guests. It was built approximately 170 years ago.
Figure. 4. Damages by drywood termite and fungi It was found by visual inspection that the posts and beams were attacked by fungi and drywood termites (Figure. 4). No damages by subterranean termite attack were observed at the wooden construction members in eleven joglo buildings.
N N 66 55
S S 3,200 3,200 5,200 5,200
44 The post locations in Srimanganti Hall were shown in Figure 5 and the results of moisture 7,300 7,300 content and ultrasonic velocity was noted in Table 33 1. The moisture content indicated that the bottom 5,200 5,200 had more moisture than the top. Some posts had a 22 moisture content that exceeded 28%. These parts 3,200 5,200 5,200 4,500 3,200 4,500 5,200 5,200 3,200 3,200 are considered to be at high risk of deterioration 1 1 as a result of fungi. The ultrasonic velocity was A B FF C D E D E A B measured to be between 1500 and 2100 m/s. Figure 5. Post location in the joglo The relationship between moisture content and of Srimanganti Hall ultrasonic velocity was poor. Some parts were measured to be approximately 1000 m/s or less, and, as such, it was assumed that they had been damaged by fungi and/or drywood termites. Low ultrasonic velocity values were only obtained at the bottom of the posts. For the house-style buildings, damage to the teak posts caused by drywood termites or fungi was observed by visual inspection of the four guest houses and two main buildings. All visible posts in the six joglo buildings were investigated by measuring the moisture content and ultrasonic velocity. Figure 6 depicts an example of one of the sixteen posts in one of these joglo buildings constructed approximately 200 years ago. The moisture content and ultrasonic velocity of the sixteen posts in the guest house are presented in Table 2. The highest moisture content was measured at the bottom position 300 mm from the floor; the moisture content decreased in the upper part. Damage to the teak post caused by drywood termites was observed on all parts of the post, regardless of the moisture content, and the damage caused by fungi was minimal in this guest house. The bottom part of the post, which The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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has higher moisture content, may be strongly attacked by termites if an infestation of subterranean termites occurred. No significant relationships between moisture content and ultrasonic velocity were obtained in the measurement of the six joglo buildings. The ultrasonic velocities were mostly between 1,500 and 2,000 m/s. The ultrasonic velocity where intense damage caused by drywood termites was observed was less than 1,500 m/s whereas that of a sound post was approximately 2,000 m/s. This indicates that areas where the ultrasonic velocity was near 1,500 m/s may be attacked by drywood termites; there were many holes or galleries in the post though damage was not observed by visual inspection. No significant AE values were detected in any of the visible posts in the six joglo buildings.
CONCLUSION
Table 1. Moisture content and ultrasonic velocity of the teak posts in the joglo of Srimanganti Hall Post A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 D-1 D-2 D-3 D-4 D-5 D-6 E-1 E-2 E-3 E-4 E-5 E-6 F-1 F-2 F-3 F-4 F-5 F-6
Moisture content (%) Bottom Middle Top 13.0 10.5 13.5 14.0 11.5 14.0 11.5 11.0 12.5 14.0 13.0 15.0 12.5 11.5 12.0 15.0 11.0 11.0 18.0 12.5 11.5 23.0 15.5 12.5 17.0 13.0 12.5 12.0 10.0 10.5 16.5 12.5 14.5 14.5 17.0 14.5 15.5 9.5 15.0 15.5 13.0 14.0 28.5 25.5 29.0 29.5 25.0 23.5 12.5 11.0 9.5 12.0 13.0 10.5 14.0 12.5 9.5 14.5 11.5 11.0 31.0 25.0 25.5 33.5 30.5 30.5 11.0 13.0 14.0 15.5 12.5 12.0 14.5 12.0 12.5 17.0 12.5 11.5 12.5 10.5 10.5 12.0 12.5 14.0 14.0 11.0 12.0 15.5 11.5 12.0 15.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 12.5 12.0 13.5 13.5 12.5 20.5 16.5 17.0 14.5 12.5 12.0 12.0 12.0 10.5
Ultrasonic velocity (m/s) Bottom Middle Top 1827 1663 1730 1496 1651 1800 1642 1832 1850 1710 1615 1721 1851 1923 1851 1785 1934 1869 1057 1693 1534 1517 1510 1556 1764 2012 1877 1467 1790 1955 2129 1658 1864 1534 2143 1742 1812 1812 1895 1735 1744 1503 1447 1766 1801 1693 1721 1946 1462 1583 1680 1595 1673 1663 1843 2022 1818 2050 2000 1735 1435 1771 1761 1740 1826 1826 1538 1880 1919 1958 1918 1818 1178 1982 1667 1667 2006 1803 1875 1583 1746 1759 2003 1824 786 1624 1531 1811 1858 1986 918 1904 1989 1736 1782 1765 1811 1857 1798 1702 2004 2056 1875 2038 2000 1408 2190 1834
The biodeterioration of teak wood used in traditional Indonesian joglo wooden structures was investigated through an evaluation of the ultrasonic velocity, moisture content, acoustic emission, and so on. Damage caused by drywood termites or fungi was found in the joglo buildings of the sultan’s palace and in the area of Kotagede. No significant relationships between moisture content and ultrasonic velocity were obtained in the measurement of joglo buildings, and no drywood termites were detected or collected in this survey.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Professor Tsuyoshi Yoshimura from the Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University for so kindly arranging the survey. This study is a part of the outcome of the JSPS Global COE Program “In Search of Sustainable Humanosphere in Asia and Africa”.
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| Investigation of Biodeterioration in Indonesian Traditional Wooden Structure of --Joglo-- | N
1m
1m 4
Table 2. Moisture content and ultrasonic velocity of the teak posts in the joglo-style guest house Post
3
2
1 A
B
C
D Post
Figure 6. Location of teak posts in the joglo-style guest house
A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 D-1 D-2 D-3 D-4
Moisture content (%) Bottom Middle Top 21.0 12.5 12.0 20.5 12.5 7.0 25.0 10.5 6.5 15.0 11.0 10.5 15.5 13.5 19.0 8.5 11.5 18.0 10.5 9.5 16.5 9.5 9.0 12.5 10.0 14.5 9.5 10.0 22.0 12.5 15.5 19.0 12.0 13.5 16.5 11.0 11.0 28.5 13.0 13.5 24.5 10.0 10.5 17.5 13.0 11.5
Ultrasonic velocity (m/s) Bottom Middle Top 1500 1358 1440 1812 1850 1859 1761 1587 1595 1552 1572 1446 1765 1739 1827 1601 2004 1963 2000 1841 1780 1821 1664 1694 1603 1950 1581 1684 1905 1905 1818 1839 1818 1595 1603 1546 1943 1875 1705 1779 1833 1681 1614 1818 1690 2033 1842 1888
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The Quality of Activated Charcoal of Gelam Stem Alpian1, T.A. Prayitno2, J.P. Gentur Sutapa2 and Budiadi2 Forestry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Palangka Raya University; Kampus UNPAR Tunjung Nyaho, Palangka Raya 73111, Indonesia E-mail :
[email protected] 2 Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia 1
ABSTRACT Gelam (Melaleuca sp) family Myrtaceae is the dominant tree species growing on tidal swamp forests, especially in ex. Peatland Development Project 1 million hectares in the province of Central Kalimantan. Gelam is utilized by the surrounding community, in every the plant growth stages i.e. saplings, poles and trees. Preliminary research resulted stem parts produced the best quality charcoal than those of other parts such as roots, fruits, flowers, branches/twigs and leaves. This study was conducted to develop the use of stem parts of Gelam charcoal became activated charcoal material. The aim of research is to assess the quality of activated charcoal from stem parts of Gelam by different location (A and B) and plant growth stages (saplings, poles and trees) as well as to analyze the quality of activated charcoal based on Indonesian National Standard. The observed parameters include the yield, moisture contents, volatile matter contents, ash contents, fixed carbon contents, absorptive benzene capacity, absorptive iodine capacity and absorption methylene blue capacity. Results and analysis show that the general Gelam parts based on where the stem grow (location A and location B) and plant growth stages (saplings, poles, trees) can be used as raw material for making activated charcoal by activation heating of 9000C for 3 hours. That has already produced activated charcoal qualified for technical quality SNI 06-3730-1995 activated charcoal, activated charcoal for the purification of edible oil, SNI 06-4262-1996 and activated charcoal for water SNI 06-4253-1996 (except the absorption of benzene). Keywords: stem, Gelam, quality, activated charcoal
INTRODUCTION Preliminary studies on the quality of charcoal from the roots, stems, fruit, flower branches / twigs and leaves parts of Gelam showed results that stem part produces the best charcoal quality. Based on these preliminary, studies of stem parts of charcoal were developed into activated charcoal then be assessed for its quality. Activated charcoal acts as an adsorbent to clear, remove color, odor, toxins, as well as filters to remove or modify a variety of salts by separating and collecting. Other uses are as catalysts and catalyst support materials. Activated charcoal is used in various economic sectors including the food industry, pharmaceutical, chemical, petroleum, mining, nuclear, automotive and industrial drinking water treatment, and industrial wastewater, as well as air and gas wastewater (Bansal et.al 1988). Based on the above mentioned, the assessment of quality of activated charcoal from stem part is necessary in order to find out the potential utilization of Gelam development in Central 316 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Quality of Active Charcoal of Gelam Stem |
Kalimantan as well as efforts to increase the production of activated charcoal in Indonesia to meet the needs of activated charcoal industry in Indonesia.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials and Equipment Materials used in this study were obtained from a Gelam tree in Kapuas district, Central Kalimantan province on the block D ex. PLG in two different locations, namely locations A (flooded of big tidal, peat thickness is 51-100cm) lies in S 02050,355’ – S 02050,520; E 1140 20,383’–E 114020,544’ and the location of B (unflooded of big tidal, peat thickness is 101-200cm) is located at S 02049,369’ – S 02049,627’ ; E 114017,462’–E 114018,109’. Materials used in the study consisted of Gelam trees from 2 locations which are divided into 3 classes of plant growth stages : saplings (tree height > 1.5 m - diameter trees < 10cm), poles (tree diameter 10cm - 20cm) and trees (tree diameter> 20 cm), aquades, iodine solution (I2), starch solution, solution of methylene blue, sodiumtio sulphate (Na2S2O3) and benzene (C6H6). Equipments that used in the study was 10 kg capacity electric retort for making charcoal, furnace thermoline, sieve (20, 45, 60, 325 mesh), analytical scales, ovens, desiccator, volumetric flask, burette, electric stoves, funnel, bucket, plastic clip, porcelain cup, watch bowl, pipette boiled, spectrophotometer, and filter paper. Methods Stages of research conducted consisted of: Stage of Materials Preparation: Cutting of Gelam stem part with a size of 2cm x 2cm x 4 cm and the was air dried. Stage of Pyrolysis and filtering: Wood of stem that has been air dried was put in the retort and heated to the temperature of 500 0C for 3 hours and cooled. Charcoal was filtered and then was made i nto powder pass through 20 mesh and 45 mesh sieve. Stage of Activation: Activation is done by physical method, by soaking the powdered charcoal that has been filtered into cold water for 24 hours and filtered / drained. The activation process was continued by heating the charcoal in a furnace with a temperature thermoline of 9000C for 1 hour. Stage of Testing / Analysis: Activated charcoal powder that has been cooled then was crushed and analyzed. Stage of Data Analysis Analysis of data used factorial experiment with the basic design of complete randomized block design (CRD) with two treatment factors, namely the grown location (A) and plant growth stages (B). Factor A consisted of 2 levels, namely locations A (flooded of big tidal, peat thickness is 51-100cm) and the location B (unflooded of big tidal, peat thickness is 101-200cm). Factor B consisted of three levels of plant growth stages, namely saplings (tree height > 1.5 m - diameter trees < 10cm), poles (tree diameter 10cm - 20cm) and trees (tree diameter > 20 cm with 3 replicates each. The results of analysis of variance were further tested if significantly different by LSD (Least Significant Difference).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results The quality of activated charcoal tested includes : yield, moisture content, volatile matter content, ash content, fixed carbon content, absorption benzene capacity, absorptive iodine capacity and adsorptive methylene blue capacity are shown in Table 1. The results of analysis of variance showed all the parameters tested were not significant (Table 2), thus the further testing by LSD (Least Significant Difference) was not done. Table 1. Quality value of activated charcoal from Gelam stem Treatment
Yield (%)
Moisture Content (%)
Volatile Matter Content (%)
Ash Content (%)
Fixed Carbon Content (%)
Adsorptive Benzene Capacity (%)
Adsorptive iodium capacity (mg/g)
Adsorptive Methyline Blue Capacity (mg/g)
APc1 APc2 APc3 Average ATg1 ATg2 ATg3 Average APh1 APh2 APh3 Average BPc1 BPc2 BPc3 Average BTg1 BTg2 BTg3 Average BPh1 BPh2 BPh3 Average
60.24 65.47 73.68 66.47 67.88 65.52 67.20 66.86 63.43 76.87 72.51 70.94 66.55 68.28 69.51 68.11 62.00 72.08 69.33 67.80 61.01 76.53 75.25 70.93
5.55 6.70 3.20 5.15 5.25 2.85 4.80 4.30 5.55 2.15 3.05 3.58 6.20 4.55 5.50 5.42 4.75 5.70 3.30 4.58 3.55 3.35 3.55 3.48
38.10 27.50 20.55 28.72 24.20 20.55 21.95 22.23 23.45 21.75 16.90 20.70 32.75 25.05 31.80 29.87 26.10 34.55 27.85 29.50 30.55 23.70 23.60 25.95
2.70 3.50 3.15 3.12 3.80 3.50 3.10 3.47 3.35 3.00 2.55 2.97 3.55 2.50 3.65 3.23 3.60 3.55 2.60 3.25 3.85 2.80 3.80 3.48
53.65 62.30 73.10 63.02 66.75 73.10 70.15 70.00 67.65 73.10 77.50 72.75 57.50 67.90 59.05 61.48 65.55 56.20 66.25 62.67 62.05 70.15 69.05 67.08
4.59 9.79 4.76 6.38 3.46 8.54 9.51 7.17 8.74 3.66 3.25 5.22 9.01 8.75 9.58 9.11 9.17 10.63 8.67 9.49 8.28 5.52 8.59 7.46
1179.22 1375.28 950.48 1168.33 852.45 1211.90 1179.22 1081.19 1179.22 917.80 917.80 1004.94 917.80 1048.51 1146.54 1037.62 1211.90 1309.93 1179.22 1233.68 1048.51 950.48 1146.54 1048.51
134.25 131.19 131.56 132.33 131.44 131.94 134.20 132.53 132.94 131.64 132.52 132.37 130.76 129.68 132.12 130.85 133.37 129.61 132.57 131.85 131.59 131.56 128.65 130.60
Notes : A = Site A ; B = Site B ; Pc1 = Sapling (tree diameter 1.43 cm) ; Pc2 = Sapling (tree diameter 4.14 cm) ; Pc1 = Sapling (tree diameter 8.28 cm) ; Tg1 = Pole (tree diameter 10.19 cm ); Tg2 = Pole (tree diameter 14.01 cm) ; Tg3 = Pole (tree diameter 17.83 cm) ; Ph1 = Tree (tree diameter 20.05 cm) ; Ph2 = Tree (tree diameter 26.42 cm) ; Ph3 = Tree (tree diameter 31.83 cm)
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| The Quality of Active Charcoal of Gelam Stem |
Table 2. Varian analysis quality of activated charcoal from Gelam stem Parameter Testing Yield (%) Moisture content (%) Volatile Matter Content (%) Ash Content (%) Fixed Carbon Content (%) Adsorptive Benzene Capacity (%) Adsorptive Iodium Capacity (mg/g) Adsorptive Methyline Blue Capacity (mg/g)
Notes = Prob. ≤ 0.01 = Prob. > 0.01 ≤ 0.05 = Prob. > 0.05 =
Location ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Varian Resources Growth Location.*Growth ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
absolutely significant (**) significant (*) not significant (ns)
Discussion Yield The yield of activated charcoal value is to determine the amount of activated charcoal produced after the activation process. The yield of activated charcoal from stem parts of Gelam saplings, poles and trees ranged between 60.24 ~ 76.87% (Table 1). The highest yield of activated charcoal is obtained from the tree stem of location A, while the lowest yield of activated charcoal is obtained from saplings in location A. Analysis of variance showed that the yield resulting from the treatment factor A, factor B and interaction were not significant (Table 2). The higher the temperature, the yield of activated charcoal produced is also lower (Hudaya and Hartoyo, 1990). Likewise, if the longer the activation time of the reaction between the carbon atoms with an oxidizing agent to form CO, CO2 dan H2, so that the more activated charcoal formed also will be minor (Pari 2005). This trend is in accordance with kinetic theory is if the reaction temperature rises, the speed of reaction between carbon and water vapor will increase (Hudaya and Hartoyo 1990). Moisture content value in the activated charcoal is associated with hygroscopic properties of activated charcoal to water. Activated charcoal moisture content of Gelam stem in saplings, poles and trees ranged between 2.15 ~ 6.70% (Table 1). The highest moisture content of those parts obtained from activated charcoal stems of saplings in location B, while the lowest moisture content of stem parts obtained from activated charcoal of the tree level in location B. Analysis of variance showed that moisture content resulting from the treatment factor A, factor B and interaction were not significant (Table 2). Moisture content values obtained by activated charcoal is met the technical standards /SNI 06-3730-1995 (maximum 15%) and activated charcoal for the purification of edible oil / SNI 06-4262-1996 (maximum 13 %), while the activated charcoal quality requirements for drinking water SNI 06-4253-1996 (maximum 5 %) only of saplings in both locations A and B does not qualify with a water content> 5% (Table 3). The water content decreased with increasing temperature and duration of carbonization (Suherman et al. 2009).
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Table 3. Quality activated charcoal based on the average value of SNI SNI 06-3730-1995 Parameter testing Yield (%) Moisture content (%) Volatile Matter Content (%) Ash Content (%) Fixed Carbon Content (%) Adsorptive Benzene Capacity (%) Adsorptive iodium capacity (mg/g) Adsorptive Methyline Blue Capacity (mg/g)
Sapling
SNI 06-4253-1996
Pole
Tree
Sapling
SNI 06-4262-1996
Pole
Tree
Sapling
Pole
Tree
A – V x V x
B – V x V x
A – V V V V
B – V x V x
A – V V V V
B – V x V V
A – x – V –
B – x – V –
A – V – V –
B – V – V –
A – V – V –
B – V – V –
A – V – V –
B – V – V –
A – V – V –
B – V – V –
A – V – V –
B – V – V –
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
–
–
–
–
–
–
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
Notes : SNI (Standar Nasional Indonesia/ Indonesia National Standard ) SNI 06-3730-1995 Activated charcoal technical SNI 06-4253-1996 Activated charcoal for driking water SNI 06-4262-1996 Activated charcoal for the purification of edible oil V = fullfil ; x = not fullfil ; – = no value in the standard Volatile Matter Content The value of volatile matter content is related to the volatile matter content compounds in activated charcoal. Volatile matter content from the activated charcoal of Gelam stem in saplings, poles and trees ranged between 20.55 ~ 38.10%. The highest levels of volatile matter content derived from stem activated charcoal of saplings in location B, while the lowest levels of volatile matter content derived from activated charcoal of tree level in location A (Table 1). Analysis of variance showed levels of volatile matter content resulting from the treatment factor A, factor B and interaction were not significant (Table 2). Technical quality requirements of activated charcoal / SNI 06-3730-1995 (maximum 25%) activated charcoal are matched only at the level of the pole and the tree from the location A while the level of the tree from the site B is almost eligible approaching < 25%. Quality requirement of activated charcoal for the purification of edible oils / SNI 06-42621996 and activated charcoal for drinking water/ SNI 06-4253-1996) does not require by the levels of volatile matter content (Table 3). Levels of volatile matter content from the activated charcoal stem at the level of saplings and poles are greater than 25% which are caused by incomplete decomposition of non-carbon compounds such as CO2, CO, CH4 dan H2 (Pari et al. 2000). Ash Content The value of ash content in activated charcoal is associated with the metal oxide content. The ash content of activated charcoal of Gelam stem in saplings, poles and trees ranged between 2.50 ~ 3.85% (Table 1). The highest ash content of activated charcoal is obtained from the tree stem in location B, while the lowest ash content of activated charcoal is obtained from the tree stem in location A. Analysis of variance showed levels of ash resulting from the treatment factor A, factor B and interaction were not significant (Table 2). The ash content activated charcoal values obtained are qualified for technical quality / SNI 06-3730-1995 (maximum 10%), activated charcoal for the purification of edible oil / SNI 06-4262-1996 (maximum 5%) and activated charcoal for drinking water 320 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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/SNI 06-4253-1996 (maximum 4%) as shown in Table 3. Excessive ash content causes blockage of the pores of activated charcoal, so that the surface area is reduced and causes corrosion therefore activated charcoal that has been formed even become damaged (Suherman et al. 2009). Fixed Carbon Content The value of fixed carbon content in activated charcoal is associated with the content of pure carbon that is bound in the activated charcoal after the activation process. The fixed carbon content of activated charcoal of the Gelam stem in saplings, poles and trees ranged between 53.65 ~ 77.50% (Table 1). The highest levels of fixed carbon content obtained from the activated charcoal of small trees stem in location A, while the lowest levels of fixed carbon content of activated charcoal obtained from the pole in location B. Data analysis shows levels of fixed carbon content variants generated from the treatment factor A, factor B and interaction were not significant (Table 2). The fixed carbon content activated charcoal which is qualified for technical quality / SNI 06-3730-1995 (minimum 65%) is the poles and tree stem from location A and the tree stem from location B, while others are almost close to the value attached to the carbon content of 65%. Quality requirement of activated charcoal for the purification of edible oils / SNI 06-4262-1996 and activated charcoal for drinking water / SNI 06-4253-1996 is not required by the levels obtained for qualified technical quality / SNI 06-3730-1995 (Table 3). Low levels of fixed carbon content illustrates that the level of purity activated charcoal produced is relatively small and the surface of activated charcoal can still contain non-carbon compounds (Pari 1999). The size of the fixed carbon content activated charcoal produced is influenced by variations in ash content and volatile matter content (Perrich 1981). Adsorptive Benzene Capacity Activated charcoal adsorptive benzene capacity is related to the ability of activated charcoal to absorb the gas with the molecular size of approximately 6 Angstroms. Adsorptive benzene capacity on activated charcoal from Gelam stem in saplings, poles and trees ranged between 3.25 ~ 10.63% (Table 1). Adsorptive benzene capacity from activated charcoal obtained the highest values in the tree from location A, while the lowes values of the adsorptive benzene capacity derived from the pole in the location A. Analysis of variance showed that adsorptive benzene capacity produced from the treatment factor A, factor B and interaction were not significant (Table 2). The range of values of activated charcoal adsorptive benzene capacity did not qualify the technical quality of activated charcoal / SNI 06-3730-1995 (minimum 25%) and activated charcoal for drinking water / SNI 06-4253-1996 (minimum 30%). Quality requirement of activated charcoal for the purification of edible oils SNI 06-4262-1996 is not required by adsorptive benzene capacity (Table 3). The low absorption of activated charcoal to benzene due to the pores on the surface of activated charcoal is still containing a lot of non-carbon-containing compounds so that gases or vapors are less absorbed (Pari 1996). Adsorptive Iodium Capacity The value of activated charcoal adsorptive iodium capacity is related to the ability of activated charcoal to absorb the colored solution with a molecular size of less than 10 Angstroms or 1 nm. Adsorptive iodium capacity of activated charcoal from Gelam stem in saplings, poles and trees ranged between 852.45 ~ 1375.28 mg / g (Table 1). The highest adsorptive iodium capacity of the active charcoal is obtained from the tree level in location A, while the lowest adsorptive iodium capacity of the active charcoal is obtained from the pole in the location A. Analysis of variance showed adsorptive iodium capacity produced from the treatment factor A, factor B and interaction The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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were not significant (Table 2). A whole values of activated charcoal adsorptive iodium capacity obtained here has already qualified for technical quality of activated charcoal / SNI 06-3730-1995 (≥ 750 mg / g), activated charcoal edible oil refining / SNI 06-4262-1996 (≥ 1000 mg / g) and activated charcoal for drinking water / SNI 06-4253-1996 (≥ 1000 mg / g) as shown in Table 3. The amount of activated charcoal absorption capability of iodine due to hydrocarbon compounds remaining on the surface of activated charcoal is wasted at the time of activation, so that the surface becomes activated charcoal (Pujiarti and Sutapa 2005). Adsorptive Methyline Blue Capacity The value of activated charcoal adsorptive methyline blue capacity is related to the ability of activated charcoal to absorb the colored solution with molecular size 15 Angstrom or 1.5 nm. Adsorptive methyline blue capacity activated charcoal from Gelam stem in saplings, poles and trees ranged between 128.65 ~ 134.25 mg / g (Table 1). The highest values of adsorptive methyline blue capacity of activated charcoal obtained from the saplings in location B, while the lowest values of the adsorptive methyline blue capacity of activated charcoal were obtained from tree stems in location B. Analysis of variance of the tree level showed adsorptive methyline blue capacity resulting from the treatment factor A, factor B and interaction were not significant (Table 2). The values of activated charcoal adsorptive methyline blue capacity overall qualified for the quality of activated charcoal technical / SNI 06-3730-1995 (≥ 120 mg / g), activated charcoal edible oil refining / SNI 06-4262-1996 (≥ 110 mg / g) and activated charcoal for drinking water / SNI 06-4253-1996 (≥ 130 mg / g) as presented in Table 3. The range of absorption values of the methylene meet the three conditions above SNI due to hydrocarbon compounds present in activated charcoal is wasted during the activation process so it becomes more active in activated charcoal according to the research from the bark of Acacia mangium that the absorption of methylene blue do not meet standards due to the surface of activated charcoal hydrocarbon compounds, there are still lagging at the time of activation (Pari et al. 2000).
CONCLUSION All factors involved in this research had not significant effect on activated charcoal quality. Activated charcoal quality made of Gelam stem conformed the SNI for activated charcoal technical / SNI 06-3730-1995, activated charcoal for the purification of edible oil / SNI 06-4262-1996 and activated charcoal for drinking water / SNI 06-4253-1996 (except for adsorptive benzene capacity). Yield values ranged between 60.24 ~ 76.87%, moisture content 2.15 ~ 6.70%, volatile matter content 20.55 ~ 38.10%, ash content 3.85% ~ 2.50, fixed carbon content 53.65 ~ 77.50%, adsorptive benzene capacity 3.25 ~ 10.63%, adsorptive iodium capacity 852.45 ~ 1375.28 mg /g and adsorptive methyline blue capacity 128.65 ~ 134.25 mg.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Researchers would like to thank the Ministry of National Education, Directorate General of Higher Education and the Directorate of Research and Community Service through the Institute for Public Service at the University of Gadjah Mada University (Research Grant 2010) for funding this research activity.
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Crystalinity Changes of Mangium (Acacia mangium Wild) and Agatis (Agathis lorantifolia Salisb) Wood Due to Impregnation Process Anne Hadiyane and Alfi Rumidatul School of Life Sciences and Technology – ITB Email:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Chemical modification can increase wood properties with densifying by impregnation. By impregnation, lumen structure will be loaded with various substances that will densify wood structure. The aim of this research is to prepare modified wood from fast growing species that have a certain quality and to detect impregnation method and partial densification with correct polymer loading. This study will evaluate crystalinity, microfibril angle and prepared orientation change. The research was done by giving preliminary treatment of wood by chemical modification treatment with mixture of monomer impregnation that consist of styrene (ST) and methyl methacrylate (MMA) that can repair wood properties. The result shows that crystalinity, microfibril angle and prepared orientation value of densified wood with impregnation decreases compared to untreated wood. The higher polymer loading, then the lower of crystalinity and prepared orientation values. It was also found that the higher polymer loading then the value of microfibril angle is getting higher. Keywords: impregnation, monomer, polymer loading, crystalinity
INTRODUCTION One way is done to improve the properties of wood such as through densifying by impregnation. Impregnation process can improve the quality of the wood for density, dimensional stability and strength (Hadiyane et al, 2010). Helsen et al (2006), stated that the way to reduce dimensional changes of wood due to changes in water levels due to heat is to treat the wood with a material that replaces some or all of the water bound in the cell wall and clogging the dot on the wall. Research of wood properties enhancement of Mangium (Acacia mangium Willd) and Agatis (Agathis lorantifolia Salisb) with impregnation process through the analysis of x’ray diffraction has been seen from the initial testing of physical properties (density and dimensional stability) and mechanical properties (MOE, MOR, hardness). Then the increased properties were analyzed by x’ray diffraction through observations of crystalinity changes, microfibril angle and preferred orientation. The purpose of this study was to analyze and observe the phenomenon of increasing in the quality of the densified wood through impregnation, namely to analyze the changes of crystalinity that improved wood dimensional stability by wood impregnation, changes in microfibril angle (MFA) and the observation of the preferred orientation of the wood that caused changes in strength of wood impregnation.
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| Crystalinity Changes of Mangium (Acacia mangium Wild.) and Agathis (Agathis Iorantifolia Salisb.) Wood due to Impregnation Process |
MATERIAL AND METHOD The material used is two types of wood; Mangium and Agatis. Monomer solution used is a mixture of styrene and methyl methacrylate (65/28 (w/w)%) containing 2% benzyl peroxide as a catalyst and 5% divinyl benzene as cross-linker. Monomer solution is used with the addition of benzene in order to make adjustments according to the three different polymer loading. Levels full-load (FL) consists of 100% solution of monomer, the level of half-load (HL) 70% solution of monomer, 30% benzene and quarter-load level (QL) 40 % solution of monomer 60% benzene in weight bases. Impregnation is done by using two methods of pressing vacuum and vacuum. In the pressing vacuum method, after 30 minutes and given the pressure of 10 atmospheres for 60 minutes, the monomer solution was introduced into the treatment chamber until the samples were completely covered. While the vacuum method of test samples were left for 24 hours in normal atmosphere and room temperature conditions. Test sample which has been impregnated wrapped in aluminum foil and heated in an oven with a temperature of 90°C for 24 hours for polymerization. After unwrapping, the sample were dried at temperature 103 ± 2°C to remove residual monomers. Next the samples that had been given the treatment were conditioned for one week at room temperature prior to testing. Initial testing were physical properties (density and dimensional stability) and mechanical properties (MOE, MOR, hardness). Then, increased properties were analyzed by x’ray diffraction through observations of crystalinity changes, microfibril angle and preferred orientation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Crystalinity Impregnation of wood caused a decrease of crystalinity for both compacted wood Mangium and Agatis for all of the polymer loading as shown in Table 1. The higher of polymer loading, the lower degree of crystalinity. The crystalinity of wood before impregnation which main component is cellulose that is crystalline is reduced after impregnation. This happens because the monomer groups interact with groups that exist in the timber and occupy a larger volume of space in the timber, causing changes or reshuffle of fibril-fibril structure of wood. The reshuffle caused crystalinity reduction and the fibrils become more rigid. Table 1. Test results of crystalinity Agatis and Mangium Polymer Levels
Agatis (%)
Mangium (%)
Full Load
30.97
44.34
Half Load
37.41
43.39
Quarter Load
36.91
47.05
Control
50.33
48.8
The crystalline degree decreases with increasing compression and those values was lower than control. The phenomenon was influenced by reaction among monomer and hydroxyl group of wood. The reaction affects to wood properties, from hygroscopic change to hydrophobic.
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Preferred Orientation The results of a preferred orientation show a value which is lower than the control. Impregn ation process causes irregular fiber both for Agatis and Mangium wood. Changes of the values of preferred orientation can be seen in Table 2. The occurrence of impregnation of a hydrofob mixture to hydrophilic in the wood causes a change in shape of structure regularity, so the flexibility of wood will be lower because the mass of density increases as the stronger wood impregnation. This phenomenon indicates that there has been wood impregnation because of replacement in preferred orientation in the timber and the replacement the hydroxyl groups on wood by a group of the monomer polymerized with wood. Preferred orientation on the polymer loading of quarter load is higher compared to other polymer loading, which makes the wood more stable because there is still an empty space so that the volume of timber still have flexibility and not rigid. Table 2. Percentage of Preferred Orientation of Wood by Impregnation and Control Polymer Levels
Agatis wood (%)
Mangium wood (%)
Full Load
68.0
61.4
Half Load
70.4
65.3
Quarter Load
71.3
65.4
Control
70.9
66.1
The higher compression results low prefered orientation value. Interaction monomer and hydroxyl group was suggested to affect microfibril arrangement, due to decreasing in regularity of wood structure. Microfibril Angle (MFA) The results showed the amount of microfibril angle (MFA) on Agatis and Mangium wood in impregnation smaller than controls, as shown in Table 3. The value of intact wood MFA Agatis is 19 .69º, after impregnation decreased to 18.08° at full load, while at half load and quarter load MFA its value is smaller than the control timber which is equal to 11.48° and 12.20º. Decrease in MFA show that half load and quarter load has low shrinkage and high strength values. The MFA of Mangium in impregnation of wood is smaller than controls. The lowest MFA valu e occurs at quarter load that is equal to 10.95º, while the full load and half load of 14.90º and 13. 61°. This phenomenon proves that the partial solidification of the polymer loading impregnation o f the quarter load can enhance the properties of wood. Table 3. Microfibril angle of impregnated wood and control Polymer Levels
Agatis wood (%)
Mangium wood (%)
Full Load
18.08
14.90
Half Load
11.48
13.61
Quarter Load
12.00
10.95
Control
19.69
17.39
Impregnated monomer to wood results changes of wood structure. Those are increasing of crystalline volume and decreasing of wood flexibility. The treatment effect of mass and volume however impregnated wood is stronger. 326 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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CONCLUSION
•
•
Impregnation process resulting in a decrease of crystallinity of wood and preferred orientation, resulting in more stable wood because there is still an empty space so that the volume of timber still have flexibility and not rigid. Impregnation process resulting in the microfibril angle (MFA) small increases. Reduced MFA, will improve the properties of wood that is low shrinkage and high strength values.
REFERENCES Hadiyane A. 2010. The Change Of Dimensional Stability and Chemical Component of wood due to Densification Partially. Journal Wana Mukti Forestry 11 (1) ; 69 – 76. Helsen, L, et al. 2006. Tanalith E 3494 Impregnated Wood: Characterisation and Thermal Behavior. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 78; 133 – 139. Jani. SM. 2007. Rubberwood-Polymer Composites: The Effect Of Chemical Impregnation On The Mechanical and Physical Properties. Malaysian Polymer Journal 2 (2) ; 1 – 11. Rashmi R, et. al. 2002. Modifikasi Kimia Kayu Karet dengan Menggunakan Kombinasi Styrene dengan Menggunakan Kombinasi Styrene dan Crosslinker : Efek Stabilitas Dimensi dan Kekuatan. Departemen Ilmu Kimia. Universitas Tezpur. India. Yildiz. U Mit C, et. al. 2004. Mechanical Properties and Decay Resistance of Wood . Polymer Composites Prepared from Fast Growing Species in Turkey. Department of Forest Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Forestry, Karadeniz Technical University. Turkey
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Bioactive Extracts from Neutrals of Teakwood (Tectona grandis L.f.) Ganis Lukmandaru Department of Forest Product Technology, Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University Email :
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Bioassay-guided investigation by brine shrimp lethality and termite activity tests from the heartwood of teak (Tectona grandis) led to the fractionation of n-hexane soluble extract. After the washing by alkaline solution and followed by saponification, the unsaponifiable, acidic and insoluble fractions were obtained. The unsaponifiable fraction was the major part and exhibited strong activity both against termites and brine shrimps. Repeated column chromatographic fractionations resulted to the isolation of tectoquinone, and other three compounds that exhibited various levels of activity in brine shrimp and termite tests. The correlation between brine shrimp lethality and termite activity test was also discussed. Keywords: Tectona grandis, extractives, brine shrimp lethality test, anti-termitic test, tectoquinone
Introduction Teak is a well-known and very good for general purpose timber. The wood has especially excellent properties in term of durability because of its extract compound. Some bioactive compounds are already isolated, particularly from quinone groups (Rudman and Gay 1961, Sandermann and Simatupang et al. 1966; Khan et al. 1999). However, natural durability of wood includes various factors. Not only quinones but also other compounds may be important in natural conditions. Finding of novel toxicants may be expected by application of more sensitive bioassays and investigations by advanced chemical technology. In this study, we will report the fractionation and isolation of some compounds from teak extracts with the aim of understanding of its chemical structure and its toxicity by bioassays (termite and brine shrimp). Another purpose was to evaluate the relation between brine shrimp lethality test and anti-termitic test.
Materials and method Extraction and Isolation Dried wood meal (1 kg ovendry weight) was refluxed 3 times with n-hexane, ethyl acetate (EtOAc), and methanol (MeOH) successively every 6 hours. Each resulting extract was filtered and concentrated in vacuo at about 45 0C to obtain dark crude residues. The n-hexane extract of 28 g was dissolved in 250 ml n-hexane moved to separatory funnel and partitioned against saturated NaHCO3, followed by 10 % Na2CO3, and 1% NaOH, successively (3 times, 250 ml each). As the results, acidic (aqueous layer) and and neutral fractions (n-hexane 328 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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layer) were obtained, respectively. Saponification was applied to the neutral fraction in order to obtain genuine neutral compounds. The neutral fraction of 25 g was dissolved in 500 ml of 1.3 % ethanolic KOH and refluxed for 90 minutes. After washing with water, acidification and n-hexane extraction, the dark substance was obtained as an acidic from neutrals or acidic II fraction. The insoluble part was formed between n-hexane – aqueous layer. The dark blue substance as insoluble fraction (acidic III) in considerable amount and the major brown substance as genuine neutral or unsaponifiable fraction were obtained, respectively. The respective yields of acidic II, insoluble, and unsaponifiable parts were 4.6 %, 25.4 %, and 56.9 % on the basis of n-hexane extract. Total recovery in this experiment was 25.2 g or 91.1 (%) of the applied sample. From unsaponifiable fraction, after repeated silica gel column chromatographic separations, four isolated components were obtained using n-hexane, benzene, and EtOAc as eluents. The scheme of separation is summarized in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Separation scheme of n- hexane extract Identification of compounds Compounds were identified by comparing their mass spectra with literature’s data and the injection of standards (tectoquinone, β-sitosterol, fatty acids, squalene). GC-MS (JEOL XS mass spectrometry at 70eV) was used for gas chromatographic separations. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Bioassays Brine shrimp lethality test (BSLT) BSLT was conducted according to the method described by Ohira and Yatagai (1984) with some modifications. The concentration of 200, 20 and 2 ppm was applied in 3 replications. Vials added by dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) only were used as a control. Data were analyzed by probit analysis with Minitab ver. 13 computer program to calculate the concentration of the extract or fractions that would kill 50% (LC50) at 95 % confidence interval. Anti-termitic test No choice antifeedant bioassay test was carried out in this research. A petri dish (diameter 9 cm, height 2 cm) containing 20 g moistened and sterilized sea sand was used as a container test. Paper discs (diameter 8 mm; Whatmann International) were impregnated with chloroform solution containing each of the test fractions. The treatment retention was 5 % (w/w) per disc and 5 duplicates were applied for each sample. Fifty worker Reticulitermes speratus Kolbe termites were introduced into the petri dish. After 10 days the disc were taken out, dried and the weight loss was determined. To measure the termiticidal activity, the number of dead termites was also calculated.
Results and discussion To find out bioactive compounds, the extracts obtained from successive extraction were tested by brine shrimp and termite tests as described before. The result is shown in the Table 1. EtOAc and n-hexane extracts exhibited a good level of activity against brine shrimps while MeOH extract did not show some activities in both methods, because its LC50 values and weight loss were close to those of the controls. All extracts revealed a low mortality number in termicidal test, and showed little difference of mortality among those extracts. As the n-hexane extract exhibited strong activity against brine shrimps and termites, as well as considerable yield, this fraction was used for further experiment. Table 1. LC50 of brine shrimp, weight loss and mortality number due to termite exposure of teak extractives Tested materials n-hexane extract Ethyl acetate extract Methanol extract Control
LC50 (ppm) 6.71 6.60 > 200 > 200
Weight loss (mg) 8.37 5.39 21.32 20.62
Mortality number 5 8 6 1
The fractionation of n-hexane by alkaline solution followed by saponification of neutral part yielded 4 fractions. Unsaponifiable fraction showed the major amount of n-hexane extract. The bioactivity of those fractions as shown in the Table 2: Table 2. LC50 of brine shrimp, weight loss and mortality number due to termite exposure Tested materials Unsaponifiable Insoluble Acidic II Control
LC50 (ppm)
Weight loss (mg)
Mortality number
6.77 5.32 > 200 > 200
8.34 6.51 15.64 21.32
4 12 6 1
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Unsaponifiable and insoluble fractions exhibited a good level of activity in BSLT. All fractions showed antifeedant activities. The insoluble fraction among those showed the stronger activity than the others. Unsaponifiable fraction did not show strong toxicity in termicidal test but still gave a strong activity in the antifeedant test. Insoluble fraction was the most active fraction as shown by a weight loss and mortality number. A good correlation between BSLT and antifeedant activity result was found. However, the correlation between weight loss and mortality number of termites is not so clear. The unsaponifiable fraction was used for further investigation because it occupied majority in n-hexane extractives and showed good level of activity in both bioassays. Gas chromatogram of the unsaponifiable fraction is displayed in Fig. 2. The major component of this fraction was squalene (detected at about 40 minutes), which belong to triterpene group. The chromatographic separations of unsaponifiable fraction resulted compound 1 (molecular weight 414), compound 2 or tectoquinone (molecular weight 222), compound 3 (molecular weight 270) and compound 4 (molecular weight 256). On the basis of fragmentation pattern of the mass spectrum as well as TLC analysis, it was indicated that compound 1, 3 and 4 are sterols or terpenes. The results of bioassays of those compounds are given in Table 3.
Fig. 2. Gas chromatogram of unsaponifiable fraction of n-hexane soluble extract from teak heartwood. The number of the peaks referred to the isolated compounds in Fig. 1. Table 3. LC50 of brine shrimp, weight loss and mortality number due to termite exposure Tested materials Compound 1 Tectoquinone Compound 3 Compound 4 Control
LC50 (ppm) > 200 11.8 > 200 > 200 > 200
Weight loss (mg) 14.02 0.72 21.32 14.24 21.59
Mortality number 8 36 6 16 9
Tectoquinone was the most active in both antifeedancy and termiticidal tests. This finding confirms the activity of quinone derivatives of which concluded by Sandermann and Simatupang (1966). Tectoquinone, showed a high activity to the brine shrimps. Despite the fact that squalene is the most abundant compound in unsaponifiables, the role of this compound in mediation of natural durability remains poorly understood. It is generally known that squalene is a natural anti-oxidant. Yamamoto et al. (1998) suggested that anti-oxidants are necessary to provide long-life durability in the teak sample. One of the possibilities is synergistic mechanism as proposed by Schultz and The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Nicholas (2000) who found the combination of a commercial antioxidant and biocide showed an increase in efficacy compared to the organic biocide alone. Therefore, further studies should be undertaken to explore the role of squalene in mediation of termite resistance. As inexpensive, easy, and time-saving method, the use of brine shrimp in this study deserved an attention. BSLT have been introduced in various bioassay systems as the analysis of allelophaty or medicinal purposes (Ohira and Yatagai 1984). The present finding showed a good correlation between termite antifeedant activity and BSLT in the fraction stage. With regard to the isolated compounds, theoretically, the result trend of BSLT is expected to show a good correlation to those of termiticidal activities. However, the lower toxicity of the isolated compounds in BSLT was found as mentioned before. It may due to insufficient solubility in artificial sea water and/or DMSO solution. Thus, it can be suggested that BSLT can be used to monitor the toxicity of fractions in teak wood extractives, but it may be more preferable in more polar fractions which dissolved in water.
Conclusions
1. Less polar fractions of teak heartwood extractives exhibited strong activities against brine shrimps and termites. 2. Genuine neutral or unsaponifiable fraction was the major part of n-hexane soluble extract. 3. Tectoquinone showed a strong activity level against termites and brine shrimps. 4. BSLT showed a good correlation with termite antifeedant and termiticidal test in a screening test and maybe useful as monitors of bioactivity.
References Khan, R.M., Mlungwana, S.M. 1999. 5-hydroxylapachol : A Cytotoxic Agent from Tectona grandis. Phytochemistry 50 : 439-442. Ohira, T., Yatagai, M. 1984. Allelophatic Compounds Produced by Forest Plants II. Mokuzai gakkaishi 40 : 541-548. Rudman, P., Gay, F.J. 1961. The Causes Natural Durability in Timber part VI. Measurement of Antitermite Properties of Anthraquinones from Tectona grandis L.f. by Rapid Semi-micro Method. Holzforschung 15 : 117-120. Sandermann, W., Simatupang, M.H. 1966. On the Chemistry and Biochemistry of Teakwood (Tectona grandis L. fil). Holz Roh-Werkst. 24: 190-204. Schultz, T.P., Nicholas, D.D. 2000. Naturally Durable Heartwood : Evidence for a Proposed Dual Defensive Function of the Extractives. Phytochemistry 54 : 44-52. Yamamoto, K., Simatupang, M.H., Hashim, R. 1998. Caoutchouc in teak wood (Tectona grandis L f): formation, location, influence on sunlight irradiation, hydrophobicity and decay resistance. Holz Roh-Werkst. 56:201-209.
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Exploring Characteristics of Pulp Fibers as Green Potential Polymer Reinforcing Agents Nanang Masruchin and Subyakto UPT Balai Litbang Biomaterial, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jl. Raya Bogor KM 46 Cibinong 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Three kinds of pulp fiber (i.e kenaf, pineapple and coconut fiber) were characterized as reinforcing agents in composite materials to be applied at automotive interior industry. A better understanding on characteristics of fiber will lead to enhance interface adhesion between fiber and matrices. Furthermore, it will improve the properties of polymer significantly. Chemical, surface compositions as well as morphology of pulp fiber were investigated using TAPPI standard test method, FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) and optical microscopy, respectively. Further observation on morphology of the fiber was conducted by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). From this study, pineapple pulps showed the highest α-cellulose content than that of kenaf or coconut pulps. However, it has the lowest hemicellulose content among them. This condition takes responsibility for the difficulties of pineapple pulps defibrillation process. Much fines or external fibrillations are presence on both kenaf and pineapple pulp’s morphology, but it is not presence in the coconut pulps. Moreover, coconut fiber is shorter than the other two fibers with diameter size estimated in the order pineapple < kenaf < coconut pulps. FTIR analysis shown quite similar absorption from all pulps, except for coconut pulps due to the remaining lignin on the surface of fiber that showed by the presence of C-O phenol stretching at 1280 cm-1. Finally, it is reported that kenaf pulps fiber is suitable candidate for polymer reinforcing agents compared to pineapple and coconut pulps fiber. Keywords: pulp fibers, cellulose, characteristics, interface, composite
INTRODUCTION Recently, global warming concern and environmental awareness force the manufacturing of green or eco-friendly technology. European Union legislation implemented in 2006 has expedited recent natural-fiber-reinforced plastic automotive insertion; by 2006, 80% of a vehicle must be reused or recycled and by 2015 it must be 85%. Japan requires 88% of a vehicle to be recovered (which includes incineration of some components) by 2005, rising to 95% by 2015. As a result, today most automakers are evaluating the environmental impact of a vehicle’s entire lifecycle, from raw materials to manufacturing to disposal [Holbery et al. 2006]. Consideration of lightweight material, low cost natural fibers offers the potential to replace a large segment of the glass and mineral fillers in numerous automotive interior and exterior parts. Moreover, by replacing the fillers with the renewable fibers, not only reduce the mass of the component but also lower the energy needed for production by 80% [Malkapuram et al. 2009].
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Introducing natural fibers into polymer composites has several drawbacks due to incompatibility with the hydrophobic polymer matrix, the tendency to form aggregates during processing, poor resistance to moisture and low thermal stability greatly reduces the potential of natural fibers to be used as reinforcement in polymers [Saheb et al.1999]. Therefore, understanding the interface between matrix and filler is important, as well as morphology, chemical composition, surface energy, thermal stability of the fibers will lead to better enhance adhesion resulting in improvement in strength and impact properties [Jacob et al. 2005, Bledzki et al. 2006, John et al. 2008]. Saputra et al. [2004] studied the effect of extractives in wood flour on the mechanical properties of woodpolypropylene (PP) composites. Effect of lignin on the heat and light resistance of lignocellulosic fibers was studied by Reddy et al. [2007]. It is reported that existence of lignin in lignocellulosic fibers increases the loss in breaking tenacity and elongation of kenaf fibers when they are exposed to heat and light. Therefore, the delignified fibers have higher resistance to heat and light exposure compared to the untreated fibers. The influence of hemicelullose as a part of major component in lignocellulosic material is attracting study in the utilization of natural fibers [Iwamoto et al. 2008, Gumuskaya et al. 2007]. The objective of this study is to elaborate the morphology, chemical composition of three non wood fibers as polymer reinforcing agents. This study is important because deeply exploring to the potential filler will provide guidance for economically commercialization of natural fiber polymer composites. Coconut, pineapple and kenaf fibers are converted into pulps to obtain higher surface area, better mechanical properties and removing impurities. Chemical compositions of pulps were determined using TAPPI test standard, and briefly FTIR analysis, whereas, the morphology of pulps were characterized using optical and SEM analysis. It is reported that kenaf pulps fiber is suitable candidate for polymer reinforcing agents compared to pineapple and coconut pulps fiber.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Three kinds of non wood fiber were subjected in this study. Coconut fibers and Pineapple fibers were collected from local industry in Sukabumi and Subang, respectively. While, Kenaf bast fibers was collected from PT. Abadi Barindo Autotech (ABA), Pasuruan. A lot of varies in size, quality and species were limited to the utilization of natural fibers into polymer composites due to resulting in different mechanical properties [John et al. 2008]. Therefore, all fibers were obtained as received and processed into pulp fibers to obtain homogenous size (diameter and shape) among the fibers. Converted bulk fibers into pulp fibers also resulted in a flexible fibers due to the plastic deformations during mechanical refining process [Hamad et al. 1997], higher mechanical properties [Page et al. 1971], and also higher thermal stability due to the removal of non cellulosic compound [Mothe et al. 2009], which were all filler requirement for reinforcing agents in polymer composites. Pulping Process Methods, cooking conditions and temperature for pulping process were shown in Table 1. Dried fibers were cut into 3-5 cm long. Kenaf and pineapple fibers were processed using soda process, while coconut fibers were processed in kraft pulping method. This method was chosen to obtain higher yield of pulping process and due to the higher lignin content especially for coconut fibers [John et al. 2008]. After pulping process, the fibers were fibrillated using disc refiner in 8 cycles for each pulp. Pulps were then filtered and formed it into sheet and then were dried in an oven at 75oC for three days. Dried pulps were subjected to next characterization 334 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Table 1. Conditions of pulping processes Fiber
Methods
Coconut
Kraft
Cooking conditions Active alkali, 18%
Temperature 1.5 hours to reach 165oC, then was kept at 165oC for 2.5 hours
Sulfidity 30% Liquor:raw material = 4:1 Kenaf
Soda
Active alkali, 17% Liquor:raw material = 4:1
Pineapple
Soda
Active alkali, 10% Liquor:raw material = 4:1
1.5 hours to reach 170oC, then was kept at 170oC for 1.5 hours 2 hours to reach 160oC, then was kept at 160oC for 1.5 hours
Determination of Chemical Composition of Pulps Chemical compositions of three pulp samples were determined using TAPPI test standard. In Table 2, it is presented kind of carbohydrate component contents and the standard methods that we used. Table 2. Chemical components standard testing methods Carbohydrates components
Standard methods
Extractives
TAPPI TM T204 OS76
Klason lignin
TAPPI TM T222 OM88
Hemicellulose
TAPPI TM T223M
α-Cellulose
TAPPI TM T203 OM88
FTIR Analysis The powder of pulp samples obtained was used for FTIR spectroscopy measurements. The dried pulp samples were embedded in KBr pellets, and were analyzed by using a Bruker Tensor 37. They were recorded in the absorption mode in the range 4000 – 400 cm-1 with an accumulation of 32 scans, resolution of 4 cm-1. Morphology Structure Analysis Morphology of pulp samples were characterized using Optical Microscopy NIKON Eclipse 80i. Pulp’s diameter was determined from captured picture obtained from optical microscopy using software Motic Images Plus 2.0. Further analysis on morphology with high magnification was perfomed by SEM JEOL JSM 5310 LV. Pulp samples was mounted on stub and coating with gold using a sputter canter and then scanning was running at 20kV voltage.
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS Chemical Composition of Pulps Carbohydrate components from each pulp were presented in Figure 1. The plant cell wall is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, and extractives. Thus, the surface energy of the plant material must be some combination of the surface energies (γ) of these components [Liu et al. 1998]. The surface energy of fibers takes a lot responsible for the adhesion mechanism between reinforcing agents and polymer [Heng et al. 2007]. Therefore, quantitative amount of these components especially in the surface of fibers will influence the properties of the fiber in composites. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Extractives component from three pulps are approximately between 0.5-1.2%, as can be seen in Figure 1a. Compared to the other components, it is shown that the amount of extractive is quite low. Alkali solution during pulping process removes this component from the fibers. Plant extractives are hydrophobic substances with low molecular weights. Since most thermoplastics are processed at high temperatures, around 170-190oC, (i.e. mixing, injection moulding, extrusion), the thermal stability of the fibers at processing temperatures is important. At such high temperatures, plant extractives may tend to migrate to the fibers surface, thus accumulating in the interphase layer and decrease the adhesion mechanism [Saputra et al. 2004]. Kenaf pulps show the lowest extractives content compared to the other two pulps. Liu et al. [1998] explained that removing most extractives from the wood fiber, resulting in an increased dispersive component of the surface energy (γd), increased acidity, and increased basicity, whereas, acidity and basicity will take responsible in the adhesion mechanism between fiber and polymer [Hull, 1981, Heng et al. 2007].
Figure 1. Chemical compositions (%) of three pulp fibers. (a) Extractives, (b) Lignin, (c) Hemicellulose and (d) Cellulose Lignin content of pulp samples are presented in Figure 1b. It is shown that coconut pulps show the highest lignin content compared to the other two pulps, as well as expected. It is proofed that lignin still remain on the surface of coconut pulps. Reddy et.al. [2007] explained that the existence of lignin in lignocellulosic fibers increases the loss in strength and elongation of fibers when they are exposed to heat and light. Fibers with high strain to failure may be useful in the context of a composite material, particularly for enhancing toughness of a natural fibre based material [Bakri et al. 2010]. Besides that the lignin content will influence the thermal stability of the fibers, i.e. with the highest lignin content, therefore, it is predicted that coconut fibers will lead the lowest thermal stability during processing in high temperature. 336 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Hemicellulose was the second major component of pulps fiber. Interestingly, from Figure 1c, it can be seen that the percentage of hemicellulose of pineapple pulps fiber was the lowest content, which is only 0.24%. During the mechanical fibrillation, it was very difficult to defibrillate the pineapple pulps. Although in this research, we did not measure the energy require for defibrilation process, it could be noted that the energy needed to process pineapple was higher than the other two pulps. It is reported that the hemicellulose most responsible for the swelling or increase in the plasticity of cellulose. Since pineapple pulp fibers had low hemicellulose contents, this situation could affect swelling, defibrillation and beating of pulp obtained from pineapple fibers [Gumuskaya et al. 2007]. In addition, it is noted that compared with the fibers of extremely low hemicellulose content, an increase in hemicellulose content leads to increased pulp fiber strength. It suggests that this is due to improved stress transfer between cellulose crystallites in the presence of amorphous hemicellulose [Henriksson et al. 2008]. Furthermore, according to research from Iwamoto et al. [2008] that producing nanocellulose from wood pulp, hemicelluloses could act as inhibitors of the coalescence of microfibrils during drying and facilitate the nanofibrillation of once-dried pulp. Therefore, high hemicellulose content was desired for easy handling of fibrillation process during preparation of fibers as reinforcing polymer. From Figure 1c, Kenaf pulps show the highest hemicellulose content. Cellulose was the major component of pulp fibers. From Figure 1d. It is shown that cellulose content of pineapple pulp fibers was the highest. The mechanical properties of the fiber are dependent on the cellulose content and microfibrillar angle (MFA) and the degree of polymerization. Fibers with higher cellulose content, higher degree of polymerization and a lower microfibrillar angle exhibit higher tensile strength and modulus [Jacob et al. 2005]. During processing of composites, pulp fibers were formed into dried-sheet. It will be added into melt polymer and mixed to obtain highly degree of dispersion filler in the matrix. Due to high cellulose content and very low hemicellulose content, pineapple pulp fibers sheet was very difficult to disperse in matrix. It caused by the very strong hydrogen bonding that caused agglomeration of pulp fibers [Iwamoto et al. 2008]. From the chemical component analysis of three pulps samples, it is shown that kenaf pulp fibers have higher cellulose and hemicellulose content, hovewer, it has the lower lignin and extractives content. Therefore, it is suitable to be applied as reinforcing in polymer composites. Infra-red Spectra The IR spectra show the composition of the pulp samples, the absorption spectrum on the infrared region of the three pulp samples can be observed in the Figure 2 and Table 3. The main characteristics are attributed to the presence of lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose. In general, the IR spectra for the native and the chemically modified fibers are representative in the 3,000–3,600 cm-1 range. The large band is attributed to the axial deformation of the O–H group. At 3,000–2800 cm-1 band is related to the axial deformation of C–H group, while the one at 1,630 cm-1 is related to the C=C stretching vibrations [Tserki et al. 2005a]. The methoxyl group gives signal at 1,430 cm-1, while the band at 1,058 cm-1 is associated to the presence of C–O–C in cellulose chain. The absorption spectrum for three pulp samples presents some structural similarities, except for the coconut pulps. Absorption at band 1280 cm-1 that only present in coconut pulp samples is representative of C-O phenol stretching, which is the lignin constituent still remain on the surface of fibers after pulping process. Some of reactive functional group of lignocellulosic fiber is sensitive to chemical treatment, such as esterification, acetylation, propionylation and another functionalization. These treatments are needed to improve thermal, mechanical dan compatibility of fiber during filler reinforcement in The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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polymer. The highest extent of the esterification reaction was achieved for the plant fibres due to their high lignin or hemicelluloses content in the fibers [Tserki et al. 2005b].
Figure 2. Infra-red spectra of three pulps fiber. Table 3. Functional groups of infra red spectroscopy of three pulps fiber Wave number (cm-1) [Yang, 2007]
Coconut Pulp
Kenaf Pulp
Pineapple Pulp
Functional groups
3600 – 3000
3428
3415
3402
OH-stretching
Acid, methanol
2860 – 2970
2920
2901
2904
C-Hn stretching
Aliphatic
1700 – 1730, 1510 – 1560
1560
-
-
C=O stretching
Ketone and carbonyl
Compounds
1632
1635
1643
1629
C=C
Benzene stretching range
1470 – 1430
1425
1431
1429
O-CH3
Methoxyl-O-CH3
1215
1280
-
-
C-O stretching
Phenol
1164, 1058
1058
1059
C-O-C stretching
Pyranose ring skeletal
896
896
897
C-H
Aromatic hydrogen
1170, 1082 700-900
Morphology Structure a
b
c
Figure 3. Optical microscopy images of three pulps fiber at 10X magnification. (a) Coconut (b) Kenaf and (c) Pineapple pulps Morphology study of three pulp fibers was analysed using optical and scanning electron microscopy. The images can be seen in Figure 3. and Figure 4., respectively. Coconut pulp fibers have diameter ranging from 20 to 27 μm, kenaf pulps have diameter ranging from 10 to 20 μm and pineapple pulp fibers have the lowest diameter ranging from 3 to 7 μm. From images analyze, it shown that coconut pulp fibers have short length compared to the other two pulps (see Figure 338 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Exploring Characteristics of Pulp Fibers as Green Potential Polymer Reinforcing Agents |
3a). Kenaf pulps shown to fracture/break due to mechanical refining which fatigue loading involve to the fibers (see Figure 3b). Much fines and external fibrillation occur on the surface of kenaf dan pineapple pulps. However, it did not occur in the case of coconut pulps. These finding using optical microscopy was supported with the images resulted from SEM (see Figure 4a, b and c). a
b
c
Figure 4. SEM image of three pulps fiber. (a) Coconut (b) Kenaf and (c) Pineapple pulps The differences of morphology, size, shape and surface roughness of fibers will influence the formation adhesion between filler and matrix polymer. The mechanical characteristics of a fiber-reinforced composite depend not only on the properties of the fiber, but also on the degree to which an applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase. Some critical fiber length (lc) is necessary for effective strengthening and stiffening of the composite material. Critical fiber length—dependence on fiber strength and diameter, and fiber-matrix bond strength/matrix shear yield strength (τc)─[Callister, 2007]. As fiber length (l) increases, the fiber reinforcement becomes more effective (l > lc), as well as the increase of aspect ratio (l/d) of the fibers. Besides that, according to the study of Lenes et al. [2006], it is clearly showed that a Polypropylene (PP) composite with fibrillated fibres induce a high degree of transcrystallisation of PP. Therefore, fibrillated pulp will be desired since it acts as nucleating sites of thermoplastic polymer during crystallization.
CONCLUSIONS Pulping process of three non wood fibers was conducted to obtain homogeneous dimension and large surface area of fibers. These fibers were characterized as polymer reinforcing agents. From this study, it is shown that pineapple pulps have the lowest hemicellulose content which is responsible to the difficulties of fibrillation process. FTIR study supported that coconut pulps have the highest lignin content, which kenaf pulps have the moderate chemical constituents. Optical and SEM analysis shown that both kenaf and pineapple pulps were fibrillated. However, it did not occur on the surface of coconut pulps. The diameter of pulps ranging from 3 to 30 μm which coconut pulps fiber has the highest diameter and the shortest in length. It can be concluded that kenaf pulps fiber were the best candidate for polymer reinforcing agents, taking easier processing of pulps fiber as consideration. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that surface energy, chemical composition, crystal morphology and moisture content are of importance to the nucleation of thermoplastic polymer. Therefore, the study of crystal structure of these pulps fiber will be our next topic research to explore the properties of natural fibers as reinforcing agents in polymer.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wish to thank to Mr. Wawan Kartiwa Haroen, Researcher at Balai Besar Pulp dan Kertas, Bandung; Lucky Risanto, S.Si; Widya Fatriasari, S.Hut, MM and Teguh Darmawan, ST for kindly discussion and help. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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REFFERENCES Bakri B, Eichhorn SJ, 2010, Elastic coils: deformation micromechanics of coir and celery fibres, Cellulose, 17: 1-11 Bledzki AK, Faruk O, Sperber VE, 2006, Cars from Bio-Fibres, Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 291: 449–457 Callister WD, 2007, Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction, edisi ke-7 tahun 2007, John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA, page: 585 Gumuskaya E, Usta M, Balaban M, 2007, Carbohydrate components and crystalline structure of organosolv hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) bast fibers pulp, Bioresource Technology, 98: 491–497 Hamad WY, 1997, Some microrheological aspects of woodpulp fibres subjected to fatigue loading, Cellulose 4: 51-56 Heng JYY, Pearse DF, Thielmann F, Lampke T, Bismarck A, 2007, Methods to determine surface energies of natural fibres: a review, Composite Interfaces, 14: 581–604 Henriksson M, Berglund LA, Isaksson P, Lindstrom T, Nishino T, 2008, Cellulose Nanopaper Structures of High Toughness, Biomacromolecules 9: 1579–1585 Holbery J, Houston D, 2006, Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites in Automotive Applications, Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 58(11): 80-86 Hull D, 1981, An introduction to composite materials, In: Fibre-matrix interface, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, page: 36-42 Iwamoto S, Abe K, Yano H, 2008, The Effect of Hemicelluloses on Wood Pulp Nanofibrillation and Nanofiber Network Characteristics, Biomacromolecules 9: 1022–1026 Jacob M, Joseph S, Pothan LA, Thomas S, 2005, A study of advances in characterization of interfaces and fiber surfaces in lignocellulosic fiber-reinforced composites, Composite Interfaces, 12(1-2): 95–124 John MJ, Thomas S, 2008, Biofibres and biocomposites, Carbohydrate Polymers, 71: 343–364 Lenes M, Gregersen WO, 2006, Effect of surface chemistry and topography of sulphite fibres on the transcrystallinity of polypropylene, Cellulose, 13: 345 –355 Liu FP, Rials TG, 1998, Relationship of Wood Surface Energy to Surface Composition, Langmuir, 14: 536-541 Malkapuram R, Kumar V, Negi YS, 2009, Recent Development in Natural Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 28: 11691189 Mothe CG, de Miranda IC, 2009, Characterization of sugarcane and coconut fibers by thermal analysis and FTIR, Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetr, 97: 661-665. Page DH, El-Hosseiny F, Winkler K, 1971, Behaviour of single wood fibers under axial tensile strain, Nature, 229: 252-253. Reddy N, Salam A, Yang Y, 2007, Effect of Lignin on the Heat and Light Resistance of Lignocellulosic Fibers, Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 292: 458–466. Saheb DN, Jog JP, 1999, Natural Fiber Polymer Composites: A Review, Advances in Polymer Technology 18: 351–363. 340 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Saputra H, Simonsen J, Li K, 2004, Effect of extractives on the flexural properties of wood/plastic composites, Composite Interfaces 11(7): 515–524 Tserki V, Matzinosa P, Kokkoub S, Panayiotou C, 2005a, Novel biodegradable composites based on treated lignocellulosic waste flour as filler. Part I. Surface chemical modification and characterization of waste flour. Composites: Part A 36: 965-974 Tserki V, Zafeiropoulos NE, Simon F, Panayiotou C, 2005b, A study of the effect of acetylation and propionylation surface treatments on natural fibres, Composites: Part A 36: 1110–1118 Yang H, Yan R, Chen H, Lee DH, Zheng C, 2007, Characteristics of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin pyrolysis, Fuel 86: 1781–1788
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Laboratory Evaluation of Local Isolates of Entomopathogenic Fungi and Their Effect on Subterranean Termite Coptotermes sp. Deni Zulfiana, Anis Sri Lestari and Sulaeman Yusuf Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials (LIPI) Jl. Raya Bogor Km. 46 Cibinong, Bogor. Indonesia e-mail:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Laboratory evaluation of four local isolates of entomopathogenic fungi: Metarhizium anisopliae (INACC), M. anisopliae (BPTP), B. bassiana (INACC) and B. bassiana (BPTP) and their effect on Coptotermes sp. was conducted. The four local isolates of entomopathogenic fungi have potential to be developed as biopesticides to control termites Coptotermes sp. All four isolates possessed high virulent and high growth performance. M. anisopliae (INACC) showed the highest pathogenic activity than other isolates that were able to cause 100% mortality within six days after the inoculation. Keywords: Entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, Coptotermes sp.
INTRODUCTION Indonesia’s diverse natural and environment conditions that contributed to its wealth of flora and fauna have also created a rich diversity of microbial genetic resources. Hence, there could be also good opportunities for encountering a large variety of entomopathogenic fungi like Metarhizium anispliae and Beauveria bassiana with possible high potentials for pest control in general and termite control in particular. Currently the control methods focus on using insecticides that lead to high cost and adverse effect to the environment. Insect-pathogenic fungi such as Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana show much promise as low environmental impact alternatives to chemical pesticides. Much effort has been invested in the development of strains for pest (Butt at al., 2001). Termites in Indonesia are still controlled with the use of several chemical insecticides. Hence, the identification of novel fungal isolates is being focused to improve termite control (Sun et al., 2003). Several factors must be addressed to improve the efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi, (i) virulence, (ii) physiological characteristics of the isolate like enzyme production, conidial viability, speed of germination, hyphal growth rate and conidia production and (iii) environmental factors that influence the response of the isolate (Samuels et al., 1989; Milner et al., 1991; Arthur et al., 1997). In this study, growth characteristics, pathogenicity and infection of four local isolates of entomopathogenic fungi were evaluated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Fungal Cultures Four fungi of entomopathogenic Hypomycetes were used in this study; Metarhizium anisopliae (INACC), Metarhizium anisopliae (BPTP), Beauveria bassiana (INACC) and Beauveria bassiana 342 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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(BPTP). All of fungi were obtained from Indonesian Culture Collection (INACC-LIPI), Cibinong and Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (BPTP), Yogyakarta. Growth performance of the Isolates on Different Culture Media Four types of culture media were tested, namely, Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) (Difco), Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) with 1% yeast extract (Difco), Czapex-Dox Agar and Czapex-Dox Agar with 1% yeast extract. A 0.1% Tetracycline Hydrochloride was added to all the media to prevent bacterial contamination. The media were inoculated using a 3 mm mycelia disc from a 7 day old culture. Five replicates were prepared for each media and the plates were incubated at room temperature (27±1°C) in a completely randomized design. Diameter of the colony was measured daily with an average of two readings at right angles for a period of 14 days. Data were subjected to analysis of variance using SAS software version 9.1. The experiment was repeated three times. Fermentation Process Colonical flask (300 ml) were charged with 50 ml autoclave Czapex-Dox (CD) liquid medium (KH2PO4, 0.5g/L; MgSO4.7H2O, 0.5 g/L; KCl, 0.5 g/L; CaCl2.2H2O, 0.1 g/L; and NaNO3, 3 g/L) containing of yeast extract as nitrogen sources (30 g/L). Each flasks was inoculated with Entomopathogen fungi that have already cultured on PDA media for 7 days were taken using cock borer (Ø 0.5 cm) as fungal inoculums. The flasks were incubated at 25 oC and 120 rpm on rotary shaker for eight days. Culture filtrates were harvested after inoculation for 8 days and filtered through Whatman filter paper and centrifuged (3000 g, 20 min). The crude filtrate was used for antitermitic test using spraying and force feeding method. Bioassay of Entomopatogenic Fungi Bioassay was carried out using contact method. Fifty workers of Coptotermes sp. were sprayed by 2 ml fungal culture filtered until moisten theirs surface skin. Termites were also sprayed by distilled water as control. Each treatment carried out in three replicates. Each test specimen of Coptotermes sp. was placed on filter paper in petri dish (Ø 5 cm) and kept at 25 ºC and humidity ± 95 % in the dark. The mortality rate of termites was observed during 14 days exposure.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Growth Performance of the Isolates Metarhizium anisopliae All four isolates: M. anisopliae (INACC), M. anisopliae (BPTP), B. bassiana (INACC) and B. bassiana (BPTP) showed different morphological structure on different culture media (Table 5). All isolates on different culture media produced round colonies. M. anisopliae (INACC) isolate produce sparse sporulation on PDAY compared to other culture media. Generally, PDA and CDAY showed significantly higher mean radial growth of 6.23 and 6.27 cm, respectively, compared to PDAY and CDA with growth of 5.15 and 5.17 cm, respectively (Table 1).
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Table 1. Effect of culture media on radial growth of M. anisopliae (INACC) after 14 days incubatio Culture media Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) Potato Dextrose Agar + 1% Yeast extract (PDAY) Czapex-Dox Agar (CDA) Czapex-Dox Agar + 1% Yeast extract (CDAY)
Mean radial growth (cm)* 6.23a 5.15b 5.17b 6.27a
*: M eans with same superscript are not significantly different at p= 0.05 by Duncan new multiple range test M. anisopliae (BPTP) isolate produce sparse sporulation on CDAY compared to other culture media. Generally, PDA and PDAY showed significantly higher mean radial growth of 5.55 and 5.52 cm, respectively, compared to CDA and CDAY with growth of 5.11 and 4.87 cm, respectively (Table 2). There were no significant difference in mean radial growth of M anisopliae (INACC) on PDA and CDAY. Isolate M. anisopliae (INACC) cultured on PDA and CDAY sporulated within 2 days post-inoculation, while it took 4 days post inoculation for the same isolate to sporulate on CDA. Isolate M. anisopliae (BPTP) sporulated within 3 days post-inoculation in all media. Table 2. Effect of culture media on radial growth of M. anisopliae (BPPT) after 14 days incubations Culture media
Mean radial growth (cm)*
Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) Potato Dextrose Agar + 1% Yeast extract (PDAY) Czapex-Dox Agar (CDA) Czapex-Dox Agar + 1% Yeast extract (CDAY)
5.55a 5.52a 5.11b 4.87c
*: Means with same superscript are not significantly different at p= 0.05 by Duncan new multiple range test Based on fungal radial growth, isolate M. anisopliae (INACC) showed higher radial growth than M. anisopliae (BPTP) isolate on CDAY media. Isolate M. anisopliae (INACC) also sporulated more rapidly than M. anisopliae (BPTP) in all media. Growth Performance of the Isolates Beauveria bassiana Radial growth of two Beauveria bassiana isolates differed significantly among isolates and type of basal medium used for culturing. B. bassiana (INACC) isolate showed the highest radial growth on CDAY but with sparse sporulation, compared to less radial growth but with thick conidia mats on PDAY. Generally, PDAY and CDAY showed significantly higher mean radial growth of 4.97 and 4.98 cm, respectively, compared to PDA and CDA with growth of 4.88 and 4.98 cm, respectively (Table 3). Table 3. Effect of culture media on radial growth of B. bassiana (INACC) after 14 days incubation Culture media
Mean radial growth (cm)*
Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) Potato Dextrose Agar + 1% Yeast extract (PDAY) Czapex-Dox Agar (CDA) Czapex-Dox Agar + 1% Yeast extract (CDAY)
4.88a 4.97b 4.90a 4.98b
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*: Means with same superscript are not significantly different at p= 0.05 by Duncan new multiple range test B. bassiana (INACC) isolate produce sparse sporulation on CDA compared to other culture media. Generally, PDA and CDAY showed significantly higher mean radial growth of 6.33 and 6.34 cm, respectively, compared to PDAY and CDA with growth of 5.88 and 5.37 cm, respectively (Table 4). There were no significant difference in mean radial growth of B. bassiana on PDA and CDAY. Isolate B. bassiana (INACC) sporulated within 4 days post-inoculation in all media. Isolate B. bassiana (BPTP) cultured on PDA and CDAY sporulated within 2 days post-inoculation, while it took 3 days post-inoculation for same isolate to sporulated on PDAY and CDA. Table 4. Effect of culture media on radial growth of B. bassiana (BPTP) after 14 days incubation Culture media
Mean radial growth (cm)*
Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) Potato Dextrose Agar + 1% Yeast extract (PDAY) Czapex-Dox Agar (CDA) Czapex-Dox Agar + 1% Yeast extract (CDAY)
6.33a 5.88b 5.37c 6.34a
*: Means with same superscript are not significantly different at p= 0.05 by Duncan new multiple range test Based on fungal radial growth, isolate B. bassiana (BPTP) showed higher radial growth than B. bassiana (INACC) isolate on CDAY media. Isolate B. bassiana (BPTP) also sporulated more rapidly than B. bassiana (INACC) in all media. Some strain of M. anispliae and B. bassiana have been reported to produce high to maximum conidial yield on CDAY media which had a C/N ratio equivalent of 35:1. Conversely, it had also been reported that several isolates of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana were able to produce maximum yield of conidia on PDA a low C/N ratio equivalent medium of 10:1 (Savafi et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2005; Wyss et al., 2001). Some isolates of entomopathogens like M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and Paecilomyces fumososeus cultured in liquid medium with low C/N ratio of 10:1 also resulted in maximum sporulation (Vega et al., 2003). In this study, the addition of yeast extract into PDA and CDA media increased the amount of nitrogen in the media which cause increased sporulation of M. anisopliae (INACC) and B. bassiana (BPTP). Nitrates and nitrites produce intermediate growth, but calcium nitrate results in greater sporulation. The supply of carbon source is (i) for synthesis of critical constituents such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, (ii) as a source of energy for proper functioning of the essential life processes of fungi, (iii) for vegetative growth and (iv) for promoting growth of fungi (Garraway and Evans, 1984). Virulence of the Isolates on Coptotermes sp. The four local isolates M. anisopliae (INACC), M. anisopliae (BPTP), B. bassiana (INACC) and B. bassiana (BPTP) of entomopathogenic fungi have potential to be developed as biopesticides to control termites Coptotermes sp. All four isolates possessed high virulent and high growth performance.
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The M. anisopliae (INACC), M. anisopliae (BPTP), B. bassiana (INACC) and B. bassiana (BPTP) isolates were pathogenic to Coptotermes sp. and caused a 100% mortality 6 days after the inoculation for isolate M. Anisopliae (INACC) and 10 days post inoculation for isolates M. anisopliae (BPTP). Meanwhile, B. bassiana (INACC) and B. bassiana (BPTP) isolates caused a 95% and 90% mortality after 12 days post-inoculation, respectively (Fig. 1). All the four isolates did not cause any mortality in the treated termites during the first five days after the inoculation although the termites were very weak and hardly moving that is caused by fungal invasion of termite body. Based on the electron microscopy (SEM) observation, fungal mycelium has been observed to invade into the termite body. The majority of the observed myselium and conidia were on the insect head, but some conidia were also observed on the thoracic or abdominal segments. The whole body was covered by M. anisopliae conidia within 4 days after the inoculation. The M. anisopliae mycelial extrusion was very intense 4 days (between 2 to 6 days) after inoculation, resulting in a process of cuticle degradation along the whole body of the termite (Zulfiana et al,. 2010).
Figure 1. Mortality of Coptotermes sp. were treated with the different isolates of entomopathogenic fungi
CONCLUSIONS The four local isolates M. anisopliae (INACC), M. anisopliae (BPTP), B. bassiana (INACC) and B. bassiana (BPTP) of entomopathogenic fungi have potential to be developed as biopesticides to control termites Coptotermes sp. All four isolates possessed high virulent and high growth performance. M. anisopliae (INACC) showed the highest pathogenic activity than other isolates that were able to cause 100% mortality within six days after the inoculation. However, more works are needed to test methods of application before this fungus can be commercialized.
REFERENCES Arthur, S. And M. Thomas, 2001. Effects of temperature and relative humidity on sporulation of M. Anisopliae var acridum in mycosed cadavers of Schistocerca gregaria. J. Invertebr. Pathol., 78: 59-65. Butt, T.M., Jackson, C., Magan, N., 2001. Introduction-fungal biocontrol agents; progress, problems and potential. In: Butt, T.m.., Jackson, C., Magan, N. (Eds.), Fungi as Biocontrol Agents: Progress, problems and Potential. CABI International, pp. 1-8. 346 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Garraway, M.O. and R.C. Evans, 1984. Fungal Nutrition and physiology. 1st Edn., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., USA., ISBN: 13:978-0894646317, pp: 412. Liu, S.D., S.C. Lin and J.F.Shiau. 1989. Microbial control of coconut leaf beetle (Brontispa longissima) with green muscardine fungus, M. anisopliae. J. Invertebr. Pathol., 53: 307-314. Milner, R.J., J.A. Staples and G.G. Lutton, 1997. The effect of humidity of germination and infection of termites by the hypomycete, M. anisopliae. J. Invertebr. Pathol., 69: 64-69. Safavi, S.A., F.A. Shah, A.K.Pakdel, G.R. Rasoulian, A.R. Bandani and T.M. Butt, 2007. Effect of nutrition on growth and virulence of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 207:116-123. Samuels, K.D., J.B. Heale and M. Llewellyn, 1989. Characteristics relation to the pathogenicity of M. anisopliae toward Nilaparvata lugens. J. Invertebr. Pathol., 53: 25-31. Shah, F.A., C.S. Wang and T.M. Butt, 2005. Nutrotion influences growth and virulence of the insectpathogenic fungus M. anisopliae. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 251: 259-266. Vega, F.E., M.A. Jackson, G. Mercadier and T.J. Poprawski, 2003. The impact of nutrition on conidia yields for various fungal entomopathogens in liquid culture. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 19: 363-368. Wyss, G.S., R. Charudattan and J.T. deValerio, 2001. Evaluation of agar and grain media for mass production of conidia of Dactylaria higginsii. Plant Dis., 85: 1165-1170. Zulfiana, D., D. Tarmadi, M. Ismiyati and S. Yusuf. 2010. Pathogenicity of M. anisopliae to subterranean termites Coptotermes sp. Proceedings of The Seventh Conference of The Pacific-Rim Termite Research Group, 5: 6-11.
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Pretreatment of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) using Microwave Irradiation Sita Heris Anita1, Lucky Risanto, Euis Hermiati, and Widya Fatriasari R & D Unit for Biomaterials-LIPI, Jl. Raya Bogor Km. 46 Cibinong, Bogor. 1 Email:
[email protected];
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Lignocellulosic biomass is a promising alternative for bioethanol production. However, the conversion of its structural polysaccharides into simple sugar is highly problematic due to the recalcitrancy of lignin. Pretreatment lignocellulosic biomass is the most important step to remove lignin. Pretreatment is also required to alter the structure of cellulosic biomass to make more accessible to the enzyme that convert the carbohydrate polymer into fermentable sugars. There are several ways to increase the digestible cellulose before it is exposed to the enzyme: mechanical, physical, physico- chemical, chemical, biological pretreatment, as well as the combination of these methods. One of the physico-chemical methods is pretreatment using microwave irradiation. Objective of this research was to evaluate the potential of different acid catalyst (organic and anorganic) on water-glycerol media for microwave pretreatment of OPEFB. The OPEFB (40—60 mesh) were placed in cylindrical vessel then added liquid mixture of water-glycerol (solid to liquid ratio of 1:10) and organic (oxalic acid/ H2C2O4) or anorganic (sulphuric acid/ H2SO4) catalyst (1%), so that the ratio solid to liquid became 1: 20. Each pretreatment was exposed to microwave radiation on power level 50 and 70 % at 5—15 minutes. The highest sugar yield (29.15 %) with saccharification level (61.24 %) was obtained at power level 50 % for 15 min with anorganic acid (H2SO4) as catalyst. Keywords: pretreatment, oil palm empty fruit bunch, irradiation, microwave.
INTRODUCTION Lignocellulosic biomass is considered as the most abundant renewable resources available for ethanol production. The ethanol development from lignocellulosic biomass like oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) is one of alternative energy that has to be applied in Indonesia. OPEFB is a potential resource for ethanol production, since it is renewable and readily available (Hon & Joseph 2010). It is estimated that Indonesia produces about 18.5 million ton palm oil biomass, that include trunks, fronds, and OPEFB. Production OPEFB in Indonesia is about 12.9 million ton/ years (Argasetya 2011). OPEFB, a fibrous material comprising lignocellulose (lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose), is difficult to degrade for ethanol production so pretreatment and hydrolysis are needed in order to obtain the fermentable sugar. Pretreatment lignocellulosic biomass is the most important step to remove lignin and alter the structure of cellulosic biomass to make more accessible to the enzyme that convert the carbohydrate polymer into fermentable sugars. There are several ways to increase the digestible cellulose before it is exposed to the enzyme: mechanical, physical, physico- chemical, chemical, biological pretreatment, as well as the combination of these methods. One of the physico-chemical 348 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Pretreatment of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) using Microwave Iradiation |
methods is pretreatment using microwave irradiation. These benefits associated with microwave irradiation have led to its numerous applications such as drying, heating, cooking, sterilization and microwave-assisted chemistry. Based on these existing applications, it is reasonable to assert that a microwave-based process can be used for the pretreatment of lignocelluloses (Kumar et al. 2009; Keshwani 2009; Hon & Joseph 2010). Microwave irradiation alone cannot achieve any meaningful reaction in material. It caused the energy carried by microwave photons is only 1 joule per mole. This energy is too low to induce any chemical activity in materials. Therefore, the materials that exposed to microwave have to contain polar molecules and ions as catalyst, so that the radiation can accelerate chemical, biological, and physical process. Catalyst is needed on microwave irradiation. Acid catalysts have been used to increase the efficiency of the pretreatment. Dilute sulphuric acid is the most widely used anorganic acid for pretreatment biomass. Glycerol alternatively was used for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Glycerol, with higher boiling point, leads to the removal of lignin but increased loss of cellulose was also observed (Keshwani 2009; Liu et al. 2010). In this study, anorganic acid (sulphuric acid) and organic acid (oxalic acid) are used as catalyst on water-glycerol media for microwave pretreatment. Objective of this research was to evaluate the potential of different acid catalyst (organic and anorganic) on water-glycerol media for microwave pretreatment of OPEFB.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) were milled and screened (40—60 mesh). The milled OPEFB was stored under dry conditions. Analysis was carried out on the content of extractives, lignin, α-cellulose, and hemicellulose of OPEFB according to Mokushitsu kagaku jiken manual (2000). Pretreatment The OPEFB (40—60 mesh) were placed in cylindrical vessel then added liquid mixture of water-glycerol (solid to liquid ratio of 1:10) and organic (oxalic acid) or anorganic (sulphuric acid) catalyst (0.5 %), so that the ratio solid to liquid became 1: 20. Each pretreatment was exposed to microwave radiation on power level 50 and 70 % at 5—15 minutes. The pretreated OPEFB was filtered through filter paper. The pulp obtained was washed with acetone then with distilled water. Enzymatic Hydrolysis The wet pulp fraction was hydrolyzed with cellulase. Enzymatic hydrolysis was performed in 0.05 M sodium citrate buffer (pH 4.5) at 45 ºC on shaker for 24 hours. Enzymatic hydrolysis was determined according to NREL LAP 008 procedure with modification (Hayward et.al. 1995). Pretreated OPEFB 1% (w/w) 1:10 diluted cellulase (Meicellase) 10 X YP solution 0.05 citrate buffer pH 4.5 Working weight
0.1 g 0.3 ml 0.1 ml 9.5 ml 10 grams total
Aliquots of the sample were taken for 24 hours. Reducing sugar content during incubation with the enzyme was determined according Somogyi/Nelson method (Somogyi 1952). The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The chemical composition of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) used on these study was shown on Table 1. Pretreatment of OPEFB using microwave irradiation on water-glycerol media with organic and anorganic acid catalyst showed accelerating effects on sugar yield and saccharification level depending on power level and irradiation time of microwave. In OPEFB pretreatment with H2SO4 catalyst, the highest sugar yield (29.15 %) with saccharification level (61.24 %) was obtained on power level 50 % for 15 min (Fig. 1a and 1b). Microwave pretreatment on power level 70% only gave 20.39 % sugar yield with 27.20 % saccharification level for 7.5 min irradiation times. Sugar yield on power level 70 % for 10 min irradiation times was 17.56 %. That sugar yield was significantly not different with sugar yield that obtained on power level 70 % for 7.5 min, but the saccharification level was higher (54.37 %) (Fig. 2a and 2b). Table 1. Chemical composition of OPEFB Component Ash Extractive Lignin Holocelullosa α-celullosa Hemicelullosa a
Percentage (%)a 0.58 12.27 23.92 67.32 37.26 30.06
Composition percentages are on dry-weight basis.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Sugar yield per biomass (a) and per pulp (b) of pretreated OPEFB in aqueous-glycerol containing H2SO4 on power level 50% microwave irradiation.
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(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Sugar yield per biomass (a) per pulp (b) of pretreated OPEFB in aqueous-glycerol containing H2SO4 on power level 70% microwave irradiation. In these experiments showed that microwave irradiation using H2SO4 as catalyst on different power level, higher power level (70% ) with short time irradiation (7.5 min) did not give higher sugar yield than those at lower power level (50%) with longer irradiation times (15 min). Liu et al. (2010) reported that high temperature with short reaction times gave higher sugar yield (49.9 %, 180 °C for 6 min) than those low temperatures with longer reaction times (22.1 %, 160 °C for 12 min). Those researches used H2SO4 as catalyst for microwave pretreatment of recalcitrant Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) wood. In this study showed different patterns with previous study (Liu et al. 2010). It could be caused by different material that was used, between wood and lignocellulose biomass. The differences could be on the linkage among chemical component or chemical composition of the material. Chemical composition of Japanese cedar were 47.8 % cellulose, 20.3 % hemicellulose, and 31.0 % lignin (Liu et al. 2010), whereas chemical composition of OPEFB was shown on Table 1. In OPEFB pretreatment using H2C2O4 showed the highest sugar yield (16.47 %) with saccharification level (34.59 %) were obtained on power level 50 % for 15 min (Fig. 3a and 3b). On power level 50%, using H2C2O4 as catalyst, longer irradiation times increased sugar yield. The highest sugar yield on power level 70% was 12.80 % with 17.08 % saccharification level were obtained on 7.5 min irradiation times (Fig. 4a and 4b).
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(a)
(b)
Figure 3. S ugar yield per biomass (a) per pulp (b) of pretreated OPEFB in aqueous-glycerol containing H2C2O4 on power level 50% microwave irradiation.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. S ugar yield per biomass (a) per pulp (b) of pretreated OPEFB in aqueous-glycerol containing H2C2O4 on power level 70% microwave irradiation. In these experimental condition, using H2SO4 and H2C2O4 as catalyst on power level 70 %, longer irradiation times did not give higher sugar yield. The extended irradiation times caused excessive degradation of cellulose or hemicellulose. Keshwani (2009) explained that primary action pretreatment using acid was solubilization of hemicellulose, which accompanied by reduction cellulose crystalinity and fracture of lignin seal. Degradation both cellulose and hemicellulose in these study could be correlated with weight loss of pretreated pulp. Pretreated OPEFB showed that longer irradiation times with higher power level gave higher weight loss of the pulp (Table 2).
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Table 2. Weight loss of OPEFB after pretreatmen Catalyst
Power (%)
Irradiation time (min)
Weight loss (%)
H2SO4
50
5
15.57
10
41.32
15
5239
5
28.45
10
25.05
15
67.71
5
6.01
7.5
61.39
10
33.30
5
19.00
7.5
22.48
10
46.41
70
H2C2O4
50
70
Pretreatment OPEFB using microwave irradiation with different acid catalyst showed that H2SO4 catalyst gave higher sugar yield than H2C2O4 catalyst (Table 3). Anorganic acid like H2SO4 has been used for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass in order to improve enzymatic hydrolysis. Organic acid like H2C2O4 appears as alternative to improve the hydrolysis yield of lignocellulosic biomass. Koostra et al. (2009) reported that organic acid had the advantage to lead to the obtaining a lower amounts of furfural (compared with sulphuric acid). Furfural is an inhibitor component for fermentation process (Taherzadeh & Karimi 2008). Table 3. The highest sugar yield of OPEFB after pretreatment Catalyst Power (%) Irradiation time (min) H2SO4 H2C2O4
Sugar yield (%)
50
15
29.15
70
7.5
20.39
50
15
16.47
70
7.5
12.80
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of the untreated and treated OPEFB were presented in Figure 5. Figure 5a was untreated OPEFB, surface of the strand still organized. While Figure 5b, treated OPEFB using H2SO4, and Figure 5c, treated OPEFB using H2C2O4, showed the damage of strand surface.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5. S EM of OPEFB (500x) before pretreatment (a), after microwave pretreatment using H2SO4 (b), using H2C2O4 (c). The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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CONCLUSIONS Pretreatment of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) using microwave irradiation on waterglycerol media showed the highest sugar yield (29.15 %). The highest sugar yield was obtained at power level 50 % for 15 min with anorganic acid (H2SO4) as catalyst. H2SO4 was potential acid catalyst for OPEFB microwave pretreatment. This research needs more studies on concentration acid catalyst, power level, and irradiation time for the best condition for microwave pretreatment.
REFERENCES Argasetya, G. H. 2011. Lokakarya: Energi baru, terbarukan dan konservasi energi. http://www. lppm.itb.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/LOKAKARYA.Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengabdian kepada Masyarakat, ITB. Hayward, T.K., N.S. Combs, S.L. Schmidt, & G.P. Philippidis. 1995. SSF Experimental Protocols: Lignocellulosic Biomass Hydrolysis and Fermentation, LAP-008. 18 page. Hon, L.M. & Joseph. 2010. A case Study on Palm Empty Fruit Bunch as Energy Feedstock. SEGi Review, 3 (2): 3—15. Keshwani, D.R. 2009. Microwave Pretreatment of Switchgrass for Bioetanol Production. Dissertation Doctor of Philoshopy Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of North Carolina State University. 219 page. Kootstra, A. M. J., H. H. Beeftink,, E. L. Scott, & J. P. M. Sanders. 2009. Optimization of the dilutemaleic acid pretreatment of wheat straw. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2 (31). Kumar, P., D.M. Barret, M.J. Delwiche, & P. Stroeve. 2009. Review: Methods for Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Efficiency Hydrolysis and Biofuel Production. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on March 26, 2009. Liu, J., R. Takada, S. Karita, T. Watanabe, Y. Honda, & T. Watanabe. 2010. Microwave-assisted Pretreatment of Recalcitrant Softwood in Aqueous Glycerol. Bioresources Technology, 101: 9355-9360. Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual. 2000. Japan Wood Research Society Publisher Taherzadeh, M. J. & K. Karimi. 2008. Pretreatment of lignocellulosic waste to improve ethanol and biogas production: A Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 9: 1621-1651.
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Microwave Irradiation and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria) Lucky Risanto*, Sita Heris Anita, Euis Hermiati, and Faizatul Falah Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, INDONESIA *Corresponding author:
[email protected];
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Lignocellulose is considered a future alternative for bioethanol production and one of lignocellulose that fairly abundant availability is sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria). The potential of different acid catalyst (organic and anorganic) on aqueous-glycerol media for microwave pretreatment of sengon and the saccharification level was studied. Sengon (ground to 40-60 mesh) were placed in cylindrical vessel then glycerol (solid to liquid ratio of 1:10) and organic (oxalic acid) or anorganic (sulfuric acid) catalyst (0.5%) were added, so that the ratio solid to liquid became 1: 20. Each pretreatment was exposed to microwave radiation on power level 50 and 70 % at 5-15 minutes. The results showed that the highest yield of reducing sugars per wood using sulfuric acid catalyst was 34.68% and saccharification level 71.05 % when irradiated for 10 minutes with 50 % of power level, while using oxalic acid catalyst obtained yield of reducing sugars 29.53% and saccharification level 41.27% for 7.5 minutes of irradiation with 70% of power level. Keywords: irradiation, lignocellulosic, microwave, P. falcataria, pretreatment
INTRODUCTION One of the most potential renewable energies that has attracted worldwide attention is bioethanol. There is a tendency to find a fuel that produces less carbon dioxide (CO2) in an efficient way, using biomass as raw material, because CO2 is the main gases that contribute to climate change. However, the use of fossil fuels that produce higher CO2 emissions for transport continues to increase even though the necessary reduction of CO2 emissions. By using natural materials, then the problem for the environment can be reduced, it can even be transferred into a versatile product, which can increase the economic value and support the creation of healthy environment. CO2 gas is discharged as a result of combustion processes subsequently recycled by plants, and this makes the path of completion on various environmental issues (US DOE-NREL, 2000). Lignocellulose is considered a future alternative for bioethanol production, because it is more abundant and less expensive than food crops, especially when waste from agricultural and the forestry industries are used. Sengon (P. falcataria) is fast growing tree which have been planted for industrial timber plantation and is native to Haiti, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. A tree typically gains 7 m in height per year, reaching a mean height of 25.5 m and a bole diameter of 17 cm after 6 years, and a height of 39 m and a diameter of 63.5 cm after 15 years (Kaida et al., 2009). Lignocellulose contains cellulose (20–35%), hemicellulose (20–35%), lignin (10–35%), and other components (Kumar et al., 2009). Both the cellulose and hemicellulose fractions are polymers of sugars and thereby a potential source of fermentable sugars. Lignocellulose is resistant to degradation and offer hydrolytic stability, which is mainly due to cross linking between The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose) and lignin via ester and ether linkages. Cellulose and hemicellulose are densely packed by layers of lignin, that offer protect in against enzymatic hydrolysis (Verma et al., 2011). However, one of the main challenges for the production of ethanol from lignocellulose is the development of an efficient pretreatment process in order to break up the formation of a lignin-hemicellulose matrix structure of the biomass. There are several methods being developed, one of them is pretreatment using microwave irradiation (Hu & Wen, 2008; Zhu et al., 2005; Zhu et al., 2006a; Zhu et al., 2006b; Liu et al., 2010).
Figure 1. The goals of pretreatment on lignocellulose in schematic (Mosier et al., 2005) Microwaves occupy a transitional region in the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum between infrared and radio-frequency radiation. If the material exposed to microwaves contains polar molecules and ions, i.e. sulfuric acid, then the radiation can accelerate chemical, biological and physical processes (Keshwani, 2009). In this study, we examined the potential of organic (oxalic acid) and anorganic acid (sulfuric acid) in aqueous glycerol media for microwave pretreatment of sengon (P. falcataria) and the optimal conditions on microwave pretreatment of sengon based on yield of reducing sugars from enzymatic hydrolysis.
Sample preparation
METHODS
Sengon woods were cut into chips, grounded using ring flaker, hammer mill and disc mill, and sieved to get 40-60 mesh powder. Chemical composition of wood was analyzed using Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual (2000). Pretreatment Wood were placed in cylindrical vessel then glycerol (solid to liquid ratio of 1:10) and sulfuric acid 0.5% or oxalic acid 0.5% were added so that the ratio solid to liquid became 1:20. Each pretreatment was exposed to microwave irradiation (Sharp R-360J) on power level 50 and 70% at 5-15 minutes. The wet pulp fraction was then sieved and washed with 50 mL aceton and 3x50 mL distilled water, then determined the yield of pulp (Liu et al., 2010).
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(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Samples put into a vessel which made from teflon (a), then irradiated in microwave (b). Enzymatic hydrolysis The wet pulp fraction was hydrolyzed according to the NREL LAP procedure (Hayward et.al. 1995) with a commercial cellulase preparation, Meisellase from Trichoderma viride (Meiji Seika Co., Ltd., 224 FPU/g, β-glucosidase activity 264 IU/g). Enzymatic hydrolysis was performed in 0.05 M sodium citrate buffer (pH 4.5) at 45 °C on a waterbath shaker (Memmert WNB 14, Germany) for 24 h. Reducing Sugar analysis was measured using Somogyi-Nelson method (Wrolstad, 2001).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The result of chemical properties of sengon are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Chemical composition of sengon. Parameters
Yield (%)
Hemicelullose
28.50
Celullose
42.87
Lignin
25.76
Extractive
2.15
Moisture
7.39
Microwave irradiation can cause breakdown of lignocellulose structure. Higher power levels and longer exposure times would increase of weight loss due to degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, and the degradation rates are significantly enhanced by the presence of acid catalyst (Figure 3).
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Weight Loss (%)
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100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
H2SO4; Power Level 50% H2SO4; Power Level 70% H2C2O4; Power Level 50% H2C2O4; Power Level 70% 5
7.5
10 12.5 Time (min)
15
Figure 3. Effect of acid catalyst, power levels and irradiation time to the weight loss of sengon.
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Yield of sugar per pulp Yield of sugar per wood 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
Yield of sugar (%)
Yield of sugar (%)
Microwave pretreatment increased the reducing sugars content in the enzymatic hydrolysis product, either with sulfuric and oxalic acid catalyst. Except microwave pretreatment in sulfuric acid at 10 minutes or longer using 70% of power level, due to almost all cellulose had been degraded. The highest yield of reducing sugars per wood was 34.68% and saccharification level 71.05% using sulfuric acid catalyst when irradiated for 10 minutes with 50% of power level, further increased in time had significant effect on decreased enzymatic hydrolysis. While with 70% of power level, the highest yield of reducing sugars per wood was obtained 25.91% and saccharification level 44.71% for 5 minutes of irradiation, and also further increase in time had decreased enzymatic hydrolysis. 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Yield of sugar per pulp Yield of sugar per wood 5
7.5
10
Time (min)
Time (min)
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. E ffect of irradiation time with 50% (a) and 70% (b) of power level to the yield of reducing sugars after enzymatic hydrolysis in microwave pretreatment of sengon using sulfuric acid. The highest yield of reducing sugars per wood using oxalic acid was obtained 24.47% and saccharification level 30.71% when irradiated for 12.5 minutes with 50% of power level, while with 70% of power level was obtained 29.53% and saccharification level 41.27% for 7.5 minutes of 358 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Yield of sugar per pulp Yield of sugar per wood 5
Yield of sugar (%)
Yield of sugar (%)
irradiation. Actually, the highest saccharification level was obtained 31.17% for 15 minutes with 50% of power level, but due to increased of weight loss causes decreased of yield of reducing sugars per wood (22.67%). 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
7.5 10 12.5 15
Yield of sugar per pulp Yield of sugar per wood 5
Time (min)
(a)
7.5 10 Time (min)
(b)
Figure 5. E ffect of irradiation time with 50% (a) and 70% (b) of power level to the yield of reducing sugars after enzymatic hydrolysis in microwave pretreatment of sengon using oxalic acid.
Yield of Sugar (%)
Generally, microwave pretreatment either using sulfuric or oxalic acid showed increasing in saccharification level when compare with untreated wood (Figure 6). Sulfuric acid showed higher saccharification level but has lower yield of reducing sugars per wood than using oxalic acid. Sulfuric acid alterated of lignin structure and caused fibrillation, providing an improved accessibility of the cellulose for hydrolytic enzymes, stronger than oxalic acid. In the other hand, sulfuric acid also caused higher degradation of hemicellulose and cellulose, thus weight loss was increased. SEM results in Figure 7 confirmed that both acid catalyst accelerated defibration and fibrillation, leading to a higher saccharification ratio (Liu et al., 2010). 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 without pretreatment
H2SO4
H2C2O4
Figure 6. C omparison yield of reducing sugars per wood between using microwave pretreatment and without microwave pretreatment (pretreatment using sulfuric acid irradiated for 10 minutes with 50% power level, meanwhile using oxalic acid irradiated for 7.5 minutes with 70% power level). The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7. S EM images of sengon lignocellulosic material before (a) and after microwave pretreatments using sulfuric acid (b) & oxalic acid (c).
CONCLUSION The highest yield of reducing sugars per wood using sulfuric acid catalyst was 34.68% and saccharification level 71.05% when irradiated for 10 minutes with 50% of power level, while using oxalic acid catalyst was obtained yield of reducing sugars 29.53% and saccharification level 41.27% for 7.5 minutes of irradiation with 70% of power level.
REFERENCES Hayward, T.K., N.S. Combs, S.L. Schmidt, & G.P. Philippidis. 1995. SSF Experimental Protocols: Lignocellulosic Biomass Hydrolysis and Fermentation, LAP-008. Hu, Z. & Z. Wen. 2008. Enchancing Enzymatic Digestibility of Switchgrass by Microwave-assisted Alkali Pretreatment. Biochemical Engineering Journal. 38: 369-378 Kaida, R., Kaku, T., Baba, K., Oyadomari, M., Watanabe, T., Hartati, S., Sudarmonowati E., Hayashi, T. 2009. Enzymatic saccharifi cation and ethanol production of Acacia mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria wood, and Elaeis guineensis trunk. J Wood Sci. 55:381–386 Keshwani, D.R. 2009. Microwave Pretreatment of Switchgrass for Bioetanol Production. Dissertation Doctor of Philoshopy Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of North Carolina State University. Kumar, S., Singh, S. P., Mishra, I. M., & Adhikari1, D. K. 2009. Review : Recent Advances in Production of Bioethanol from Lignocellulosic Biomass. Chem. Eng. Technol. 32: 517–526. Liu, J., R. Takada, S. Karita, T. Watanabe, Y. Honda, & T. Watanabe. 2010. Microwave-assisted Pretreatment of Recalcitrant Softwood in Aqueous Glycerol. Bioresource Technology. 101: 9355–9360 Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual, 2000, Japan Wood Research Society Publisher. Mosier, N., Wyman, C., Dale, B., Elander, R., Lee, Y. Y., Holtzapple, M., & Ladisch, M. 2005. Features of Promising Technologies for Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass. Bioresource Technology. 96: 673–686 US DOE-NREL (US Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory). 2000. Biofuels. For Sustainable Transportation. USA 360 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Verma, A., Kumar, S., & Jain, P. K. 2011. Key Pretreatment Technologies on Cellulosic Ethanol Production. Journal of Scientific Research. 55: 57-63 Wrolstad, R. E. 2001. Current Protocols in Food Analytical Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons Inc. USA. E1.1.1-E1.1.8 Zhu, S., Y. Wu, Z. Yu, J. Liao, & Y. Zhang. 2005. Pretreatment by Microwave/alkali of Rice Straw and Its Enzymic Hydrolysis. Process Biochemistry. 40: 3082-3086 Zhu, S., Y. Wu, Z. Yu, X. Zhang, H. Li, & M. Gao. 2006a. The Effect of Microwave Irradiation on Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Rice Straw. Bioresource Technology. 97: 1964-1968 Zhu, S., Y. Wu, Z. Yu, X. Zhang, C. Wang, F. Yu, & S. Jin. 2006b. Production of Etanol from Microwave-assisted Alkali Pretreated Wheat Straw. Process Biochemistry. 41: 869-873
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Changes in Mechanical and Chemical Properties of Betung Bamboo During Soaking in Water and Inoculum Solution of Trametes versicolor Triyani Fajriutami, Yusup Amin, and Euis Hermiati Research & Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, Cibinong, Bogor, Indonesia. Email:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT In order to prevent forest degradation, it is important to find alternative sources of raw materials for producing pulp and paper. Bamboo is one of good alternatives due to its fast growth rate. Betung bamboo was chosen in this research because it has appropriate characteristics as raw material for pulp and paper. Soaking the bamboo before it is chopped into small particles for pulping is considered helpful in reducing energy needed for chopping process. Therefore, study on the effects of this soaking process on the physical and chemical properties is needed. The aim of this research was to study the influence of soaking of bamboo in water and inoculum solution of Trametes versicolor on the mechanical and chemical properties of betung bamboo. Results of the research showed that soaking of betung bamboo in water or in the inoculum solution of Trametes versicolor 5% for six months did not influence significantly physical and chemical properties of the bamboo, except on the extractives content of the bamboo. Keywords: Betung bamboo, Trametes versicolor, soaking, mechanical-chemical properties
INTRODUCTION Bamboos are perennial woody grasses belonging to the Gramineae family. Bamboo’s growth could achieve 5 cm per hour or 120 cm per day. There are 75 genus and 1250 species of bamboo in the world, and majority (about 80%) grow in South Asia and South East Asia countries (Taurista et al. 2006). Bamboo can be used for multipurposes, like building or house construction, music instrument, furniture, handicraft, pipe, tobacco drying shed, and fishing tools, and raw material of pulp and paper (Suprapti 2010). For a number of years, research work has been carried out to reduce enery need and make pulp and paper making were environmental friendly (Sjostrom, 1998). Therefore pretreatment process is needed to minimize the cost and energy of pulp and paper making. The storage of bamboo’s culms is important part for pulp and paper industry. Traditional treatments such as soaking in water, smoking and curing to preserve bamboo has been widely practised by the small-scale industries in Asia (Ashaari and Mamat 2000; Liese 1980). Betung bamboos were easily founded in Indonesia, especially in Sumatra, East Java, South Sulawesi, Seram Island and West Papua (Kartodihardjo 2006). Betung bamboo had suitable properties as raw material for pulp and paper (Fatriasari and Hermiati 2008). Trametes versicolor was used to fungal inoculum in this research because pretreatment of rice straw by Trametes versicolor reached lower holocellulose lost than other white-rot fungi like Pleurotus ostreatus, Pycnoporus sanguineus and Schizophylum commune (Ermawar et al. 2006). The objective of 362 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Changes in Mechanical and Chemical Properties of Betung Bamboo during Soaking in Waterand Inoculum Solution of Trametes versicolor |
this research was to study the influence of soaking of bamboo in water and inoculum solution of Trametes versicolor on the mechanical and chemical properties of betung bamboo.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Raw Materials and Containers Betung bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) from Nanggewer, Cibinong, Indonesia was used in this study. The internode section of bamboo culms were divided by cutting into 22.5 cm (length). Six 80 liter capacity of containers were prepared for soaking the bamboo. Three containers for soaking with water and others for soaking with fungal inoculum. Fungal Inoculum Trametes versicolor isolate was obtained from Research Centre of Chemistry LIPI, Serpong, Indonesia. Trametes versicolor was cultured on MEA (Malt Extract Agar) slant at room temperature for seven days, then Trametes versicolor’s mycelium was scrapped with a loop. The mycelium was submerged in 50 ml of JIS-modified broth at room temperature for seven days then homogenized by using waring blender laboratory. Soaking Method Three containers were filled with 40 liter of water and three others were filled with 5% (v/v) of Trametes versicolor inoculum (2 liter of fungal inoculum + 38 liter of water). Each container was used for open-air soaking 26 samples of bamboo for six months. Four samples of bamboo in each container were picked and water-washed every month to analyze their mechanical and chemical properties. Mechanical-Chemical Properties Analysis Prior to mechanical properties measurement, the water-washed bamboo were dried in open air. The speciments were prepared by cutting the air-dried bamboo into dimensions of 250x20x13 mm. The samples were measured in modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) by using Universal Testing Machine (UTM) based on ASTM standard D143-52. Analysis of chemical properties include soluble ethanol-benzene extractives content, lignin content (Klason) and holocellulose content (Wise). The samples were prepared by oven-drying the water-washed bamboo at 60 ºC for 3 days then milled to obtain 40-60 mesh of sample size.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The initial value of modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) of betung bamboo were 87422 kgf/cm2 and 1066 kgf/cm2, respectively. Figure 1 and Figure 2 showed the result of MOE and MOR betung bamboo during soaking in water and Trametes versicolor 5% (v/v), respectively. Soaking betung bamboo for six months, both water and Trametes versicolor inoculum medium, did not influence the MOE and MOR value the betung bamboo (p>0,05). As known before, soaking bamboo in stagnant or running water or mud were traditional preservation of bamboo in Asian countries (Liese 1980). Mutaqin (2001) reviewed that soaking bamboo in stagnant water for eight months did not influence their MOE and MOR value. Previous research reported that MOE and MOR value of Trametes versicolor-sprayed betung bamboo did not significant change after outdoor exposure for five months, but the storage period did (Fajriutami et al. 2009). The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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MOE (kgf/cm2)
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Figure 1. MOE value of betung bamboo during open-air soaking in six months
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Figure 2. MOR value of betung bamboo during open-air soaking in six months Figure 3 represented the lignin content of betung bamboo during soaking for six months. The initial lignin content was 39.75%. The different solution did not influence the lignin content during soaking of betung bamboo (p>0.05), but the duration of soaking had significant effect to decrease the lignin content during one month soaking but increase after six month soaking (p<0.05). It may be caused by the different part of betung bamboo culms for every month. Because Li (2004) reported that different part of bamboo culm had different lignin content. The outer layer has the highest lignin content. Holocellulose content of betung bamboo during Trametes versicolor 5% inoculum soaking for six months was 61.28% to 66.17% (Figure 4). Like lignin content, the holocellulose content was not influenced by soaking in the 5% of Trametes versicolor solution. But the soaking time had significant effect to decrease 5.58% of holocellulose content of betung bamboo after one and sixth month soaking. Extractives content cause operation and quality problems in pulp and paper manufacture due to the formation of spots, specks and other product defects. The initial extratives content of betung bamboo was 3.52% and the changes for six months soaking can be seen in Figure 5. During six months of soaking the betung bamboo in water and Trametes versicolor 5% inoculum, the range of extratives content was 2.14% to 3.28% and 1.78% to 2.64%, respectively. So, the addition of Trametes versicolor and prolonging time soaking were significantly decrease the extratives content 364 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Changes in Mechanical and Chemical Properties of Betung Bamboo during Soaking in Waterand Inoculum Solution of Trametes versicolor |
of betung bamboo. Extractives content was influenced by the organism activity during soaking because the pore cell of bamboo’s cane was filled up with sugar and starch.
Lignin (%)
44.00 36.00 28.00 20.00 0
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Figure 3. Lignin content of betung bamboo during open-air soaking in six months
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Figure 4. Holocellulose content of betung bamboo during open-air soaking in six months
4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0
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water soaking
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Figure 5. Ethanol-benzene extratives content of betung bamboo during open-air soaking in six months
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CONCLUSIONS Open-air soaking, both in water and Trametes versicolor 5% solution, did not influence the MOE and MOR value, lignin and holocellulose content of betung bamboo. But the duration of soaking had a significantly effect on extractives content, lignin content and holocellulose content of betung bamboo. The lowest peak occured after soaking for two months. Further research is needed to find out the effect of specific part of the bamboo culms during soaking.
REFERENCES Ashaari, Z., Mamat, N. 2000. Traditional Treatment of Malaysian Bamboos: Resistance Towards White Rot Fungus and Durability in Service. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 3(9):1453-1458. Ermawar, R. A., Yanto, D.H.Y., Fitria, Hermiati, E. 2006. Biodegradation of Lignin in Rice Straw Pretreated by White-rot Fungi. Laporan Teknik Akhir Tahun 2006, UPT Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Biomaterial-LIPI. Fajriutami, T., Amin, Y., Hermiati, E. 2009. Mechanical and Chemical Properties of Betung Bamboo Treated with Trametes versicolor during Outdoor Exposure. Prosiding Seminar Mapeki XII, Bandung, pp:71-77. Fatriasari, W., Hermiati, E. 2008. Analysis of Fiber Morphology and Physical-Chemical Propertiesof Six Species of Bamboo as Raw Material for Pulp and Paper. Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Hasil Hutan 1(2):67-72. Kartodihardjo, S. 2006. The State of Bamboo and Rattan Development in Indonesia. Website International Network for Bamboo and Rattan. http://www.inbar.int/ Li, X. 2004. Physical, Chemical, and Mechanical Properties of Bamboo and Its Utilization Potential For Fiberboard Manufacturing. Thesis. Louisiana State University - Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Library Website. http://etd.lsu.edu/ Liese, W. 1980. Preservation of Bamboos. Proceedings of Bamboo Research in Asia, ed. G. Lessard and A. Chouinard, Singapore, pp:165-172. Mutaqin, D.J. 2001. Pengaruh Jenis dan Lama Perendaman Terhadap Sifat Fisis-Mekanis Bambu Betung (Dendrocalamus asper (Schult.f.) Backer ex Heyne). Skripsi. Fakultas Kehutanan IPB, Bogor. Sjostrom, E. 1998. Kimia Kayu : Dasar-dasar dan Penggunaan. Edisi Kedua. Gadjah Mada University Press. Suprapti, S. 2010. Decay Resistance of Five Indonesian Bamboo Species Against Fungi. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 22(3):287-294. Taurista, A. Y., Riani, A. O., Putra, K. H. 2006. Komposit Laminat Bambu Serat Woven Sebagai Bahan Alternatif Pengganti Fiber Glass Pada Kulit Kapal. Tugas Akhir. Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember. http://www.kemahasiswaan.its.ac.id/
366 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
Organic Carbon Potential in Production Forest Land Sub District Majenang, West Banyumas Saefudin Puslit Biologi-LIPI, Jl Raya Bogor-Jakarta Km 46, Cibinong, Bogor
ABSTRACT Production forest land use as an agricultural ecosystem may change stock of carbon through the process of decomposition of soil organic matter. The final product of this process is the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into atmosphere. Natural vegetation in the forest production-Bagian Kesatuan Pemangku Hutan (BKPH) Majenang, West Banyumas region covers 10,832.6 ha area with landscape plains, hilly, steep land, and dominated stands of pine (Pinus merkusii), teak (Tectona grandis) and mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). Approximately 60% of stands agroecosystem are under a land farming of food crops, medicinal and horticulture. Organic carbon material beneath the surface of stands of pine, mahogany and teak cultivated food crops, medicinal and horticultural are low rate, ranging between (0.5-1.8%), and respiration rate between (5.05- 5.64) gr/day/m-2, whereas organic carbon in the land that is not cultivated was 10.3% and the respiration rate was 45 gr/day/m-2. Management is very important in the area agroecosystem to mitigate carbon emissions and maintaining security of forest resources is an organic farming system by making use of local biodiversity. Keywords: organic carbon, respiration, production of forest stands, farming
INTRODUCTION Sub District (BKPH Majenang) is part of KPH of West Banyumas which contributes in controlling atmospheric CO2 concentrations. The ability of forests to store CO2 in the form of organic materials of photosynthesis is the main support of the balance of CO2 in the atmosphere. If the release of CO2 from the forest exceeds the rate of the retraction, it will potentially increase the concentration in the atmosphere. CO2 production from forest soil derived from the decomposition of organic material (wasted organisms and leaf litter) in aerobic respiration of plant roots and soil microbes. Forest areas of this region are large part of production forest. Other smaller parts are used for protection forest, agricultural and residential areas. The total area ofproduction forests in Sub District (BKPH Majenang) is 10832.6 ha. At the beginning of the planting program, the entire area is managed by involving communities in the surrounding forest, but now partially (approximately 40%) had long been abandoned due to thick stands, is not fertile and productive again. Since then, under the stands of production forest is dense with overgrown wild bushes. Global environmental community has long agreed that the application and development concepts of forests production are part of a system of forest development. Farming crops are often selected and become an important part of forest management with communities (PHBM) around forest. Presumably, management practice of production forest is highly influential on the storage and release of CO2. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Soil carbon is the last major pool of the carbon cycle in production forest. It is primarily composed of biomass and non biomass carbon source. Biomass carbon primarily includes various bacteria and fungi. Non-biomass carbon sources or substrate reflect the chemical composition of plant biomass and primarily include cellulose, starch, lignin and other diverse organic carbon compounds. Sum of the substrate carbon will bind to the mineral soil becoming encapsulated in soil aggregates or chemical complexing. Organic carbon is the most important biosphere’s buffer that can improve physical, chemical and biological characters of soil (Foth, HD 1984; Jansen, HH 2004). Organic carbon material in soil is one important nutrient reserve in an ecosystem and plays a role in maintaining aggregate and structure stability of soil. Organic carbon material in the soil of dense forest is higher than of agricultural land. 7-year-old secondary forest biomass yield 39.6 ton / ha dry matter, organic matter is arranged in the soil was 4.4% (Sanchez, 1976). The process of on farm agricultural production contributes to the storage and release of CO2, CH4 and NO2, whereas the off farm agricultural activities such as preservation of agricultural products with refrigeration potentially releasing CFCs. On activities under the forest stands, organic carbon is produced from agricultural litter and waste, while the CO2 is generated from the aerobic decomposition of organic material, the release of CH4 produced from the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter and NO2 gases from the soil through denitrification, nitrification (Ishizuka et al., 2002; Inabushi et al., 2003) and gas emissions are mediated by the plant (Chen et al., 1999); Hou et al., 2000).
METHOD The research was conducted in 10 areas of production forests of sub district Majenang. The altitude is of 85-550 meters above sea level. The study was conducted in July-September 2009. Field survey conducted to determine the point of observation and take soil samples. Observation point is determined randomly based on the region conditions with a relatively uniform topographic or with a slope between (10-20%). Determination of observation point for representing production forests is done in three districts: Karangpucung, Majenang and Cimanggu. Plots of the observations made with size 1x1 m2, with respectively 6 replications under the stands of pine, teak and mahogany. Measurement of respiration rate under the stands was using solution of 0.2 N KOH as carbon catcher. For analyzing CO2 as the indicator of respiration rate, the chemicals used were 0.2 N KOH, methyl orange from Phenolptalein, and 0.1 N HCl. Soil organic matter was determined by spectrophotometer method (Laboratory Center for Soil Research), chemicals used were concentrated H2SO4, K2Cr2O7 1N. Characters being observed were including C-organic, CO2 emissions, pH, total N, and C/N ratio. Data were analyzed using completely randomized design followed by Duncan test at 5% level.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Research sites located in forest areas that administratively covers three locations, Karangpucung, Cimanggu and Majenang. Altitude measurement is between 100-500 m dpl, air temperature range is (23-26) °C, humidity range is (80-87) %, and soil pH varies from 4.7 to 6.6. Topography is ranging from flat, wavy to slightly steeper. The slope varies between (8-30) %, and the soil types are latosol, litosol. Type of climate was type B, with rainfall 3500 mm /year.
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| Organic Carbon Potential in Production Forest Land of BKPH Majenang, West Banyumas |
Forest vegetation covers 10,118.67 ha area. Pine forest is the largest vegetation forest, with its 7896.7 ha area, the rest are forests of teak, mahogany and mixed forests. The trees in the production forests of pine and teak were old, so the rejuvenation and replacement with new tree seedlings has begun. Organic Carbon Types of forest trees stands affect the production of organic carbon to a depth of 18 cm from the ground. Organic carbon in surface soil (0-8 cm) under stands of pine, mahogany and teak ranges between 1.4 % and 1.8 %, but not based on real statistic calculations. When being compared to land that was not cultivated, this difference was very significant statistically. The organic carbon content is still lower than the organic carbon in non-cultivated land and was overgrown with reeds (Barchia Faiz et al, 2007), while the reserves of organic material in 7-year old secondary forest produced biomass 39.6 ton / ha dry matter, and organic material composed in soil was 4.4% (Sanchez, 1976). A striking effect occurs on the soil layer between 9 cm and 18 cm. The organic carbons are strikingly different between in non-cultivated land and in cultivated land (Table 1). It appears that under the pine stands, stock of organic carbon is higher than under the mahogany and teak stands. This difference is expected to be related to the character of pine needles that contain a lot of lignin and decompose slowly. In the 9-18 cm soil layer beneath the cultivated stands of pine trees are often found pine needles that have not been unraveled, and buried through the process of cultivation, mainly digging and planting, so that it becomes organic carbon stocks when the soil is analyzed. Table 1. Organic carbon and soil respiration under different shade Soil Organic Carbon (%) (survace) C org.(0-8 cm) C org.(9-18 cm) Respirasi
Land under shade Land cultivated under shade Land non cultivated under shade Pine Mahagoni Teaki 1.8b 1.5b 1.4b 10.3a 1.3c 0.7b 0.5b 10.9a 5.05b 5.25ab 5.64a 4.95c
Note: F igures followed by same letter are not different from a horizontal direction of the Duncan test at level 5% Forest management with communities has not been fully working well. Many cultivation programs are conducted unilaterally because of farmers’ needs to use artificial fertilizers and chemical pesticides. The cultivation process under the stands of teak, mahogany and pine should be done organically. Fertilizer is made from a mixture of leaf litter, waste of animal feed mixed with cow or goat dung in villages around the forest. With minimal processing, it is still allowing the flow of carbon from surface to deeper layers through digging, planting, or the flow of rainwater. Organic farming is a way of farming that is able to sustain the biosphere by maintaining organic carbon in soil surface sustainably. Organic material is able to accommodate carbon as many as 28% (Broadbalk research at Rothamsted Exp. Stat. Www.forestgam.web.id. 2009). Cultivation of food crops, vegetables and other horticultural under pine stands are not preferred by many farmers, unless when the tree was young, aged 0-4 years. At the age above 4 years, pine stands began to look tight. The tighter stands could reduce light for particular crops. These conditions provide opportunities for leaf litter of pine and fodder and other shrubs that grow under the stands to become organic carbon stocks. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Cultivation of plants under the stands may affect soil properties. Various kinds of crops, vegetables, horticulture, and various grasses (nuisance weeds) interact and synergize in a complex way with its environment. Changes in properties due to the type of ground cover vegetation directly affect the distribution of soil organic matter and microorganism activity. This process causes the difference in content of organic material on the soil surface. Respiration Respiration in soil is closely associated with the activity of soil microorganisms that are usually concentrated near the root system of plants and microclimate. Microorganisms’ activity can be determined by measuring the respiration and carbon biomass of soil microorganisms. There are respiration rate differences of soil under the stands of pine, mahogany, teak, and non-cultivated tree stands. It appears that the non-cultivated land had the lowest respiration rate of 4.95 grams/ day/m2, and the highest is the land under the stands of cultivated teak, 5.65 grams/day/m2. This is related to the influence of microclimate in non-cultivated land. Non-cultivated land looks visually like a dense forest; the soil temperature is below the lower stands, thereby lowering the activity of microorganisms. Reorganize power of organic material and carbon flux would also decrease at lower temperature. The decrease of microbial activity and plant respiration will provide opportunities for carbon stocks accumulation under the non-cultivated forest stands, more than in the cultivated land, and the emission of CO2 released as greenhouse gases into the atmosphere becomes smaller. CO2 production from the soil comes from aerobic decomposition of organic material, respiration of plant roots and microbes. Its can be concluded that the land management practices can affect the organic carbon storage and the release of CO2 that contribute to gas emissions into the atmosphere. In cultivation, green house emission is determined by production rate and transportation rate of CO2 from soil that was a result from aerobic decomposition of organic material and plants respiration (Soemarwoto, 1991). In the land cultivated with crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants in intercropped manner, respiration rate is also strikingly different, especially at 9-18 cm soil depth. This difference is expected to relate to the observations made in the dry season, when the light intensity to the ground is higher. In the process of cultivation under the stands, the forest farmers (pesanggem) choose a less dense stands, or often deliberately reducing the canopy to increase light intensity and add organic fertilizer. This activity will increase respiration, and release more CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. In cultivation, greenhouse gas emissions are determined by the production and transportation rate of CO2 from the soil resulting from the aerobic decomposition of organic matter and plants respiration (Soemarwoto, 1991).
CONCLUSION Organic carbon material of soil surface under the stands of pine, mahogany and teak cultivated as food, medicinal and horticulture plants is low, ranging between (0.5 to 1.8%), and respiration rate between (5.05 to 5.64) grams/day/m2. Whereas the organic carbon in land that has been uncultivated for more than 15 years was 10.3% and the respiration rate was 4.95 grams/day/m2. Returns of the forest function as carbon stocks can be accomplished by leaving the production forest unmanaged in the long term. If it has to be managed then to mitigate carbon emissions and maintain forest resources system, should be done by organic agriculture and utilizing its local biodiversity. 370 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Organic Carbon Potential in Production Forest Land of BKPH Majenang, West Banyumas |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Author expressed many thanks to Mr. Ipin (Technician in Reseach Center of Land), E. Basri (Forestry), Subroto-LMDH Salamsari, KPH Banyumas and all those who have helped up to the completion of this paper.
REFERENCES Chen, X., P. Boeck, S. Shen, and O. Van Cleemput. 1999. Emission of NO2 from Rey Grass (Lolium peenne L.). Biol. Fertil. Soils 28 :393-396. Faiz Barchia, A. Novita dan P. Priyono . 2007. Bahan organik dan Respirasi di Bawah Beberapa Tegakan pada DAS Musi Bagian Hulu. Jurnal Akta Agrosia Edisi Khusus No. 2. Halaman 172-175. Foth, H.D. 1984. Fundamental of Soil Science (Terjemahan). Gadjahmada University Press, Yogyakarta. Hou, A. X., G. X. Chen, Z. P. Wang, O. Van Cleemput, and W. H. Patrick, Jr. 2000. Methjane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from a Rice Field in Relation to Soil Redox and Microbiologigal Processes. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64: 2180-2188. Inubushi, K., H. Sugii, I. Watanabe, and R. Wassmann. 2002. Evaluation of Methane Oxidation in Rice Plant Soil System. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystemm 64: 71-77. Ishizuka S., H. Tsuruta, and D. Murdiyarso. 2002. An Intensif Field Study on CO2, CH4, and NO2 Emisions from Soilsa at Four Land-use Tipes in Sumatra, Indonesia. Global Biochemical Cycles 16 (3) : 22. 1-11. Jansen, H. H. 2004. Carbon Cycling in Earth Systems-a soil science perspective. In Agriculture, ecosystems and environment, 104, 399-417. Rothams. Exp. www.forestgam.web.id. Mitigasi perubahan iklim dengan pertanian organik dan distribusi lokal. Diakses 17 Januari 2009. Sanchez, P. A. 1976. Properties and Management of Soils in The Tropics. John Willey and Sons. New York. Soemarwoto, O. 1991. Indonesia Dalam Kancah Lingkungan Global. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.
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Profit Sharing System in Agarwood Plantation Establishment to Increase Social Economic Condition of Forest Dependent Community (A Case Study in KHDTK Carita, Banten) Sri Suharti Centre for Conservation and Rehabilitation Research and Development Jl. Gunung Batu 5, Bogor, 16610. Phone: 62-251-8633234; 62-251-8315222; Fax: 62-251-8638111 Email:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Agarwood forms a fragrant resinous substance deep inside trees belonging to the genera Aquilaria, Gyrinops and Gonystylus from Southeast Asia. This species has a high economic value. Nowadays, due to habitat destruction and unsustainable harvesting, many species of agarwood are potentially threatened with extinction (CITES APPENDIX II). On the other hand, its price tends to increase hence induce its cultivation especially in South East Asia Region. However, since capital intensive, only few people have the capability to cultivate. To promote wider agarwood cultivation, partnership schemes among stakeholders having sufficient resources need to be developed. Collaboration research of agarwood trees plantation through profit sharing system in KHDTK (Specific Purpose Forest Territory) Carita is intended to promote land rehabilitation through increasing forest land productivity with agarwood plantation while increasing community welfare living surrounding KHDTK Carita. Besides its economic value, agarwood trees could grow well under tree stands in forest area with limited light intensity < 70%. The approach developed in this partnership model is Community Based Forest Management (CBFM). Several processes carried out to learn about prospect of community participation i.e.: Introduction about agarwood tree and formulation of mutual understanding about Partnership Model; Formulation of mutual objective which is going to be achieved and Intensive discussion with related stakeholders (personnel of KHDTK Carita, key persons of local community, Perhutani state owned forest and agarwood trader). Research results showed that promoting agarwood trees in KHDTK Carita where majority of the area has been occupied by local people has become one best alternative solution to preserve KHDTK forest, improve land productivity and increase community’s income. Main principles persist in the collaboration are sustainability and economic feasibility based on contribution of each stakeholder involved. Keywords: Land rehabilitation, community income, CBFM, KHDTK Carita
INTRODUCTION Forestry program development always deals with several problems both technical and non technical including social community conflicts. The situation indicates that community’s right and interest in forestry development process based on sustainable principles need to be taken into consideration shrewdly. This then clarifies that community involvement is urged in all phases of 372 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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sustainable forestry development based on Ministry of Forestry (MOF) decree No. 31 (year 2001) concerning community forestry. To anticipate the situation, since the last two decades, Government of Indonesia (GOI) has developed several programs both preventive (conservation) and curative (rehabilitation). Those programs have the main objectives to increase land productivity and maintain forest land sustainability and also to strengthen bargaining position and welfare of community living surrounding forest area. However, so far those programs have not provided satisfying results to overcome the problem of forest degradation. One alternative that could be taken to conquer the situation and accommodate forest land rehabilitation in one hand and fulfilling community need on the other hand in areas prone to land encroachment and illegal logging like KHDTK Carita is through implementation of community based forest management (CBFM). CBFM is deemed to be the suitable approach since it is implemented by involving forest surrounding community in forest management. Forest management would be successful if all stakeholders involved are willing to cooperate and allocate space, time, benefit, right and obligation based on empowering, promoting and benefiting each other principles. Agarwood is a fragrant resinous wood coming from trees belonging to the genera Aquilaria, Gyrinops and Gonystylus. When these trees are injured, damaged or infected, for example by insects or fungal disease, they produce a brown resin in reaction to the wound. This resin can help protect the tree from further infection so it is considered to be a kind of defense mechanism or immune response (Squidoo, 2008). Indonesia’s indigenous trees that produced valuable agarwood resin such as A. malaccensis, A. beccariana, A. crassna, A. microcarpa and Gyrinops cumingiani, naturally grows in Sumatera, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas and Papua (Siran, 2010). The suitable environment for planting agarwood is elevation between 0 – 750 m above sea level, clay mineral soil and rainfall above 2,000 mm/year for Aquilaria and above 1,500 mm/year for Gyrinops (Sitepu et al, 2010). Other species of agarwood namely Gonystilus spp. grows in peat land. Demand for agarwood far exceeds supply and consequently during recent years there has been a boom in planting agarwood trees on farms and in plantations, especially in South East Asia (Squidoo, 2008). Agarwood trees grow naturally in South and Southeast Asia. It has many names including agarwood, gaharu (Indonesia), ood, oudh, oodh (Arabic), chen xiang (Chinese), pau d’aguila (Portuguese), bois d’aigle (French) and adlerholz (German). Aquilaria trees which produce agarwood are now protected in most countries and the collection from natural forests is considered to be illegal. International agreements, such as CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), accepted by 169 countries, is designed to ensure trade in agarwood products from wild trees does not threaten the survival of Aquilaria. Despite these efforts agarwood products from illegally cut trees continues to be sold and unknowing consumers create a demand that helps to destroy the last old growth Aquilaria trees in existence (Blanchette, 2006). Unlike other NTFP such as pine resin and damar which can be extracted from the trees after a certain age, to get agarwood resin the tree must first be inoculated with a particular microbes that induce agarwood resin production. Therefore, 5 – 6 years after planting, the agarwood trees must be inoculated with suitable microbes. The spending components for calculating agarwood planting cost are similar to other commercial trees. However, the price of agarwood planting stocks is relatively higher than other tree species. Depending on its size, the range of agarwood seedling The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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price is between Rp 5,000 to Rp 20,000 per seedling. Other additional cost for agarwood planting and production is cost for agarwood induction by microbe inoculation. The objectives of collaboration research through profit sharing system in KHDTK Carita are to promote forest land rehabilitation by increasing forest land productivity with agarwood plantation establishment that has high economic value while increasing community welfare living surrounding KHDTK Carita. Agarwood is selected as its price has been very high and it is now potentially threatened with extinction due to habitat destruction and unsustainable harvesting.
MATERIALS AND METHODS The research in Community Based Forest Management in agarwood plantation using profit sharing system was conducted at part of area plot No 21 at KHDTK Carita – Pandeglang, Banten. Total area of research plot is 30 ha. The research was done by involving local community (who formerly cultivate seasonal crops, multipurpose trees/MPTS and fruit trees in the research area) to plant agarwood trees in their cultivated land. People who are going to participate in the research collaboration come from Sindang Laut Village (especially from Longok and Pasir angin sub village). Process of establishing plot demonstration of agarwood trees in KHDTK Carita was initiated by intensive discussion and approach with candidates of participants in order to learn about prospect of community participation in plantation establishment. After having sufficient description about prospect of community participation in plot establishment, next process is formulation of technical plan and design through several in depth discussions. By owning this series of in depth discussions, it is expected that candidates of participants would really understand about the purpose of the research collaboration which eventually could increase their active participation in agarwood plantation. Method used in the research was field observation, interviews and discussion with related stakeholders (Perhutani state owned forest, Banten forestry service, personnel of KHDTK Carita and agarwood trader). Subsequently, it will be followed by Focus Group Discussion (FGD) by using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach (Sulaeman, 1995). Main target of the research is all stakeholders involving in KHDTK Carita management and candidates of participants from local community (40 people). Focus of the discussions were to gain better understanding about main principles of research collaboration including right and obligation, reward and punishment and also profit sharing system which is going to be applied when agarwood tree already produce. Data obtained from the research would be analyzed descriptively (Singarimbun and Sofian, 1982).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION General Description of Research Site Total forest area of Banten province is 206,852.44 Ha consisting of production forest, protection forest and conservation forest. In 2003, Ministry of Forestry through MOF Decree No 290 and 291 declared that limited production forest in Carita, Pandeglang regency, Banten province with 3000 ha total area has been decided to become forest area with specific purpose forest territory (KHDTK). The area which was formerly managed by Perhutani state owned forest had been handed over to Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA). Administratively, KHDTK Carita with total area 3000 ha is located in RPH Carita and RPH Pasauran area. Based on field observation and intensive discussion with related stakeholders in KHDTK Carita, it was found that majority of the area has been encroached by surrounding community 374 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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(> 70%). Considering trend of development, it seems that the encroachment tends to increase and even more intense from time to time. Underlying factors behind this situation are increase of population, limited job opportunities and limited skill and knowledge of the people. Actually, close location with Carita beach provides other sources of income for the people in Carita (selling local handicraft, being tourist guide, renting beach game tools for guests, etc). However, since tourists (both domestic and foreign tourists) only come on weekend or holidays, people still have plenty of unused time outside those days. The situation then in turn direct people to utilize KHDTK Carita (which is located at the boundary of surrounding villages) as alternative place to gain additional income. In Government regulation (PP) No. 6 (year 2007) concerning forest arrangement and forest management and use plan article 17 verse 1 it is mentioned that forest land use has the main objective to gain optimal, fair and sustainable benefits of forest product and service. Forest use based on verse 1 of the regulation could be done through utilization of the area; (ii) utilization of environmental service; (iii) utilization of both timber and non timber product and (iv) collecting timber and non timber forest product. Subsequently, in article 18, it is also stated that forest utilization could be done at all forest area including (i) conservation forest, except natural reserve area, wilderness zone and core zone; (ii) protection forest and (iii) production forest. Considering the situation where forest land was already occupied by local community, it is necessary to have alternative solution to prevent from further forest degradation while accommodating community’s needs as well. One alternative to accommodate those two interests is by involving local community in forest management. Involving local community is intended to accommodate change of paradigm in forest management that has shifted towards community’s interest. Hence forest management with former paradigm “timber management” that only focused on financial benefit for holding company has to be left behind. New paradigm in forest management places environmental protection and ecosystem sustainability aspect at first priority and economic aspect at second priority. Therefore, since 2000 forest management in Indonesia has been using holistic/comprehensive approach that put forest as a unit of ecosystem and utilizes all potential resources in it for the sake of community welfare. Process to Endorse Community Participation in Agarwood Plantation Establishment Collaboration research with local community through development of agarwood tree plantation establishment in KHDTK Carita is application of new forest management paradigm. In this new management system, success of its implementation depends on active participation of all stakeholders involve including local community. In area like KHDTK Carita where land encroachment widely occurred and people’s dependency upon the surrounding forest has been high, providing other option for the people to develop promising but sustainable on-farm activities like agarwood plantation establishment could be an appropriate solution. Agarwood plantation establishment in KHDTK Carita forest would not change or modify forest structure radically, but it is more improving forest structure through enrichment planting while improving surrounding community welfare. In order to learn about prospect of community participation, several processes are carried out i.e.: 1. Introduction about agarwood tree including its growth requirements, cultivation techniques, its morphology and appearance of agarwood after produced and then followed by formulation of mutual understanding about several principles of CBFM. 2. Formulation of mutual objective which is going to be achieved from the collaboration. 3. Intensive discussion with related stakeholders such as personnel of KHDTK Carita, key persons The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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of local community, Perhutani state owned forest and agarwood trader. From the discussion, it can be assumed that agarwood plantation establishment has a good prospect to be developed in the area. Subsequently, by considering biophysical condition of the area, social economic condition of the people and accessibility of the people to KHDTK Carita, it is decided to involve community from Sindang Laut Village in the research collaboration. 4. Based from initial information, more in depth discussion with key persons from Sindang Laut village was carried out on July 11, 2008 at KHDTK Carita headquarters. There were 4 researchers, 3 KHDTK personnels and 6 key persons from Sindang Laut village attended the discussion. In the discussion, the purpose of the collaboration is introduced including initial description about right and obligation of each party involved. Process of discussion worked well and dynamically based on mutual advantages and sustainable principles. Initial description about research collaboration was also formulated. Subsequently, initial formulation about research collaboration was further evaluated by all stakeholders involved. From initial formulation of collaboration, draft of memory of understanding then was composed in more detail. The draft comprises not only objective and techniques of collaboration, right and obligation of the parties involved (RDCFCR at one side and community of Sindang Laut Village at the other side), but also explain further about status of the research site, profit sharing system, reward and punishment and risk and consequences if something unexpected occurs. Process in Formulating Research Collaboration Using Profit Sharing Approach From the initial evaluation about prospect of community participation, it can be perceived that people of Sindang Laut village is very interested to be involved in the collaboration. Based on the information before, technical plan of the collaboration which is written down in the draft of MoU start to be formulated more detail. Formulation of MoU draft between RDCFCR at one side and candidates of participants from Sindang Laut Village on the other side was done based on following principles: 1. Collaboration is economically feasible during contract period. 2. There are mutual objective that is going to be attained 3. There is mutual and fair arrangement based on contribution of each party involved to reach mutual objective 4. There is mutual understanding about risk and consequences in the collaboration Main aims of the collaboration are to increase forest land productivity and to improve social economic condition of the people surrounding KHDTK Carita (especially community of Sindang Laut village) which its dependency upon forest is relatively high. After mutual agreement on those basic principles has been reached, points of MoU draft start to be formulated and then further with all stakeholders involved. The discussion was carried out on September 11, 2008 and attended by personnel of KHDTK Carita (3 persons), RDCFCR researchers (8 persons) and candidates of participants of community (34 persons). From the discussion, draft then was further evaluated and finally reached ending agreement with several minor revisions. Draft of MoU then again was further discussed among MoU committee and after several amendments and correction final draft of MoU was successfully formulated. The final draft of MoU was signed by those two parties (RDCFCR) and Sindang Laut community).
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Alternative Scenario for Profit Sharing System in Agarwood Plantation Establishment As already mentioned before, agarwood plantation establishment is expected to be one promising alternative to accomodate ecological concern in one hand and social economic preferences on the other hand. Agarwood tree species is selected since it is shade tolerant tree species which could grow well on area with limited light intensity (< 70%) like in KHDTK Carita, easy to cultivate and manage and has high economic value. However, since it is capital intensive farming bussiness, it is difficult for the people to develop themselves. They need other party to collaborate and work together in the bussiness. Table 1. Alternatives of Partnership Model that Could be Developed Scenario I Scenario II Scenario III Type of input 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Land
Scenario IV 1 2 3
Production input) Labor Inoculation material Cost for inoculation Production process Marketing Note 1: Farmers; 2: Investor; 3: Government/Others; 1&2 on state own forest, 3&4 on private own forest Table 1 shows example of several possible scenario models in profit sharing scheme among stakeholders. Each stakeholder might have different resources to contribute in agarwood collaboration business. Subsequently, sharing of profit/benefit which is going to be obtained by each stakeholder also varies depends on contribution of each stakeholder involved and mutual agreement determined before. Different from big scale agarwood business (developed by investor having sufficient capital) which mostly develops monoculture cultivation, profit sharing system in agarwood plantation establishment in KHDTK Carita is implemented through intercropping system among other tree stands grow in the area. Consequently number of agarwood tree species planted is relatively small and varies depend on size of farmer’s land holding and population density. With this profit sharing system, people with limited capital, technology and market access could have an opportunity to learn and participate in agarwood business. Collaboration agreement achieved in profit sharing system scheme in KHDTK Carita can be seen in annex 1. Feasibility of Agarwood Plantation Business In order to have description about feasibility of agarwood plantation business, an example of financial analysis using 60% survival rate is presented below. The calculation is based on several restrictions and assumptions i.e. a. Size of agarwood plantation for the calculation is one hectare with 5 x 5 m tree spacing à population density is 400 trees/ha. b. Survival rate of agarwood until it can produce is assumed 60% with average production 2 kg/ tree à estimation of total final production is 480 kg/ha. Total final production consists of three different qualities i.e kemedangan I 10 %, kemedangan II 40% and kemedangan III 50%. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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c. Price of agarwood product after artificial inoculation application is Rp 5 million/kg for kemedangan I, Rp 2 million/kg for kemedangan II and Rp 500 thousand/kg for kemedangan III. d. Wage of labor is assumed Rp 50,000/manday, whereas wage of labor for inoculation activity is Rp 30,000/tree. e. Interest rate used in this financial analysis is 15%/year Based on the restrictions and assumptions mentioned above, total investment cost needed for cultivation one hectare agarwood plantation until harvesting is Rp 141.350 million. Total investment cost consists of pre investment cost, land preparation and planting Rp 26.50 million, cost of material and equipment Rp 40.350 million and cost for wage of labor Rp 74.50 million. Result of financial analysis shows that agarwood plantation bussiness is feasible to be established and it could provide net present value (NPV) Rp 147.74 million/ha, IRR 48.53% and B/C = 3.32 (annex 2).
CONCLUSION Based on evaluation of prospect of research collaboration (community participation and process of mutual agreement) in agarwood plantation establishment, it can be concluded that: 1. Collaboration in agarwood plantation establishment in KHDTK Carita where majority of the area has been occupied by local people has become one alternative solution to preserve KHDTK forest, increase land productivity and community’s income. 2. Response of local community towards agarwood plantation establishment is quite positive; this can be seen from their efforts in understanding each part of MOU. 3. Main principles persist in the collaboration are sustainability and economic feasibility based on contribution of each stakeholder involved in the collaboration. 4. Financial analysis by using 15% interest rate shows that Agarwood plantation bussiness is feasible to be established
REFERENCES Blanchette, R. A, 2006. Sustainable Agarwood Production in Aquilaria Trees. http:// forestpathology. cfans.umn.edu/agarwood.htm access November, 3 2008 Peraturan Pemerintah No. 6 tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan serta Pemanfaatan Hutan. Singarimbun, M dan Sofian, E., 1982. Metoda Penelitian Survai LP3ES, Jakarta. Siran, S. A. 2010. Perkembangan Pemanfaatan Agarwood. Dalam: Pengembangan Teknologi Produksi Agarwood Bebasis Pemberdayaan Masyarakat. (Siran, S. A. & Turjaman, M. Ed). 1-30. Sitepu, I.R., Santoso E., Turjaman M. 2010. Fragrant Wood Agarwood : When the Wild Can No Longer Provide. Published by ITTO PD425/06 Rev.1 (I). Bogor SK. Menteri Kehutanan tentang Hutan Kemasyarakatan (HKM) No. 31 tahun 2001 Sulaeman, F., 1995. PRA Suatu Metoda Pengkajian dengan Partisipasi Penuh Masyarakat. Prosiding Lokakarya “Metodologi Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) dalam Alternatif Sistem Tebas-Bakar. Laporan ASB-Indonesia No.2, Bogor. Squidoo, 2008. Production and marketing of cultivated agarwood. http://www.squidoo.com/ agarwood Copyright © 2008, Squidoo, LLC and respective copyright owners. Accessed November,3 2008 378 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
Annex 1.
COOPERATION AGREEMENT CONTRACT MANAGEMENT OF FOREST RESOURCES IN COOPERATION WITH COMMUNITY (PHBM) THROUGH PRODUCT SHARING SYSTEM IN AGARWOOD TREE CULTIVATION, IN COMPARTMENT 21 OF SPECIFIC PURPOSE FOREST TERRITORY (KHDTK) CARITA, PANDEGLANG, BANTEN
On this day, Wednesday, 28 May 2008, in the village of Sindang Laut, subdistrict of Carita, we, the undersigned herewith, namely: 1. Ir. Sulistyo A. Siran, MSc, Chief of Research Evaluation and Service Affairs in Center for Forest and Nature Conservation Research and Development, Agency for Forestry Research and Development, Ministry of Forestry, who in this case acts for and on behalf of Center for Forest and Nature Conservation Research and Development, and who henceforth in this agreement contract document is referred to as THE FIRST PARTY. 2. Ustad Djafar, Chairman of Farmer Group Hutan Giri Wisata Lestari, a resident of village of Sindang Laut, Carita Subdistrict, District of Pandeglang, who in this case acts and on behalf of Farmer Group Hutan Giri Wisata Lestari, and who henceforth in this agreement contract document is referred to as THE SECOND PARTY, for the purpose of research on Management of Forest Resources in Cooperation with Community, through Product Sharing System, in compartment 21, as large as approximately 40 ha, of specific purpose forest territory (KHDTK) Carita (Research Forest / HP), Pandeglang, Banten, as THE FIRST PARTY and THE SECOND PARTY agree to commit ourselves in a Cooperation Agreement Contract for Forest Management with terms and conditions as regulated and stipulated in the following articles and verses: Article 1 THE BASIS OF COOPERATION AGREEMENT CONTRACT 1. Decree of Forestry Minister No.456/Menhut-VII/2005 concerning Five Priority Policies in the field of Forestry in National Development Program of Indonesia of the Indonesia Bersatu Cabinet. 2. Decree of Forestry Minister No.290/Kpts-II/2003 dated 26 August 2003, concerning the allocation and designation of KHDTK as large as ± 3000 (three thousand) hectares located in sub district of Labuan, district of Pandeglang, the province of Banten, as Research Forest Carita. 3. Decree of Forestry Minister No.291/Kpts-II/2003 dated 26 August 2003 concerning the utilization of Forest Territory. 4. Decree of Chief of Forestry Research and Development Agency No. 68 / Kpts / VIII / 2004 concerning the formation of team for compiling plan of management of Research Forest Carita. 5. Decree of Chief of Forestry Research and Development Agency No. SK 90 / Kpts / VIII/ 2007 concerning the appointment of Person in Charge of Management of KHDTK within the scope of Forestry Research and Development Agency
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Article 2 OBJECTIVES Optimizing the function and benefit of KHDTK Carita for ensuring forest sustainability and achievement of people’s welfare through application of science and technology in the field of forestry through: 1. Application of forest management concept on community basis for the purpose of creating sustainable forest management and community with appropriate welfare. 2. Providing opportunity for people community around the Research Forest Carita to participate and play active roles in forest management, while attempting to improve their welfare. Article 3 OBJECT OF THE AGREEMENT CONTRACT 1. Experimental plot as large as approximately 40 hectares in the compartment 21 in the Territory of Research Forest Carita. 2. Forest plants (trees) and other agricultural crops and trees planted in the location mentioned in article 3, verse 1 which constitute the objects of agreement contract and consensus of the parties involved in the agreement contract. Article 4 RIGHTS AND OBLIGATION OF THE PARTIES IN THE AGREEMENT CONTRACT THE FIRST PARTY has the obligations: 1. To involve the SECOND PARTY in the cooperation activity of research on “Forest Re sources Management in Cooperation with the Community through Product Sharing System of Agarwood Cultivation”, and provide opportunity to the SECOND PARTY for taking benefits from undergrowth crops which are tolerant to shade, fruit crops, and /or multiple use crops in the forest territory as mentioned in article 3, verse 1. 2. To provide funding for the SECOND PARTY for conducting agarwood tree cultivation which comprises the cost for planting (cost for wages and planting stock of agarwood) in compartment 21, with number of planting stocks ± 15 000 (fifteen thousand planting stocks). 3. To provide technical guidance of agarwood cultivation for THE SECOND PARTY, minimally once in a year since year 2008, up to year 2011. 4. To provide and supply fungi for agarwood formation in the activity of inoculation / injection of agarwood plants in compartment 21, as many as 25 % of the total number of agarwood plants of the SECOND PARTY (for each cultivator / tenant farmer). 5. To help in seeking investors for cooperation in producing fungi for agarwood formation in the activity of inoculation / injection of agarwood plants for the other 75 % of agarwood plants. 6. To provide training of agarwood cultivation and harvesting (agarwood training package) which will be conducted at the latest in year 2010, for the SECOND PARTY? 7. Together with the SECOND PARTY, to conduct activity of inoculation/ injection of agarwood plants in compartment 21, as many as 25 % of the total number of agarwood plants of each cultivator (each tenant farmer) after the agarwood plants reach age of ≥ 5 years ( five years or older). 8. To provide information on all forms of activity and policies of forest management in the cooperation site, to the SECOND PARTY. 380 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
9. Together with the SECOND PARTY, to maintain the security of forest territory and take care of the forest resources in the cooperation site as mentioned in article 3, verse 1, for the sustainability of forest function and benefits. 10. To report every act of law violation to the relevant authority. THE FIRST PARTY has the rights of: 1. Conducting observation and measurement of agarwood and other forest plants cultivated in the cooperation site, and conducting observation and measurement of biophysical and socioeconomic condition. 2. Conducting maintenance of (weeding, fertilizer application, pest and disease control, replanting of failures, pruning, and thinning) agarwood plants in cooperation site, as long as these activities are necessary for research purpose. 3. Conducting tree felling in the cooperation site, as long as necessary for research purpose. 4. Obtaining report of activities conducted by the SECOND PARTY. 5. Obtaining information from the SECOND PARTY concerning all things related with development condition of agarwood and other forest plants, and agricultural crops which constitute the cooperation objects. 6. Obtaining reports from the SECOND PARTY concerning all forms of events and law violations which occur in the forest territory which constitutes the cooperation object. THE SECOND PARTY has the obligation: 1. To maintain and safeguard the security of agarwood and other forest plants / trees (applying organic manure / compost, eradicating weeds and pests / diseases which disturb the agarwood plant growth) until the harvesting time of the agarwood plants. 2. To maintain and safeguard forest resources in the forest territory of the cooperation site as mentioned in article 3, verse 1 for the sake of forest benefit and function sustainability. 3. Together with the FIRST PARTY, to monitor and evaluate periodically the success of agarwood plants and other forest plants. 4. To follow technical regulations and conservation principles / norms which are enforced within the management of territory of research forest Carita, and maintain forest sustainability. 5. To report every occurring acts of law violation to the FIRST PARTY. 6. To report every event to the FIRST PARTY, such as attack by pests / diseases on plants, fires, or natural disasters which cause forest resources damage, either on agarwood plants or other plants in the cooperation area. THE SECOND PARTY has the rights: 1. To obtain information from the FIRST PARTY concerning all forms of activities and policies of forest resource management in the cooperation site. 2. To obtain technical guidance and counseling from the FIRST PARTY on agarwood cultivation in compartment 21, in the territory of KHDTK Carita, minimally as many as 1 (one) time per year, since the year 2008, up to year 2011. 3. To obtain fungi from the FIRST PARTY for inoculation / injection of agarwood plants, in compartment 21, as many as 25 % of the total number of agarwood plants of each cultivator (tenant farmer). 4. To obtain aid from THE FIRST PARTY to seek investors for cooperating in production of fungal medication for activity of inoculation / injection of agarwood plants for the other 75 % The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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of agarwood plants. 5. To obtain training of agarwood cultivation (package of agarwood training from) the FIRST PARTY, which is conducted at the latest in year 2010. 6. Together with the FIRST PARTY, to conduct activity of inoculation/ injection of agarwood plants in compartment 21, as many as 25 % of the total number of agarwood plants of each cultivator (each tenant farmer) after the agarwood plants reach age of ≥ 5 years ( five years or older). Article 5 PLANTING SYSTEM AND PLANT SPECIES Planting arrangement and lay out in the cooperation site are based on conservation principles, which are among other things: 1 Planting system of agarwood which is related with pattern and planting density is determined and agreed upon by the TWO PARTIES, and follows the principles and norms of land conservation. 2 The planted species of agarwood is Aquilaria spp which is interplanted among / within the existing stand of plants, such as meranti, kapur, cengkeh (clove), melinjo, and others. 3 The TWO PARTIES are not allowed to add or subtract the species planted, except in the case that there had been agreement between the TWO PARTIES. Article 6 RIGHTS OF UTILIZATION 1. Forest territory which constitutes the object of this cooperation agreement contract is state forest and cannot be subjected to in any transaction with any party. Article 7 PRODUCT SHARING In the implementation of this cooperation, the contracting parties have agreed on the proportion and mechanism of output sharing from agarwood plant yield and other forest products, with the following terms: 1. The SECOND PARTY has the right of harvesting and utilizing products of undergrowth vegetation which are tolerant to shade, fruit crops and / or of multiple use crops occurring in their own respective tract of cultivated land. 2. The FIRST PARTY and the SECOND PARTY obtain the yield of agarwood plants which are planted and tended in the cooperation site with proportion of 35 % for the FIRST PARTY and 60 % for the SECOND PARTY. 3. Beside for the FIRST PARTY and the SECOND PARTY, some portion of the agarwood plant yield will be given to Village of Sindang Laut as much as 2.5 % and to LMDH (group) as much as 2.5 %. 4. If during the harvesting of agarwood plants, it turns out that there are plants which die / disappear / do not produce yield / have not produced yield, then this risk will be borne together, so that the calculation of product sharing during harvesting time is determined with the following formula: P final = Σ total plant - Σ dead plant x P initial Σ total plant Note: P final = p roportion of agarwood yield product sharing which is received by each party if 382 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
there are plants which die / disappear / do not produce yield / have not produced yield. P initial =proportion of agarwood yield product sharing in accordance with agreement contract as stated in this agreement contract 5. The harvesting of agarwood plant yield is conducted jointly by the FIRST PARTY and the SECOND PARTY and the income is distributed in nominal term of the sale value after being subtracted by the cost of production in accordance with the consensus as stated in this contract document. Article 8 DURATION OF AGREEMENT CONTRACT 1. For ensuring the existence of benefit sustainability and legal certainty for the contracting parties, the duration of contract agreement of PHBM for this agarwood cultivation will be valid for 5 (five) years after the signing of this contract agreement, and the contract will end on 17 November 2013. This contract agreement will also be valid as long as the tenant farmers cultivate the forest land in the cooperation site, as shown by presence of activities of plant cultivation in the cooperation site, comprising planting, plant maintenance / tending and benefit utilization. 2. This agreement contract of forest management will be evaluated every 1 (one) year. 3. After the duration of this cooperation contract agreement end, the contract agreement could be prolonged by considering the condition and regulation existing during the prolongation of the contract agreement. 4. If after the end of the duration of this contract agreement, there is no prolongation of the contract, then all plants existing in the cooperation site as mentioned in article 3, verse 1, should be returned to the state. Article 9 PENALTY AND REWARDS 1. If the SECOND PARTY did not fulfill the consensus in accordance with article 6, verse 2 and verse 3, the right of land cultivation as tenant farmer will be revoked. 2. If the SECOND PARTY did not fulfill the consensus in accordance with article 7; verse 2, 3, 4 and 5; and article 8, verse 4, the right of land cultivation as tenant farmer will be revoked. 3. If the FIRST PARTY cannot fulfill the obligation as stated in article 4, then the the FIRST PARTY does not have the right to obtain the profit as described in article 7. 4. If the land cultivated by the tenant farmer is not managed properly, then the SECOND PARTY will get penalty in the form of: • Oral warning / reprimand. • Written warning / reprimand with maximum frequency of 3 (three) times. • Unilateral breaking or severing of the cooperation contract agreement. Article 10 EMERGENCY CONDITION AND FORCE MAJEURE Each party is exempted from responsibility and will not blame each other, and will not put legal claim to each other if there is delay or obstacle of work execution, either partially or wholly, due to the following things: The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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1. Occurrence of force majeure such as natural disaster, war and unintentional damage by the TWO PARTIES. 2. Condition as mentioned in verse 1 of this article should be able to be proved in accordance with existing regulation and can be agreed upon by the TWO PARTIES and known by the local authority. Article 11 DISPUTE 1. Any arising dispute will be settled through deliberation and consensus seeking. 2. If consensus could not be reached, the dispute will be settled in District Legal Court of Pandeglang regency. Article 12 OTHERS 1. Provision for changing this contract agreement could be created through joint consensus and is depicted in addendum of agreement contract. 2. This agreement contract is attached with list of names of tenant farmers of Carita Research Forest in compartment 21, together with area size of cultivated land, and sketch map as mentioned in article 3, verse 1, which constitute one entity and cannot be separated from this agreement contract document. 3. This agreement contract document is made in five copies, with sufficient seal for each copy, and each copy has the same legal validity. THE FIRST PARTY Chairman of Farmer Group Hutan Giri Wisata Lestari,
THE SECOND PARTY Chief of Research Evaluation and Service Affairs, Center for Forest and Nature Con servation Research and Development,
Ir. Sulistyo A. Siran, MSc, NIP: 080 056 172
Ustad Djafar, Witnesses: Chief of Sindang Laut village,
Leman
Chief of Research and Development for Forest and Nature Conservation
Ir. Anwar, MSc NIP 080 057 955
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| Profit Sharing System in Agarwood Plantation Establishment to Increase Social Economic Condition of Forest Dependent Community (A Case Study in KHDTKCarita, Banten) |
Annex 2. NPV, IRR and B/C Analysis of agarwood Business per hectare No. Explanation Cash Inflow (Rp I. 1000) a. Output (kg) b. Output value Kemedangan (K) I (10%) Kemedangan (K) II (40%) Kemedangan (K) III (50%) Cash Outflow (Rp II. 1000) a. Pre- investment 1. P re investment 2. L and preparation and planting 3. Land rent 4. Others Total cost for pre investment b. Cost for material and equipment 1. Agarwood seedling 2. Urea fertilizer 3. TSP/SP-36 fertilizer 4. KCL fertilizer 5. Dung 6. Agricultural equipment 7. Inoculation material Total cost for material and equipment
c. Labor cost 1. Family labor 2. Payed labor 3. L abor for inoculation Total labor cost Total cost
0
1
2
3
4
Year… 5 6
7
8
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
480 744000 744000 240000 384000 120000
500
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
500
3000
2500
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5500
1250 250
2500 250
2500 0
2500 0
2500 0
2500 0
2500 0
2500 0
1250 0
20000 500
5000
5250
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
1250
26500
0
6750
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6750
0
125
125
250
250
375
375
250
0
1750
0
350
350
700
700
1050
1050
700
0
4900
0 0
300 150
300 300
600 300
600 300
900 300
900 300
600 300
0 0
4200 1950
250
0
0
0
250
0
0
300
0
800
0
0
0
0
0
20000
0
0
0
20000
250
7675
1075
1850
2100 22625 2625
2150
0
40350
0 0
2500 1000
2500 1000
2000 500
1500 500
1500 500
1500 500
1500 500
20000 25000
33000 29500
0
0
0
0
0
12000
0
0
0
12000
0 5250
3500 3500 16425 7075
2500 6850
2000 14000 2000 6600 39125 7125
2000 6650
45000 74500 46250 141350
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III. Cash Flow Cumulative cash flow IV. a. NPV (DF 15%) b. IRR (%) c. B/C
-5250 -16425 -7075 -6850 -6600 -39125 -7125 -6650 697750 602650 -5250 -21675 -28750 -35600 -42200 -81325 -88450 -95100 602650 147.742 48,53% 3,3176
Note: Production of Agarwood is 480 kg/ha with average price Rp 1,550,000-/kg); Price of K1= Rp 5 million/kg, K2= Rp 2 million/kg and K3=Rp 500.000/kg Price of seedling Rp 15.000, total seedling needed including replanting is 450 seedlings. Price of urea fertilizer Rp 2500/kg,TSP Rp 7000/kg, KCL Rp 6000/kg and dung Rp 150/kg Price of inoculation material Rp 50,000/tree)
386 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
Malapari (Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre) as an Alternative Species for Forest Plantation Marfuah Wardani1 and Nurwati Hadjib2 Conservation and Rehabilitation Research and Development Center
1
2
E-mail:
[email protected] Forest Products and Technological Research and Development Center E-mail:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Malapari (Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre) is a multipurpose tree species that is lesser known in Indonesia. This tree belongs to family Fabaceae and is a fast growing species, resistant to dry climate and well-grown on poor soils. The wood is used for cabinets, carriage wheels, paper pulp, firewood and charcoal. Seeds produce oils, as a potential raw material of biodiesel. Inflorescence is potential as a honey bee. Based on the growing properties and uses, malapari has a good prospect to be developed for Forest Plantation in Indonesia. Key words: malapari, tree aspects, uses
INTRODUCTION Forest plantation is designed to produce timber and non timber. Malapari (Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre) is a multipurpose tree species, fast growing and has an economical value which is a good prospect to be planted on the coast in Indonesia. This species has been well adapted on most soil types ranging from stony to sandy to clayey, and very tolerant of saline condition and also tolerant of alkalinity. Mature trees withstand light frost and tolerate temperatures of over 50°C, and annual rainfall required is 500-2500 mm, with a dry season of 2-6 months (Oyen, 2006). Flowering and fruiting occur throughout the season, and this species also can easily be propagated by seed and cutting. The wood of malapari is used for cabinets, carriage wheels, pulp paper, and firewood (Hanum and Maesen, 1997). The wood is also used for temporary shelters, and twigs are used as a toothbrush (Valkenburg, 2001). Malapari seeds is used to create biofuel and diesel, used in modern engines. These are also extensively used in leather industry, soap making and lubricant manufacturing. In India, malapari is called pongam and planted as a producer of seeds oil (Lele, 2010). The trees with a large canopy which spread equally wide can serve wind breaks sea, and the deep roots can withstand the waves and tsunamis. The large canopy with attractive colored flowers, often is planted such as shade trees and ornamental trees (Lele, 2010). In order to support its development efforts, this article discusses various aspects of this species including its wood and non wood.
MORPHOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION, ECOLOGY AND SILVICULTURE Morphology Malapari is included into the family: Fabaceae, genus: Pongamia, Species: Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Plantamor, 2008). Synonyms: Pongamia glabra Ventenat, Millettia novo-guineensis Kanehira & Hatusima, Derris indica (Lamk) JJ Bennett (Hanum & Maesen, 1997). Local names: The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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malapari (Indonesia), in Java, the local names: dasapri, cangkil, ki pahang, pahang laut, bangkong, kepik (Bagian Botani Hutan, 1977; Plantamor, 2008). Valkenburg (2001) informs that P. pinnata (L.) Pierre is the synonym of Millettia pinnata (L.) Panigrahi, local names: pongam (UK), pongame tree oil (United States), ki pahang (Sunda), bangkong (Java), Kranji (Madura), mempari, pea sea timber (Malaysia), sons (Philippines), khayi, yi-nam (Thailand). Observations of Wardani (2010) in coastal forests Pangelekan, Batukaras, Ciamis, West Java, malapari is a small to large tree, 6-15 m tall, 20-60 cm in diameter. The trunk is generally short with thick branches spreading into a dense hemispherical crown of dark green leaves. The leaves will fall off when there is a ripe fruit. The bark is thin gray to grayish- brown, and yellow on the inside, smooth or faintly vertically fissured. Valkenburg (2001) informs that malapari is shrub or tree with spreading branches, 15-25 m tall, trunk up to 80 cm in diameter. Description (Oyen, 2006): branchlets with pale stipule scars. Leaves imparipinnate, pinkish-red when young, glossy dark green above and dull green with prominent veins beneath when mature; leaflets 5-9, ovate, elliptical or oblong, 5-25 cm x 2.5-15 cm, obtuse-acuminate at apex, rounded to cuneate at base. Inflorescence raceme-like, axillary, 6-27 cm long, bearing pairs of strongly fragrant flowers; calyx campanulate, 4-5 mm long, truncate, finely pubescent; corolla white to pink, purple inside, brownish veined outside; standard rounded obovate, 1-2 cm long, with basal auricles, often with green central blotch, thinly silky hairy; wings oblong, oblique, slightly adherent to obtuse keel; stamens 10, monadelphous, vexillary one free at base, joined to the tube in the middle. Pod shortstalked, oblique-oblongoid to ellipsoid, flat, 5-8 cm x 2-3.5 cm x 1-1.5 cm, smooth, thick-leathery to subwoody, beaked, indehiscent, 1-2-seeded. Seed compressed ovoid, 1.5-2.5 cm x 1.2-2 cm x 0.8 cm, with a brittle coat.
Figure 1. Leaves, flowers and young fruit of malapari (Pongamia pinnata) Distribution The natural distribution of malapari is along coasts from India to China, Malesia and Pasific islands, Mascareaes (Whitmore et al., 1997). It has been introduced in Egypt and Florida and Hawai (Hanum dan Maesen, 1997; Valkenburg, 2001). Based on data from herbarium collections in herbarium Forest Rehabilitation and Conservation and Development Center (1977), malapari in Java occurs naturally is along from the southern coast of Banten (West Java) to Banyuwangi (East Java). It is also occurs naturally in the beach Pangelekan, Batukaras, Ciamis, West Java (Wardani, 2010). According to Setyawan et al. (2005), malapari grows in coastal areas north and south of Central Java, on the beach Wulan (Demak), beach Bogowonto (Kulonprogo and Purworejo), beach Ijo (Kebumen). 388 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Figure 2. Distribution of malapari ( Pongamia pinnata) on the beach Pangelekan, Batukara, Ciamis, West Java. Ecology Malapari in Pangelekan is found in rather open habitat at the estuaries of Cijulang. There are 90 trees with 20-60 cm in diameters, its altitudinal range is from 0-29 meters above the sea level. The tree grows wild on sandy and alluvial sediments soils, even with its roots in salt water (Wardani, 2010). In climate classification based on Schmidt & Ferguson (1951), Pangelekan coast is included in type B, and average rainfall of 3196 mm/year. This species grows naturally in coastal areas throughout the islands of Indonesia (Whitmore et al., 1997). It occurs naturally in lowland forest on limestone and rocky coral outcrops on the coast, along the edges of mangrove forest and along rivers. The best growth is found on deep sandy loams, but it will also grow on sandy soils and heavy swelling clay soils. It is very tolerant of saline conditions and tolerant of alkalinity. In its natural range, malapari tolerates a wide temperature range. Mature trees withstand light frost and tolerate temperatures of over 50°C. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1200 m. It is fairly tolerant of shade, at least when young. Annual rainfall required is 500-2500 mm, with a dry season of 2-6 months (Oyen, 2006).
Figure 3. M alapari trees (Pongamia pinnata) found in rather open habitats at Pangelekan beach, Batukaras, Ciamis, West Java. The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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Silviculture Malapari on the Pangelekan coast are naturally easy to grow by seed and cuttings that shoots waves crashing. Valkenburg (2001) informs that this species are propagated by seeds, and it can easily be propagated by cuttings. Germination takes 10-30 days, seedlings reach a height of 60 cm about 1.5 years after sowing and are easy to be planted. According to Daniel (2010), malapari is also easily established by stump cuttings of 1-2 cm root-collar in diameter, propagation by branch cuttings and root suckers is also possible. In Peninsular India, the fruiting season of malapari in December until April, and the seeding season is April to June, and the seed yield per tree ranges from about 10 kg to more than 50 kg. There are 1500-1700 seeds per kg. Seeds, which require no treatment before sowing, remain viable for about a year when are stored in air-tight containers (Daniel, 2010). Lele (2010) informs that seedlings of malapari in the field carried out at the beginning of the rainy season, with a spacing of up to 5 x 5 m and 2 x 2 m spacing block 8 m. Daniel (2010) informs, their seedlings have large root systems, so that soil should be retained around the roots during transplanting. Seedling survival and growth benefit from annual weed control is for the first three years after transplanting. Management of malapari trees, should be grown in full sun or open shade on well drained soil. Lele (2010) informs that malapari tree is a relatively low in maintenance, is resistant to high winds and drought but is susceptible to freezing temperatures below 00C. Malapari will show nutritional deficiencies if it is grown on soil with pH above 7.5. Space major limbs along the trunk are to increase the structural strength of the tree. The lateral spread of roots of this species, about 9 m in 18 years, is greater than most other tree species (Misra and Singh 1987 in Daniel, 2010). Moreover, it produces root suckers profusely. Because of these characteristics, pongam is unsuitable for agroforestry and has the potentiality to become a weed if it is not managed carefully.
Figure 4. P lanting trees of malapari (Pongamia pinnata) to produce seeds oil in Bangladesh (Lele, 2010) Pest And Diseases Some of the important pests in malapari trees are Parnara mathias, Gracillaria sp., Indarbela quadrinotata, Myllocerus curvicornis, and Acrocercops sp. (Anon, 1994 in Daniel, 2010). Attacks 390 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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by these insects cause whitish streaks and the formation of galls on affected leaves. According to Lele (2010), in Peninsular India that no pest and no diseases are of major concerns, but caterpillars occasionally cause some defoliation.
UTILIZATION OF WOOD AND NON-WOOD Utilization of Wood Malapari is a multipurpose tree as its wood and non wood can be used. The observations of Wardani (2010) on the beach Pangelekan, informs that local communities take malapari trees for timber, fire wood and charcoal. Small-diameter wood is used as firewood and charcoal for cooking, large diameter wood is used for adding the boat accessories and household items. The wood of malapari is smooth and fancy, it has durability class V, strength class II-III, and mean of specific gravity 0.67 (Oey Djoen Seng, 1990). Hanum and Maesen (1997), inform that the wood is for firewood, cabinets, carriage wheels, pulp and paper. The wood, with a calorific value of 4600 kcal per kg, is commonly used as firewood and charcoal. The wood is smooth and fancy that often be used for stalks comb and agricultural equipment (Daniel, 2010). The wood with processing techniques is expected to be more optimal on its utilization. Malapari provides two sources of energy: the wood is burnt as a cooking fuel, while the seed-oil is used for illumination (Daniel, 20100). Utilization of Non Wood Utilization of non-wood is relatively more varied than in its wood utilization. Pangelekan communities use the leaves, flowers and fruit to feed livestock during the dry season. Malapari tree stands are able to protect the land from the sea wind, waves and tsunamis. Garsetiasih and Takandjandji (2007) inform that the malapari leaves commonly are eaten by Timor deer in their natural habitat. Kristina (2007) writes about the leaves can be used for compost fertilizer and insecticide. The flowers are also used for compost because they contain high nutrients for plants, and the color of beautiful flowers of malapari tree often be used as an ornamental tree in parks and roadside (Wikipedia, 2010). Trees bloom throughout the season as it is important for honey bees. The flowers are a good source of pollen and nectar, yielding a dark honey (Oyen, 2006). Mardjono (2008) informs that malapari can be used for medicinaly, and the bark can be made into rope. The root and bark extracts can be utilised as a fish poison while bark extracts can cure mange. The extracts from the leaves, bark and seed are applied as anti-septic against skin diseases and rheumatism. Malapari trees produce seeds and oils that have many uses. In India, seed oil is used as fuel for cooking and lighting, lubricating materials, paints, pesticides, oil tanning, soap making materials, rheumatic drugs, drugs of human and animal skin diseases (Wikipedia, 2010). The seeds produce vegetable oil for biodiesel, waste to fuel oil meal and organic fertilizer or animal feed (Mardjono, 2008). Seeds produced from each adult tree is to be predicted up to 50 kg, and its 25 percent is for fuel oil yield (Kristiani, 2007). Seed oil of malapari as biofuel is environmentally friendly. Its use can be mixed with diesel or pure without mixture of diesel, and its use can be done without the need for engine modification (Raharjo, 2010).
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PROSPECTS Malapari is a multipurpose tree species which could be further developed for forest plantation in Indonesia. This species also could be used to support the supllies of wood, seed oil, biofuel, honey, and medicinal for industries. Malapari development for commercial use for the production of biofuel is promising compared to other tree species. India in 2003 campaigned for the planting of more than 20 million trees malapari as seeds for biodiesel producers, involving 45 thousand poor farmers (Wikipedia, 2010). If we plant 200 trees per hectare with a spacing of 5 mx 4 m, we will get the results of 25 kg to 40 kg per tree with the oil content of 30% to 35%, and one person can collect the seeds of 180 kg in 8 hours (Lele, 2010). Seed collection cost in India is Rs. 4 per kg, or its cost is the same as Rp. 714,- per kg in Indonesia. Seed collection cost in Indonesia for one person is Rp. 128,520,- per day. Raharjo (2010) informs that malapari trees are fruiting for the first in 4 years with the production of 9 kg dry per tree. Optimal production is 90 kg per tree when trees aged 70-10 years and the planted 100 trees per hectare will produce 9 tons of fruits with oil yield of 30% - 40%, biodiesel production within one year is to reach 3-3.5 tonnes per hectare. Malapari is also prospected for reforestration of marginal land. Its extensive root system making it is valuable for checking erosion and is grown as a wind break. Tree stands can protect beach from abrasion as well as tsunamis.
CONCLUSION Malapari tree species can be considered as a priority in the development for forest plantations in Indonesia. It is required a further study and research of many aspects.
REFERENCES Bagian Botani Hutan, 1997. Papilionacea. Daftar Nama Pohon-Pohonan Jawa-Madura. Lembaga Penelitian Hutan, Bogor.pp:61,62,73,98,96,111. Daniel, J.N. 2010. Pongamia pinnata - a nitrogen fixing tree for oilseed. www.winrock.org/forestry/ , diakses tanggal 22 November 2010. Garsetiasih, R. dan M. Takandjandji, 2007. Model Penangkaran Rusa. Proseding Ekspos HasilHasil Penelitian di Padang. Pusal Litbang Hutan dan Konservasi Alam. Bogor.pp:35-46. Hanum, F.I. & van der Maesen, L.J.G., 1997. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre in Auxiliary plants. PROSEA Vol 11:209-211. Irwanto, 2008. Kayu Besi Pantai (Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre ) Tumbuhan Sumber Bahan Bakar Alternatif. www.irwantoshut.com . Diakses tanggal 7/1/2010. Kristiani, 2007. Tanaman Alternatif Sumber Biodisel: Pongamia (Pongamia pinnata L. Pierre). www. old.gardenweb.info Diakses tanggal 21/9/2010. Lele, S. 2010. Karanj (Pongamia pinnata).
[email protected], diakses tanggal 22 November 2010. Mardjono, Rusim, 2008. Mengenal Ki Pahang (Pongamia pinnata) Sebagai Bahan Bakar Alternatifharapan Masa Depan. Warta Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanaman Industri, Pusat Penelitian Dan Pengembangan Perkebunan. Bogor. Volume 14 Nomor 1.pp:1-2.
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Oey Djoen Seng, 1990. Berat jenis dari jenis-jenis kayu Indonesia dan pengertian berat kayu untuk keperluan praktek. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hasil Hutan. Bogor. Pengumuman No.13:159. Oyen, L.P.A. 2006. Pongamia pinnata Merr. Auxiliary plants. PROSEA. No. 11:209-211. Plantamor, 2008. Informasi Spesies Pongamia pinnata. On Line www.Plantamor.com Diakses tanggal 22/6/2010. Raharjo, A. A., 2010. Penghasil Solar Anyar. Majalah Trubus On Line. www.trubus-online.co.id. Diakses tanggal 29/1/2010. Schimdt, F.H. and J.H.A. Ferguson, 1951. Rain fall type based on wet and dry period ratios for Indonesia with Western New Guinea. Verh. No.42. Direktorat Metereologi dan Geofisika jakarta. Setyawan, A.D., Indrowuryatno, Wiryanto, K. Winarno, A. Susilowati, 2005. Tumbuhan Mangrove di Pesisir Jawa Tengah: Keanekaragaman Jenis. Biodiversitas, Vol.6, No.2:90-94. Soerawidjaja dalam Raharjo,A.A., 2010. Penghasil Solar Anyar. Majalah Trubus On Line. www. trubus-online.co.id. Diakses tanggal 29/1/2010. Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. 2001. Millettia Wight & Arn. Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. PROSEA. No.12(2):376-380. Wardani, M., 2010. Laporan Hasil Kegiatan Penelitian Identifikasi Jenis Flora Hutan Terancam Punah di Kawasan Hutan Pantai Cagar Alam Pangandaran dan Hutan Pangelekan, Ciamis, Jawa Barat. Pusat Litbang Hutan dan Konservasi Alam, Bogor.Tidak dipublikasikan. Whitmore, T.C.; IGM Tantar dan U. Sutisna, 1997. Tree Flora Of Indonesia Check List For Irian Jaua. Forest Research and Development Centre, Bogor.p:154. Wikipedia, 2010. Milletia pinnata is a species of tree in the pea family, Fabaceae, that is native to southern Asia. It is often known by the synonym Pongamia pinnata. www.wikipedia. org Diakses tanggal 2/3/2010.
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Production Analysis Cost for Cultivation of Bambu Mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.) Sutiyono1 and Marfu’ah Wardani2 Researcher at Research and Development Centre of Forest Productivity Improvement Jalan Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor Indonesia. e-mail address :
[email protected] 2 Researcher at Research and Development Centre of Conservation and Rehabilitation Jalan Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor Indonesia. e-mail address :
[email protected]
1
ABSTRACT Bambu mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.) is known as a big bamboo species with straight culm. Tall culm can reach 17 meters, reaching 12 cm in diameter, wall thickness up to 1.2 cm and easy to be worked. Therefore, they are potential as a raw material for industry with bamboo based raw-materials. During this time, the source still comes from the bamboo community. So, to obtain sustainable bamboo resources with the high quality, it should do the cultivation. Research on the financial analysis of bambu mayan cultivation has been carried out and aimed at supporting the development the bambu mayan as a raw material source for bamboo-based industries. For that, descriptions of the production components cost have been done. It consists of purchasing seedlings, fertilizer, and labor to obtain the information of production costs/ha. Next, the description of the production of culm/ha/year also will be used to obtain income information. From both the production cost and revenue information will be used to determine the profitable of minimum selling price. Detail discussion accompanied by table and appendix will be presented in this paper. Keywords: bambu mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.), cultivation, financial analysis, sale price profitable
INTRODUCTION Background Bambu mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.) is classified as medium-sized bamboo species, rather rare to clump so it is easily to be exploited. The bars with the characteristics of erectculm, straight, and internodes. It almost did not stand out with long culms can reach 18 meters, diameter of culm 11 cm, thickness of culm wall can reach 1.62 cm and culm fresh weight reached 39 kg. Distribution of natural bambu mayan is found only in West Java and in the western part of Banyuwangi, East Java with the name of Pring serit (Sutiyono, 1987; 2010; Widjaja, 1987). During this time, bambu mayan culms only are used locally to manufacture low-income housing construction, the manufacture of home appliances, handicrafts, furniture, plant stakes and any other purposes. But by looking at the characteristics of bambu mayan above, the bambu mayan stem is potentially to be used as industrial raw materials of playbamboo, bamboo lamina, chopsticks and paper prayers. Looking at prospects for the utilization of bambu mayan above, it seems potentially a source of industrial raw materials which could substitute for timber. The types of industrial raw materials from wood that can be substituted by bambu mayan plywood among others. The industry requires large amounts of timber and continuously which can cause damage to forests and reduce the 394 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| Production Analysis Cost for Cultivation of Bambu Mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.) |
quality of the environment. Though these types of industrial raw materials can be substituted into the production of bamboo products : play bamboo, bamboo lamina, paper, chopsticks, toothpicks, skewers, cotton candy and candy stalk ice cream scoop. Until now, the source of bambu mayan stems still comes from the community garden or fields that were found to grow wild with no or little maintenance. Bambu mayan groves owned by the community for generations and very rarely are cultured with a slightly damaged condition by the age structure and composition of the culm that is difficult to know. To produce bambu mayan culms better, by knowing the age of the culm in order to obtain a uniform source of raw materials both size and age of the culm and sustainable production, making it is so easy in the production process and to produce a quality product. Therefore, it takes efforts to cultivate bambu mayan for sustainability of raw materials and maintain the quality of its products. In addition, raw materials should be available in large quantities, sustainable and economically viable. Sources of raw materials can only be obtained through the cultivation of bamboo. One of important factors is the presence of information costs of production and productivity culms / ha / year. It needs to obtain the necessary information and feasibility study of production costs and the price of bamboo. Objective The objective of research is to obtain the information of production cost of bambu mayan (G.robusta) cultivation and the feasible price of their culm .
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Location The study was conducted at 4 sites that are available for bambu mayan clumps either people’s bamboo, bamboo plantations or bamboo collections. Places study are : 1. Rumpin, around Bogor area (people’s bamboo), 2. Forest research station Arcamanik, Bandung (bamboo collection) 3. Forest research stationTanjungan, South Lampung (bamboo collection) 4. PT Great Giant Pineaple, Co in Terbanggi Besar, Central Lampung (bamboo plantation) Collection and Analysis of Data The data were collected at research location consist of : 1. Data of bamboo cultivation : to get the information of the number of bamboo seedlings/ha and the amount of labor needed, 2. Data of local price of bamboo seedlings, urea and TSP fertilizer and wage labor. All data were tabulated and calculated to obtain the information needs of seedlings, fertilizer and labor. Furthermore, the data that has been calculated is expressed in units/ha. To find out the cost of making bambu mayan cultivation, all the information needs of seeds, fertilizers and the amount of labor were multiplied by the local price / local wage at the time of the survey.
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION Production Cost Component Seedlings of bamboo Bambu mayan is classified into the medium size bamboo but they have many culms in the clump. Therefore, it should be planted at wide spacing in order to produce culm in high productivity. Sutiyono (2009) reported that the optimum spacing of mayan bamboo are 8.8 meter. Based on the spacing of 8.8 meters, then in 1 ha there will be 156 clumps. Therefore, the number of seedling required for mayan bamboo cultivation are 156 plus the embroidery preparation as much as 4 seedlings or completely required are 160 seedlings/ha. Production facility Beside seedlings, the other of production facilities of bambu mayan cultivation are urea dan TSP fertilizers. Fertilization in bamboo cultivation is intended to maintain soil fertility and culm productivity. It is noted that every year, clumps that have been produced will be harvested as much as 40 tons culms/ha. Therefore, the soil will require the fertilizer as substitute of the biomass that has been harvested. Research results by Alrasjid (1983), Thomas (1988) and Sutiyono (1995) noted that nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers are more influential to increase the culms productivity. In this information, it will use the kind and doses of fertilizer such as those done by Mashudi (1994; 2010) for bamboo cultivation as shown in Appendix 1 and summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Kind and dosage of fertilizer for bambu mayan cultivation until the fourth year. No 1 2 3 4
Time of activity First year Second year Third year Fourth year
Amount of fertilizer until the fourth year
Urea fertilizer (kg)
TSP fertilizer (kg)
40 80 120 200
40 80 120 200
340
340
Labor Activities of bambu mayan cultivation may consist of land clearing, planting preparation, planting and maintenance. Details of the activities until the fourth year are presented in Appendix 2, 3, 4 and 5 and summarized in Table 2. Table. 2. Labor for bambu mayan cultivation until the fourth year No. 1 2 3 4
Time of activity First year Second year Third year Fourth year
Amount of labor until the fourth year
Man Power (Man days) 81.64 22.41 23.58 23.58 151.21
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| Production Analysis Cost for Cultivation of Bambu Mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.) |
Analysis of Production Costs Production costs for bambu mayan cultivation are the costs to purchase bamboo seedlings, urea fertilizer and TSP fertilizer and labor. Results of a survey found that the unit prices of each kind of component production are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Local price/cost of each kind of production component for support the bambu mayan cultivation No. 1 2 3 4
Kind of production component Seedling Urea fertilizer TSP fertilizer Labor
Unit Price / cost (Rp) 15,000 2,000 2,000 40,000
Then, based on unit prices of bamboo seedling, prices of urea fertilizer, price of TSP fertilizer and labor costs, it can be known the production cost of bambu mayan cultivation. Appendix 6 present the details expenditure of bambu mayan cultivation until the fourth year and summarized in Table 4. Table 4. Production cost for bambu mayan cultivation until the fourth year. No. 1 2 3 4
Time expenditure costs
Amount of expenditure (Rp)
First year Second year Third year Fourth year
5,792,000 1,216,000 1,424,000 1,744,000
Amount of expenditures up to the fourth year
10,176,000
CONCLUSIONS
1. Component of production costs of bambu mayan cultivation consists of the purchase of bamboo seedlings, fertilizer and labor. 2. Bambu mayan is classified into the large bamboo species and should be planted at spacing of 8.8 meters or a population of 156 clumps/ha. Therefore, it takes 156 bamboo seedlings / ha. 3. Kind of fertilizer needed is consisting of urea and TSP, which until the fourth year it takes as much as 320 kg / ha. 4. The labor needed for the cultivation of bambu mayan is as much as 151.21 man days/ha until the fourth year. 5. The total of production cost for bambu mayan cultivation until fourth year is Rp 10.176.000,-/ ha.
REFERENCES Alrasjid, H. 1983. Pengaruh pemupukan nitrogen, phosphor, kalium terhadap pertumbuhan dan kualitas pulp bambu duri (Bambusa bambos) di kelompok hutan Turaya (Borissalo) Sulawesi Selatan. Kerjasama BPH Bogor-PT Pupuk Sriwijaya, Palembang. Mashudi, A. 1994. Pengembangan tananam bambu dan pemanfaatan lahan sepanjang aliran The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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sungai di lokasi perkebunan PT GGPC, Terbanggi Besar, Lampung Tengah. Prosiding dalam Sarasehan Strategi Penelitian Bambu Indonesia. Yayasan Bambu Lingkungan Lestari. Hal 47-53. _________. 2010. Konsultasi Pribadi. Sutiyono. 1995. Pertumbuhan tanaman bambu tali (Gigantochloa apus Kurz) umur 2 tahun. Buletin Penelitian Hutan, Pusat Litbang Hutan dan Konservasi Alam Bogor. (589) : 69-79. _________.2008. Pengaruh jarak tanam terhadap pertumbuhan bambu mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.). Dukument. _________. 2010. Karakteristik batang enam jenis bambu industri. Makalah Seminar Nasional Pusat Litbang Hutan Tanaman. Thomas, T,P. 1988. Effect of N, P and K on growth of bambusa. Proceeding of Int’l Bamboo Workshop. Cochin, India.
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| Production Analysis Cost for Cultivation of Bambu Mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.) |
Appendix 1. Production facilities of bambu mayan cultivation/ha from the first year until the fourth year Year of activity First year
Second year Third year Fourth year
No. 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 2
Kind of production facilities Seedling urea fertilizer TSP fertilizer urea fertilizer TSP fertilizer urea fertilizer TSP fertilizer urea fertilizer TSP fertilizer
Quantity/ha 156 40 40 80 80 120 120 200 200
seedlings kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
Appendix 2. Labor of bambu mayan cultivation of the first year No.
Job description
Man days
Land preparation 1 bush cutting 2 make planting stick and put planting stick 3 make planting holes Labor of land preparation Planting preparation and planting 1 bush cutting 2 ring weeding 3 seedling transporting from nursery to planting area 4 seedling distributing to planting holes 5 seedling planting 6 watering Labor of planting preparation and planting Maintenance 1 1 replacing of dead seedlings 2 fertilizing (loading and unloadingf the fertilizer, mix fertilizer, spread fertilizer, fertilizing) 3 watering 4 mulching Labor of maintenance 1 Maintenance 2 1 bush cutting 2 ring weeding 3 fertilizing (loading and unloadingf the fertilizer, mix fertilizer, spread fertilizer, fertilizing) 4 mulching 5 mounding around clump Labor of maintenance 2
1.17 2.73 21.24
Total labor of the first year
81.64
18.0 1.2 15.6 34.8 18.0 1.56 0.78 0.78 0.78 1.17 23.07 0.39 0.78 1 0.39 2.56 15 1.56 0.78
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Appendix 3. Labor/ha of bambu mayan cultivation of the second year No.
Job description
Man days
1
bush cutting
15
2
ring weeding
1.95
3
fertilizing 1 (loading and unloadingf the fertilizer, mix fertilizer, spread fertilizer, fertilizing)
0.78
4
fertilizing 2 (loading and unloadingf the fertilizer, mix fertilizer, spread fertilizer, fertilizing)
0.78
5
mulching
1.17
6
mounding around clump
2.73
Total labor of the second year
22.41
Appendix 4. Labor for bambu mayan cultivation of the third year No.
Job description
Man days
1
bush cutting
15
2
ring weeding
3.12
3
fertilizing 1 (loading and unloadingf the fertilizer, mix fertilizer, spread fertilizer, fertilizing)
0.78
4
fertilizing 2 (loading and unloadingf the fertilizer, mix fertilizer, spread fertilizer, fertilizing)
0.78
5
mulching
1.17
6
mounding around clump
2.73
Total labor of the third year
23.58
Appendix 5. Labor for bambu mayan cultivation of the fourth year No.
Job description
Man days
1
bush cutting
15
2
ring weeding
3.12
3
fertilizing 1 (loading and unloadingf the fertilizer, mix fertilizer, spread fertilizer, fertilizing)
0.78
4
fertilizing 2 (loading and unloadingf the fertilizer, mix fertilizer, spread fertilizer, fertilizing)
0.78
5
mulching
1.17
6
mounding around clump
2.73
Total labor of the fourth year
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23.58
| Production Analysis Cost for Cultivation of Bambu Mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz.) |
Appendix 6. Breakdown of expenditures for bambu mayan cultivation until the fourth year No
Kind of expenditures
Quantity
Unit price (Rp)
Cost (Rp)
First year 1
seedling
156 plant
15,000
2,340,000
2
urea fertilizer
40 kg
2,000
80,000
3
TSP fertilizer
40 kg
2,000
80,000
4
land preparation
34.8 man days
40,000
1.392,000
5
planting
23.7 man days
40,000
948.000
6
Maintenance 1, 2
23.8 man days
40,000
952.000
Cost of the first year
5,792,000
Second year 1
Urea fertilizer
80 kg
2,000
160,000
2
TSP fertilizer
80 kg
2,000
160,000
3
Maintenance
40,000
896,000
Cost of the second year
22.4 man days
1,216,000
Third year 1
Urea fertilizer
120 kg
2,000
240,000
2
TSP fertilizer
120 kg
2,000
240,000
3
Maintenance
23.6 man days
40,000
944,000
Cost of the third year
1,424,000
Forth year 1
Urea fertilizer
200 kg
2,000
400,000
2
TSP fertilizer
200 kg
2,000
400,000
3
Maintenance
23.6 man days
40,000
944,000
4
(Cutting)
Cost of the fourth year
0 man days
0
1,744,000
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The Effect of Soaking to the Seed Germination of Bambu Moso (Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex J. Houz.) Sutiyono1 and Marfu’ah Wardani2 Researcher at Research and Development Centre of Forest Productivity Improvement Jalan Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor Indonesia. e-mail address :
[email protected] 2 Researcher at Research and Development Centre of Conservation and Rehabilitation Jalan Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor Indonesia. e-mail address :
[email protected]
1
ABSTRACT Moso bamboo or Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex J. Houz. is a monopodial bamboo that grows naturally in temperate regions such as China and Japan. In 1996, moso bamboo is tried to be planted in Indonesia and showed a well-growth in the highlands with a cold weather. One of the characteristics of the seed is hard coat, therefore, it required treatments for its germination. Because still a little of known information to their seed germination, therefore it is necessary to be studied. This research aim is to know the influence of soaking to seed germination of moso bamboo. Research activity was carried out in the seed laboratory of RDCFPI, Bogor. Experiments were arranged according to complete random design consist of 4 soaking time treatments i.e. 0 hour, 3 hours, 6 hours, and 9 hours. Each treatment was consisted of 20 seeds and repeated 3 times. To germinate, the seeds were placed in a petri dish with 5 mm thick cotton and moistened with water and then were placed in the germination racks. Data collected consist of germination capacity, period germinate, initial and last day of germination. They were tabulated and for germination capacity, data were processed by mean analysis of variance. The results showed that seed germination capacity of moso bamboo with soaking of 0, 3, 6 and 9 hours are 85%, 95%, 90% and 78.3%, respectively. However, according to analysis of variance, they were not significant. So that, the seed of moso bamboo can be soaked for 3 hours long as it produces the highest percentage. Keywords : bambu moso, Phyllostachys pubescens, seeds, soaking, germination capacity
INTRODUCTION Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex J. Houz.) is a monopodial bamboo species that grow and spread widely in sub-tropical regions such as China, Taiwan and Japan. In Japan, moso bamboo is called Mato-Chiku, Kovan-Chiku, Rito-Chiku, biotan-Chiku or bioji-chku (Lawson, 1968). In China, moso bamboo has an important role in industrial bamboo products so that it is cultivated broadly both for production of culm and bamboo shoots. More than half of the bamboo plantation in China is moso bamboo, from 271.84 to 442.61 million ha. Together with the other bamboo species, the bamboo industrials produced the bamboo particle board, bamboo fiber board, bamboo playboard, bamboo floor, bamboo board and composite board decorating bamboo (Maoyi, 1999). Like most species of bamboo, moso bamboo can be propagated by vegetative and generative. Vegetative propagation is more often performed than generative breeding as bamboo is rarely fruitful. However, if a bamboo grove to fruition is found, it can be used for high-value crops. It is noted that after the bamboo fruits, whole clumps would die without being able to grow again. In another side, the bamboo fruits are very beneficial because in addition can be made of plant 402 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Effect of Soaking to the Seed Germination of Bambu Moso (Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex J. Houz.) |
material, as well as the next clumps that can be known certainly with their age. On the other hand, if the bamboo bears fruits in a large scale, there will be a vacancy production due to the bamboo die fruitfully. Wardoyo (1996) has conducted trials of moso bamboo planting in the cold temperate in Skip area, the garden of Forest Company in Tawangmangu, Forest District, North Lawu Mount, Karanganyar. Tests used plant materials from seedling in polybags and temporarily declared to adapt well in the local environment. Because moso bamboo seeds are crustaceans, the research is needed to penetrate the seeds in order to add a collection of bamboo species and the possibility of its development in Indonesia. This study aims to determine the effect of immersion time of moso bamboo seeds in water on its germination.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Site and time Research conducted at the Seed Laboratory Forest and Nature Conservation Research and Development Centre in Bogor. The activities take place from November to December 2010. Material 1. seeds of bambu moso (obtained from the Anjin, China), 2. germination rack, 3. small water spray 4. petri dish, 5. sterile cotton, Methods The experiment was arranged according to completely randomized design consisting of four treatments namely seeds soaking in water: 1. seeds soaking in 0 hours 2. seeds soaking in 3 hours, 3. seeds soaking in 6 hours, and 4. seeds soaking in 9 hours Each treatment consisted of 20 germinated seeds and repeated 3 times. Germination was done on the seeds that have been treated and been placed in a petri dish which was covered by 5 mm-thick cotton, moistened by water and then was placed at the location on the shelves of germination. Furthermore, maintenance was done every day by watering to keep wet conditions. Observations were done on the number of seeds that germinate on each day and 10 seed samples were to be observed for the process of germination. Seed is said to have germinated when the seeds that have emerged will root or radicle and buds at one of the base would be the root. Data obtained were to determine the germination, germination period, initial end last of germination. To determine the effect of soaking on germination, germination data were processed by ANOVA.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Bamboo seeds consist of a hard and stiff seed coat, as well as endosperm or food reserves, which contain small embryo going to the root or radicle, would shoot, and scutellum which is an The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
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organ that functions to send food during the germination process (Soejatmi, 1992). Seed germination process of moso bamboo is started with the absorption of water by imbibition through the entire surface of the seed coat. Once that happens, the activity in seed development accompanied embryo would be marked by the emergence of roots or radicle at the base of the seed. After 3-4 days, it will continue and grow roots on one side shoots that appear will continue to grow and develop into green shoots. The observation on influence of soaking time on germination of moso bamboo seeds is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Average of germination capacity, germination period, the first and last day of seed germination of moso bamboo (P. pubescens). Time of soaking (hour)
Germination capacity (%)
Germination Period (days)
0 3 6 9
85 a 95 a 90 a 78 a
8 8 8 8
Initial day of Last day of germination (days) germination (days) 7 7 7 7
15 15 15 15
From Table 1 above, it appears that most of the germination of seeds are soaked in treatment for 3 hours (95%), followed by each seed soaked 6 hours (90%), 0 hour (85%) and the smallest, marinated 9 hours (78%). Meanwhile, the entire treatment period lasted the same germination of 8 days, with the first day all treatments germinated at day 7 as well as the final day all treatments germinated at day 15. Although there are differences in germination, but the results of variance showed the influence of time of soaking seed treatment was not significantly different as it is showed in Table 2. Thus, the choice to determine time of immersion can be done starting from 0 hours or without soaked up soaked in 9 hours. Table 2. Analysis of variance of the effect of soaking to seeds germination of moso bamboo (P. Pubescens) Source
df
SS
MS
F-calculation
Soaking Error
3 8
212.85 1358.54
70.95 169.82
0.42ns
Total
11
1571.40
F-Ftable 0.05
0.01
3.59
6.22
Remark : ns = Not significant Meanwhile Sutiyono (2007) noted that to germinate the bamboo seeds are best used without a midrib intact seeds as the seeds used in this study. Furthermore, seed germination can be noted that most large moso bamboo was 73.3% with a germination period for 11 days, beginning to sprout on day 7 and terminated on day 18. At the temperatures of 20-25oC, bamboo seeds begin to germinate at day 7 and ending around day 15 and at the end of the germination of approximately 30 days (Anonymous 2006). From this research, it can also be known that the cumulative germination curve (Figure 1) of the 4 treatments of seed soaking, showed the same pattern. Similarly, the germination frequency curve (Figure 2) shows a similar pattern except at 6 hours of immersion treatment. In this case, 404 | The 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM of INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS)
| The Effect of Soaking to the Seed Germination of Bambu Moso (Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex J. Houz.) |
the largest seed germination frequency on day 9 for treatment 0 hours, 3 hours and 9 hours respectively are 33.4%, 23.3% and 21.7%. As for the treatment of 6 hours immersion, it is showed that the frequency of the largest germination occurred on day 7 or the first germination of 21.7%. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
hari ke (at days) ..... 3 jam
0 jam
6 jam
9 jam
Figure 1. Cumulative curve of seeds germination of moso bamboo (P. pubescens) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
hari ke (at days) ..... 0 jam
3 jam
6 jam
9 jam
Figure 2. Frequency curve of seeds germination of moso bamboo (P. pubescens) One important factor to the success of seed germination is the availability of water or moisture in addition to oxygen, temperature and sometimes light (Wilson et al 1966, Mayer and Mayber, 1975). Soaking seeds with water is an effort that is expected to accelerate the germination of seeds to germinate more quickly in unison with a high germination. However, from studies on the influence of soaking time, it did not seem to be significant. It seems that moso bamboo seeds to germinate fairly use water spray, as shown in the treatment without soaking (0 hours) which generate relatively high germination (85%). Meanwhile, Banik (1999) reported differences in light significantly affect germination of Melocana baccifera bamboo. In this case, germination of seeds in the shade larger than the seed germinated under the direct sunlight.
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CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTION 1. Soaking did not significantly affect the seed germination of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens). Thus, in germinating of moso bamboo seeds, it can be done with or without soaking the seeds first, 2. Germination of soaked moso bamboo seeds in 0, 3, 6 and 9 hours is 85%, 95%, 90% and 78.3%, respectively. Germination can not be simultaneous with the period of germination for 8 days where the first day of germination occurred at day 7 and ended at day 15. 3. In connection with the above results, it can be suggested for immersion for 3 hours because it produced the highest germination.
REFERENCES Anonymous. 2006. Cultivation and Integrated Utilization on bamboo in China. China It’l training on bamboo technology for developing countries, Nov.8 2006-February 5.2007. China National Bamboo Reseacrh Center, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, PR China. p: 178179. Banik, R, L. 1991. Studies on seed germination, seedling growth and nursery management of Melocana baccifera (Roxb.) Kurz. Proc. 4th Int’l Bamboo Workshop. Chiangmai, Thailand. p :113-119. Lawson, A, H. 1968. Bamboos, a gardener’s guide to Their cultivation in temperate climates. Faber and Faber Limited, London. p: 132-133. Maoyi, F. 1999. Bamboo and rattan development in China. The Int’l workshop on bamboo and rattan biodeversity conservation, utilization and technology exchange. Directorate General of Land Rehabilitation and Nature Conservation, Jakarta. Report Sidarto KD and P. Sukardi. Mayer, A, M and A. Poljakoff-Mayber. 1975. Factors affecting germination in the Germination of seeds. Pergamon Press. 2nd Edition. p: 26-45. Soejatmi, D. The bamboo os Sabah. Sabah Forest Record, For. Dep. Sabah, Malaysia. (14): 6. Sutiyono. 2007. Basic characteristics of seed germination moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex. J. Houz). 4 (5): 503-509. Forest info. Research and Development Center for Forest and Nature Conservation Bogor. Wardojo. 1996. Bamboo Planting Assessment For Land Conservation and Utilization. DAS Annual Report BTP, Solo. Wilson, C, L, Walter E. Loomis and Hannah T Croasdale. 1966. Botany. 3th Holt, Rinehart and Wiston, Inc.. USA. p: 250-269.
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APPENDIX
THE COMMITTEE OF THE 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM OF INDONESIAN WOOD RESEARCH SOCIETY (IWoRS) Steering Committe:
Dean of Faculty of Forestry Universitas Gadjah Mada Sri Nugroho Marsoem - Universitas Gadjah Mada T.A. Prayitno – Universitas Gadjah Mada Kasmudjo - Universitas Gadjah Mada Yusuf Sudo Hadi – Bogor Agricultural University M. Yusram Massijaya – Bogor Agricultural University Subyakto – Indonesian Institute of Sciences Anita Firmanti – Research Institute for Human Settlements
Organizing Committe: Chairman: Joko Sulistyo – Universitas Gadjah Mada Secretary:
Ganis Lukmandaru - Universitas Gadjah Mada Fanny Hidayati - Universitas Gadjah Mada Titis Widowati - Universitas Gadjah Mada Yus Andhini BP - Universitas Gadjah Mada Dwi Sukma Rini– Universitas Gadjah Mada
Treasurer:
Ragil Widyorini – Universitas Gadjah Mada
Program:
J.P Gentur Sutapa - Universitas Gadjah Mada Ali Awaludin - Universitas Gadjah Mada Publication: Oka Karyanto – Universitas Gadjah Mada Sasa Sofyan M. – Indonesian Institute of Sciences Syam Irianto – Indonesian Institute of Sciences Documentation:
Harry Praptoyo – Universitas Gadjah Mada
Equipment and Transportation: Vendy Eko Prasetyo – Universitas Gadjah Mada M. Navis Rofi’i - Universitas Gadjah Mada
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SYMPOSIUM AGENDA November 3 (Thursday), 2011 07.30 – 08.30 Registration 08.30 – 10.30 Plenary Session •
Opening Ceremony
•
Photo session and coffee break
• General Lecture I 10.45 – 12.00 Parallel Session I 12.00 – 13.00 Lunch 13.00 – 17.00 Field trip to Merapi Volcano 19.00 – 21.00 Banquet November 4 (Friday), 2011 08.00 – 09.30 Plenary Session -
Poster Session
-
Coffee break
-
General Lecture II
09.45 – 11.30 Parallel Session II 11.30 – 13.00 Friday Pray – Lunch 13.30 – 15.00 Parallel Session III 15.00 – 16.30 Parallel Session IV 16.45 – 17.30 Closing Ceremony Keynote Speakers - Aniela Maria (Asia Pulp and Paper) - Dr. Barbara Ozarska (The University of Melbourne) - Dr. Cihat Tascioglu (Duzce University) - Prof. Kohei Komatsu (Kyoto University) Invited Speakers : - Dr. Naresworo Nugroho (Bogor Agricultural University) - Prof. Nobuaki Hattori (Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology) - Prof. Ryo Funada (Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology) - Prof. Shigehiko Suzuki (Shizuoka University) - Dr. Sri Nugroho Marsoem (Universitas Gadjah Mada) - Prof. Yusuf Sudo Hadi (Bogor Agricultural University)
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LIST OF PARTICIPANTS No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Name Achmad Zaenudin Agus Sukarno Akahisa Kitamori Albertus Fajar Irawan Alfi Rumidatul Ali Awaludin Alpian Ana Agustina Andi Detti Y Aniela Maria Anis Sri Lestari Anita Firmanti Anne Hidayane Arief Heru Prianto Arif Nuryawan Arinana Arvita Erizal Asrianny Bandi Supraptono Bambang Subyanto Barbara Ozarska Chikara Watanabe Cihat Tascioglu Deddy Triono Nugroho A Deded S. Nawawi Dede Hermawan Dimas Andrianto Dwi Joko Priyono Edi Sukaton Effendi Tri Bahtiar
31
Efrida Basri
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
Eka Mulya Alamsyah Elis Nina Herliyana Elyzar Manuhua Enos Tangke Arung Erwinsyah Farah Diba Farida Aryani Fauzi Febrianto Firda Aulya Syamani Futoshi Ishiguri Ganis Lukmandaru Gunawan Pasaribu
Institution APKJ Jepara Universitas Gadjah Mada Kyoto University Sampoerna Agro School of Life Science and Technology (ITB) Universitas Gadjah mada Palangka Raya University Bogor Agricultural University Hasanuddin University Asia Pulp and Paper Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Research Institute for Human Settlements (RIHS) School of Life Science and Technology Bandung (ITB) Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) North Sumatera University Bogor Agricultural University Bogor Agricultural University Hasanuddin University Mulawarman University Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) The University of Melbourne Chubu University Duzce University Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Bogor Agricultural University Bogor Agricultural University Bogor Agricultural University Samarinda Agriculture Polytechnic Mulawarman University Bogor Agricultural University Center of Forest Engineering and Forest Products Processing Research and Development School of Life Science and Technology Bandung (ITB) Bogor Agricultural University Pattimura University Mulawarman University PPKS Medan Tanjungpura University Samarinda Agriculture Polytechnic Bogor Agricultural University Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Utsunomia University Universitas Gadjah Mada Aek Nauli Forestry Research Institute
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44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
Harlinda Kuspradini H.A. Oramahi Harry Praptoyo Henry Gunawan Hiroshi Fukuyama Ihak Sumardi Ika Heriansyah Ika Wahyuni Imam Wahyudi Indraswari Kusumaningrum Inggit Tutirin Irawan Wijaya Kusuma Iskandar Z Ismadi Ismail Budiman Isna Yuniar W Iwan Risnasari J.P. Gentur Sutapa Jae Hyuk Jung James Rilatupa Johanes Adhijoso Tjondro Joko Sulistyo Jong Ho Kim Jun Tanabe Kasmudjo Kayoko Hayashi Kazuki Suzuki Kazuko Makino Kensuke Shirai Kohei Komatsu
74
Krisdianto
75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
Kurniawan Wiji Lies Indrayanti Lina Karlinasari Listya Mustika Dewi Lucia Indarti Lucky Risanto Makiko Yokozeki Marfuah Wardani Margono K Muh. Azwar Massijaya Muhammad Daud Muhammad Gopar Muhammad Navis Rofii Muh. Yusram Massijaya Musrizal Muin
Mulawarman University Tanjungpura University Universitas Gadjah Mada Perum Perhutani Tokyo University School of Life Sciences and Technology Bandung (ITB) Forestry Research and Development Agency(FORDA) Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Bogor Agricultural University Universitas Gadjah Mada Bogor Agricultural University Mulawarman University Hasanuddin University Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Mulawarman University North Sumatera University Universitas Gadjah Mada Kangwon University Indonesia Christian University Parahyangan Catholic University Universitas Gadjah Mada Kangwon University Utsunomiya University Universitas Gadjah Mada Chubu University Utsunomiya University Chubu University Kyoto University Center of Forest Engineering and Forest Products Processing Research and Development Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Universitas Gadjah Mada Bogor Agricultural University Dipterocarp Research Center Indonesia Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Kyoto University Conservation and Rehabilitation R&D Center APKJ Jepara Bogor Agricultural University Hasanuddin University Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Universitas Gadjah Mada Bogor Agricultural University Hasanuddin University
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90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Myrtha Karina Nam Hum Kim Nanang Masruchin Nani Husien Naoto Ando Naresworo Nugroho Nia Widyastuti Nifa Hanifa Niken Subekti Nina Mindawati Nobuaki Hattori Noor Farikhah Noor Rahmawati Nyoman Wistara Opik Taopik Akbar Pornpun Siramon Ragil Widyorini
107
Ratih Damayanti
108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119
Rini Pujiarti Riskan Effendi Ryo Funada Saefudin Sasa Sofyan Munawar Shigehiko Suzuki Sipon Muladi Sita Heris Anita Soenardi Prawirohatmodjo Soichi Nakashima Sri Asih H Sri Nugroho Marsoem
120
Sri Suharti
121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129
Subyakto Suhardi Suhasman Suichi Doi Sukma Surya Sulaiman Yusuf Sung Ming Kwon Surdiding Ruhendi Suryono Suryokusumo
130
Sutiyono
131 132 133 134
Sutjipto A. Hadikusumo Syahidah Sunandar Syahriyati Saad Syamsul Falah
Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Kangwon University Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Mulawarman University Tokyo University Bogor Agriculture University Bogor Agriculture University Bogor Agriculture University Semarang State University Center for Forest Productivity Improvement R&D Bogor Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Bogor Agricultural University School of Life Science and Technology Bandung (ITB) Bogor Agricultural University PT.ARARA ABADI Kasetsart University Universitas Gadjah Mada Center of Forest Engineering and Forest Products Processing Research and Development Kochi University Center for Forest Productivity Improvement R&D Bogor. Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Shizuoka University Mulawarman University Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Universitas Gadjah Mada Kyoto University Mulawarman University Universitas Gadjah Mada Centre for Nature Resource Conservation and Rehabilitation Research and Development Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) GERINDRA Faculty of Forestry, Hasanuddin University Tsukuba University Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Kangwon University Bogor Agricultural University Bogor Agricultural University Research and Development Center of Forest Productivity Improvement Universitas Gadjah Mada Hasanuddin University Hasanuddin University Bogor Agricultural University,
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135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144
Takehiro Wakita Takahisa Hayashi Takuro Mori Tati Karliati Taulana Sukandi Tomoya Shimoda TA Prayitno Tomy Listyanto Toshiaki Umezawa Trisna Priyadi
145
Triyani Fajriutami
146
Wahyu Dwianto
Chubu University Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology Kyoto University School of Life Sciences and Technology Bandung(ITB) Conservation and Rehabilitation R&D Center Shizuoka University Universitas Gadjah Mada Universitas Gadjah Mada Kyoto University Bogor Agricultural University Research & Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)
147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165
Wahyu Hidayat Wahyu Supriyati Wahyudi Wayan Darmawan Wida Banar K Widianto Dwi Nugroho Widya Fatriasari Wina Hamsi F Wiwin Suwinarti Yasuo Kataoka Yoichi Kojima Yoshiyuki Yanase Yudho E.B Istoto Yuliati Indrayani Yulianto Prihatmaji Yusran Yusuf Sudo Hadi Yustinus Suranto Zetti
Palangka Raya University Ehime University Bogor Agricultural University Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Bogor Agricultural University Mulawarman University Chubu University Shizuoka University Kyoto University Universitas Gadjah Mada Tanjungpura University Islamic University of Indonesia Tadulako University Bogor Agricultural University Universitas Gadjah Mada APKJ Jepara
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PICTURES
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