Creativity and Art in Early Childhood

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310972140

Developments in Educational Sciences Book · October 2016

CITATIONS

0 1 author: Recep Efe Balikesir University 94 PUBLICATIONS   317 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Social Sciences View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Recep Efe on 28 November 2016. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Developments in Educational Sciences

Editors Recep EFE Irina KOLEVA Emin ATASOY İsa CÜREBAL

ISBN 978-954-07-4139-0

ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS SOFIA  2016

Editors Prof. Dr. Recep EFE Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography Balıkesir, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Irina KOLEVA Sofia University “St. Climent Ohridski” Faculty of History Department of Ethnology Sofia, Bulgaria

Prof. Dr. Emin ATASOY Uludağ University Faculty of Education Department of Primary Education Bursa,Turkey

Prof. Dr. İsa CÜREBAL Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography Balıkesir, Turkey

St. Kliment Ohridski University Press ISBN 978-954-07-4139-0

The contents of chapters/papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher. © 2106 Recep EFE, Emin ATASOY All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the editors and authors Cover design: Murat POYRAZ ii

CONTENTS Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................... 1  The Effect of Reasoning Education Program on 61-72 Month-Old Children’s Cognitive Abilities  Gözde İNAL KIZILTEPE, Esra ÖMEROĞLU  Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................... 17  The Opinions of Classroom Teachers on Inclusion  Remziye CEYLAN, Neriman ARAL  Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................... 31  The Predictive Power of Perception Levels towards Active Learning for Teaching Styles of Candidate Teachers  Serhat SÜRAL  Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................... 51  Determination of the Students’ Characteristics on PISA 2009 Reading Performance (Comparison of the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey)   Özen YILDIRIM, Ömer KUTLU  Chapter 5 ..................................................................................................................... 65  Comprehension Skills of Students with Learning Disabilities and Comprehensibility of Textbook Content  Mustafa KURT  Chapter 6 ..................................................................................................................... 76  Creativity and Art in Early Childhood  Münevver CAN YAŞAR, Adalet KANDIR  Chapter 7 ..................................................................................................................... 91  Child and Drawing  Mehmet SAĞLAM, Neriman ARAL  Chapter 8 ................................................................................................................... 105  Maths in Preschool Education  Türker SEZER  Chapter 9 ................................................................................................................... 116  Impact of Common Knowledge Construction Model on the Nature of Science  Esra BENLİ ÖZDEMİR, Ergin HAMZAOĞLU  Chapter 10 ................................................................................................................. 131  Parents Education in the Preschool Period  Utku BEYAZIT, Aynur BÜTÜN AYHAN  Chapter 11 ................................................................................................................. 148  Reflection of “Justice” Value to the Pictures Drawn by the Secondary School Students  Ömer Faruk SÖNMEZ, Arzu SÖNMEZ & Özlem KUM  iii

Chapter 12 ................................................................................................................. 158  The Opinions of Teaching Staff and Teachers Regarding In-Service Training Programs Organized by the Turkish MNE  Serap Nur DUMAN, Gürcü ERDAMAR  Chapter 13 ................................................................................................................. 172  Views of Prospective Teachers about Values Education: A Comparative Analysis  Rukiye ŞAHIN, Şafak ÖZTÜRK AYNAL  Chapter 14 ................................................................................................................. 183  Attachment in Children  Gökçen İLHAN ILDIZ & Emine AHMETOĞLU  Chapter 15 ................................................................................................................. 196  Preschool Children’s Mathematical Experiences in Outdoor Play  İrem GÜRGAH OĞUL, Yaşare AKTAŞ ARNAS  Chapter 16 ................................................................................................................. 208  The Importance of Educational Materials and Learning Environment in PreSchool Education  Ayşegül ŞAKIR SELİMHOCAOĞLU  Chapter 17 ................................................................................................................. 219  The Views of Research Assistants on Their Work Life and Their Well-being States: Kocaeli University Case  Yıldız ÖZTAN ULUSOY, Tuğba KONAKLI  Chapter 18 ................................................................................................................. 234  Learning Centers in Preschool Education  Şermin METIN  Chapter 19 ................................................................................................................. 244  Enhancing School-Family Collaboration: School Counselor’s Role  E.Nihal LİNDBERG, Murat KONUK  Chapter 20 ................................................................................................................. 257  Opinions of Primary and Secondary School Teachers about School Principals’ Efficacy  Nurhayat ÇELEBİ, Gülenaz SELÇUK, Remzi YILDIRIM  Chapter 21 ................................................................................................................. 271  Educational and Instructional Strategies for the Education of Talented and Gifted Children  Hacer Elif DAĞLIOĞLU, Esra ÖMEROĞLU, Safiye SARICI BULUT, Melek Gülşah ŞAHİN, Aysun TURUPCU DOĞAN  Chapter 22 ................................................................................................................. 285  Creating and Using Rubrics for Assessment  Gökhan ARI  iv

Chapter 23 ................................................................................................................. 296  Assessment of Certificate Program Pedagogical Formation Education Students in Terms of Their Technopedagogic Field Information Competencies and Attitudes towards Teaching Profession  Murat TUNCER, Melih DİKMEN  Chapter 24 ................................................................................................................. 311  A Bouquet of Regional Plays Compiled from Different Regions of Turkey  Şafak ÖZTÜRK AYNAL  Chapter 25 ................................................................................................................. 322  Creative Movement and Dance in Early Childhood Education  Ümit Ünsal KAYA, Münevver CAN YAŞAR & Nezahat Hamiden KARACA  Chapter 26 ................................................................................................................. 335  Mother-Child Communication in Terms of the Child’s Right to Participation: Playground Dialogues  Neslihan AVCI, Fatma YOL  Chapter 27 ................................................................................................................. 354  Parent-Child Communication  Hatice VATANSEVER BAYRAKTAR  Chapter 28 ................................................................................................................. 374  Educational Use of Gesture-Based Technology in Early Childhood  Mehmet ÖZKAYA & Yunus GÜNİNDİ  Chapter 29 ................................................................................................................. 386  Social Sciences and History Teacher Candidates' Attitudes toward Oral History Studies  Selman ABLAK  Chapter 30 ................................................................................................................. 395  Irrational Number Knowledge of High School Graduates  Necdet GÜNER  Chapter 31 ................................................................................................................. 403  From Theory to Practice: Allosteric Learning Model for Teaching Science and Social Studies Lessons  Hasan Güner BERKANT & Seda BAYSAL  Chapter 32 ................................................................................................................. 414  Effect of Science Teachers' Pedagogical Content Knowledge on Students' Conceptual Development: Light and Sound Concept Sample  Ayberk BOSTAN SARIOĞLAN  Chapter 33 ................................................................................................................. 427  Education on the Rights of Children  Hatice ÖZASLAN, Elif MERCAN UZUN 

v

Chapter 34 ................................................................................................................. 442  Secondary School Students’ Difficulties in Learning Mathematics  Gülgün BANGİR ALPAN, Özgül YAYLA  Chapter 35 ................................................................................................................. 458  An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Foreign Language Anxiety of University Students Studying at the Preparatory School of Beykent University  Meltem KAYGUSUZ  Chapter 36 ................................................................................................................. 469  The Evaluation of Problem Solving Skills of Primary School Teachers in Terms of Different Variables  Selma GÜLEÇ, Nejla MUTLU  Chapter 37 ................................................................................................................. 481  An Investigation on Students’ Attitudes towards the Physical Education Course  Yakup KOÇ, Kemal TAMER   Attitudes of Students towards Physical Education Courses  Chapter 38 ................................................................................................................. 492  Values Education in Preschool Period  Özkan SAPSAĞLAM  Chapter 39 ................................................................................................................. 508  Social Sciences Teacher Candidates’ Value Judgements about Environmental Pollution  Ufuk KARAKUŞ, Arcan AYDEMİR  Chapter 40 ................................................................................................................. 518  Self-Efficacy of the Parents Having Children Aged 0-3Years Old  Fatma ELIBOL, Fatma ÇALIŞANDEMİR, Aygen ÇAKMAK  Chapter 41 ................................................................................................................. 527  Prospective Primary Teachers’ Subject Matter Knowledge’s About Prism and Pyramid  Yasin GÖKBULUT  Chapter 42 ................................................................................................................. 541  Examination of the Picture Story Books Published for Preschool Children in Terms of Social Gender Stereotype  Nilay DEREOBALI, Sinem GÜNDÜZ ŞENTÜRK  Chapter 43 ................................................................................................................. 561  Constructivism  Hakan TURAN  Chapter 44 ................................................................................................................. 574  Developing Historical Thinking Skills in Turkish Elementary Schools  Behsat SAVAŞ 

vi

Chapter 45 ................................................................................................................. 583  Museum in Early Childhood  Özlem ŞİMŞEK ÇETİN  Chapter 46 ................................................................................................................. 592  Giftedness, Its Theories and Areas, and Developmental Features of Gifted Children  Bayram SEYHAN, Zeynep KURTULMUŞ  Chapter 47 ................................................................................................................. 612  Gendered Hate Speech in Cartoons: A Critical Discourse Analysis  Yaşare AKTAŞ ARNAS, Seval ÖRDEK İNCEOĞLU, İrem GÜRGAH OĞUL  Chapter 48 ................................................................................................................. 623  Applied Vocational Education, Creativity and Innovation  Rıza SAM  Chapter 49 ................................................................................................................. 631  Mobile Preschool Practises  Osman BASİT, Esra ÖMEROĞLU  Chapter 50 ................................................................................................................. 640  The Way of Bringing Up Future Scientists: Inquiry-Based Science Education Approach  Eylem BAYIR  Chapter 51 ................................................................................................................. 652  Oweview of the Experimentation Procedures and Reflections on Science Education  N. Remziye ERGÜL  Chapter 52 ................................................................................................................. 664  The Relationship between Generic Competencies of Teaching Profession and Critical Thinking Tendencies of Pedagogical Formation Training Certificate Program Students  Sadık Yüksel SIVACI, Yasemin KUZU  Chapter 53 ................................................................................................................. 673  Environmental Education in Children  Figen GÜRSOY, Burçin AYSU  Chapter 54 ................................................................................................................. 678  Landscape Design Process of Primary School Gardens  Elif Ebru ŞİŞMAN, Pınar GÜLTÜRK  Chapter 55 ................................................................................................................. 687  Place of Tales in Child Development and Education  Aslı AKDENİZ KUDUBEŞ, İsmet Emir KUDUBEŞ, Murat BEKTAŞ 

vii

Chapter 56 ................................................................................................................. 696  A Neglected Group for Early Intervention: Gifted and Talented Young Children  Adile Gülşah SARANLI  Chapter 57 ................................................................................................................. 708  The Improvement of Visual Perception of Selectivity Fundamental Skills in Coordination and Impaired Judoka with Educational Games  Şengül DEMİRAL  Chapter 58 ................................................................................................................. 715  Usability Possibilities of the Photo Art in the Basic Design Education  Özgür YERLİ  Chapter 59 ................................................................................................................. 727  Investigating Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Levels in Terms of Different Variables  Hakan KOÇ, Hakan ÖNAL 

viii

Chapter 1 The Effect of Reasoning Education Program on 61-72 MonthOld Children’s Cognitive Abilities1 Gözde İNAL KIZILTEPE, Esra ÖMEROĞLU INTRODUCTION In our world, rapidly developing science and technology affects our minds directly and requires a high level of improvement. This situation makes educational approaches focusing on cognitive skills a current issue. Reasoning, an important dimension of cognitive skills, is defined as a result achieved by using cognitive processes based on acquiring knowledge (Lee, Anzures & Freire, 2011). According to Umay (2003), reasoning is the process of reaching a rational result after thinking about all the factors. Reasoning is a cognitive ability which allows inference from the information provided. Reasoning ability involves forecasting and making decisions on unknown problems in the direction of perceived similarities and relations. People can obtain results from assumptions and detections with their reasoning ability (Eysenck & Keane, 2000; Oaksford, 2005). In order to reach the result of a certain problem, individuals start with the existing information and they reason by undergoing this information through a series of cognitive processes. According to Bruner (1957), people must go beyond the 'provided knowledge' while reasoning about a situation, event or issue. So as to achieve this, they need to deduce by taking target-driven existing information, propositions, rules and scientific facts into consideration (As cited in Lohman, 2005). Individuals use components of reasoning ability in the process of going beyond the provided knowledge. According to Piaget (2006), abilities such as classification, ordering, matching and comparing constitute the basis of reasoning process. According to the opinion of Lohman and Hagen (2003), in the process of reasoning skills, verbal, quantitative and visual-spatial based on nonverbal symbols are used. Verbal reasoning involves skills of seeing the relationship between words or sentences, solving and comprehending verbal problems and separating their elements, finding the logical relationship between these elements. In the process of verbal reasoning, individuals are required to have a certain level of vocabulary. However, what is important in this process is not only vocabulary. In the verbal reasoning process, the skill of being able to think according to the relations between words is important, even if the meanings of some words provided cannot be known completely (Fathima & Rao, 2008). Spatial reasoning involves skills such as recognizing and remembering visual sequences, comprehending the relationship between visual concepts, completing visual analogies, 1

This study was excerpted from the Ph.D thesis of the author.  Assist. Prof. Dr., Adnan Menderes University, Education Faculty, Department of Preschool Education  Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Education Faculty, Department of Preschool Education 

comprehending the relationship between the pictures and the situations/symbols given and inferring depending on the relationships (Escrig & Toledo, 1998; Aiello, 2002; Lohman & Hagen, 2003). Quantitative reasoning involves skills of creating mathematical predictions, developing and assessing mathematical discussions, presenting mathematical knowledge in various ways (Pilten, 2008). Quantitative reasoning in preschool includes numbers, geometric shapes, patterns and skills such as problem solving, inferring, predicting, understanding relations and building connections (Erbay, 2009). In the verbal, quantitative and nonverbal compounds of reasoning, judgment based on both deduction and induction is used. Reasoning based on the deduction is the process of reaching from general judgements to logical, applicable judgements. Reasoning based on induction is the process of reaching a general result or rule through a specific detection or observation. Therefore, while deductive reasoning requires inferring from unseen proposals in the information given, inductive reasoning requires discovering new information (Christou & Papageorgiou, 2007). Deductive and inductive reasoning shows a remarkable continuity throughout life. In daily life, both adults and children use inductive reasoning when they need to go beyond the 'provided information' while they use deductive reasoning in order to fill the gaps of their knowledge (Brown, 2007). Conducted research show that children in preschool period can use both deductive and inductive reasoning and that the reasoning education programs provided to preschool support this ability of the children (Tomic, 1995; Lee, 1997; Goswami, 2001; Goswami, 2002; Klauer & Phyme, 2008; Tian & Huang, 2009). Lipman (1988) thinks that developing reasoning ability is not an easy and quick process and for this reason he states that training programs must be used beginning of the preschool period in order to gain reasoning ability (As cited in Criner, 1992). Since the development of reasoning ability which is a crucial part of learning and thinking skills in child development is really important, planning and applying supportive education programs and evaluating their outcomes have an important place, as well. Previously conducted research revealed that qualified training programs providing active participation for children and preparing the most suitable place for their learning through direct observation and trying, namely learning-by-doing, was effective in developing reasoning ability. Although there are different studies carried out on verbal, quantitative and visual/spatial cognitive skills of children in Turkey, there are not any education programs covering all these holistically and supporting general reasoning abilities of children in the preschool period. An education program prepared with the aim of supporting reasoning ability is important in terms of increasing cognitive skills of children to a higher level. Additionally, it is thought that education program will be useful in bringing teachers working at preschool educational institutions a different perspective and that it will contribute to studies carried out on the subject of reasoning ability. From this respect, analyzing the effect of Reasoning Education Program on the cognitive abilities of 61-72 month-old children compose the main objective of the study. In accordance with this main purpose, answers were sought for the following questions: • Is there a statistically significant difference between the post-test scores of the children in the experimental group in which Reasoning Education Program were applied and that of the children in the control group in which existing training program 2

was applied? • Is there a significant difference between post-test and follow-up test scores of children in the experimental group in which Reasoning Education Program was applied? MATERIAL AND METHOD Design of the Study In this study, quasi experimental design with pre-test, post-test and control group were used in an attempt to analyze the impact of Reasoning Education Program on the cognitive abilities of 61-72 month-old children attending nursery classes in primary schools. In addition, follow up test was applied four weeks after the post-test applications in order to test the permanence of education. In this design, the dependent variable was 'cognitive abilities' of six year old children and independent variables was 'Reasoning Education Program'. 2x3 mixed factorial design consisting of experimental and control group, pre-test, post-test and follow-up test was used in this study. In mixed designs, also known as split-plot factorial designs, there are at least two variables of which impact on dependent variable is analyzed. One of them defines different experimental procedure conditions which neutral groups form and the other one defines repeated measures (pre-test, post-test, follow-up test) of the subject at different times (Büyüköztürk, 2007). Target Population and Participants The target population of the study was constituted in 61-72 month-old children with normal development who attended nursery classes in primary schools of the National Education Directorate, which was located in the center of a city in the Western Anatolia Region of Turkey. Before deciding the participants, a list showing the nursery classes of primary schools depended on National Education Directorate in the city center was obtained from the Provincial Directorate for National Education. Obtained lists were examined by the researchers, school administrators and teachers were interviewed and information about whether a specific education program on any issue was applied or not was obtained. Accordingly, nursery classes of primary schools which did not get involved in any intervention program were determined. Among determined schools, a nursery class was selected as the experimental group through random sampling method. Another nursery class in a different primary school, which was located in the same district and close to the experimental group and which had the similar demographic characteristics of children and parents were selected as a control group. In this way, the possibility that the children in the control group could be affected by the practices was prevented. Thereby, 82 children in total, of whom 41 children are for experimental and 41 children in control groups, were included in the study. It was determined that of the children participating in the experimental group, 56,2 % was female, 43,8 % was male; 58,5 % was the first child, 24,4 % was either middlechild or one of the middle-children, 17,1 % was the last child, 17 % was the only child, 51,2 % was two siblings, 31,7 % was three siblings or above and 92,7 % did not get preschool education before. It was found out that of the children in the control group, 51,2 % was female, 48,8 % was male; 56,1 % was the first child, 29,3 % was either middle-child or one of the middle-children, 14,6 % was the last child; 12,2 % was the 3

only child, 65,9 % was two siblings, 21,9 % was three siblings or above and 97,6 % did not get preschool education before. Levels of experimental and control groups in terms of cognitive abilities according to pre-tests applied before the intervention were given in Table 1. Table 1: Independent Samples t Test Results of The Children in Experimental and Control Groups According to the Subtests and Total Test Scores of CogAT Form-6 CogAT Form- 6

Verbal subtest Quantitative subtest Nonverbal subtest CogAT Form-6 Total

Group

n

X

sd

Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total

41 41 82 41 41 82 41 41 82 41 41 82

28,4 28,5 28,4 26,0 25,9 25,9 22,2 22,3 22,2 76,5 76,7 76,6

4,6 1,6 3,4 3,4 2,5 3,0 2,4 2,0 2,2 8,4 4,8 6,8

Independent Samples t Test t p -0,13

0,89

0,04

0,97

-0,20

0,84

-0,15

0,88

When Table 1 was analyzed according to the results it was determined that there was not a significant difference between experimental and control group-children's pretest score of Verbal subtest (t = -0,13), Quantitative subtest (t = 0,04), Nonverbal subtest (t = -0,20) and the total test of the CogAT Form-6 (t = -0,15) (p>. 05). According to these results, it can be stated that children in experimental and control groups had similar characteristics in terms of cognitive abilities before starting the Reasoning Education Program. Data Collection Tools With the purpose of collecting data about children and their families, "General Information Form" developed by the researchers in an attempt to evaluate reasoning abilities of children and Cognitive Abilities Test Form-6" (CogAT Form-6) developed by Lohman and Hagen (2000) were used in the study. General Information Form: With the intention of collecting information about children and their families, General Information Form was prepared by the researchers. In this form, there are questions related to children's date of birth, gender, birth order, number of siblings, state of attending preschool educational institutions, age of the parents educational background of the parents and occupations of the parents. General Information Forms were filled out by parents of the children. Cognitive Abilities Test Form-6 (CogAT Form-6): Cognitive Abilities Test Form-6 was developed by Lohman and Hagen in 2000. CogAT Form-6 aims at assessing the levels reached by 5-18 year-old children in their reasoning ability by using verbal, quantitative and nonverbal (spatial) skills (Alp & Diri, 2003; Lohman & Hagen, 2003). The test assesses the skills such as recalling information, organizing, 4

distinguishing similarities and differences, relating, inferring, comprehending problem situations, defining models, categorizing objects and events, making sense of theories and principles and making connections between new learning tasks and previous experiences (Lohman & Hagen, 2002). CogAT Form-6 was developed by utilizing intelligence theories that emerged in the context of traditional psychometric approach (Alp & Diri, 2003). The test was formed based on two theories which predicate cognitive abilities on hierarchical models. These models are Hierarchical Model of Ability by Vernon and Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory by Cattell and Horn (Lohman & Hagen, 2002; Plouffe, 2004). CogAT Form-6 consists of two batteries which are Primary and Multilevel Batteries designed for different age groups. Primary Battery is suitable for children from kindergarten to second grade of primary school and Multilevel Battery is suitable for children from third grade of primary school to the last grade of secondary school. Primary Battery includes two tests which are Level 1 and Level 2. Level 1 Test is used for kindergarten and first grades of primary school (Lohman & Hagen, 2003). In this study, Level 1 test of Cognitive Abilities Test Form-6 was used. CogAT Form-6 which can be applied individually or in small groups consists of 120 questions assessing reasoning ability in three subtest as verbal, quantitative and non-verbal. Each subtest has 40 multiple choice questions with four-choices. Multiple choice answers of each item on all the subtests are presented as pictures. Under each picture, there is an empty circle. During the application of CogAT Form-6 each item is read out loud and children are asked to mark one of the circles under the picture. The person performing the test passes to the other item after he/she is sure that the child marked one of the circles. Application of the test last between 30-40 minutes (Lohman & Hagen, 2003). In the test, raw score for each subtest is the number of items that are responding correctly. The total score is obtained by summing the raw scores of each sub-tests. Maximum of 120 scores can be obtained from Level 1 Test of CogAT Form-6. As the total score obtained from CogAT Form-6 reduces, reasoning ability and conceptual understanding levels of children reduce, as well. Validity and reliability study carried out with 61-72 month-old 380 children by İnal (2011), it was determined that overall reliability co-efficient of CogAT Form-6 was KR–20 =. 91, reliability co-efficient of the verbal subtest was KR–20 =. 76, reliability co-efficient of the quantitative subtest was KR–20 =. 82, reliability co-efficient of the nonverbal subtest was KR–20 =. 70. High internal co-efficient of subtest and total test indicates that the test is reliable. As a result of test-retest correlation, it was determined that test-retest correlation of verbal subtest was.895, test-retest correlation of quantitative subtest was.989, test-retest correlation of nonverbal subtest was.968 and total test-retest correlation for CogAT Form-6 was .984 and it was found that the test showed consistent results dependent on time. Reasoning Education Program: Reasoning Education Program aims at supporting reasoning abilities of 61-72 month-old children in the preschool period in parallel with their cognitive development. During the process of program development, primarily, literature related to cognitive development, cognitive skills and reasoning skills was reviewed. In consequence of literature review and program analysis, content of the education program was arranged to be associated with a matching, comparing 5

and ordering verbal statements and words, numbers and spatial relations by using symbols and shapes, classifying proposals and situations provided, understanding the relations between provided proposals and making an inference both from general to specific and from specific to general depending on the relationship rules. During the preparation of the program content, objectives and acquirements related to support of reasoning ability were determined by making use of Preschool Education Program along with literature analysis. Reasoning Education Program included activities, in which individual differences and developmental characteristics of children were taken into consideration, the children participate willingly and without prejudice, interests and necessities of the children along with the features of the environment where activities are performed were regarded in accordance with the determined objectives and acquirements. That activity has the flexibility to vary according to the interests of children and that they differ from usual daily applications in certain aspects were paid special attention. Additionally, the activities' being interesting and qualified in providing learning of the children while entertaining theirs was intended. Concrete materials that can make a difference in the education environment were prepared in order to facilitate the participation of the children. Besides, for the active participation of the children, question-answers, demonstration, brainstorming and learning by doing methods were benefited. Performing individual, small and large group works and giving each child a fair hearing were paying attention. After Reasoning Education Program was prepared, it was broached to the views of three specialists. Specialists were asked to evaluate the developed education program as "appropriate", "partially appropriate", "not appropriate" by taking criteria such as appropriateness of determined objectives and acquirements to the objective of the program, efficiency of learning processes, appropriateness and efficiency of the materials used, appropriateness in the distribution of the objectives and clarity of the instructions provided into consideration and to state their opinions in the "explanation" part. By taking criticism and suggestions of the specialists about the education program into consideration necessary corrections were made and Reasoning Education Program was put into its final form. Prior to intervention, a short information note about the issues with the content of the education program and the importance of children's attending the school, especially during the specified days and hours, in order for the effectiveness of the education program was sent to the parents. Educational activities were performed in the children's own classes in which they had an education. Researcher arranged the education environment for each activity correspondingly before she conducted the reasoning education program to the children in the experimental group. The materials prepared according to the number of the children in advance were brought to the class by the researcher. When a material or an object was required to be brought by the classroom teacher or parents, it was stated to the teacher or conveyed to the parents by information letter a week in advance. That they would do activities and play games together twice a week was stated to the children before conducting the program. Before starting the activities, name cards were prepared for each child in order for the educator to address children with their names. So as to determine the participation of the children attending Reasoning Education Program in the activities, attendance list was kept. The educator, attracted the attention of the children to make them realize the differences before the activity. Information about that day's activity was explained to children and what was 6

expected from them was stated clearly. After explaining the instructions of the activity was told the whole group, parts that were not clear were clarified for children one by one again. At the end of each activity, an evaluation was carried out in order for children to state their feelings and thoughts about the activity. During the evaluation, questions related to the content of the activity were asked to children in order to ensure that they reached to new deductions through their acquirements obtained from the activities. While evaluating, giving adequate time for the children to speak up and express their feelings and thoughts were taken into consideration. After pre-tests were applied by the researcher, acitvities of the Reasoning Education Program were carried out twice a week and 60-90 minutes in a day during 12 weeks. Within this period, the children in the control group continued their daily education program. Collection and Analysis of Data Since the values of the experimental and control groups showed normal distribution in pre-test and post-test comparisons, Independent Samples t Test and Dependent Samples t Test were used. As significance level .05 was used and it was stated that there was a significant difference in the case of p<.05 and there was not a significant difference in the case of p>.05 (Büyüköztürk et al., 2010). RESULTS The results of the study, which were conducted with intent to analyze the impact of Reasoning Education Program on 61-72 month-old children's cognitive abilities were presented in the tables. Table 2: Results of Independent Samples t Test according to the Subtests and Total of CogAT Form-6 Post-test Scores of the Children in the Experimental and Control Groups CogAT Form-6

Verbal subtest Quantitative subtest Nonverbal subtest CogAT Form-6 Total

Group

n

X

Ss

Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total

41 41 82 41 41 82 41 41 82 41 41 82

35,8 30,7 33,3 36,0 29,2 32,6 34,0 27,7 30,9 105,9 87,5 96,7

2,2 1,7 3,2 2,4 1,8 4,0 2,5 2,1 4,0 5,4 3,8 10,4

Independent Samples t Test t p 11,74

.00*

14,63

.00*

12,35

.00*

17,79

.00*

*p<. 05

The analysis results presented in Table 2 demonstrate that there was a significant difference between Verbal subtest (t=11. 74, p<.05), Quantitative subtest (t=14. 63, p<. 05), Nonverbal subtest (t=12. 35, p<. 05) and the total test of CogAT Form-6 (t=17. 79, p<.05) post-test scores of the children in the experimental and control group. 7

Table 3: Results of Dependent Samples t Test according to Subtests and Total of CogAT Form-6 Pre-test and Post-test Scores of the Children in the Experimental Group CogAT Form 6 Verbal subtest Quantitative subtest Nonverbal subtest CogAT Form-6 Total

Test

n

X

Ss

Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test

41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41

28,4 35,8 26,0 36,0 22,2 34,0 76,5 105,9

4,6 2,2 3,4 2,4 2,4 2,5 8,4 15,4

Dependent Samples t Test t p -13,1

.01*

-18,2

.01*

-24,7

.01*

-27,1

.01*

*p<. 05

When Table 3 was examined; it was found that there was a significant difference between the children's, who attended Reasoning Education Program, Verbal subtest (t=13,1), Quantitative subtest (t = -18,2), Nonverbal subtest (t = -24,7) and the total test (t=-27,1) scores obtained before and after the education program (p<.05). It was seen that this observed difference was in favor of the post-test score. According to these results, it can be stated that Reasoning Education Program, which was performed had an impact on the development of verbal, quantitative and nonverbal cognitive abilities of the children. Table 4: Results of Dependent Samples t Test according to Subtests and Total of CogAT Form-6 Pre-test and Post-test Scores of the Children in the Control Group CogAT Form 6 Verbal subtest Quantitative subtest Nonverbal subtest CogAT Form-6 Total

Test

n

X

Ss

Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test

41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41

28,5 30,7 25,9 29,2 22,3 27,7 76,7 87,5

1,6 1,7 2,5 1,8 2,0 2,1 4,8 3,8

Dependent Samples t Test t p -6,7

.01*

-9,3

.01*

-15,7

.01*

-16,0

.01*

*p<. 05

In Table 4, it was found out that there was a significant difference between children's who were in the control group pre-test and post-test scores of Verbal Subtest (t= -6,7), Quantitative Subtest (t = -9,3), Nonverbal Subtest (t = -15,7) and the total test score (t = -16,0) obtained from CogAT Form-6. (p<. 05). It was seen that this observed difference was in favor of the post-test score. In the control group, it was seen that post-test scores were significantly higher than pre-test scores in terms of CogAT Form-6 total and subtests. As the same results were also relevant to the experimental group, differences were obtained regarding pre-test 8

and post-test scores of the variables in order to determine in which group the related scores were higher. In which group these difference values obtained was higher was given in Table 5. Table 5: Results of Independent Samples t Test according Subtests and Total of CogAT Form-6 Pre-test and Post-test Score Differences of the Children in the Experimental and Control Group CogAT Form 6

Verbal subtest Quantitative subtest Nonverbal subtest CogAT Form-6 Total

Group Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total

n

X

Ss

41 41 82 41 41 82 41 82 41 82 41 41

7,5 2,2 4,9 10,0 3,2 6,6 11,9 5,4 8,6 29,4 10,8 20,1

3,6 2,1 4,0 3,5 2,2 4,5 3,1 2,2 4,2 7,0 4,3 11,0

Independent Samples t Test t p 7,92

.01*

10,41

.01*

10,98

.01*

14,53

.01*

*p<. 05

When Independent Samples t Test results given is Table 5 was examined that there was a significant difference between control and experimental group-children's pre-test and post-test scores of Verbal subtest (t= 7,92), Quantitative subtest (t= 10,41), Nonverbal subtest (t= 10,98) and the total test of CogAT Form-6 (t= 14,53) (p<. 05). Table 6: Results of Dependent Samples t Test according to Subtests and Total of CogAT Form-6 Post-test and Follow-up-test Scores of the Children in the Experimental Group CogAT Form 6 Verbal subtest Quantitative subtest Nonverbal subtest CogAT Form-6 Total

Post-test Follow-up Test Post-test Follow-up Test Post-test Follow-up Test Post-test Follow-up Test

n

X

Ss

41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41

35,8 35,6 36,0 36,4 34,0 34,1 105,9 106,2

2,2 2,3 2,4 2,1 2,5 2,4 5,3 5,4

Dependent Samples t Test t p -5,3

0,102

-2,4

0,002*

-1,8

0,077

-3,8

0,002*

*p<. 05

When score differences were taken into consideration, it was understood that reasoning ability scores of the children attending Reasoning Education Program were higher than the scores of the children who did not attend in education program. In line with these findings, it was thought that Reasoning Education Program was effective in improving cognitive abilities of the children. 9

In table 8 it can be claimed that there was a significant difference in the t value of the experimental group children’s post-test and follow-up test scores from Quantitative Subtest (t = -2,4, p<. 05) and the total test of CogAT Form-6 (t = -3,8, p<. 05). Also, it was determined that there was not significant difference between Verbal Subtest (t= 5,3, p>. 05) and Nonverbal Subtest (t= -1,8, p>. 05) post-test and follow-up test scores. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The direct impact of rapid developments in science and technology on the human mind necessitates improving high-level cognitive skills. This situation makes application of education programs aiming at improving high-level cognitive skills of children starting from preschool period a current issue. In this study, effect of Reasoning Education Program on cognitive skills of 61-72 month-old children attending preschool educational institutions were analyzed. In the study, before starting the education program "CogAT Form-6" was applied to the children as pretest in an attempt to determine whether experimental and control groups had similar characteristics in terms of reasoning ability and to reveal the homogeneity of the groups. As a result of test application, it was found out that there was not a significant difference between the children in the experimental and control group in terms of pretest scores (p>0.05). On the other hand, when post-test scores of the children in the experimental and control group were analyzed, a statistically significant difference which was in favor of the children in the experimental group with regard to post-test scores of CogAT Form-6 was found out (p<0.05). According to this result, changing which was observed from pre-test to post-test in the general reasoning scores of the children attending Reasoning Education Program was different from the changing observed in the total reasoning scores of the children in the control group. Scores of the children in the experimental group were higher than that of children in the control group. This situation indicates that the Reasoning Education Program was effective in supporting cognitive skills. Within the scope of the study, in Reasoning Education Program, which was conducted in order to support cognitive skills of the children, strategies of matching, generalizing, distinguishing similarities and differences, classifying, comparing, ordering, building cause and effect relationship, problem solving, realizing the difference between the two situations and transferring the relationship between the two situations to a new situation were emphasized. It is considered that children's gaining the experiences related to the skills which form the basis of the reasoning ability by doing and trying would be effective in the increase of total reasoning ability scores of the children in the experimental group. Previously conducted studies revealed that education programs containing methods and activities which made the children active ensured children to make inferences dependent on their relations with objects, events and situations (Tomic, 1995; De Koning, Hamers, Sijtsma & Vermeer, 2002). Klauer (1996) found that experimental-group-children were more successful than controlgroup-children at the end of Reasoning Traning Program based on induction in his study where he analyzed the impact of the reasoning traning program he developed by grounding on induction on the reasoning abilities of children between five and eight years old. Tomic and Kingma (1998) revealed in their study that reasoning traning program based on induction developed by Klauer had a positive effect on improvement of the children's skills of transferring the relationship between the two situations to a 10

new situation. Hager and Hasselhorn (1998) conducted a meta-analysis of seventy studies related to a cognitive training program developed by Klauer and found that training program supported the children's reasoning ability depending on induction and increased their academic achievements. Klauer, Williams and Phye (2002) examined the impact of the reasoning training program which was based on induction on fluid intelligence and found that the training program had an effect on children's fluid intelligence. These findings support the obtained results indicating the positive change in the experimental-group-children's scores related to total reasoning abilities from pretest to post-test Additionally, the difference between the experimental-group-children's scores of sub-tests and total test scores of CogAT Form-6 before education program and after education program was significant (p<. 05), and this observed difference was in favor of post-test score. According to this result, it can be said that Reasoning Education Program applied had an impact on the development of children's verbal, quantitative and cognitive abilities. So as to support the verbal reasoning ability, abilities such as comprehending verbal expression, categorizing the events and objects, building cause and effect relationship and making sense out of rules and principles needed to be supported (Van der Sluis, De Jong, & Van Der Leij, 2007). Activities such as classifying objects and events provided, finding the rule for the classified objects, comparing the two verbal propositions provided, ordering the events according to their occurring time, making inferences depending on the provided features, finding the relationship between verbal expressions and completing verbal analogies according to the relationship were included in the verbal sub-test of Reasoning Education Program. White and Manning (1994) analyzed the impact of verbal structuring training on children's skill of finding the relationship between the situations provided and making inferences based on the relationship in their study. In the study, it was revealed that children attending the training could build a relationship between analogies more easily and could solve the analogy problem more easily. Munro (1998) stated that phonological awareness training improved verbal reasoning abilities of children. Danışman (2003) researched the effectiveness of the Systematic Game Activities Program for language development of five-six year-old children and found that Systematic Game Activities Program was effective in language development and comprehension of verbal expressions of children of five-six year-old. Beck and McKeown (2007) stated in their study that vocabulary training program was effective in improving comprehending verbal expressions and making inferences depending on the verbal expressions abilities of children from lower socioeconomic in the preschool period. Quantitative reasoning forms the basis of mathematics (Umay, 2003). In quantitative reasoning sub-test, children are required to solve the provided problem by using the concepts related to number, operation and position-in-space (Kokis, 2001; Korb, 2007). Activities in the quantitative dimension of Reasoning Education Program such as recognizing numbers, counting the objects shown, showing the objects in a quantity which is the same in the number said, doing simple adding and subtracting operations with the objects, comparing the objects' position-in-space and putting the object in the appropriate position in the space. Campbell and Holt (1991), Pasnak, Hansbarger, Dodson Hart and Blaha (1996) revealed that the training program 11

consisting of activities such as knowledge of numbers and simple adding/subtracting operations improved the quantitative reasoning of children (as As cited in Kidd, Pasnak, Gadzichowski, Ferral-Like & Gallington, 2008). Tomic and Klauer (1996) found out that mathematics performances of children attending a training program which was based on induction and included strategies such as generalizing, distinguishing similarities and differences, classifying, realizing the relationship between the two situations and transferring relationship between the two situations increased. Starkey, Klein and Wakeley (2004) developed a preschool mathematics training program consisting of activities related to knowledge of number, quantitative reasoning, spatial reasoning, pattern, building a logical relationship that is not standard and applied it to private and state kindergartens providing services for children of low and middleincome families. At the end of the study, it was revealed that mathematics training program increased the mathematical knowledge of children in both socioeconomic levels in an important level. Kidd et al (2008) developed a mathematics training program which includes counting, adding objects, comparing the objects according to their quantities and ordering numbers in their study. They stated that the mathematics training program which they developed had an effect on improving reasoning abilities of children. Nonverbal reasoning, in other words visual-spatial reasoning, includes skills such as recognizing and remembering visual sequences, comprehending the relations between visual concepts, completing visual analogies, comprehending the relationship between pictures and symbols provided (Aiello, 2002; Cohn & Hazarika, 2001). In the conducted study, activities related to recognizing geometrical shapes, composing different forms by using shapes and figures, finding the relationship between shapes and figures provided and completing the missing piece by depending on the role performed. Papic and Mulligan (2005) revealed that finding the rule between shapes and figures, extending the pattern by depending on the rule and completing visual analogies abilities of the children attending the training program including activities such as comprehending pattern rule, completing and forming patterns improved. Mulligan, Mitchelmore and Perescott (2006) determined in their study that visual and spatial skills of the children attending The Pattern and Structure Mathematics Awareness Program related to recognizing geometrical shapes and completing shape analogies improved. Aydoğan (2007) analyzed the impact of concept training program on the development of six year-old children's geometrical shape and number concepts in his study. It was found out that experimental-group children's performances related to geometrical shape and number concepts were higher than that of children in the control group. The finding obtained from the conducted studies supported the findings of the positive change in the verbal, quantitative and non-verbal reasoning ability scores of children in the experimental group from pre-test to post-test. It was found out that there was a significant difference between control-groupchildren's pre-test and post-test scores of sub-tests and the total test of CogAT Form-6 (p<. 05). It was determined that this observed difference was in favour of post-test score. According to this result, it was thought that the increase in the verbal, quantitative, non-verbal and total test scores of the children in the control group may have resulted from providing objectives and acquirements related to cognitive development in Preschool Curriculum for children and the development in cognitive abilities of children occurring during the study. 12

Despite the improvement observed in the reasoning abilities of children in the control group, it was found out that CogAT Form-6 total and sub-tests score differences of children in the experimental group getting reasoning intervention was significantly higher than score differences of children in the control group. In this respect, it is thought that Reasoning Education Program is effective in improving cognitive abilities of children. It was determined that there was a significant difference between CogAT Form-6 total score and Quantitative Subtest post-test score and follow-up test score of the children in the experimental group (p<. 05). This observed difference was in favour of the follow-up test. It was thought that this increase in the Quantitative sub-test may have resulted from teachers' using the activities related to operation skills (addingsubtracting) in this dimension more towards the end of the second term in accordance with the preschool curriculum. On the other hand, there was not a significant difference between Verbal and Nonverbal Subtests post-test and follow-up test scores of the children in the experimental group (p>. 05). This result indicates that the impact of Reasoning Education Program continued. As a consequence, in this study, which was limited to the number of children and activities applied in the Reasoning Education Program, it was found out that the Reasoning Education Program was effective in supporting cognitive abilities of 61-72 month-old children. In this respect, following suggestions can be presented;  By selecting pilot schools, making use of this education program can be provided for a larger sample group in order to test the effectiveness of Reasoning Education Program.  Impact of reasoning ability on academic achievement can be examined by conducting longitudinal studies.  In service education seminars for preschool teachers can be arranged on the subject of creating qualified learning processes related to supporting cognitive skills of children.  Elective courses at the undergraduate and graduate level can be provided including the subject of components and types of reasoning ability, how to improve reasoning ability and education program examples for teacher candidates. REFERENCES Aiello, M. (2002). Spatial reasoning: theory and practice. Unpublished Dissertation Thesis. Institute for Logic, Language and Computation, Amsterdam University, Amsterdam. Avaiable online at: http://www.cs.rug.nl/~aiellom/publications/aielloPHDThesis.pdf. Retrieved on June 16, 2011. Alp, E.İ. & Diri, A. (2003) Bilişsel Yetenekler Testi’nin (CogAT®) ana sınıfı ve birinci sınıf öğrencileri için kurultu geçerliliği çalışması, Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 18 (51), 19–31. Aydoğan, S. (2007). 6 yaş çocuklarının geometrik şekil ve sayı kavramlarının gelişiminde kavram eğitim programının etkisi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Aydın. Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M. G. (2007). Increasing young low‐income children’s oral vocabulary repertoires through rich and focused instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 107(3), 251-271. Brown, C. (2007). Cognitive psychology. London, England: SAGE Publications Ltd. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2007). Deneysel desenler öntest-sontest kontrol grubu desen ve veri analizi. (2.Baskı). Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. 13

Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç-Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö.E., Karadeniz, Ş. & Demirel, F. (2010). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. (6. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem-A Yayıncılık. Christou, C. & Papageorgiou, E. (2007). A framework of mathematics inductive reasoning. Learning and Instruction, 17(1):55–66. Cohn, A. G., & Hazarika, S. M. (2001). Qualitative spatial representation and reasoning: An overview. Fundamenta informaticae, 46(1-2), 1-29. Criner, L. A. (1992). Teaching thinking and reasoning: A study of critical thinking in adults. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Arkansas. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (08), 2643A. (UMI No. AAI9237328). Danışman, N. (2003). Oyunun 5-6 yaş grubu çocuklarının dil gelişimine etkileri. KuşadasıTürkiye: OMEP Dünya Konsey Toplantısı ve Konferansı. Bildiri Kitabı 3, s.281-292. De Koning, E., Hamers, J. H., Sijtsma, K., & Vermeer, A. (2002). Teaching inductive reasoning in primary education. Developmental Review, 22(2), 211-241. Erbay, F. (2009). Anasınıfına devam eden altı yaş çocuklarına verilen yaratıcı drama eğitiminin çocukların işitsel muhakeme ve işlem becerilerine etkisinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Konya. Eysenck, M.W. & Keane, M.T. (2000). Cognitive psychology: A student handbook. Hove and New York: Psychology Press. Escrig, M. T., & Toledo, F. (1998). Qualitative spatial reasoning: Theory and practice : Application to robot navigation. Amsterdam: IOS Press. Fathima S. & Rao, B.D. (2008). Reasoning ability of adolescent students. New Delhi, India: Discovery Publishing House Pvt Ltd. Goswami, U. (2001). Inductive and deductive reasoning. In U. Goswami (Eds). The WileyBlackwell Handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp.399- 419). Second Edition. Singapore: Balckwell Publishing Ltd. Goswami, U. (2002). Inductive and deductive reasoning. In U. Goswavi, (Eds) Blackwell handbook of children cognitive psychology (pp:282-302). Malden, USA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Hager, W. & Hasselhorn, M. (1998). The effectiveness of the cognitive training for children from a differential perspective: a meta-evaluation. Learning and Instruction, 8(5): 411438. İnal, G. (2011). Bilişsel yetenekler testi form-6’nın geçerlik güvenirlik çalışması ve altı yaş çocuklarının bilişsel yeteneklerine muhakeme eğitim programının etkisinin incelenmesi. Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Kidd, J. K., Pasnak, R., Gadzichowski, M., Ferral-Like, M., & Gallington, D. (2008). Enhancing early numeracy by promoting the abstract thought involved in the oddity principle, seriation, and conservation. Journal of Advanced Academics, 19(2), 164-200. Klauer, K.J. (1996). Teaching inductive reasoning: some theory and three experimental studies. Learning and Instruction, 6(1), 37-57. Klauer, K. J., Willmes, K., & Phye, G. D. (2002). Inducing inductive reasoning: Does it transfer to fluid intelligence? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27(1), 1-25. Klauer, J. K. & Phye, D. G. (2008). Inductive reasoning: a training approach. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 85-123. Kokis, J. V. (2001). Individual differences in children’s reasoning. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Toronto Department of Human Development and Applied Psychology, Canada. Avaiable online at: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/ f2/dsk3/ftp04/NQ63670.pdf Retrieved on June 06, 2010. Korb, A. K. (2007). Verbal versus pictorial representations in the quantitative reasoning abilities of early elementary students. Unpublished PhD thesis. The University of Iowa 14

Educational Psychology, USA. Avaiable online at: http://korbedpsych.com/Linked Files/Katrina_A_Korb_Dissertation.pdf Retrieved on June 06, 2010. Lee, D. H. L. (1997). Analogical reasoning in academic and social problem solving. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Waterloo Degree of Philosophy in Psychology, Ontario, Canada. Avaiable online at: http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/ f2/dsk3/ftp04/nq22214.pdf Retrieved on June 07, 2010. Lee, K., Anzures, G. & Freire, A. (2011). Cognitive development in adolescence. In A. Slater and G. Bremner (Eds.), An introduction to developmental psychology (pp.517550). Great Britain: Bps Blackwell Publishing. Lohman, D. F. & Hagen, E. (2002). Research handbook: Cognitive abilities test Form 6-all levels. Itasca, Illinois: Riverside Publishing. Lohman, D. F. & Hagen, E. (2003). Interpretive guide for teachers and counselors: cognitive abilities test Form 6-all levels. Itasca, Illinois: Riverside Publishing. Lohman, D. F. (2005). Reasoning abilities. In R.J. Sternberg, J. Davidson and J. Pretz (Eds.), Cognition and intelligence: Identifying mechanisms of the mind (pp. 225- 250). New York: Cambridge University Press. Mulligan, J. T., Mitchelmore, M. C. & Prescott, A. (2006). Integrating concepts and processes in early mathematics: The Australian Pattern and Structure Mathematics Awareness Project (PASMAP). In J. Novotná, H. Moraová, M. Krátká, & N. Stehlíková (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education 4. (pp.209 –216). Czech Republic: Atelier Guimaec. Avaiable online at: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED496931.pdf Retrieved on June 07, 2010. Munro, J. (1998). Phonological and phonemic awareness: Their impact on learning to read prose and to spell. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 3(2), 15-21. Oaskford, M. (2005). Reasoning. In N. Braisby and A. Gellaty (Eds.), Cognitive psychology (pp.418-458). New York, U.S.A: Oxford University Press. Papic, M. & Mulligan, J.T. (2005). Pre-schoolers' mathematical patterning. In P. Clarkson, A. Downton, D. Gronn, A. McDonough, R. Pierce, & A. Roche (Eds.), Building connections: Theory, research and practice (Proceedings of the 28th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia (pp. 609-616). Melbourne, Sydney: MERGA. Piaget, J. (2006). Çocukta karar verme akıl yürütme. (Çeviren: Sabri Esat Siyavuşgül). Ankara: Palme Yayınları. Pilten, P. (2008). Üstbiliş stratejileri öğretiminin ilköğretim beşinci sınıf öğrencilerinin matematiksel muhakeme becerilerine etkisi. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Plouffe, V. F. (2004). The use of Canadian cognitive abilities test (CCAT) administered off level to predict future achievement of gifted student. Unpublished Master Thesis. Calgary University Division of Applied Pychology, Calgary, Alberta. Avaiable online at: http://hdl.handle.net/1880/41895 Retrieved on June 07, 2010. Starkey, P., Klein, A., & Wakeley, A. (2004). Enhancing young children’s mathematical knowledge through a pre-kindergarten mathematics intervention. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(1), 99-120. Tian, Z. & Huang, X. (2009). A study of children’s spatial reasoning and quantitative reasoning abilities. Journals of Mathematic Education, 2 (2), 80-93. Tomic, W. (1995). Training in inductive reasoning and problem solving. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20(4): 483-490. Tomic, W., & Klauer, K. J. (1996). On the effects of training inductive reasoning: How far 15

does it transfer and how long do the effects persist? European Journal of Psychology of Education, 11(3), 283-299. Tomic, W. & Kingma, J. (1998). Accelerating Intelligence Development through Inductive Reasoning Training. Cognition and Educational Practice, 5: 291-305. Umay, A. (2003). Matematiksel muhakeme yeteneği. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24, 234–243. Van der Sluis, S., De Jong, P. F., & Van der Leij, A. (2007). Executive functioning in children, and its relations with reasoning, reading, and arithmetic. Intelligence, 35(5), 427-449. White, C. S., & Manning, B. H. (1994). The effects of verbal scaffolding instruction on young children's private speech and problem-solving capabilities. Instructional Science, 22(1), 39-59.

16

Chapter 2 The Opinions of Classroom Teachers on Inclusion Remziye CEYLAN, Neriman ARAL INTRODUCTION Inclusive education is defined as and used with different meanings attributed by different researchers in various disciplines. In the broadest sense, inclusive education is defined as the education of children with disabilities and normally developing children in the same environment (Osborne & Dimattia, 1994). Another definition of inclusive education is placing children with disabilities in regular or general education classrooms for instruction and providing them with appropriate support (Lerner, 2000). Each definition of inclusion emphasizes the instruction of disabled children together with normally developing children and the provision of educational support. Inclusion does not mean the placement of the child with special needs directly in a general education classroom with no special educational support. On the contrary, it is teaching special needs children in the general education classroom by making use of special educational support (Kargın, 2006). One of the most significant factors in successful inclusion is the provision of educational support services to the children with or without special needs in general education classrooms and the teachers. Support services are classified in two groups: inclass and out-of-class. The majority of in-class support services are implemented without separating the child from the general education environment, whereas, in outof-class support, special education services are provided to the child with special needs outside the general education environment (Aral, 2011). However, successful collaboration between the general education and special education teachers as well as the school support staff must be ensured for effective support services. Teacher collaboration takes place in the form of educational preparation, provision of in-class and out-of-class support, instructional adjustment, and special educational support for the general education teacher. The collaboration of teachers both facilitates the placement of children with special needs in general education classrooms and contributes to improved communication between teachers (Aral, 2011; Batu & Kırcaali İftar, 2007; Gürgür, 2005). Classroom teachers have a key role in the successful implementation of inclusive education. Teachers in inclusive classrooms should be willing to implement inclusion, and accepting of children with disabilities, in their classrooms (Aral, 2011; Batu, 2000; Kargın, 2006). Various studies have revealed that teachers had a negative attitude toward inclusion (Demir & Açar, 2010; Sadioğlu et al., 2013; Uysal, 1995; Yılmaz, 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Education, Department of Elementary Education  Prof. Dr., Ankara University, Faculty of Health Science, Department of Child Development 

1995). In the 26 studies they reviewed for the attitudes of classroom teachers towards inclusion, De Boer, Pijl and Minnaert (2011) reported that the majority of teachers held neutral or negative attitudes towards the special needs students in general education classrooms, and that none of the studies had clear and positive results. In addition, they found that the teachers’ attitudes were related to the type of disability and that teachers viewed the inclusion of children with learning disabilities and behavioral problems negatively. Another study revealed that teachers were more willing to include children with mild disabilities or physical disabilities than those with more complex needs (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002). There are several studies on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion (Babaoğlan &Yılmaz, 2010; Saraç &Çolak, 2012; Demir & Açar, 2011). Various studies on the subject reported that classroom teachers did not consider themselves qualified for or adequately knowledgeable in inclusion (Babaoğlan &Yılmaz, 2010; Kargın et al., 2003; Sadioğlu et al., 2013; Yıldırım Erişkin et al., 2012), that they experienced difficulties in issues such as time management (Saraç & Çolak, 2012; Vural & Yıkmış, 2008), classroom management (Çankaya & Korkmaz, 2012; Demir & Açar, 2011; Kargın et al., 2003; Sadioğlu et al., 2013), communication/cooperation with families (Demir & Açar, 2011; Sadioğlu et al., 2012), that they did not have adequate support services (Çankaya & Korkmaz, 2012; Demir & Açar, 2011; Kargın et al., 2003; Sadioğlu et al., 2012), and that they required counseling services and in-service training for effective inclusion (Myles & Simpson, 1998). These studies show that, in Turkey, classroom teachers are left to face children with disabilities alone due to the lack of adequate educational support services. Classroom teachers experience problems in the inclusion of children with disabilities and have difficulty in finding solutions due to the lack of support services and training. Therefore, there is a need for greater emphasis on the opinions of classroom teachers regarding inclusion. Furthermore, determining the opinions of classroom teachers is essential to taking necessary measures to ensure successful inclusion. In view of this perspective, the aim of this study was to determine the opinions of elementary classroom teachers who had children with special needs in their classrooms regarding inclusion. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design In the study, the phenomenological qualitative research design was employed, as the researchers aimed to investigate the opinions of elementary classroom teachers who had special needs children in their classrooms regarding inclusive practice through their own explanations, perceptions and examples. Phenomenological design focuses on phenomena people are aware of without having an in-depth and detailed understanding. The interview technique was used as the data collection tool, since the study was based on phenomenological design. In ascertaining experiences and meanings related to phenomena, the interview technique grants the researcher opportunities for interaction, flexibility and probing with follow-up questions (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). Study group The study group selected using the criterion sampling method, which is a purposeful sampling method, comprised 11 teachers who were employed at the fourth and fifth grades of elementary schools in Edirne city center and had children with 18

special needs in their classrooms. The criterion sampling method involves studying all cases that meet a series of predetermined criteria. The criterion or criteria mentioned herein could be developed by the researcher or a prearranged list of criteria could be used (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). The criteria used in the selection of the study group teachers were teaching at the fourth and fifth grades of elementary school, having at least one child with special needs in their classrooms and voluntary participation. All of the teachers participating in the study were aged 36 or older. Six of the teachers were female, while five were male. Eight of the teachers had four-year university degrees, two had three-year associate degrees and one had a two-year associate degree. The number of teachers who had been teaching to the same class for the past two years and three-five years were four and seven; respectively. In addition, two teachers had been teaching at the same school for two years and less, three teachers for three-five years, three teachers for six-ten years, two teachers for eleven-fifteen years, and one teacher for sixteen years or more. Eight of the teachers were employed full-time while three worked part-time. Five teachers had 26-30 students in their classrooms, four had 31 or more students, one had 21-25 students and one had 16-20 students. Each teacher had one included student in the classroom. Only one of the teachers had attended an undergraduate course on inclusive education. Among the special needs children in the classrooms of the teachers participating in the study, four were diagnosed with learning disability, three with mental disability, two with physical disability, one with visual disability and one with hyperactivity. Data collection instrument The “Semi-Structured Interview Form for the Opinions of Classroom Teachers on Inclusion” (Appendix 1) developed by the researchers for data collection purposes were used in the study. The first section of the teachers’ form consisting of two sections comprised questions on the age, gender, educational background, period of service and employment status of the teacher, as well as, the number of children in the class and whether the teacher had attended any undergraduate courses on inclusion. The second section of the interview form included the 10 questions addressed to the participants during the semi-structured interviews. The questions in the Interview Form were reviewed by two professors working in the field of child development, an assessment and evaluation expert and a statistician to evaluate content validity. The 10 questions submitted for review were evaluated by the experts as suitable, partially suitable or unsuitable with respect to the aim of the study and the clarity of the questions. The questions deemed suitable by the experts were used as is, while the questions the experts deemed partially suitable were amended according to their suggestions. None of the questions were deemed unsuitable by the majority of the experts; therefore, there were no questions that were excluded from the forms. None of the questions were excluded as there were no questions deemed unsuitable by the majority of the experts. The Interview Form was finalized and readied for administration in accordance with the opinions provided in the Expert Information Form (Appendix 1). Data collection and analysis The research data was collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with the elementary school teachers with special needs children in their classrooms in elementary schools in the Edirne province. All interviews with the teachers were 19

conducted by the researchers at their schools, in quiet rooms and at their convenience. Prior to the interviews, the researchers briefly explained the aim of the study to the participants; then asked the questions in the form and recorded their answers with their consent. During the interviews, the names of the participants were used; however, thereafter each participant was designated with a code as T1, T2, …, T11. Data collection took approximately 30 minutes. Following data collection, the researchers analyzed the research data with content analysis, a qualitative data analysis method (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). In data analysis, the researchers printed out the data in the interview form without any modification to the voice recordings; thereby, converting the digital recordings into written text. The written data were read and evaluated individually. The evaluation data were coded by subject. Due to the lack of a code list on the subject in the literature, the coding was carried out according to the concepts derived from the study data. The researchers tried to identify the similarities between the codes developed for each interview question and organized the codes into themes. The themes developed were reorganized after simplification and consolidation in collaboration with an associate specialized in the area, and systematically analyzed. In qualitative studies, directly quoting the interviewees and interpreting the results based on these quotes is fundamental to ensuring the validity of the research (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). Therefore, in the present study, the interviewees were quoted directly and the results were interpreted based on these quotes. The reliability study was conducted by the researchers in collaboration with a domain expert by comparing the codings. The formula (Reliability = Number of Agreements / Total Number of Agreements and Disagreements) suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994) was used to determine inter-rater reliability. According to this formula, the reliability of the study was computed as 90%. RESULTS The results of the study carried out to investigate teachers’ opinions on inclusion are presented below as themes developed in line with the questions in the Interview Form. The meaning of inclusion The question “In your opinion, what is inclusion?” was asked to the teachers to discover what inclusion meant for them. Five of the teachers participating in the study replied it meant children being instructed together, three said the education of students with perception deficits and the remaining three said children who have problems. T4 expressed her opinion on the subject as “Children who need inclusive education share the same environment with other children,” while T11 said “Lack of perception. Education that students who do not pay attention to the lesson should attend,” and T6 said “Children who have difficulty in catching up with other children.” The opinions of the teachers on the similarities and differences between the children The teachers were queried about the similarities and differences between the children in inclusive education. The majority of the teachers (9 teachers) stated that the children with disabilities and the normally developing children were emotionally similar. T4 expressed her opinions as “They are all children; they play the same games, 20

and share the same pleasures and joys. They share the same emotions in non-academic classes, even more happily.” Two of the remaining three teachers said the children with disabilities enjoyed playing games like the normally developing children, and one teacher said they were physically similar. When asked about the differences between the children in inclusion, the teachers mostly stressed the differences with respect to academic skills. Two of the teachers said they experienced difficulty in Mathematics and Turkish classes, and two said they were inattentive during lessons. T4 expressed her opinion as “She gets bored when faced with difficult Turkish and Mathematics questions,” and T11 said “His classmates ask questions and try to learn but he is only interested in his own world; no warning attracts his attention. He lives in his own world.” Two of the teachers emphasized the difference in the children’s perceptions and problem behavior. T8 stated her opinion as “There are differences in the children’s perceptions. I teach him something today, tomorrow he forgets and comes asking again,” and T7 as “There are some behaviors due to his mental disability, such as throwing water and spitting. He thinks this is normal.” Three teachers said that the children had restricted movement and needed more time and support. The opinions of the teachers on the disability groups that could benefit from inclusion The teachers were asked which disability groups could benefit from inclusion. Seven teachers said students with mild mental disabilities, four said students with orthopedic impairments and three said those with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. The teachers’ opinions on the subject were as follows: T10 said “Students with mild mental disabilities could be included because those with more severe mental disabilities would experience difficulties in inclusion,” T9 said “Students with orthopedic impairments are suitable for this curriculum. There might be suitable class roles,” and T11 said “Students who suffer from hyperactivity and attention deficit could benefit because, for the rest, the physical school and class environment, and my training is inadequate. I have never received any training on the subject.” The suggestions of the teachers for successful inclusion The teachers were requested to provide suggestions for achieving successful inclusion. Three teachers suggested giving simple tasks the child is capable of, nine suggested providing individual support, showing tolerance to the child and smaller class size, and ten teachers suggested providing specialist, material and family support, collaboration with individuals and institutions, building resource rooms and giving educational seminars. T10 stressed supporting the child by saying “The child could be entrusted with simple tasks such as fetching something from the other classroom or something he could do inside the classroom; for example, opening and closing the curtains,” and T9 emphasized the necessity for reduced class size by saying “The class size should be smaller, about 20 children.” T2 said “School administrations, provincial directorates and universities should collaborate, develop a strong affiliation and provide concrete examples,” and T3 said “Everyone in the academic community should cooperate,” both stressing collaboration. T3 said “Resource rooms are needed,” and T7 said “There should be love and attachment between the child and the whole class, particularly the teacher,” indicating 21

the need for resource rooms and the importance of attachment. T2 expressed her opinion on the subject as “Educational seminars should be organized. It should be voluntary participation within office hours or paid participation,” and T4 as “Parenting education is essential,” suggesting organizing educational seminars and parenting education programs. The adjustments the teachers made in the educational environment and their suggestions The teachers were inquired about the adjustments they made in the educational environment for inclusion and were asked to explain their suggestions regarding these adjustments. Five of the teachers said they asked questions the children could answer. Five teachers said they made seating adjustments and two teachers said they gave homework suitable for the child’s level. Two of the remaining teachers said that they made no adjustments and one teacher said she did not make any adjustments as she was not informed on the subject. T3 said “I ask questions he can answer, which makes him happy. I prepare individualized questions for him during examinations,” and T10 said “I seated him next to the classmate he gets along best with and placed him close to the teacher's desk. I try to facilitate his communication with the rest of his classmates.” Five of the teachers suggested adjustments in the seating arrangement, while two teachers stressed not separating the child with disability from the other children, and four teachers said they did not know and offered no suggestions. The teachers’ considerations and suggestions for curriculum development The teachers were requested to convey their considerations and suggestions for inclusive curriculum development. Six of the interviewed teachers said they made sure the curriculum was suitable for the children’s level, while three said they paid particular heed to the curriculum’s suitability for the children’s individual characteristics and needs. T11 stated “At the beginning of the school year, I plan the curriculum for the included children in collaboration with the school counsellor,” whereas T9 and T3 said they did not develop a separate curriculum for the included children. On the subject, T9 said “I don’t do anything because I have not attended any training,” and T3 said “I did not implement an individualized curriculum for this school year. I think the Individualized Education Program was not properly implemented. The teacher knows each student well so I employ opportunity teaching.” Six of the teachers stated that the curriculum should be individualized for the child’s level and developed in collaboration with the school counsellor, while two teachers indicated that a separate curriculum was not required and the subjects needed simplification. T4 expressed her opinion as “An individualized curriculum is developed in collaboration with the school counsellor in respect of the development and progress of the included child,” while T2 said “There is no need for a separate curriculum. The same subjects need to be simplified according to the student.” The types of support the teachers require The teachers were queried about the types of support they needed in inclusion. The majority of the teachers (9 teachers) stated they needed the support of a specialist, while 22

four said they needed the support of the families, four said they required a resource room and three said they needed the support of the school administration. T6 expressed her opinion as “I need special education for the diagnosis of the child. They need additional extracurricular support,” while T5 said “I require the assistance of the school counsellor.” T1 stated “I need the support of the mother. It is fine as long as there is someone to assist and carry her. During long walks, I need the father’s help,” and T8 said “I need the support of the parents. I cannot attend the child as much as I would like because I don’t have the time. If I had the time, I wouldn’t need much support,” pointing out the need for family support. T3 said “There should be a resource room I could send him to when he gets bored,” and T11 said “I need resource rooms,” emphasizing the need for resource rooms. T7 and T10 expressed the need for administrative support by saying “I need the support of the school principal.” The problems the teachers experienced and their solution suggestions The teachers were requested to relate the most important problems they experienced in inclusion, and to provide solution suggestions. The problems they experienced were behavioral problems, difficulty with lessons, lack of proper readiness of the school and the teachers, lack of knowledge, classroom management, class size, acceptance of the child with special needs and level of disability. On the subject, T2 indicated the lack of knowledge by saying “Teachers suffer from lack of knowledge; not knowing what to do in the classroom,” T1 expressed class management problems by saying “When he doesn’t understand the subject, he bothers his classmates and distracts those who try to follow the lesson. You manage to focus their attention and it is disrupted by his single act,” T2 stressed time management issues by saying “There isn’t enough time,” T7 emphasized class size by saying “There are too many students in the class. And the presence of undiagnosed inclusion students,” T9 pointed out issues regarding the acceptance of the child by his/her parents by saying “The parents’ failure to accept the child’s condition,” and T10 indicated the child’s level of disability by saying “The child having a severe disability.” The majority of the teachers participating in the study emphasized the importance of training the parents and the teachers on the subject and two of the teachers stressed the acceptance of the child in the school and the class. T10 expressed her opinion on the subject as “For inclusion to be successful, first of all, the teacher has to accept the child and ensure peer acceptance.” Two of the teachers recommended greater support to the teachers by the Ministry of National Education and school administrations, while one teacher suggested the making of necessary legal regulations, and another indicated the need for grade retention. T10 recommended the provision of special education support to the child and the parents, saying “The child could receive extramural counselling and special education support. The parents could also receive training.” T5 said “The teacher should collaborate with the parents. There should be collaboration between teachers, as well as, the teacher and the school administration,” stressing collaboration. Another teacher suggested educating children with special needs in a separate environment.

23

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The teachers interviewed said inclusion meant education in the same environment, the instruction of students with perception deficits and children with problems. The teachers failed to explain inclusion and were not sufficiently knowledgeable on the subject. However, inclusion is defined as placing children with disabilities in regular or general education classrooms for instruction and providing appropriate support (Lerner, 2000). This could be due to the fact that the teachers had not been educated or trained on the subject. The teachers have also expressed their lack of knowledge. For example, T9 expressed her lack of knowledge by saying “I don’t know because I didn’t attend any training.” In their study on the competence of classroom teachers in inclusive education, Babaoğlan and Yılmaz (2010) revealed that teachers lacked adequate knowledge and qualifications for inclusive education. Furthermore, another study reported that teachers’ knowledge on inclusion was inadequate (Kargın et al., 2003). The majority of the teachers (9 teachers) stated that the children with disabilities and normally developing children were emotionally similar however only one teacher mentioned a physical similarity. Most of the teachers emphasized that, whether disabled or non-disabled, they were all children and they felt sorrow and joy from the same things. These statements indicate that the teachers focused more on the similar characteristics. Most of the educational needs of the children with disabilities can be met with various simple adjustments in the general educational environment and curriculum if the emphasis is placed on the similarities. In this respect, great responsibility lies with the classroom teachers and specialists (Akçamete, 2010). Some of the teachers stressed an academic difference between the children with disabilities and the normally developing children, while others expressed a difference in problem behavior. There is a tendency to focus on the differences of children with disabilities from normally developing children rather than their similarities. This is due to the impact of some types of disabilities on learning (Akçamete, 2010). This difference of opinion among the teachers might be attributed to the type of disability of the children with special needs in their classes and, consequently, the impact of the type of disability on learning. The teachers had varying opinions on the disability groups could benefit from inclusion. The teachers opined that students with mild mental disabilities, orthopedic impairments, and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder could benefit from inclusion. The reluctance of the teachers to include particular disability groups could be due to inadequate knowledge of disability types, lack of experience and training in the education of children with disabilities. In the 26 studies they reviewed for the attitudes of classroom teachers towards inclusion, De Boer, et al., (2011) revealed that teachers viewed the inclusion of children with learning disabilities and behavioral problems less favorably. Avramidis and Norwich (2002) reported that teachers were more willing to include students with mild disabilities or physical disabilities than those with more complex needs. The study results revealed that teachers preferred children who did not demand too much responsibility in inclusive education. The teachers have made various suggestions for achieving successful inclusive practice. These suggestions were giving simple tasks the child is capable of, individual support to the child, showing tolerance, decreasing the class size, the provision of specialist, material and family support to the teachers, collaboration with individuals and institutions (universities), building resource rooms and organizing educational 24

seminars. The suggestions concentrate on the subjects of education and collaboration as good communication, collaboration and rapport must be ensured between educators, parents and social resources for successful inclusion. The education of children with special needs, once regarded as the domain of special educators, is now considered to be a shared responsibility requiring team work. The quality of the communication, collaboration, accord and support between educators, other professionals and parents is essential for effective inclusion (Salend, 1998). Ben-Yehuda, S., Leyser, Y. & Last, U. (2010), reported that teachers successful in increasing the social interaction of children with disabilities stressed the significance of allocating time for and showing affection to special needs children. Furthermore, the study showed that the teachers had acquainted themselves with the child’s past and established meaningful and positive relationships with their families. In the study by Sadioğlu et al., (2013), the teachers recommended separate educational environments, the provision of quality and effective pre- and inservice training, partial inclusion and the provision of support material. Demir and Açar (2011) reported that classroom teachers experienced in inclusive education recommended that included children should be educated together with classmates who have similar characteristics, the instruction of special needs children should be carried out by specialists, included children should be instructed one-to-one and in-service training activities should be increased. The study results revealed that the teachers were not provided with adequate support services and were not readied for inclusion. The teachers made various adjustments in the educational environment for inclusive education. The majority of the teachers stated that they made different adjustments and only two teachers said they did not make instructional adjustments because they did not want to and one teacher said she did not make instructional adjustments because she lacked the know-how. Those who made adjustments said they asked questions the child could answer, changed the seating arrangement, gave homework suitable for the child’s level, got the child’s attention by making eye-contact and made use of visual materials. These adjustments are not sufficient. The teachers apparently did not make necessary adjustments such as ensuring the accessibility of material, organizing the classroom climate and forming study groups. Furthermore, the changes the teachers made mainly included adjustments concerning the aim, method and presentation of the content. The researchers believe that the teachers failed to adjust the educational environment according to the needs of the child because the teachers were not knowledgeable about, or had limited knowledge of, the requirements of children with disabilities and inclusion. Various studies have similarly reported that teachers mostly paid attention to seating adjustments and did not make any adjustments for other problems (Kargin et al., 2003; Sarac & Colak, 2012; Vural & Yikmis, 2008). The majority of the teachers (6 teachers) stated their leading concern in developing the curriculum was the children’s levels, followed by the suitability of the curriculum to their individual characteristics and needs. On the other hand, two of the teachers said they did not develop an individualized curriculum for the special needs child. Individualized education programs are required to address their needs and ensure they benefit from instruction (Akçamete, 2010). Therefore, the teachers assigned to inclusive classrooms are tasked with critical responsibilities. However, they need to be equipped with adequate knowledge to be able to fulfill these responsibilities. These two teachers lacked adequate knowledge and experience, and were not readied for inclusion. The results of the study by Vural and Yıkmış (2008) showed that inclusive classroom 25

teachers lacked adequate knowledge of instructional adjustment and that some of the adjustments they made were limited. Another study reported that classroom teachers lacked proper knowledge of inclusion, the Individualized Education Program and the types of disability (Yıldırım Erişkin et al., 2012). Sadioğlu et al. (2013) emphasized the small number of teachers who implemented the Individualized Education Program. However, in order to meet the needs of the disabled children being educated together with normally developing children, the implementation of individualized curricula is critical. The majority of the teachers recommended developing a curriculum suitable for the child’s level in collaboration with the school counsellor, while two teachers said there was no need for a separate curriculum and the subjects needed to be simplified, and one teacher expressed her lack of knowledge. Kargın et al., (2003) found that a significant majority of the teachers (77.1%) did not develop an individualized education program and used the existing curriculum for the children with disabilities in their classrooms. However, an individualized curriculum is a critical factor for successful inclusion. The effectiveness of instruction would significantly suffer in the lack of an individualized curriculum for special needs children and the impromptu administration of instructional adjustments without prior preparation. Similarly, Vural and Yıkmış (2008) reported that although the inclusive classroom teachers made simplifications in goal adaptations and developed additional goals suitable for the child’s level, they did not carry out any planning for these activities. However, each child in the class has different needs and one of the ways to meet the needs of the children with disabilities in inclusive classrooms is to use individualized curricula. The majority of the teachers (9 teachers) expressed the need for specialist support, followed by family support, resource room and administrative support. Sadioğlu et al. (2013) similarly reported that teachers mainly required specialist support. In addition, some of the teachers emphasized the support of the family. The study by Idol (2006) indicated that most of the teachers still preferred the resource room model while some of the teachers stressed the support of the family. The limited quantity and quality of teachers and the lack of special educators to support teachers increases the significance of family support, resulting in teachers’ demands for the support of the family. Behavioral problems were the most significant issue the teachers experienced in the inclusion of children with disabilities. Saraç and Çolak (2012) reported that teachers experienced various issues resulting from disabled children’s behavioral problems during inclusion. In another study, behavioral problems were similarly identified as one of the problems teachers encountered during inclusion (Sadioğlu et al., 2012). This might be due to the teachers’ failure to implement effective classroom management strategies. In their study, Sucuoğlu, Ünsal and Özokçu (2004) revealed that the teachers who experienced increased problem behavior in their classrooms and continuously complained of these behaviors utilized preventive classroom management strategies less frequently than the teachers who encountered fewer incidents of problem behavior and were able to control these incidents. The second most common issue the teachers experienced in inclusive education was the problems related to the lessons and the fact that the school and the teachers were not readied for inclusion. The problems encountered during the lessons could be attributed to the teachers’ failure to make adjustments appropriate for the characteristics and needs of all the children in the class and therefore to focus the children’s attention on the lessons. Kargın et al., (2003) 26

reported that the majority of school principals were not adequately knowledgeable, and did not make the necessary adjustments to accommodate children with special needs or ready teachers and other students for inclusion. The lack of knowledge is another issue the teachers experienced in inclusion. Moreover, Vural and Yıkmış (2008) reported that the majority of the teachers complained of the lack of time and knowledge of instructional adjustment. However, inclusive education can succeed only through the provision of necessary adjustments to normal educational environments and a full range of support services. Therefore, the researchers believe that the teachers’ ignorance of instructional adjustments is one of the main factors in the failure of inclusive programs. Classroom management issues the teachers experienced might be due to their lack of knowledge on classroom management. In the study investigating classroom teachers’ level of knowledge on classroom management, Güner (2011) found that the knowledge levels of the teachers were similar and limited. Class size was another issue the teachers had to face. There were five classrooms with 26-30 students, four with 31 and more students, one with 16-21 students and one with 21-25 students. In the lack of assistant teachers to support the classroom teachers, these numbers are very high. In addition, various studies have reported similar results (Çankaya & Korkmaz, 2012; Demir & Açar, 2011; Vural & Yıkmış, 2008). Acceptance of the special needs child is another issue. Sadioğlu et al. (2012) similarly found that classroom teachers reported that parents’ failure to accept their children’s disability was another source of problem. In their study on the opinions of classroom teachers experienced in inclusive education, Demir and Acar (2011) also reported that the teachers pointed out the problems they had with the parents of special needs children. Therefore, classroom teachers should be equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary for establishing communication and collaboration, as well as, informing and guiding the families. The majority of the teachers suggested the provision of training to the parents and teachers. The other suggestions were ensuring the child’s acceptance in the school and class, teacher, ministerial and administrative support for the child, making the necessary legal regulations, grade retention, making use of scientific methods in education, providing special educational support to the child and family, ensuring collaboration between the parents, school and teachers and educating children with special needs in separate classrooms. The study results revealed the existence of various issues in inclusive education in Turkey although the inclusion of disabled children in general education classrooms and the provision of the necessary support services to the students and their families are guaranteed by law. In the study by Sadioğlu et al., (2013), teachers similarly recommended separate educational environments, the provision of quality and effective in-service training, reducing the class size, and the provision of support material. Furthermore, in the study conducted by Saraç and Çolak (2012), the teachers recommended providing in-service training, assigning two counsellors to each school, and instructing children with special needs in separate schools and classrooms to the Ministry of National Education, while they suggested organizing training activities for the parents, a more active guidance and counselling service, smaller class sizes, and in-school training programs to the school administration. Another study reported that experienced inclusive classroom teachers’ suggestions focused on educating children with special needs in separate schools, one-to-one instruction for included students and increased in-service training activities (Demir and Acar, 2011). One of the most important problems is the inadequate education and training of 27

classroom teachers on special needs children and inclusive education, which could lead to an unfavorable attitude in classroom teachers toward the inclusion of children with disabilities. In addition, neither the teachers nor the children with special needs are provided with adequate educational support for inclusive practice. Consequently, classroom teachers experience significant difficulties in the inclusion of children with disabilities. In view of the study results, the researchers would like to make the following suggestions: Teachers, children and parents could be informed about inclusion and inclusive education prior to implementation by organizing interactive meetings. More effective and efficient in-service training seminars on the adjustment of educational environment, developing an individualized curriculum, and classroom management could be organized for classroom teachers who have children with special needs in their classes. Special educational support services such as resource rooms, in-class assistance and special education counseling could be provided to both teachers and children with special needs at inclusive schools. Faculties of education could provide school and practical teaching experience opportunities at inclusive schools in addition to theoretical and practical courses on inclusive education for prospective classrooms teachers. The opinions of classroom teachers regarding inclusion could be identified using mixed research models combining both qualitative and quantitative perspectives, or qualitative research methods in which more than one data collection method is utilized. REFERENCES Akçamete, A. G. (2010). Özel Gereksinimi Olan Çocuklar. A. G. Akçamete (Ed.), Genel Eğitim Okullarında Özel Gereksinimi Olan Öğrenciler ve Özel Eğitim kitabı içinde (bölüm 1, sayfa 31-76). Kök Yayıncılık: Ankara. Aral, N. (2011). Okul Öncesi Eğitiminde Kaynaştırma. Morpa Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Avramidis, E. & Norwich, B. (2002). Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Integration/Inclusion: A Review of the Literatüre. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17, 129-147. Babaoğlan, E. & Yılmaz, Ş. (2010). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Kaynaştırma Eğitimindeki Yeterlilikleri. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 18 (2), 345-354. Batu, E. S. (2000). Kaynaştırma, Destek Hizmetler ve Kaynaştırma Hazırlık Etkinlikleri. Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 2 (4), 35-45. Batu, S. & Kırcaali İftar, G. (2007). Kaynaştırma. Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık. Ben-Yehuda, S.; Leyser, Y. & Last, U. (2010). Teacher Educational Beliefs and Sociometric Status of Special Educational Needs (SEN) Students in Inclusive Classrooms. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14 (1),17-3 Çankaya, Ö. & Korkmaz, İ. (2012). İlköğretim I. Kademede Kaynaştırma Eğitimi Uygulamalarının Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 13, (1),1-16. De Boer, A. A. ; Pijl, S. J. & Minnaert, A. (2011). Regular Primary Schoolteachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education: A Review of the Literature. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15 (3), 331-353. Demir, M. K. & Açar, S. (2010). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Kaynaştırma Eğitimine İlişkin Düşünceleri. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 30 (3), 749-770. Demir, M. K. & Açar, S. (2011). Kaynaştırma Eğitimi Konusunda Tecrübeli Sınıf 28

Öğretmenlerinin Görüşleri. Kastamonu Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 19 (3), 719-732. Güner, N. (2011). Kaynaştırma Sınıflarında Çalışan Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Sınıf Yönetimi Bilgi Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 19 (3), 691-708. Gürgür, H. (2005). Kaynaştırma Uygulamasının Yapıldığı İlköğretim Sınıfında İş Birliği İle Öğretim Yaklaşımının İncelenmesi. Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Ankara. Idol, L. (2006). Toward Inclusion of Special Education Students in General Education: A Program Evaluation of Eight Schools. Remedial and Special Education, 27 (2), 77-94. Kargın, T., Acarlar, F. & Sucuoğlu, B. (2003). Öğretmen, Yönetici ve Anne Babaların Kaynaştırma Uygulamalarına İlişkin Görüşlerinin Belirlenmesi. Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 4 (2), 55-76. Kargın, T. (2006). Kaynaştırma: Temel Kavramlar, Tarihçe ve İlkeleri. İlköğretimde Kaynaştırma Uygulamaları kitabı içinde (bölüm 1, sayfa 25-67). (B. Sucuoğlu & T. Kargın), İstanbul: Morpa Kültür Yayınları Ltd. Ş. Lerner, J. W. (2000). Learning Disabilities. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). An Expanded Sourcebook Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Sage. Myles, B. S. & Simpson, R. L. (1989). Regular Educators Modification Prefences for Mainstreaming Midly Handicapped Children. The Journal of Special Education, 22 (4), 479-491. Osborne, A. G. & Dimattia, P. (1994). The Least Restrictive Environment Mandate: Legal İmplications. Exceptional Children, 61(1), 6-14. Sadioğlu, Ö.; Batu, E. S. & Bilgin, A. (2012) Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Özel Gereksinimli Öğrencilerin Kaynaştırılmasına İlişkin Görüşleri. Uludağ Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 25 (2),399-432. Sadioğlu, Ö.; Bilgin, A.; Batu, S. & Oksal, A. (2013). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Kaynaştırmaya İlişkin Sorunları, Beklentileri ve Önerileri. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 13 (3), 1743-1756. Salend, S. J. (1998). Effective Mainstreaming. New Jersey: Prentice- Hall Inc. Saraç, T. & Çolak, A. (2012) Kaynaştırma Uygulamaları Sürecinde İlköğretim Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Karşılaştıkları Sorunlara İlişkin Görüş ve Önerileri. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8 (1),13-28. Sucuoğlu, B.; Ünsal, P. & Özokçu, O. (2004). Kaynaştırma Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Önleyici Sınıf Yönetimi Becerilerinin İncelenmesi. Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 5 (2), 51-64. Türkoğlu, Y. K. (2007). İlköğretim Okulu Öğretmenleriyle Gerçekleştirilen Bilgilendirme Çalışmalarının Öncesi ve Sonrasında Öğretmenlerin Kaynaştırmaya İlişkin Görüşlerinin İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Uysal, A. (1995).Öğretmen ve Okul Yöneticilerinin Zihin Engelli Çocukların Kaynaştırılmasında Karşılaşılan Sorunlara İlişkin Görüşleri. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Vural, M. & Yıkmış, A. (2008). Kaynaştırma Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Öğretimin Uyarlanmasına İlişkin Yaptıkları Çalışmaların Belirlenmesi. Abant İzzet Baysal Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8 (2),141-159. Yıldırım Erişkin, A.; Yazar Kıraç, S. & Ertuğrul, Y. (2012). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Kaynaştırma Uygulamalarına İlişkin Görüşlerinin Değerlendirilmesi. Milli Eğitim, 193, 200-213. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri (8. Basım). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık San. ve Tic. A.Ş. 29

Yılmaz, H. (1995). Normal Öğrencilerin Devam Ettiği Sınıflarda Eğitim Gören Özürlü Çocukların Sorunları. Çağdaş Eğitim, 208, 16-22.

APPENDIX 1 Interview questions 1. In your opinion, what is inclusion? 2. What are the similarities between the children with disabilities and the normally developing children participating in inclusive education in your classroom? 3. What are the differences between the children with disabilities and the normally developing children participating in inclusive education in your classroom? 4. Children in which disability group could benefit from inclusion? Please explain the reasons. 5. What could be done to achieve successful inclusion? 6. What kind of adjustments could be made in educational environments for inclusion? Which instructional adjustments do you make? 7. How should an inclusive curriculum be developed? What are your considerations when developing an inclusive curriculum? 8. What type of support do you require in inclusive education? Which support type do you think is more beneficial? 9. What are the most important problems encountered in inclusive education? What can be done to solve these problems? 10. Do you have any final comments regarding inclusion?

30

Chapter 3 The Predictive Power of Perception Levels towards Active Learning for Teaching Styles of Candidate Teachers Serhat SÜRAL* INTRODUCTION How learning happens and, accordingly, designing teaching environments vary in parallel with sense of “knowledge” and epistemological beliefs (Kaleci, 2012). As an epistemological theory (Theory of Knowledge), constructivism is one of the most prevalent knowledge and learning approach in today’s education system (Akpınar, 2010). In the view of the constructivist theory, learning is a constructive process in which the learner’ prior experiences and knowledge interact with new experiences. Learners construct knowledge in their minds based on their personal interpretation of experience and what they already know. Learners ‘experience, knowledge, belief and expectation play a crucial role. Therefore, in learning process, new knowledge should be processed in relation to existing knowledge and activities that place students in charge of their own learning should be developedwhile they interact with existing knowledge (Connell and Franklin, 1994; Jonassen, 1994; Jonassen, Davidson, Collins, Campbell and Haag, 1995; Fer and Cırık, 2007; Atay, 2003; Yaşar, 1998). The prevalent aspects ofconstructivist theory influences all elements inherent in learning-teaching process. This could be observed on teachers as well. Apart from being open-minded, contemporary, staying up-to-date, considering individual differences and good field knowledge, a constructive teacher should be a facilitator who provides appropriate learning experiences rather than simply transmitting knowledge and the teacher himself/herself learns together with the students (Selley, 1999). A constructivist teacher differentiates instruction on the basis of students' needs and interests empower learners to shape their own decisions. In this respect, teacher is a facilitator and guide. Teachers provide learning environment rather than solving problems for learners. Teachers encourage students to reasoning and the teacher challenge the student’s thinking with questions. Teachers ask but do not say what or how to think. A constructivist teacher is like a north star; helping students to find their ways (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). Although constructivist approach is a student-centered approach, as it is seen, teacher’ role in this process clearly could not be denied. In this context, as an active agent of active learning, teachers should stay up-to-date, be aware of their competences, and know their individual aspects. This is significant for learning and teaching process. With the combination of required qualifications, teachers shape their learning styles. Moreover, we could say the teacher exhibits specific teaching style (Süral, 2013). Quality in education could be improved through the presence of teachers who evaluate student’s achievement with respect to real life-based performance and *

Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Dep. e-mail:[email protected] 

educational process and empower different types of students to learn together (Townsend, 1997). The primary duty of a teacher for providing quality in education is to prepare effective learning environment to students (Hopkins, 1997). In a higher quality of teaching process, teachers constantly measure their student’s learning via different evaluation tools and methods and they give feedbacks on it (Geringer, 2003). They use different learning and teaching techniques. They endeavor to motivate their students. Teachers also utilize from student achievements as a motivation strategy and help those experiencing difficulty in learning (Armutçuoğlu, 1992). Teachers contribute to make the learning process meaningful by boosting confidence in students and student engagement in decision-making is intended in order to improve their collaborative behaviors and self-expression skills (Baştepe, 2004). When we try to conceptualize teachers’ role, behaviors in learning teaching process and their perspective on students in a common ground, we see the concept of “teaching style”. According to Grasha (1996), teaching style is a view of behaviors, performance, beliefs, needs, and pedagogical knowledge of a teacher in classroom. Teaching styles include behavioral patterns in teaching and learning environment regarding how teachers present information to students, how they deliver information to students, how they interact with students, and how they socialize students. As stressed out by Üredi and Üredi (2007), though there are many definitions used for the term of teaching style, the most widely accepted definition for active learning in the literature is “behavioral patterns continuously, logically and consistently performed by teachers in instructional and learning processes with students”. The preferred teaching styles shape teachers’ such roles as transmitting knowledge, guiding and interacting with students. Another factor that influences students’ learning is the teaching style in the classroom and teachers’ qualifications. At this juncture, it is useful to ask following questions: “What kind of role does a teacher play in teaching process? Is a teacher the sole omnipotent in the classroom or does teacher guide to students? Does teacher prefer to transmit the knowledge directly? What kinds of methodologies doesa teacher employ during the course? In fact, those questions are related to teaching style of the teacher. While some teachers tend to give detailed information to their students, some prefer to use exemplifying method or allow students to study autonomously along with independent works. If teachers could analyze individual aspects of students well, plan teaching-learning process by taking individual aspects of students into consideration and offer rich options, they could make their students versatile ( Gürkan, 2001). The versatile teaching way of teacher or utilizing appropriate teaching style will make the course joyous and teacher satisfied. The fact that putting teacher into certain rules is contrary to today’s sense of constructivism is stated in many studies. Particularly, even the use of teacher’s past experiences in teaching will bring the teacher a certain flexibility (Süral, 2014, p.45). In such case, student’s active participation is an expected result. There is no doubt that teachers’ awareness on their own teaching style will make a positive contribution to incorporate active learning into learning environment. The teachers’ awareness on teaching styles and incorporating active learning in the classroom could only be achieved through constructivist approach. According to Açıkgöz, active learning is based on constructivism and it concerns with the issue of learning and interested in the nature of knowledge and factors influencing cognition process. Students learn by creating meaning rather than memorizing information transmitted by the teacher. According to the constructivists, 32

knowledge is constructed in the socio-cultural context within the framework of the learners’ experiences and their present knowledge. In constructivism, as the knowledge is constructed by learner, it is specific to individual and it cannot be transferred to any one else by no means. Active learning is a learning process in which learners tend to be self-regulated and have an active role in decision making process while engaged in cognitively challenging academic task. (Açıkgöz, 2003). Active learning is “anything that involves students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing” (Bonwell andEison, 1991). From the perspective of another definition, active learning goes beyond the simple availability of information to facilitate students’ self-discovery of knowledge (Butler, Phillmann, and Smart, 2001; Lake, 2000; Lonka and Ahola, 1995; Schwartz and Bransford, 1998). Kalem and Fer put forward that active learning usually refers to a learning situation in which students are active agents. In this process, the first goal is to transform the role of the learner from passive observer to active participant. However, this is not simply a matter of participation. It encourages learners to take actions in various ways concerning how to learn, use mental abilities, think, and interpret the existing information. In such kind of learning process, students actively guide their learning using high-level cognitive and decision-making skills and cooperate with other learners. The role of the teacher is merely being a facilitator of these processes. In this position, the teacher himself/herself learns together with the students. According to Felder and Brent (1996), teachers in active learning provides students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another and coaches them in the skills they need to do so effectively. This is because learning and improvement are always controlled in an active learning environment. Therefore, teacher in active learning is a facilitator in the classroom rather than being the sole authority (Açıkgöz, 2003). Incorporating active learning into classroom and providing learning and teaching environments allowing students to practice active learning techniques properly depend on the effectiveness of teacher’s classroom performance and teachers’ awareness of their own dominant teaching styles. In light of constructivist learning theory which argues that students are actively participated in the classroom, teachers should be facilitator , or when required, should apply different teaching styles consistent with course content, material, student’s cognitive and emotional level, the significance of the research study includes the analysis the relationship between teaching style of candidate teachers and their perception level towards active learning and to what extent teaching styles impact on perception level. In this context, the overall aim of the research seeks to identify the predictive power of perception levels towards active learning for teaching styles of candidate teachers studying at faculty of education. Specifically, answers will be sought to the following questions: 1. What is the distribution of teaching styles of candidate teachers by gender, class and field of study? 2. Do teaching styles of candidate teachers vary by gender, class and field of study? 3. Do perception levels toward active learning of candidate teachers vary by gender, class and field of study? 4. Is there any meaningful relationship between teaching styles of candidate 33

teachers and their perception levels towards candidate teachers? 5. Do teaching styles of candidate teachers predict their perception levels towards candidate teachers? MATERIALS AND METHOD In this section, the research model, the population, the sample numbers of the research study, the validity and reliability study of data collecting tool and utilized tests conducted for data analysis are presented. RESEARCH MODEL The research study was designed as a quantitative one and general screening model was used. With respect to the model, the relational survey was utilized as well. The relational survey is a research method that focuses on finding differences between two or more variables and/or the amount to which a variable fluctuates (Karasar, 2009). WORKING GROUP The research population consists of students studying at elementary school education in a university, located at Aegean region. In this respect, the population of the research was chosen from 2914 candidate teachers studying at such departments as elementary school education, early childhood education, elementary mathematics education, science education and social studies education. On the other hand, the sample number of the universe (Balcı, 2001) was calculated as 340. Yet, the predetermined minimum sample number was increased up to 400 candidate teachers to obtain reliable and sound data analysis. In terms of validity and a sound data analysis, data was collected with equal numbers in candidate teachers from five fields. Accordingly, 80 teachers from each department were accessed and 400 candidate teachers in total were included to the study. To determine students’ learning styles, two scales was employed in the study, namely, (1) Grasha’s “Teaching Style Inventory” which was developed by Grasha (1996) and adapted to Turkish language by Sarıtaş and Süral (2010) and (2) Perception Scale for Active Learning formulated by Öztürk and AydedeYalçın (2013) so as to measure perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. Such variables as “gender”, “class” and “field of study” significantly differentiated teaching styles and perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. The positive relationship between variables was observed. Lastly, teaching styles demonstrated a predictive power on perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. DATA GATHERING TOOL AND RELIABILITY CO-EFFICIENT To determine students’ learning styles, Grasha’s “Teaching Style Inventory” which was developed by Grasha (1996) and adapted to Turkish language by Sarıtaş and Süral (2010) was utilized. Grasha’s“Teaching Style Inventory” consists of five subdimensions with 8 items for each subscale and includes five pointLikert-type scale and 40 items in total. The scale was adapted to Turkish language by three -people team involving researchers and then, four people including one professor, one associate professor and two English teachers were requested to translate items from Turkish to English. In line with collected results, the scale was finalized by selecting true statements in Turkish. Afterwards, the scale was administrated to 30 instructors in faculties whose language of instruction is English. 10 day later, the Turkish version of 34

the scale was administrated and the relationship in two versions was compared and analyzed. By utilizing from SPSS 11.5 packet program, significance level was analyzed with Pearson Correlation test. The significance level was calculated as 80 (Süral, 2010). To identify reliability of assessment instrument, all data was tested by Alpha Cronbachreliability test in SPSS 11.5 program and the reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as 875. Formulated by Öztürk and AydedeYalçın (2013), “Perception Scale for Active Learning” was used to so as to measure perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. In light of obtained data from Ozturk’s scale (2014), sentences were created emphasizing perception of candidate teachers towards active learning. Then, those sentences were transformed into scale items. In this way, 35 draft items were prepared including 22 positive and 13 negative items. Regarding 35 scale items for “Perception Scale for Active Learning”, 5 experts from Elementary Science Education Department, 1 expert from Educational Sciences (Curriculum and Instruction) Department and 2 experts from Turkish Education Department were asked to share their opinions and suggestions. In parallel with experts’ opinions and suggestions, additions, revisions and omissions and were made. Consequently, 34 draft items were agreed. Following content validity, 34 items including 13 negative and 21 positive items prepared as “Always”, “Usually”, “Sometimes”, “Rarely”, “Never” as 5 point Likert Type was administrated to 10 Teachers in the field of Secondary Education Science and Technology. During implementation, items which teachers had difficulty to understand were asked and marked and required revisions were made. Table 1: Reliability coefficient of perception level towards active learning through grasha’s “Teaching Style Inventory” Reliability Coefficients Turkish Data of the Adaptation designated Data (Sarıtaş & sample group Süral, 2010) ,875 ,891 ,815 ,785 ,768 ,704 ,708 ,752 ,883 ,763 ,862 ,869 Reliability Coefficients Scale Data of the Development designated Study Data sample group (Öztürk,2014) ,960 ,886

Teaching Style Scale (Cronbach Alpha Levels) Teaching Style Scale Expert Teaching Style Authority Teaching Style Personal Teaching Style Facilitator Teaching Style Delegator Teaching Style Perception Scale Towards Active Learning (Cronbach Alpha Levels) Perception Scale Towards Active Learning

Afterwards, those items were applied to 230 Secondary Science and Technology teachers across the Turkey during the 2012-2013 school year. In consequence of factor analysis, Principal Component Analysis were carried out and accordingly, KMO value of the scale was found as 0.93 and 0.000 were obtained from Barlett test. The Cronbach Alpha coefficient was found as 0.96 for a single factor. There is a wide consensus in the 35

literature stating that a minimum reliability of 70 and higher is accepted as appropriate for a psychological test (Tezbaşaran, 1996; Büyüköztürk, 2005). In this respect, we could say that the scale is reliable. According to reliability test results, reliability coefficient both in general and in sub-dimensions was observed at the desired level and obtained results were found appropriate to be employed. TECHNIQUES FOR DATA ANALYSIS T-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for parametric values which was obtained during analysis of “gender”, “class” and “field of study”variables in the sample while TUKEY tests were utilized for Post Hoc analysis. Lastly, Mann Whitney U and Kruskall Wallis tests were employed for nonparametric values. Pearson Moment Correlation Analysis were administrated to see whether there was a linear relationship between teaching styles and perception levels of candidate teachers towardsactive learning and multiple regression analysis technique was utilized to identify predictive power of predictive variables (teaching styles) on predicted variables(perception levels of active learning). On the other hand, “SPSS (20) for Windows” packetprogramme was employed for data analysis. RESULTS In this section, key findings obtained from Grasha’s “Teaching Style Inventory” and “Perception Scale for Active Learning”are presented. Findings regarding distribution of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to gender, class, field of study The first analyzed sub-problem includes following question: “How are teaching styles of candidate teachers according to “gender”, “class” and “field of study” variables? In this respect, the distribution of candidate teachers in accordance with independent variables which were selected based on candidate teachers’ dominant teaching styles are given in Table 2 with frequency and percentage values. With respect to the first analyzed sub-problem, the distribution of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to “gender”, “class” and “field of study” variables were examined. Pertaining to “gender” variable, we see that female candidate teachers’ distribution is equal to 71.2% within the sample group whereas male candidate teacher’ distribution is 28.8%. In terms of “class” distribution within four grades, we could conclude that candidate teachers in the first and second grades have a balanced distribution with each other. Similarly, the distribution of third and fourth grade candidate teachers produced the same result as well. On the other hand, regarding “field of study” variable, numbers of candidate teachers in five major departments were equalized to acquire reliable data as emphasized in“working group” section. From the perspective of teaching styles, we observe the most preferred teaching style is “facilitator” teaching style (f=148, %=37.0), while the least preferred teaching style is “personal model” teaching style (f=32, %=8.0). The most preferred teaching styles within sample group could be summarized as follows: facilitator, expert, delegator, formal authority and personal model teaching styles, respectively. While the surveyed group of female candidate teachers exhibits “facilitator” as their most preferred style, “expert” teaching style is the most preferred style among male candidate teachers. On the other hand, it is an interesting fact that “personal model” teaching style is the least preferred teaching style for bothfemale and male 36

candidate teachers. Female candidate teachers have approximate frequency values in relation to formal authority (f=43) and delegator teaching styles (f=45) whereas frequency values of formal authority (f=14), personal model (f=10) and delegator (f=15) teaching styles are close to each other among male candidate teachers. Table 2: Distribution of Teaching Styles of Candidate Teachers According to Gender, Class, Field of Study GENDER Female Male TOTAL CLASS 1st Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade 4th Grade TOTAL FIELD OF STUDY Primary Ed. Pre-School Ed. Science Ed. Social Science Ed. Primary Math. Ed. TOTAL

Expert f % 63 61.1 40 38.9 103 25.7 f % 38 36.8 30 29.1 21 20.3 13 13.8 103 25.7

TEACHING STYLES Authority Personel f % f % 43 75.4 22 68.7 14 24.6 10 31.3 57 14.3 32 8.0 f % f % 20 35.1 10 31.2 19 33.3 5 15.6 12 21.1 8 25.0 6 10.5 9 28.2 57 14.3 32 8.0

Facilitator f % 112 75.6 36 24.4 148 37.0 f % 32 21.6 39 26.3 31 20.9 46 31.2 148 37.0

Delegator f % 45 75.0 15 25.0 60 15.0 f % 12 20.0 18 30.0 16 26.6 14 23.4 60 15.0

TOTAL f % 285 71.2 115 28.8 400 100 F % 112 28.0 119 29.7 91 22.7 78 19.6 400 100 F %

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

6 7 30 15

5.8 6.7 29.1

8 8 16 10

14.1 14.1 28.2

6 11 8 4

18.7 34.3 25.0

50 30 26 37

33.7 20.2 17.5

15 29 10 4

25.0 48.3 16.6

80 80 80

20.0 20.0 20.0

6.6

80

20.0

4.1

80

20.0

15.0

400

100

45 103

14.5 43.9 25.7

15 57

17.5 26.1 14.3

12.5

3

9.5

32

8.0

15 148

25.0 9,6 37.0

2 60

Regarding distribution of teaching styles according to “field of study”variable, we see that there is a balanced frequency level within four grades in concern with “personal model” and “delegator” teaching styles. When we analyze grades from first to fourth, we notice that frequency level decreases in “expert” and “formal authority” teaching styles while there is an increase in “facilitator” teaching style. Besides, it is interesting to note that the most preferred teaching style among 1st grade candidate teachers is “expert” teaching style while other grades have the highest frequency values with “facilitator” teaching style. As for the last variable of the research study, namely,” the field of study” variable, findings demonstratethat candidate teachers studying at elementary school education departmentare more inclined to “facilitator” teaching styles (f=50) while “facilitator” (f=30) and“delegator” (f=29) teaching styles are the most preferred teaching styles among candidate teachers in early childhood education. In other words, candidate teachers prefer to employ student-centered instruction. On the other hand, candidate teachers in science and primary mathematics education prefer teacher-centered teaching style, that is to say, “expert” teaching style (f=30) - (f=45). Ultimately, the most preferred teaching style is “facilitator” teaching style among social sciences candidate teachers as in the elementary and early childhood school candidate teachers. Findings regarding differentiation levels of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to gender, class, field of study The second analyzed sub-problem includes following question: “Do teaching styles of elementary school candidate teachers differentiate according to “gender”, 37

“class” and “field of study”variables? In this respect, Kolmogorov- Smirnov test was applied to three variables to test normality of the distribution. Kolmogorov- Smirnov (K-S) test is utilized to see whether the data in the observed sample is normally distributed. Parametric test is administered to normally distributed data and non-parametric test is administrated to non-normal distribution. It should be noted that a nonparametric test should be employed if the test is statically significant (e.g., p<0.05). If the test indicates such significance level as p<0.05, then parametric tests should be applied (Baştürk, 2010). Since p-value significance level was higher than 0.05 in respect to independent “gender “variable, parametric distribution was observed. On the other hand, non-parametric distribution was seen as p-value significance level is less than 0.05 in “class” and “field of study” variables. Table 3: Differentiation levels of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to “gender” variables Teaching Styles Expert Authority Personel Facilitator Delegator

Gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

f 63 40 43 14 22 10 11 36 45 15

Xmean 41.22 41.78 33.60 27.04 39.71 35.25 39.70 37.50 31.07 31.44

Ss 2.145 3.479 3.179 3.780 2.134 1.910 2.309 2.224 3.769 3.477

t

p

1.852

.005*

2.797

.158

1.552

.099

2.555

.000*

1.711

.037*

*p<0.05 significantly

With respect to the second sub-problem in the research study, firstly, t-test results were examined to see whether gender independent variable differentiated on teaching styles of candidate teachers and the results demonstrated that “expert”, “facilitator” and “delegator” teaching styles significantly differed in “gender” variable whereas there was no significant difference in“formal authority” and “personal model” teaching styles Following analysis of “gender” variable in “expert” teaching style, the results suggestmale candidate teachers (Xmean=41.78) have higher mean than female candidate teachers (Xmean=41.22). In other words, there is slightly difference though,male candidate teachers prefer “expert” teaching style more than female candidate teachers. Another teaching style with statically significant difference is “facilitator” teaching style and we obtain an opposite finding as compared to previous finding. According to Table 3.2, female candidate teachers (Xmean=39.70) have higher mean than male candidate teachers (Xmean=37.50) in respect to “facilitator” teaching style adopting student-centered approach. Correspondingly, results could be interpreted showing that female candidate teachers dominantly employ “facilitator” teaching style when compared to male peers. On the other hand, anotherstudent-centered teaching style is “delegator” teaching style and, interestingly, male teachers have higher mean than female candidate teachers. Accordingly, the finding indicated that male candidate teachers (Xmean=31.44) appear to prefer “delegator” teaching style more than female candidate teachers (Xmean=31.07) 38

Table 4: Differentiation levels of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to “class” variable Teaching Style Expert

Authority

Personal

Facilitator

Delegator

Classes

f

1.Grade 2.Grade 3.Grade 4.Grade 1.Grade 2.Grade 3.Grade 4.Grade 1.Grade 2.Grade 3.Grade 4.Grade 1.Grade 2.Grade 3.Grade 4.Grade 1.Grade 2.Grade 3.Grade 4.Grade

38 30 21 13 20 19 12 6 10 5 8 9 32 39 31 46 12 18 16 14

Mean Rank 27,43 22,04 18,93 13,55 19.66 20.07 16.55 11.57 11.57 9.88 10.08 10.21 27.58 30.07 29.88 36.52 15.88 17.96 16.25 15.75

sd

X2

p

Differences

4

14.282

.000*

1-4, 2-4, 3-4,

3

13.587

.158

-

4

12.220

.094

-

5

15.074

.000*

1-4, 3-4

4

13.414

.034

2-3

*p<0.05 significantly

Due to the fact that the coefficient was found lower than 0.5 whereby Kolmogorov-Smirnov applied to “class” variable, non-parametric Kruskall Wallis analysis was administrated to the final data obtained in the sample group. According to analysis results, there is statically significant difference between groups in “field of study”variable and teaching styles of candidate teachers. This difference could be summarized as follows: “expert” teaching style (X2 (4) = 14.282; p<0.05), “facilitator” teaching style (X2 (5) = 15.074; p<0.05) and “delegator” teaching style (X2 (4) = 13.414; p<0.05). Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine differentiations between groups and the results are presented in Table 3.4. Each classroom grade is symbolized by a figure. In this respect, (3) 3 rdGrade (1) 1 stGrade nd (2) 2 Grade (4) 4 th Grade To be able to determine differentiation between group(s), Mann-Whitney U test is applied between two groups. SPSS does not operate Post Hoc process which demonstrates differences between groups and specifically which groups have differences through Kruskal –Wallis. To see differences between groups, groups are selected two by two and then Mann-Whitney U test is applied (Baştürk, 2010). In table 5, the difference is statically significant between candidate teachers who prefer “expert”, “facilitator” and “delegator” teaching styles. Firstly, significant differences were found between 4th Grade candidate teachers and candidate teachers with each grade levels. The mentioned difference is not in favor of 4th Grade groups. When analyzed 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades separately, the finding demonstrably suggests they have higher mean than 4th grade candidate teachers.

39

Teaching Style

Expert

Facilitator Delegator

Table 5: Analysis of group differences Sum Mean Differences Classes f of U Rank Rank 1.Grade 38 823,0 49,18 1-4 393,0 4.Grade 13 817,0 29,88 2.Grade 30 809,5 46,71 2-4 350,5 4.Grade 13 834,5 33,14 3.Grade 21 858,5 39,96 3-4 388,5 4.Grade 13 839,5 32.55 1.Grade 32 821.0 41.52 1-4 369.0 4.Grade 46 896.0 46.85 3.Grade 31 821.5 39.58 3-4 385.5 4.Grade 46 877.5 47.55 2.Grade 18 820.5 31.02 2-3 387.0 3.Grade 16 863.0 33.50

Z

p

-1,201 ,020 -1,638 ,011 -1,718 ,010 -1.252 .007 -1.503 .036 -1.441 .003

Table 6: The differentiation level of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to “Field of Study” Variable Teaching Style Expert

Authority

Field of Study Primary Ed. Pre-School Ed. Science Ed. Social Science Ed Primary Math. Ed Primary Ed. Pre-School Ed. Science Ed. Social Science Ed Primary Math. Ed

Teaching Style Personal

Facilitator

Delegator

Field of Study Primary Ed. Pre-School Ed. Science Ed. Social Science Ed Primary Math. Ed Primary Ed. Pre-School Ed. Science Ed. Social Science Ed Primary Math. Ed Primary Ed. Pre-School Ed. Science Ed. Social Science Ed Primary Math. Ed

f 6 7 30 15 45 8 8 16 10 15 f 6 11 8 4 3 50 30 26 37 15 15 29 10 4 2

Mean Rank 11,43 12,14 22,93 18,27 36.54 13.41 13.07 19.20 12.07 18.57 Mean Rank 10.51 13.18 13.98 8.210 4.245 41.78 21.87 19.18 36.30 17.92 18.32 27.26 11.65 9.751 3.568

sd

X2

p

Differences

3

15.892

.114

-

3

12.593

.158

-

sd

X2

p

Differences

2

10.220

.094

-

5

15.074

.000*

1-3, 2-5

2

10.054

.141

-

*p<0.05 significantly

Another teaching style with statically significant difference is “facilitator” teaching style. Significant differences were observed between 1st grade and 4th grade and between 3rd grade and 4th grade. In this respect, the data results of two groups strongly indicate that 4th grade level of candidate teachers within “facilitator” teaching style reached a favorable result. 40

Lastly, there is a group with statistically significant difference within “delegator” teaching style. Thus, as a result of comparison between 2nd and 3rd grade groups, significant differencewas observed in favor of 3rd grade candidate teachers. Statically speaking, the analysis results showed that “facilitator” teaching style (X2 (5) = 15.074; p<0.05) has the only significant difference regarding the difference between groups in “field of study” variable and candidate teachers’ teaching styles. It is interesting to note that other teaching styles do not have any meaningful differences. In the same way, differences in groups were determined through Mann-Whitney U test and they are shown at table 7. Each field of study is symbolized by figures as follows: Table 7: Analysis of group differences Teaching Style

Differences 1-3

Facilitator 2-5

Field of Study Primary Ed. Science Ed. Pre-School Pri. Math.

f 50 26 30 15

Mean Rank 923.0 976.5 926.0 957.5

Sum of Rank 47.92 38.85 41.03 27.51

U

Z

p

379.0

-1.072

.012

392.5

-1.933

.006

The research study indicated that the ultimate independent “field of study” variable has a significant difference with respect to “facilitator” teaching style, one of the teaching styles of candidate teachers. Mann-Whitney U test was applied to see significant differences between groups in “field of study” variable and the test results showed that there are significant differencesbetween elementary school education and science education and early childhood education and primary mathematics education. When we compare mean ranks between elementary school education and science education, the outcome is favorable for elementary school education. On the other hand, the comparison between elementary school education and primary mathematic education in terms of mean rank, there is significant difference in favor of early childhood education.It is quite interesting that student -centered “facilitator” teaching style is in favor of candidate teachers studying at elementary school teacher education and early childhood teacher education departments. Findings regarding differentiation level of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to gender, class, field of study The third analyzed sub-problem includes following question: “Do perception levels of elementary school candidate teachers differentiate according to “gender”, “class” and “field of study”variables?” One-dimensional analysis was conducted in relation to perception level scale towards active learning. Table 8: Differentiation levels of perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning according to“gender” variable Gender

f

Xmean

Sd

Female

285

74.08

3.885

Male 115 *p<0.05 significantly

67.41

3.959

t

p

2.159

.000*

As the second dimension of the research, perception levels toward active learning were measured on candidate teachers within the same sample group and were analyzed to find out whether they differentiated withrespect to determined independent variables. 41

In this respect, t test analysis was used to determine whether “gender” variable makes any differentiation on perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. Showing normal distribution as a result of conducted Kolmogorov- Smirnov test, groups in“gender” variable were analyzed and the data results indicate that female candidate teachers (Xmean=74.08) have higher average than male candidate teachers (Xmean=67.41). In result, perception levels of female candidate teachers are higher than male peers. Table 9: Differentiation levels of perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning according to “class” variable Classes

f

1.Grade 112 2.Grade 119 3.Grade 91 4.Grade 78 *p<0.05 significantly

Mean Rank 57,52 61,84 51,33 45,63

sd

X2

p

5

16.112

.011*

Differences 2-4, 2-3,

1-2,

The analysis results revealed that there is a statically significant difference (X2 (5) = 16.112; p<0.05) between groups in “class” variable and perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. Similarly, differences in groups were determined through Mann-Whitney U test and they are presented in table 10. As shown in the previous sub-problem, each field of study is symbolized by figures. Table 10: Analysis of group differences Field of Study 2.Grade 2-4 4.Grade 2.Grade 2-3 3.Grade 1.Grade 1-2 2.Grade *p<0.05 significantly Differences

f 119 78 119 91 112 119

Sum of Rank 1523.0 1476.5 1526.0 1457.5 1563.0 1596.5

Mean Rank 61.02 48.95 59.13 47.51 60.67 58.07

U

Z

p

572.0

-1.552

.022

598.5

-1.975

.016

569.0

-1.669

.009

Following selection of “class variable” groups two by two, Mann-Whitney U test was utilized to see which groups have favorableresults. Thus, firstly [2-4], we observe that there is a significant difference between the 2nd grade (Mean Rank= 61.02) and 4th grade (Mean Rank= 48.95). According to obtained mean ranks, we see that perception level of 2nd Grade groups towards active learning is higher than the 4th grade group As set out in Table 3.9[2-3], another significant difference is between the 2nd grade (Mean Rank= 59.13) and the 3rd grade (Mean Rank= 47.51). At this juncture, the 2nd grade group has a higher perception level towards active learning as compared to the 3rd grade. The findings could be interpreted as showing that 2nd grade candidate teachershave a higher perception level towards active learning as compared to both the 3rd grade and the 4th grade candidate teachers. Ultimately, the significant difference [1-2], is between the 1st grade (Mean Rank= 60.67) and 2nd grade (Mean Rank= 58.07). According to the data obtained, the1st grade 42

group has a higher perception level towards active learning as compared to 2nd grade. However, it is noteworthy that with respect to first two differentiations, the2nd grade candidate teachers have a higher perception level towards active learning as compared to both the 3rd grade and the 4th grade candidate teachers; while the 1st grade group has a higher perception level towards active learning as compared to the 2nd grade in the last differentiation. Table 11: Differentiation levels of perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning according to“field of study” variable Mean sd X2 p Differences Classes f Rank Primary Ed. 80 47,12 Pre-School Ed. 80 51,89 1-2, 1-3, Science Ed. 80 53,83 4 15.882 .004* 2-4 Social Science Ed 80 45,04 Primary Math. Ed 80 46.66 *p<0.05 significantly The analysis results demonstrated that there is a statically significant difference (X2 (4) = 15.882; p<0.05) between groups in “Field of Study” variable and perception level of candidate teachers towards active learning. Similarly, differences in groups were determined through Mann-Whitney U test and they are set out in table 12. As shown in the previous sub-problem, each field of study is symbolized by figures. Table 12: Analysis of group differences Farklar 1-2 1-3 2-4

Branşlar Primary Ed. Pre-School Ed. Primary Ed. Science Ed. Pre-School Ed. Social Science Ed.

f

Sıra Toplamı

Sıra Ortalaması

80 80 80 80 80 80

1088.0 1096.5 1053.0 1041.5 1057.0 1087.5

59.22 59.04 61.57 58.91 60.20 58.93

U

Z

p

589.0

-1.258

.036

517.5

-1.207

.008

502.0

-1.017

.017

*p<0.05 significantly

To test the differentiation of final independent variable, namely, “field of study” with respect to perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning, Mann Whitney U test were used and the test results are presented at table 12. In this regard, in the first place [1-2], the results show that there is a significant difference between elementary school teacher education (Mean Rank=59,22) and early childhood teachereducation (Mean Rank= 59.04). Yet, if we look closely, perception level of elementary school candidate teacherstowards active learning is higher with a slight difference as compared to early childhood candidate teachers. As presented in table 12 [1-3], another significant difference we see is between elementary school education (Mean Rank= 61.57) and science education (Mean Rank= 58.91) According to this result, classroom education group has higher perception level towards active learning when compared to science education group. The findings could be interpreted as showing that candidate teachers studying at elementary school teacher educationdepartment have a higher perception level towards active learning as 43

compared to candidate teachers at early childhood education and science education departments. The last seen significant difference [2-4], is between early childhood education (Mean Rank= 60.20) and social studies (Mean Rank= 58.93). According to the data obtained, early childhood education group has a higher perception level towards active learning as compared to social studies.However, it is also interesting to find that candidate teachers working for younger ag groups at elementary and early childhood education have higher mean as compared to other fields. Findings regarding the relationship between teaching styles of candidate teachers and their perception levels of active learning Within the context of research study, two-sided Pearson Moment Correlation Analysis (r) were administrated to see if there were a linear relationship between predictive variables (teaching styles) and predicted variables (perception levels towards active learning) Table 13: The relationship between teaching styles and perception level towards active learning Perception Levels towards Active Learning Expert Teaching Pearson Correlation .227 Style Sig.(2-tailed) .000 Authority Pearson Correlation .272 Teaching Style Sig.(2-tailed) .014 Personal Pearson Correlation .321 Teaching Style Sig.(2-tailed) .021 Facilitator Pearson Correlation .899 Teaching Style Sig.(2-tailed) .005 Delegator Pearson Correlation .785 Teaching Style Sig.(2-tailed) .000

The relationship between candidate teachers inclined to “expert” teaching style and their perception level towards active learning (r=-.227, p=.000) is at the low- level and positive. The similar result was observed for the relationship between candidate teachers inclined to “formal authority” teaching style and their perception level towards active learning (r=-.227, p=.014) as well. On the other hand, the relationship between candidate teachers inclined to “personal model” teaching style and their perception level towards active learning (r=321, p=.021) is nearly at the low- level and positive whereas the relationship between candidate teachers inclined to “facilitator” teaching style and their perception level towards active learning (r=.899, p=.005) is considerably high and positive.Finally, the relationship between candidate teachers inclined to “delegator” teaching style and their perception level towards active learning (r= .785, p=.000) is at the high -level and positive. The fact that the low- level relationship of “expert” and “formal authority” teaching styles with respect to their perception levels towards active learning suggests they have not a powerful relationship. The significant level of relationship in all sub-levels makes correlation coefficients meaningful.

44

Findings regardingthe impact of teaching styles of candidate teachers on their perception levels of active learning As seen in table 13, the relationship between teaching styles and perception levels towards active learning is positive. To find out which teaching style predominantly influences perception level towards active learning, stepwise multiple regression analysis was utilized and the outcomes are shown at table 14. In the table, R2 represents the percentage of variation in the dependent variable explained by variation in the independent variable of equation. ∆R2 indicates the contribution of newly added independent variable to explained variance; ∆F indicates F value when variable added. ∆p shows the significance level of contribution level of new variable to explained variance. ß value is a standardized regression coefficient that shows the power and aspect of the relationship between dependent and independent variables in a multiple regression.The independent variable with the highest ß value is the most significant contributing factor (Büyüköztürk, 2010). Table 14: The impacts of candidate teachers’ teaching styles on their perception level towards active learning Summary of model Coefficient Rr ∆R2 ∆F ∆p ß t p Expert .193 .193 28.775 .000 .287 2.335 .000 Authority .285 .118 21.557 .004 .277 3.004 .004 Personal .367 .074 9.785 .006 .234 2.552 .000 Facilitator .399 .082 8.471 .000 .301 3.521 .003 Delegator .453 .068 7.885 .003 .299 2.885 .006 Note: Standard ß weights and t values are based on the final step (5th step) Teaching Style

ANOVA F p 28.775 .000 26.966 .000 21.417 .000 18.632 .000 15.687 .000

As a result of stepwise multiple regression analysis, it was observed that significant percentage of variance were explained statistically with respect to the perception levels of teaching styles towards active learning. In this sense, the first teaching style entered into the equation was“expert” teaching style (∆F=28.775, ∆p=0.000) and it was followed by “formal authority” (∆F=21.557, ∆p=0.004) teaching style, “personal model” (∆F= 9.7850, ∆p=0.006) teaching style, “facilitator” teaching style (∆F=8.471, ∆p=0.000) and “delegator” (∆F=7.885, ∆p=0.00) teaching style respectively. Each five independent variables were added to regression model in the final stageand the multiple regression model correlated between independent variables and perception level variable towards active learning were highly significant.(F=15.685, p=0.000). The final model explains 45.3% (R2=0.453) of the change in theperception level of candidate teachers towards active learning. Besides, the ß values suggested that “facilitator” teaching style is the most significant independent variable which influenced the perception level of candidate teachers towards active learning and there is a significant and positive relationship between two variables (ß=0.301, t=3.521, p=0.003). The second most significant independent variable is” delegator” teaching style (ß=0.299, t=3.521, p=0.006). It is followed by the third independent variable which is “expert” teaching style (ß=0.287, t=2.335, p=0.000). On the other hand, the fourth variable is “formal authority” teaching style (ß=0.277, t=3.004, p=0.004) which significantly influenced perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning and the final variable is “personal model” teaching style (ß=0.234, t=2.552, p=0.000). 45

The outcomes revealed that the most effective teaching style on perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning is facilitator teaching style and it is followed by delegator, expert, formal authority and personal model teaching styles, respectively. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This research study analyzes whether teaching styles and perception levels of 400 candidate teachers, studying in five major departments of Faculty of Education, towards active learning differentiate by certain variables, in what aspects they have a directional relationship and how teaching styles of candidate teachers impact on their perception levels towards active learning. First of all, frequency distribution of candidate teachers’ teaching styles by gender, class and field of study variables were analyzed. The data results indicate that the only teaching style that male candidate teachers exhibit higher values compared to female peers is “expert” teaching style. On the other hand, female candidates predominate in all other teaching styles in terms of frequency level. The research study by Altay (2009) also demonstrated that female candidate teachers have higher frequency distribution than male candidates with respect to student-centered and teacher-centered teaching styles. When it comes to another independent variable, namely, “class” variable, we observe that frequency values of teacher candidates decrease as they pass grades regarding teacher-centered expert teaching style and formal authority teaching styles. On the other hand, the fact that there has been a noticeable increase in “facilitator” teaching style (Grasha, 2004) bearing student-centered and constructivist approaches could be interpreted signifying that perspectives of candidate teachers on learningteaching process may have changed. Due to the fact that the same sample group was repeatedly examined throughout 4 years, this research could be regarded as the significant study which allows to verify the hypothesis. Lastly, the results obtained pertaining to independent “field of study” variable show that candidate teachers in elementary and early childhood education level have the highest frequency values in “facilitator” and “delegator” teaching styles while candidate teachers studying at science and mathematics education departments have the highest values in teachercentered teaching styles. Through the study realized by Saracaloğlu, Dedebali, Dinçer and Dursun (2010), it has been observed that classroom teachers have the highest frequency in “expert” and “facilitator” teaching styles while science teachers exhibit highest values in “formal authority” and “delegator” teaching styles. As for the Turkish language teachers, they have the highest frequency in “formal authority” teaching style. Interestingly, in result of spending more time with their students during school hours, candidate teachers predominantly adopt student-centered teaching styles. On the other hand, key findings could be interpreted indicating that fields heavily focused on science and mathematics courses with academic and theoretical knowledge have effectively employ “expert” and “formal authority” teaching styles and candidate teachers adopting such teaching styles are concerned with transmitting information as much as possible and they are sole person of authority. Having analyzed frequency distribution, a series of test were carried out to see whether independent variables differentiated on teaching styles and findings obtained once again have shown that male candidate teachers are more inclined to teacher46

centered and female candidate teachers are more inclined to student-centered teaching style. In short, obtained results supported each other. Çolak and Şensoy (2010) concluded in their research that “gender” variable has been differentiated on “formal authority” and “facilitator” teaching styles. On the other hand, as a result of test applied to “class” variable, the test results demonstrate that there is significant difference between groups in “formal authority”, “expert” and “delegator” teaching style. It is interesting to note that only facilitator teaching style is statistically significant in “field of study” variable and candidate teachers preferring “personal model” and “formal authority” teaching styles did not differentiate by any independent variables. Besides that, there is not any differentiation by any independent variable regarding candidate teachers bearing “personal model” and “formal authority” teaching styles This result yet again proved the judgement by many recognized writers in the literature, particularly Grasha, (Grasha, 2002; 2003; Wheelis, 2004; Üredi, 2006; Ray, 2003) arguing that teaching styles of teachers may vary by course content. Pertaining to perception levels of the surveyed candidate teachers towards active learning, the results set forth that female candidate teachers have higher perception level than male peers. Specifically, when we analyze items on perception level scale, female candidate teachers appear to be more inclined to active learning compared to male candidates. In terms of “class” variable, the 2nd candidate teachers have higher means than candidates in other grades. On the other hand, the 2nd candidate teachers have lower means than 1st grade. Therefore, a qualitative study could be carried out to deeply analyze the research from another perspective. Lastly, in terms of “field of study” variable, candidate teachers studying at elementary school and early childhood school departments have higher means as in the teaching styles. This outcome demonstratesthat teaching styles and active learning support each other in our national constructivist education system in terms of fields strongly embracing student-centered approach. In another sub-problem which contributes to the supporting mentioned above in terms of correlation, the relationship between teaching styles of candidate teachers and their perception levels towards active learning were examined. Although directly proportional (positive) relation have been found in all sublevels, it has been observed that the relation in “expert” and “formal authority” teaching styles with teacher-centered approach is at low-level and while high correlation values was obtained with respect to facilitator and delegator teaching styles adopting student-centered approach. The data results could be interpreted showing that candidate teachers preferring student- centered teaching styles embrace a positive attitude towards active learning. Moreover, these candidates might be able to apply “active learning techniques” in the classroom more effectively. To prove this prediction, an experimental study could be recommended in this direction. Ultimately, predictive power was analyzed to see in what level candidate teacher’s teaching style influence their perception levels towards active learning.In summary, we explicitly see how powerful relation between teaching styles of candidate teachers and their perception levels towards active learning exists with respect to high levels of percentagesobtained in the research study. Similarly, another key finding is“facilitator” teaching style is the most effective independent variable on perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning.

47

REFERENCES Açıkgöz, K. (2003). Etkili öğrenme ve öğretme. Eğitim Dünyası Yayınları. İzmir. Akpınar, B. (2010). Yapılandırmacı yaklaşımda öğretmen, öğrenci ve velinin rolü. Eğitim Bir-Sen 6 (16), 16-20. Altay, S. (2009). Beşinci sınıf öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler dersindeki öğretme stillerinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Çukurova Üniversitesi. Adana. Armutçuoğlu, G. (1992). Hizmet içi eğitimde görev alan öğretmenlerde bulunması gereken nitelikler. Eğitim. 2, (86-117). Atay, D. Y. (2003). Öğretmen eğitiminin değişen yüzü. Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. Balcı A, (2001). Sosyal bilimlerde araştırma. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Baştepe, İ. (2004). Etkili okul ve nitelikleri. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi. 315, (33-39). Baştürk, R. (2010). Bütün yönleriyle spss örnekli nonparametrik istatistiksel yöntemler. Anı Yayıncılık. Ankara. Bonwell, C. C. and Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: creating excitement in the classroom. Washington, DC: The George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development. Brooks G. ve Books, M.G. (1999). The courage to be constructivist. Educational Leadership. Butler, A., Phillmann, K. B., and Smart, L. (2001). Active learning with in a lecture: assessing the ımpact of short, ın-class writing exercises. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 257–259. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2005). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Connell, T. H. and C. Franklin. (1994). The ınternet: educational ıssues. Library Trends. 42, 4. (608-625). Çolak, E. and Şensoy, Ö. (2010). Öğretmenlerin öğretme stili boyutlarının bazı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. I.Ulusal Eğitim Programları ve Öğretim Kongresi. (13-15 Mayıs). Felder, R. M. and Brent, R. (1996). Navigating the bumpy road to student-centered ınstruction. College Teaching. 44, 2, 43-47. Fer, S. ve Cırık, İ. (2007). Yapılandırmacı öğrenme-kuramdan uygulamaya. İstanbul: Morpa Yayınları. Geringer, J. (2003). Reflections on professional development: toward high- quality teaching and learning. A Special Section on Teacher Education. 373-380. Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style: enchancing learning by understanding teaching and learning styles. Pittsburg, PA: Alliance Publishers. Grasha, A. F. (1994). A special section discovering your best teaching styles. College Teaching. 42 (4), 122-124. Grasha, A. F. (1994). A matter of style: the teacher as expert, formal authority, personal model, facilitator and delegator. College Teaching. 42(4), 12- 20. Grasha, A. F. and Yangarber-Hicks, N. (2000). Integrating teaching styles and learning styles with instructional technology. College Teaching, 48, (1), 2-9. Grasha, A. (2002). The dynamics of one-on-one teaching. College Teaching. 50(4), 139146. Grasha, A. F. (2003). Teaching with style: the ıntegration of teaching and learning styles ın the classroom. Social Studies. 94(4), 179-187. Gürkan, T. (2001). Bireyin çok yönlü gelişimi. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim Dergisi, 22. Hopkins, D. (1997). Improving the quality of teaching and learning. Support for Learning. 48

12(4). Jonassen, D. H. (1994). Thinking technology: toward a constructivist design model. Educational Technology. 34, 3. (34-37). Jonassen, D. H., M. Davidson, M. Collins, J. Campbell and B. B. Haag. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education. 9, 2 (7- 26). Kaleci, F. (2012). Matematik öğretmen adaylarının epistemolojik inançları ile öğrenme ve öğretim stilleri arasındaki ilişki. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi. Konya. Kalem, S. and Fer, S. (2003). Aktif öğrenme modeliyle oluşturulan öğrenme ortamının öğrenme, öğretme ve iletişim sürecine etkisi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri 3, 2, 433-461. Karasar, N. (2011). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık. Lake, D. A. (2000). Active learning: student performance and perceptions compared with lecture. In J. A. Chambers (Ed.), Selected papers from the 11th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning (119–124). Lonka, K. and Ahola, K. (1995). Activating ınstruction: how to foster study and thinking skills in higher education. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 10, 351–368. Öztürk, H.İ. (2014). Ortaokul fen ve teknoloji öğretmenlerinin aktif öğrenmeye ilişkin algı profillerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Niğde Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Niğde. Ray, Jr., C. W. (2003). Teaching styles and adult students' preferences at a university extension center in Taiwan. Ed. D. University of Arkansas. ProQuest Dissertations & Thesis. Saracaloğlu, A. S., Dedebali, N. C., Dinçer, B. ve Dursun, F. (2010). Öğretmenlerin öğretme stillerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. 19. Eğitim Bilimleri Kurultayı. 1618 Eylül 2010. Uluslararası Kıbrıs Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi, Lefkoşa, Kıbrıs. S. 5455. Saracaloğlu, A. S.; Dinçer, B., Dedebali, N. C. ve Dursun, F. (2011). Sınıf, fen ve teknoloji ile türkçe öğretmenlerin öğretme stillerinin incelenmesi. NWSA e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy. 6, (3). 2314-2327. Saracaloğlu, A.S.; Karademir, A.Ç.; Dinçer, B.; Dedebali, N.C. (2012). Öğretmenlerin öğretme stilleri, özyeterlikleri ve iş doyumlarının belirlenmesi. 11. Ulusal Sınıf Öğretmenliği Eğitimi Sempozyumu. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Üniversitesi. Rize. Sarıtaş, E.; Süral, S. (2010). Grasha - Reichmann öğrenme ve öğretme stili ölçeklerinin Türkçe uyarlama çalışması. E-Journal of New World Sciences Academy. C:5, S:4. Süral, S. (2014). İlköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin öğretme stilleri, sınıf yönetimi yaklaşımları ile öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları arasındaki ilişki. Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi. Aydın. Schwartz, D. L. and Bransford, J. D. (1998). A time for telling. cognition and ınstruction. 16, 475–522. Selley, N. (1999). The art of constructivist teaching in the primary school. London, David Fulton Publishers. Townsend, T. (Ed). 1997. School of the future: a case study in systemic educational development. Restructuring and Quality: Issues for Tomorrow’s Schools. London: Routledge. Tezbaşaran, A. (1996). Likert tipi ölçek geliştirme kılavuzu. Tük Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları. Ankara. Üredi, L. (2006). İlköğretim I. ve II. kademe öğretmenlerinin öğretme stili tercihlerine göre 49

öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin algılarının incelenmesi. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. İstanbul. Üredi, L.; Üredi, I. (2007). Sınıf öğretmenlerinin tercih ettikleri öğretim stillerinin yordayıcısı olarak öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin algıları. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 3 (2). 133 – 144. Wheelis, P. R. (2004). The Relationship of teaching style and computer use ın classrooms of Northeast Louisiana. Louisiana Education Consortium. Available at: http://www.lec.latech.edu/abstracts/PeggyWheelis.pdf (accessed: 21 April 2013). Yaşar, Ş. (1998). Yapısalcı kuram ve öğrenme-öğretme süreci. Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 8, (1-2), 68-75.

50

Chapter 4 Determination of the Students’ Characteristics on PISA 2009 Reading Performance (Comparison of the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey) Özen YILDIRIM*, Ömer KUTLU** INTRODUCTION International assessment studies like Programe for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS ) and some national reports (National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) etc.) showed that students in many countries have trouble with reading and comprehention. They put forth that the number of students who cannot read and comprehend at advanced and even adequate levels are quite above expectations (OECD, 2010; Perie, Grigg & Donahue, 2005). Inadequacies of students’ reading comprehension became frequently the subject of discussion among the educators and politicians. Because individualistic abilities gain importance in today’s world and reading has an important factor to develop those abilities. The societies which are aware of the importance of reading focus on developing this skill starting from the elementary school years. Considering the fact that many of the learning activities inside the school are based on reading, it is not expected from students who do not have adequate reading skills to succeed at school. The results of the PISA 2009 showed that Turkish students’ reading performance was not well enough. Turkey was ranked 31st among 33 OECD countries. It means that majority of the Turkish students do not have high-level competencies like “making critical assessments of texts with unusual subjects, overcoming concepts anomalous to expectations or interpreting the text based on many characteristics to determine the similarities and differences” In addition to this, other studies on Turkish students’ reading comprehension clearly supported that result (Karatay, 2007; OECD 2010; PIRLS, 2003). Contrary to Turkey, some countries like the Netherlands and Korea display high performances in this area and these countries were among the top ten countries in the three PISAs conducted until 2009. Differentiation among the performances by countries may be the result of student related factors like demographic features, family features or learning and teaching process during reading activities. In the study, some of these variables were taken into account and they were examined for the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey. We selected the Netherlands and Korea because Turkey is a regarded as a bridge between Europe and Asia and expected to be affected by selected countries from *

Assist. Prof. Dr., Nigde University, Faculty of Education, Measurement and Assessment Department ** Assist. Prof. Dr., Ankara University, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Measurement and Assessment Department 

their daily life styles and education systems and economic developments. The aim of this study is to determine the factors affecting the achievement of students on reading comprehension, having participated in PISA 2009 from the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey and to reveal the similarities and differences across countries. The variables discussed in the study would be examined in six parts. The first part was student’s demographic feature such as gender. There are many studies considering the performance difference between genders (Freeman, 2004; Hyde, 2005; OECD, 2010; Weiss, Kemmlera, Deisenhammerb, Fleischhackera & Delazer, 2003). Researchers emphasized that various reasons can be as effective factors. For example, student’s race, socio-economic status and cognitive progress (Harris & Herrington, 2006; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005). Determining these reasons can be a guide to eliminate the differentiation among individuals and to take the necessary precautions in education. Second part was “engagement in reading”. One of the most consistent theories in education is that the more times students spend engaged during instruction or learning activities, the more they learn and can be successful. It was known that instruction that supports students’s decoding, comprehension skills and strategies is not alone sufficient. If students don’t have high reading engagement, they wouldn’t be enough for full literacy potential (Guthrie, Schafer & Huang; 2001). Third part was “reading based strategies”. It included “learning and cognitive strategies related students and teaching strategies”. Studies on good and bad readers have put forth several important differences in terms of using strategy. According to the results of these studies, good readers use more learning and cognitive strategies. When they are not reminded of what they need to do, these readers are likely to use the appropriate strategy by themselves (Roeschl-Heils, Schneider & van Kraayenoord, 2003; Lehr & Osborn, 2005; Pressley, 2000). Teachers can be guides in attainment of these strategies. A group of experts (in National Researc Counsil (NRC)) convened to examine reading research and address the serious problem of reading failure related ineffective instractions (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). The NRC noted that for students to learn to read well, theacher must apply strategies. The forth part was class climate including student-teacher relations and discipline climate. Bruner (1977) argues that the teacher is a personal symbol of the educational process, a figure with whom students can identify and compare themselves. For the student’s succeses and development, teacher’s attitude is one of the important components in the classroom. It was known that students with positive relationships with their teachers are observed to be more successful (Maslowski, Scheerens & Luyten, 2007). Students who can establish a better relationship with teachers and the school, are determined to be more connected to the school, self-confident and eager to learn (Klem & Connell, 2004). However, organizing the learning environment appropriately is important for student success. Student learning in classrooms where there is nothing hindering in-class education, is supported and student motivation is high enough to focus on the course. A safe school and classroom environment help the students to feel free physically and emotionally and support their learning (Ma & Douglas, 2004). The fifth part was features related educational quantity (literature lesson time, and class size). Class size is a physical characteristic affecting the student performance. Studies indicate that as the class size decreases, the student success increases (Hassett & 52

Hatch, 2006; Fidler, 2001; Nye, Hedges & Konstantopoulos, 2001). As the class size increases, it may be difficult for the teacher to create an educational environment based on the student characteristics and needs and to be interested in each student individually. When learning time is examined, this characteristic is important to determine how often the student will encounter activities based on reading comprehension and to determine how long the teacher and the students will be in communication and relation. Arranging this time the right way can increase the student performance. The last part was the student’s Socio-economic and Cultural Status. There are many studies indicating that there is a relationship between academic success of the student and number of books at home and cultural sources, which are considered to be an indicator of socio-economic status of the family, and income level of the family (Nonoyama, 2006; Xu, 2006; Linnakyla, Malin & Taube, 2004). Student’s success is expected to increase as socio-economic status of the family increases, because highincome families send their children to schools that provide education in better conditions and materials what students need. METHOD Sample The PISA sample is selected by using random sampling method. The participants are 15 year old students enrolled in schools selected according to certain strata based on the countries’ geographical structure. The study’s sample is made up of 4760 Dutch students from 185 schools, 4989 Korean students from 157 schools and 4996 Turkish students from 170 schools. All the statistical estimates were conducted through weighted sampling at student (Level1). Instrument and Procedure In PISA 2009 different data collection tools such as cognitive tests related certain areas and questionaires related student’s features were used. The study made use of cognitive test scores for reading comprehension and raw and index values collected from Turkish, Dutch and Korean student questionnaires. The data was taken from the official website of OECD which carries out the PISA applications. The study’s varaiables are described briefly below. Plausible values of reading: These scores are obtained from the reading cognitive test. Reading test includes items ranging from basic analysis of a text to word knowledge, grammar, linguistic and textual structure. From item writing to its application during test development process, there are national and international studies on PISA 2009 cognitive test (OECD, 2012). The reliability coefficient for the Netherlands was 0.93, 0.91 for Korea and 0.91 for Turkey. It means the reliability of the test conducted in the countries was high. Within this study, five plausible values from each student’s PV1READING to PV5READING are analyzed together. Student’s Characteristics: These caracteristics are obtained from the student’s questionaire. It gives information about the student’s family caractersitics, learning habits and interest for reading etc. That questionnaire includes different types of items like multi choices response, short answer response, two categories (Yes/No) response or more than two categories response (Strongly Agree-Strongly Disagree). In the study 17 student level variables were used as independent variable. They were examined in five 53

parts as seen below. 1. Student’s demographic characteristic 1.1 Gender (GNDR): This variable provides information abot the sex of the student who filled questionnaire. 2. Engagement in reading 2.1 Enjoyment of reading (RENJY): Eleven items were used to measure enjoyment of reading. Reliabilities of the scale are 0.92 for the Netherland, 0.88 for Korea and 0.84 for Turkey. 2.2 Online reading (RONLINE): Seven items are used to measure online reading activities. Positive scores on this index indicate higher levels of online reading activities. Reliabilities of the scale are 0.70 for the Netherland, 0.69 for Korea and 0.87 for Turkey. 2.3 Using the library (LBUSE): Seven items provide information on how students make use of a library. Higher scores indicate a greater use of libraries. Reliabilities of the scale are 0.79 for the Netherland, 0.81 for Korea and 0.84 for Turkey. 3. Reading-based strategies 3.1 Learning strategies: Learning scale consists of three subscales: memorization (MEMOSTR), elaboration (ELOSTR) and control strategies (CNTRLSTR). Positive scores indicate higher importance attached to the given reading strategy. Thirteen items were measuring the construct of learning strategies, four items each for memorisation and elaboration strategies and five items for control strategies. Reliabilities of the memorization scale are 0.69 for the Netherland, 0.73 for Korea and 0.67 for Turkey. They are 0.73 for the Netherland, 0.76 for Korea and 0.68 for Turkey to the elaboration strategies scale and control strategies scale’s reliabilities are 0.73 for the Netherland, 0.82 for Korea and 0.74 for Turkey. 3.2 Meta-cognition strategies: “The two meta-cognition tasks “Understanding and remembering (UNDREMSTR)” and “Summarising (SUMSTR)” consist of a stem (which is a reading task) and set of strategies. For each strategy students were asked to rate the usefulness of the strategy. Ten items were measuring the construct of metacognitive strategies. 3.3 Teachers’ stimulation of reading and teaching strategies (TECHSUP): The scale on teachers’ stimulation of reading and teaching strategies provides information on how teachers stimulate students reading engagement and reading skills. There are seven items. They have four response categories varying from “never or hardly ever”, “in some lessons”, “in most lessons” to “in all lessons”. Higher scores indicate higher teacher stimulation or reading engagement. Reliabilities of the scale are 0.76 for the Netherland, 0.83 for Korea and 0.84 for Turkey. 3.4 Teachers’ use of structuring and scaffolding strategies: The question on teachers’ use of structuring and scaffolding strategies provides information on how teachers use of structuring and scaffolding strategies in test language lessons. There are nine items in this scale. Higher scores indicate greater use of structuring strategies. Reliabilities of the scale are 0.83 for the Netherland, 0.82 for Korea and 0.87 for Turkey. 4. Class climate 4.1 Diciplinary climate (DISCLMT): This scale provides information on disciplinary climate in the classroom. There are five items in this scale. Higher scores 54

on this scale indicate a better disciplinary climate and lower scores a poorer disciplinary. Reliabilities of the scale are 0.85 for the Netherland, 0.84 for Korea and 0.86 for Turkey 4.2 Teacher student relation (TECHSTUDREL): This scale provides information on teacher’s interest in student performance. It includes five items. Positive scores indicate positive student teacher relations. Reliabilities of the scale are 0.76 for the Netherland, 0.79 for Korea and 0.86 for Turkey 5. Educational quantity 5.1 Learning time (LMINS): Learning time in test language was computed by multiplying the number of minutes on average in the test. 5.2 Class size (CSSIZE): total number of students in the class. 6. Socio-economic and cultural status 6.1 Socio-economic status (SES): The components of SES are: home possessions; the higher parental occupation and the higher parental education expressed as years of schooling. 6.2 Wealth (WLTH): No direct income measure is available from the PISA data, the existence of household items is used as proxy for family wealth. Students reported the availability of 9 different household items at home. In addition, countries added three specific household items that were seen as appropriate measures of family wealth within the country’s context. The more detailed information on development steps of reading test and the student questionnaire can be found at the website of PISA Data analysis The data analysis used in the study is determined according to the study’s sample and purpose. It is appropriate to use hierarchical linear models in studies where stratified sampling methods are used and correlation models are examined (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002). The data in the study was analyzed based on two-level Hierarchical Linear Models (HLM). First, One-Way ANOVA with Random Effects model was formulated to achieve the first purpose and intraclass correlation coefficient was calculated. The model is shown in the following equation. The same model was tested separately for three countries Level 1 (Yij|RPV1-5) = β0j + rij Level 2 β0j = γ00 + u0j Combined model (Yij| RPV1-5) = γ00 + u0j + rij In the above formulas, β0j is fixed; γ00 is average of dependent variable; rij and u0j are random error coefficients. As second model, Random Coefficient Regression Model was used, in this way student’s level variables that predict the students’ reading scores were identified. Inductive approach was followed during the creation of the models. According to this approach each variable is tested individually on model in point of whether or not it was significant. Also slopes are examined if they are random or fixed. A sample model was given below: 55

Level1 (Yij| RPV1-5) = β0j + β1j(GNDR) + β2j(RENJY) + β3j(RONLINE) + β4j (LBUSE) + β5j(MEMOSTR) + β6j(ELOSTR)+ β7j(CTRLSTR)+ β8j (UNDRRMBSTR) + β9j(SUMSTR) + β10j(CSSIZE)+ β11j (CSDRTN)+ β12j (TECHSUP)+ β13j (TECHSTR) + β14j (DISCLMT) + β15j(TECHSTUDREL)+ β16j(SES)+ β17j(WLTH) + rij Level2 β0j=γ00+u0j β1j= γ10+u1j β2j= γ20+u2j … Β17j= γ170+u17j Combined model (Yij| RPV1-5)= γ00 + u0j + (γ10+u1j)(GNDR) + (γ20+u2j)(RENJY) + (γ30+u3j)(RONLINE) + (γ40+u4j)(LBUSE) + (γ50+u5j)(MEMOSTR) + (γ60+u6j)(ELOSTR) + (γ70+u7j )(CTRSTR) + (γ80+u8j)(UNDRRMBSTR) + (γ90+u9j) (SUMSTR) + (γ100+u10j)(CSSIZE) + (γ110+u11j)(CSDRTN) + (γ120+u12j)(TECHSUP) + (γ130+u13j)(TECHSTR) + (γ140+u14j)(DISCLMT) + (γ150+u15j)(TECHSTUDREL) + (γ160+u16j)(SES) + (γ170+u17j)(WLTH) + rij In the above formulas; β0j, intercept for the jth level-2 unit β1j….. β17j slopes for the jth level-2 unit, γ00, overall mean intercept adjusted for variable, γ10…..γ170, regression coefficient associated with variables relative to level-1 intercept, u0j, random effects of the jth level-2 unit adjusted for variables on the intercept, u1j….u17j, random effects of the jth level-2 unit adjusted for variables on the slope. Before the analysis of the data, assumptions based on simple regression and multilevel modeling was examined. Data was found suitable for analysis. In this study also only common variables among countries were discussed because of the number of independent variables. FINDINGS Determining the difference between the Dutch, Korean and Turkish schools’ average reading comprehension scores Whether or not the data is suitable for hierarchical linear model application by country and whether or not there is a difference between the schools’ average reading comprehension scores was examined individually by One-way ANOVA with Random Effects model. Fixed and random effect results for the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey are given in Table1. Using Table 2, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated and how much of the variance on the result caused by the student and school level was determined. The difference being less than 10% in school indicates that the data is not suitable for HLM analysis (Ma, 2001). When Table 2 is examined and the difference between the schools in terms of scores is random. It is also seen that 60% of the change in terms of reading comprehension scores resulted from the difference among the 56

schools in the Netherlands. This is 27% for Korea and 67% for Turkey. Table1: Results from the One-Way ANOVA with Random Effects Model Countries

Fixed Effects

Netherland

Korea

Turkey

Coefficient

5.090

5.274

SE t

0.058 86.668

0.0544 96.824

4.331 0.115 37.629

0.000 0.263 5687.388 176

0.000 0.438 1995.532 153

0.000 0.297 7703.667 163

0.000 60

0.000 27

0.000 67

p Variance Between Group Random Effects

2 sd p

Explained Variances p< 0.01

This shows that the data structure is suitable for HLM analysis. In addition, the data shows that more than half of the change in terms of reading scores in the Netherlands and Turkey resulted not from student related characteristics but from differences among the schools. On the other hand, the majority of the change in Korea resulted from differences among students. (2h=5687.388, sd=176; 2k=1995.532, sd=153; 2t=7703.667, sd=163, p<0.01). Determining the student level variables related to students’ reading comprehension scores in the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey Random coefficients regression model is used to determine the student’s variables that predict the students’ average reading comprehension scores by country. Those models including the fixed and random effects for the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey is given in Table 2 and in Table 3. Table 2 showed that only elaboration strategies variable didn’t predict significantly any reading performance in the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey (p> 0.05). The common variables that showed relation to the scores for three countries are enjoying with reading, using understanding strategies and using summarizing strategies during reading, and student’s socioeconomic status. According to the model the increase in student’s enjoyment level indicated positive reading performance. (tH=14.782, se=0.013, p<0.01; tK=11.473, se=0.021, p<0.01; tT=3.370, se=0.018, p<0.01 ). Also If students used more frequently understanding and summarizing strategies during reading, their reading performances were getting higher (tHU=5.366, se=0.012, p<0.01; tKU=3.020, se=0.025, p<0.01; tTU=4.791, se=0.018, p<0.01/ (tHSM=9.887, se=0.010, p<0.01; tKSM=8.561, se=0.024, p<0.01; tTSM=7.032, se=0.013, p<0.01). centering method was used for level1 variables excluded gender Another finding was found that student’s socioeconomic status had a positive correlation with reading performance.

57

Table 2: Fixed Effects Results from the Random Coefficients Regression Model Netherlands Fixed Effect

Overall mean achievement γ001, GNDR, γ10 RENJY, γ20 RONLINE, γ30 LBUSE, γ40 MEMOSTR, γ50

Coefficient (se) [p]

t

5.090 (0.058) [<0.001]

86.522

-

-

0.187 (0.013) [<0.001] 0.067 (0.017) [0.001] -0.057 (0.013) [<0.001] -0.084 (0.012) [<0.001]

14.782

TECHSTR, γ13

-

-

-0.099 (0.013) [<0.001]

-7.533

-0.671

-

-

-0.076 (0.016) [<0.001]

-4.601

-

-

-

-

5.366 9.887

0.094 (0.017) [<0.001] 0.076 (0.025) [0.004] 0.208 (0.024) [<0.001]

5.356 3.020 8.561

7.032

-

-

2.307

-

-

-

-

-2.927

-

-

-

-

2.128

-

-

-

-

-

-

TECHSTUDREL, γ15

-

-

-

-

3.995

0.136 (0.037) [0.001]

3.677

-2.785

-

-

1

4.791

-

-

WLTH, γ17

4.730

-

-

0.064 (0.016) [<0.001] -0.042 (0.015) [0.006]

0.104 (0.022) [<0.001] 0.089 (0.018) [<0.001] 0.092 (0.013) [<0.001]

2.812

DISCLMT, γ14

SES, γ16

3.370

-4.280

-

TECHSUP, γ12

7.944

-

-

CSDRTN, γ11

11.473

37.806

-

CTRSTR, γ70

CSSIZE, γ10

4.770

4.244 (0.112) [<0.001] 0.210 (0.026) [<0.001] 0.063 (0.018) [0.001]

-

-

SUMSTR, γ90

69.385

t

-

-

0.065 (0.012) [<0.001] 0.097 (0.010) [<0.001] 0.078 (0.028) [0.006] 0.105 (0.045) [0.022] -0.048 (0.016) [0.004] 0.036 (0.017) [0.034]

5.125 (0.073) [<0.001] 0.283 (0.059) [<0.001] 0.241 (0.021) [<0.001]

t

Turkey Coefficient (se) [p]

3.846

ELOSTR, γ60

UNDRSTR, γ80

Korea Coefficient (se) [p]

0.036 (0.015) [0.022] 0.056 (0.018) [0.007] 0.102 (0.014) [<0.001] -0.034 (0.015) [0.022]

2.289 3.099 6.880 -2.315

Groupmean

It meant, student’s family background like educational level, income and home opportunities had an effect on increasing of performance. 58

Table 2 also gave information about common variables between countries. These were Using Library, Using Memorization Strategies and Wealth for the Netherland and Turkey. If the frequency of using library increased, the student’s performance level decreased surprisingly. (tH=-4.280se=0.013, p<0.01; tT=-7.533, se=0.013, p<0.01). The similar result was found for memorizing strategies. It had a negative correlation with reading scores. (tH=-0.671, se=0.012, p<0.01; tT=-4.601, se=0.016, p<0.01 ). The other significant variable was student’s wealth. The increase in wealth had negative effect on reading performance. (tH=-2.785, se=0.015, p<0.01; tT=-2.315, se=0.015, p<0.01 ). When Table 2 again examined, significant variables that predict Korean and Turkish student’ reading performances in common were gender and using control strategies during reading. According to the models, for these two countries being female was a feature that increased reading performance (tK=4.770, se=0.059, p<0.01; tT=7.944, se=0.026, p<0.01). More frequently using control strategies during reading had also positive correlation with performance. (tK=5.356, se=0.017, p<0.01; tT=4.730, se=0.022, p<0.01 ). There were also different variables in the model apart from the common predictive variables for countries. Online reading, Class size, Lesson time and Teachers using strategies during reading variables predicted Dutch students’ reading scores positively. Surprisingly teachers support related reading had a negative correlation with Dutch students’ scores for Turkey not common variables were discipline climate in class and student-teacher relation. The increases in these two variables affect reading performance positively. Table3. Random Effects Results from the Random Coefficients Regression Model Netherlands Random Effect

School mean, u0j

Variance (sd) [p] 0.404 (164) [<0.001]

2

7619.190

Korea Variance (sd) [p] 0.228 (85) [<0.001]

GNDR, u1j

-

-

0.035 (85) [<0.001]

RENJY, u2j

0.003 (164) [0.014]

206.022

-

RONLINE, u3j LBUSE, u4j MEMOSTR, u5j ELOSTR, u6j

CTRSTR, u7j

Turkey 2

1421.994

Variance (sd) [p] 0.554 (154) [<0.001]

2

9368.607

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.004 (164) [0.002]

223.412

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.004 (154) [0.012]

196.413

59

UNDRSTR, u8j

-

-

-

-

0.004 (154) [<0.001]

233.722

SUMSTR, u9j

-

-

0.015(85) [0.001]

152.928

-

-

257.557

-

-

-

-

277.392

-

-

-

-

CSSIZE, u10j CSDRTN, u11j

0.032 (164) [<0.001] 0.087 (164) [<0.001]

TECHSUP, u12j

-

-

-

-

-

-

TECHSTR, u13j

-

-

-

-

-

-

DISCLMT, u14j

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.003 (154) [0.016]

193.857

130.649

.

.

-

.

.

TECHSTUDREL, u15j

-

-

SED, u16j

-

-

WLTH, u17j

-

-

Level1 effect, rij

0.184

0.015 (85) [0.001] 0.256

0.218

Finally, when the random effects in Table3 were examined, the differences between the schools in terms of school average reading comprehension scores by countries were found random when the student level variables were added (2H=7619.190, sd=164, p<0.01; 2K=1421.994, sd=85, p<0.01; 2T=9368.607 sd=154, p<0.01). Besides significances in the model, these variables were tested whether they were random or not varying among schools. Table3 indicated that enjoy reading, using library, class size and class duration variables in the model developed for Netherland were randomly varying among schools. When the random variables were examined for Korea, it was seen gender, using summarizing strategies and socioeconomic status variables were random. The random varying variables for Turkey were also control strategy, understanding strategy and student-teacher relation. All these variables were not fixed in the model. How much the variables by countries constituted the variance among the students’ scores was examined by using the intergroup variance values of the study’s first and second models. According to this, 30% of the variance in the Netherlands, 58% of it in Korea and 27% of it in Turkey were explained by variables in the models. To determine the remaining percentages different variables based on students should be added to the model. DISCUSSIONS AND RESULTS It was found that there were differences among the schools in the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey in terms of students’ reading comprehension scores. More than half of the change arising in terms of reading comprehension achievement in the Netherlands and Turkey originates from the differences among the schools’features. In Korea, this change originates mostly from the differences among the students’features. 60

When the common variables predicting the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey are examined, these variables are determined as enjoying reading, using metacognitive strategies like understanding-remembering and summarization strategies and student’s socio-economic status. As the student’s reading enjoyment level increases, the reading comprehension score increases. A student who enjoys reading is expected to frequently engage in different reading sources. This support the development of student’s knowledge and vocabulary and these subjects are important for reading comprehension, at a higher level (Baumann & Kame’enui, 2002; Ouellette, 2006). In research findings, metacognitive strategies are also found to be important predictors in reading. Metacognitive approach includes the awareness, planning, observation, regulation, summarization and evaluation processes. Students who use metacognitive strategies are aware of their knowledge accumulation and use this knowledge in their academic lives. Many strategies stated the neccecity of metacognition strategies to develop reading comprehension (Roeschl-Heils, Schneider & van Kraayenoord, 2003; Lehr & Osborn, 2005; Pressley, 2000; RAND, 2002). Another common variable is students’ socio-economic status. According to Dickinson and Tabors (2001), family is one of the most important factors that helps the child establish a connection between the school and home. Studies showed that family characteristics like the education level of the parents, the number of books and cultural sources at home and family income are linked to students’ academic success (Evans, 2004; Lee & Burkam, 2002; Jones & White, 2000; Nonoyama, 2006; Xu, 2006; Orr, 2003; Lınnakyla¨, Malın & Taube, 2004). Students with high economic and cultural levels can reach more reading sources with the support of their families. This may increase the student success. Common predictors between the Netherlands and Turkey are; frequency of library usage, usage of memorization based strategies and wealth. The frequency of student library usage surprisingly shows a negative relationship with student performance for both countries. Students using the libraries against their objectives might decrease their performance. According a study conducted by Dökmen (1990), majority of the high school students do not have necessary information on how to use libraries. Mostly of them are found to use libraries to study lesson since they are quiet. The findings of a study conducted by Kutlu, Yıldırım and Kumandaş (2012) on fourth graders support this argument. Frequently using the memorization strategy is identified as a variable decreasing students’ reading performances in the Netherlands and Turkey. According to Hartley (1999), using strategies based on memorization during the learning process leads to superficial learning. What is learned is forgotten after a while. When students think the learned information is not necessary for them or it is difficult to give meaning to the information, they may use memorization. As the family’s wealth level increase in the Netherlands and Turkey, students’ reading comprehension levels decrease. While socio-economic status with its factors like cultural and educational features increase student performance, only wealth, a component of socio-economic status decrease student performance. Independent from the culture and education level, the wealth variable is an index that put forth a student’s amenities like having “their own room, internet connection, dishwasher, DVD player, cellphone, television, computer, family car and room with its own bath”. Having 61

amenities that attract them and take a lot time can make students to spare less time on reading. Finally, common variables predicting students’ performances in Korea and Turkey were examined. These are gender and the use of control strategies among the learning strategies during reading. Being female is a factor that increases the student’s reading comprehension score. In many studies in which the effect of gender factor on the reading comprehension performance is examined, it was found that female students performed better compared to male students (Freeman, 2004; OECD, 2010). In literature, this is discussed from two angles. These are cognitive and non-cognitive factors. From the cognitive perspective, female students using different or same cognitive processes more effective during reading can be a factor increasing their achievement. According to studies, girls are more successful in particularly grammar skills, using long or complex sentences, verbal fluency and identifying matching parts of speech compared to boys (Hyde, 2005; Weiss et al, 2003). In the literature of non-cognitive perspective, this is explained by female students being more disciplined, being more sensitive towards school climate, accepting their responsibilities easier compared to male students (Ma &Willms, 2004). It was seen that the reading comprehension scores of students who frequently use control strategies in Korea and Turkey increased. According to Eurydice’s (2011) report on reading comprehension in OECD countries, successful students frequently use cognitive monitoring strategies they have compared to less successful students. Using this kind of cognitive processes effectively helps the reader understand the text better. 1

This paper is a part of unpublished doctoral dissertation “Determination of factors relating students' reading comprehension achievement with hierarchical linear models (PISA 2009 comparison of the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey), 2012, Ankara University, Turkey

REFERENCES Baumann, J. F. and Kame'enui, E. J. (2002). Vocabulary Instruction: Research to Practice. NY: The Guilford Press Bruner, J. S. (1977). The Process Education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Dökmen, Ü. (1990). Lise ve Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Okuma Becerileri, İlgileri, Okuma ve Kütüphane Kullanma Alışkanlıkları. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 23 (2), 394-418. Eurydice, (2011). Avrupa’da Okuma Öğretimi: Bağlam, Politika ve Uygulamalar. Eğitim, İşitsel-Görsel Medya ve Kültür Yürütme Ajansı Yayını. URL:WOP (2011). http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice Fidler, P. (2001). The Impact of Class Size Reduction on Student Achievement. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles Unified School District, Program Evaluation and Research Branch. URL: WOP (2012) http://www.latinopolicyforum.org/pdfs/Class-SizeMatters_ELLs.pdf Freeman, C. E. (2004). Trends in Educational Equity of Girls and Women: 2004. NCES 2005-016, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, D.C.: GPO. Guthrie, J.T., Schafer, A.D., & Huang, C.-W. (2001). Benefits of Opportunity to Read and Balanced Instruction on the NAEP. The Journal of Educational Research, 94(3), 145– 162. Hartley, J. (1999). Learning and Studying. A Research Perspective, London: Routledge. Harris, D.N. & Herrington, C.D. (2006). Accountability, Standards, and the Growing 62

Achievement Gap: Lessons from the Past Half-Century. American Journal of Education, 112(2), pp. 209-238. Hassett D. and Hatch, K., L. (2006). When Size Matters: A Hybrid Theory of EarlyLiteracy Content and Sociocultural Contexts. Journal of Educational Research. URL: WOP (2012). http://varc.wceruw.org/sage/When_Size_Matters_Literacy_CSR.pdf Hyde, J. S. (2005). The Gender Similarity Hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60 (6), 581– 592. Karatay, H. (2007). İlköğretim Türkçe Öğretmeni Adaylarının Okuduğunu Anlama Becerileri Üzerine Alan Araştırması. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Gazi Universitesi, Ankara Turkiye. Klem, A. M., and Connell, J. P. (2004). Relationships Matter: Linking Teacher Support to Student Engagement and Achievement. Journal of School Health, 74 (7), 262–273. Kutlu, Ö., Yıldırım, Ö. ve Kumandaş, H., (2012). İlköğretim 4.-7. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Okuduğunu Anlama Becerileri Üzerinde Etkili Olan Faktörler kitabı M. Aksan, Y. Aksan, (Ed.), Türkçe Öğretiminde Güncel Çalışmalar kitabı içinde (sayfa 47-56). Şafak Matbaası: Ankara Lehr, F., and Osborn, J. (2005). Research-Based Practices in Early Reading: A Focus on Comprehension. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Resources for Education and Learning. URL: WOP (2011). http://www.prel.org/products/re_/re_focuscomp.pdf Linnakylä, P., Malin, A. and Taube, K. (2004). Factors Behind Low Reading Literacy Achievement. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 48 (3), 231-249. Ma. X. & Williams, J. D. (2004). School Disciplinary Climate: Characteristics and Effects on Eighth Grade Achievement. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 2 (50), 169188. Maslowski, R., Scheerens, J. and Luyten, H. (2007). The Effect of School Autonomy and School Internal Decentralization on Students’ Reading Literacy. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 18(3), 303–334. URL: WOP (2012). http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09243450601147502 Nonoyama, Y. (2006). A Cross-National, Multi-Level Study of Family Background and School Resource Effects on Student Achievement. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Columbia University, Columbia. Nye, B., Hedges, L. V. and Konstantopoulos, S. (2001). The Long-Term Effects of Small Classes in Early Grades: Lasting Benefits in Mathematics Achievement at Grade 9. Journal of Experimental Education, 69, 245-257. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (OECD). (2010). PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do. Performance in Reading, Mathematics and Science (Volume I). Paris. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (OECD). (2012). PISA 2009 Technical Report, PISA, OECD Publishing. Ouellette, G. P. (2006). What’s Meaning Got to Do with It: The Role of Vocabulary in Word Reading and Reading Comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 554–566. Perie, M., Grigg, W., & Donahue, P. (2005). The Nation's Report Card: Reading, 2005. Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics. URL: WOP (2010). http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED486463.pdf Pressley, M. (2000). What Should Comprehension Instruction Be The Instruction of? In M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, and R. Barr (Eds.) Handbook of Reading Research 3, (pp. 545-561). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) (2003). PIRLS International 63

Report. US: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). URL: WOP (2011) http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2001i/PIRLS2001_Pubs_IR. html Raudenbush, S. W. ve Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods. London: Sage. Roeschl-Heils, A., Schneider, W., van Kraayenoord, C. (2003). Reading, Metacognition, and Motivation: A Follow-Up Study of German Students In Grades 7 and 8. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18 (1), 75-86. Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Weiss, E.M., Kemmlera, G., Deisenhammerb, E.A., W. Fleischhackera, W.W. & Delazer, M. (2003). Sex Differences in Cognitive Functions. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(4), 863–875. Zimmerman, B.J; Kitsantas, A. (2005). A. The Hidden Dimension of Personal Competence: Self-Regulated Learning and Practice. In A.J. Elliot, & C.S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of Competence and Motivation (pp.509-526). The Guilford Press: New York London

64

Chapter 5 Comprehension Skills of Students with Learning Disabilities and Comprehensibility of Textbook Content Mustafa KURT INTRODUCTION Comprehension is the creation of the meaning of sentences formed by the author in readers’ minds and association of this meaning with previous knowledge (Durkin, 1989). In other words, reading comprehension is an associative process where the messages transmitted by the texts directly or indirectly and the knowledge obtained by the reader previously are integrated (Durkin, 1989). Several students and especially students with learning disabilities demonstrate problems that are prevalent in reading comprehension process (Jitendra & Gajria, 2011). These problems could be categorized as non-fluency of of students in identifying the words they read, limited short-term memory capacity compared to their peers, incompetency of the previous knowledge about the text read, lack of adequate and effective comprehension strategy skills and/or inability to use these skills effectively (Armbruster, 1988; Gersten, Fuchs, Williams & Baker, 2001; Jitendra & Gajria, 2011; Palinscar, David, Winn & Stevens, 1991; Spitz, 1966). One of the significant variables that affect comprehension skills of students with learning disabilities is the comprehensibility of the textbook content (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Armbruster, 1988). Although several new media were developed for use in learning and learning process, printed material are still the most frequently used resources (Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı, 2005). Textbooks are the most frequently used printed material (Crawford & Carnine, 2001; Kinder, Burscuk & Epstein, 1992; McNamara, 2001). Textbooks are defined as basic resources developed to teach a particular course to students of different grades and designed to include content based on the instruction syllabi (Ceyhan & Yiğit, 2003). Textbooks could provide facilities such as enabling the students to come to the class prepared, to access abridged information and to work on as a group or to prepare individual homework. A significant difference between other books and textbooks is the facts that textbooks are limited by the related field of study, systematic presentation of the information, suitability for the level of the students taking that course and the limitation of the content by the curriculum (Gökdere & Keleş, 2004). Due to the fact that especially starting from 2005 – 2006 academic year all textbooks for primary and secondary education are provided free of charge by the Ministry of Education in Turkey, textbooks became the most easily accessible and frequently used resources of information for the students. Thus, it became more important that textbooks should facilitate students’ learning. Students encounter textbooks in all their educational experience. As their grades advance, both the textbooks and the studies required by these textbooks from the 

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Special Education, Faculty of Education, Uludag University 

students differ and the significance of the textbooks increases (Armbruster, 1988). During the initial years of primary education, textbooks mostly contain story-like texts. While during these years it is expected of the students to comprehend and narrate storylike texts, in the following years students will face texts that provide a perspective to the provided information and explain ideas in addition to directly providing knowledge. In this period, students are expected to comprehend the knowledge contained in these informative texts (Baştuğ & Keskin, 2011; Kinder, Burscuk & Epstein, 1992; Richek, Caldwell, Jennings & Lerner, 2002, Williams, Hall, Lauer, 2004). Quality of textbooks was scrutinized by field researchers for many years. Especially in the 1970’s, it was observed that researchers targeted the level of difficulty of the texts while analyzing the quality of textbooks. During that time, researchers utilized certain readability formulas to reduce the difficulty levels of the texts. In developing these formulas, criteria such as syntactic and semantic variables, sentence length and usability of the words used in the texts in everyday language were considered. Again in the same period, as a result of the criticism against the content of the current textbooks, publishers started to use shorter sentences, a simplified vocabulary and lesser number of concepts (Taylor & Birchell, 1982, cited by Kinder, Burscuk & Epstein, 1992). All these studies conducted for simplification, despite reducing the readability levels of the books, studies demonstrated that sole use of reading formulas and application of these formulas were not sufficient to create comprehensible texts (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984). Furthermore, it was stated that the texts created using these formulas had negative effects on the interaction between the reader and the manuscript, in addition to making comprehension more difficult (Armbruster & Anderson, 1981; Armbruster, Osborn & Davidson, 1985; Chambliss, 1994; Kinder, Burscuk & Epstein, 1992). Different studies on the subject showed that the reasons why the students did not learn the knowledge included in the textbook were factors such as the lack of prerequisite knowledge for the textbook content in students, low quality and quantity of reading and comprehension practices in the classes, and the existence of hard to comprehend texts in the textbooks (Armbruster & Anderson, 1981; Crawford & Carnine, 2001). Researchers proposed two main concepts to explain the relationship between the reading comprehension levels of the students and the characteristics of the texts. The first of these concepts is “inconsiderate texts.” Inconsiderate text is defined as a text written in a form that is difficult to read, comprehend and learn (Armbruster, 1988; Armbruster & Anderson, 1981). This concept also reflects bad organizational structure of the texts, incoherence between the information provided in the texts, and simply mentioning the information instead of sufficiently explaining them (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Armbruster, 1988; Armbruster & Anderson, 1981; Crawford & Carnine, 2001; Meyer, 2003). The second concept proposed by researchers was the concept of “considerate texts.” With this concept, researchers aimed to define the manuscript characteristics that directly affect comprehension by going beyond limitation of comprehensibility of the texts by the difficulty in vocabulary and the length of sentences in the texts (Beck, McKeown, Sinatra and Loxterman, 1991). Well-organized texts are defined as texts that allow students to conduct deductive reading, acquire comprehension with minimum cognitive effort and prevent possible comprehension problems (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Armbruster & Anderson1981; Crawford & Carnine, 2001). 66

Anderson & Armbruster (1984) correlated and grouped the characteristics of a well-organized text and categorized under four main titles. These are: • Text Structure • Coherence • Unity, and • Audience Appropriateness (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984). There are studies which demonstrated that texts reorganized based on wellorganized text characteristics had positive effects on the students’ learning the knowledge provided in the textbooks (Beck, McKeown, Sinatra & Loxterman, 1991; Crawford & Carnine, 2001; McKeown, Beck, Sinatra & Loxterman, 1992). In a study conducted in Turkey, Kurt (2008) aimed to determine the differentiating effectiveness of 4, 5, and 6th grade science and technology textbook content and restructured content based on well-organized text characteristics on the students’ reading comprehension performances. The results of the study conducted with 208 primary school students demonstrated that there was a significant difference between the answers the students gave to comprehension questions after reading the textbooks and restructured texts, and students who read restructured texts answered more reading comprehension questions accurately. Review of Turkish field literature demonstrated no further studies that defined, described or scrutinized the effectiveness of well-organized text characteristics. In addition to defining and describing the factors that affect the comprehensibility of textbooks, the present study attempts to make recommendations on how the authors should consider these factors in creating texts. TEXT STRUCTURE In the process of acquiring the information contained in textbooks, initial focus is usually on the content of the texts. However, in many texts, the process of acquiring information is mostly related to the structure of the text. In other words, text structures represent organization of the ideas in a text and the relationship between the main theme in the text and this organization. Text structure is determined based on the objectives, which were indicated by the questions that the author attempts to answer. Text structure is a functional form suitable to the objective of the author (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Armbruster & Andrson 1981; Baştuğ & Keskin, 2011; Chambliss, 1994; Tyree, Fiore & Cook, 1994). Information the readers possess about text structures facilitate their organized acquisition of the content knowledge and process this knowledge within their intellectual processes (Williams, Hall & Lauer, 2004; Baştuğ & Keskin, 2011). Text structure is determined by several elements that complement the structure. The first element is the text units. Each text structure includes subcomponents that are created in relation to the general objective of the text. These components are the text units. Text units are basic small pieces that form the complete text and each text unit describes the relationship between the information contained in the text, in addition to the interaction between words and word groups (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Armbruster & Andrson 1981). Another element of the text structure is the text frame. Text frame reflects the most general ideas and mindscapes formed by the text unit combinations (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Armbruster & Andrson 1981). An author might have several objectives when writing a text. For instance, the author could define 67

the structure of an organism or its components and could give examples, define a mechanism and explain its functions, the steps of a process and the functions of these steps, or could want to define a scientific theory and explain the thinking patterns in that theory. Text structuring that the author would want to construct to accomplish this objective would form the text frame. Based on the determined text frame, the author would have to organize well what the text units would be and the relationship between these units. Another element of the text structure is signaling. Signaling is the use of wording, which stresses the significant points of the content or content organization of the text (Meyer, 2003). It would be possible to concentrate the attention of the reader to the point we want to make by creating tables that demonstrate text structure or organization within wording, prefixing texts with expressions that contain text titles and enabling a preview of the text or introductory expressions, occasionally using expressions that summarize previously presented information, using accenting sentences such as “here, the most important point is …” or using italic, bold lettering or underlying words or sentences (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Tryee, Fiore & Cook, 1994; McTigueve Slough 2010; Meyer, 2003). Use of such signaling would create a positive effect on reader’s skills of comprehension of the text and recollection of the information contained in the text (Meyer, 2003). Furthermore, this signaling also provides clues for the reader about the type of the text structure (definition text structure, causation text structure, etc.) Thus, the reader could easily recognize the type of the text and organize the reading comprehension process accordingly (Tyree, Fiore & Cook, 1994). The final element of text structure is the textbook hierarchy. Textbook hierarchy is the hierarchical organization of text frame and text units within the content of the texts in a textbook and within a text in itself. This hierarchy could be wide or narrow based on the amount of information that the book or the texts aim to provide (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984). Authors should bear in mind that they should organize the main titles and subtitles based on the text frame and units, and each paragraph related to the ideas organized under each title should be organized in relation to each other and based on the hierarchy. Hierarchy of the texts in a textbook have to be organized based on the type of text structure as well (Chambliss, 1994). Text structures are organizations of the text where text frame and text units are organized based on the objective, signaling that stress significant points in the text or the text structures and the textbook hierarchy is appropriately created within the same process. Texts formed in accordance with text structures determine the type of the information obtained by reading, while facilitating the storage of the information at the same time. These texts are concurrently well-organized texts and a well-organized text enables integration of novel and previous knowledge at high levels. Information integrated in high levels make it possible for the reader to use high level cognitive process such as summarization, deduction and decision making concurrently and associatively (Frase, 1972; Walker & Meyer, 1980, cited by Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Meyer, 2003). Text structures differ based on the type and characteristics of the information contained in the text. Each text is created with a different internal organization. It could also be observed that different types of texts could be organized together in several texts (Meyer, 2003). Generally accepted text structures in the literature are definition/description text structure, sequential event text structure, comparison text 68

structure, causal text structure and problem-solution text structure (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Armbruster, 1988; Meyer, 2003). Definition/Description text structure: These are text structures that help the readers to visualize narrated events in their minds. These type of texts are created to define a situation or an object, to list its features or describe its characteristics. In these text structures, words that signal definition/description text structure are words such as “for instance, especially, as an example, specific to …, attributes of …, characteristics of …, properties of …” Sequential event text structure: This text structure explains the sequence of the events and relationships between these events. These texts are created for various purposes such as to follow the development of a situation, event or phenomenon or to give the steps of occurrence. Words that signal sequential event text structure are “after …, the next after …, finally, previously, following …, beginning with …, in the beginning, initially, … years before, in the first phase, before that, and soon.” Comparison text structure: These are the text structures created to reveal similarities and differences between two or more ideas, events or phenomena. These type of texts could aim to determine the contrasts or to list the differences by comparing ideas, events or phenomena. Words that signal comparison text structures are “on the contrary, conversely, however, instead of …, like …, in other words, whereas, different from …, similar to …, common features of …, that it shares with …, the difference between …, separately from …, compared to, while, nevertheless, in lieu of …. Causal text structure: This text structure presents events, reasons and the main features of these events and reasons. These text structures aim to to explain the consequences and effects of events or causes. The words that signal such a text structure are “as a result, because, due to …, since …, the aim of which, because of …, resulted in …, instead of …, if … then. Problem-Solution text structure: These are text structures that define a problem or problems and present their solutions. They are created to explain developments or formations and to give possible solutions of the problem. Words that signal problemsolution text structures are “problem, question, puzzle, confusion, mystery, enigma, answer, and result.” In short, an author should initially determine the main frame of the text when creating content. This frame is related to the aim of the author about what to communicate to the audience. After the author defines the text frame, next in the line is to identify which text structures the author would use based on the frame of the text (such as description text structure, etc.) Based on the characteristics of the created text, the author could organize more than one text structure in the text. Later on, the author should form the sub-units of the text to reach the objective of the text. These units would create the text later on by creating a whole, which would serve to accomplish the objective of the author. During the following stage, the author should organize the title and subtitles by considering the features of text structures. While doing that, the author should include the subjects in appropriate order by keeping the textbook hierarchy in mind. This organization would help the readers to understand the scheme included in the text. Finally, the author should attempt to make the text more comprehensible by using certain signaling. Thus, the author would make a significant progress towards creating a more comprehensible text.

69

COHERENCE Coherence is basically combining the information in the text and integrating them, and also guides the reader about how to integrate the combined text (Anderson & Armbruster, 1985; Chambliss, 1994; Chambliss & Calfee, 1989; Kinder et al., 1992; Meyer, 2003). In other words, coherence makes the relationship between the ideas in the text clear and comprehensible (McNamara, 2001). A coherent text explains the correlation between the thoughts with rational connections and sufficiently realizes the transfer of a thought into another. When compared to an incoherent text, a coherent text enables the reader to recognize the messages in an integrated structure. As a result, the reader reads the text more rapidly and exhibits a better comprehension and recollection performance with the text she or he reads (Anderson & Armbruster, 1985, Meyer, 2003). Coherence could be addressed in two dimensions of global coherence and local coherence (Anderson & Armbruster, 1985; Armbruster, 1981). Global coherence is the ability of the titles in the text and other visual stimulants to contribute to the comprehension of the hierarchical structure of the text. To be able to claim that a text has global coherence, text titles and subtitles should be created in conjunction with the objective of the text and in a hierarchical order, and subtexts related to these titles should serve the same purpose with these titles (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; McNamara, 2001; McNamara et al., 1996). Local coherence facilitates association and integration of the information among and within the sentences in the text. Local coherence is formed by using conjunctions or functional phrases that clarify the relationships between the sentences and within the sentences (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; McNamara, 2001; McNamara et al., 1996). For a text to be considered as coherent, there are several issues that the author has to be careful about. One of these issues is the ability to express the relationships between the ideas depicted in a text clearly. To express the relations between the ideas clearly, the author should peruse short and simple sentences. If the readers have previous experience with the subject matter, it would be possible for them to comprehend the texts; however, if they do not have previous experience, they would need to exert more effort to comprehend the text, and sometimes they could fail to understand the text completely. Furthermore, the implications used in the texts should be clear as well. To comprehend the idea that certain words (e.g. pronouns) or phrases (e.g. idioms) implicate, it is required to understand other meanings of that particular word or phrase. Authors need to present these implicated ideas directly to the reader, instead of expecting them to figure these out. Finally, authors should abide by the sequence of events when explaining the chain of events within a subject. Texts should guide the readers on a path from the beginning to the end of the text. If the structure of the events in the text is not consistent with the structure of the real events, the readers could be confused (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984). In short, authors should initially organize the hierarchy between the subtitles of the text based on the hierarchy between all titles to create global coherence in the texts. Here, emphasis should be made in the organization of subtitles to enable the reader to arrive at the main idea of the text. Second, the author has to decide on how to form the paragraphs under each subtitle. The paragraphs under each title in the text should present the ideas in order to accomplish an objective and with the appropriate order and including the appropriate content. Author could create and list the ideas under a heading 70

here, before authoring the text and then turn these preformed ideas into a text. One of the points that the author should keep while providing local coherence in the text would be the length of the sentences. Authors should avoid long sentences connected with several conjunctions at this stage as much as possible. Second, authors should also make sure that the meanings of conjunctions, pronouns, adjectives and verbs are comprehensible. And finally, authors should pay attention whether the rhetoric (metaphors, similes, etc.) they use within the text are comprehensible by the target audience, and avoid using them if necessary. UNITY Unity is the preparation of the text to serve a single objective. Authors should not detract from their original objective using unrelated or distractive content. When it is considered that short term memory could only store 5 to 9 units of information, readers attempting to store inexpedient information in the text would add to the cognitive load required for comprehension. And this would cause disunity as the reader reads the text. This condition would reduce the possibility of the texts integrating in the mind of the reader. As a result, texts that do not enforce unity in the mind could cause association problems especially for readers with poor reading skills (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984). For a text to possess unity, the author should par attention to the following points when preparing texts: Each idea in the text should serve the objectives of the author. Information that do not serve the purpose of the text but their inclusion in the text would beneficial should be signaled using phrases such as “in the meantime,” “as well as,” or “what we wonder about that.” Information contained in the text should follow a narrative that would direct the reader towards the objective. Information that would disrupt that flow could be presented outside the text, for instance in a text box or in appendixes that could follow the manuscript. It could be possible to present additional information that we would like to provide for the reader (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984). An author, to provide unity in the texts she or he would create, initially should determine main and sub objectives of the text. To negate the possibility of deviating from the objective, the author should narrate these objectives very clearly in writing. Then, the author should organize main titles and subtitles to serve this objective while creating the texts and join each subtitle with texts that serve the same objective. In the process of creating texts, the author should also frequently control whether the text is progressing in accordance with the objective. AUDIENCE APPROPRIATENESS OF THE TEXT Audience appropriateness of the text reflects the compatibility of the knowledge of the readers and the main information contained in the text (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984). Several aspects should be emphasized to create this compatibility between the reader and the text. First of these aspects is consideration of previous knowledge of the audience about the text content by the author while creating the texts. Each text is created based on certain objectives and to target a certain audience. Authors should create a content that is suitable for the characteristics ıf the target audience (age, grade level, other related texts in the curriculum, etc.) (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; Chambliss & Calfee, 1989; Kendeou & Broek, 2007; Meyer, 2003). 71

Second, the author should also bear in mind whether the concepts used in the texts are known by the target audience. As the number of used concepts unknown by the audience increases, it would be difficult for the reader to integrate the information contained in the texts with her or his previous knowledge (Chambliss & Calfee, 1989; Meyer, 2003). One of the common features of hard to comprehend texts is the existence of a high number of concepts that the readers encounter for the first time (Crawford & Carnine, 2001). The responsibility of the authors related to novel concepts that would be introduced in the texts is either to limit the number of new concepts in creating the text or to explain these new concepts in additional information boxes in detail. Third, it is important to remember that, similar to the conceptual knowledge, vocabulary knowledge is one of the variables that affect comprehensibility of the texts by the audience (Chambliss, 1994; Meyer, 2003; McTigue & Slough, 2010; Tyree, Fiore & Cook, 1994). Authors should use technical terms or other words that are unlikely to be in the readers’ vocabulary sparingly and only when they are necessary to learn the content; however, they should still include efficient introductory texts about these words so that the readers could learn these. Similes, metaphors and other rhetoric should only be used when they are thoroughly known by the audience (Armbruster & Anderson, 1981). Last aspect that should be taken into consideration while creating texts with regard to audience appropriateness includes variables such as the age, education level, reading proficiency and interests of the audience. Each of these variables play a role in creating the bridge between the text and the audience. An author should investigate the related characteristics of the target audience she or he determines and should keep these characteristics in mind when developing the texts (Chambliss, 1994; Meyer, 2003; McTigue & Slough, 2010; Tyree, Fiore & Cook, 1994). On the other hand, although readability level of the text is not by itself a variable that promotes reading comprehension process, it could support the reader to perceive the text structure and thus, improve reading comprehension (Armbruster, Osborn & Davison; 1985; McTigue & Slough, 2010; Meyer, 2003; Tyree, Fiore & Cook, 1994). In brief, an author has to pay attention to the characteristics of the target audience while determining the objective of the text to provide audience appropriateness for the text she or he creates. Thus, the author should conduct a preliminary study to research the characteristics of the target audience. In this study, the author should attempt to determine the level of the audience related to the concepts, terms and the vocabulary that the audience might not know. Thus, textbook authors should examine the curricula of the schools that the target audience attends in detail and should determine whether the vocabulary they plan to use in the textbooks are presented in the curriculum previously. Therefore, the possibility of the authors using words or word groups that the audience do not know would decrease. On the other hand, the author should stay current with the studies in the literature to determine age, education level and interests of the target audience and review the related papers in detail. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Despite advances in technologies used in the field of education, textbooks are still among the significant resources especially in basic education period. Due to the fact that textbooks are the only accessible resource for several students in Turkey, the responsibilities of textbook authors to create more comprehensible content for these 72

students are increased. The present study aimed to define and describe the factors that affect the comprehensibility of textbooks based on a literature review, in addition to presenting suggestions about ways that authors should consider these factors while preparing these texts. An author needs to determine the main frame of the text primarily when creating text structures for a text. In this framework, the author should decide which text structure or structures to use. Later on, the author should form each unit of the test and order these units based on textbook hierarchy. Finally, the author should identify the signaling that she or he would use to stress the text structure of the text that would be created and decide on how she or he would use this signaling in the text. First, the author should order the subtitles of the text based on the hierarchy to establish global coherence of the text. Later on, she or he should author the paragraphs under each title to order the ideas appropriately. To establish local coherence in the text, the author should make sure that the pronouns, adjectives and adverbs to be used are fully comprehensible. On the other hand, the author should select her or his rhetoric very carefully and in fact she or he should abstain from using rhetoric when necessary. The author should clearly define and note the objectives of the text clearly to establish unity in the text. The author should also control whether she or he acted according to the predetermined objectives in the whole text. Finally, authors should primarily identify the target audience to create audience appropriate texts. Later on, the author should carefully examine the curricula that the audience is educated in and studies available in the literature that investigate the characteristics of the audience to determine the characteristics of target audience and to create a text appropriate to these characteristics. Authors considering these recommendations while creating textbook content would greatly contribute to publishing more comprehensible textbooks for students. However, literature review conducted during the present study revealed that there were only limited number of studies conducted on comprehensibility of textbooks in Turkey (Kurt, 2008). The most immediate need for future studies, thus, could be investigation of the content of textbooks currently used in the education system in Turkey based on comprehensibility in the light of the variables mentioned in the current study. Furthermore, urgent studies should be conducted to scrutinize the effect of textbooks organized within the framework of the variables determined in this study in different age levels and different educational environment on reading comprehension and retention of comprehension of the students. REFERENCES Anderson, T.H., & Armbruster, B.B. (1984). Content area textbooks. R.C. Anderson, J. Osborn, ve R.J. Tierney (Ed), Learning to read in American schools. Erlbaum. Hillsdale, NJ: Armbruster B.B. (1986), Schema theory and the desing of content-area textbooks., Educational Psychologist, 21, 253-267 Armbruster B.B. (1988). Why some children have trouble reading content area textbooks: Technical report no.432. Center for The Study of Reading. National Instutituon of Education. Washington D.C. Armbruster, B.B. & Anderson, T. H. (1981). Content area textbooks. Reading education report no.23. Center for The Study of Reading. National Instutituon of Education. Washington D.C. 73

Armbruster, B.B., Osborns, J.H. & Davison, A.L. (1985). Readability formulas may be dangerous to your textbooks. Educational Leadership.42.18-20 Bakken, J.P. & Whedon, C.K. (2002), Teaching text structure to improve reading comprehension. Intervention in School and Clinic. 37 (4). 229-233 Baştuğ, M. & Keskin, H.K. (2011). Bilgi verici metin yapıları öğretiminin okuduğunu anlamaya etkisi. e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy. 6(4). Beck I.L., Mckeown M.G., Sinatra M.G., Loxterman A. (1992) Revising Social Studies Text From A Text-Processing Perspective Evidence of Improved Comprehensibility, Reading Research Quarterly.26 (3) Chambliss, M. J. (1994). Evaluating the quality of textbooks for diverse learners. Remedial ve Special Education. 15 (6). 348-363 Chambliss M. J. & Calfee R.C. (1989),Designing science textbooks to enhance student understanding. Educational Psychologist, 24(3), 307-22 Crawford D.B., Carnie D.C. (2001), Comparing the effects of textbooks in eight-grade u.s. history: Does conceptual organization help?, Education and Treatment of Children. 23 (4) Ceyhan, E. ve Yiğit, B.(2003). Konu alanı ders kitabı incelemesi. Anı Yayıncılık. Ankara Durkin, D. (1989). Teaching them to read. eaching them to read (fifth edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Williams, J. P. & Baker, S. (2001). Teaching reading comprehension strategies to studens with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71, 279-320 Gökdere, M. & Keleş, E. (2004). Öğretmen ve öğrencilerin fen bilgisi ders kitaplarını kullanma düzeyleri üzerine müfredat değişikliğinin etkisi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi. 161 Jitendra, A. K. & Gajria, M.(2011). Reading comprehension insruction for students with learning disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children. 43(6) 1-16 Kendeou, P. & Broek P.W.D. (2007). The effects of prior knowledge and text structure on comprehension processess during reading of scientific texts. Memory & Cognition. 35(7). 1567-1577 Kendra R. Tannenbaum, Joseph K. Torgesen,and Richard K (2006) relationships between word knowledge and reading comprehension in third-grade children. Scıentıfıc Studıes of Readıng, 10 (4), 381–398 Kinder, D., Burscuk, D. & Epstein M. (1992). An evaluation of history textbooks. The Journal of Special Education. 25(4) Kurt, M.(2008). Ders kitaplarında yer alan ve yeniden yapılandırılmış metinlerin az gören kör ve görme yeterizliğinden etkilenmemiş öğrencilerin okuduğunu anlama düzeyleri üzerindeki farklılaşan etkililiği. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Ankara Mckeown M.G., Beck I.L., Sinatra M.G., Loxterman A. (1992), The contribution of prior knowledge and coherent text to comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 27 (1) McNamara, D.S. (2001). Reading both high-coherence and low-coherence texts: Effects of text sequence and prior knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 55(1). 51-62 McNamara, D.S., Kintsch, E, Songer, N.B. & Kintsch, W.(1996). Are good texts always better? Interactions of text coherence background knowledge and levels of understanding in learning from text. Cognition and Instruction. 14(1). 1-43 McTigue, E.M. & Slough, W.S. (2010). Student-accessible science texts: Elements of design. Routledge. 31.213-227 Meyer, B.J.F. (2003). Text coherence and readability.Topics in Language Disorders. 23(3). 204-224 74

Palinscar, A., David, Y., Winn, J. & Stevens, D.(1991), Enhancing the content of strategy instruction. Remedial and Special Education. 12, 43-53 Richek, M. A., Caldwell, J. S., Jennings, J. H. ve Lerner, J. W. (2002). Reading problems: Assessment and teaching strategies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Spitz, H. H. (1966). The role of input organization in the learning and memory of mental retardates. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International Review of Research in Mental Retardation . New York; Academic Press Tyree, R. B., Fiore, T. A. & Cook, R. A. (1994). Insturcional materials for diverse learners. Remedial ve Special Education. 15 (6). 363-378 Duman, T., Karakaya, N., Çakmak, M., Eray M. & Özkan, M. (2001). Konu alanı ders kitabı inceleme kılavuzu-matematik 1-8, L. Küçükahmet (Ed.), Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara. Williams, J.P., Hall, K.M. & Lauer, K.D. (2004). Teaching expository text structure to young at-risk learners: Building the basics of comprehensicon insturction. Exceptionality: A Special Education Journal. 12(3). 129-144

75

Chapter 6 Creativity and Art in Early Childhood Münevver CAN YAŞAR, Adalet KANDIR** INTRODUCTION It is known that creativity and artistic skills are gained effectively in early childhood years, which are considered as the most critical period of life. Art education starting at early age by developing seeing, hearing and perception that are required for creativity and continuing in formal education will bring along decision making and critical thinking skill which provide aestheticism and to choose the good, right and beautiful ones while improving creativity (Lin, 2011). Within this frame, when art is considered as the originality and individual creativity phenomenon, art education will support the emergence of creativity in different areas and levels in children beginning from early period. Creativity is a complex process and it takes part in all affective and intellectual activities and in all kinds of work and effort (Root-Bernstein & Root-Bernstein, 2004). Creativity is the ability to establish connection, which could not be established between relations before and in this way to present new livings and experiences, new ideas and new products in a new scheme (San, 1985). Creativity is related to conclusion more than process and reasoning, inventing and problem solving are given as the counterpart of creativity (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996). Creativity process, although previously acquired knowledge is used, incorporation of previous experiences and new experiences is at stake (Sternberg, 2005); it included many cognitive processes such as perception, consciousness, awareness, openness to innovation, flexibility, fluency, intuition, comprehension ability and invention (Prentice, Matthews & Taylor, 2003; Lubart & Guignard, 2004). Children start organizing knowledge in a creative way from early ages (Gelman & Gottfried, 2006). For this reason, creativity is a process which should be supported beginning from early period. Creativity, existing in each individual and waiting for to be improved and supported, can be brought out by using different education methods. One of the most effective ways supporting creativity is art. Art is the combination of methods, knowledge and rules related to performing any activity or work and it is considered as the integrity of the rules, which are taken in hand, and methods (Mills, 2014). Art, affecting the whole humanity today, creates a communication concept both social and cultural with its all fields. Art education is an education field aiming at bringing individuals in aesthetic personality by using law and techniques of the art. In the process of art education, perception, enlightenment, *

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Early Childhood Education ** Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education, Department of Early Childhood Education

thinking, designing, interpreting, explaining and criticizing behaviors are acquired in accordance with aesthetic principles by using the language of art. In this educational field, the child can have an opportunity to express himself by having a chance of choosing art fields such as painting, sculpture, ceramics, photography, music, dance, poetry, short story, novel, drama, theatre and film. Therefore, a teaching approach in which children take part actively, learn by doing, correlating subjects with their environment, making connections by social life it is crucial to support artistic abilities and creativity. In this study, "creativity and art in early childhood"; was assessed by the related literature review under the subjects of definition of creativity, creativity processes, relationship between creativity and art, creative arts, art education, objectives and principles of art education, supporting of creativity and art. Definition and Stages of Creativity Creativity is a complex concept that can be viewed from many various aspects. Adopting or accepting single meaning of creativity is quite difficult. Creativity means different things by responses to the questions such as what, why, where, how, who and when and with this aspect, it is a wide concept having lots of meanings. Creativity has a feature to develop and be expressed through different communication types and to be applied in different contexts (Gardner, 1993). Additionally, since creativity is associated with daily life, it includes both individual and group works (Prentice et al., 2003). For this reason, many definitions can be seen when studies on creativity are examined. Mayesky (1990) defines creativity as a way of thinking or a combination of more knowledge, skill, motivation and behaviors; Csikzentmihalyi (1996) defines it as a behaviour brought out as a result of interaction between thoughts of individuals and socio-cultural context; Craft (2003) defines it as a capacity to express yourself and use intelligence and imagination; Stenberg (2005) defines it as an ability to develop ideas and products in which "new" and "innovation" features in other words originality and invention concepts are used in common and Duffy (2006) defines it as an ability to see through new and fresh ways, as learning from previous experiences and associating this to new situations, thinking peculiarly and overcoming obstacles, using unconventional approaches to solve problems, going beyond the information provided and creating something that is unique and original. Torrance (1995) who is a pioneer in creativity studies defines creativity as "a process of realizing problems and explanations in the provided knowledge, creating ideas and assumptions, testing assumptions and reaching to results". This opinion states that creativity includes producing something new or unique and includes "thinking out of the box". Exploration, investigation, imagination, invention and curiosity are included in it, as well. In a similar manner Beetlestone (1998) emphasizes that in order to define creativity there must be six factors and states that it consists of factors of a cognitive learning form of creativity; description (expressing feelings and thoughts); productivity (imagination, creation, forming, writing, performance); originality (risk taking and being peculiar); thinking creatively and problem solving (presenting different and less apparent solutions); and universe and creative-nature (emotional interaction between individual and environment). When definitions about creativity are examined, it is seen that it consists of an ability to produce useful ideas and/or products in which "new" or "innovation" features, 77

in other words originality or invention concepts are used in common (Sternberg, 2005). Additionally, process-product-living factors are stated as the common point in most of the definitions. As its widest definition, creativity can be explained as "catching similarities or differences by establishing a relation between two concepts which could not be established before, bringing out a brand-new product or opinion through a known product or idea, reaching to a new, unique synthesis, finding new solution ways to some problems" (Can Yaşar, 2009). Starting point like curiosity and conclusion as originality can be added to the abilities and qualities existing in creative process such as intuition, imagination, trial, research, testing and re-establishment. In this case, in an event that can be described as creativity; there will be features such as innovation, originality, wondrousness, exception, diversity, fluency, flexibility and suitability to the place and situation and all of these features are required to be in a certain combination (Isenberg & Jalongo, 1993; Lubart & Guignard, 2004; Sternberg, 2005). In creativity studies, many philosophers and researchers state that creative process develops in stages. Internalizing these stages can be effective in understanding complex operations during creative thinking. In "Traditional Model" developed by Wallas (1926) and "Brain Scheme" developed by Hermann (1981) it is stated that creativity process takes place in four stages as preparation, incubation, illumination (emergence of the idea) and verification (development of the opinion) (cit. in Isbell & Raines, 2003). Preparation Stage: The first stage of the creative process is searching problems. This is the stage in which the individual determines and defines the problem, necessity or behavior, event or situation that he wants to follow out and he does research related to solving the problem by analyzing various sources. The essence of the creativity is to meet the problems in a creative, peculiar and effective way. With a focus of the individual on the subject, creative action starts in the brain. Since creativity depends on establishing new relations between concepts and events, bringing out a new opinion gets easier when there is more information about the subject. In this stage, the individual gets prepared psychologically and focuses on the subject (Isbell & Raines, 2003; Ruggiero, 2004; Argun, 2012; Çelebi Öncü, 2015). Incubation Stage: This stage can be considered as a waiting stage. The problem is scrutinized in the mind and starts to be examined. If a solution way cannot be find in the preparation stage, the problem is kept waiting consciously (Isbell & Raines, 2003). All the relations related to the subject cannot be established immediately in the brain. Dealing with any other works or distraction makes it necessary to give a break (San, 1995). Although other opinions intervene, the brain goes on working. The aim of this stage is to find the best expression for the problem. Properly explained problem is solved partially. One of the most common mistakes made in explaining the problem is to view them from only a single aspect and, in this way, to close many useful opinion ways (Ruggiero, 2004). Illumination (emergence of the idea) Stage: This is the stage in which the individual develops an opinion suddenly. Incubation stage ends in any place and time. When the individual thinks about the subject consciously or unconsciously, a stimulus provides the emergence of the expected relation (Isbell & Raines, 2003; Argun, 2012). With this sudden opinion, the last part of the picture is completed in the brain and a new opinion is created. A creative individual can comprehend the solution of the problem immediately. The aim of this stage is to acquire the knowledge, which is necessary for 78

dealing with the problem, or subject effectively. In some cases, previous experiences and observations can be brought together to find the suitable material or to build a relation with the problem. In other cases, new information can be acquired by searching new experiences and observations. Verification (development of the opinion) Stage: It is the emergence of the opinions in the mind in order to build a basis for creativity. It is the stage in which a series of activities are carried out so as to figure out whether what emerged in the illumination stage will meet the needs and whether it complies with the measures determined in the preparation stage (Isbell & Raines, 2003; Argun, 2012). The opinions in this stage can be a part of conclusion-product or it can be the solution itself. In this stage of creative thinking, the validity of the solution is verified by trial. This stage is mostly instantaneous and develops in the wealth of insights, lasts for a few minutes or hours. A sudden opinion emerged in the brain for the existing problem is applied to the problem immediately. Each opinion created may not be good enough to apply immediately; however, it is felt that what is searched has been found. In this process many weak points are discovered and the opinion is evaluated through new forms, developed and exposed to little changes and it is made ready for application. There are two known obstacles in this process. First one is the tendency to limit the ideas with ordinary, familiar and common responses and to stop the unknown and unusual ones unconsciously. However, it may seem unfamiliar and unsuitable, second type of responses are the ones having creativity completely. Second obstacle is the desire to quit generating ideas very quickly. Logical thinking comes into play at this stage (Ruggiero, 2004). If this new opinion does not comply with the solution of the problem, the process starts all over again. At this point, the decision should be for trial purposes. Creativity and Art Relations Creativity and Art is closely related to each other (Beetlestone, 1998). Creativity exists in the essence of art and the original integrity itself including aesthetic elements is creativity. Art supports the development of creativity with its rich diversity with endless possibilities (Caroff & Besançon, 2008). With this aspect, art is not the only field of interest but it cannot be considered independent from it. Most of the time art and creativity are referred as synonyms (Riley, 2003). As Lowden (1989) states, creativity is not extraordinary for arts, it exists in the human creation and it is about human activities, it is concerned with science as it is concerned with art. As a subset of creativity, artistic creativity is the process involving traditions in a culture, knowledge of art concept, highly developed visual thinking skills and intrinsic motivation (Zimmerman, 2009). In this process; materials, forms and cultural characteristics combines with the personal background and feelings of the artist and a peculiar product in social form that did not exist completely before is created. In the process of creation, goal-oriented or unpredictable decisions and actions take place (James, 1999-2000) and "doing and forming" is completed by using previously acquired knowledge and adding new experiences to the previous ones. Children need to look out for the process and product in order to get motivated (Beetlestone, 1998). There is not a difference between scientific creativity and artistic creativity in terms of thinking stages and function. However, scientific creativity uses the left hemisphere of the brain more and artistic creativity uses the right hemisphere of the brain more. This situation stems from the collection of information types in the brain. 79

The continuity of the communication and interaction between the four quadrants of the brain is compulsory for the emergence of creativity (Hadzigeorgiou, Fokialis, & Kabouropoulou, 2012). Especially pre-natal and early childhood period is quite crucial in terms of children's brain development. In this period, it is essential for children to be a part of activities that they can benefit and that will develop the functions of both hemispheres of the brain. Gardner (1991) also states that artistic ability and creativity are open to improvement between the ages of two-seven. In his study where he analysed the effect of personality on creative success in art and science, Feist (1999) determined that creative artists and scientists were open to innovations more than individuals in the general population; they had tendency of being self-confident, self-accepting, determined, ambitious, opponent, sincere, less traditional and attentive individuals. Additionally, he expressed that artists were more effective, emotionally more flexible, less social and agreeable to group norms when compared to scientist, which seemed more attentive. Creative individual is self-confident, tolerant, has internalized aesthetic and gone beyond himself and therefore, he supports the development of the community with which he lives together in terms of socio-cultural and socio-economic aspects. To bring in creative individuals to the community is an objective supporting the goals of the art education. Each child has the potential for creativity and this potential should be supported in educational environment (Kim, 2011; Lin, 2011). Starting from such a perspective, creative individual expression in art education should be supported by analysing it within the frame of individual characteristics of the child. Creative individual expression in art education is a child-centred approach based on psychology field. On the basis of individual creative approach underlie the aim of developing creative and expressive abilities existing in each individual's nature. It is accepted that creativity is innate and it develops in a natural way without intervention of adult practices (Zimmerman, 2009). The role of educators in creative art activities is to provide motivation, support, source and material instead of interfering directly in production activities and products of children. At this point, creativity and art activities involving creative processes gain importance in early childhood period. Creative Arts Art is a requirement of human nature. It is one of the most important dimensions and aspects of social life. It is the requirement for being human and expression of human's entity. Thereby, artistic signs would show themselves in different fields amateurishly or spontaneously as an impulse stemming from human nature even supposing that there was no formal art education in human life. Although it is generally used in the sense of visual arts, "art" is a more comprehensive statement. Art is globally a creative activity involving numerous creative efforts and disciplines, which have a wide cultural infrastructure. Art covers all the performing arts including painting, ceramics, sculpture, music, dance, literature, drama, theatre and film (Jackman, 2011; Nikkhah, 2011). Art involves characteristics of imagination, creativity, feelings and originality. Torrance (1995) also states that creativity is apparent in scientific theories, inventions, developed products, novels, poems, designs, paintings, music and dance. When an artist creates a striking and inspirational feeling, opinion, experience or product, art emerges. With art, life becomes more productive, clear and enjoyable. 80

In early childhood period, creative arts are the activities prompting imagination and creativity of the children via painting, ceramics, sculpture, music, dance, short story, poetry, drama and theatre (Jackman, 2011). It provides an opportunity problem solving by using their imagination and critical and solution-oriented thinking for children (Aral & Can Yaşar, 2015). Creative arts support children in all activity areas in terms of cognitive, language, social, affective and motor skills development. Art activities are deliberately open-ended (not prescriptive), improve divergent thinking and support the process without special attention on the product (Mills, 2014). Art activities help children realize artistic elements (drawing, color, shape, volume or mass, design or composition, pattern, space, stability and texture), develop their large and small muscles and hand-eye coordination, be sensitive to their environment, use their imagination, improve their creativity, adapt to new situations more easily, realize the situations that they like and do not like, express themselves, develop a flexible personality and increase their self-confidence by developing their independency (Seefeldt, 2005; Koster, 2012; Aral, 2014). For example, while switching to music with a partner develops large muscle skills, holding a painting brush helps children use their small motor skills. In addition, art activities help children discover their feelings both by presenting and organizing feelings (Koster, 2012). For instance, drama and puppets help children discover their own emotional diversity and develop emotional self-regulations and self-controls. Developing an ability of controlling feelings in childhood is quite important in the sense of emotion self-regulation, which is necessary in adulthood. Cooperation, negotiation and problem-solving opportunities - all turning points in social development- are quite a lot in creative art activities. For example, choosing a role for acting out a short story involves discussing gender roles, vocabulary knowledge, sound effects, stage materials and different short story endings. Additionally, creative art activities present children qualified opportunities, which encourage children to discover cultural differences in music, art, rituals and holidays (Koster, 2012). Mayesky (2015) recommends educators eight methods helping children express their own natural creativity through art;  Helping children accept the change (Fear and anxiety are the enemies of creativity.),  Helping children realize that solutions of some problems are not easy,  Helping children understand that there is a possible solution for most of the problems (search and discover),  Helping children observe and accept their own feelings,  Value children's creativity even if their products are messy,  Realizing the enthusiasm of the children in every creative effort and approving it,  Helping children realize their unique characteristics and expressions,  Teaching children to be patient and encouraging them to search, discover and search again. Art Education Art education concept has defined in-school and out-of-school creative art activities including all the fields and forms of fine arts in general since the beginning of 81

the 20th century. Unless its usage in its common and universal meaning is specifically stated, art education is understood more as "the education given in the plastic arts". Art education is considered as an important part of the general education. However, when it is taken into consideration that art is a phenomenon of originality and individual creativity (Gelman & Gottfried, 2006), it must be admitted that art education has its own unique very special principles. Therefore, place of the art education in educational system must be determined quite well. Art education is basically in the thought of enabling individuals to be sensitive to the environment in which they live through art activities, interact with their environment in a useful way, meet their aesthetic needs, feed their motivation of bringing out a product or interpreting and make their lives more meaningful (Buyurgan & Buyurgan, 2012). Art education is based on the effort of developing aesthetic concern, thoughts and opinions of the individuals in all their mental and physical integrity, improving their ability and creativity power and approaching artistic values tolerantly. The purpose of art education is to develop cognitive competence of the children, help them express their mental accumulation in visual, audial, tactual and behavioural forms and enable their self-assertion freely (Epstein, 2001). Within this context, the purpose is not only to educate individuals dealing with art but also to educate individuals who like art and perceive culture. That is to say, although it is not possible for everybody to be an artist, the aim is to bringing the soul understanding the art. For this reason, art education is a gradual process including pre-school, school and afterschool periods. Beginning from early childhood period, which is the first stage of this process, children should be in the artistic and creative activities. Art education, which help children gain an aesthetic point of view, be sensitive to their environment, know themselves, express their feelings and thoughts in different ways, develop communication skills, perceive the world in which they live better, in other words, developing their creativity, must be in the environment presented to children from the early ages. In order to carry out all these things in the most effective and suitable way, artistic power, interests, needs and abilities of the children must be known (Makin, White & Owen, 1996; Epstein, 2001; Isbell & Raines, 2003). Early childhood education is based on the activities supporting child's holistic development. Art education is a set of activities presented to children with the principles of improving aestheticism and creativity. However, most of the time it is applied by ignoring the aesthetic dimension as indexed to the desired subject. In this period, art education should be used as a method which will make the learning enjoyable, help children understand life, encourage creative thinking in children, and include the basic principles of the art (Barbe-Gall, 2005). In the context of behaviours desired to be presented and subjects desired to be taught to children, art education means beyond craft works where aesthetic values are ignored. Artwork is the only teaching method presenting children many acquisitions on its own independent from the subject. Art education is necessary for everybody; it does not intent mastership and ability. Purpose of the art is not to describe the appearance of the products brought out but to reveal the meaning in them. It is based on revealing power and acquisitions of the children and developing them in the bowl of aesthetic concern and opinion. It aims at educating individuals as overcoming prejudice, understanding and supporting art and 82

being elite art consumers. Art education pushes the limits of sensitivity and enables that limit to expand (Zimmerman & Zimmerman, 2000). In this way, the child has a chance to know himself with this aspect, as well and proceeds in the way of being an "individual" consciously. Art education has four basic elements; aesthetic, art history, practice and criticism. It can be stated that these elements have an approach which is based on the logic of researching-examining and questioning-trial and which will make the creative action of the children meaningful (both in the sense of theory and activity) in the contemporary art education. Art education is crucial in understanding the facts and bearing them. At the same time, it is essential for knowing and changing the world because art education is "the education of feelings and instincts". Art is a deep diving into the life and this diving enriches the child at every stage of his life (Fox & Schirrmacher, 2012). According to San (2003), art education is the "integrity of the curricular and extracurricular activities leading children who grow up in the community during the process of modernization to the creativity in every area". Art education becomes completed and integrated with the participation of theoretical information branches scrutinizing the relations of art-community-culture into the event and culture of art such as art (and culture) history, aestheticism, art theories and criticism, psychology of art, geography and topography of art covering the subjects of formation of art, artistic creation, place of the art in the society, types of art, movements and sense of art, personality traits of the artists and etc. Additionally, art education is an activity preparing the environment, which will be helpful in revealing children's creative powers and enable them to gain personality (Epstein, 2001). The most suitable environment, which will help children develop their emotional world, can be enabled with art education. A child or a teenager will learn to see instead of looking, to sense instead of hearing, and to feel what they touch, in short, they will learn to realize and perceive because art education is a "sensitivity training". Art education is essential for educating the creative power and potential of the individual and organizing aesthetic thought and conscious. Art is necessary as it enables children to arrange social relations, cooperate and mutualize, choose the right and be able to express themselves, feel the joy in starting and finishing a work and be productive. Art education supports observation, originality, invention and personal approaches and improves practical thinking. A child who has received art education is more sensitive and tolerant to the events and to his environment; he presents a personality that adapts to changing situations easily and knows sharing. As he can develop creative behaviours in other fields, he can also generate solutions more quickly and sophisticatedly. The child starts to understand the relation of art with previous and present cultural situation by coming into contact with artistic and cultural heritage (Epstein, 2001; Dodge, Colker, & Heroman, 2010; Fox & Schirrmacher, 2012). Goals of Art Education The main goal of art education is to reach children’s full potential towards responding their individual interest by supporting their intellectual, emotional and social development. Moreover, art is not solely for aesthetic reasons, but it is a crucial point that should be considered in that it has educational and instructional purposes as well. Apart from these main goals, art education implies specific objectives, which are as follows: 83

 Develop aesthetic sensitivity and creativity,  Teaching skills related to emotional, affective and cognitive activities,  Fostering non-verbal reasoning skills, symbolization and realization of these symbols,  Nurturing visual, auditory and tactile sensitivity and providing active perception to the senses,  Developing moral, affective and cognitive power,  Improving analysis and synthesis ability (selection, refining, combining, reorganizing) together with critical point of view,  Providing improvement in analytic thinking skills,  Gaining exploring, investigating and interrogating identity,  Gaining the necessary skills for solving artistic problems,  Helping develop self-esteem, self-awareness and self-knowledge about his/her own abilities,  Providing the basic knowledge about history of art and aesthetic for evaluating piece of art, categorizing them.  Developing a unique and creative understanding to refrain from copying or imitating others’ works,  Increasing the power to cope with the problems and discharging negative feelings in a proper way,  Raising awareness and sensitivity towards cooperation, sharing, taking responsibility, respecting one’s occupations,  Fostering healthy thinking and identity development,  Gaining technical knowledge and skills,  Discovering the richness in different ways of expression with various techniques,  Encouraging to search for different techniques,  Gaining goal oriented appropriate materials and the skills to derive meaning from the specified material,  Gaining knowledge about national and international piece of art and the artists,  Having the clear idea that art and works of art are always important values to be appreciated (Epstein, 2001; Isbell & Raines 2003; Buyurgan & Buyurgan, 2012; Fox & Schirrmacher, 2012). Supporting Creativity and Art In early childhood education, there are some principles while giving art education, which are as follows: Art Belongs to the Child: Art is a way of individual medium and provides the opportunity to express unique ideas. By letting children on their own throughout the process of creating works of art instead of directing children and respecting the nature of children’s works, the children are likely to benefit more from the process. Children are able to create and assembly in unique and novel ways far different from the educator’s imagination. During this process, the educator can assist children by asking questions so as to help them find new possibilities and techniques (Mayesky, 2015). Appreciating Environment: An environment nurturing artistic explorations is also a setting inspiring confidence. This could be a class where the educator fosters children’s creative attempts. Children are sure that their ideas are valued and appreciated. The educator, here, role models how to appreciate one’s work by, for 84

example, commenting on a child’s work which has unique diagonal waves made with a brush. These instants provide understanding that every piece of art is unique and has the right to be appreciated (Nuner, 2007). Providing Role Models: Children start to understand that art is one of the activities that can be carried out also by adults only when the adults provide good examples by working on creative arts with various methods. As children observe, they will soon understand that it is a joyful and satisfying activity for the artist. In addition, they also will find opportunity to see the work of art before it is finished. The role models can be professional artists or ordinary individuals possessing hobbies. Adults may visit the class to exhibit their works or children can visit artists’ studios or art museums. All in all, the best role model is the educator herself. Although the educator may not be a professional artist, children can easily understand that art activities are valuable, important and pleasing (Nuner, 2007). Providing Appropriate and Various Experiences: It is necessary to provide children with various kinds of materials and gadgets in order to encourage them to experience visual, auditory and tactile forms of creating art. By providing wide range of activities, materials and gadgets, children will be encouraged to try different artistic possibilities. Different materials allow different thinking styles and improve children’s combination and creation abilities (Isbell & Raines 2003; Starke, 2012). Appropriateness or Originality: When children use the artistic materials for the first time, they usually observe how their peers use them. This is an appropriate way for the child to learn how to use a specific material. By accepting these instances as ways of effective learning, the educator is provided with the opportunity to look beyond the ordinary flow of the activities. During the artistic development process, it is important to support novel ideas, appreciating and exhibiting them. Unique ways of combining materials and making things in a unique way will help children to cross the borders of appropriateness. When this happens, children will start to understand that differences are appreciated at that setting (Isbell & Raines 2003). Process and Product: Most of the children are concentrated on the process of creating rather than the product. In this process, the focus of art should be engaging in interesting artistic experiences and enjoying oneself. This may end with no product to bring home at the end of the day. A drawing can undergo a beautiful process while the single kid adds different colours on it; but in the end the picture may be out of a thick brown paint. This ending is so normal for a child who has not made experiments with different textures and paint. Children should not be forced to produce a painting, a product or a souvenir to take home. This principle is far more important than the product (Isbell & Raines 2003; Nuner, 2007). Creative process starts with exploring and playing various instruments and materials. After several experiences, children move on to a next step by focusing on a specific approach. After one approach is selected, children use this method in the process of production. Next, the child usually stops, makes evaluations and move on working. It is difficult to differentiate these steps during the process. While younger children are likely to spend more time in exploring, more experienced children spend more time in production. All the creativity processes are intertwined and each of them are crucial for growing children (Mayesky, 2015). Children may want to create products that satisfy their expectations in the 85

following steps of artistic development. This may lead to the fact that they need to make several attempts until they are satisfied. On the other hand, the child should have the initiative rather than the educator. The educator, as an observer, will find out the child’s will for creating a product. When the child’s will is detected by the educator, the child should be given enough time and be encouraged to move on (Nuner, 2007). According to Torrance (1981), teaching creativity is creating a “responsible environment” through similar settings by taking individual differences into account. Lemons (2005) and Craft (2005) stated that it is important to establishing a “creating atmosphere” in order to foster creative thinking. Feldhusen and Treffinger (1980) asserted that the educators should bear in mind the below mentioned points to establish such an environment (cited in Fasko, 2000-2001).  Children’s novel ideas and responses should be encouraged.  In a suggesting atmosphere, failure can be used in a positive way just to let children be aware of their mistakes and reach modest standards.  Necessary modifications at educational settings should be made in accordance with children’s interests and ideas.  Adequate time should be given to children for thinking and developing creative ideas. All the creativity must occur spontaneously at once.  An environment supporting differences between the peers and also between the adult and children should be established. Thus, apart from working alone, children can also have the opportunity to learn from their peers and from an adult as they develop and share works of art or ideas.  The children should be aware of various aspects of creativity (i.e. verbal responses, visual responses, printed responses in prose and poetic form, fictional and non-fictional genres) as well as art and crafts.  Multi-sensory and multi-technical learning activities should be fostered. In art activities, the educator should behave as a supplier and supporter in a facilitating way.  The educator should listen, laugh and play together with children. A warm and suggesting atmosphere allows freedom and confidence.  Children should be honored to make their own decisions and be a part of decision making process. The educator should allow children to take responsibility in their own learning through their own experiences at their own pace.  All children should be involved in the process. Participation must be appreciated by supporting children’s ideas and solutions.  Necessary materials and infrastructure triggering and fostering trials and production should be supplied.  Adequate time should be given to children as they process, discuss, try, fail or succeed through the use of their cognitive, affective and motor skills.  Guidance, support and confidence should be provided for children’s thoughts and hypothesis.  Children’s reasonable solution strategies should be fostered and awarded. A supporting and positive environment always bear positive results. It has been stated that creativity can be improved and teaching strategies for nurturing creativity can be developed. Problem finding, problem solving, divergent and convergent thinking, self-expression and adapting to novel settings are all together associated with creativity (Csikszentmihalyi 1996; Sternberg, 1999; Starko, 2010). Since it is assumed that creativity can be mastered at special activities 86

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Gardner, 1999) it is normal that children tend to focus on a specified subject. Educators, on the other hand, take the inhibiting factors and find solutions or look for ways to refrain from them. James (1999-2000) listed the obstacles towards creative arts as follows: cultural barriers inhibiting the modern concept of art and artistic process; cognitive barriers limiting the understanding and interpreting metaphors and meanings in the works of art; individual barriers caused by the lack of the skill of expressing oneself; social barriers related to anxiety of exhibiting artistic works and finally the ambiguous expectations of educators on children’s processes and products. In order to foster creative autonomy, the educators should know the possible emerging times of creativity and the ways how to support creativity (Lin, 2011). Art education should focus on the process rather than the product. This is a process in which children has the opportunity to express themselves and their feelings. Children are often concentrated on creation. The important thing is to maintain full participation in the process. Evaluation of the products is important in that it enables improvement in children’s self-esteem, sharing feelings and ideas about their projects and appreciating all kinds of art. As children find out that their products are appreciated they also discover their own potential and aesthetic values. Some children may want to take their piece of art home for being appreciated. Exhibiting every child’s work is also important because in the eye of children each of their work is invaluable. This implies that their work is appreciated. Evaluating, exhibiting and documenting opportunities help children learn to value arts and the works of others (Kim, Park, & Lee, 2001; Fox & Schirrmacher, 2012; Mayesky, 2015). CONCLUSIONS In the 21st century, it is obvious that the educational interventions on art education aiming at fostering creativity, imagination and novelty for all children who must be ready for knowledge era are important at problem solving. Creativity in only visual arts does not imply expressing oneself in a creative way. When it comes to the point of the creativity of educators, it should be multi-dimensional by taking how cognitive complexity, effective intensity, technical skills, interest and motivation all play an important role into account. Peat (2000) asserted that a long-term apprenticeship is needed for the artist to perform art; however, the author added that necessary techniques “for getting rid of conventional thinking and setting free one’s own novel ways of thinking” are possible for everyone. This means that every child has the creative potential (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Therefore, it can be argued that the current implementations and research carried so far on creativity and art education should all be revised. As it is significant in art education, the conceptual and functional definitions of creativity should be revised. With the aim of supporting art and creativity, if curriculum development methods are multiplied, social cultural factors including current art implementations, visual and popular culture and children’s identity, their ages, values, learning styles, motivations, working habits, ethnical origins, gender orientations and the region they reside should all be taken into account. The new understanding of creativity and creative arts should include a structure in which finding and solving problems in a unique way are awarded and unique expressions are encouraged. In a democratic society, all children should be supported to allow them reach their 87

full potential. Children need to be ready for improving appropriate skills and abilities and creative thinking in a rapidly changing world where ideas, unique works, technological advances are appreciated. Supporting arts and creativity in a differentiated teaching and learning is only possible through a well-planned training. Supporting arts and creativity consciously in a well-organized way will lead to the support of children’s cognitive, language, motor, social and emotional developmental areas as a whole. REFERENCES Aral, N. (2014). Yaratıcı Deneyimler. Neriman Aral & Gökhan Duman (Çev. Eds.), Çocuklarda Sanat ve Yaratıcılığın Gelişimi kitabı içinde (s. 32-63). Nobel Akademik, Ankara. Aral, N. & Can Yaşar, M. (2015). 36-72 Aylık Çocuklar İçin Eğitim Programı. Aysel Köksal Akyol (Ed.). Okul Öncesi Eğitim Programları kitabı içinde (s.77-114). Hedef CS Basın Yayın, Ankara. Argun, Y. (2012). Okul Öncesi Dönemde Yaratıcılık ve Eğitimi. Anı Yayınları, Ankara. Buyurgan, S. & Buyurgan, U. (2012). Sanat Eğitimi ve Öğretimi (3. Baskı). Pegem Akademi Yayınları, Ankara. Barbe-Gall, F. (2005). How to Talk to Children About Art. Frances Lincoln Limited, London. Beetlestone, F. (1998). Creative Children, Imaginative Teaching. Open University Press, Buckingham. Can Yaşar, M. (2009). Anasınıfına Devam Eden Altı Yaş Çocuklarının Yaratıcı Düşünme Becerilerine Drama Eğitiminin Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Doktora Tezi (Yayınlanmamış), Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Caroff, X. & Besançon, M. (2008). Variability of Creativity Judgments. Learning and Individual Differences, 18, 367-371. Craft, A. (2003). Creative Thinking in the Early Years of Education. Early Years, 23(2), 143-54. Craft, A. (2005). Creativity in Schools: Tensions and Dilemmas. Routledge, Abingdon.
 Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention. Harper Collins, New York. Çelebi Öncü, E. (2015). Yaratıcılığa Kuramsal Bakış. Elif Çelebi Öncü (Ed.). Yaratıcılığın Keşfi kitabı içinde (s.11-21). Hedef CS Basın Yayın, Ankara. Dodge, D.T., Colker, L.J. & Heroman, C. (2010). The Creative Curriculum for Preschool (5th Edition). Teaching Strategies, Washington DC. Duffy, B. (2006). Supporting Imagination and Creativity in the Early Years. Open University Press, Buckingham. Epstein, A.S. (2001). Thinking About Art. Young Children, May, 38-43. Fasko, D. (2000-2001). Education and Creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 13(3&4), 317–327. Feist, J. (1999). The Influence of Personality on Artistic and Scientific Creativity. In: Robert J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of Creativity (p. 273-296). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Fox, J.E. & Schirrmacher, R. (2012). Arts and Creative Development for Young Children (Seventh Edition). Nelson Education, Ltd., Canada. Gardner, H. (1991). The Unschooled Mind. Basic Books, New York. Gardner, H. (1993). Creating Minds: An Anatomy of Creativity Seen Through the Lives of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham and Gandhi. Basic Books, New York. 88

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligences Reframed: Mulitple Intelligences for the 21st Century. Basic Books, New York. Gelman, S.A. & Gottfried, G.M. (2006). Creativity in Young Children’s Thought. In: James C. Kaufman & John Baer (Eds.), Creativity and Reason in Cognitive Development (p. 221-243). Cambridge University Press, New York, USA. Hadzigeorgiou, Y., Fokialis, P., & Kabouropoulou, M. (2012). Thinking about Creativity in Science Education. Creative Education, 3 (5), 603-611. Isbell, R.T. & Raines, S.C. (2003). Creativity and the Arts with Young Children. Thomson/ Delmar Learning, Canada. Isenberg, J.P. & Jalongo, M.R. (1993). Creative Expression and Play in the Early Childhood Curriculum. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York. Jackman, H.L. (2011). Early Education Curriculum: A Child Connection to the World (5th Edition). Wadsworth Publishing Company, USA. James, P. (1999-2000). Blocks and Bridges: Learning Artistic Creativity. Arts and Learning Research Journal, 16(1), 110-133. Kim, H. Park, E. & Lee, J. (2001). All done! Take it home. Then into a trash can? Displaying and Using Children’s Art Projects. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29(1), 41-50. Kim, K.H. (2011). The Creativity Crisis: The Decrease in Creative Thinking Scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 23(4), 285-295. Koster, J.B. (2012). Growing Artists: Teaching the Arts to Young Children (5th Edition). Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont, Calif. Lemons, G. (2005). When the Horse Drinks: Enhancing Everyday Creativity Using the Elements of Improvisation. Creativity Research Journal, 17(1), 25-36. Lin, Y.S. (2011). Fostering Creativity Through Education - A Conceptual Framework of Creative Pedagogy. Creative Education, 2(3), 149–155. Lowden, M. (1989). Dancing to Learn: Dance as a Strategy in the Primary School Curriculum. Falmer Press, London. Lubart, T. & Guignard, J.H. (2004). The Generality-Specificity of Creativity: A Multivariate Approach. In: Rober J. Sternberg, Elena L. Grigorenko, & Jerome L. Singer (Eds.), Creativity: From Potential to Realization (p. 43-56). American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Makin, L., White, M. & Owen, M. (1996). Creation or Constraint: Anglo-Australian and Asian-Australian Teacher Response to Children’s Art Making. Studies in Art Education, 37(4), 226-244. Mayesky, M. (1990). Creative Activities for Young Children (5th Edition). Delmar Publisher, USA. Mayesky, M. (2015). Creative Activities for Young Children (11. Edition). Cengage Learning, USA. Mills, (2014). The Importance of Creative Arts in Early Childhood Classrooms. Texas Child Care Quarterly, 38(1), http://www.childcarequarterly.com/pdf/summer14_arts.pdf Nikkhah, A. (2011). Science Education of the New Millennium: Mentorship Arts for Creative Lives. Creative Education, 2(4), 341-345. Nurner, J.E. (2007). Foster Creativity That Lasts A Lifetime. Texas Child Care, 16-21. Peat, F.D. (2000). The Black Winged Night: Creativity in Nature and Mind. Perseus, Cambridge, MA. Prentice, R., Matthews, J. & Taylor, H. (2003). Creative Development: Learning and the Arts. In: Jeni Riley (Ed.), Learning in the Early Years a Guide for Teachers of Children 3-7 (p.195-191), Paul Chapman Publishing, London. 89

Riley, J. (2003). Learning in the Early Years A Guide for Teachers of Children 3-7. Paul Chapman Publishing, London. Root-Bernstein, R. & Root-Bernstein, M. (2004). Artistic Scientists and Scientific Artists: The Link Between Polymathy and Creativity. In: Rober J. Sternberg, Elena L. Grigorenko, & Jerome L. Singer (Eds.), Creativity: From Potential to Realization (p. 127-151). American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Ruggiero, V.R. (2004). The Art of Thinking a Guide to Critical and Creative Thought. (Seventh Edition). Pearson Longman, New York, USA. San, İ. (1985). Sanat ve Eğitim. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayınları: 151. Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, Ankara. San, İ. (1995). Sanatta Yaratıcılık Oyun Drama. Yaratıcılık ve Eğitim Semineri. TED Yayınları, s. 71-103, Ankara. San, İ. (2003). Sanat Eğitimi Kuramları. Ütopya Yayınları: 87, Ankara. Seefeldt, C. (2005). How to Work with Standards in the Early Childhood Classroom. Teachers College, New York. Starke, K. (2012). Encouraging Creativity in Children. Education Digest: Essential Readings Condensed for Quick Review, 78(4), 57-59. Starko, A.J. (2010). Creativity in the Classroom: Schools of Curious Delight (Fourth Edition). Taylor & Francis, New York. Sternberg, R.J. (Ed.). (1999). Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge University Press., Cambridge, UK. Sternberg R.J. (2005). Creativity or Creativities? International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 63, 370-382. Torrance, E.P. (1981). Creative Teaching Makes a Difference. In: J.C. Gowan, J. Khatena, & E.P. Torrance (Eds.), Creativity: Its Educational Implications (2nd ed., pp. 99–108). Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, IA. Torrance, E.P. (1995). Why fly? A Philosophy of Creativity. Ablex, 23 p., Norwood: NJ. Zimmerman, E. & Zimmerman, L. (2000). Art Education and Early Childhood Education: The Young Child as Creator and Meaning Maker Within a Comminity Context. Young Children, 55(6), 87-92. Zimmerman, E. (2009). Reconceptualizing the Role of Creativity in Art Education Theory and Practice. Studies in Art Education, 50(4), 382-399.

90

Chapter 7 Child and Drawing Mehmet SAĞLAM, Neriman ARAL INTRODUCTION Human is a living being with multiple needs, and these needs show up in different fields. Among these fields art is important in terms of meeting the needs of human (Mercin and Alakuş, 2007). The common point of scientists studying in the field of art and trying to define arts is that art is a form of expression. Therefore, art along being a form of expression is a tool for communication and especially an important factor in terms of children’s expressing themselves. Besides this, it has been stated by art educators that in children, there is an intensive instinct of expressing themselves through art (Ayaydın, 2011). In a study conducted by Sadık et al. (2011) with primary school students, children were found to be able to express their perceptions about the environment through drawings. A child’s relationship with art is a reflection of his/her imagination. Early childhood period being at the beginning art has an important place in all levels of education in terms of developing children’s imagination and creativity (Ulutaş and Ersoy, 2004). In a study Aral (1999) stated that studying art has an effect on creativity. Similarly, Dikici (2004) found out that children who studied art has a higher level of creativity compared to the children who did not. At the basics of art, the meaning in the content is more important than describing the visual quality of the products emerged, along with this feeling of entrepreneurship and independence are also related to art (Aral, 1999). Art activities provide chances for encountering various materials and activities for a child and in this way supports his/her cognitive, social, emotional, and motor development (Aral et al., 2011). Art activities supportthe intellectual, emotional, and aesthetic development of children with its complementary feature, and they are important in terms of revealing the potential of a child, spending his/her energy, and expressing himself/herself (Dağal and Şallı, 2014).Drawing, sculpture, music, drama, dance, theater, literature are the main fields of art that children encounter; however, for children drawing has a distinctive place among these. Child and drawing are described as the two terms defining each other are şn constant change and development (Artut, 2004). While drawing is stated being one of the important elements of communication, it is indicated that drawing, compared to other fields of art among the general art education activities, is more effective in terms of human’s defining himself/herself, as well as perceiving and describing the existences in nature (Artut, 2004). The drawings of children caused to ask the question that “does a child draw what s/he knows or sees?” by the scientists interested in them. It is supported by the drawings of children that they 

 Assist. Prof. Dr., İnonü University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Child Development Dept. Prof. Dr., Ankara University Faculty of Health Sciences, Child Development Departm. 



draw what they know as they show the invisible sides of an object in their drawings, and they draw the inside, in other words, the invisible part, of a building or an object. In the drawings of children regardless of the point of view, they draw any aspect of an object that they know as if they are telling that “I know this”. However, as they grow up and maturate, they were found to be in adding what they know to what they see, and what they see to what they know in their drawings and the wealth of experiences contributed to their expertise in drawing (Buyurgan and Buyurgan, 2007). There is a relationship with the children’s drawings and their perceptions as well as their education. In a study by Burkitt et al. (2005), it was revealed that children with different education background differed in their drawings as well. In a study conducted by Ersoy and Türkkan (2009) with fourth-grade students’ verbal views about the internet perception and their drawings were in parallel with each other. From the perspective of a child, art activities is an important element of motivation and interaction during the processes of seeing, perceiving, thinking, and attributing meaning to the environment. While these motivations in the developmental process contributes to the development of imagination in children, the maturation of muscles for the drawing and painting activities are also important (Artut, 2004). As an important data that belongs to the world of children child drawings are thought as a tool reflecting their development (Cherney et al., 2006). Spending effort for activities that include complex processes such as drawing, painting, and building gives the children a chance to combine various elements to form meaningful wholes. The selection, interpretation, and renewal during these activities are also remarkable and important processes. What makes child drawings important is that they provide concrete data for the studies trying to understand the whole life of children, lines provide clues about what is happening inside and they cover some behaviors that shed light on artistic development. Based on these meanings that child drawings carry, they have been a focus of interest for various experts such as artists, educators, psychologists, and therapist (Yolcu, 2001; Kırışoğlu, 2002).Drawings are important tools in terms of understanding the emotions of children. In a study by Sağlam and Aral (2011)differences were found in the family drawings of children whose parents are in the process of divorcing compared to the ones done by children whose parents are not. Drawing provides important chances for communicating with them to understand the level of information and experiences of children (Kendrick and McKay, 2004), children’s drawings are used as a tool for understanding the conditions of children in terms of cognitive, social, emotional, and academic fields. Drawing can be effective for important inferences when the appropriate methods are used especially for children who are having difficulty in communicating or expressing themselves. Children needdeveloped motor skills and hand-eye coordination to be established to be able to draw (Cherney et al., 2006). Child drawings can have different meanings and be evaluated in different terms based on the period which the child is in. Early childhood period is a period in which there is limited direct communication with children but rather communication is done indirectly mostly through tools such as games, stories, music, and drawings. In this period mostly indirect communication such as behavior, game, and drawing is conducted with children instead of verbal communication, and as the child grows pictures becomes more meaningful in parallel with the cognitive development of the child. But whatever period the child is in, for expressing his/her real emotions, it is 92

important for the child to participate in the activity voluntarily. Balke (1997) found it notable in a study conducted to determine the attitudes of children towards kindergartens a girl sincerely responded the question that “What do you like to do in kindergarten?” as “I like drawing.”, later she was asked as “Is there anything that you don’t like in kindergarten?” interestingly she responded that “I don’t like drawing when it is compulsory.” It is clear from these answers that from the perspective of a child it is important that the activities are desired. In this respect a drawing that a child draws willingly and joyfully can be a window that opens to the inner world of him/her. Due to these facts investigating the child and drawing issue is seen as important. Based on this idea the current study will focus on child drawings, approaches to child drawings, line development stages of child drawing, and the meaning and importance of child drawing, finally, recommendations based on the conclusions will be provided. CHILD DRAWINGS Drawing is among the first one of the artistic branches that a child meets. The journey which started with random scratches reaches to a different point as the child develops his/her unique pieces of art (Ayaydın, 2011). The earliest known study of child drawings was conducted by Ebezer Cooke published in 1885 and later in 1887 a report which is composed of Italian children’s drawings was published by Corrado Ricci. However, in the early 20th century when any unusual vision to bring a criterion for art was rejected, new sources was searched for artistic creation, and it was in this period when the child drawings really attracted the attention of researchers. Again it is stated that research on finding clues in the scribbles and lines of children and obtaining data from these scribbles about human development also started in these centuries (Dülger, 2008). From the perspective of a child, drawing is aimed at merging different experiences to form a unique and novel product that belongs to himself/herself. The start of painting and drawing have a unique place in the life of a child (Matthews, 2003). Drawings produced by children are the products which are accomplished without getting any help, and they are formed freely by children in any way they wished. It is indicated that a child’s activities towards drawing pushes him/her to try, s/he tries to present his/her own style of expression in drawings and on the basis of this efforts lie a childish creativity. Drawings which are most of the difficult to understand by adults when it is considered that they are meaningful to the children, the child drawings need to be carefully observed by adults (Yolcu, 2001). Drawing is defined from the perspective of child as naturalreflections which are freely produced using a specific language to reflect the emotional and cognitive life of the child. In addition to this, in terms of children making marks on a surface using the objects such as pencil, and paint is a source of great pleasure (Artut, 2004). Drawing which is available as a routine activity of daily life for children mediates the understating of children’s cognitive, social, and emotional conditions. The symbols in the child drawings are the products that children previously knew, explored, and perceived. In addition to this, the reflections of a child’s communication with the outer world can be seen in the drawings (Sadık et al., 2011).In order to understand the drawings of children, it is important to develop a phenomenological point of view, since children form a unique style putting forward their pleasures, and they expect this style to be accepted (Malchiodi, 1998). 93

Drawing is a game activity from the perspective of a child. Moreover, the child is in a completely free environment in which s/he determines the rules of this game, as well as the colors, and shapes. The child who is alone with himself/herself has the chance to think freely with no restrictions on his/her mind (Ayaydın, 2011). When the child drawings are investigated, along with different meanings attributed to them, through these drawings the features that determine their developmental levels were also identified. APPROACHES OF CHILD DRAWINGS The drawings of children have been evaluated by attributing different meanings through time. At the end of these evaluations, different approaches to child pictures have emerged. These were briefly explained below. Developmental Approach: On the basis of this approach there is the evaluation of child drawing as a game activity. Developmental approaches emphasize that in the explanation of child drawings games need to be investigated in general while specifically the motives and processes that are associated with drawing deserves attention. Along with this, it is stated that the drawing activity is seen as a game by children, and they are interested in the drawing activities similar to their interest in games (Yavuzer, 2007). When it is considered that games are quite important in understanding the emotions of children at all terms (Russ, 2004), child drawings can be evaluated in this category as a game activity. Thanks to the freedom in drawing activities, children experience the comfort that they have in playing games. They determine their own game rules by placing the colors, and shapes as if they were playing a game. In terms of children these rules belong to their internal world, and they are not applied by thinking (Tekin, 1995). Developmental approach tries to answer the question of why a child draws through the theories that explain games. These theories are explained below: The Excess Energy Theory: This theory asserts that being active is present in human beings naturally, and game is a way of throwing away the excess energy. However, it is known that drawing activities does not require energy (Yavuzer, 2007). The Pre-Exercise Theory: It is stated that game provides the child with the opportunity to practice the skills that are going to be beneficial in their future life, as well as providing a chance to improve his/her skills. While applying this term to the drawing activities, art studies are presented as activities as paving the way for using and improving certain skills that will be quite important in the children’s future (Yavuzer, 2007). Repetition Theory: In this theory game is viewed as a rehearsal for the instinctive activities along with this the game’s futures as discharging and expression of the primitive motives are also pointed out. Even though drawing activities are not direct rehearsals of instinctive activities, it is stated that they enable the symbolic expression of primitive instincts (Yavuzer, 2007). Some of the researchers stated that children draw the concepts they are in interaction similar to each other, and in this respect, it can be stated that they are affected by the environmental factors (Walker et al., 2003). However, the repetition theory is criticized as too much emphasizing the instincts and neglecting the environmental and cultural influences. During drawing activities, a child gets pleasure not only of doing something enjoyable but simply completing something 94

gives pleasure as well (Tekin, 1995). Artistic Approaches: In parallel with the change in child psychology it is stated that there have been important changes in artistic approaches as well. It is asserted that child drawings gain an artistic structure by setting connections between expressionists’, surrealists’ and children’s drawings (Yolcu, 2004). From this point of view, Klee indicates that the first traces of art are in the ethnography museums and kindergartens, the drawings that are a product of children’s own efforts are examples of art. In addition to this, the aesthetic power in the children’s drawings is related to the plainness and purity of the products (cited in Tepecik and Oğuzoğlu, 2002). Kellog divides the pleasure that children get from drawing activity into two being “motor” which is defined as the pleasure that a child gets during scribbling, and “visual” defined as the pleasure that a child gets while looking at his/her scribblings or drawings (Yavuzer, 2007). Symbolic Approaches: It is indicated that among the different art activities child drawings has an important place in his/her world, real-life experiences were transferred to drawing and various symbols about these experiences can clearly be seen in drawings. Moreover, it is stated that in child drawings in addition to the physical appearance, character, and intelligence, there is a reflection of the whole personality including the experiences that belong to past and present. Child drawings are like symbolic puzzles in which the emotions, unconscious behaviors or answers and they are not random products. Along with this while analyzing the drawings the aim is to reveal the symbols placed in the depths of the personality through investigating other meanings than the apparent meanings of the drawings and how space is used (Yavuzer, 2003). The researchers who used the drawings of children to explore their academic comprehensions indicated that drawings can be viewed as a form of writing and they can be read (Lodge, 2006). Contrary to the symbols represented in the verbal language child drawings represent all areas of their emotional lives (Kendrick and McKay, 2004). Beside emotional reflections drawing of a child is also viewed as a window opened to his/her representational world despite there are different approaches to the cognitive development (Cherney et al., 2006). In symbolic approach, the drawings that belong to the child reflects the symbol of the object that is drawn rather than its reality and adds new meanings to the object. For instance, when one of the two circles drawn side by side is called as “head” while the other one is called as “body” child attribute two different meanings to the same thing (Tekin, 1995; Yavuzer, 2007). Projective Approach: The basis of this approach belongs to psycho-analytic theory and this approach tries to explain the child drawings through clinical reflective approaches. Sigmund Freud, who claimed that playing games are important in terms of knowing children drawing attention to its effects and contributions to the children’s development, and the pediatricians and psychiatrists following him put forward the concept of “game treatment” as an effective method curing the spiritual disharmony in children. According to this understanding, game is an activity in which the personality and behaviors of children are reflected and it provides the opportunity to know the children (Tekin, 1995). Child drawings are made use of as a reliable tool especially about the variations based on age and gender in making inferences about the personality, cognitive structure, and diagnostic evaluations (Cherney et al., 2006). 95

While drawing children determine the color, and size of the object that they draw according to the effect they have on their emotional characters (Burkitt et al., 2005). Since the impressions about the personality of children based on the intuitive and subjective impressions in the evaluations made through projective methods, it is stated that in making emotional evaluations on the drawings it takes time to establish a consistent system. Freud who claims that drawings are a mechanism of reflection and defense, states that while attributing meaning to a stimulus which does not carry a certain meaning the person reflects himself. Murray who first used the term projective test, developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) which establishes relationships between personality measurement and reflection, on the other hand Frank, who highlighted these techniques should measure importance, qualifications, and personality holistically, names the projective approaches as projective techniques (Özgüven, 1999). THE LINEAR DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF CHILD DRAWINGS Children’s drawings are affected by the education they received and the meanings that objects form in their minds (Burkitt et al., 2005). It is stated that the art activities of children are in close relationship with their psychomotor and cognitive development, their drawings contain are a reflection of the child’s emotions, thoughts, evaluations about the events and contains signs of his/her mental development. Each child whose motor development reaches to a certain point can have trials of lines and figures using paper and pencil. Artistic development in children is closely related to their physical, emotional, social, and intellectual developments. Children who have normal development shows similarities in drawings at similar periods as it is in other fields (Dülger, 2008).The studies investigating the developments of children focused on three main points as the internal structure and visual validity in child depictions, drawing processes which include perceptive, cognitive and motor features, and interpretation of validity and reliability in child drawings (Cherney et al., 2006). Kellogg who stated that prior line affects the next line attracted attention to the search for organization and harmony in this development process. Even the children were from different cultures the presence of mandala, sun, circle and so on in the drawings of children refers that there is a common consciousness (Kırışoğlu, 2002). The artistic development stages which are formed taking into account children’s developmental stages are investigated under six main categories. These are:  Scribbling stage (2-4 years).  Pre-schematic stage (4-7 years).  Schematic stage (7-9 years).  Pre-puberty stage (9-11 years).  Logic stage (11-13 years).  Puberty crisis (13 years and more) (Kırışoğlu, 2002). Scribbling Stage (2-4 years): when children are two years old they form horizontal or vertical axis with brush or pencil and move on the surface (Golomb, 2004). The activities related to scribbling can differ based on the muscle development, mental and general health, and the effort spent to draw (Artut, 2004). Scribbling stage which covers the stage when the first lines and symbols occur is composed of two to four years old period (Kırışoğlu, 2002). While Piaget and Luquet evaluated the first lines and game movements, Arnheim claimed that first lines are formed as a result of the motor effects (Buyurgan and Buyurgan 2007; Yavuzer, 2007). There is no logic in child 96

drawings and child draws whatever s/he wants (Roland, 2006). Moving towards the scribbling stage which is the first step in the artistic development process is closely related to the muscle development, mental and general health condition, and time spared for drawing (Can Yaşar and Aral, 2009). Linderman categorized the scribblings that are produced by children under three groups as Discorderly Scribbling, Controlled Scribbling, and Naming of Scribblings (cited in Artut, 2004).  Discorderly Scribbling:Random lines are drawn through large arm movements.  Controlled Scribbling:based on the motor development of the child, lines are controlled.  Naming of Scribbling:Naming of scribblings by the child. It is stated that the first actions of children who are in a normal development process about the drawing occurred as instinctive, random, uncontrolled, unclear, and unconscious scribblings. Luquet and Piaget who investigate child drawings views the scribblings in this period as game or exercise (Kırışlıoğlu, 2002). Additionally, in this term, the children are observed as requiring plenty of colored pencils, and reluctant to share their papers with any other person (San, 1985). In studies conducted by Kellogg, it was stated that there are 20 basic figures in the scribblings of two-three years-old children. The basic drawing types formed by Kellog are given below in a figure (Golomb, 2004).

Figure 1. Kellog’s basic scribbling types (Golomb, 2004)

Pre-Schematic Stage (4-7 years): each scribbling activity done in the scribbling stage is a preparation for this stage. The first sign observed in the drawing generally represents the person that the child interested in or has close relationship (Kırışoğlu, 2002). When the child reaches to three-four years old s/he tries to merge one or more circles to draw human figure (Roland, 2006). When the child is four years old s/he produces drawings that can be identified. In this period, the child starts to experience the concern of relating his/her drawing and the object or concept he wanted to depict. The child enjoys this condition. When the child is five in the drawings the figures of house, tree can be recognized and when s/he is six it is observed that themes are formed 97

in the drawings; however, the ratio of drawings are unreal (Özbaş, 2007). At this age, it is stated that the child prefers the color that s/he likes (Türkdoğan, 1984).

Figure 2a. A drawing by a four and a half years-old child

Figure 2b. A drawing by a four-years-old child (Roland, 2006)

Schematic Stage (7-9 years): At this stage in which symbol development continues it is indicated that the symbols used developed more, in addition to this, children who insist on some of the symbols developed are thought to be forming their own styles (Can Yaşar and Aral, 2009). The schemas included in drawings become more meaningful and understandable in this period, along with this it is emphasized that children are consciously trying to show the movements (Türkdoğan, 1984; Kırışoğlu, 2002). At this stage the wealth in content and style that is obtained by the children as a result of investigation is closely related to the education and personality of the child, at the same time it is stated that children at this age think that all of the substances and objects in space are interconnected with each other (Kehnemuyi, 1997). Children who 98

can match the colors and objects are thought as having gained an important achievement by exploring the harmony between color in real-life and in drawing (Özbaş, 2007).

Figure 3a. A drawing by a seven-years-old child

. Figure 3b. A drawing by a seven-years-old child.

Pre-Puberty Stage (9-11 years): In this period when gender differences can clearly be seen in drawings, girls’ drawings generally included mostly women faces, dresses, flowers, animals with their babies, while boys’ drawings included boats, cars, planes, and topics like war (San, 1985). In this period children put more importance on reality in their drawings, therefore, they wanted their drawings to be seen more realistic, and in this direction, they are closely interested in features like dimension, ratio, positioning, shape, color, and perspective (Can Yaşar and Aral, 2009). In consistent with their cognitive, physical, and socio-affective development they do not find their style adequate (Özbaş, 2007). In addition to this, the use of color is more conscious at this period compared to previous stages and the children are observed to be preferring the colors that are in consistent with the real colors of objects (San, 1985). Logic Stage (11-13 years): In this period which corresponds to early years of puberty children are aware of the occurrences in the environment. They start to reflect the rates, dimensions, depths of the objects around them in their drawings (Can Yaşar ve Aral, 2009). As there are educators who claim that the creativity in child develops in this term, there are some others who asserts that this period is weak in terms of creativity, and it is stated that the children spend efforts to reflect the ratio, dimension, depth of objects in this period (Kırışoğlu, 2002; Roland, 2006). Puberty crisis (13 years and above): In this period, it is stated that children approach the drawings with a critical point of view and especially inclined to social events (Özbaş, 2007). In this period finding personal identity and achieving subjectivity 99

in drawings are dominant, children who try to solve problems about drawing use color perfectly and take şnto consideration the color differences as well (Kırışoğlu, 2002; Roland, 2006).

Figure 4. A drawing by a nine-years-old child

Figure 5. A drawing by an eleven-years-old child

THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF CHILD DRAWINGS Children who speak of a limitless freedom with colors and lines, and it is known that their first lines accompany their first words. It is stated that at first they are seemingly meaningless symbolic drawings but in time they gain a future of narration about the child or turned into the expressions of certain realities in life (Demirci, 1974). Drawings of a child, who recombines his/her leanings while drawing, helps him/her to 100

transfer his/her ideas (Chang, 2005). All of the activities such as drawing, painting, role play are based on imagination (Balke, 1997).

Figure 6. A drawing by a child in puberty period (14 years old)

Child drawings can be used for various purposes (Cooke et al., 2005). Drawings which are a reflection of the emotions and ideas that belong to a child are important in terms of reflecting the hidden emotions about their inner world based on the developmental stages. In other words, since a child can express himself/herself through drawing it is emphasized as notable in terms of child psychology (Samurçay, 2006). Drawings of children enable the researchers to make descriptive evaluations according to their ages and genders about their cognitive development and personalities (Cherney et al., 2006). Drawings which belong to children who express their feelings and ideas through drawing can sometimes be seen as simple scribbles, they include purposive learning that belongs to the child (Cooke et al., 2005; Aslan and Sayek, 2006). While the importance of drawing for children is highlighted, it is also indicated that this drawing is used as a tool to evaluate the intellectual development, developmental problems, motor functions, individual perception, and family dynamics of a child (Wilson and Ratekin, 1990). Child drawings is a tool that eases the understanding of their observations, experiences, problems or ideas (Chang, 2005). Drawings which are used as a criterion of knowing the child from a psychological and pedagogical perspective, are important in terms of evaluation of intelligence, personality, immediate surroundings and so on. Additionally, it is stated that a child who feels the lack of something in real-life may include it in his/her drawings and sometimes exaggerates the situation (Doğru et al., 2006). From the perspective of a child, drawing is like a writing and when appropriate conditions are prepared for these little authors they draw for remembering, thinking, having an idea, observing, and recording purposes (Horn and Giacobbe, 2007). From the perspective of development, child drawing is a method of reflecting the important 101

aspects of personality, and understanding the perceptions about life (Anning and Ring, 2004). Appel and Wolff who made use of drawings in order to understand children emphasized that in the evaluations about personality family drawings are important. Husle in a study compared the family drawings of children with affective disorders to the children with a normal development and found out that the drawings reflected the relationships between family members and children’s feelings towards them (Malchiodi, 1998). Drawings of a child are affected by the social environment of the child, and the school culture. The persons they draw are generally the reflections of people in their social life. In the family pictures, the drawings of children are mainly related to the personal psychology of children (Cherney et al., 2006). According to Altınköprü (2003), using drawings as a tool to understand children is among the most appropriate and natural ways of understanding children’s feelings in depth. A child starts his/her first drawing activity through scribbling, as time passes these scribblings becomes meaningful and provides convenience in understanding the inner world of the child. Therefore, child psychopathology chooses to make use of drawings. Based on this understanding various tests were developed to be used inthe evaluation of child drawings. Some of the most widely used tests are; Draw-a-Man Test, House-Person-Tree Test, Draw-a-Person Test, Women Walking Under Rain Test, Tree Test and Draw-a-Garden Test, Kinetic Family Drawing Test, Draw-a-Family Test (Özgüven, 1999; Altınköprü, 2003). Through these tests children evaluated from the perspective of social, affective, cognitive, and motor development. Drawings which are effective in evaluating children are seen as important in terms of knowing the child and making generalizations about the child. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Art is an important tool from the perspective of a child who all the time tries to express himself/herself starting from birth. Being one of the artistic fields drawing is an interesting and enjoyable activity from the perspective of a child who uses it at early ages. Right after the infancy period from the perspective of a child who can start drawing activities the products are important tools that can reflect his/her developmental features. Drawing which is at the same time a game activity, provides the opportunity to emotionally relax for the child and viewed as a reflection of his/her emotions. In this process which the child started with scribblings, in parallel with his/her development drawings are converted into a more professional form and reflect his/her social, emotional, cognitive, and motor development. Drawing as a tool for communication at the same time is an important tool in understanding the emotions and thoughts of children. When these features of child drawings are considered it is important to encourage the children to draw starting from the early ages. Providing chances for children to draw using different pencils, and paints will support their development. Attaching importance to children’s drawings will contribute to them in feeling themselves as valuable and continue the drawing activity. Talking with children about their drawings will help understanding of children’s emotions. Child drawing is an important gate opening to the child world. When parents, educators, and experts studying with children approach the child using this gate will help them to be understood by children as well as supporting the development of children. 102

REFERENCES Altınköprü, T. (2003). Çocuğun başarısı nasıl sağlanır?, İstanbul: Hayat Yayıncılık Anning, A. and Ring K. (2004) Making sense of children drawing. Young Children Learning to Draw. Glasgow: UK by Bell & Bain Ltd. Aral, N. (1999). Sanat Eğitimi-Yaratıcılık Etkileşimi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (15) ;11-17. Aral, N., Kandır, A. ve Can Yaşar, M. (2011). Okul Öncesi Eğitim ve Okul Öncesi Eğitim Programı. İstanbul: YA-PA. Artut, Ö. G. K. (2004). Okul öncesi resim eğitiminde çocukların çizgisel gelişim düzeylerine ilişkin bir inceleme. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 13 (1); 223-234. Aslan, D. ve Sayek, İ. (2006). Doktorluk mesleğini çocuklar resimlerine nasıl yansıtıyorlar? 7-12 yaş grubu çocuklar arasında yapılmış bir örnek. Sürekli Tıp Eğitim Dergisi, 15 (11) ;181-189. Ayaydın, A. (2011). Çocuk Gelişiminde Bir Oyun Olarak Sanat ve Resim, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10 (37) ;303-316. Balke, E.: (1997). Play and the Arts: The Importance of the "Unimportant." Childhood Education, 73 (6) ;355-360. Burkitt, E., Barret, M. and Davis, A. (2005). Drawings of emotionally characterised figures by children from different educational backgrounds. International Journal of Art and Design Educationv, 21 (1) ;71-83. Buyurgan, S. ve Buyurgan, U. (2007). Sanat eğitim ve öğretimi, Ankara: Pegem A. Can Yaşar, M. ve Aral, N. (2009). Sanat ürünü olarak çocuk resimleri. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi, 34, (65) ;24-31. Chang, N. (2005). Children’s drawings; science inquiry and beyond. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 6 (1); 104-106. Cherney, D., Claire S., Tara M. and Judith D. (2006). Children’s Drawings: A Mirror to Their Minds. Educational Psychology, 26 (1); 127–142 Cooke, G., Griffin D. and Cox M.: 2005, Teaching young children to draw. Why Teach Children to Draw?. London: Falmer Press, Dağal, B.A. ve Şallı, D. (2014). Okul Öncesi Dönem Çocuklarına “Sanat ve Sanat Dalları” Hakkında Farkındalık Kazandırarak Duyarlılıklarını Arttırma Projesinin “Proje Tabanlı Öğretme” Yöntemiyle Aktarılması, Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3 (4); 217224. Demirci, İ. (1974). Çocuk resmi. Sanat Dünyamız, 2 (1); 38-48. Doğru, Y. S., Turcan, A., Arslan, E. ve Doğru, S. (2006). Çocukların resimlerindeki aileyi tanılama durumlarının değerlendirilmesi. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (15); 223-237. Dülger, N. (2008). Altı-on bir yaş öğrencilerinin ailesel ve bireysel özelliklerinin resimlere yansıması. Yüksek lisans tezi(basılmamış), Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, 139 s., Isparta. Ersoy, A. ve Türkkan, B. (2009). İlköğretim öncelerinin resimlerinde internet algısı, İlköğretim Online, 8 (1); 57-73. Golomb, C. (2004). The Child’s Creation of a Pictorial World, Secend Edition, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Horn, M. and Giacobbe, E. (2007) Talking drawing writing. Boston: Stenhouse Publishers. Kehnemuyi, Z. (1997) Çocuğun resim eğitimi. İstanbul: Redhouse Yayınevi. Kendrick, M. and McKay R. (2004), Drawings as an alternative way of understanding young children’s constructions of literacy. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 4 (1); 103

109–128. Kırışoğlu, O. (2002). Sanatta eğitim, görmek, anlamak, yaratmak, Ankara: Pegem A. Lodge, C. (2007). Regarding learning: children’s drawings of learningin the classroom. Springer science. Learning Environ Res, (10); 145-156. Malchiodi, C. A. (1998). Çocukların resimlerini anlamak (Çeviri: T. Yurtbay). İstanbul: Epsilon. Matthews, J. (2003). Drawing and painting children and visual representation, California: A SAGE. Mercin, L. ve Alakuş, A.O. (2007). Birey ve Toplum İçin Sanat Eğitiminin Gerekliliği, D.Ü.Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9; 14-20. Özbaş, H., (2007). Ulusal ve uluslar arası düzenlenen çocuk resim yarışmalarının sanat eğitimindeki yeri ve önemi. Yüksek Lisans tezi(basılmamış), Gazi Üniversitesi, 88 s., Ankara. Özgüven, İ. E. (1999). Psikolojik Testler. Ankara: PDREM. Roland, C. (2006). Young in art a developmental look at child art, http://www.artjunction .org/young_in_art.pdf Erişim Tarihi: 18.05.2016 Russ, W.S. (2004). Play in child development and psychotherapy. The role of play in the development of adaptive abilities, London: Lawrence Erlbaum Assocıates Publıshers. Sadık, F., Çakan, H. ve Artut, K. (2011). Çocuk Resimlerine Yansıyan Çevre Sorunlarının Sosyo-Ekonomik Farklılıklara Göre Analizi, İlköğretim Online, 10 (3); 1066-1080. Sağlam, M. ve Aral, N. (2011). Boşanma Sürecinde Olan Ailelerdeki Çocukların Aile Algılarının Resimler Aracılığı ile İncelenmesi, I. Çocuk Hakları Kongresi, Yetişkin Bildirileri Kitabı-2, (Yay. Haz: A. Gülan, M. R. Şirin, M. C. Şirin), İstanbul: Çocuk Vakfı Yayınları. Samurçay, N. (2006). Çocuk ve resim, Artist, (6); 22-27. San, İ. (1985). Sanat ve eğitim. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayınları. Tekin, Z. (1995). Çocuk resimleri ve oyun, Yüksek Lisans tezi (basılmamış), Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. Tepecik, A. ve Oğuzoğlu, D. (2002). Erken çocukluk eğitiminde resim eğitiminin yeri ve önemi. Erken çocukluk eğitimi ve gelişimi sempozyumu, Ankara: Kök. Türkdoğan, G. (1984). Sanat eğitimi yöntemleri, Ankara: Kadıoğlu. Ulutaş, İ ve Ersoy, Ö. (2004). Okul Öncesi Dönemde Sanat Eğitimi, Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 12 (1); 1-12. Yavuzer, H. (2003). Çocuk psikolojisi, İstanbul: Remzi Kitapevi. Yavuzer, H. (2007). Resimleriyle çocuk, İstanbul: Remzi Kitapevi. Yolcu, E. (2001). Sol yanlı Çocuklarda Sanatsal Yaratıcılık (12–15 yaş grubu çocuklar üzerinde bir inceleme). Doktora tezi(basılmamış), Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Yolcu, E. (2004). Sanat eğitim kuramları ve yöntemleri, İstanbul: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Walker, K., Karen S. and Judith A. (2003). Understanding war,Visualizing peace:children draw what they know. Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 20 (4); 191-200 Wilson, D. and Ratekin, C. (1990). An introduction to using children's drawings as a tool.

104

Chapter 8 Maths in Preschool Education Türker SEZER* INTRODUCTION Maths literacy develops in early childhood (Sarama & Clements, 2004). Studies on early maths development show that children acquire basic mathematical concepts before starting school. Informal mathematical experiences of children before starting school involve numerals and counting. Children are not passive receivers while acquiring mathematical concepts and skills. Instead, they learn actively through structuring. It is important that children relate learning to themselves, show interest and use them in their lives while learning mathematical concepts and skills (Baroody & Ginsburg, 1990). Research on children's learning in the first six years of their lives point out that children's success in maths has a close relationship with their early childhood education (Güven & Balat, 2006; Wolfgang et al., 2003). According to NCTM (2007) children's mathematical development should be supported through experience, suitable developmental methods and early childhood maths applications. In order to improve children's future maths knowledge, it is necessary to construct mathematical knowledge in homes and preschool institutions (Botha, Marea & Witt, 2005; Starkey, Klein & Wakeley, 2004). Preschool maths education involves skills and concepts such as number, counting, shapes, operations, measuring, data analysis, and problem solving (Charlesworth & Lind, 2003; Charlesworth, 2005; Dinçer & Ulutaş, 1999; NCTM, 2006). 1. NUMBER AND COUNTING Acquiring counting and the concept of numeral is the most fundamental and important relationship children build with their cultures (Butterworth, 2005). Expressing numeral as an object of thinking and decomposing it is the basic knowledge of arithmetic, application, and problem solving (Hunting, 2003). Numbers are another dimension for children to learn calculations (Brannon & Van de Walle, 2001). As a concept, numeral is rather complex and multi-dimensional, and understanding it involves various ideas, relations, and skills (Van de Walle, 2004). Among these complex skills and concepts are classification, ordering, matching and numeral conservation (Aktaş Arnas, 2004). Counting is a complex skill which involves learning the counting words in the correct order, coordinating the production of counting words with the identification of objects in the set to be counted, and that each object in the set is counted once and only once (Butterworth, 2005). Development of the concept numeral in children occurs in a lengthy period in a sequence and taking one step during this sequential development makes taking another step more difficult (Olkun & Toluk, *

Asst. Prof. Dr., Abant Izzet Baysal University, Education Faculty, Preschool Department, Bolu, [email protected]

2007). Children start counting around 2 years old and develop the idea of how to count in a near-adult manner and how counting is used until the age of six (Butterworth, 2005). One of the most significant concepts children should acquire in maths education is the number sense. Number sense enables children to make number sense through the use of physical materials and environmental experiences and lays the basis for acquiring skills such as grouping and ordering (Despo, Eteokleous & Gregoriou, 2005). Gelman & Gallistel (1979) maintained that when supported through appropriate experiences, children could acquire basic skills regarding numerals and that development of counting in children depended on some principles, which were the stable order principle, the one-one principle, the cardinal principle, the abstraction principle and the order-irrelevance principle. Below are the definitions of these principles: The Stable Order Principle: Counting occurs in a certain order. A certain order should be followed to count different items (Aktaş Arnas, 2004., Gelman & Gallistel, 1979). The One-One Principle: Children count each object in a set using a numeral word (Gelman & Gallistel, 1979). The Cardinal Principle: Children express the number of items in the set. The answer given to the question "How many?" shows whether the child has comprehended the cardinality of numerals or not. The Abstraction Principle: Children can count the items in a group. The Order-Irrelevance Principle: When the child understands this concept, she/he can state that the temporary and voluntary condition in the arrangement of the items do not change the result while counting consciously or unconsciously, and that cardinal numeral value does not change without considering the order of counting (whether from the right or from the left) (Baroody, 1993). Understanding numeracy involves mainly the understanding of cardinal and ordinal features of numerals (Siegler, 1991; Brannon & Van de Walle, 2001; Van de Walle, 2004). According to Piaget in order to acquire the concept of numeracy, children should succeed in doing one-one matching in a way that shows they have understood cardinality of numerals (Aktaş Arnas, 2004). Preschool children cannot develop conservation and reversibility skills, which causes a critical situation. In other words, when the appearance of one of the sets of items with equal numbers change, they can assess only by considering appearance in terms of abundance. Since children in the preoperational period do not bear logical thinking, they cannot understand abstract ideas and concepts (counting, addition, subtraction etc) (Sovchik, 1996), which according to Piaget obstructs children to understand the concept of numeral. Children should be able to study skills and concepts such as counting, one-one matching, shape, sphere, classification, ordering, and comparison during the pre-operational period (Charlesworth & Lind, 2003). 2. OPERATION CONCEPT In the preschool period children can do addition and subtraction operations with the help of concrete items. Children can understand that uniting two item groups (increase in the number of items) is addition, and separating a number of items from the group (decrease in the number of items) is subtraction (Gelman & Gallistel, 1979; Butterworth, 2005). 106

Johansson (2005) stated that various studies should be done to develop the concept of numeral, appropriate methods and techniques should be employed, and children should be given the opportunity to explore and solve problems through building on new knowledge and skills in order to support the development of the concept of operation in children. Preschool children are expected to do addition and subtraction operations with items. These two operations are explained conceptually below considering the preschool period. 2.1. Addition Children should primarily be taught basic situations and algorithms regarding operation and the meaning of operation (Tucker, Singleton & Weaver, 2002). When the teacher starts teaching operations to preschool children, tangible items should be used. By this way, she/he will help students create a mental image. In the study carried out by Zur & Gelman (2004) it was found that three- and four-year-old children could understand the increase and decrease in the numeral value of the items in addition and subtraction operations. It is necessary to implement a strategy from easy to difficult while teaching operation to children. As the numbers grow, children can discover the relations between these numbers and thereby mentally strive less while solving operational problems. For children, addition is the operation of uniting two quantities. After working with enough addition operations, children think "I can use addition to solve this problem". After uniting the quantitative amount in the item groups, the child counts the new quantity and says the result (Tucker et al., 2002). Preschool children use certain strategies for addition. Firstly, they count all the items in the two sets (counting all) and say the total number of the items. Then while counting the items in these sets, they start with the set with the most items and count on the number of the items (counting on) and say the result (Baroody, 1984; Butterworth, 2005; Tucker et al., 2002). 2.2. Subtraction Subtraction is also an operation children should make sense of and use to solve problems. While working on subtraction with preschool children, concrete items and situations should be employed. Children can use a subtraction operation in their daily lives. For example, after sharing the candies in her/his hand, the child realises that there are less candies left. Subtraction operation has two meanings: • Comparison • Separation (Tucker et al., 2002). Comparison: Two quantities should be presented to the child and the difference between these quantities should be pointed out. Separation: Children are asked to separate a certain number of items and the remaining items are counted. After the separation stage, children should be supported to use these methods to solve various problems they encounter. The steps children should take to use separating method while doing subtraction in the preschool period are knowing the number to be subtracted, knowing the separated items equal to the other items and saying the result after counting the remaining items (Baroody, 1984). In order for children to comprehend subtraction problems, they have to understand that they can reach the original result by adding the subtracted amount to the result. For example, they should understand that 4-3=1 equals to 1+3=4. Also, subtraction and addition operations are complementary, relational and commutative. 107

Comprehending and implementing this relationship will enable preschool children to acquire the concept of operation (Baroody, Ginsburg & Waxman, 1983). 3. FRACTIONS While solving daily life problems, we might have to use operations other than counting numbers. For example, when sharing 3 apples between 2 kids equally, we cannot use counting numbers to state the amount of apple per kid. Fraction numbers should be used to solve such problems (Baykul, 2011). Fraction is a concept representing the relationship between the part and the whole (Güven, 2004). Also, fraction has three meanings which are comparing the whole and part, division and ratio (Baykul, 2011). Upon teaching the concept whole to children, the parts of the whole should be studied (Güven, 2004) and the relationship between the whole and part should be taught. Here the child learns that some things are composed of certain parts, sets can be divided into parts, and the whole can be divided into smaller parts (Charlesworth & Radeloff, 1991). That is, the concepts of dividing a whole into two equal parts and half and then the relationship between the half and the whole should be taught. Later, the teacher should elucidate being equal and diving the whole into two equal parts. Finally, how many equal parts are taken from the whole should be pointed out (Baykul, 2011). While working with children, through the activities using half o an apple, quarter of an apple and whole apple, these concepts are abstracted. Then children are asked to share 8 chestnuts among 4 kids, and this way 1/4 of the whole is obtained. Here, the relationship between fraction and division is seen. Children understand that amounts, volumes, areas, and weights can be divided into equal parts through fractions. In fraction activities the whole and part relationship should be shown and it is rather important to comprehend that no matter into how many parts a whole is divided, the parts represent the total (Güven, 2004). 4. MEASUREMENT Measurement in the preschool period involves concepts such as length, area, volume, and weight (Güven, 2004), time and heat (Charlesworth & Radeloff, 1991), and these concepts should be abstracted for children. Measurement is one of the most useful and important skills that includes appointing digitizing values to compare the features of objects. It is appropriate for preschool children to use nonstandard units while making comparison. When they start primary school, they have to start using standard units (Charlesworth & Radeloff, 1991; Güven, 2004). In the problem situations of the activities, number of choices and degree of differences among choices should be created considering children's age (Güven, 2004). According to Charlesworth & Radeloff (1991) measurement develops in five stages and these stages occur in the sensory-motor and pre-operational period, from birth to age 7 when children use nonstandard units by games, imitation, and comparison, and when they start using standard units in the concrete operations period at the ages of 6 and 7. Children's graph reading and graph creating skills should be supported while teaching the measuring skill. For example, while comparing lengths, children might use nonstandard units and appoint these units to the items and make comparisons on the graph considering the numerical values. Children can discuss their views on the length, area, volume, and weight of the items or can show the results of measurements of a 108

group of items on a graph. 5. GEOMETRY Geometry is an important element of maths and enables students to analyse and interpret the world. Therefore, students need to develop an understanding of geometrical concepts and acquire geometrical skills (Özerem, 2012). Geometry is the study of area and shapes. Geometry means the child understands the space in which she/he lives, breathes, and moves (Freudenthal, in National Council of teachers of Mathematics, 1989, cited: Clements, 1999). Spatial reasoning involves manipulating and constructing items, relations regarding these items, and mental representations of transformations (Clements, 1999). 5.1. Shape Little children create geometrical concepts in the preschool period by examining the shapes of items around them (Szinger, 2008). Geometrical shapes are first things to come to mind regarding shapes in the preschool period (Güven, 2004). Children start creating concepts regarding shapes before starting school and these concepts remain constant and unchanging until the age of 6 or 7. In the study carried out by Clements (1999), it was stated that the most ideal age range for shape acquisition was between 3 and 6. The most important thing is that children cannot acquire concepts regarding shapes by looking at pictures or listening to verbal descriptions. They need to touch, manipulate, draw and reveal shapes in various ways. Shapes should be two or three-dimensional. In the beginning, children should be given opportunities to manipulate and classify shapes. Comparing or classifying shapes by their features in activities encourages children to focus on important features of each shape. When beginning with shapes, children can notice the sides and corners of a shape by watching the sides using their fingers. While doing this, the teacher may give verbal instruction such as "This is the side, this is the corner". Also, the teacher might call children's attention to the differences of the angles. For example, while the child is examining the side of a right triangle, the teacher might say “corner" or "point". First, children will notice the whole shape in terms of appearance. They know a triangle has three sides, but cannot tell apart a triangle among a group of similar shapes. When children see both typical and untypical examples of shapes, they can learn the critical feature of a geometrical shape easily (Clements, 1999). The example shapes presented to the children should include various shapes (in terms of side and angle features) such as equilateral triangle, isosceles triangle, right triangle etc. (van Hiele, 1999). 5.2. Space Spatial perception is individual's self-awareness of the relationship between the items and people around (Copley, 2000). The child has to know and recognize the space to live, breathe, and move better (Freudenthal, 1989: cited: Clements, 1999). Spatial reasoning is a process which involves structuring and manipulating the items in the space and mental narration of relationships and transformations between these items (Clements & Batista, 1992). Spatial thinking -visualising items in different positions and imagining their movements- is of quite importance for children's mathematical development. Children need to develop various spatial understandings such as direction, distance and place (NCTM, 2000). Spatial skills are important to learn many topics in mathematics. Spatial skills are 109

necessary to have spatial orientation and sense. Spatial orientation and spatial visualization are two significant skills. Spatial orientation is knowing your place in the world and how you adapt to this environment, which is defined as understanding and using relationships between different positions by our own position. Spatial visualization is understanding and implementing the movements of two or threedimensional items. For this, a mental image should be created and manipulated (Clements, 1999a). Doing activities using simple maps and opportunities for using position words and manipulating shapes in different positions in the preschool period is fundamental to develop spatial perception. These skills should be minded during routines or planned activities. For example, thanks to simple maps that can be used in preschool institutions the teacher can gain children spatial skills by using direction vocabulary, geometrical borders, distances and pictures. Furthermore, language of the movements of an item (right, left, up, down etc) and statements regarding the position of the item after being moved should unite with the movement of the item in a space (Copley, 2000). Children learn how to manipulate images, create images and relate their verbal, analytical knowledge to their spatial knowledge and go beyond visual thinking (Clements, 1999a). According to Copley (2000) spatial vocabulary is as follows:  Location/position words: open, close, on, under, into, outside, towards, out, up, down, upward, downward, in front, behind, next to, next one, between, same/different side, upside down etc.  Movement words: up, down, forward, around, towards, opposite, far, back, straight, bent etc.  Distance words: closer, far, close to, far from, shortest/longest way etc.  Transformation words: rotate, turn, slide etc. It is necessary to know how geometrical thinking develops in children to form an effective geometrical base in early years. Piaget and Inhelder stated that children discovered shapes by touching and comparing. Piaget & Inhelder (1956, 1967, cited; Schrier, 1994) divided the development of geometrical skills in children into stages. The first stage is the scribbles period which lasts until the child is 2. After this period come three periods: topological period, projection period and euclid period. Recently, van Hiele's theory has become a widely accepted and used theory regarding development of geometrical thinking skill in children (Durmuş & AktaşArnas, 2007; Olkun & Toluk Uçar, 2007). According to van Hiele geometrical knowledge acquisition is divided into five levels (van Hiele, 1986, 1999) which are visual, analytical, informal deduction, formal deduction and rigor. The first level is visual level; preschool children are accepted to be at this level in which shapes are assessed by their appearance (van Hiele, 1986, 1999). Children perceive geometrical shapes as whole (Altun, 1998; Burger & Shaugnessy, 1986; Pesen, 2003; Schrier, 1994; Szinger, 2008; Usiskin, 1982) and features of shapes are ignored (Crowley, 1987; Hoffer, 1981). While we can say, "This is a square. I know because I see it.", children say "This is a rectangle because it looks like a box." (van Hiele, 1999). Children can notice various shapes by their forms and although they cannot understand the relationship between the elements of the shape, they can remember their names (Szinger, 2008). Moreover, children recognize, name, and compare shapes (Fuys et al., 1988; Olkun & Toluk Uçar, 2007). For the child "A square is a square". Children cannot comprehend the definition and features of the square by its definition. For example, 110

they cannot understand that a square is also a rectangle. At this level, the child perceives features and edges as adhered to the whole. Corner is meaningful as long as it is the corner of a prism (Altun, 1998). SUGGESTIONS FOR PRESCHOOL TEACHERS Since the idea that mathematical development is critical in early ages has become prevalent, the role of educators in terms of creating mathematical learning circle for children has become both important and difficult (Ktoridou, Eteokleous & Gregoriou, 2005). It is necessary to use techniques such as helping children make connections between information, present their ideas, giving opportunities to discuss them, letting them think aloud, giving them chances, creating problem situations, helping them solve problems and giving feedback while teaching maths to children in their early years (Gifford, 2004). Creating concrete situations while presenting concepts to children in the preoperational period plays an important role to accomplish goals (Gilmore & Braynt, 2006). Teachers should carefully choose appropriate methods and techniques to ensure concrete learning occurs in children. Gifford (2004) stated that cooperative group works, use of technology, creating enjoyable learning environments, arousing curiosity using open-ended questions, giving opportunities for thinking aloud, developing problem solving skills and giving feedback were necessary. There is a relationship between learning conservation and counting. Teachers should encourage numeracy and counting skills (Sophian, 1995). Understanding numbers involves understanding cardinal and ordinal features of numerals (Brannon & Van de Walle, 2001; Siegler, 1991; Van de Walle, 2004). When children learn numeral-word ordering skill (rote counting) they start using objects for counting (Baroody & Price, 1983). All developments regarding numeracy have a great importance in terms of forming arithmetical logic in children. Unless children are given sufficient amount of experience and instruction, some deficiencies or insufficiencies may occur in maths in further stages of education. Well-planned, enjoyable, and creative activities that enable children to discover and solve problems should be included in preschool curricula (Arı, 2007). Teachers might give children rich environmental opportunities and support children's efforts to solve problems by calling their attention to mathematical concepts during games (Erdoğan, 2006). Subtraction and addition operations are complementary, commutative, and relational. If preschool children can comprehend and implement this relationship, they can effectively acquire operation concepts (Baroody, Ginsburg & Waxman, 1983). Children comprehend that amounts that can be stated numerically are divided into equal parts, and that volumes, areas, and weights can also be divided into equal parts through fractions. In fraction activities, whole-part relationship should be presented and it is important that the whole stands for the total of parts no matter into how many parts it is divided (Güven, 2004). Children's graph reading and graph creating skills can be encouraged while presenting measuring skill. For example, while comparing lengths, children use nonstandard units, appoint these units to items in the graph and make comparisons on the graph. They can discuss their views on the length, area, volume, and weight of an item by using a graphic or can show the results of a measuring on a graph (Charlesworth & Radeloff, 1991). 111

Children live in a three dimensional world; therefore, they should be presented three-dimensional items (Güven, 2004). The focus of shape activities should be the features of two-and three-dimensional shapes. In the beginning children should be given opportunities to manipulate and classify shapes using their own criteria (Clements, 1999). Children notice that sides of shapes have equal lengths and at this point we can start a discussion about why the shape is given that name (van Hiele, 1999). While working with shapes, children can notice the sides and corners of a shape. Teachers can help children by saying "This is the side and this is the corner". Also, the teacher can direct the child to the differences of angles. For example, while the child is examining a right rectangular, the teacher can say "corner" or "point". When children see the typical and untypical examples of shapes, they learn the critical feature of a geometrical shape more easily (Clements, 1999). Activities should be planned in an enjoyable and game-like manner. While working with jigsaw puzzles, the teacher can start saying the names of the shapes in the right time. Then children start using these names and notice that the shapes do not change even if they place them in different positions (reversing etc). Also, children start noticing features of shapes. Teachers should encourage children to use geometrical vocabulary by using geometrical concepts, but they should do this informally. Many different examples of the shapes in the same shape group (in terms of sides, angles etc.) should be included (van Hiele, 1999). Using simple maps in activities and giving opportunities to manipulate shapes in different positions using position vocabulary are of great importance for developing spatial perception. These skills should be taken into account while planning activities. For example, through the use of simple maps, teachers can gain children spatial skills. Also, movement vocabulary (right, left, up, down etc.) and statements regarding the location of the item after being moved should be united with the movement of an item (Copley, 2000). REFERENCES Aktaş Arnas, Y. (2004). Okul Öncesi Dönemde Matematik Eğitimi. Adana: Nobel Kitabevi. Altun, M. (1998). Matematik Öğretimi. Bursa: Alfa Yayınları. Arı, M. (2007). Okul Öncesi Dönemde Fen-Doğa ve Matematik Uygulamaları. Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık. Aslan, D. & Aktaş Arnas, Y. (2007). Okul öncesi eğitim materyallerinde geometrik şekillerin sunuluşuna ilişkin içerik analizi. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 16(1), 69-80. Aslan, D. & Arnas Aktaş, Y. (2007). Three‐to six‐year‐old children’s recognition of geometric shapes. International Journal of Early Years Education, 15(1), 83-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669760601106646 Baroody, A. J. (1984). Children's difficulties in subtraction: Some causes and questions. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 203-213. Baroody, A. J., & Price, J. (1983). The development of the number-word sequence in the counting of three-year-olds. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 361-368. Baroody, A. J., Ginsburg, H. P., & Waxman, B. (1983). Children's use of mathematical structure. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 156-168. Baykul, Y. (2011). İlköğretimde Matematik Öğretimi (1-5. sınıflar). Ankara: Pegem A. 112

Yayıncılık. Botha, M., Maree, J. G., & De Witt, M. W. (2005). Developing and piloting the planning for facilitating mathematical processes and strategies for preschool learners. Early child development and care, 175(7-8), 697-717. Brannon, E. M., & Van de Walle, G. A. (2001). The development of ordinal numerical competence in young children. Cognitive Psychology, 43(1), 53-81. Burger, F. W., & Shaughnessy, J. M. (1986). Characterizing the van Hiele levels of development in geometry. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 17(1), 3148. Butterworth, B. (2005). The development of arithmetical abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 3-18. Charlesworth, R. (2005). Prekindergarten mathematics: Connecting with national standards. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(4), 229-236. Charlesworth, R., & Radeloff, J. D. (1991). Experiences in Math for Young Children. New York: Delmar Publishers Inc. Charlesworth, R., & Lind, K. K. (2003). Math and science for young children. Cengage Learning. (4. Ed.), New York, Delmar. Clements, D. H. (1999a). Geometric and spatial thinking in young children. Juanita. V. Copley (Ed.), Mathematics in the Early Years içinde (s. 66-79). Reston, VA: NCTM & Washington D.C.: NAEYC. Clements, D. H., & Battista, M. T. (1992). Geometry and spatial reasoning. D. A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning içinde (s. 420464). New York: Macmillan. Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2004). Building blocks for early childhood mathematics. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 181-189. Copley, J. V. (2000). The Young Child and Mathematics. Washington, DC: National Association for The Education of Young Children. Dinçer, Ç., & Ulutaş, İ. (1999). Okulöncesi eğitiminde matematik kavramları ve etkinlikler. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi, 62, 6-11. Erdoğan, S. (2006). Altı Yaş Grubu Çocuklarında Drama Yöntemi İle Verilen Matematik Eğitiminin Matematik Yeteneğine Etkisinin İncelenmesi, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Fuys, D., Geddes, D., Lovett, C. J., & Tischler, R. (1988). The van Hiele model of thinking in geometry among adolescents [monograph number 3]. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. Reston, VA: NCTM. Gelman, R., & Gallistel, G. C. (1979). The child's understanding of number. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 10(5), 383- 387. Gifford, S. (2004). A new mathematics pedagogy for the early years: In search of principles for practice. International Journal of Early Years Education, 12(2), 99-115. Gilmore, C. K., & Bryant, P. (2006). Individual differences in children's understanding of inversion and arithmetical skill. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(2), 309331. Güven, Y. (1997). Erken Matematik Yeteneği Testi-2'nin geçerlik, güvenirlik, norm çalışması ve sosyo-kültürel faktörlerin matematik yeteneğine etkisinin incelenmesi. (Doktora Tezi), Marmara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Güven, Y. (2004). Erken Çocuklukta Matematiksel Düşünme ve Matematiği Öğrenme. İstanbul: Küçük Adımlar Yayınları. Güven, Y., & Uyanık Balat, G. (2006). 1. ve 2. sınıf öğrencilerinin matematik yeteneğinin okul öncesi eğitimi alıp almama ve kurumda veya ailesinin yanında kalma durumlarına 113

göre karşılaştırılması.” I. Uluslararası Okul Öncesi Eğitim Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı I. Cilt. (Yay. Haz. Oya Ramazan, Kadriye Efe & Gülçin Güven), İstanbul: Yapa Yayın, , p; 384-397. Hoffer, A. (1981). Geometry is more than proof. Mathematics Teacher, 74 (1) , 11-18. Hunting, R. P. (2003). Part-whole number knowledge in preschool children. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 22(3), 217-235. Johansson, B. S. (2005). Number‐word sequence skill and arithmetic performance. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 46(2), 157-167. Ktoridou, D., Eteokleous, N., & Gregoriou, G. (2005, November). Preschoolers Developing Mathematical Understanding through Computer-Based Activities. In Computer as a Tool, 2005. EUROCON 2005. The International Conference on (Vol. 1, pp. 787-790). IEEE. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2006). Curriculum focal points for prekindergarten through grade 8 mathematics: A quest for coherence. National. http://www.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Math_Standards/12752_exec_pssm.pdf National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Vol. 1. Author, Reston, VA. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2007). What Is Important in Early Childhood Mathematics? (Position statement). Olkun, S., & Toluk-Uçar, Z. (2007). İlköğretimde Etkinlik Temelli Matematik Öğretimi. Ankara: Maya Akademi. Özerem, A. (2012). Misconceptions in geometry and suggested solutions for seventh grade students. International Journal of New Trends in Arts, Sports& Science Education, 1(4), 23-35. Pesen, C. (2003). Matematik Öğretimi. Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2003). Building blocks of early childhood mathematics. Teaching Children Mathematics, 9, 480-484. Schrier, D. M. (1994). The development of young children's geometry thinking in a mediated kindergarten classroom environment. (ProQuest Dissertations and Theses), State University of New York, Buffalo. Siegler, R. S. (1991). Children's Thinking. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Sophian, C. (1987). Early developments in children's use of counting to solve quantitative problems. Cognition and Instruction, 4(2), 61-90. Sovchik, R. J. (1996). Teaching mathematics to children (Vol. 1). HarperCollins Publishers. Starkey, P., Klein, A., & Wakeley, A. (2004). Enhancing young children’s mathematical knowledge through a pre-kindergarten mathematics intervention. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(1), 99-120. Szinger, I. S. (2008). The evolvement of geometrical concepts in lower primary mathematics (Parallel and Perpendicular). Annales Mathematicae et Informaticae, 35, 173–188. Tucker, B. F., Singleton, A. H., & Weaver, T. L. (2002). Teaching mathematics to all children. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall. Usiskin, Z. P. (1982). van Hiele Levels and Achievement in Secondary School Geometry. (Final Report of the Cognitive Development and Achievement in Secondary School Geometry Project). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, Department of Education. (ERIC No. ED 220 288). Van de Walle, J. A. (2004). Elementary and Middle School Mathematics. (Fifth Edition). Teaching developmentally. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. van Hiele, P. M. (1986). Structure and Insight: A Theory of Mathematics Education. 114

Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Van Hiele, P. M. (1999). Developing geometric thinking through activities that begin with play. Teaching Children Mathematics, 5(6), 310-316. Wolfgang, C., Stannard, L., & Jones, I. (2003). Advanced constructional play with LEGOs among preschoolers as a predictor of later school achievement in mathematics. Early Child Development and Care, 173(5), 467-475. Zur, O., & Gelman, R. (2004). Young children can add and subtract by predicting and checking. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(1), 121-137.

115

Chapter 9 Impact of Common Knowledge Construction Model on the Nature of Science1 Esra BENLİ ÖZDEMİR, Ergin HAMZAOĞLU 1. INTRODUCTION As long as depending on changing circumstances, the needs of individuals is also changing. It is possible to train highly qualified individuals; in order to to respond to the needs of the times and not to lag behind developing and changing world. The community who want to educate qualified individuals were directed to rapid changes in the teaching process. The curriculum is the beginning of these changes. Changing needs and developments in science and technology have also provided quickly program development activities. One of these programs is also for Science Education Program. Program development activities have begun at proclamation of the Turkish Republic and it continues even today. In particular, together with technological and scientific developments comprehensive studies on Science Education Program were made in 1992, 2000, 2004 and finally in 2013. Ministry of Education has gone through fundamental changes in some laws with primary education and education law in the 2013-2014 academic year with 30.03.2012 date and 28261 decree. One of the decisions taken was replaced as 7th item of the article number 222. It is below: ITEM 7th - "Primary education is the Ministry of Education and Training Institutions which established to achieve the purpose specified in item 1th and “has four-year term and primary compulsory school and four-year term and secondary compulsory school The name of the course "Science and Technology" was held in "Science" with 4+4+4 education system. In this context, it was changes in the curriculum. Learning areas have been identified as Live and Life, Matter and Change, Physical Events, World and Universe of subject areas and Skill, Perception, Science-Technology-SocietyEnvironment (STSE) of learning areas in order to achieve the vision of Science Curriculum. These learning areas and recoveries associated with areas of scientific process skills, life skills, feeling and science-technology-society-environment and these skills are outlined in the table below (MEB, 2013): When Table 1 is examined, sciencetific literacy individuals who have not only basic knowledge in the learning areas outcomes; who have skills, feeling and sciencetechnology-society-environment in the learning areas outcomes and take an active role 1

This study is an excerpt taken from unpublished PhD thesis of Dr. Esra BENLİ ÖZDEMİR Dr., Gazi University, Faculty of Science Education, Department of Elementary Science, [email protected]  Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Faculty of Science Education, Department of Elementary Science, [email protected] 

in the learning process and construct information in the mind. In order to to respond to the needs of the times and not to lag behind developing and changing world, science educators tend to develop alternative models. Table 1. Learning outcomes (areas) in science lesson curriculum Knowledge

Skill

Feeling

a. Live and Life b. Matter and Change c. Physical Events d. World and Universe

a. Scientific Process Skills b. Life Skills -Analytical Thinking -Decide -Creative Thinking -Entrepreneurship -Contact -Team work

a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Values d. Responsibility

Science-Technology-SocietyEnvironment a. Socio-Scientific Issues b. Nature of Science c. Science and Technology Relationship d. Contribution of Social Sciences e. Sustainable Development Awareness f. Science and Career Awareness

As a result, "Common Knowledge Construction Model (CKCM) " has emerged as an alternative model which emphasize that establishing a connection to real life in the information science, nature of science, phenomenography and conceptual change (Ebenezer & Haggerty, 1999). CKCM takes place in the 2013 Science Curriculum and it has been proposed to develop skills of knowledge, skills, feeling and sciencetechnology-society-environment in the learning areas. CKCM is a multidirectional learning model. It allow working as a scientist, transferring the experience, reflecting on categorized information, thinking, discussioning and sharing, using their knowledges in daily life and solving in socio-scientific issues for students. It is expected to make a major contribution for the literature of this research with the reasons stated below:  CKCM is conform with greatly the nature of the 2013 Science curriculum.  Each phase of the CKCM can provide multiple benefits to the students.  CKCM can offer the opportunity to transfer knowledge to daily life in the mind of students, creating awareness and sensitivity in socio-scientific issues, responsibility, sharing, expressing yourself.  When examining related literature, the researches about effectiveness of the CKCM's practice is limited. The main purpose of this study is to explore the effect of the Common Knowledge Construction Model (CKCM) on the conceptual change of primary education students in science topics. In this context the research is to answer the following questions: 1. Experimental and control groups students’ 1.1. What are the pre-drawings for the scientist? 1.2. Is there a significant difference between the pre-views about the nature of science? 2. Experimental and control groups students’ 2.1. What are the post-drawings for the scientist? 2.2. Is there a significant difference between the post-views about the nature of science? 3. Control group students’ 3.1. What are the pre and post-drawings for the scientist? 117

3.2. Is there a significant difference between the pre and post-views about the nature of science? 4. Experimental group students’ 4.1. What are the pre and post-drawings for the scientist? 4.2. Is there a significant difference between the pre and post-views about the nature of science? 5. What are the views of the experimental group students’ for nature of science? 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The main purpose of this study is to explore the effect of the Common Knowledge Construction Model (CKCM) on the conceptual change of primary education students in science topics. For this purpose, it was used mixed method which is used both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. This type of research provide that more reliable, rich and comprehensive of the results collected quantitative and qualitative data were combined, obtained by blending with each other (Creswell, 2012). It was provide that more reliable, rich and comprehensive of the results using a combination of quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative datas of the study were conceptual tests and word association tests; the qualitative datas of the study that the semi-structured interviews and video recorded during the application. Quantitative data were collected at the start of the study, qualitative data were collected during the application and both quantitative and qualitative data were collected again at the end of the study. Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately. Quantitative and qualitative data were linked by bringing together in the findings and comments section. According to this; it was used integrated design of the mixed methods research designs. The experimental method with pre-test/post-test control group was used in the study. Experimental design is used to test correlation cause and result between variables. The experimental method with pre-test/post-test control group is referred as two-factor showing an experimental design; one repeated measurements (pretestposttest), and the other subjects in different categories (experimental and control groups). In this design, one participant is located in the experimental and control groups is just one of them (Büyüköztürk, 2007). Study Group The group in this study consists of 47 students (Table 2) from two different classrooms of 7th grade at a primary school of Ministry of National Education, located in the central district of Ankara. Table 2. Descriptive statistics results to experimental and control group students Gender Group Total Girl Boy n % n % N % Experimental 14 58.3 10 41.7 24 51.0 Control 8 34.8 15 65.2 23 49.0 Total 22 46.8 25 53.2 47 100

Data Collection Tools The data of the research was collected by the views of nature of science (VNOS) questionnaire and scientists drawings, phenomenographic categories, classroom 118

observation notes, video records, semi-structured interviews on the nature of science. The Views of Nature of Science Elementary Level (VNOS-E) questionnaire The views of nature of science (VNOS-E) questionnaire was used to determine students' initial views of NOS and was administered again at the end of units as pre-test, and 14 week after watching them as a post-test to determine changes in students' views. VNOS-E developed by Lederman and etc (2002) was preferred because it was appropriate for elementary level and because it had been adopted into Turkish and used by other researchers (Demir & Akarsu, 2013; Erenoğlu, 2010). The questionnaire consists of seven openended questions. NOS themes included in the VNOS-E are summarized in Table 2 (Akerson & Donnelly, 2010; Parker, 2010). Prior to the implementation of the questionnaire, experts compared the Turkish and English versions of the questionnaire to ensure linguistic validity. Table 3. Nature of science themes included in the VNOS-E

Nature of Science (NOS) Themes (NOS-1) Scientific information is reliable, but is not necessarily accurate.

VNOS-E 3. Question

(NOS-2) Scientific information contains logical, mathematical and empirical implications. (NOS-3) Scientific knowledge is subjective.

1. Question

(NOS-4) Scientific knowledge is a product of human creativity and imagination. (NOS-5) There is a difference between observation and inference. (NOS-5) There is a difference between observation and inference.

5. Question 7. Question 4. Question 6. Question

VNOS-E consists of seven open-ended questions. First of all, a pilot study was conducted with 127 students. After analyzing the content of the opinion obtained from the survey by students of the second question which is in the survey it has concluded that perceived differently. For 2th question, 10 students who were determined randomly method were interviewed. In this context, 2th question was removed from the questionnaire. The questionnaire was reorganized into six open-ended questions. Draw a Scientist Test (DAST) Draw a Scientist Test (DAST) was used to determine students' initial views of the students about the scientist. and was administered again at the end of units as pre-post tests to determine changes in students' views of the students about the scientist. The DAST was originally developed by David W. Chambers (1983) in order to learn the person's image of a scientist. In his study, 4807 children, who are from kindergarten to K-5, participated in the DAST. Then, Finson and Beaver (1995) criticized the scoring of DAST and developed DAST-C to analyze the data. In this study, the researcher developed a more comprehensive control list based on these previous studies. The students were told that they could use different colours and paints in their drawings. The students were given opportunity to use a second drawing paper if they needed. Moreover, the students were told that they could take small notes about their drawings in order not to have problems during the assessment. By this way, it was 119

aimed at increasing the reliability of the assessment. It was thought that the views of the students about the scientist could be best determined using DAST when the grade levels of the students who composed the study group in the study were taken into account. In addition to this, as the DAST was a data collection tool to be used to determine the behaviour rather than to measure the behaviour, it was possible to think that it was appropriate to construct hypotheses about the views of the students. Moreover, the shortness of the DAST implementation (the implementation lasted for about 20-30 minutes) was appropriate with the attention span of the students composing the study group (Öcal, 2007:57). Semi-structured Interview Lederman et al. (2002) advised conducting interviews with all or 15-20% of the students after completing the VNOS questionnaire. The VNOS-E questionnaire was used during the semi-structured interviews conducted both before and after the instruction in order to increase the validity of the study, to reveal deeper meanings that the students have assigned to NOS’s features, and to determine their thoughts about the activities. Nine students have been identified taking into account the maximum variety sampling. These students are among the experimental group students who study with CKCM for about a term. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with a subsample of the students (N=9) after the lesson’s instruction. After the implementation of the VNOS-E questionnaire, 3 students with a good, 3 with a moderate, and 3 with a low understanding level of NOS were interviewed. Interviews were audiorecorded and transcribed for analysis. Phenomenography Marton (1986) has been identified phenomenography, "Experience related to phenomena in the world around the individual, conceptualization, perception and perception from different perspectives, structure allowing them to create a structure with several qualitative way". It has been requested that express the concepts that exist in the minds of students on the subject at the beginning of the application process. The students had the opportunity to realize their pre-knowledge by starting a concrete concept that know better. Students and teachers have shaped the science course according to the concepts based on the existing situation in mind. 3. RESULTS Research findings were interpreted by analyzing sub-problems and were presented in tables with various statistical methods in this part of the research. The comparison pre and post-drawings for the scientist of the students in experimental and control groups New sub dimensions were added to the DAST-C after the student drawings were examined by the researcher. The data were analyzed using the modified control list which was formed by this way. Table 4 presents the findings obtained from experimental and control groups before and after the implementation as a result of the data analysis.

120

Table 4. The findings related to the views of the students in experimental and control groups about the scientist before and after the implementation CONTROL ITEMS

GENDER

FACE EXPRESSION

AGE THE DRAWING FEATURES in the HEAD REGION WORK ENVIRONMEN T

CLOTHES

ACCESSORIES

INFORMATION MATERIALS

THE DRAWINGS WITH SCIENTIST

Male Female *Gender not specified Happy Furious Surly Sad Considerate Vague expression Young Middle Old Messy hair ** Well-groomed hair Bald Beard Lab Study room Home Forest Space Unspecified Lab coat Casual clothes Suit Unspecified Glasses Hood Pendant / Earrings / Badges / Tie / Collar Handkerchief / Scarf / Cape Lens Unspecified Book / Notebook Pen Paper Computer Unspecified Human Animal Plant Experimental Materials Phone Telescope Robot Unspecified

PRE-DRAWINGS Experiment Control al Group Group f % f % 19 79 18 78 4 17 5 22 1 4 0 0 10 42 11 48 0 0 1 4 3 12 1 4 1 4 2 9 9 38 5 22 1 4 3 13 5 21 10 44 11 46 12 52 8 33 1 4 17 52 17 55 6 18 4 13 1 3 2 6 9 27 8 26 11 46 7 31 3 12 3 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 10 42 12 52 11 46 3 13 1 4 2 9 7 29 13 56 5 21 5 22 15 63 15 64 0 0 2 9 0 0 2 9

POST-DRAWINGS Experimental Control Group Group f % f % 9 37 20 87 15 63 2 9 0 0 1 4 15 63 18 78 1 4 0 0 0 0 3 13 1 4 2 9 7 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 50 19 82 11 46 2 9 1 4 2 9 12 43 15 52 11 39 3 10 1 4 5 17 4 14 6 21 3 12 7 31 8 33 2 9 3 12 0 0 2 9 0 0 2 9 1 4 6 25 13 56 3 12 5 22 3 12 1 4 11 46 8 35 7 30 9 39 8 33 15 64 4 17 2 9 6 25 2 9

3 6 9 8 4 0 13 3 0 0 15 0 0 0 6

2 4 5 4 6 6 9 4 3 4 5 1 2 0 5

12 25 26 24 12 0 38 12 0 0 63 0 0 0 25

* The creature, cartoon character, clown etc. drawings ** Scanned, shaped hair type. 121

2 2 9 4 1 1 10 3 1 0 13 1 0 2 3

9 9 36 16 4 4 40 13 4 0 57 4 0 9 13

8 17 17 13 20 20 30 17 12 17 21 4 8 0 21

0 4 11 5 5 1 7 3 1 1 11 1 0 2 4

0 18 38 17 17 4 24 13 4 4 48 4 0 9 18

“What are the pre and post-drawings of the experimental and control groups students’ for the scientist?” When the Table 1 was examined, it was seen that the drawings (the characteristics of the clothes, the characteristics of the drawing for the head, the characteristics of the drawing for the face, other pictures drawn with the scientist, gender, working place, facial expressions, accessories) of the students about the scientist were similar before the implementation. When the drawings of the students participating in the study were examined, it was determined that the students in both groups drew the scientist with laboratory coat, mop hair, without beard, studying in the laboratory with the experiment equipments, as males, happy and with glasses. When the Table 1 was examined, it was seen that the drawings (the characteristics of the clothes, the characteristics of the drawing for the head, the characteristics of the drawing for the face, other pictures drawn with the scientist, gender, working place, facial expressions, accessories) of the students about the scientist were not similar before the implementation . While significant changes occurred in the drawings of the students in experimental group after the implementation, there were no significant changes in the drawings of the students in control group. It was seen that the students in experimental group left the scientist image with laboratory coat, mop hair, without beard, studying in the laboratory with the experiment equipments, as males, happy and with glasses. The comparison pre and post views of nature of science of the students in experimental and control groups The views of nature of science (VNOS-E) questionnaire was used to determine students' initial views of NOS and was administered again at the end of units as pre-test, and 14 week after watching them as a post-test to determine changes in students' views. Table 4 presents the findings obtained from experimental and control groups before and after the implementation as a result of the data analysis. “What are the pre and post views of nature of science of the experimental and control groups students’?” The views of the students in experimental and control groups about the nature of science before and after the implementation were determined by VNOS-E questionnaire. When analyzing the experimental group students' nature of science of the answers given to the five themes; there is a significant difference in favor of the experimental group students who has been determined that "acceptable" and "knowledgeable" level opinions. (NOS-1) Scientific information is reliable, but is not necessarily accurate. According to the Chi-square post-test results; there is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the experimental group students who has been determined that "acceptable" and "knowledgeable" level opinions [X2(NOS1) = 6.75, p = .03 < .05]. There isn’t any significant difference between post-views about nature of science of the control group students [X2 (NOS-1) = 5.26, p = .39 > .05].

122

(NOS-2) Scientific information contains logical, mathematical and empirical implications. According to the Chi-square post-test results; there is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the experimental group students who has been determined that "acceptable" and "knowledgeable" level opinions [X2 (NOS-2) = 9.25, p = .01 < .05]. There is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the control group students who has been determined that “insufficient” level opinions [X2 (NOS-2) = 5.26, p = .02 < .05]. (NOS-3) Scientific knowledge is subjective. According to the Chi-square post-test results, there is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the experimental group students who has been determined that "knowledgeable" level opinions [X2 (NOS-3) = 7.00, p = .03 < .05]. There is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the control group students who has been determined that “insufficient” level opinions [X2 (NOS-3) = 9.78, p = .00 < .05]. (NOS-4) Scientific knowledge is a product of human creativity and imagination. According to the Chi-square post-test results, there isn’t any significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the experimental group students who has been determined that three level opinions [X2 (NOS-4) = 1.75, p = .41 > .05] Because of the number of students who have reported in "acceptable" and "knowledgeable" level opinions are quite high and close to each other. There is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the control group students who has been determined that “insufficient” level opinions [X2 (NOS-4) = 9.73, p = .00 < .05]. (NOS-5) There is a difference between observation and inference. According to the Chi-square post-test results, there is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the experimental group students who has been determined that "knowledgeable" level opinions [X2 (NOS-5) = 7.00, p = .03 < .05]. 4th question which is the same theme with 6th question, there is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the experimental group students who has been determined that "knowledgeable" level opinions [X2 (NOS-5) = 7.75, p = .02 < .05]. There is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the control group students who has been determined that “insufficient” level opinions [X2 th th (NOS-5) = 12.56, p = .00 < .05]. 4 question which is the same theme with 6 question, there is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the control group students who has been determined that “insufficient” level opinions [X2 (NOS-5) = 25.39, p = .02 < .05]. Example sentences of the 7th grade experimental group students’ in the "insufficient", "acceptable" and "knowledgeable" levels about the views of nature of science (VNOS-E) questionnaire are given in Table 6.

123

124

* Insuffiecent / ** Acceptabele / ***Knowledgeable (NOS-1) Scientific information is reliable, but is not necessarily accurate. (NOS-2) Scientific information contains logical, mathematical and empirical implications. (NOS-3) Scientific knowledge is subjective. (NOS-4) Scientific knowledge is a product of human creativity and imagination. (NOS-5) There is a difference between observation and inference.

Table 5. The findings related to the views of the students in experimental and control groups about the nature of science before and after the implementation

NOS-1

NOS-2 (1. Question)

(3. Question)

Table 6. Example sentences of the 7th grade experimental group students’ in the "Insufficient", "Acceptable" and "Knowledgeable" levels about the views of nature of science (VNOS-E) questionnaire Nature of INSUFFICIENT ACCEPTABLE KNOWLEDGEABLE Science Themes S21: "Yes, I think because it is a reality that can change every scientific true science and history major has changed from that to this S19: "Yes, because day and is added onto science is a field change S1: "I do not think it something. For example, the changing and evolving. will change in the future atomic theory in the past has Constantly renewed. As in as scientists undergone major changes the past changed in the increasingly aging and with the information placed future it will also develop dying so that will not on today. There are many scientific information. " change." scientific theory that science progresses changed. " S21: "Yes, because S24: "Every day is a S22: "Yes, I think. failure science is a reality that can new arrival on the or inaccuracy of the be changed. Existing science of science is an information that exists today theories about the past, for important factor in or in the future be proved example atoms, because people not distinguish with new found something new information was right and wrong." different thoughts. Science obtained today can not remain the same. disappeared. " Changing, and put on advances more than the right information. We right the wrong, it may be true that we are wrong. " S7: "Science is learning S21: "In all areas of life the life, developing. science, used in all branches; S8: "Everything about our Science is not only in interests, skills, including a bodies and the world of Turkey but all over the kind of questioning. Science science is a tool that world." is not just about science or allows us to investigate S12: "Science is mathematics are in every and learn by knowledge. Science area of life and progresses to experimenting and shows us the way. " try to invent. " researching is done." S19: "Science is the S22: "Science means new S18: "People learn new aesthetic appearance of new inventions. Curiosity things, experimenting, life." and the need arises. He researching to invent and S25: "Everything in this walks with science advantage in everyday life world can science, experiments and has is to try to understand the because everything has demonstrably. Therefore, the unknown." to do with science." scientific method is used S14: "Science is a when doing research on branch." everything. "

125

NOS-3 (5. Question) NOS-4 (7. Question) NOS-5 (4. Question) NOS-5 (6. Question)

S3: "How to have the same information about the death of the dinosaurs, scientists all very normal. of course, it suggests something different after all this is very normal. "

S19: "The idea of every human being is not the same, the actual estimates and interests combined with the progress of the false information."

S14: "There are different ideas about the extinction of dinosaurs, but the most logical; a meteor fell to earth, the air was filled with dust cloud of dust blocked the sun's heat to give to the world and died from the cold. "

S22: "Every scientist may have reached different information research and experiments. Fossils are the same though, you need imagination to combine different things and all of the imagination. "

S24: "I think they aren’t using their imagination, if you used a wrong conclusion based on it s had a dream."

S3: "I think they use their imagination before performing the operation. Then they do their work more efficiently. "

S9: "They are sure, because they are not sure what the scientists 'shape of the dinosaurs' say does not transfer to us."

S22: "According to scientific studies say they anticipate the shape of dinosaurs so they're largely right, but guess what they are doing and are biased to the resulting shares. The forecasts are very accurate results that they can not say. " S1: "They are not too sure, because they see no estimate about living things and how can they be sure that even if the skeletons in their hands ..." S8: "Experts estimate the result of doing this particular work, but sometimes they can be wrong." S17: “ They aren’t sure I guess what they are doing, but usually they ultimately find the right weather forecasting. "

S14: “ They are sure from the shape of the dinosaurs because they can combine the interests of the actual shape of the dinosaur bones when they occur, they are scientists ..." S25: "They are sure, Because weather forecasts are made based on research and experiments. " S19: "They're sure doing scientific experiments. After all science is not a ballot box can not be opened."

126

S12: "People may have different thoughts. differences in terms of the environment in which they live and perspectives have led to different ideas. They all reached the conclusion that they make their own judgment to conclusions based on the information. " S10: "Everyone is important and where the culture he grew up. Therefore, they are all saying different things with the same knowledge and science is not already an area where everyone has the same result. " S9: "I think scientists always use their imagination. Imagination is important in being successful. "

S13: “ They can not be sure. Scientific studies estimate that imagination and to make analysis also used the information they get, scientists predict the way. Dinosaurs have to be completely sure that it is not possible for anyone to see. "

S15: "These estimates usually comes true. Just as they find making various experiments scientific knowledge. the possibility of error in the estimates to be correct, however, because the scientific data are always possible. "

What are the views of the experimental group students’ for nature of science?

The views of the Experimental Group Students’ About the Nature of Science Lederman et al. (2002) advised conducting interviews with all or 15-20% of the students after completing the VNOS questionnaire. The VNOS-E questionnaire was used during the semi-structured interviews conducted both before and after the instruction in order to increase the validity of the study, to reveal deeper meanings that the students have assigned to NOS’s features, and to determine their thoughts about the activities. Nine students have been identified taking into account the maximum variety sampling. These students are among the experimental group students who study with CKCM for about a term. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with a subsample of the students (N = 9) after the lesson’s instruction.After the implementation of the VNOS-E questionnaire, 3 students with a good, 3 with a moderate, and 3 with a low understanding level of NOS were interviewed. Interviews were audiorecorded and transcribed for analysis. The views of the experimental group students’ for nature of science is listed below in Fig. 1.

"What is science? How do you define science? Did your views about science change? "Do you think that there are different ways of the scientists access to scientific information? Why?" "How does work scientist? Do you think did you work like a scientist during the Science and Technology course? " "Do you think that scientific knowledge is exact? Why?"

Figure 1. What are the views of the experimental group students’ for nature of science?

Categories of opinion of the experimental group students about definition of science students are listed below in Table 7: Table 7. Categories of opinion of the experimental group students about definition of science students Question What is science? How do you define science?

Category Basic Characteristics of Science (n = 25) Experimental Characteristics of Science (n = 11)

Example Sentences "Science explains to us history, history tells us our fathers ..." "... Science solves the realities of life. Science strives in every field, there is a particular area ... " "Science ... observing, predicting be considered ... ..." "Science, demonstrable change ... is about ..."

n = Repetition frequency of identified codes in the content analysis process

127

Categories of opinion of the experimental group students about work of scientists are listed below in Table 8: Table 8. Categories of opinion of the experimental group students about work of scientists Question How does work scientist?

Category Professional Characteristics (n = 23) Additional Characteristics (n = 5)

Example Sentences "... Police find evidence of how, if you go solve the case by adding new things to the event, that scientists are like this ..." "... Because, as we investigate them, we anticipate, we observe, we do try ..." "I can not be like that ... we scientists. ... For example, I like Edison, 1000 bulb to blow, I'm not patient enough to reach toward that. "

n = Repetition frequency of identified codes in the content analysis process Categories of opinion of the experimental group students about ways of the scientists access to scientific information are listed below in Table 9: Table 9. Categories of opinion of the experimental group students about ways of the scientists access to scientific information Question

Category

Do you think that scientific knowledge is exact? Why?

Unchanged (n = 0) Partly change (n = 2) Change (n = 7)

Example Sentences "Scientific knowledge changes over time. Examples of elements that we can see atoms, or ... " "95% of the scientific knowledge is certain. Because scientific experiments are done before we receive information ... "

n = Repetition frequency of identified codes in the content analysis process Categories of opinion of the experimental group students about variability of scientific knowledge are listed below in Table 10: Table 10. Categories of opinion of the experimental group students about variability of scientific knowledge Question Do you think that there are different ways of the scientists access to scientific information? Why?

Category Yes (n = 10)

No (n = 0)

Sub-Category Personality (n = 4) Thinking Styles (n = 3) Intelligence Type (n = 2) Estimates (n = 1)

Example Sentences "Yes, it may vary. Every person has different types of intelligence. One of tactile, auditory other ... " "... Every scientist has a different personality." "... Because each person different people have different thinking capacity."

n = Repetition frequency of identified codes in the content analysis process

According to Table 7, Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10, CKCM were effective on improving the students’ developing developing the viewpoints of the students on nature of science. It was also seen that there was a positive development on the nature of science. 128

4. DISCUSSION and CONCLUSIONS It was concluded in the study that, as compared to the 5E learning cycle model, 7th grade Science and Technology lessons taught based on Common Knowledge Construction Model (CKCM) were effective on improving opinions of the students on nature of science. It was also seen that there was a positive development on the nature of science. It was observed that the nature of science themes integrated to the science subjects and concepts taught based on phenomena are considered more meaningful and perceived more easily by the students. Students of the experimental group drew stereotyped figures in pre- drawings; but they leaved these figures in post- drawings. And also, it is remarkable that Students drew of the large number of suits and unkempt hair scientists in their post- drawings. Benli ve Dökme (2011) conducted by the research; scientists are shown as this photograph in the textbooks, in the internet or in the encyclopaedia. According to VNOS-E post-test results; there is a significant difference between post-views about nature of science in favor of the experimental group students who has been determined that "acceptable" and "knowledgeable" level opinions. But there isn’t any significant difference between post-views about nature of science of the control group students. There are many studies which support these results (Khishfe, & Abd-ElKhalick, 2002; Lederman ve diğerleri, 2002; Khishfe, 2004; Akerson ve Abd-ElKhalick, 2005; Biernacka, 2006; Bağcı Kılıç ve diğerleri, 2007; Khishfe, 2008). The students of the experimental group studied like a scientist during the Science and Technology course. Upon they described science ; a large part of the student's science is life, and in all areas; study of scientist, doing research and experiments, that sharing information; scientists for ways to reach scientific knowledge, all the different thinking styles of students, scientists, and vary the ways that different types of intelligence to reach the scientific knowledge of the scientists because they have different estimates; for the variability of scientific knowledge; A large number of students that scientific knowledge is uncertain and may change stated. It was observed that the nature of science themes integrated to the science subjects and concepts taught based on phenomena are considered more meaningful and perceived more easily by the students. 5. RECOMMENDATIONS CKCM is conform with greatly the nature of the 2013 Science curriculum and CKCM is one of the proposed learning model curriculum. It is provided that Science course can teach effectively with this model will be prepared lesson plans, activities, assessment tools and applications. REFERENCES Akerson, V.L., Abd-El-Khalick, F. & Lederman, N.G. (2000). Influence of a reflective explicit activity-based approach on elementary teachers conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 295–317. Bağcı Kılıç, G., Metin, D., Yardımcı, E. & Berkyürek, İ. (2007). Doğada bilim eğitimi. I. İlköğretim Kongresi, 15-17 Kasım 2007, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. Bahar, M., Johnstone, A.H. & Sutcliffe, R.G. (1999). Investigation of students’ cognitive structure in elementary genetics through word association tests. Journal of Biological Education, 33, 134-141. 129

Benli, E. (2010). Probleme dayalı öğrenmenin fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının akademik başarılarına, bilgilerin kalıcılığına ve fene karşı tutumlarına etkilerinin araştırılması. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bil. Enstitüsü, Ankara. Benli Özdemir, E. (2014). The study on impact of common knowledge construction model on the cognitive and affective learning of primary education students in science education. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Gazi Univ., Institute of Educational Sciences, Biernacka, B. (2006). Developing scientific literacy of grade five students: A teacher researcher collaborative effort. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Manitoba, Canada. Büyüköztürk, S. (2007). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı (8. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Creswell, J.W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Ebenezer, J. & Haggerty, S. (1999). Becoming a secondary school science teacher. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Ebenezer, J., Chakco, S., Kaya, O. N., Koya, S. K. & Ebenezer, D. L. (2010). The effects of common knowledge construction model sequence of lessons on science achievement and relational conceptual change. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47(1), 25-46. İyibil, Ü.G. (2011). A new approach for teaching ‘energy’ concept: The common knowledge construction model. World Conference on New Trends in Science Education (WCNTSE), 19-23 September 2011, Kuşadası, Turkey. Kaya, O.N., Zorlu, M. & Aydemir, S. (2012). Fen ve Teknoloji öğretmen adaylarının ortak bilgi inşa modeli ve uygulamaları ile ilgili görüşleri. Uygulamalı Eğitim Kongresi: 52. Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi, Ankara/Türkiye. Kıryak, Z. (2013). Ortak bilgi yapılandırma modelinin 7. Sınıf öğrencilerinin su kirliliği konusundaki kavramsal anlamalarına etkisi. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Karadeniz Technical University, Institute of Education Sciences, Trabzon. Lederman, N.G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R.L. & Schwartz, R.S. (2002). Views of Nature of science questionnaire (VNOS): Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners’ conceptions of nature of science. J. of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 497-521. Marton, F. (1986). Phenomenography: A research approach to investigating different understandings of reality. Journal of Though, 2(3), 28-49. MEB. (2005). Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Fen ve Teknoloji dersi öğretim programı (4-8). Ankara: MEB Yayınları. MEB. (2006). Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı, ilköğretim Fen ve Teknoloji dersi (6, 7 ve 8. sınıflar) öğretim programı. Ankara: MEB Yayınları. MEB. (2013). Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Fen ve Teknoloji dersi öğretim programı (3-8). Ankara: MEB Yayınları. Vural, S., Demircioğlu, H. & Demircioğlu, G. (2012). Genel bilgi yapılandırma modeline uygun geliştirilen bir öğretim materyalinin üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin asit baz kavramlarını anlamaları üzerine etkisi. IV. Uluslararası Türkiye Eğitim Araştırmaları Kongresi, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, 4-7 Mayıs 2012, İstanbul. Wood, L.C. (2012). Conceptual change and science achievement related to a lesson sequence on acids and bases among African American alternative high school students: A teacher’s practical arguments and the voice of the “other”. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, Michigan.

130

Chapter 10 Parents Education in the Preschool Period Utku BEYAZIT, Aynur BÜTÜN AYHAN INTRODUCTION The period of zero to six years old is defined as the preschool period during which embodiment of personality takes place and the child develops in the fastest way in physical, mental, social, moral and linguistic terms (Santrock, 2014). It is highlighted that enriching the surroundings of the child in this period, supporting the life experiences of the child and exposing the child to qualified stimulants fasten the development of the child (Biber and Ural, 2012). It stated that learning starts with the birth and thus, the basic education also starts with the birth. As the majority of the cognitive and emotional development is completed by the child before seven years old, the age of seven is considered to be quite late to start education (Kılıç, 2010). Preschool education forming the first step of education, or preschool education in other terms, is defined as an educational process within the integrity of basic education covering the period from the birth to the first day of the primary school education. Preschool education provides a rich and stimulating environment in accordance with the children's developmental levels and individual characteristics, supporting all their areas of development and preparing them for the primary school education (Kartal, 2007). Preschool education helps children learn taking on responsibility, sharing, cooperating, social roles, spending time with their peers, playing games, learning through games, getting to know themselves and competition, while it also offers them opportunities to develop physical, psychomotor, social, emotional, cognitive and selfcare skills (Bağartarhan and Nazlı, 2013). As it has been emphasized, one of the most fundamental aims of preschool education is that these skills children gain in preschool education institutions are reinforced and supported by parents, that coherence between school and home is achieved, and that parents become effective elements of preschool education (Özcan and Aydoğan, 2014). Parents are the first teachers of the child. Therefore, multi-faceted education programs directed at parents of preschool children are of great importance for the development of children. Previous studies underlined that education and support programs for preschool parents prepare their children for school and enable parents to support their child’s development, to organize his environment and conditions, and to practice effective parenting skills. These studies also put forward that in the lack of supporting parental education programs, the impact of preschool education does not seem to be lasting (Mag, 2011; Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010).



 Lecturer, Neareast University, Department of Physiology, Lefkoşa, Northern Cyprus   Prof. Dr., Ankara University, Faculty of Health Science, Ankara, Turkey 



Parents Education in the Preschool Period Family is defined as the smallest institution of the society. It has been suggested that much behavior of children is conditioned by parental influence. While positive influence leads to positive outcomes, negative impacts leads to negative outcomes in the lives of children. Children get to know themselves and the external world primarily with the help of their parents. Children who grow up in a family of healthy relationships turn into healthy, happy and successful adults (Alkan Ersoy et al., 2014). It has been highlighted that learning starts with the birth and the most important environmental factor in the learning process is the family. The social, emotional, mental and physical development of children primarily start in the family (Kılıç, 2010; Mag, 2011). Parents are the most important models for children in the preschool period. In this period, having parents as effective models, affects the future of the children (Biber and Ural, 2012). The family provides the place of the first social experience of the child and healthy relationship patterns within the family have an important impact on the whole development of the child (Mash and Wolfe, 2007; Bağartarhan and Nazlı, 2013). A family composed of self-confident individuals, who communicate well with each other and with the child and who are reassuring, tolerant and flexible towards the child, promotes higher self-esteem in children, and family members who accept the child as he is, and support and encourage him, foster the child’s sense of self-worth (Özcan and Aydoğan, 2014). Parenting has the functions of providing children with the necessary resources, meeting their needs and keeping them alive, giving birth to new children and socialization. However, beyond the function of providing food, security and shelter, parenting is a much more complex process (Özgün, 2010). Because the child develops his first emotional, behavioral and mental characteristics and receives his first education at home, the participation of parents to the education program of their children from the preschool period onwards has a positive and lasting impact on the learning process (Mag, 2011; Alkan Ersoy et al., 2014). It has been argued that parents who occupy such an important place in the life of children need to foster their parenting skills as well as their knowledge and abilities in child care and education issues (Kılıç, 2010). In order to raise healthy, successful, happy and socially beneficial children, parents need to get to know their children, to learn about their developmental characteristics, interests and needs, and to devote them sufficient care and time. The importance of knowing what shall be done and when to support the child’s development in light of the knowledge about him and his developmental characteristics has been highlighted, because without this knowledge, education becomes a difficult task and its contingency might lead to many mistakes. When the function of parents in the lives of children and the importance of this function is considered, it becomes clear that parents need to foster their knowledge and skills in child care and education issues. Therefore, providing the education to be given to parents in today's conditions in a systematic way became obligatory (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Parents education can be defined as education programs which, although they might differ in their methodology, focus, content and duration according to their aims, in general assist parents or adults who take up a parental role in leading a better life with their children by educating them into becoming more informed, more caring, more responsible, happy and healthy as a family and by guiding and counseling them to develop the necessary skills for these aims (Ural, 2010). It is underlined that parents 132

education is an educational process which effectively transfers to parents the necessary skills and comprehension for the physical, mental, emotional and social development of their children and thus fulfils a role of public education that spreads all over the society (Erkan, 2010). In contemporary world, factors such as the agreement on the importance of early age education, the increased duration of mandatory education, the acceptance of the idea of lifelong education, the increasing focus on efforts for the achievement of equal opportunity in education and the introduction of technological education tools make education available and necessary for all social groups. Today, the families started to participate in various education programs as well as receiving education in order to help their children receive better education. Parallel to these developments, education programs have been developed to raise awareness of parents on child rearing (Alkan Ersoy et al., 2014). Importance of Parents Education Parents education gets even more significant in Turkey when one considers factors such as the lower levels of education among mothers, the predominance of families with low-level socioeconomic status, the non-mandatory nature of early age education, the low rates in schooling for preschool education, the insufficient knowledge of parents on parenting and the limited availability of health and education services for parents (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). In modern societies, parallel to the social change, the gender roles are observed to change rapidly. It is suggested that the changes in the employment, education and the social status of women are accompanied by a transformation in the roles and responsibilities within the household, which lead to a transformation of roles and responsibilities usually associated by men. These changes in the social life affects the perspectives, habits of parental phenomena and the gender role perceptions (Yörükoğlu, 2000; Kuzucu, 2011; Santrock, 2014). As the social roles of men change, the male roles such as fatherhood has begun to be questioned. With the effect of gender roles in traditional societies, the motherhood role is identified with child care and the mother is considered to be the primary caregiver (Lewis and Lamb, 2003; Özen, 2009; Zeybekoğlu, 2013). However, in contemporary world, in line with the changing social values, the idea that women are the main providers of household and child care became questionable (Anlıak, 2004). The importance of fathers for the healthy development of children (Aydın, 2010) as well as of their participation in the development, care and education of their children for the children’s mental, physical, social and emotional development has been underlined (Özkardeş, 2011). Parents internalize their own parents’ attitudes and behaviors towards child rearing and take them as role models in parenting (Shannon et al., 2005; Parke and Gauvain, 2009). However, it is also emphasized that child rearing practices have been undergoing a transformation in line with socio-cultural and economic developments (Yörükoğlu, 2000). The rapid changes in the society transform the lives and roles of parents and undermine traditional support mechanisms, and as a result, parents may find themselves in need of professional support and guidance. Previous studies pointed out that the transformation of the family structure from large families towards nuclear families prevents families from reaching sources of support for the child education and increase their need for sources of information (Erkan, 2010; Kılıç, 2010). It has been 133

put forward that compared with the past the interest for family education programs led both by state and civil society institutions has been increasing due to the growing complexity of information with regard to parenting and the increasing interest of parents for child education and care (Kılıç, 2010). Contemporary conditions of living lead parents to spend less time with their children, make them feel concerned about their children’s education under changing social circumstances, and cause feelings of guilt and inadequacy. While parents search for new ways to deal with these feelings, parental education programs provide them the necessary guidance for issues of child rearing (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). It is suggested that educating parents in parental skills makes three important contributions with regard to the child, the parents and the educators (Erkan, 2010): For The Children: Parents education enables children to become more conscious of parental control and increases their respect for their parents. Children go to school more regularly and develop awareness in terms of the significance of education. For The Parents: The parents acquire more knowledge on the developmental characteristics during childhood and get more self-confident about their parenting skills. They become aware of the difficulties they will encounter during the parental experiences. For The Educators: The educators respect parents more due to their abilities and efforts. They realize the variety in needs and characteristics of children and families (Erkan, 2010). Parents of children with disabilities, adolescent problems and substance abuse may lack the knowledge on where to resort to solve their problems and may be in need of support. Even if these families are supported by public institutions, it is highlighted that the support they receive remains insufficient and that parental education programs fulfill this need. In this way, they can reach the families under the risk group. Parents education programs can be supportive especially for disadvantaged families who face socioeconomic hardships and adaptation problems after their migration to big cities, by helping them adapt to their new living circumstances (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010; Ailincai and Weil-Barais, 2013; Hidalgo et al., 2016). In this sense, it is important to prepare parents education programs in ways that will increase the benefits of education for children affected by various deficiencies, help children gain knowledge and skills which are not included in the school curricula yet parents desire their children to acquire, and provide parents with necessary skills to control the behavior of their children (Varol, 2005). It is emphasized that child abuse and neglect can also be prevented by teaching parental skills to mothers and fathers (Letarte et al.; 2010; Sarı, 2010; Ateah, 2013). There have been several studies on the impact of parents education on parents and the development of children. It is stated that parents education have positive impact on supporting the child development (Tatvan, 2009; Aral et al, 2011), increasing the level of school readiness of children (Kartal, 2007; Alakoç Pirpir, 2011; Karakuzu, 2015) and developing effective parental skills (Öğretir and Demiriz, 2009; Yılmaz Bolat, 2011; Demircioğlu, 2012; Alkan Ersoy et al., 2014; Proctor and Brestan-Knight, 2016; Seabra-Santos et al., 2016). Aims of Parental Education It is suggested that parents education programs, even though they differ in their 134

subject matters and methodologies, assist families in adapting to the psychological and social conditions of their living and equip parents with child development and education skills (Tezel Şahin ve Özyürek, 2010). The aims of the parental education programs are as follows:  To help parents to gain child raising responsibility,  To have a positive influence on the attitudes and behaviors in the parent-child relationship by providing guidance for families in fostering the desirable attitudes in child raising,  To help parents to recognize children according the developmental characteristics of each age,  To reinforce the idea of how important the parents are for the life of their children and to inform them on the importance of forming healthy relationships with their children,  To provide parents information about the experiences children can have in the home environment,  To inform parents about their rights,  To strengthen the family bonds and to prepare children to start school,  To provide parents with alternative discipline methods,  To prevent child abuse and neglect,  To enhance the self-confidence of parents in the role of parenting,  To extend the impact of the parents education to the larger society by reaching out to other people in the family and in the setting (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010; Sarı, 2010). Through parents education, parents learn how to model specific skills to their children, while they also foster their own skills to prevent and solve potential problems with their children. However, as it is emphasized that parents education should not aim to teach parents how to take on the role of a teacher, but rather should equip them with skills on how children can be taught of necessary skills in a natural way (Varol, 2005). Principles to Be Followed While Preparing a Parents Education Program The preparation of an education program is a systematic and dynamic process which includes its planning, development, testing, implementation, evaluation and correction (Taşpınar, 2004). Accordingly, parental education programs should include stages of investigation, planning, implementation and evaluation. Investigation: During the preparation of an education program, priority should be given to the identification of needs, aims and potential obstacles. For this aim, data on the problems of parents and reasons underlying these problems should be gathered from parents through methods like surveys, interviews and observations to answer questions like: In which areas are their feelings of insufficiency the highest when they are with their children? What do they need to learn in these issues and additionally, would they be willing to join to an education program that addresses these issues and their needs? (Varol, 2015). It is suggested that parents show greater interest and willingness to learn issues for which they feel they are in the need of help. For this reason, it is suggested that parents education activities should be prepared in line with the needs of participants and in ways that it will offer solutions to their problems and attract their attention (Can, 2005; Axford et al., 2012). Planning: Necessary planning should be carried out regarding the program after 135

determining the aims of the education program. For this step, it is necessary to identify the appropriate content and means for the aims and the characteristics of the participants as well as the experts who will give the training and the principles of implementation and evaluation. At the planning stage, the implementer should decide the method and techniques to be used in education activities. It is underlined that the timing of parents education should be planned taking into consideration the schedules of the participants in order to meet the needs of working parents as well as possible (Can, 2005; Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Along with this, it is highlighted that the aim and principles determined at the planning stage should be realistic (Axford et al., 2012). Based on the number of educational aims included in the education program, it is stated that an implementation time should be determined carefully. It is expressed that the duration of a parents education program prepared to be implemented on a certain group in the country or abroad changes between six to twelve weeks (Varol, 2005). Before the implementation, the subject matter chosen for the education program should be entitled and framed in an interesting and persuasive manner to ensure the participation of parents, as previous studies suggested. It is underlined that the titles should not communicate negative content as the education programs with hopeful and promising titles increase the likelihood of parents’ participation. For instance, instead of a title like “Keeping children away from problems” a positive title like “Raising Good Children” is advisable. It is important to provide an accurate information on issues like the place and timing of the education meetings and means of transportation to the education venue (Ersay Çekmecelioğlu, 2010). Implementation: It is highlighted that before the education program is implemented, the participants should be informed about the content of the education in line with its framework. This should then be followed by the implementation of the program at the assigned place according to the planned content and the chosen teaching methods. The implementation of parents education mostly takes place in class and similar environments (Can, 2005). The day and the time of the sessions of the education program should be set in dialogue with the participant parents and in consideration of their circumstances and those of the trainers who will run the program, and furthermore, the education sessions should take place at least once a month (Varol, 2005; Axford et al., 2012). Seating participants in a semi-circle, circle or ‘U’ shape to foster face-to-face and positive communication and using educational tools that would facilitate and enrich learning would also increase the effectiveness of the program. Provision of child care facilities for the duration of the education session is underlined as another factor in the successful delivery of education programs. To give an example, in case the sessions take place at a school, the children can partake in activities under the supervision of teachers in a classroom of the school while their parents are in the education session (Ersay Çekmecelioğlu, 2010). Evaluation: The stage of evaluation consists of evaluating the extent to which the education program met the desirable aims. At this stage, whether the program met its aims in the short and long term, whether it has been appropriate for individual differences, and what the effects teaching strategies had on the program are some of the questions that need to be answered (Kandır et al., 2010). However, it is emphasized that before the evaluation, the content and aims of the program should be determined with uttermost care (Snow and Hemel, 2008). It is argued that at this stage, parents 136

should be asked for their opinions to evaluate and improve the program. For this part, opinions and suggestions of the program participants should be obtained through surveys and interviews in a non-judgmental, non-critical, non-offensive, constructive and formative manner, while the measuring tools should be devised in a way that would ensure parents respond without the influence of each other (Can, 2005; Varol, 2005). The results of the evaluation is suggested to be used to improve the program as well as to determine the impact of the education (Kandır et al., 2009; Gülçin, 2013). During the preparation of parents education programs, it should be taken into consideration that the developmental characteristics of the parents who are adults are different from those of the child (Can, 2005). Certain principles should be considered and followed for the successful execution of a parents education program: Preparing A Program to Meet The Needs: Education programs designed by taking into consideration the needs of parents are proven to be more effective. For this reason, the design of parents education programs should start with identifying the relevant information on the needs of parents in child rearing (Can, 2005; Axford et al., 2012). Preparing A Program Easy to Apply: It is suggested that the education process should not be designed solely as activities for knowledge transfer but should aim to assist parents to develop attitudes that they can easily apply in their lives. In this way, it is assured that the education not only transfers knowledge but equips individuals with skills on which they can rely on in their lives. Scholars also underline that besides the parents, the participation of grandparents and elder siblings should be encouraged and the education process should be commensurate with the level of the family, aiming to take them to the next level (Erkan, 2010). Enabling Active Participation and Freedom: It is pointed out that the education program should encourage active participation of parents. An important factor in the successful delivery of education is that it should address parents not as a passive audience but as active participants. Therefore, educational activities should be carried out in a friendly, lively, participatory, attractive and creative atmosphere, open to suggestions and discussions in a non-judgmental manner. To ensure a high quality education, it is very important that participants feel free to express themselves (Can, 2005). Volunteerism: In order for the program to meet its aims, participation of parents should be voluntary and parents should be encouraged for voluntary participation (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Preparing Suitable Environment: The education should take place in a venue suitable for the number of participants. It should provide isolation from external factors and make participants feel comfortable and safe (Ersay Çekmecelioğlu, 2015). Following Ethical Principles: Certain ethical principles must be followed in planning, implementing and evaluating parent education programs. These principles are as follows (Şahin and Özyürek, 2010; Ersay Çekmecelioğlu, 20105; Ünal, 2010):  Avoiding conflicts with traditional and cultural characteristics of parents and respecting their cultural beliefs, values and aims in child education,  Showing zero tolerance to discrimination between families on the basis of differences of status and income level,  Being aware of the influence of parents education on parents and family relationships, 137

 Assisting parents in realizing their own power and cooperating with them to reach their aims for themselves and their children,  Supporting and encouraging parents to gain knowledge in the development of their children,  Including parents in decisions related to the development and implementation of the program and in processes of problem solving,  Maintaining confidentiality in relationships with parents and informing them about the boundaries of confidentiality,  Following the principle of benefit to the child which is the fundamental value in activities with parents,  Informing parents on the plan of activities and getting their consent,  Informing parents on situations that may be dangerous for their children and for themselves, sharing solutions and acting collectively,  Opposing attitudes and behaviors that may contain harmful unethical elements and not partaking in this kind of programs,  Being a good listener, respecting the opinions of group members and reacting in a controlled, open and non-prejudiced manner,  Avoiding interest-based relationships with parents (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010; Ersay Çekmecelioğlu, 2010; Ünal, 2010). Besides these principles, it is suggested that parents education should deliver literacy trainings for illiterate parents, assist in receiving income generating job and skills trainings, and provide guidance for personal development and psychological counseling services for parents when necessary (Ural, 2015).

Parents Education Models In The Preschool Period In recent years, the importance of family education is being increasingly recognized and more and more studies are being done on the issue. Various institutions organize programs directed at parents to raise their awareness on child development and education, control of behavior and attitudes of families in child rearing (Kılıç, 2013). Although their content, duration, course material, training methods and techniques and the characteristics of the participants and educators differ, the aims of these programs remain the same (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010 Ailincai and WeilBarais, 2013). Priority target groups who are expected to participate are groups who are deprived socially, economically, geographically and in terms of family circumstances, along those others who are uneducated, unemployed, elderly, physically or mentally disabled or socially isolated (Ural, 2015). Parents education programs in may differ from each other in the methods that they employ. It is suggested that different approaches are necessary to popularize the planned services according to the needs of different groups in an effective manner (Erkan, 2010). The program approaches emerged in line with today's social needs are as follows: Program applied to children at school: It is the approach of taking care and education the preschool students at institutions such as nursery schools. This approach is the oldest preschool education approach. Program applied to parents: It is the preschool education program provided to parents without considering whether the preschool children attend school or not. Parental school implementations are examples of this approach. 138

Program applied to children and parents together: It is the program where preschool education is provided to children together with parents participating in the education. An example to this approach is Gazi University Mother-Child Education Program which is supported by home visits. Program applied to children, parents and society together: This approach does not only provide education for parents also deals with it as a basic issue that whole society considers important and feels responsible. Family participation is accepted as a part of adult education. This approach not only covers preschool, education but also covers primary and secondary education (Erkan, 2015). Relying on these approaches, parents education programs are organized according to different models, which are home based model, institution based model, distance teaching model, child-to-child education and mobile services (Kılıç, 2010; Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Home Based Model: Home based model is defined as a model where educators periodically visit children and their families in their home to teach on subjects determined in line with the needs of the family and to direct parents into their implementation. Beginning with the birth and lasting until the primary school age, this model is centered on the family in its approach to child development and education (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010; Erdoğan, 2014). It is suggested that home based model is directed mainly to parents of preschool aged children who do not attend any education institution or cannot do so due to the high levels of deprivation they are exposed to (Varol, 2005). These programs aim at equipping parents with skills that they can use in their interactions with their children and that will help them to increase the benefits of activities for the development of their children’s knowledge and capacity of comprehension (Kılıç, 2010). It is stated that the education programs that are grounded on home visits are preferable for various reasons: They give opportunity to families who live far away from care centers and have difficulty to reach these facilities; they provide more flexibility in planning; they are more economic; they allow to educate children in a familiar setting rather than in unfamiliar one like care centers or clinics; and they offer support to the whole family at their home (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010; Erdoğan, 2014). In home based model, the family educator generally visits the parents and child in their home once every week or every fortnight and checks if the aims are successfully reflected in the child’s life. If the aims are not met, the educator and the parents may decide to continue working on the same aims for one or two more weeks, or to make the necessary changes in the teaching material and methods as they see appropriate (Varol, 2005). There has been much research investigating the effectiveness of home based parental education programs. In a study conducted with 80 children and their mothers examined the effects of the home based Mother-Child Education Program on children’s cognitive development and aimed at supporting the development of children it was found out that the Mother-Child Education Program supports the cognitive development of children and get them ready for the school (Kartal, 2007). Another study conducted with 110 mothers on the effects of a home based mother education program on the attitudes and empathic tendencies of mothers of preschool age children demonstrated that the program increases their democratic attitude and empathic tendencies, while their authoritative, overprotective and inconsistent attitudes are 139

diminished (Öğretir and Demiriz, 2009). Institution Based Model: Institution based model is an approach of education grounded on the mother-father-educator interaction where the educator instructs parents on child development and education in group meetings on certain days of the week. In this model, parents are expected to support the development of children in the rest of the week by working with their children at home on the teaching material provided by the program. In institution based programs, educators can teach twenty or more parents at the same time. This enables parents of similar age groups to exchange knowledge and share their problems and solutions with each other (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). It is highlighted that parents should be informed by the school about the program to ensure their participation and that written information distributed to parents forms a firm basis for a good relationship between the school and the parents (Cömert and Güleç, 2004). Institution based programs can be divided into four categories, namely expanded programs, generalization programs, specialist programs and behavioral change programs. Expanded programs are programs which include the implementation of a similar education to the one received by the child at the education institution by parents at home. Generalization programs aim at the continuation and generalization of the notions and skills that the child acquires successfully through the education programs at his education institution. Specialist parental education programs include the instruction of children by their parents at home on skills which are extra-curricular or cannot be transferred at the schools yet which the child may need. Finally, behavioral management programs aim at equipping parents with skills to control their children’s behavior, in particular their inappropriate behaviors which are observed mainly at home, and to promote instead positive behavior (Varol, 2005). Distance Teaching Model: It is pointed out that distance teaching model gains importance in today’s education system. Turkey’s limited infrastructure and recourses and increasing population growth make it an important alternative for education (İşman, 2011). In particular, distance teaching services for women get even more crucial due to the increasing difficulties women face nowadays in participating out-ofhome and out-of-work activities and due to the limited time, place and resources (Demiray, 2013). Distance teaching model aims to educate individuals with different circumstances by eliminating the limitations on the provision of education services. Telephone, radio, television, computer and cyberspace are some of the cost-efficient means through which distance teaching can be transmitted. In this model, printed materials, leaflets and brochures on child development and education are periodically posted to parents who are directly reached via radio or television as well. Radio and television programs specially designed for parents are broadcasted which transmit knowledge on child development and education and on skills for preparing supporting activities and toy making for child development. It is argued that this model is especially beneficial in reaching out to children of low income families who do not have access to preschool education (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Child-to-Child Education Child-to-child education is defined as the transfer of what children learns at home or at school to other children. In this way, it is aimed to make children gain certain knowledge and skills via other children (Erdoğan, 2014). In many parts of the world, older children traditionally take care of younger 140

children or assist in their care. In a similar way, children living in the rural areas and shantytowns of Turkey often find themselves in caring for their younger siblings. It is suggested that this model prepares children for their future roles as parents and that children are able to transmit the knowledge that they learn to their peers, parents and other individuals of the society (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Mobile Services: It is suggested that mobile programs initially emerged to provide care for children of migrant workers in mobile nurseries and to assist mothers to have their children receive care in a safe place during their working hours. Bus-mobile nurseries are argued to bring an opportunity of education to children who cannot attend a nursery for financial or familial reasons. These nurseries visit areas where children live and deliver them in certain time slots education programs which are designed mainly for cognitive development. Mobil services aim to bring an opportunity of preschool education for children who cannot access to other preschool education services, to prepare them for primary education, to support the development and education of children of different areas according to their needs and to raise awareness of parents and other family members on child education. Mobile education services are argued to play an important role in the consciousness raising of the society on issues like parental education, child health, child nutrition and education via conferences, meeting and printed materials (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010; Haktanır et al., 2013).

Parents Education Programs In Turkey It is stated that parents education programs prepared in Turkey are mostly for parents who have preschool children. These programs are generally structured programs requiring the active participation of mothers and home visits. However due to factors like not sending girls to school and instead putting them to work, or the low rates of literacy especially among women, efforts for education focus on basic education (Ural, 2010). Parents education programs aim to provide services mainly to children of families with low socioeconomic status. It is stated that the aim here is to reach out to families in need of health, education, social and economic support. In Turkey, various institutions and organizations deliver education service to children and their families, including Ministry for National Education, Social Services and Child Protection Agency, Ministry of Labor, civil society organizations, UNICEF, local governments, universities, Turkish Armed Forces, Grand National Assembly of Turkey, private enterprises and World Bank (Kılıç, 2010). The most important studies conducted on parental education during preschool period in Turkey are as follows: Mother Child Education Program (MCEP): Mother Child Education Program is a preschool education program built on a scientific basis as a solution to the problem of early childhood education in Turkey. It is developed in light of the results of “Research Project on Early Support” which was conducted from 1982 until 1991, and its widespread implementation was realized by the Mother Child Education Foundation which was established with this aim. Program aims to contact mothers directly and to provide educational support in order to enhance the educating potential of mothers. In this way, the program ensures the empowerment of women as individuals and the development of their educating role as mothers, while the developmental needs of her children can be satisfied at home. Mother support program is run for a total of five weeks and consists of three programs on reproductive health, family planning and 141

cognitive development (Kartal, 2010). The aim of the program is to help the multifaceted development of children who cannot access to preschool education and live in risky and inconvenient conditions, to enhance the educating role of mothers, and to deliver an education that, through supporting mothers, would enable them to create a suitable environment for the development of their children’s cognitive, physical and social skills, creativity and talents (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). A study conducted with hundred volunteer mothers to evaluate the effectiveness of MCEP in the countries it was implemented including Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland, Belgium and Bahrain revealed that the program had positive impact on the attitudes of child rearing among participant mothers. The research results demonstrated the importance of targeting both families and children and of formation of groups to which mothers can join and experience a learning environment with their children for the effectiveness of parental education programs (Bekman and Atmaca Konak, 2011). Mother Support Program: Mother Support Program has been developed in cooperation with the Special Directory for Education, Guidance and Counseling of the Ministry of Education as a part of Mother-Child Education Program. It consists of a training program which is directed at mothers of three-nine years old children with the aim of providing information and support to mothers on child development and education and strengthening mother-child relationship. This program is run for tenthirteen weeks, with sessions one day a week (Kartal, 2010; AÇEV, 2015). Father Support Program (FSP): Father Support Program is defined as an adult education program aiming to contribute to the development of children by supporting fathers. The target group of the is the fathers who have children between the ages of two-ten. The aims of the program which is delivered in weekly meetings over tentwelve weeks are as follows: To raise awareness of fathers about their role in contributing to the development of their children and to inform them about this issue; to support the acquirement of democratic attitudes in the family; to encourage fathers to spend more time with their children and form with them a healthy relationship; and to enable them gain knowledge on the needs of their children and change their own violent behavior (AÇEV, 2015). Parental School: The roots of parental schools can be traced back to the talks of the Medico-Social Center and the Military Medical University which were delivered to parents in 1962-1963, while the first systemized parental school of Turkey was established by the Faculty of Educational Sciences at Istanbul University in 1989. This program aims at educating parents in issues like developmental characteristics and education of children, parental attitudes, marital problems, communication with children, problems of children of adaptation and behavior, role of family on enhancing school success and relationship of working mothers with fathers and children (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Preschool Parent-Child Education Program : The aim of the program which targets six years old children who already receive preschool education is to strengthen the cooperation between school and family, to ensure that the education support the child receives is continuous and complimentary, and to prepare the child for school by supporting his cognitive development as well as verbal and numerical skills. The program implemented in thirty two provinces in Turkey, continues for twenty four months (Kartal, 2010; Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Family Letters Project: Family Letters Project is an education program which 142

consists of letters designed to support future parents from their decision to have a child onwards throughout pregnancy until their child is three years old. It aims to give families information on diverse issues such as pregnancy, birth, health of postnatal mother and baby, baby nutrition, on supporting the emotional, social and cognitive development of the child and on the role of father and its importance. The first six letters of the program are devoted to pregnancy period, the next twelve letters to the first year of the baby and the final twelve letters to the second and third years of the baby (Kartal, 2010; AÇEV, 2015). Mobile Nursery School Project : Mobile Nursery Project is a project designed as an alternative to institutional preschool education by reaching out to preschool children and their families living in materially deprived areas. It aims to generalize preschool education, support the development of children who cannot attend to a preschool education institute and raise awareness of parents on education of children. It is emphasized that a large number of children are provided with educational services by mobile nursery schools since the 2004-2005 academic year at provinces such as Bursa, Gaziantep, Istanbul, Konya, Malatya, Denizli, Gümüşhane, Aydın and Balıkesir (Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010; Haktanır et al., 2013).

Parents Education Programs in The World An important portion of parents education programs throughout the world focuses, especially in the first years of their development, on disadvantaged families and their children (Kartal, 2010). Some programs developed for preschool parental education worldwide are as follows: Head Start Program: This program was first developed by Marian Edelman in the United States of America in 1960 to support the cognitive, social, emotional and physical development of children of poor families. The main aim of the program is to provide preschool children education, health and social services. Another aim is to ensure parents’ participation to the program designed for their children. The program is carried out institution or home based until the families are self-sufficient. It is stated that more than one million children per year attend the program (Garces et al., 2000; Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). Early Head Start: This is a program designed with the aim of developing children and families by providing support to future mothers during pregnancy and to babies after birth. Like Head Start program, it is carried out institution or home based and is run for two years (Raikes et al., 2006; Kartal, 2010). Even Start Program: The program aims to enhance the academic achievement of children by creating an environment that children need to learn literacy. The program consists of four components, namely adult education, early childhood education, family support education and parents and children together education. While families receive education in adult education classrooms, children between six months to three years old are offered various learning opportunities as part of early childhood education. Program approximately is run for seven months (Kartal, 2010). Home Instruction Program for Parents of Preschool Youngsters This program has been developed in Israel between 1968-1969. It aims at establishing parallels between school and home by enriching the home environment of children. Based on a home based approach, it is directed to families with three to five years old children to 143

foster their skills on child education. The program is run for two years and aims to provide education particularly for children with cognitive incapacities at their homes. This program is currently being implemented in many countries, including Israel, USA, Canada, Austria, Argentina and New Zealand (HIIPY International, 2016; Tezel Şahin and Özyürek, 2010). High/Scope Project: Developed by Weikart in the USA in 1970, this program aims at generalizing preschool education, provide care and education services to children through home visits and give education services to children and adolescents through summer camps. The program is based on active learning, i.e. learning through direct engagement by objects, events and ideas. In this approach, classes are formed according to age groups and interests and the fundamental emphasis is on the basic experiences, i.e. on the activities of the children and their perception of the world. Basic experiences guide the execution of the program. The aim of the teacher is to create an environment for active learning and to assist children in reflecting on their own acts (Kartal, 2010). AVANCE Family-Child Program: The program initiated in the United States of America in 1973 with the motto of “Strong Families, Strong Societies” is an intervention program aimed at educating low income families and their children and supporting families through various services. The program includes subjects like family education, early childhood education, home based education, educational games and toy making, family literacy activities, health education and nutrition education (AVANCE, 2013). PORTAGE Early Childhood Period Education Program: Portage Project, initiated in the United States of America in 1975, is a home based program directed to children with special needs living in rural areas. The program, which aims at regularly observing and supporting the development children since their birth through primary education age, is based on the interaction of children, parents, educators and experts. The program is intended for 0-3 year old children with special needs and their families and is implemented through individualized education plans at home. Education material consists of the Portage control list, education cards which include six hundred instructions and activity charts (Kartal, 2010; National Portage Association, 2015). CONCLUSION Learning process in human life starts with birth. Nowadays, as the opinion that education of children starts from birth at home and continues within and outside the school through the life gains importance, the view that education starts at school became insignificant. The primary and the most important factor in the learning process of the child is the family. The cognitive, physical, social and emotional development of the child primarily starts in the family. Therefore, parents who have an important place in the life of children need to improve their parental skills in child care and education. Today, with the social change, changes take place in the parental life and in the social roles attributed to men and women, traditional family structure is replaced by nuclear family model. Thus traditional support systems are destroyed and parents need professional support in parenting. Therefore, parents need resources where they can obtain information regarding child development. Family education programs provided by government and non-governmental organizations intends to satisfy the social need 144

in this field by providing the parents with the necessary information under a plan. These programs in Turkey primarily aim to reach socially disadvantaged families. Considering parental education as a public education, providing social support to the parents attending educational programs gains more importance. Programs need to support parents about the development and education of children while providing them with the opportunities such as reading, writing and vocational education, psychological guiding and counseling. REFERENCES AÇEV (2015). Anne Babalar İçin. http://www.acev.org/ne-yapiyoruz/anne-babalar-icin. Ailincai, R., Weil-Barais, A. (2013). Parenting Eductaion: Which Intervention Model to Use? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 106: 2008 – 2021. Alakoç Pirpir, D. (2011). Anne Eğitim Programının 5–6 Yaş Çocuklarının Temel Eğitime Hazır Bulunuşluk Düzeyine Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Çocuk Gelişimi ve Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Selçuk Üniversitesi. Alkan, E., Kurtulmuş, Z., Çürük Tekin, N. (2014). Aile çocuk eğitim programının annelerin çocuk yetiştirme tutumlarına ve ev ortamını düzenlenmelerine etkisinin incelenmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 22(3): 1077-1090. Aral, N., Gülen, B., Gürsoy, F., Akyol, A., Bütün Ayhan, A., Yıldız Bıçakçı, M., Erdoğan, S. (2011)The Effects of Parent Education Programs on the Development of Children Aged Between 60 and 72 Months. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 39(2), 241-249. Ateah, C.A. (2013). Prenatal Parent Education For First-Time Expectant Parents: ‘‘Making It Through Labor is Just The Beginning.’’ J of Pediatric Health Care 27(2): 91-97. Axford, N., Lehtonen, M., Kaoukji, D., Tobin, K., Berry, V. (2012). Engaging Parents in Parenting Programs: Lessons From Research and Practice. Children and Youth Services Review 34: 2061–2071. AVANCE (2013). Why Avance? http://www.avance.org/about-us/. Anlıak, Ş. (2004). Okulöncesi Dönemde Çocuğun Yaşamında Baba ve Erkek Öğretmenin Rolü ve Önemi. Ege Eğitim Dergisi 5: 25-33, Aydın, M. Z. (2010). Çocuğun Eğitiminde Anne ve Babanın Rolü. Kamuda Sosyal Politika12: 59-61. Bağartarhan, T., Nazlı, S. (2013). Ebeveyn Eğitim Programının Annelerin Ebeveynlik Öz Yeterliklerine Etkisi. Sosyal Politika Çalışmaları 13(31): 67-88. Bekman, S., Atmaca Konak, A. (2011). Mothers Reporting I: For Whom and Why İs The Mother-Child Education Program Effective? Education and Science 36(160): 171-183. Biber, K., Ural, O. (2012). Portage Erken Eğitim programının kurum ortamında yaşayan 5– 6 yaş grubu çocukların gelişimleri ile aile katılım düzeyleri üzerindeki etkisi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. 15 (27): 87-125. Can, G. (2005). Yetişkinlik Psikolojisi ve Eğitimi. Anne Baba Eğitimi. Ed. S. Türküm. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, s.23-52. Cömert, D., Güleç, H. (2004). Okulöncesi Eğitim Kurumlarında Aile Katılımının Önemi: Öğretmen - Aile - Çocuk ve Kurum. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 6(1): 131-145. Demiray, E. (2013). Uzaktan Eğitim ve Kadın Eğitiminde Uzaktan Eğitimin Önemi. Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi 2(2): 155-168. Demircioğlu, H. (2012). Altı Yaşında Çocuğu Olan Annelere Uygulanan Aile Eğitimi Programının Aile İşlevleri ve Anne Baba Tutumları İle Çocuğun Gelişimi Üzerindeki Etkisinin Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Çocuk Gelişimi ve 145

Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Gazi Üniversitesi. Erdoğan, S. (2014). Erken Çocukluk Döneminde Kurum Çeşitleri. Erken Çocukluk Eğitimi. (3. Baskı). Ed. İ. H. Diken. Ankara: Pegem Akademi, s. 362-371. Erkan, S. (2010). Aile Eğitimi ve Aile Eğitimiyle İlgili Temel Kavramlar. Aile Eğitimi ve Erken Çocukluk Eğitiminde Aile Katılım Çalışmaları. Ed. F. Temel. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık, s. 3-40. Ersay Çekmecelioğlu, E. (2010). Aile Eğitimi Programlarının Planlanması, Uygulanması ve Değerlendirilmesi. Aile Eğitimi ve Erken Çocukluk Eğitiminde Aile Katılım Çalışmaları. Ed. F. Temel. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık, s. 274-324. Garces, E., Thomas, D., Currie, J. (2000). Longer term effects of Head Start. U.S.A.: National Bureu of Economic Research. Gülçin, G. (2013). Okul Öncesi Eğitim Programı. Okul Öncesi Eğitime Giriş. Ed. G. Uyanık Balat. Ankara: Pegem Akademi, s. 82-133. Haktanır, G., Akgün, E., Karaman, G. (2013). Topluma Hizmet Uygulamaları Dersi ve MEB Mobil Anaokulu Projesi’nin Birlikte Yürütülmesi İle Çocukların Gelişimlerinin Desteklenmesi: Peçenek Köyü Örneği. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi 21(1): 69-82. Hidalgo, M. V., Jiménez, L., López-Verdugo, I., Lorence, B., Sánchez, J. (2016). “Family Education and Support” Program for Families At Psychosocial Risk: The Role of Implementation Process. Psychosocial Intervention, March: 1-7. HIPPY International (2016). HIPPY - Home Instruction for Parents and Preschool Youngsters. http://www.hippy-international.org/. İşman, A. (2011). Uzaktan Eğitim. (4. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Karakuzu, E. (2015). Ebeveyn Destekli İlkokula Hazırlık Programı’nın Okul Öncesi Dönem Çocuklarının İlkokula Hazır Bulunuşluğuna Etkisi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İlköğretim Anabilim Dalı, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi. Kartal, H. (2007). The Effect of Mother-Child Education Program Which Is One of The Early Childhood Education Programs On Cognitive Development of Six Age Children. Elementary Education Online 6(2), 234-248. Kartal, H. (2010). Erken Eğitim ve Destek Programları. Aile Eğitimi ve Erken Çocukluk Eğitiminde Aile Katılım Çalışmaları. Ed. F. Temel. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık, s. 159-217. Kandır, A., Özbey, S., İnal, G. (2009). Okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin eğitim programlarını planlama ve uygulamada karşılaştıkları güçlüklerin incelenmesi. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi 2(6), 373-398. Kandır, A., Özbey, S., İnal, G. (2010). Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Program. Kuramsal Temeller. İstanbul: Morpa. Kılıç, S. (2010). Aile Eğitim Programları ve Türkiye’deki Örnekleri. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Dergisi 10(1): 99-111. Kılıç, Ç. (2013). 3-6 Yaş Aile Eğitim Programının Yetişkin Eğitiminde Program Geliştirme Süreci Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 373-393. Kuzucu, Y. (2011). Değişen Babalık Rolü ve Çocuk Gelişimine Etkisi. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 4 (35): 79-91. Letarte, M., Normandeau, S., Allard, J. (2010). Effectiveness of A Parent Training Program “Incredible Years” In a Child Protection Service. Child Abuse & Neglect 34, 253–261. Lewis, C., Lamb, M. E. (2003). Fahthers’ Influences on Child Development: The Evidence From Two-Parents Families. European J. of Psychology of Educ. XVIII(2): 211-228. Mag, A. G. (2011). Parents and early teachers: Sharing education. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 11: 37–41. Mash, E.; Wolfe, D.A. (2007). Abnormal Child Psychology. Belmont CA: Wadsworth. 146

National Portage Association (2016). About The Association. http://www.Portage.org.uk/ab out.

Öğretir, A. D., Demiriz, S. (2009). Anne Ev Ziyareti Eğitim Programının Annelerin Tutumlarına ve Empatik Eğilimlerine Etkisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi 42(1), 421-433. Özcan, Ç., Aydoğan, Y. (2014). Aile katılımı ile çocukların akademik benlik saygısı arasındaki ilişkinin anne-baba görüşlerine göre incelenmesi. Millî Eğitim, 202: 19-36. Özen, D. Ş. (2009). Ergenlerde Anneden Algılanan Kabul/İlgi İle Benlik-Algısı Arasındaki İlişki: Babadan Algılanan Kabul/İlginin Aracı Rolü. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları 12 (24): 28-38. Özkardeş, O. G. (2011). Baba Olmak. Ana-Baba Okulu, Ed. H. Yavuzer, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, s.: 128-142. Parke, R. D., Gauvain, M. (2009). Child Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Proctor, K. B.; Brestan-Knight, E. (2016). Evaluating The Use of Assessment Paradigms for Preventive Interventions: A Review of The Triple P — Positive Parenting Program. Children and Youth Services Review, 62: 72–82. Raikes, H., Green, B., Atwater, J., Kisker, E., Constantine, J., Chazan-Cohen, R. (2006). Involvement in Early Head Start home visiting services: Demographic predictors and relations to child and parent outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 21, 2–24. Santrock, J. W. (2011). Life Span Dvelopment. New York: McGraw Hill. Sarı, İ. (2010). Emniyet örgütünde görevli anne-babaların fiziksel istismar potansiyellerinin belirlenmesi ve istismarla ilgili eğitim programının etkililiği. Doktora Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bölümleri Enstitüsü, Okulöncesi Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı. Seabra-Santos, M. J., Gaspar, M. F., Azevedo, A. F., Homem, T. C., Guerra, J., Martins, V., Leitão, S., Pimentel, M., Almeida, M., Moura-Ramos, M. (2016). Incredible Years Parent Training: What Changes, For Whom, How, For How Long? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 44: 93–104. Shannon, J. D., Tamis-Lemonda, C. S., Margolin, A. (2005). Father Involvement In Infancy: Influences of Past and Current Relationships. Infancy 8(1), 21–41. Snow, C., Hemel, S. (2008). Early Childhood Assessment: Why, What and How. Washington: National Academies Press, p. 145-178. Taşpınar, M. (2004). Kuramdan Uygulamaya Öğretim İlke ve Yöntemleri. Ankara: Üniversite Kitabevi. Tatvan, A. (2009). 0-3 Yaş Çocuğu Olan Annelere Yönelik Beslenme Eğitim Programı. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eğitim Bilimleri Ana Bilim Dalı, Marmara Üniv. Tezel Şahin, F., Özyürek, A. (2010). Anne Baba Eğitimi ve Okul Öncesinde Aile Katılımı. İstanbul: Morpa. Ural, O. (2010). Dünden Bugüne Aile Eğitimi. Aile Eğitimi ve Erken Çocukluk Eğitiminde Aile Katılım Çalışmaları. Ed. F. Temel. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık, s. 50-67. Ünal, F. (2010). Aile Eğitiminde Ebeveyn Hakları İle İlgili Yasalar ve Etik Kurallar. Aile Eğitimi ve Erken Çocukluk Eğitiminde Aile Katılım Çalışmaları. Ed. F. Temel. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık, s. 110-153. Varol, N. (2005). Aile Eğitimi. Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık. Yılmaz Bolat, E. (2011). Anne Baba Eğitiminin Beş–Altı Yaş Çocuğa Sahip Anne Babaların Çocuk Yetiştirme Tutum ve Davranışlarına Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Çocuk Gelişimi ve Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Ankara Üniv. Yörükoğlu, A. (2000). Aile ve Çocuk. (6.Basım). İstanbul: Özgür Yayınları. Zeybekoğlu, Ö. (2013). Günümüzde Erkeklerin Gözünden Babalık ve Aile. Mediterranean Journal of Humanities III(2): 297-328.

147

Chapter 11 Reflection of “Justice” Value to the Pictures Drawn by the Secondary School Students Ömer Faruk SÖNMEZ, Arzu SÖNMEZ & Özlem KUM 1. INTRODUCTION According to the relevant literature, there are numbers of description about the value; and it is important to look up these descriptions to comprehend introduction of the value. Value is described as a “thing emerges in the connection between persons, as creature in need and desiring, and subject” (TDK, 2016).As value is something desired, interested and needed and it also refers an ideal concept (Bolay, 2007: 60). Values are social behavior patterns which allow them to guarantee existence of individuals in their societyand facilitate their lives (Özkan, 2010: 1128). Theodorson describesvalueas “generalized and abstract behavior principles formed strong affection bonds among members of social group, which provides basic benchmark in judging private actions and purposes in an assessment on significance of phenomenon”(Aydın, 2003: 122).Value is integrative phenomenon adopted by individuals and society;criterions believed to be for the good of individuals and to fulfill social needs of society;judgments concerning cognition, affection and excitement; and motivations nested in cognition of an individual, which direct their behavior (Özgüven, 1999). Whereas Rokeach (1973: 5) describes value as belief indicating a special behavior style orstatus of personal or social preferences against a counter status, it is described as “the whole of beliefs related with aims and statuses in a certain society” when it is viewed from cultural andsocial perspective (Gari, Mylonas and Karagianni, 2005). Description of a good value also determines the valuesnecessary to be taught. Persons humble, honest, kind,loyal,patient,respectfulandsincere are assessed as valuable humans by others (Kelley, 2003). Expressions about values could be summarized as below:  These are phenomenon which includes beliefs,thus, the ones with transcendence. Values are spiritual.  They allow individuals to rationalize their actions (let them view their actions in logical perspective).  In general, they are the things interested in and desired. Human beings adopt valueswith sympathy and willingfully.  They are interested in all areas; but there are specific values in each area of life.  Although they have different resources and contents, they are somehow social (They are lived within society and adopted by human beings) (Aydın, 2003). Societies havevarioussorts of common values. It not is possible to consider societies apart from their set of values. Human societies have matured their values 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gaziosmanpaşa University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of Social Sci. Lecturer, Gaziosmanpaşa University, Erbaa Vocational School, Tokat 



along the time andinherited them until today. It is observed that individuals have adjusted their behaviors according to the set of values in society (Karagöz, 2009: 7). Sapsağla (2015 ) study in the value of education of children of the findings on the value of almost all of the teachers examined related to support the development in which areas have been found to indicate that contribute to all areas of development of the child's education I Sapsağlam and Ömeroğlu, 2015: 257). 1.2. Classification of Values Of these classifications, the most common and recognized one was introduced by Rokeach, Spranger and Schwartz . All of these classifications were presented below. 1.2.1. Value Classification According to Rokeach Rokeach distinguishes values in two groups as basic valuesandinstrumentvalues. Basic valuesinclude desiredultimate values. As an example of these values, success, free-will, equalityand virtueetc. could be presented. Instrument values referbehavior styles needed to reach basic values. For example, courage, responsibility, reality, and passionetc. are of these values (Acat andAslan, 2012; Yiğittir, 2009: 24). 1.2.2. Value Classification According to Spranger Spranger classified values in six distinct groups under references of scientific, economic, aesthetic, social, politicandreligious;and explained them as follows (Akbaş, 2004: 55-56; Yiğittir, 2009: 23-24):  ScientificValues: Put emphasis on reality, knowledge, reasoning and critical thought. Persons with scientificvalues think empirical, critical, rational and intellectual.  EconomicValues: Attach importance to beneficent and practical ones. Emphasize that economicvalues are required to be prioritized in life.  AestheticValues: Care about symmetry, harmony and form. Individuals view the life as variety of events; consider art as necessity for society.  SocialValues: Loving others, help and not be selfish are important pillars. The highest value is putting human beings prominence. Humanity for all others, kindness and sympathy are essential. Selfishness is avoided.  PoliticValues: Personal power, influence and fame are above everything. Essentially it is related with force.  Religious Values: Comprehends the universe as a whole and attachesoneself to its integrity. Sacrifices mundane pleasures for religion. 1.2.3. Value Classification According to Schwartz According to Schwartz, valuesare grouped under eleven titles: self-governance, stimulation, hedonism, success, strength, security, harmony, tradition, spiritually, charityanduniversality.Values within these groups were described below (Acat and Aslan, 2012;Çekin, 2012; Kuşdil and Kağıtçıbaşı, 2000; Yazıcı, 2006; Yiğittir, 2009: 26-27):  Self-governance: Self-respect, determining personal targets, creativity, curiosity, freedom and independence.  Harmony: Respecting parents and elders, being obedient, kind andself-control.  Stimulation: An exciting and dynamic life, being brave.  Hedonism: Having pleasure from life, prioritizing desires and tastes.  Success: Being respected, passionate, successful, competent/capable, clever person. 149

 Strength: Socialstrength, being wealthy (welfare), having authority, social reputation, maintaining social status.  Security:National security,  National security, loyalty feeling, return the favor, social order, security of family, keep healthy,keep hygiene.  Tradition:Accepting the share of life, geniality, being religious, being humble, respecting tradition, privacy, respecting /private right.  Universality: Socialjustice, peaceful world, virtues, a good world,preserving environment, being open-minded, equality, unity with nature, internal peace.  Charity: A spiritual life, being forgiven, being honest, helpful, being loyal, beingresponsible, a meaningful life,true friendand mature love (Yazıcı, 2006). 1.3. Value Education According to valueeducation, it was concluded that value education initiated within the family because individuals’ first life understanding starts with their family before the school atmosphere. This understanding also guides value understanding of children as well. According to Baloğlu & Balgalmış(2007:23),it was reported that replacement of an impaired value in children with another one is difficult than gaining a new value. Ryan and Bohlin (1999:242-245) suggest families following advices regarding value education of children:  First, be a good model and example to them.  Avoid undertaking this burden alone and apply for assistance.  You need to be effective in school life of your children.  You need to control what is absorbed by your child’s heart and mind.  You need to be patient about learning basic rules andvalues.  Even during punishment of your child, you need to do this with loving heart; children need to know the reason of this punishment.  You need to be careful about your tone of speech and to use a moral conservation.  You should not downgrade character education to only speech.  Formation of a good character is required to have priority at your home. As it was reported by Ryan and Bohlin, it was observed that family has significant position in value acquisition and valueeducation. The school is the next significant place in value education after the family. Especially, valueseducation is included by school programs.Values in primary school programs are giventhrough Turkish, Natural Science and Technology, Mathematic, Religion and Ethics, and SocialSciences teaching programs. According to Berkant and Sürmeliye (2013), schools areliving and learning areas built on valuesbecause the most general and certain purpose of value education is to ensure righteous harmony between social life and children/youth.In cultural adjustment, teaching of general, universal, experienced and established values constitutes general teaching (Ay and Dal, 2014: 79).Teachers have great responsibility within this process.Teachers are the prominent role models in school environment. Hence, it is reported that teachers have great responsibility in value education andthey need to be role model to students. Additionally, it is emphasized that value teaching should be conducted through both direct and indirect teachingand approach instead ofa single perspective (Deveci, 2008: 199). Furthermore, if it is viewed from different 150

point, it could be observed that value judgment of teachers are also significantly effective on students (Yılmaz, 2013:651). Educators at schools are required to know their roles and to work without any mistake. Teachers who want to make change on values already gained by students are required tobe model in education process for these valuesso that value education could accomplish its purpose (Ulusoy and Dilmaç, 2012).Although societies have encountered various disasters since their ancient times, they possess irrevocable uniqueset of values. Thesevaluescause the same excitement regardless of distancesand territories because thesevaluesare essential building stone of nations. Valuesarise, dissipate, protected and inherited through generations from experiences (Çetin, 2015:452).Values education has great significancein terms of building futures of nations. 1.4. Justice as Value In terms of lexical meaning, justice is described as “ensuring application of legal rights to everyone (TDK, 2016). Tekin (2007: 13) describes justice as compliance with rights and law, righteousness in observing rights and administering law.Similar to other values, acquisition of justice value will take place among children owing to contribution of elements such as family, school and teacher into the process. Justice is one of the prominent characteristics distinguishes human beings from others.Thus, justice is acting righteous in every moment of the life. Sense of justice of children includes a processespecially starting with family and continuing school and teacher.In this regard, family has significant responsibility in this scope. Domestic justice is rather important. In this regard, failure in provision of value education accelerates societal collapse. Hence, the purpose of the present study is to try exposingsense of justice among students through drawings. In the family and education cycle, the perception of justice created among children will be tried to reveal through drawings. 2. METHOD 2.1. Research Model The present study conducted to determine justice perception of secondary school students was structured based on the science pattern,one of the qualitative research patterns. In this pattern, it is aimed to reveal or assess personal perceptions or point of views. Qualitative research is a research type in which a qualitative process is followed to expose perceptions and events in a realistic and holistic way in natural environment (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011).In phenomenal scientific researches, data analysis is conducted to exposeexperiences and relevant meanings.In analyses along this purpose, it is aimed to conceptualizing of data and revealing themes whichcould describe the phenomenon. However, it may not yield precise and generalizable results with respect to the nature of qualitative research (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). 2.2. The Study Group The study group was consisted of totally 20 volunteer students (10 male and 10 female) from 8th graders at the Hakimiyeti Milliye Secondary School located in Erbaa County center of Tokat City. The study group was selected based on easy accessto the school, minimized time waste and volunteer participation of students. 2.3. Data Collection Tool and Process The study data was collected by researchers through an interview form consisted 151

of 4 questions and a section which allows respondents to draw a picture. The questions prepared according to the relevant literature were exhibited below: 1- In your opinion, what is justice? Please write briefly? 2- How our world would look like if there was no justice? 3- Could you please tell us about an incident in which you experience unjust behavior? 4- If you are in charge of justice in the world, what would you do first? After respondents answer these questions, they were given an A4 form paper with a question of “How would you draw the justice?” and respondents were asked to draw a picture. While female respondents used codes on the A4 forms such as K1, K2 and K3,male respondents use dcodes such as E1, E2 and E3. Then, these forms were collected back from respondents after 2 course hours. 2.4. Data Analysis This study has a qualitative research pattern. In this scope, pictures drawn by participant children were evaluated by means of the descriptive analysis, one of the qualitative research methods. Descriptive analysis is considered as qualitative data analysis type which includes assessment and summarizing of data obtained through various data collection techniques on the basis of pre-determined themes. In this analysis type, the essential purpose is report findings to the readers inan assessed and summarized form. To that end, certain examples of collected data could be presented directly (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). Descriptive analysis process is consisted of various steps. First, a data analysis framework is structured for the data analysis, based on the conceptual setting of the research. The relevant categories are determined for organization and presentation of data. Then, the researcher organizes data forrational and significant presentation of data according to the framework determined beforehand. At the end of this process, the researcher explains, associates, explains and interprets findings described before (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011).The answers collected through interview form were analyzed and assessed by the researchers. 3. FINDINGSANDCOMMENTS 3.1. Findings and Assessment regarding the question of “In your opinion, what is justice? Please explain briefly?” Whereas the respondent K1 stated that “justice is the essential pillar of the society”, the other with E2reference stated that “I think justice means that human beings live equally without discrimination according to their religion, language and ethnicity”. 3.2. Findings and Assessment regarding the question of “How our world would look like if there was no justice?” Whereas the respondentK2 answered with “there would not be peace in the society”,the respondentE3 answered with “everyone would get above themselves”. 3.3. Findings and Assessment regarding the question of “Could you please tell us about an incident in which you experience unjust behavior?” Whereas the respondentK5 expressed her opinions “especially inthe line at the cafeteria, boys come and take our turns; we keep waiting on the line longer; this is unjust”,the respondent E8 said that “once I was maligned about an issue”. 152

3.4. Findings and Assessment regarding the question of “If you are in charge of justice in the world, what would you do first?” The respondent K10 stated that “I would establish bridge between poor and rich people”. The respondent E9 stated that “I would not allow rich people to tyrannize the poor. I would behave the poor equally with the rich. Again the respondent K8 said “I would establish equality and especially the one between genders”. 3.5. Findings and Assessment regarding the question of “How would you draw the justice?”

Figure1: Justice Picture of the Respondent E1

Figure 2: Justice Picture of the Respondent K1

Figure 3: Justice Picture of the Respondent E2

Figure 4: Justice Picture of the Respondent K2

Figure 5: Justice Picture of the Respondent E3

Figure 6: Justice Picture of the Respondent K3

153

Figure 7: Justice Picture of the Respondent E4

Figure 8: Justice Picture of the Respondent K4

Figure 9: Justice Picture of the Respondent E5

Figure 10: Justice Picture of the Respondent K5

Figure 11: Justice Picture of the Respondent E6

Figure 12: Justice Picture of the Respondent K6

154

Figure 13: Justice Picture of the Respondent E7

Figure 14: Justice Picture of the Respondent K7

Figure17: Justice Picture of the Respondent E9

Figure 18: Justice Picture of the Respondent K9

Figure 19: Justice Picture of the Respondent E10

Figure 20: Justice Picture of the Respondent K10

155

4. RESULT According to pictures of respondents regarding “Justice”value,it was observed that respondents E1, K1, K2, E3, K4, E6, E5, K8, E8and E7 drawn the justice in scale form. These pictures suggest us that respondents use the scale, the reference of justice in our time. Moreover, it could be concluded that the justice must certainly be established in our life. The respondent K2 drew a boy and girl on each sides of the scale. This could be interpreted as respondents, either boy or girl, believe in people must take actions by observing justice. Again, the respondent E2 drew mother and two children in his pictures. This picture could be interpreted as that the mother is required to display her love justly. Existing two hearts on her both sides support this view. The respondent K8 drew a scale suspended in balance while a tall person standing on one side, another short person was standing on the other side in her picture. There is also a leverage was drawn at the center which denotes the justice. This picture could be interpreted as that the justice is necessary and it should be existed for everyone regardless of physical, religious, ethnicity differences. On the other hand, the respondent K7 tried to express that equality and justice exist together intwo different pictures. The respondent K5 resembled justice someone who giveaway charities. Her picture interpreted as that she thinks that justice should be presented to all equally regardless of persons’ heights and physical appearances. The respondent E4 draw a rich and poor people figures on different sides of the scale. It was concluded that he thinks that justice maintains the balance among people regardless of their wealth. The respondent K10 exhibited that while the person who is paid less works in difficult job, the one paid good sleeps on the desk to address injustice in income. It is possible conclude that the respondent thinks that there is significant income inequality. REFERENCES Acat, M. B. ve Aslan, M. (2012). Yeni bir değer sınıflaması ve bu sınıflamaya bağlı olarak öğrencilere kazandırılması gereken değerler. Kuramdan Uygulamaya Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 12(2), 1461-1474. Akbaş, O. (2004). Türk Milli Eğitim Sisteminin Duyuşsal Amaçlarının (Değerlerinin) İlköğretim II. Kademedeki Gerçekleşme Derecesinin Değerlendirilmesi. Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Aydın, M. (2003). “Gençliğin Değer Algısı: Konya Örneği”. Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi.Cilt I, Sayı 3. Baloğlu, M., & Balgalmış, E. (2005). İlköğretim ve ortaöğretim yöneticilerinin özdeğerlerinin betimlenmesi: Tokat ili örneği. Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 3(10), 19-31 Berkant, H.G. ve Sürmeli, Z. (2013). Sosyal Bilgiler Dersindeki Değerleri Kazandırmada Öğretmenlerin Güçlük Yaşama Durumlarının Çeşitli Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi, Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 9, Sayı 1, Nisan 2013, ss.334-348. Bolay, S. H. (2007). Aşkın değerler buhranı. Değerler ve Eğitimi Uluslar arası Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı içinde (s.55–69), İstanbul. Çekin, A. (2012). Değer açısından ilköğretim din kültürü ve ahlak bilgisi dersi kazanımları: bir içerik analizi. Din Bilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi, Cilt 12, Sayı 2, 2012 ss. 105 -119. Çetin, Ş. (2015). “Milli Değerlerin Öğretimine Yönelik Tutum Ölçeği (Mdötö) Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması”, International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/11 Summer 2015, p. 447-460. 156

Deveci, H. (2008). Sosyal Bilgilerde Bilgi, Beceri ve Değerlerin Kazandırılması. Ş. Yaşar, (Ed.), Hayat Bilgisi ve Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi içinde (s.187–206). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, 1807. Açıköğretim Fakültesi Yayınları, No: 937 Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: The Free Press. Selanik Ay, T. ve Dal, S. (2014). “İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Yazılı Anlatım Ürünlerine Göre Sorumluluk Değeri Algıları”, Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22 (2014) 78-93 Özgüven, E. İ. (1999). Psikolojik testler. Ankara: Yeni Doğuş Matbaası. Özkan, R. (2010). Türk eğitim sisteminde himayeci değerler. Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(1), 1124-1141. Gari A., Mylonas K., Karagianni D.(2005). Political and religios group membership, value priorities and educational values. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 26(3), 301-310. Ulusoy, K. ve Dilmaç, B. (2012). Değerler Eğitimi. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Ryan, K., & Bohlin, K. (1999). Building character in schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Karagöz, B. (2009). “Yapılandırmacı Yaklaşıma Göre İlköğretim 6 ve 7.Sınıf Türkçe Ders Kitaplarındaki Değerlerin İncelenmesi (Muğla İli Örneği)” Muğla Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Muğla. Kelley, T. (2003). Character Education, Natural Law, Human Happiness ve Success, https://sites.google.com/site/dowlingtkelly/thomas-kelly (27.05.2015 ). Kuşdil, M.E. ve Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (2000). Türk Öğretmenlerinin Değer Yönelimleri ve Scwartz Değer Kuramı, Türk Psikolojisi Dergisi, 45, 59-76. Sapsağlam, Ö ve Ömeroğlu, E. (2015). Okul Öncesi Öğretmenlerinin Eğitim Programlarında Değerler Eğitimine Yer Verme Düzeylerinin Belirlenmesi, International Journal of Eurasia Social Sciences, Vol: 6, Issue: 21, pp. (244-264). TDK (Türk Dil Kurumu) (2016). Büyük Türkçe Sözlük. [Online]: www.tdk.gov.tr adresinden 09 Mayıs 2016 tarihinde erişilmiştir. TDK (Türk Dil Kurumu) (2016). Büyük Türkçe Sözlük. [Online]: www.tdk.gov.tr adresinden 19 Mayıs 2016 tarihinde erişilmiştir. Tekin, Y. (2007). Ansiklopedik Hukuk Sözlüğü, Ankara: Tekağaç yayıncılık. Yazıcı, K. (2006). Değerler eğitimine genel bir bakış. Türklük Bilimi Araştırmaları, 19: 499522. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. Yılmaz, S. (2013). Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde Kazandırılması Amaçlanan Değerlere İlişkin Öğretmen Adayı Görüşleri, Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013. Yiğittir, S. (2009). İlköğretim Sosyal Bilgiler Dersi 4 ve 5. Sınıf Değerlerinin Kazanılma Düzeyi. Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Ankara.

157

Chapter 12 The Opinions of Teaching Staff and Teachers Regarding InService Training Programs Organized by the Turkish MNE Serap Nur DUMAN, Gürcü ERDAMAR INTRODUCTION Education, as a lifelong process, is a significant part of our lives. It is only possible through education that we continuously redesign our lives according to changing conditions and adapt to those changes, which is fundamental to our personal development. Therefore, lifelong learning is both an individual need and a social necessity. It is the knowledge and skills that we personally possess that makes it possible for us to change and improve ourselves, in the first place, and then the society and the world, and this necessitates lifelong learning. There are several ways of sustaining lifelong learning. The most institutionalized form of ensuring lifelong learning for organizations producing goods and services for the society is in-service training. In-service training (IST) can be defined as the training provided to increase employee productivity (MEB, 2006). Institutional in-service training programs are similar to vocational training programs in that they aim to train individuals to gain job-related knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Uşun and Cömert, 2003). There are several reasons that necessitate in-service training, the most important of which are technological and scientific advancements, social change, closing the gaps of pre-service training programs, promoting the principle of equal opportunity in education, the responsibility to close communication gaps, and the responsibility to motivate employees (Altınışık, 1996). In this respect, it is beyond doubt that one of the most important occupational groups which require in-service training is teaching. Among the countries that implement in-service training programs, Finland stands out, with its internationally acknowledged success in education. According to Malaty (2006), Finland offers continuous in-service training for teachers in primary and secondary education both on national and regional level, through summer school and summer university programs offered in each university. Also, teacher unions and private institutions offer in-service training opportunities (cited in, Eraslan, 2009). In France, in-service training is carried out through university conferences and summer universities; university conferences aim to support the implementation of educational reforms and summer universities are offered in order for national and international experts to share their knowledge and perspectives on different issues (İzci, 2010). In South Korea, teachers are supposed to receive a minimum of 30-day (a total of 180 hours) in-service training annually. The performances of the teachers in the in-service training programs are taken into consideration for their promotion and pay raises (İpek, 2009). 

Res. Assist., Kırıkkale University Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gazi University Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences 



In Turkey, in-service training programs intended for teachers are designed and implemented centrally by In-Service Training Department (ISTD), affiliated to the Ministry of National Education (MNE) and the courses intended to meet the regional inservice training needs are annually planned and implemented by Provincial Directorates of Education (PDE) (Kaya, Çepni, and Küçük, 2004). Studies suggesting that the efficiency of the in-service training programs in Turkey decreases due to problems regarding costs, quantity, participants (teachers), administrators, and practitioners and problems that arise during the program development process are quite remarkable (Aytaç, 2000; Karaca, 2010). These problems, which negatively contribute to the aims and efficiency of in-service training programs, can be suggested to be better evaluated by teaching staff working as trainers in the training programs and the teachers receiving the training. In other words, asking the trainers and trainees in the in-service training programs of their opinions and suggestions would make it easier to tackle the existing problems. Existing studies on IST, although scarce in number, have generally focused on the opinions of teachers. Büyükcan (2008) has found that the teachers attending IST courses are faced with problems such as insufficient materials, poorly designed courses, inconvenient training environment, lack of cooperation, and lack of motivation and encouragement on the part of trainees. Similarly, the English language teachers in Çalgan’s (2008) study have reported that the place of the in-service training courses they attended was insufficient considering inadequate equipment and facilities or poor physical conditions. Karaca’s (2010) study has concluded that the teachers have the opinion that the MNE does not have a sound and consistent policy of in-service training. It is essential to be informed about the problems experienced by teaching staff who are part of the trainings as well as about those of teachers. In the review of literature, no study has been found to have results concerning teaching staff. Hence, the aim of the present study is to determine the efficiency of the in-service training programs organized by the Turkish MNE for teachers, based on the opinions and perceptions of both teaching staff (trainers) and teachers (trainees), and to provide suggestions to improve the IST programs. Within this framework, the present study aims to answer the following sub-questions: 1. What are the opinions of teachers and teaching staff regarding the reasons why they attend IST programs? 2. What are the opinions of teachers and teaching staff regarding the aims and functions of IST programs? 3. What are the opinions of teachers and teaching staff regarding the planning process of IST programs? 4. What are the opinions of teachers and teaching staff regarding the problems experienced during the implementation of IST programs? 5. What are the suggestions of teachers and teaching staff regarding IST programs? METHOD The present study has been designed as a case study, one of the qualitative research models. Since in qualitative analysis a case study refers to the process of an analysis, it stands out as a special method based on the collection, organization, and 159

analysis of data. The aim of such studies is to gain comprehensive, systematic, and indepth insights into each case in question. The process of analysis produces an output and therefore, the term case study might refer either to the process of analysis, or to the output of the analysis or to both of them at the same time (Patton, 2014). Case studies include an in-depth and longitudinal analysis of the obtained data through participant observation, in-depth interviews, and document collection (Glesne, 2013). Accordingly, the present study employed the semi-structured interview technique. Participants The study has employed the criterion-based sampling method to determine the study group. The basic approach in this method is to study all situations which satisfy a set of predetermined criteria (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013). In this regard, the base criteria to determine the 10 teaching staff in the study group are that they have taken part in the in-service training programs organized by the Turkish MNE in the last two years and that they all work in Gazi University; the criteria to determine the 20 teachers in the study group are that they have attended the in-service training programs organized by the Turkish MNE in the last 2 years and that they live in Ankara. The demographic information about the teaching staff and teachers participated in the study, regarding their departments, subjects, gender, and experience, is presented in Table 1 and 2. Table 1. The Distribution of Teachers According to Subject, Gender, and Experience Participant Ö-1 Ö-2 Ö-3 Ö-4 Ö-5 Ö-6 Ö-7 Ö-8 Ö-9 Ö-10 Ö-11 Ö-12 Ö-13 Ö-14 Ö-15 Ö-16 Ö-17 Ö-18 Ö-19 Ö-20

Subject Primary School Teaching Psych. Counseling and Guidance Primary School Teaching Primary School Teaching Primary School Teaching Primary School Teaching Preschool Teaching Social Sciences Teaching English Language Teaching Mathematics Teaching Primary School Teaching Science and Technology Teaching Psych. Counseling and Guidance English Language Teaching Mathematics Teaching Science Teaching Mathematics Teaching Primary School Teaching English Language Teaching Science Teaching

Gender Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female

Experience 8 years 13 years 2 years 4 years 10 years 3 years 3 years 6 years 5 years 6 years 4 years 3 years 2 years 5 years 4 years 6 years 4 years 8 years 20 years 8 years

In the teaching staff group, four are Assoc. Prof. and Assist. Prof.; six are female and four male; and seven are from the Department of Curriculum and Instruction, two from the Department of Educational Administration and Supervision, and one from the Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance. In the teachers group, there are seven primary school teachers, three Mathematics teachers and three English Language 160

teachers, two Psychological Counselors and two Science teachers, one Preschool teacher, one Social Sciences teacher and one Information Technologies teacher. 13 of the teachers are female and 7 are male. Also, the experiences of the teachers range between 2 and 20 years. Table 2. The Distribution of Teaching Staff According to Departments, Gender, and Titles and Experience Gender Title & Experience Participant Department ÖÜ-1 ÖÜ-2 ÖÜ-3 ÖÜ-4 ÖÜ-5 ÖÜ-6 ÖÜ-7 ÖÜ-8 ÖÜ-9 ÖÜ-10

Psych. Couns.& Guidance Curriculum & Instruction Curriculum & Instruction Educ. Admin. & Sprvsn. Educ. Admin. & Sprvsn. Curriculum & Instruction Curriculum & Instruction Curriculum & Instruction Curriculum & Instruction Curriculum & Instruction

Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Female

Prof. Dr. (17 years) Assoc. Prof. (28 years) Assoc. Prof. (18 years) Assoc. Prof. (10 years) Prof. Dr. (30 years) Assoc. Prof. (28 years) Assist. Prof. (17 years) Assist. Prof. (18 years) Assist. Prof. (7 years) Assist. Prof. (6 years)

The topics of the in-service training that the teachers have received are generally topics such as the principles and methods of teaching, classroom management, teaching through drama, and orientation. The topics of the in-service training that the teaching staff attended as trainers are generally topics such as materials development, classroom management, The National Education Guidelines and Regulations, educational technologies, and problem solving. Data Collection Instruments The data for the study were collected through two different semi-structured interview forms, intended for the teaching staff and teachers; the two forms included parallel questions. The data collection instruments, which were designed by the researchers, were given to six experts (2 from the department of curriculum and instruction, 2 from testing and evaluation, and 2 from the department of primary school teaching) who were asked to review the content, appropriateness, representability, and comprehensibility of the instruments and then the necessary changes were made in the interview forms. Moreover, in order to assess the construct validity of the interview forms, the interviews were piloted with 1 teacher and 1 teaching staff; the interview questions were then reviewed and redesigned based on the pilot interviews and the actual data collection process was then conducted. The interview forms included 12 questions for teaching staff and 11 questions for the teachers; the questions were grouped under different headings such as reasons for participating in the in-service training programs, the aims and functions of the trainings, the quality of in-service training programs, and the implementation of the trainings. Data Collection Procedure The data for the present study were collected through semi-structured interviews. During the data collection, the participants were chosen on a voluntary basis. Prior to the interviews, the researchers made an appointment with each participant and the interviews were scheduled and conducted at the participant’s convenience. The interviews, each lasting about 25 to 30 minutes, were conducted by the researchers 161

themselves and were also audio- recorded. Data Analysis The data collected for the present study were evaluated through content analysis. Therefore, initially, the audio recordings of each interview were transcribed verbatim, resulting in 137 pages of transcribed interview data. The content analysis was done using QSR NVIVO software. At the heart of qualitative data analysis is the coding process. Coding is a process of sorting the obtained evidence and of labeling the opinions in such a way that they gradually represent broader perspectives. The evidences obtained from a dataset might be grouped under codes and these codes might be grouped under broader themes (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2014: 222). In parallel with this, the present study employed the conventional data-driven coding approach to content analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, as cited in Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013). Validity and Reliability Precautions In the present study, the following qualitative research strategies, suggested by Christensen, Burke Johnson, and Tumer (2015: 404), were drawn on: a) the opinions of both the teaching staff and the teachers were included in order to utilize multiple data sources, which would help to make better sense of the data; b) data collection, analysis, and interpretation were conducted by two researchers, which ensured researcher triangulation. In content analysis, it is critical to determine inter-coder reliability. Therefore, during the data analysis process the interview transcripts obtained from one teacher and one professor were coded separately by the researchers and the resulting codes were revised in terms of agreement. For this purpose, Miles and Huberman’s (1994) suggested reliability formula was used. According to Reliability = Agreement / (Agreement + Disagreement) formula, the reliability coefficient was found to be 0.86. An inter-coder reliability of 80% or more is considered valid. As the following step of the analysis, codes that were similar to each other were combined to form broader themes. The wording of the codes under each theme was then reviewed by the researchers in terms of appropriateness. RESULTS Reasons for Participating in In-service Training The codes that resulted from the interview text data of the teaching staff, regarding their reasons for participating in the in-service training programs were; academic benefits we get from witnessing the problems that teachers experience (n=7); its effect on the academic resume (n=5); and increasing our recognition as educators (trainers) (n=1). The most popular of these codes was found to be the academic benefits gained from being closely acquainted with the teachers and witnessing the problems that they are faced with. According to the teachers’ opinions that fall under this theme, the reasons why they participate in the in-service training programs were professional development and learning new things (n=15), personal interest in the topic of training (n=7), feeling the need for training (n=7), its being useful for promotion (n=2), and avoiding the administrative paperwork at school (n=1). The results revealed that the most prominent reason for the teachers to participate in in-service training program was to develop professionally and to learn new things. Regarding the theme, the reasons for participating in the in-service training programs, some participant 162

opinions are as follows: “It gives us a chance to see what kind of things are done or applied and in this regard we also learn things from them; it also contributes to our subject field. We have hands-on experience when we go out there and observe what a teacher’s life is like.” (P-9) “Once you have graduated from university, you are in a way doomed to be worn out and you need to update yourself. Therefore, I believe it is useful to learn new things about my subject field. It also helps me to professionally update and renovate myself.” (T-1)

Figure 1. The Opinions of Teaching Staff and Teachers Regarding the Reasons for Participating in In-service Training

The Aims and Functions of In-service Training The opinions of the teaching staff and teachers regarding the aims and functions of in-service training programs were found to be similar to each other. In this code category, the most popular opinion of both the teaching staff and teachers was to equip teachers with updated knowledge (n-p=13, n,t=18). Other popular codes were; to solve teachers’ problems in practice (n-p=8, n-t=10), to provide for personal and professional development of teachers (n-p=5, n-t=12), to render teachers more efficient and productive (n-p=2, n-t=5), to increase teacher motivation (n-p=3, n-t=1), to be equipped with practical information (n-p=2, n-t=2), and to increase the quality of the institution (n-p=2, n-t=1). Accordingly, it can be suggested that the fundamental goal of in-service training programs is to promote the professional and personal development of teachers by keeping them informed about the latest technology, equipment, and developments in their subject fields. What one of the participants stated illustrates as follows: 163

“Actually, it is more about introducing them to the latest developments; I mean to show them what is going on in the field… programs are ever-changing and so are the methods and techniques in the programs. Teachers can manage with what they now know for two or three years, but later on I think they need to learn about new developments or new methods.” (P-2) “In my opinion, the aim of the in-service training program is to contribute to teachers’ knowledge of the field and professional development through keeping them up to date with the technological and scientific developments.”(T-5)

Figure 2. The Opinions of Teaching Staff and Teachers Regarding the Aims and Functions of In-service Training

The Preparation Process for In-service Training The teaching staff and teachers in the study were asked about how they prepare for in-service training. The codes resulting from the responses of the teachers were found to be; not to do any preparation prior to the training (n=12), and to identify missing knowledge and competencies prior to the training (n=6). More than half of the teachers (n=12) stated that they do not look through the content of the training or do any preparation whatsoever before the IST. Some teachers, although few, (n=6) said that they do some research and try to identify their missing knowledge before the IST. We are informed that there will be a seminar and we check where and when it is 164

going to be held, and what the topic is. We do not do any other preparations before the seminar. We go there and we leave ourselves in the hands of the trainer. All we expect is that he lectures and we listen; if he gives us practice-based activities, we go along with it do them.” (T-2)

Figure 3. The Opinions of Teaching Staff and Teachers Regarding the Preparation Process for In-service Training

“I do research about the topic of the in-service training and I do some preparation towards what we are going to study, what we are going to receive, or what kind of new knowledge we are going to attain.” (T-17) The teaching staff, on the other hand, stated opinions about the following issues regarding the preparations prior to the training: to know about the topic and the number of trainees (n=8), to do planning according to new methods (n=7), to do planning according to the number of trainees (n=7), to do planning according to different subject fields (n=5), to prepare a plan that would keep the trainees active (n=4), to be informed about the training on short notice (n=2), and to plan the training according to time (n=2). Most of the teaching staff stated that they did not know anything specific about the group of teachers they were going to train and that they were only informed about the number of trainees in the group. “I prepare a plan considering the time they give me and the content they want me to cover. For example, if the aim of the training is to develop teachers’ awareness of basic concepts, it takes 3 or 4 hours; but if I want to teach through examples and discussions, then the training will certainly last for 1 or 2 days. I also do workshops with some groups and these trainings take 3 to 5 days. I mean, the time needed for the training changes according to what is asked of me; the MNE generally asks for a 5-day training.” (P-1) 165

“For instance, how many people will attend, or how many people from each group will we have?... Such things are important; I plan accordingly. Since I need to present the topic through practical examples, in large groups I can use a limited number of them but if it is a small group, then we can work on more practical examples… I mean I make decisions depending absolutely on the number of trainees.” (P-3)

Figure 4. The Opinions of Teaching Staff and Teachers Regarding the Problems Experienced During the Implementation of In-service Training

The Problems Experienced During the Implementation of IST Programs The third theme was the problems experienced during the implementation of inservice trainings. It was found that the teaching staff and teachers had both similar and different opinions under this theme, which revealed problems concerning the organization of in-service trainings, the teaching methods and techniques used, the problems regarding the content, and the duration of trainings. The problems that both teaching staff and teachers mentioned are; the courses are mainly set up as lectures (np=6, n-t=19), the duration of trainings is short (n-p=6, n-t=6), the trainings are not done year-round (n-p=5, n-t= 6), and the pleasure trips seem to be relatively more important (n-p=2, n-t=3). The majority of teaching staff and teachers reported that the trainings were mostly set up as lectures. According to the teachers, other problems were that the in-service trainings are mandatory (n=11), that the chance of practice is low (n=9), that the trainers are not chosen with care (n=7), and that the needs of the teachers are not taken into consideration (n=5). The most commonly stated problem among the teaching staff was 166

that the groups are over- crowded. “In the trainings I have attended, the trainers generally used the lecture method. One talks, the other listens… I mean, we are nothing more than passive listeners most of the time. The trainings become less useful when all they do is read from the slides of a power point presentation and I can go as far as to say that they explained even the active learning methods through lectures.” (T-5) “Well, the trainings are held only in summers, like summer schools. I mean, some teachers say things like “I’ve won a 1-week free vacation in Yalova”; they see it, the inservice training, like summer vacation. Of course, when summer comes, people get into the mood for holidays and feel lethargic. Maybe, these in-service trainings that are held in summer can be improved in terms of schedules and venues.” (P-5) “The duration of the trainings should certainly be prolonged so that more time could be devoted to practice. This way, we can spare time for both individual and group trainings. There should be longer and more practice-based trainings; that is also what teachers expect.” (P-3) “The trainings that I least benefit from are those I attend mandatorily. Because I am supposed to get the training, I attend although they do not appeal to me. I would benefit much more from a training that I really need.” (T-9) Suggestions about In-service Trainings The last theme derived from the interview data was the suggestions about inservice trainings. Some common suggestions were found to be codes such as: there should be more emphasis on practice than theoretical explanations (n-p=5, n-t=6), a needs analysis should be conducted (n-p=5, n-t=6), in-service trainings should be given by senior trainers (n-p=5, n-t=7). Moreover, the teachers were of the opinion that more teacher participation should be encouraged (n=6), the frequency of trainings should be increased, and the trainings should be better organized (n=5). The teaching staff, on the other hand, suggested that the evaluation results should be shared with the trainers, the trainings should be held in small groups, and the teachers should be informed and motivated. Considering these suggestions, we can conclude that there is a need to improve in-service training programs. Some participant opinions are given below: “It is not only theoretical knowledge that the teachers are lack of, they also have incompetence in terms of practice. But when the groups are overcrowded, I cannot get them practice in classes with 150-200 people in them. Both the content and the duration of the trainings should be reconsidered in such a way to incorporate practice-based activities.” (P-8) “An in-service training program is in fact a program development process which starts with needs analysis. Conducting needs analysis is a task that should be done by educational sciences professionals, and for this professionals from the departments of educational administration and supervision, testing and evaluation, and program development are needed. It is quite obvious that the current needs analyses have not been done by professionals, I mean I can see it very clearly when I look at them. There is a problem with the planning. We can see that in the process of needs analysis, the relevant people are not asked about their needs.” (P-4) “In-service trainings should be given by people who can make the training enjoyable; not by people who have no idea about the topic. Today we have universities in almost every province and people who are experts in their field could be chosen as 167

trainers.” (T-6)

Figure 5. The Opinions of Teaching Staff and Teachers Regarding their Suggestions about In-service Trainings

DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION The most significant results of the present study, which investigated the opinions of teachers and teaching staff regarding the efficiency of IST programs organized by the Turkish MNE, are as follows: First and foremost, it can be clearly understood that with the help of IST programs, teaching staff are able to have an idea about the problems that are faced in the field, which contributes to their academic careers. Teachers, on the other hand, attend IST’s in order to continue their professional development and to learn new things. The participants of the study believe that the aim of IST programs is to equip teachers with updated knowledge. It can be said that both groups of participants attend IST’s in order to learn from one another and develop professionally. According to the teachers, IST courses are crucial and necessary. Other studies on this topic had different conclusions; Tekin and Ayas (2005) found that teachers have positive attitudes towards IST courses, whereas Aydoğan (2002) concluded that administrators and teachers generally feel negatively about IST programs and regard them as insufficient. The teachers in the present study generally stated that they attended IST’s mandatorily and they did not do any preparation whatsoever prior to the trainings. They emphasized that they benefitted more from the trainings when they willingly attended them, suggesting that participation in trainings should not be mandatory but on voluntary basis and IST’s should be designed in accordance with the interests and needs 168

of teachers. The teaching staff reported that they did not know much about the group of teachers they were going to train and that they were only informed by the Turkish MNE about the topic and the number of trainees. To put it more concisely, the teaching staff tried to get to know the group they were going to give training to on the first day of the IST and some of them even made last minute changes in their plans according to the group of trainees. However, during the preparation process, the teaching staff, considering the latest methods and knowledge, did their best to plan their training in such a way to ensure active participation of trainees. As for the problems encountered during the implementation of IST’s, the most commonly highlighted point by teaching staff and teachers alike was that the trainings were mostly set up as pure lectures. The teaching staff stated that they worked with large groups so, they were in a way obliged to prefer the lecture method. Nevertheless, in order for IST’s to be effective, teachers should be given a chance to disclose their actual teaching process, to participate in constructive discussions and to do practicebased activities. Moreover, the most significant problems with IST’s according to teaching staff and teachers were found to be; the scarcity of practice-based activities, overcrowded groups, lack of feedback from earlier IST’s, poor choice of trainers, and lack of needs analysis. The teaching staff and teachers seemed to have a consensus about how to make IST’s more effective and suggested similar things. In parallel with the problems reported, the suggestions that the participants laid most emphasis on were the necessity to determine training topics according to the results of needs analysis, to include practice-based activities, and to choose skilled trainers with expertise in the subject matter. In addition, the teaching staff suggested that the training classes should be designed as small groups, that the teachers should be informed prior to the training, and that the evaluation results should be shared; the teachers suggested that teacher participation in IST’s should be increased and that trainings should be more often, more organized, and more convenient in terms of time. In a nutshell, it can be concluded that IST courses should be designed based on needs analysis, professionals with expertise in the subject matter should be employed as trainers, favorable learning environments should be created, and training classes should be designed as practice-based small groups. In other studies conducted in Turkey it was also found that one of the most significant problems with IST’s was designing courses without needs analysis (Baskan, 2001; Yıldız, 2006). Some other studies concluded that IST’s failed to fulfill their goals, that the time and venues for trainings were not chosen conveniently, that their time was not enough, and that the evaluations were not done objectively or seriously (Avşar, 2006; Karagöz, 2006; Uçar, 2008 ve Ulus 2009). According to Gökdere and Çepni (2004), IST’s turned out to be ineffective because the content of trainings was developed without regarding teacher needs and requirements of different subject fields. It is not possible that teacher education is complete with pre-service training alone. As is also stated by Erdamar, Aytaç, Türk, and Arseven (2015), countries which want to develop their education system should focus on raising individuals who can produce and use knowledge. The goal to raise individuals that can produce knowledge can be achieved through lifelong learning. Today’s rapidly changing technology and knowledge places utmost importance on in-service training programs that support lifelong learning. Therefore, it is critical that the IST programs organized by the MNE 169

be planned, conducted, and evaluated more effectively. Also, more comprehensive studies on IST programs should be done, IST courses should be investigated on site and preventive measures should be taken to eliminate problems. REFERENCES Altınışık, S. (1996). Hizmet İçi Eğitim ve Türkiye’deki Uygulama. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 2 (3), 329-348. Avşar, P. (2006). Beden Eğitimi Öğretmenlerinin Kendilerine Yönelik Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarını Değerlendirmesi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Aydoğan, İ. (2002). MEB İlköğretim Okulları Yönetici ve Öğretmenlerinin Personel Geliştirmeye İlişkin Görüşleri (Kayseri İli Örneği). Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Aytaç, T. (2000). Hizmet İçi Eğitim Kavramı ve Uygulamada Karşılaşılan Sorunlar. Milli Eğitim, 147: 66-70. Baskan, H. (2001). İlköğretim Okullarında Görevli Öğretmenlerin Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarının Etkililiğine İlişkin Algı ve Beklentileri (Denizli İli Örneği). Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Denizli. Büyükcan, Y. (2008). İlköğretim Okullarındaki Hizmet İçi Eğitim Seminerlerinin Öğretmenlere Yararlılığı. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Creswell, J. W. & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2014). Karma Yöntem Araştırmaları Tasarımı ve Yürütülmesi (2.Baskı, Çev. Ed: Dede, Y. ve Demir, S. B.). Ankara: AnıYayıncılık. Christensen, L. B.,Burke Johnson, R. & Turner, L. A. (2015). Araştırma Yöntemleri Desen ve Analiz. (Çev. A. Aypay). Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara. Çalgan, S. P. (2008). Özel İlköğretim Okullarında Çalışan İngilizce Öğretmenlerinin Hizmet İçi Eğitim Çalışmalarına Bakışları. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Beykent Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Eraslan, A. (2009). Finlandiya'nın PISA'daki Başarısının Nedenleri: Türkiye İçin Alınacak Dersler. Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi (EFMED), 3 (2), 238-248. Erdamar, G. Aytaç, Tufan, Türk, N. &Arseven, Z. (2016). The Effects of Gender on Attitudes of Preservice Teachers towards the Teaching Profession: A Meta-analysis Study. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 4 (2), 445-456. Glesne, C. (2013). Nitel Araştırmaya Giriş (3.Baskı). (Çev. A. Ersoy & P. Yalçınoğlu). Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara. Gökdere, M.,& Çepni, S., (2004). Üstün Yetenekli Öğrencilerin Fen Öğretmenlerinin Hizmet İçi İhtiyaçlarının Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Çalışma: Bilim Sanat Merkezi Örneklemi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24 (2), 1-14. İpek, C. (2009). Güney Kore Eğitim Sistemi. (Ed. A. Balcı) Karşılaştırmalı Eğitim Sistemleri. Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık, Ankara. İzci, E. & Kara, A. (2010). Fransa’da Eğitim Personelinin Hizmet İçi Eğitimi. Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 5, 161-168. Karaca, A. (2010). İlköğretim Okulu Öğretmenlerinin Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarına İlişkin Görüşleri (Mudurnu Örneği). Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Bolu. Karagöz, B. (2006). Ortaöğretim (Genel Lise) Resim İş Öğretmenlerinin Milli Eğitim Bakanlığınca Düzenlenen Hizmet İçi Eğitim Faaliyetlerine Katılım Durumları ve Eğitim 170

İhtiyaçlarını Karşılama Konusundaki Görüşlerinin İncelenmesi ve Değerlendirilmesi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Kaya, A., Çepni, S. & Küçük, M. (2004). Fizik Öğretmenleri İçin Üniversite Destekli Bir Hizmetiçi Eğitim Model Önerisi. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 3 (1), 112-119. Patton, M. Q. (2014). Nitel Araştırma ve Değerlendirme Yöntemleri (Çev. S. Çelik and F. Ö. Karataş). Pegem Akademi, Ankara. MEB Eğitimi Araştırma ve Geliştirme Dairesi Başkanlığı (2006). Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Hizmet İçi Eğitim Faaliyetlerinin Değerlendirilmesi. http://www.meb.gov.tr/earged/earged/Hie_degerlendirme.pdf Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). An Expanded Sourcebook: Qualitative Data Analysis (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Uçar, R. (2005). İlköğretim Okullarında Görev Yapan Yönetici ve Öğretmenlerin Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Hizmet İçi Eğitim Uygulamalarına İlişkin Görüşleri (Van İli Örneği). Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Van. Ulus, O. (2009). Hizmet İçi Eğitim Faaliyetlerinin Öğretmen Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Uşun, S. & Cömert, R. (2003). Okul Öncesi Öğretmenlerde Hizmet İçi Eğitim İhtiyacı. Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitin Fakültesi Dergisi, 23 (2), 125-138. Tekin, S.& Ayas, A. (2005). Kimya Öğretmenlerine Yönelik Bir Hizmet İçi Eğitim Kursunun Yansımaları: Akçaabat Örneği. Milli Eğitim, 165: 107-122. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri (9.Baskı). Seçkin Yayıncılık, Ankara. Yıldız, C. (2006). Endüstri Meslek Liselerinde Görevli Atölye ve Laboratuvar Öğretmenlerinin Hizmet İçi Eğitim İhtiyacının Saptanması. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Yeditepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.

171

Chapter 13 Views of Prospective Teachers about Values Education: A Comparative Analysis1 Rukiye ŞAHIN, Şafak ÖZTÜRK AYNAL INTRODUCTION Value means awareness, sentiments and knowledge about a certain part of our world. However, it is a schema beyond faith because value corresponds to a group of beliefs and these beliefs are associated with each other (Güngör, 2010). Shwartz states that values are regarded as criteria used in assessing other people (including the one who assesses) and facts to select an action and to legitimize it basing on the definitions within sociology, psychology and anthropology (Schwartz, 1992, p.1). Güngör (2010), though, asserts that sociology and social anthropology researches refer to a cultural relativism as he points out the difficulty of making an operational definition about value judgements. Kağıtçıbaşı (1981) also states that this frequently used concept has not been developed enough and that social scientists have not had a conceptual opinion agreement and thus she concludes that this concept which has both individual attitudes and cognitive processes and which is associated with culture has so far been presented as views corresponding with each other in the fields of sociology, psychology and anthropology. Maslow (1996) similarly noted that a concept which is accepted that science can study in values and that they can be taught to humanity should be developed. Shwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990 as cited in Scwhartz, 1992, p.3-4) state that values have 5 attributes in literature. Accordingly, values (1) are concepts and beliefs, (2) they are related to desired behaviors or a result; (3) they go beyond particular cases; (4) they lead us to select or evaluate actions and behaviors; (5) they are relatively ordered. Values are needed for the good of groups as they are necessary for social interactions and for human being as a biological entity (Schwartz, 1992). Perry (1926, 1954, as cited in Güngör, 2010, p. 32) defined values by “people’s interests, objects of interest, and kind, amount and volume of interests.” What can be agreed about values is that they are functionally substantial; for instance making people’s behaviors meaningful (Güçlü, 2015) is an important function of values. Values meet an important need since they may help us understand and evaluate the world and other people’s behaviors and make them meaningful and since they may determine our behaviors or even our choices of purpose. 1

This study was presented orally with the title “Views of Candidate Teachers Towards Values Education: A Comparative Analysis” at the International Conference on Social Science and Humanities, 13-15 May 2016, International Balkan University, Skopje, Macedonia.  Assist. Prof. Dr., Gaziosmanpaşa University, Faculty of Education, Tokat, Turkey.  Assoc. Prof. Dr., Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of Educational Sciences. Demirci, Manisa, Turkey.

The fact that human being can attribute meaning to the world he belongs to or even attribute meaning to choices of life and that he can interpret them is depended upon values of life. While studying values, they might be expected to differ from culture to culture; this difference may be categorized as its priorities, its content, its contribution to social life and its determining role. Today, various classifications of human values are being created, and both the causative explanations and contents differ. Social structures are shaped by values and norms which function as the regulator of the behaviors and relationships of the individuals of that society (Yazıcı, 2013). One of the reasons for this is that both there are differences among cultures; plus social structure differs. However, human values are not only determinants of a firm harmony from childhood to adulthood but they also serve as a crucial common ground for social life. Gaining values, though, is extremely important since it is clear that it will develop individual harmony and help the individual contribute to the society more, even if it has a different sort of value classification. Learning values depends upon roles; we adopt the expected values depending on our position in the society (Güngör, 2010). It is important that necessary effort to help acquire values in all education steps beginning from pre-school period be made. It is also important to keep the following questions in mind while providing values education. (1) What should the program include? (2) In what way is values education going to encompass families? (3) What values are going to be taught? (4) How is the program going to proceed? (5) How is it going to be conducted at schools? (Bishop, as cited in, Yazıcı, 2006, p.507). The implementations in Turkey have displayed different phases; for example values education was sometimes presented as a separate class and sometimes it was integrated with the syllabuses in the past, therefore since it is a fact that it is integrated into today’s lessons, it is necessary to display a planned approach (Cihan, 2014). Güçlü (2015) mentioned the existence of the studies examining the effect of values education on students’ development and in which stories, idioms and whirling, newspapers, cartoons, prayers and proverbs were used as tools in his study in which he examined the researches on values education and he reported that the studies on this field were mostly master’s degree dissertations. Considering that more researches should be done on values and values education, this study is expected to contribute not only to the literature but also to the group which is expected to help children and adolescents gain values, that is, it is expected to provide information about the ones who want to study in the major field. It is known that values education is not given as a separate class in both Department of Child Development and Psychological Counseling and Guidance. Therefore, views of final year undergraduates about how the education should be given are expected to guide the people who are in charge of their education. Purpose of the Study: This study aims to determine how the final year undergraduates at Faculty of Education and Vocational High School/Department of Child Development students perceive human values; what values they prioritize; their perception about values education at schools; their plans for values education, and compare them with each other. Method: 33 Psychological Counseling and Guidance final year undergraduates and 30 Vocational High School final year students participated in the study. Students were given 9 open-ended questions to find out their views on values education and each group was analyzed within itself through content analysis. The main purpose was to 173

compare the contents of the two groups. For value ordering, Güngör’s (2010) classification which consists of the terms moral, religious, aesthetic, economic, theoretical-scientific, political and social was utilized. FINDINGS The content of the responses given by the students of both departments was analyzed and presented below. Responses by both groups were separately charted to be able to examine the responses clearly. Table 1 and Table 2 display the content analysis of the responses by Psychological Counseling and Guidance (PCG) and Department of Child Development (CD) students to the question “What do basic human values mean to you?” Table 1. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “What do basic human values mean to you?” Category Content N % 13 39.39 Moral Values They are moral values, Non-Existence of ethical relativity, Respect, No lies, Conscience, Helping live in justice Social Non-Existence of discrimination, It takes us to our 10 30.30 goals, Consideration, Communication, CompassionAffection-Favor, It eases life, Tolerance, Love, Empathy, Unconditional positive regard Regulative Principles, Life style determinants, Regulator of the 10 30.30 relationships with other people, It regulates life, Peace. Spiritual Spiritual values that every human being must have, The 10 30.30 basis of being a human, Something that every person must have, Our superior sides than other creatures, Necessary to live a peaceful life Political Rights and freedom, Equal treatment 2 6.06 Table 2. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “What do basic human values mean to you?” Category Content N % Moral Values Respect, Honesty, Being trustworthy, Rules, Personality, 18 60 Conscience, Being just. Social Love, Tolerance, Compassion, Being able to solve 16 53.33 problems, Consideration, Being pacific, Being sincere, Empathy, Benevolence, Strengthening human relations, Something important for people Regulative Education 1 3.33 Spiritual Making someone a decent human, Happiness, Loyalty, 7 23.33 Keeping someone alive spiritually, Studies which bear importance for people Political Responsibility for all humanity, Freedom, Equality 5 16.66 Individual Defining personality, Principles of Life, Idiosyncratic, 7 23.33 Personal traits, Health, It defines personality, Eating, Drinking, Requirements Temperaments Total of good/bad habits reflecting human personality 1 3.33 *Sum of the categories more than %100 because the students’ answers include more than one categories.

174

Comparing Table 1 with Table 2, it was observed that the similarity between the two groups encompassed mostly the moral aspect of the definition of value for both groups. However, while %60 students of Department of Child Development included moral qualities in the definition of value, %39.39 of PCG undergraduates made such a definition. PCG undergraduates also included social, regulative and spiritual qualities in the definition of value with an equal percentage (%30.30). On the other hand, CD students perceived social attributes as values in a %53.33 ratio. The content analysis of the responses by the students of Department of Child Development and Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates to the question “What are the basic human values?” was displayed in Table 3 and table 4. Table 3. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “What are the basic human values?” Category Content N % Social Compassion, Altruism, Trust, Love, Good intention, 33 100 Being open to communication, Sincerity, Responsibility, Benevolence, Being considerate, Knowing to listen, Help, Solidarity, Generosity, Civilized courage, Tolerance, Friendship, Fraternity, Smiling face Moral Respect, Honesty, Looking for the truth, Conscience, 33 100 Ethic, Justice, Integrity, Righteousness Economic Productivity 1 3.03 Theoretical/ Humanism, To consider, To contemplate, To be able to 2 6.06 Scientific criticize Positively/Negatively Political Equality, Being pacific, Freedom 11 33.33 ReligiousFidelity, Dignity, Loyalty, Forgiveness, Being respectful 10 30.30 Spiritual towards holy beliefs, Being humble, Loving living Table 4. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “What are the basic human values?” Category Content N % Social Love, Trust, Being Tolerant, Compassion, 30 100 Empathy, Friendship, Solidarity, Sharing, Consideration, Self-Sacrifice, Communication, Friendship, Responsible, Taking it for granted, Friendship, Solidarity, Smiling face, Education, Instruction, Affection for the young, Greeting each other Moral Integrity, Honesty, Respect, Being just, Not 28 93.33 lying, Moral values, Respect for the old Aesthetic Purity 1 3.33 Economic Working 1 3.33 Theoretical/scientific Consistency 1 3.33 Political Freedom, Pacific, Equality, Defender of rights 13 43.33 Religious/Spiritual Faith, Loyalty, Homeland, Nation, Unity, 5 16.66 Solidarity Hedonistic Eating, Drinking, Shopping 2 6.66

According to Table 3 and Table 4, when the two groups were asked to state the basic human values, they noted that they both adopted social and moral values as basic 175

human values. While PCG undergraduates also perceived political and religious/ spiritual values as basic human values in %33.33 and %30.30 ratios, scientific, theoretical and economic values were reported in a rather low degree, though. %43.33 of CD students reported that they regarded political values as basic human values, differently from PCG undergraduates, followed by religious/spiritual values in a %16.66 ratio. Other values were reported insignificant by both groups. Table 5 and Table 6 display the content analysis of the responses by Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates and Department of Child Development students to the question “Could you express the role and effect of the values that you state in your life?” Table 5. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “Could you express the role and effect of the values that you state in your life?” Category Content N % Social Affects the social well-being, Good communication, 13 39.39 Other people become happy, Influential in judgements, a livable habitat, Builds humanity Aesthetic A world full of beauty 2 6.06 Political Prevents wars 1 3.03 Sense/Morale Renders life meaningful, Happiness, Peace, I even 8 24.24 suppose that inanimate things have souls Individual Shapes my life, Determines a life style, Important, 15 45.45 Necessary for self-actualization, Important to me, Makes life colorful, Communication, Helps me have respect, A quality life, Sanity, Social position Table 6. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “Could you express the role and effect of the values that you state in your life?” Category Content N % Social Being able to develop empathy, Necessary for social 7 23.33 order, Communication in the family enhances, A peaceful society, Important for interpersonal interaction, Society relations become regular Aesthetic A world full of love 1 3.33 Theoretical/ Education 1 3.33 Scientific Political A pacific society, Freedom 2 6.66 Sense/Morale Being able to be a real human 1 3.33 Individual Determines my future life, Affection by society, Being 18 60 understood, Everyone can change themselves, Important to me, Affects life, Defines our personality, Its lifelong effect is large, Helps us treat people equally, Their lives change, Affects their personality, Being a beloved individual, It has positive effects.

According to Table 5 and 6, individual contribution of values was highly important for both groups, %45.45 (PCG), %60 (DCD), followed by social contribution which was also significant again for both groups. The prospective teachers were asked to order the values which they stated in the 2nd question according to importance. Table 7 and Table 8 display the responses by 176

PCG undergraduates and CD students. Table 7. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “Could you order basic human values according to importance?” Category 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order 1st order

Content Compassion Conscience Respect Benevolence Affection Tolerance Humanism Justice Humility Honesty Caring Considering/Contemplating Freedom

N 4 3 5 2 7 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 1

% 12.12 9.09 15.15 6.06 21.21 6.06 6.06 3.03 3.03 9.09 3.03 3.03 3.03

Table 8. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “Could you order basic human values according to importance?” Category Content N % 1st order Conscience/Ethic 3 10 1st order Respect 10 33.33 Affection 2 6.66 1st order Tolerance 1 3.33 1st order Health 2 6.66 1st order Pacific 1 3.33 1st order Justice 2 6.66 1st order Equality 1 3.33 1st order Honesty 1 3.33 1st order Fraternity 1 3.33 1st order Trust 3 10 1st order 1st order Freedom 2 6.66

Table 7 and Table 8 show that %21.21 of PCG undergraduates put affection in the first order, followed by respect by %15.15 and compassion, conscience and honesty. Department of Child Development students put respect in the first order by %33.33 and values of conscience/ethic and trust by %10. The prospective teachers who participated in the study were asked the question “Do you think that the order of values changes in different stages of life?” and their responses were reported in Table 9 and 10. Table 9. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “Do you think that the order of values changes in different stages of life?” Category Yes No

N 25 8

% 75.75 24.24

177

Table 10. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “Do you think that the order of values changes in different stages of life?” Category N % Yes 22 73.33 No 7 23.33

As seen in Table 9 and 10, while %75.75 of the PCG undergraduates stated that the order of values changes in different stages of life, %73.33 of CD students gave the answer “yes” to the question. With a high percentage, both groups asserted that a change was going to happen. Table 11 and Table 12 display the reasons given by those who believed that the order of values might change in different stages of life and responses by PCG undergraduates about what way they think the change was going to happen. Table 11. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “What are the reasons why the order of values changes in different stages of life?” Category Needs Development Environment Social/Individual Facts

Content Depends on what is happening at that moment, Wars, Catastrophes, or it changes in times of crisis, Priorities, Mental condition In the following years, Age, Experience, Maturation Environment Changing world, Circumstances (phenomena), Things we undergo

N 7

% 21.21

14 2 5

42.42 6.06 15.15

%42.42 of PCG undergraduates reported that they regarded development, and %21.21 of them regarded needs as their justifications for the change in the order of values. Table 12. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “In what way do you expect the change?” Category Moral Values Individual Life Events Time/Period

Content Moral values may be shattered in times of crisis Maturation, Awareness, Development Experience, Circumstances like war Once a cared value may lose its significance in the future

Priority of importance may change

N 2 5 4 3

% 6.06 15.15 12.12 9.09

3

9.09

While %15.15 of the undergraduates stated that there was going to be an individual change, %12.12 of them mentioned different life circumstances such as experiences, wars. Table 13 and 14 present reasons given by those who believed that the order of values might change in different stages of life, and responses by CD students about in what way they thought the change was going to happen.

178

Table 13. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “What are the reasons why the order of values changes in different stages of life?” Category Needs Development Environment Social/Individual Facts

Content Sometimes love, Sometimes something different comes first. Depending on age, Experience, In different stages of life, Depending on age The effect of culture and environment It is uncertain how and where to act , Individual differences, culture, Person’s mental condition, It depends on the situation

N 1

% 3.33

9

30

1 11

3.33 36.66

According to Table 13, similarly to PCG undergraduates, while %36.66 of CD students stated that the reason for the change is individual facts, %30 of them mentioned “development” Table 14. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “In what way do you expect the change?” Category Content N % Individual Depending on experience, Roles are exchanged 2 6.66 Life Facts Children’s growing by affection, 1 3.33 Time/Period Depends on the circumstance 1 3.33 Priority of By the effect of culture and environment, By the 10 33.33 importance may effect of custom and tradition change %33.33 of CD students stated that the priority of importance might change. Table 15 and Table 16 present the content analysis of the responses by Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates and Department of Child Development students to the question “What do you think of the current situation of the implementations of values education at schools?” Table 15. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “What do you think of the current situation of the implementations of values education at schools?” Category Adequate Inadequate Should be enhanced No idea Depends on the school and the teacher

Content Not efficient Efficient if the family supports, Should be elaborated more, Should be enhanced by cultural examples, Should be a role model Differs in terms of the teacher and the school, Differs in terms of school levels

179

N 1 18 10

% 3.03 54.54 30.30

2 2

6.06 6.06

Table 16. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “What do you think of the current situation of the implementations of values education at schools?” Category Content N % Adequate I admire it 2 6.66 Inadequate Implementations are inadequate, Teachers do 19 63.33 not care much, Not being implemented Should be enhanced Could be instructed more 3 10 No idea 2 6.66 Depends on the Teacher 2 6.66 school and the teacher

Both groups thought that values education at schools was inadequate. %54.54 of PCG undergraduates and %63.33 of CD students stated that implementations of values education at schools were inadequate. The participants were asked “what is the role of parents in providing children with values education?” and their responses were displayed in the following tables. Table 17. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “what is the role of parents in providing children with values education?” Category The most crucial role First acquaintance

Content It comes first, More efficient than school, Being a role model, It should include awarding Socializing begins in the family, Education begins in the family.

N 19

% 57.57

13

39.39

Table 18. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “what is the role of parents in providing children with values education?” Category Crucial/the most crucial role First acquaintance Supportive role of the family

Content Takes the family as a role model, Parents are the most important, The family teaches, It has a vital role It firstly begins in the family The family should support the education given at school

N 19

% 63.33

10 1

33.33 3.33

Students in both departments stated that parents have the most crucial role in values education, being %57.57 (PCG) and %63.33 (CD). Both groups similarly asserted that family environment is the first place where values are acquired. The following tables display Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ and Department of Child Development students’ responses to what they plan to do in their future professional lives.

180

Table 19. Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduates’ responses to the question “what do you think to do about values education when you begin studying in your major field?” Category-Method Content N % Families should be Families should be informed, Seminar 8 24.24 informed Cooperation with With institution personnel, Cooperation with 5 15.15 institution personnel teachers, Regulations on school environment Being a role model Being a role model for students, Aphorisms of 5 15.15 personages like Mevlana-Yunus can be interpreted Student education Seminar 5 15.15 Applied practices Applied benevolence activities could be done 2 6.06 Discussion-Drama-Game Important values could be discussed with 8 24.24 discussion groups, Experiential learning, Acting drama Program Emphasizing applicable programs 1 3.03 Table 20. Department of Child Development students’ responses to the question “what do you think to do about values education when you begin studying in your major field?” Category Families should be informed Being a role model

Content Seminar, Conference

Models could be presented, I personally become a model Student education Seminar for children Applied practices Seminars, Panels could be prepared, Awarding, trip to institutions like nursing homes, Activities like sharing, fraternity days could be held Discussion-Drama-Game Acquiring one value by game every week, Drama, Dancing, Activity, Theatre, Video Program Could be integrated into activities

N 4

13.33

2

6.66

1 7

3.33 23.33

12 2

%

40 6.66

When PCG undergraduates were asked about the practices that they think to do when they begin studying in their major field, they stated that they would plan educational and informative practices, while Department of Child Development students noted that they would concentrate on applied practices and event-focused activities. DISCUSSION The analyses of the participants’ responses showed what they understood by the term value were mostly moral values. Güngör (2010) states that roles are important in learning values. The developmental level on which the adolescents are and what is expected of being a student should correspond to norms or to moral principles determined by the society could be supposed to make them perceive in that way. Besides, PCG undergraduates seem to regard the social, regulative and spiritual dimensions as values. This situation can be viewed as a result which is highly consistent with basic values in terms of classification of values. Similarly but in a higher percentage, Department of Child Development students also regarded concepts such as affection, tolerance, compassion, which are evaluated in the social dimension as values. 181

Social and moral values, religious-spiritual and political values were stated for the question “what are the basic human values?” Not mentioning or barely mentioning aesthetic, economic, scientific, theoretical values is also remarkable. Regarding that values are somewhat associated with human needs, it is possible to get this result. Accordingly, students of both groups reported that values were important in their lives in social and individual aspects. Upon observing the value ordering, while PCG undergraduates mostly put affection in the first order, CD students preferred respect in the first order. This situation could be thought to be associated with their professional roles. While PCG undergraduates focused on basic human needs, CD students preferred respect which is necessary for a child to become socialized in the first order. Both groups asserted that the priority of values might change in different stages of life and anticipated this change depending on individual factors and needs. Both groups have common opinions about the role of parents in gaining values and they similarly think that values education is inadequate in Turkey. The most basic difference between the two groups in practices that they plan to do in their major field of study is that PCG undergraduates focus mostly on informative and educational implementations while CD students mostly focuses on activities. The field in which the two groups want to study does not correspond. While Department of Child Development students were found to study in pre-school age group, PCG undergraduates reported that they would study in a more elaborate range. As Bishop (as cited in, Yazıcı, 2006) noted, while planning values education, dimensions like program, content and parents are also included. Responses by final year PCG undergraduates and CD students partially encompass these dimensions. The results of the study not only showed that values could be perceived differently and the priority could change but also students who are trainee to study in the field know little about values education. However, to be able to learn more about how education programs and so that methods can be determined, it is important that education programs be enriched in that regard. REFERENCES Cihan, N. (2014). Okullarda değerler eğitimi ve Türkiye’deki uygulamaya bir bakış. Turkish Studies - International Periodical for The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, Volume 9/2 Winter, 429-436. Güçlü, M. (2015). Türkiye’de değerler eğitimi konusunda yapılan araştırmalar. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 8, 38, 720-732. Güngör, E. (2010). Değerler psikolojisi üzerine araştırmalar: Ahlak psikolojisi, ahlaki değerler ve ahlaki gelişme. 4. Basım, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul. Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (1981). Çocuğun değeri: Türkiye’de değerler ve doğurganlık. Boğaziçi Üniversitesi, İdari Bilimler Fakültesi, İstanbul. Maslow, A. H. (1996). Dinler, değerler, doruk deneyimler. Kuraldışı Yayınları, İstanbul. Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theory and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1-65. Yazıcı, M. (2013). Toplumsal değişim ve sosyal değerler. Turkish Studies - International Periodical for The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, Volume 8/8 Summer 2013, p. 1489-1501.

182

Chapter 14 Attachment in Children Gökçen İLHAN ILDIZ & Emine AHMETOĞLU INTRODUCTION Attachment is an emotional process necessary for survival of a child and is synonymous with the child’s search for an emotional tie to a caregiver (Hazan & Shaver, 1994). Emphasizing on the importance of attachment, Bowlby defines is as “the meaningful, private and long-lasting emotional tie between two people”. Bowlby (1973) suggests that inclination to and necessity of forming attachment is necessary for survival of newborns and the functional attachment system from the developmental perspective. The most apparent behavior of a child is “the effort to attach”. The baby strives to cling to the mother (Güneş, 2014). The baby needs to be attached to the mother and avoids exclusion (Scharff, 1995). “The baby thinks that mother is his/her continuation, wants to see her anytime. In her absence, he/she gets worried, begins to cry and feels alone” (Güneş, 2014). “Need for attachment is apparent in both human beings and primates and can be defined as a bio-social process to protect the newborn baby from external threats, therefore the need for forming close relationships with other human beings is a fundamental aspect of human nature” (Bowlby, 1980). First, Freud (1960) suggested that an infant’s emotional attachment to mother formed the basis of his/her future relationships. Contemporary researchers recognized the importance of parent-infant attachment but suggested that following development is influenced not only by early attachment experience but also ongoing quality of parentchild attachment (Berk, 2013). It is known that insecure attachment to the caregiver may cause emotional and behavioral problems in later stages of life (Perry, 2001). To summarize, attachment includes several key roles. Therefore; 1) attachment enables long-lasting emotional ties with special ones, 2) this relationship provides security, comfort and satisfaction, 3) loss or the risk of losing the special one causes extreme suffering” (Perry, 2001). Basic Functions of Attachment Bowlby (1980) suggests the existence of an attachment system designed to safeguard the intimacy between infant and caregiver under threatening circumstances. As infants need care and protection for a long time, they are born with a desire to be close to attachment figures and a series of behaviors to keep this intimacy. The system that strengthens attachment behavior works with the basic objective of providing security and protection. Therefore, when a threat to security is perceived the system works automatically and keeps active through whole life (Shaver&Mikulincer, 2002). Attachment behavior develops persistently and is sustained strongly through whole 

 Lecturer, Namık Kemal University, Vocational School of Health Services, Child Development Program  Assoc. Prof., Dr., Trakya University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of Preschool Education 

lie. (Hazan&Shaver, 1994). Bowlby (1982) suggested functions and three aspects of attachment relationships. The first is being close to the caregiver, the second is using the mother as the basis for support when exploring the environment and beginning new things and the third is the mother’s role as a shelter for comfort, protection and support. Seeking Intimacy: Bowlby (1980) suggests that attachment process involves an attachment relationship different from other social relations and newborn babies display behaviors that mean they want to enhance security and keep physical intimacy when they are scared or feel unguarded or distressed. Thus, babies seek an attachment figure for intimacy. Maintaining the intimacy with the caregiver is the most basic objective within the attachment type and it provides an area where newborns may develop securely. Safe Base: Attachment figure functions as a secure base that will give the child trust and courage when he/she gets scared (Bowlby, 1980). When the child is afraid or feels threatened for any reason, he seeks intimacy to the attachment figure. In such cases, caregiver (attachment figure) serves as a secure base where the child may return for comfort and security (Hazan&Shaver, 1994). The child uses the caregiver as the “secure base” when exploring the environment and learning new behaviors (Bowlby, 1982). Safe Haven: Bowlby (1982) suggests that the caregiver is a safe haven for the baby as he/she trusts the caregiver for comfort, support and reassurance. The baby must occasionally leave the caregiver in order to explore the environment and after reunion attachment figure functions as a safe haven to provide the child with comfort, reassurance and support (Hazan&Shaver, 1994). In a relationship, there is primarily a tie that allows someone to contact with the attachment figure and maintain this intimacy. By time, this attachment figure is used as a safe haven in case of illness threat or dangerous situations. In other words, attached person uses the attachment figure as a shelter for security, protection and support (Farley&Shaver, 2000). Development Stages of Attachment A child is quite far from being a tabula rasa (a philosophical view suggesting that human brain is an empty sheet) at birth. On the contrary, he/she has behavioral systems waiting for activation, each of these systems is activated, ended, strengthened or weakened by certain stimuli. Several of these systems lay the foundation of attachment development in the future. Primitive systems that mediate crying, sucking, clinging behaviors of newborns may be given as examples. These are followed by laughing and babbling a few weeks later and crawling and walking a few months later. These behavior systems are displayed in a simple order. Some motor patterns develop in a more detailed fashion than fixed behavior pattern and stimuli that activate and end these patterns may only be distinguished roughly. Even so, there is a distinction from the beginning and there is an inclination to respond to stimuli from another person in a particular way (auditory stimuli caused by human voice, visual stimuli by human face and tactile and kinesthetic stimuli by human arms and body). Complex systems that mediate attachment to certain figures at infancy and childhood-indeed fort he rest of life- flourish from these little experiences. This development is divided into several stages with no definite borders (Bowlby, 1969). These stages are as below: Stage I: The Baby Distinguishes Figures Restrictedly: At this stage, the baby displays certain behaviors towards people but his/her ability to distinguish one person 184

from another is restricted to olfactory and auditory stimuli. This stage lasts from birth to at least eight weeks, often until twelve months and it is occasionally elongated under unfavorable circumstances. Behaviors of a baby towards people around include orientation, watching eye movements, grabbing and reaching, smiling and babbling. The baby usually stops crying upon hearing a certain sound or seeing a face. Each of these infant behaviors influences the behaviors of caregivers and the time spent with the caregiver. After approximately twelve months, these friendly responses intensify and turn into “complete social responses” with all their warmth, joy and pleasure (Rheingold, 1961; cited by. Bowlby, 1969). Stage 2: Orientation to the Distinguished Figure(s) and Watching Signs: At this stage, baby displays the same intimacy toward people as in Stage 1, however it is more apparent toward the mother than others. There is no different response to auditory stimuli before four weeks and visual stimuli before ten weeks. Both are clearly seen after twelve weeks in most of home-grown children and this stage may last up to six months depending on circumstances (Bowlby,1969). Stage 3: Maintenance of Attachment Through Locomotion in addition to Signs: At this stage, the baby becomes increasingly more capable of distinguishing people and widens the range of responses, going after the mother, greeting upon reunion and using her as a base for exploration. Meanwhile, his/her friendly and equal (nondiscriminant) approach towards all people is weakened. Certain people are selected as helping attachment figures while others are not. They are increasingly more cautious against strangers and feel anxiety or need to withdraw sooner or later. At this stage, some of the mediating systems are regulated for an objective child’s attachment to mother is clearly seen by everyone (Bowlby, 1969). Stage 3, often begins between six and seven months but it begins after the first birthday of children who have not made much contact with a basic figure. It probably lasts for the second year and even the third year (Bowlby, 1969). Stage 4: Goal-Based Partnership: At Stage 3, intimacy toward an attachment figure is maintained by infants or children by means of goal-based systems that use a primitive cognitive map. Within the framework of this map, the mother is seen as an independent and permanent object in time and space with predictable motions. However, despite this phenomenon the baby cannot be expected to understand the factors that attract or repel the mother or what he/she can do in order to change these behaviors. The baby still cannot understand that mother behaviors are shaped around targets set by her, these targets are numerous and a bit conflicting and it is possible to understand these targets and behave accordingly. However, this changes over time. By observing mother behaviors and factors that influence these behaviors, the infant begins to understand mother’s objectives and what she does to achieve them. After that, worldview develops more and his/her behaviors become more flexible (Bowlby, 1969). Factors That Influence Attachment Temperament Relationship between attachment and infant’s temperament has been discussed and examined for a very long time. A child’s innate characteristics may cause him respond negatively to stressful situations or regulate his feelings differently and this causes the individual differences between responses of children to separation and parents’ reaction 185

to children (Bates, Maslin&Frankel, 1985; Belsky&Rovine, 1987; Egeland&Farber, 1984). Temperament plays a key role in manifestation of nervousness, sociability and pleasure from close contacts which are thought to be closely related to attachment. This causes differences in attachment status of children by changing the nature of infantmother interaction and thus influencing the quality of attachment (Lewis&Feiring, 1989). Goldsmith & Alansky (1987) suggest that bad-tempered children receive less sensitive messages from their mothers and this reduced mother-child interaction quality and infant sociability has impacts on mother’s social responsiveness to her child. Differences in temperament serve to prevent and regulate the responses of primary caregiver to the signals from the infant, influencing the quality of initial social relationship (Goldsmith&Campos, 1982). It is observed that mothers of bad-tempered children are quite indifferent toward their children (Pederson et al., 1990). There are several evidences that temperament is related to certain infant behaviors that occur during Strange Situation Procedure (reactions to strangers such as crying and discomfort) (Vaughan et al., 1989,Gunnar et al., 1989). Studies of a meta-analysis on 15 studies each involving both temperament and strange situation data show that there is a moderate relationship between temperament inclined to distress and crying and resistant behaviors in strange situation (Goldsmith&Alansky, 1987). According to a study on newborns, 3-month old babies (Belsky&Rovine, 1987; Lewis&Feiring, 1989) and 12month babies (Bradshaw et al., 1987; Belsky&Rovine, 1987), temperament may influence the expression of behaviors often considered as secure or insecure attachment. Attachment theorists began to agree with temperament theorists over time, accepting that children are different from each other at birth but emphasizing that personal characteristics are influenced by social experiences (Belsky&Rovme, 1987; StevensonHinde, 1988). Consequently, temperament may determine the child’s attachment type and different interaction patterns are expected to occur when temperament changes (Belsky&Rovme, 1987; Lewis&Feiring, 1989). Maternal Behavior and Sensitivity Attitude, anxiety and behaviors of mothers have a direct impact on attitude, anxiety and behaviors of children. One of the basic issues of attachment theory is mother’s consistent and sensitive responsiveness of mother to child’s signals. “Maternal sensitivity” may be conceptualized as being ready to receive the child’s signals, sorting out, understanding and interpreting the child’s reactions and setting an appropriate level of control and flexiblity when providing care (Lounds et al., 2005). The more mother and child respond to each other’s feelings, the more their social interaction will improve (Rijt-Plooij&Plooji, 1993; cited by. Soysal et al., 1999). Parental sensitivity and responses of parents or caregivers to child’s signals are vital for the child to organize their emotional experience and regulate “security feeling” (Kobak&Sceery, 1988). Child’s signals to mother are valuable, meaningful and important. These signals initiate the interaction between mother and child. Children of mothers defined as sensitive are able to Express their needs freely and feel comfortable and safe (Etzion-Carasso &Oppenheim, 2000). Several studies confirm the role of mother in shaping infant behavior (Ainsworth, Bell&Stayton, 1972; Sameroff, Seifer&Elias, 1982). In studies on Western babies, a special kind of communication called interactional synchrony separates experiences of secure and insecure infants from each other. Interactional 186

synchrony is best defined as an “emotional dance” where parent responds to child’s signals in rhythmic and timely manner (Berk, 2013). Maternal Care: Bowlby (1982) emphasizes that familiarization is important for the infant’s survival. According to Bowlby (1982) any behavior that brings the infant closer to parent or others is familiarization; this behavior may also be called “motherhood”, “mother care” and “feeding”. Relationship between familiarization and mother care shows that maternal behavior must focus on reducing the distance between infant and mother. In familiarization, mother stands close to infant and supports him/her when distressed. This behavior provides protection for he infant and is an important aspect of attachment. For example, it is suggested that feeding should not be considered as merely satisfying the infant’s hunger because foundations of initial emotional patterns are laid at this stage (Yapıcı&Yapıcı, 2005). Insufficient care is an important predictor of attachment degeneration (Berk, 2013). Excessive Weeping Excessive weeping is one of the factors that influence attachment. It may threaten the relationship between baby and parents (Gander&Gardiner, 2001). Robinson&Moss (1970) reported a young mother who waited for her child’s birth eagerly. However, as the baby cried excessively during the first month, showed no reaction when hugged and was late in smiling and making eye contact and his development was slow, mother felt that she was restricted and was not loved or found appropriate and finally rejected the baby at the end of the third month (Hazan & Shaver, 1994). Bell & Ainsworth (1972) report that babies cry more when their parents do not care them. They suggest that when babies cry a lot mothers prefer to leave them and pretend not to care and more weeping causes them to withdraw more. Internal Working Models of Parents Parents bring their own attachment experiences to their families. They build their internal working models on this experience (Berk,2013). Mother attachment representations influence the child’s attachment status considerably (LJzendoorn, 1995). Although this is partially explained by the fact that maternal representations influence her reactions to the infant’s signals and then the child’s attachment status, it was found that these representations are better than maternal sensitivity in predicting infant attachment (Belsky, 1999; VanIJzendoorn, 1995). A study on mothers indicated that internal working models of mothers (as a result of their own experience) were related to attachment type of their own children (Main et al., 1985; Van Ijzendoorn et al., 1999). Bowlby (1982) thought that changes in infant behavior influence mother’s responses to the infant, however he believed that what mother brings to the relationship is much more complex and effective than what the child brings”. Initially, maternal sensitivity was considered as the basic maternal factor in the child’s attachment security (Ainsworth, 1967). Recent studies also focus on attachment representations of mothers. These representations are based on mother’s attachment experience in her own childhood. With adulthood, these experiences are designed as a cognitive model that underlies feelings and thoughts on attachment (Main, Kaplan&Cassidy, 1985). Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), the first scale designed to evaluate these representations classifies mothers into four groups according to their judgments on their own attachment experiences. (1) Autonomous mothers care for and value attachment needs, solving attachment issues from childhood. (2) Dismissing mothers are inclined to 187

idealize their own parents but they underestimate the importance of attachment in their own childhood (3) preoccupied mothers are furiously attached to their childhood attachment figures and have difficulty in separating their past from the current situation (4) Indecisive mothers have difficulty in speaking properly about attachment often because of a trauma or abuse (Hesse, 1999). Infant’s Appearance Another factor of attachment is the infant’s appearance and movements (Yapıcı&Yapıcı, 2005). Parents sometimes fail to deal with infants who have serious physical defects. They may reject their babies in various ways such as leaving them or providing very little care (Gadner&Gardiner, 2001). Psychological Factors According to Bowlby (1969), defects in child attachment are related to three psychological situations seen in the first three years of life. These are protest, desperateness, dissociation and long-term separation. Protest involves serious distress caused by separation and desperateness involves sorrow, mourning, withdrawal. After dissociation or long-term separation, the infant seems incapable of developing proper attachment with the primary caregiver. The child may even lose his attachment skill totally. The child hardens, shows interest in physical, inanimate objects and focuses on himself. All these characteristics are visible in children who display guilty behavior (Fonagy et al., 1997). Bowlby observed in his first study that children with the most guilty behaviors are the ones who fail to form close connections with others. It is observed that attachment of these children with their primary caregivers is insecure (Katz, 1999). Attachment Styles in Infancy and Childhood Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure According to Canadian psychologist Ainsworth who was Bowlby’s student, a baby needs the presence of a stronger adult from birth for protecting and satisfying her basic needs. This is often the mother who gives birth to and grows the child (Ainsworth, 1967). In his attachment theory, Ainsworth concentrates on mother’s and infant’s need for intimacy (Ainsworth, 1989). According to him, the infant uses attachment behaviors to form security feeling by being close to the attachment figure (Ainsworth et al., 1978; cited by., Lewis, Feiring & Rosenthal, 2000). Ainsworth (1989) defines attachment system as a genetically innate system due to its role in survival. Thus, the child will not go too far away from the caregiver but explore the environment safely when the caregiver is around. According to him, attachment is based on this behavior system (Ainsworth, 1989). According to Mary Salter, family security at early phases provides a base for persons to develop themselves by creating new skills and fields of interest. When family security is missing, the person suffers the shortage of a secure base (Salter, 1940; cited by.,Bretherton, 1992). Ainsworth is known as the person to introduce attachment theory into empirical research (Griffin&Bartholomew, 1994). By helping to test empirically what Bowlby put forward in attachment theory (Bretherton, 1992), he developed Strange Situation Procedure in order to determine attachment level of an infant to family (Holmes, 1993) and tested attachment security objectively (Meterson, 2013). He used 56 babies from white American, middle-class families as the study sample (Bell, 1970). Ainsworth 188

came to terms with these 26 families before the birth of their children and paid 18 home visits from the first month through the 54th week of the baby. Each visit lasted for 4 hours and data was collected from each family for total 72 hours (Bretherton, 1992). During these observations, analyses were made on feeding (Ainsworth& 1969), face-toface mother-child interaction (Blehar, Lieberman&Ainsworth, 1977), weeping (Bell&Ainsworth, 1972), greeting of the infant (Stayton&Ainsworth, 1973), balance between attachment and exploration (Ainsworth, Bell&Stayton, 1971), obedience, close physical contact (Stayton, Hogan&Ainsworth, 1971), approaching behavior (Tracy, Lamb&Ainsworth,1976) and affectionate contact (Tracy&Ainsworth, 1981;cited by.Bretherton 1992). Strange Situation Procedure was repeated after babies turned one. Ainsworth and colleagues separated babies from parents and then brought them back together in laboratory conditions (Ainsworth, 1979; Masterson, 2013). While designing this technique, they drew on from the fact that securely attached infants must use their parents as safe bases while exploring an unfamiliar play room (Berk, 2013). Here, the main proposition is that intensity of infant’s attachment depends on maternal sensitivity toward the infant’s needs and communicative behaviors (Ainsworth, Bell&Stayton, 1971; Ainsworth et al., 1978). In the study, relationships between 12-24-month old infants and their caregivers were assessed at eight phases (Ainsworth, 1982; cited by.,Paterson&Moran, 1988). Stres-causing phases were regulated in order to activate attachment and exploration systems of infants. Infants in the study were distributed into one of three groups according to their scores on scales for intimacy and contact seeking, maintenance of contact, trust, avoidance, seeking and communication from a certain distance (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Key features that distinguish three attachment categories of parents from each other are mother interactions that are considered as sensitive, warm, timely and rewarding (Isabella&Belsky, 1991). Ainsworth and Eichberg (1991) found significant correlation between Strange Situation Classifications and working models of mothers, there was also 80 % similarity between attachment styles of parents and children. Attachment styles that were defined: 1-Secure Attachment: In this attachment style, infant behaviors are active and open to exploration. Infants have used parents as secure bases (Berk, 2013) and explored the environment eagerly when they are with caregivers (Ainsworth, 1989; Hazan&Shaver, 1990; Cassidy&Berlin, 1994). They were not disturbed by the arrival of stranger. When their mothers left, they wept and got distressed a little. When their mothers returned, they wanted to contact and went on exploring the environment after relaxing in their arms (Ainsworth, 1978). 2-Preoccupied Ambivalent Attachment: These children are not sure that their mothers will respond or help when they are called (Barnett&Vondra, 1999). As they are not securely attached, they are always preoccupied about where their mothers are and fail to explore the environment. In laboratory settings, these children showed no interest in toys when their mothers were in the room and got too distressed and began to weep when their mothers left the room (Fonagy, 1999). The suffered a very intense preoccupation, distress and fury in their mothers’ absence, refusing to communicate with any stranger in the room and were not easily comforted when their mothers returned (Hazan&Shaver, 1994; Sümer&Güngör, 1999a). They both sought and rejected physical contact (Barnett&Vondra, 1999). On one hand, they seemed to be relaxed and pleased with mother’s arrival and on the other hand they were aggressive and furious toward mother (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Lounds et al., 2005). 189

3-Avoidant Attachment: These infants played with toys when their mothers were in the room but did not uset them as a safe base (Ainsworth et al., 1978) . Infants seemed not to be distressed or affected by separation (Hazan&Shaver, 1994). They showed only a little dissatisfaction upon their mothers leaving the room (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Fonagy, 1999;Bretherton, 2003). When they showed dissatisfaction, they were comforted by the stranger as easily as by their mothers (Ainsworth 1978). They avoided contact with the stranger and played with toys (Sümer&Güngör 1999). Upon reunion, they were indifferent to mothers’ arrival, moved away from them and focused their attention on toys (Campos et al., 1983). There are studies supporting the view that infant attachment styles proposed by Ainsworth et al are transferred to the later stages of life (Davilla, Burge&Hammen, 1997). In a longitudinal study, Waters et al (2000) contacted with people from Ainsworth’s Strange Situation 20 years later in order to test the permanency of attachment styles and applied adult attachment interview form to these people. They concluded that attachment styles do not change and the same attachment styles are maintained. Main and Soloman Disorganized Attachment Disorganized attachment was proposed by Main and Solomon. It is apart from “organized” categories (ambivalent, preoccupied and security) in Strange Situation Procedure of Ainsworth and was also used by Ainsworth and Eichberg (1991). It is a mixture of avoidant and indecisve behaviors and considered as the fourth category of infant reactions in strange situation ( Main&Solomon,1986). Disorganized attachment is not related to the infant’s nature or temperament (Carlson, 1998). Disorganized attachment occurs when caregiver scares the infant/child with abuse, bad, frightening and/or unbalanced behaviors. Twenty one per cent of children of depressed mothers are in disorganized category and this rate rises in case of other risk factors such as alcohol, drugs and child abuse (VanIJzendoorn et al, 1999). It was found that mothers of children are prone to sexual harassment and neglectful behavior and have failed to solve problems with their own caregivers (Barnett et al.1999). Main et al report that parents of these children often suffered unsolved and deep sorrow, traumas or losses with attachment figures in their childhood (Belsky&Cassidy,1994). Main and Hesse (1990) suggest that scary parental behaviors are the primary mechanism that causes disorganized infant attachment. Both Schuengel, BakermansKranenburg and Van IJzendoorn (1999) support the view that scary parental behavior and infant’s placement in this category at Strange Situation Procedure are correlated. Solomon and George (2011) revealed that defects in organizatio of caregiving setting may predict disorganized behavior in Strange Situation Procedure. When the need for attachment arises, children in disorganized attachment relationship display bizarre, conflicting and unaccountable behaviors (Hesse&Main, 2000). In strange Situation Procedure (Ainsworth et al.,1978), behaviors of infants in disorganized attachment category show that they do not have an appropriate strategy for resorting to caregivers in stressful situations and receiving their assistance (Goldwyn et al,. 2000). Simultaneous and conflicting behaviors and feelings, apparent dissociation, abnormal movements, signs of dreading the parent tor absence of an attachment strategy are some of these behaviors (Main &Hesse, 1990). 190

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Attachment is a process that forms at early stages of life and influences human life in multiple ways. Attachment relationship between caregiver and infant guides human behaviors including exploration activities in infancy, peer relationships, adaptation, school success, problem-solving skill at childhood, parental role, relationships with spouses and close surrounding. Securely attached children are expected to begin life as more healthy and confident individuals. Considering that attachment forms during early years and is quite important in human life, responsibilities of parents are better understood. Mothers assume the most important responsibility in forming attachment. They have to respond to infants’ needs on time from the birth in order to develop a good attachment. Their sensitivity, unlimited and unconditioned love toward children will enable children to develop secure attachment. Fathers have important responsibilities as well as mothers. They have an important role in emotional development of all children. Even though children are likely to be attached to caregivers, fathers’ role in forming this attachment cannot be ignored. Fathers’ warm approach, sensitivity to their needs and physical contact will also enhance development of attachment. Positive relationships in the family also influence infant attachment. Harmony and intimacy between parents and warm atmosphere will keep infants away from negative events and enhance their spiritual and emotional development. A child with healthy emotions will be able to form attachment properly. Parents are sometimes late in gaining awareness about attachment and forming positive relationship with their children and this affects children negatively. However, it must be kept in mind that children need love and attention of their parents at every age. Warmth, sensitivity and love toward children will influence them positively at all periods. Preschool children need an adult to trust and come closer before starting school. Teacher is this adult. It is known that children at this period develop attachment with their teachers. Preschool teachers must be sensitive to students’ needs and treat them warmly in order to help them develop positive social relationships with peers and a positive attitude toward school. Given that education is multilateral process, one duty of teachers is to inform parents about child development. Informing parents about attachment will help them understand its importance. REFERENCES Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1967). Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and The Growth of Love Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University Press. Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1969). Object Relations, Dependency and Attachment: a Theoretical Review of the Infant-Mother Relationship. Child Development, 40 (4), 969-1025. Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979). lnfant-Mother Attachment. American Psychologist,34, 125-129. Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989).Attachments Beyond Infancy. American Psychologist,44(4), 709-716. Ainsworth, M. D. S.; Bell, S. M. & Stayton, D. (1971). Individual Differences in Strange Situation Behavior of One-Year-Olds. In H. R. Schaffer (Ed.), (17-57). Theorigins of Humansocial Relations London: Academic Press. Ainsworth, M. D. S.; Bell, S. M. & Stayton, D. (1972). Individual Differences in the Development of Some Attachment Behaviors. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 18 (2), 123-143. 191

Ainsworth, M. D .S.; Blehar, M. C.; Waters, E. & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of The Strange Situation. Psychology: New York. Ainsworth, M. D. S. & Eichberg, C. G. (1991). Effects on Infant-Mother Attachment of Mother’s Experience Related to Loss of an Attachment Figure. In C. M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.), Attachment Across the Life Cycle (pp.160-183). New York: Routledge. Barnett, D. & Vondra, J. I. (1999).Atypical Patterns of Early Attachment: Theory, Research, and Current Directions.Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64 (3),1-24. Barnett, R. C.; Gareis, K. C.& Brennan, R. T. (1999). Fit as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Work Hours and Burnout. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 307– 317. Bates, J. E.; Maslin, C. A. & Frankel, K. A.(1985). Attachment Security, Mother-Child Interaction, and Temperament as Predictors of Behavior-Problem Ratings at Age Three Years”, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development,50(1-2), 167193. Bell, S. M. (1970). The Development of the Concept of the Object as Related to InfantMother Attachment”, Child Development, 41 (2), 291-311. Bell, S. M.& Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972).Infant Crying and Maternal Responsiveness. Child Development, 43 ( 4), 1171-1190. Belsky, J. (1999). Quantity of Nonmaternal Care and Boys' Problem Behavior/Adjustment at Ages 3 and 5:Exploring the Mediating Role of Parentin. Psychiatry, 62 (1), 1-20. Belsky, J. & Cassidy, J. (1994). Attachment: Theory and Evidence. M.Rutter & D.Hay (Eds.), Development Through Life: A Handbook for Clinicians (pp. 373-402). Oxford: Blackwell. Belsky, J., Rovine, M. (1987). Temperament and Attachment Security in the Strange Situation: An Empirical Rapprochement. Society for Research in Child Development,58 (3), 787-795. Berk, E. L. (2013). Bebekler ve Çocuklar: Doğum Öncesinden Orta Çocukluğa, Erdoğan, I. N. (Çev. Ed.), (Basım 7), (164-266-278),Nobel Akademik:Ankara. Blehar, M. C.; Lieberman, A. F., Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1977).Early Face-to-Face Interaction and Its Relation to Later Infant-Mother Attachment. Child Development,48(1), 182-194. Bradshaw, D. L.; Goldsmith, H. H., Campos, J. J. (1987). Attachment, Temperament, and Social Referencing: Interrelationships Among Three Domains of Infant Affective Behavior. Infant Behavior and Development,10 (2) , 223–231. Bretherton, I. (2003). Mary Ainsworth: Insightful Observer and Courageous Theoretician. G. A. Kimble and M. Wertheimer (Ed.).Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology 5, (1-10), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bowlby, J. (1969). A ttachment and Loss. Volume I, Basic Books, New York. Bowlby, J. (1973). Separation Anxiety and Anger. Attachmentand Loss. The Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, Volume II, United States of America. Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and Loss, Loss Sadness and Depression.Volume III, A Member of the Perseus Books Group, New York. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and Loss: Sadness and Depression.Marriage and Family, 44 (1), 248-250. Bretherton, I. (1992). The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28 (5), 759-775. Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization /disorientation. Child Development, 69, 1107 – 1128 192

Cassidy, J.& Berlin, L. J. (1994). The Insecure/Ambivalent Pattern of Attachment: Theory and Research.Child Development, 65 (4), 971–991. Campos, J. J.; Barrett, K. C.; Lamb, M. E.; Goldsmith, H. H. & Stenberg, C. (1983). Socioemotional Development. E. H. Mussen (Ed.), Infancy and Developmental Psychobiology, (793-915), NewYork: Wiley. Davila, J.; Burge, D., Hammen, C. (1997).Why Does Attachment Style Change?. Journal of Personality and Social Psycholog, 73(4), 50-62. Egeland, B., Farber, E. A.(1984). Infant-Mother Attachment: Factors Related to Its Development and Changes Over Time. Child Development, 55 (3), 753- 771. Etzion-Carasso, A. & Oppenheim, D.(2000). Open Mother-Preschooler Communication: Relations With Early Secure Attachment. Attachment &Human Development, 2(3), 347– 370. Farley, C. R. & Shaver, R. P. (2000). Adult Romantic Attachment: Theoretical Developments, Emerging Controversies, and Unanswered Questions. Review of General Psychology, 4 (2), 132-154. Fonagy, P. (1999).The Understanding of Mental States, Mother-Infant Interaction and the Development of the Self, 26,(37-50), Les Cahiers Psychiatriques: Special Issue in Honor of Bertrand Cramer. Fonagy, P.; Steele, H.; Steele M.& Holder, J. (1997). Attachment and Theory of Mind: Overlapping Constructs? Association for Child Psychology and Psychiatry Occasional Papers, 14(3), 31–40. Freud, A.(1960). Discussion of Dr, John Bowlby’s Paper”. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 15, 53-62. Gander, M.J.;Gardiner, H. W. (2001). Çocuk ve Ergen Gelişimi,Dönmez A. Çelen, N., (Çev.),4. Basım, (s.214-217), İmge:Ankara. Goldsmith, H. H.& Alansky, J. (1987). Maternal and Infant Temperamental Predictors of Attachment: A Meta-Analytic Review”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55 (6), 805–816. Goldsmith, H. H. & Campos, J. (1982). Toward a Theory of Infant Temperament. Attachment and Affiliative Systems,(s.161-193), New York: Plenum Press. Goldwyn, R.; Stanley C.; Smith V. & Green, J. (2000). The Manchester Child Attachment Story Task: Relationship With Parental AAI, SAT and Child Behaviour. Attachment & Human Development, 2(1), 71–84. Griffin, D. & Bartholomew, K. (1994). Models of the Self and Other: Fundamental Dimensions Underlying Measures of Adult Attachment”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(3), 430-445. Gunnar M. R.; Mangelsdorf S.; Larson M., Hertsgaard, L. (1989). Attachment, Temperament, and Adrenocortical Activity in Infancy: A Study of Psychoendocrine Regulation. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 355-363. Güneş, A. (2014). Güvenli Bağlanma, Erdem, F. (Ed.), 4.Basım, 4,16,17,19,20, 49, s.,Timaş: İstanbul. Hazan, C. & Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an Organizational Framework for Research on Close Relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 5 (1), 1-22. Hazan, C. & Shaver, P. R. (1990). Love and Work: An Attachment Theoretical Perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (2), 270-280. Hesse, E. (1999). The Adult Attachment Interview: Historical and Current Perspectives. Cassidy, J.& Shaver P.R.. (Ed.), Handbook of attachment, (395-433),New York: Guilford. Hesse, E. & Main, M. (2000). Disorganized Infant, Child and Adult Attachment: Collapse in 193

the Behavioral and Attentional Strategies. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 48, 1097–1127. Holmes J.(1993). Attachment Theory: A Biological Basis for Psychotherapy. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 430-438. Isabella, R. A., Belsky, J. (1991). Interactional Synchrony and the Origins of Infant-Mother Attachment: A Replication Study.Child Development, 62(2), 373-384. Katz, L. C. (1999). What’s Critical for The Critical Period in Visual Cortex? Cell, 99 (7), 673– 676. Kobak, R. R., Sceery, A. (1988). Attachment in Late Adolescence: Working Models, Affect Regulation and Representations of Self and Others. Child Development, 59 (1), 135-146. Lewis, M., Feiring, C. (1989). Infant, Mother, and Mother-Infant Interaction Behavior and Subsequent Attachment.Child Development, 60(4),831-837. Lewis M.; Feiring, C., Rosenthal, S. (2000). Attachment Over Time. Child Development. 71(3), 707-720. Lounds, J.J.; Borkowski, J. G.; Whitman, T.L.; Maxwell, S. E., Weed, K. (2005). Adolescent Parenting and Attachment During Infancy and Early Childhood.Parenting, 5 (1), 91-118. Main, M., Hesse, E. (1990). Parents’ Unresolved Traumatic Experiences Are Related to Infant Disorganized Attachment Status: Is Frightened or Frightening Parental Behavior The Linking Mechanism? In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 161-182). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Main, M. & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of A New, Insecure-Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment Pattern. In T. B. Brazelton & M. W. Yogman (Eds.), Affective Development in Infancy (pp. 95- 124). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Main, M.; Kaplan, N., Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, Childhood, and Adulthood: A Moveto Thelevel of Representation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50 (1-2), 66-104. Masterson, F. M. (2013). Bağlanma Kuramı ve Nörobiyolojik Kendinlik Açısından Kişilik Bozuklukları,2, Masterson,F.M (Ed.),Şentürk,Ş. (Çev.),(21-187), Litera: İstanbul. Patterson, R. J. & Moran, G. (1988). Attachment Theory, Personality Development, and Psychotherapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 8 (6), 611-636. Pederson, D. R.; Moran, G.; Sitko, C.; Campbell, K.; Ghesquire, K., Acton, H. (1990). Maternal Sensitivity and the Security of Infant-Mother Attachment: A Q-Sort Study. Child Development, 61 (6), 1974 – 1983. Perry, B. D. (2001). Bonding and Attachment in Maltreated Children. The Child Trauma Academy. Robson, K. S. & Moss, H. A. (1970). Patterns and Determinants of Maternal Attachment. The Journal of Pediatrics, 77 (6), 976-985. Rijt-Plooij, H. H. C. & Plooij, F .X. (1993). Distinct Periods of Mother-Infant Conflict in Normal Development: Sources of Progress and Germs of Pathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34 (2), 229-245. Scharff, J. S. (1995). Psychoanalytic Marital Therapy. Jacobson,A.S. Gurman, (Ed.).Clinical Handbook of Couple Therapy, Basım 1, (164-196,s.), New York: Guilford Press Schuengel, C.; Bakermans-Kranenburg ; M. J & Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1999). Frightening Maternal Behavior Linking Unresolved Loss and Disoiganized Infant Attachment Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 54-63 Sameroff, A. J.; Seifer, R. & Elias, P. K. (1982). Sociocultural Variability in Infant Temperament Ratings. Child Development, 53(1), 164-173. Shaver, P. R.& Mikulincer, M., (2002). Dialogue on Adult Attachment:Diversity and 194

Integration. Attachment and Human Development, (4),133-161. Solomon, J., George, C. (2011). Disorganization of Maternal Caregiving Across Two Generations: The Origins of Caregiving Helplessness. In J. Solomon and C. George (Eds.) Disorganization of Attachment and Caregiving: Research and Clinical Advances. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Soysal, Ş.; Bodur, Ş., İşeri, E. & Şenol, S. (1999). Yenidoğan Döneminde Hastanede Uzun Süreli Tedavi Görmenin Bağlanma Örüntüsü Üzerindeki Etkileri: Bir Olgu Sunumu”, Klinik Psikiyatri, 2. 266-270. Stayton, D. & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1973). Development of Sparation Behavior in the First Year of Life. Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 226-235. Stayton, D.; Hogan, R.& Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1971). Infant Obedience and Maternal Behavior; The Origins of Socialization Reconsidered. Child Development,42(4), 10571070. Stevenson, J. & Hinde, R. A. (1989). Individuals in Relationships, Stevenson. J., Hinde,R.A. ( Ed.), Relationships within Families: Mutual Influences, Oxford:Oxford University. Sümer, N.& Güngör, D. (1999). Yetişkin Bağlanma Stili Ölçeklerinin Türk Örneklemi Üzerinde Psikometrik Değerlendirmesi ve Kültürlerarası Bir Karşılaştırma.Türk Psikolojisi Dergisi, 14 (43), 71-106. Tracy, R. L. & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1981). Maternal Affectionate Behavior and InfantMother Attachment Patterns. Child Development, 52(4), 1341-1343. Tracy, R. L., Lamb, M. E.& Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1976). Infant Approach Behavior as Related to Attachment. Child Development, 47(3), 511- 578. Van IJzendoorn, M.H. (1995). Adult Attachment Representations, Parental Responsiveness, and Infant Attachment: A Meta-Analysis on The Predictive Validity of The Adult Attachment Interview.( Psychological Bulletin, 117, 387—403.) Van Ljzendoorn, M. H.; Schuengel, C., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Disorganized Attachment in Early Childhood: Meta-Analysis of Precursors, Concomitants, and Sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11 (2), 225-249. Vaughan, T. R., Weber, R. W., Tipton, W. R., & Nelson, H. S. (1989). Comparison of PEFR and FEV1 in Patients With Varying Degrees of Airway Obstruction Effect of Mmodestaltitude.Chest, 95 (3), 558-562. Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., Albersheim, L. (2000). Attachment Security in Infancy and Early Adulthood: A Twenty-Year Longitudinal Study. Child Development, 71(3), 684-689. Yapıcı, Ş., Yapıcı, M. (2005). Çocukta Sosyal Gelişim”, AKÜ Eğitim Fakültesi Haziran, 5 (2).

195

Chapter 15 Preschool Children’s Mathematical Experiences in Outdoor Play İrem GÜRGAH OĞUL, Yaşare AKTAŞ ARNAS INTRODUCTION Are mathematical experiences limited with classroom environment? Mathematics is associated with various activities making as part of daily life. Mathematical knowledge can be gained not only in classroom activities but also outdoor activities (Kandır & Orçan, 2010). Children learn various mathematical concepts during daily activities (Schoenfeld, 1988). Moreover, children can remember mathematical knowledge more easily when their previous knowledge links with new information significantly (Schoenfeld, 1988). Children’s making mathematics meaningful depends on that mathematics takes part in real life experiences (Patton & Kokoski, 1996). Children gain mathematical concepts in three ways including through their self natural learning experiences, informal learning experiences and structured learning experiences. Natural learning experiences are the experiences started and ended by children during daily activities. Adults’ contribution is beside the point in these experiences. The actions and options are on the control of the children completely. Similar to natural learning experiences, children choose the activity and the action in informal learning experiences. However, in case of emerging action, teacher guides to the children regarding their learning depending on her/his experiences and instinct. On the other hand, teacher conducts the process with planned activities before in the structured learning experiences (Aktaş Arnas, 2012). Although daily activities provide an introduction and progress to mathematical concepts and skills, only daily activities are not sufficient to constitute a systematic and continuous mathematical experience (Greenes et al., 2004). The assistance of adult has a key role in a systematic and continuous mathematical experience. In this sense, informal learning experiences are unmissable and valuable opportunities for teachers (Aktaş Arnas et al., 2012). To illustrate, the frequency of children’s using mathematical language increased with the implementation such as book reading, discussion about children’s ideas and ways of problem solving during Big Math for Young Children project conducted by Greenes and her colleagues (2004). In this regard, teachers should design effective experiences to provide children to construct informal knowledge (NCTM, 2000). Outdoor play areas provide opportunity for children to internalize mathematics with supplied materials and environment support. Child realizes that there is 

Res. Assist., Çukurova University, Education Faculty, Early Childhood Education Dept. Prof. Dr., Çukurova University, Education Faculty, Early Childhood Education Dept. 



mathematics in everything surrounding her/him with the help of her/his experiences with natural materials and thus her/his tendency of mathematics may improve (Pratt, 2011). Outdoor play areas facilitate gaining specialized knowledge and skills, in addition to diversifying learning opportunities (Gilbertson, Bates, McLaughlin & Ewert, 2006). The quality of provided environment to children plays a critical role in their understanding mathematics. There are different theoretical perspectives in terms of materials and adult assistance among factors determining environment quality. By deriving from the constructivist paradigm based on the cognitive learning theory of Piaget, it is indicated that children’s manipulation of objects supports mathematical concept development (Kirova & Bhargava, 2002). On the other hand, in his socio-cultural theory, Vygotsky advocated that early mathematical skills of children develop through their interaction with adults and the other people (Tudge & Doucet, 2004). In this regard, teachers are important in children’s understanding mathematics due to the fact that they provide effective learning environment to the children (NCTM, 1991). Teacher may ask questions directing them to exploration and provide materials stimulating their sense in learning environment by observing children (Kandır & Orçan, 2010). The efficiency of learning opportunities is the basic factor in understanding mathematics (Kandır & Orçan, 2010). Clements, in a report prepared on the development of educational reform, stated that children can learn broad and complex concepts of mathematics informally as long as it is given opportunities to them (Clements, 2013). According to Clements (2013) children can explore various mathematical information such as pattern, shapes, spatial relations, comparing and counting in free play. Also, outdoor play areas include spaces that children make mathematical explorations. The reason of this is that outdoor learning environments provide areas for children to play and move freely. This is necessary for their development and learning (Maynard & Waters, 2007). There are many studies referring the close relationship between environment and the learning of children (Fjortoft & Sagaie, 2000; O’Brien, 2009; Waite, 2010; Zamani, 2016). Zamani (2016) investigated that the cognitive play of four and five-year-old children in outdoor learning environments. As the result of observations in natural, structured and mixed settings, it was understood that these settings are supportive in cognitive plays of children who have different learning styles. Children mostly preferred to play in natural setting. They found structured setting boring because it provides predictable activities. On the other hand, the mixed settings equipped with loosing parts gave opportunity for children’s exploratory play and plays with rules. According to previous studies, it is important to focus on spontaneous mathematical experiences emerged by children rather than structured activities. Seo and Ginsburg (2004) found that children spend about the half of their time with mathematical activities in the observation of children’s free play. Participant children spend most of their free play time with exploring shapes and patterns, comparing magnitudes and making numerical judgements. When the research about understanding mathematics of children were investigated, it is clear that mathematics is learned in outdoor play as indoor activities. Outdoor plays provide informal learning settings for improving mathematical skills. However, an important factor that determines the quality of learning environment is adult assistance (Van Oers, 2009). In order to ensure high quality learning environment, 197

teachers must benefit from the opportunities of informal learning environment in which mathematical concepts naturally embedded (Seo & Ginsburg, 2004). As long as teachers are aware of the contribution of mathematical activities to the children, they start to get around for learning math (Young-Loveridge, Peters & Carr, 1998). Adult role in socio-cultural context plays a key role in understanding mathematics of children. The assistance, informal learning environment and materials providing by adult is determinant in which skills children use and improve. In this point, investigating materials provided for understanding math and the role of adult concretely is needed in terms of the quality of learning opportunities. In this context, the mathematical experiences of preschool children in their outdoor play will be investigated with regard to using mathematical skills, materials and the role of adult. Purpose of the Study The aim of this study is to scrutinize the mathematical experiences of preschool children in their outdoor free play with regard to using mathematical skills, materials and the role of adult. This study is conducted in accordance with the research questions below. 1. Which mathematical skills do children give place to in their mathematical experiences in the outdoor play? 2. Which materials do children use in their mathematical experiences in the outdoor play? 3. What is the role of adults in children’s mathematical experiences in the outdoor play? METHOD This research patterned with qualitative study conducted with the purpose of investigating preschool children’s mathematical experiences in the free outdoor play in terms of mathematical skills, materials and the role of adult. In this part, information about the features of participants and the data collection setting, data collection procedures and data analysis procedures was presented. Participants The participants of this study consist of 19 children who participate to a class of an early childhood education institution of a public university, a teacher and two preservice teachers of this class. While determining the participants of the study, that school garden includes natural materials and that children in this class use outdoor time at least one time in a day are considered. Nine of children are male while 10 children are female. The mean age of the participant children were 70 months. One adult of the participants were the teacher of this class and two adults were pre-service teachers who work at this class on one day of a week. The teacher had bachelor degree of early childhood education department and she had one year experience in that school. Pre-service teachers were last grade students at the same department of the university. Pseudonyms were allocated to each participant to ensure confidentiality and privacy in presenting the results. Data Collection Setting Data of the study were collected in the outdoor settings of the preschool. The garden of the school has the characteristics of mixed setting that includes natural and structured materials. Mixed settings consist of structured setting (swing, play structures, 198

etc.), natural setting (trees, hills, sand, etc.), natural elements (sticks, leaves, etc.) and structured elements (toys, slide, ropes, etc.) (Zamani & Moore, 2013).

Figure 1. Natural setting of the garden

Figure 2: Structured elements in the garden

As shown in Figure 1 and 2, there were natural settings such as trees, climbing hill and sand ground in the school garden. At the same time, as can be seen from the Figure 2, there were also structured elements such as a slide, a swing and a teeterboard. Depending on these features, it was decided that the school garden has the characteristics of mixed setting. Data Collection Procedures Data were recorded with a video camera during children’s free outdoor play by using event sampling method. The reason of choosing free outdoor play is to be able to investigate children’s mathematical experiences through unstructured games. One of the researchers had visited to the preschool and obtained totally 120-minute recording consists of 31 mathematical experiences. She had spent time together with children from the beginning to the ending of their outdoor time. The researcher who focused on children’s dialogues and activities continuously started to record as soon as she heard a mathematical concept or saw a mathematical activity. She had repeated the dialogues before recording to prevent data loss. Data Analysis Procedures The free outdoor plays of children were observed. The observations were transcribed and obtained raw data were analyzed with content analysis among qualitative analysis methods. Each mathematical experience scrutinized with regard to mathematical skills, used materials and the role of adults. A deductive way was followed in data analysis process. The main themes were determined with this aim. After investigating the raw data under the themes, the codes and categories were organized. RESULTS Data obtained from the observations of children in their outdoor play were analyzed in the frame of mathematical skills and materials used in mathematical experiences and adult assistance. Results were presented as the subtitles below. Mathematical Skills Used In Mathematical Experiences The result of data analysis revealed that children used quite various mathematical skills and concepts in their outdoor play. The mathematical skills used by children in their outdoor play were presented in Table 1.

199

As seen in Table 1, children used counting (12 times), comparing (nine times), ordering (six times), spatial sense (six times), operation (five times) and measurement (five times) skills frequently while they used classifying (three times), one-to-one correspondence (one time) and problem solving (one time) skills less frequently in their free outdoor play. It was seen that one of the most Table1: The mathematical skills used in frequently used mathematical skills in mathematical experiences children’s outdoor play was counting skill. Skill Frequency During the observations, children used Number sense and Counting 12 counting skill 12 times whereas they 10  Rational counting making rational counting 10 times. While 2  Writing numerals making rational counting, the child counts Comparing 9 by saying one-to-one fashion in an object Ordering 6 cluster. Spatial sense 6 Making operation  Addition  Subtraction  Division Measurement  Volume  Length  Weight Classifying One-to-one correspondence Reasoning

5 2 2 1 5 1 2 2 3 1 1

For example, Aysun was rational counting the four-leaf clover which she found in the garden by touching its leaves. And then, she said, “Look at this, teacher. I found a four-leaf clover.” In addition, children gave place to writing numerals in their outdoor play. For example, Ali made a key from tree branch for his plane that he made with using a table, a rubber wheel, a bedchair and a few tree branches. He wrote two ‘zero’ and a ‘one’ on the key by saying that he would write a password. Then he copied the same numbers on the plane by looking at the password. In another observation, the dialogue between Berk, Ayşe and Azra was as below: Berk: Let’s pick up the sands. Ayşe: I were one-year-old. I did not know. Azra: I were one-year-old too. Berk: (by taking up a stick) Let me learn writing to you. Berk wrote one to the sand and he said, “It is written like this.” Then, Ayşe and Berk cleared the sand by their hands. During the outdoor play, one of the skills that children used in the outdoor play frequently was comparing skill. It was observed that children made comparison to describe the magnitude and amount. While Akın and Ayşe playing with mud, Akın said to the researcher, “Teacher, Ayşe became a microbe, look at her hand” and he made comparison to describe the amount by saying “But, I have less. Thus, I am not a microbe”. Mustafa made comparison with the aim of describing the size of objects by saying “Seval, throw a stone to me, but not small, big one” while he used a bin lid as a shield. At the result of the data gathered from observations it was seen that children used ordering skills in their outdoor play. It remarked that children frequently applied to order words with the purpose of ordering events while they were playing. For instance, Berk said, “hey! I came to here at first” by closing to Seçil and Merve who sitting on 200

the wheels. And Seçil replied “No, we came to here at first”. Berk said “No, we came to here at first”. Seçil said “No, you went and then we came”. Moreover, during the observations, it was encountered that children conduct their observation skills on the measurable features. To illustrate, Aysun who was playing dramatic play on the bridge said “stay here Seçil, you are here, you are here and I am here” by directing each of her three friends to a corner. She used order words to order the other children’s height by saying “eldest sister” by pointing Seçil, “youngest sister” by pointing Fatma and “middle sister” by pointing Seval. It was observed that children also applied to making operation skill in the outdoor play. It iwas remarkable that children made operations that not only the operations based on counting skill such as addition and subtraction, but also the operations partwhole relationship such as division. The dialogue between Murat, Berk, Mustafa and Hüseyin who threw a ball to the hoop that they hanged to the web of the store and made addition for finding who was the winner was as below: Murat: Berk you are one, I am zero. Hüseyin: Did you shoot a basket? Murat: I didn’t shoot, Berk shot. Mustafa: (After making a basket) I became one, Berk two, Murat also two. … Mustafa: (Before throwing the ball) I am one (After making a basket) I became two. Children made not only addition but also subtraction. Berk, Seval and Aysun who were playing dramatic play used subtraction for division of role. Aysun said to Berk, “this is my son, also”. Berk replied, “But I am a year younger than Seval, ok?”. Aysun said, “So, Seval is one-year-old” and Berk said “I am six, also”. Children who used addition and subtraction also used division based on part-whole relationship. During a game, Emel took a biscuit from the Fatma’s package while Aysun took two. After they ate a biscuit, Aysun wanted the second one to Emel. However, Emel didn’t want to eat. Thereupon, Aysun said “Look Emel, I divided into four” by dividing the biscuit at her hand into four parts. It was observed that children quite often used spatial senses at the outdoor play. It was determined that children gave place to the distance words related to spatial tendency throughout their plays. For example, Azra, Ayşe and Berk were playing Frisbee together. They used spatial tendency words for telling how far or close to each other while they threw and tried to catch a Frisbee. During another game, Batu was shooting at Altan by using a pipe. It was observed that after each shot he used spatial tendency words by saying “now it came to down; now it came to right; now it came to up”. It was determined that position words (inside, behind, up, down, right, left, etc.) and distance words (close, far, etc.) were used. Moreover, it was observed that children sometimes used shape knowledge. An event related to the shapes of object happened as follows: Merve and Seçil were picking up leaves from plants. They came near to the young lemon tree together. Seçil plucked a leaf from the lemon tree and said “look, it seems to a heart.” Children used also measuring skills during their plays. In terms of measurement, they gave place to the skills related to the attributes of objects such as volume, length and mass. In this process it was observed that children made measurement and comparison with nonstandard unit of measurement. In an outdoor play Hüseyin and Ali 201

were filling a galosh after picking up stones from the ground. Then, Ali said to their teacher, “Look, teacher. We are filling our bag”. Here, Ali measured the volume of galosh with nonstandard unit of measurement unwittingly. In another observation, Mehmet put his hand to his head and struck it out for Akın and said, “Your nose is equal to my head”. Here, Mehmet compared his height with Akın’s height. In other observation, Azra who were seesawing denied, “so, why are there two people?” as soon as she saw Aysun and Emel at her opposite. Thus, Emel “Okay, let’s take a stone for weight”. In addition to counting, comparing, ordering, operations, measurement and spatial sense, children applied to classifying skill. To illustrate, Merve made a classifying activity while she was putting the leaves which picked up from a bush to a glass and the seed to another glass. Similarly, Fatma and Azra playing in the sand pool were classifying seashells and stones. Then, they embedded just stones based on their classification. It was seen that children also benefited from one-to-one correspondence during their outdoor play. According to the observations, they completed successfully the task at which objects used for one-to-one correspondence are the same and different. For example, Seçil and Merve should have changed their shoes to go in when they heard the warning about the time was over. Seçil took her own and Merve’s shoes from the board and put on the ground. They have the same shoes. She tried to wear one of them and said “hey, why this one is small?”She gave this shoe to Merve. Then, she tried to find the other pair of this shoe and provided Merve to wear. Finally, children used also their reasoning skills in their outdoor play. For instance, while Emel and Aysun were seesawing, Azra also wanted to seesaw. She tried to do but she could not. Emel and Aysun stood up and they tried to balance the teeterboard to facilitated Azra to sit down to it. The Materials Used in Children’s Mathematical Experiences Materials used in outdoor play areas investigated into two groups as natural materials and structured materials. The materials under the titles of natural and structured materials were presented in Table 2. The numbers in the parentheses express how many times they were used. When the materials used in the free outdoor play, it revealed that children used plants such as clover, leaf, seed, tree branch and natural materials such as sand, seashell, stone and mud. In addition to natural materials, they benefited from structured materials in their play. The structured materials used by children consisted of loosing parts such as rubber wheel, plastic table, bedchair, pipe and bin; play materials such as Frisbee, ball, hoop; current heros like Barbie, vehicles like bicycle, books and wastes such as galosh and plastic glass. That children benefited from wastes in their mathematical experiences was a striking result. Children sometimes included galoshes and plastic glass on the ground into their play. Adult Role in The Mathematical Experiences of Children In the study, a teacher and two preservice teachers who worked on one day in a week recorded as adults. In recorded 10 observations and 31 mathematical experiences, it was determined that there were just nine dialogues between children and adults. In the study, the responses of adults during mathematical experiences were investigated into two titles. At the result of analysis, adults responded as sensitive to math sometimes 202

although their responses were nonsensitive at the other times. The responses of adults were presented in Table 3. Table 2: Materials Used in Mathematical Experiences Natural Materials Plants (Clover, leaf, tree branch, etc.) (5) Sand (1) Seashell (1) Stone (1) Mud (1)

Structured Materials Loosing Parts  Rubber wheel (5)  Bedchair (3)  Pipe (2)  Plastic table (1)  Bin (1)  Play materials  Ball (3)  Frisbee (1)  Hoop (1)  Current Heros  Barbie (1)  Vehicles  Bicycle (1)  Books (1)  Wastes  Galosh (1)  Plastic glass(1)

Table 3: Adult Responses and Roles in Mathematical Experiences Nonsensitive Asking irrelative questions to math (1) responses to Math Sensitive responses to Math

Using mathematical word (4) Asking mathematical questions (1) Being model (1) Being stimulant (1) Removing misconception (1)

It was encountered to adult role at just nine of 31 mathematical experiences gathered from the observations. While children studied on mathematical skills, it was observed that adults gave nonsensitive response at one time. This response was interpreted as ignoring every usage of mathematical skills and concepts of a child. In this situation, the adult did not have an active role in children’s experience related to mathematics. In this observation, Aysun pointed out the clover to her teacher by saying that she found a four-leaf clover and her teacher just asked, “Where did you find that?” The teacher gave a nonsensitive response to Aysun’s usage of mathematical word and lost the opportunity to support her mathematical skills. In the other observations, it was observed that generally teachers gave sensitive responses to math. When these responses were investigated, it was seen that adults contribute to mathematical experiences of children by using mathematical words (4 times), asking questions (1 times), being a model (1 times), being stimulant (1 times) and removing misconception (1 times). For example, while Mehmet was sitting by his teacher, Mehmet said “teacher, I took a package of water” and then teacher asked “oh! Is that so? Alright, how many bottles are in a package?” Mehmet replied, “Six”. As seen in this example, teacher contributed to the mathematical experiences of Mehmet with asking a question related to math. It was determined that adults became guide by using mathematical words many times during children’s play. In an observation, pre-service teacher and four children were playing with a ball by trying to throw to the middle of wheel. Children formed a single file line. The foremost child was throwing the ball and going to the back of the line. Murat went to the middle of the line rather than the back after throwing the ball. Pre-service teacher used location word by saying to Murat “not to the middle, go to the 203

back, honey”. At the same game, pre-service teacher gave feedback to the child who threw the ball by saying “you threw from very high, throw from lower”. Adults also make a role as a model in mathematical experiences. For instance, in an observation, pre-service teacher counted as “one, two, three” for starting the game at every turn on the track prepared with children. Children repeated as “one, two, three” before each turn. It was determined that adults sometimes play a role as stimulant in mathematical experiences of children. For example, six children were seesawing with different combinations; however, they could not succeed to balance. They requested teacher to join them. Teacher seesawed with these six children. The children who were at the opposite of teacher denied to be kept up. Teacher played a stimulant role by saying “Okay, let Aslı teacher sit down there. Let’s see what will be happen?” In this manner, teacher directed them to use their mathematical skills by presenting a new situation. Again at the same game, children denied teacher to seesaw at their opposite by saying “but teacher, you are the big one” while they had difficulty in balancing. Teacher asked, “Am I big or heavy?” She drew their attention to these concepts again to remove misconception between ‘big’ and ‘heavy’ concepts. DISCUSSION Results obtained the study conducted with the aim of investigating mathematical experiences of young children in terms of mathematical skills, materials and adult role support the previous studies in many aspects while it presents new perspectives to the relationship between outdoor play and mathematics in some aspects. That children studied on many mathematical skills in the course of outdoor play was revealed in this study. It was observed that they used counting, comparing, ordering, operations, spatial sense and measurement, classifying, one-to-one correspondence and reasoning among mathematical skills in their outdoor play. This result was seemed to be consistent with previous studies. Seo and Ginsburg (2004) found that children participated to various mathematical activities during free play and most of them were related to pattern, shapes, comparing amount and counting. According to Vygotsky’s (1978) view, the context that children learn the content is important because the learning will be meaningful while they are making something if they understand why they do this. Teaching mathematic should be embedded to real life experiences to be more meaningful (Patton & Kokoski, 1996). Therefore, it is recommended that mathematic teaching should be arranged as developmental based on play-based activities (Aktaş Arnas, 2012) because meaningful mathematical experiences were associated with different developmental areas for children. In this sense, outdoor play allows multidimensional studying opportunity to children. One of the significant results of this study is concerning the materials preferred during the outdoor play. Most of the mathematical conceptual bases of children shape with the objects in plays (Clements, 2001). During outdoor play, children have opportunity to interact with the materials which do not take place in classroom. Enriched materials make possible to study on different skills. In the study, that children gave place to loosing parts in their mathematical experiences frequently was determined. The materials which give chance to different usage and supplied from the environment may serve to different learning styles and developmental stages (Kandır & Orçan, 2010). Zamani (2016) suggested that natural materials have an important role in learning math. 204

Another important result gathered from the study is that adults react to the children’s mathematical experiences in different ways. The results of the study show that teachers could not benefit from the mathematical experiences in the outdoor play and they miss the opportunity of informal learning experiences. In the current study, although 31 mathematical experiences were observed, adults interacted with children in just nine of these experiences. Besides, teacher did not respond with sensitivity to a child in one of these experiences. However, according to Aktaş Arnas and her colleagues (2012) informal experiences are unmissable opportunities by teachers. As indicated in the literature, children need to adult assistance to realize the phenomenon and specific features in the nature (Gustavsson & Pramling, 2014). According to Vygotsky’s (1978) the concept of zone of proximal development, children learn more with a peer or adult assistance. A previous study showed that teachers’ reading book related to or not math, encouraging children to tell their ideas and ways of problem solving cause to increase children’s using mathematical language (Greenes et al., 2004). In the present study, adults enriched the children’s mathematical experiences with using mathematical words, asking mathematical questions, being a model, being stimulant and revealing misconception although not so much frequently. It was observed that adult group consisted of a teacher and two pre-service teachers did not respond with sensitivity response to children’s mathematical experiences in an observation. Adult’s not responding wth sensitivity may be arisen from the responsibilities required of outdoor play areas. According to the results of the study of Alat, Akgümüş and Cavalı (2012), teachers indicated that outdoor play areas create anxiety in terms of security of children. This may cause them to focus on motor development of children rather than cognitive, social or language developmental areas. Besides adults’ nonsensitive responses, it concluded that they responded with sensitivity to the math mostly. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, this study conducted with the aim of investigating mathematical experiences of young children in terms of mathematical skills, materials and adult role present a holistic reflection about mathematical experiences in outdoor play. It was revealed that outdoor play provides opportunity for multidimensional study on mathematical skills of children at the result of the study. Children who study on many math skills during free play used loosing parts frequently in addition to natural materials. While the adults enriched children’s mathematical experiences with their sensitive responses, they missed the learning opportunity by responding insensitively or not realizing children’s learning needs. From this point of view, some suggestions may be presented regarding the mathematical experiences in outdoor. Teachers should focus on not only formal mathematic education but also informal mathematic education while early childhood education programs are prepared. Early childhood educators should behave consciously about the responses for supporting the mathematics embedded in real life experiences of children. Moreover, they should arrange the outdoor settings supportively for mathematical experiences. Even though this study presents valuable findings about children’s informal mathematical experiences, it also has some limitations. First of all, this study conducted on a small sized study group. However, it may present important clues for especially early childhood teachers, researchers and program makers. Future studies can focus on 205

the other physical elements of outdoor settings in larger groups. Moreover, the roles of teacher and physical conditions in mathematical experiences of young children can be studied deeply. REFERENCES Aktaş Arnas, Y. (2012). Okul öncesi dönemde matematik eğitimi. Ankara: Vize Yayıncılık. Aktaş Arnas, Y., Aslan, D. & Günay Bilaloğlu, R. (2012). Okul öncesi dönemde fen eğitimi. Ankara: Vize Yayıncılık. Alat, Z., Akgümüş, Ö., & Cavalı, D. (2012). Okul öncesi eğitimde açık hava etkinliklerine yönelik öğretmen tutum ve uygulamaları. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(3), 47-62. Clements, D. H. (October, 2013). Math in the early years: A strong predictor for later school success. Education Commission of the States. The Progress of Education Reform, 14(5). Clements, D. H. (2001). Mathematics in the Preschool. Teaching Children Mathematics. Buffalo, New York. Fjortoft, I., Sageie, J. (2000). The natural environment as a playground for children: Landscape description and analyses of a natural playscape. Landscape and Urban Planning, 48(1–2), 83–97. doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00045-1. Gilbertson, K., Bates, T., McLaughlin, T., Ewert, A. (2006). Outdoor Education: Methods and Strategies. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Greenes, C., Ginsburg, H. P., Balfanz, R. (2004). Big math for little kids. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 159-166. Gustavsson, L., Pramling, N. (2014). The educational nature of different ways teachers communicate with children about natural phenomena. International Journal of Early Years Education, 22(1), 59-72. Kandır, A. & Orçan, M. (2010). Okul öncesi dönemde matematik eğitimi. İstanbul: Morpa Kültür Yayınları. Kirova, A., & Bhargava, A. (2002). Learning to guide preschool children's mathematical understanding: A teacher's professional growth. Early Childhood Research & Practice (Online Journal), 4(1), n.1. Erişim tarihi: 16.02.2016. Maynard, T., Waters, J. (2007). Learning in the outdoor environment: A missed opportunity? Early Years: An International Journal of Research and Development, 27, 255–265. doi:10.1080/09575140701594400. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1991). Professional standards for teaching mathematics. Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standardsfor school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. O’Brien, L. (2009). Learning outdoors: The Forest School approach. Education 3–13, 37(1), 45–60. Patton, M. M. & Kokoski, T. M. (1996). How good is your early childhood science, mathematics and technology program? Strategies for extending your curriculum. Young Children, 51, 38-44. Pratt, N. (2011). Mathematics outside the classroom. S. Waite (Ed.), Children Outside the Classroom: From Birth to Eleven içinde (s.80-93). London: Sage Publications. Schoenfeld, A. H. (1988). When good teaching leads to bad results: The disasters of ‘welltaught’ mathematics courses. Educational Psychologist, 23(2), 145–166. Seo, K. H., & Ginsburg, H. P. (2004). What is developmentally appropriate in early childhood mathematics education? Lessons from new research. In D. H. Clements, J. Sarama, & A.-M. DiBiase (Eds.), Engaging young children in mathematics: Standards 206

for early childhood mathematics education (pp. 91–104). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Tudge, J. R., Doucet, F. (2004). Early mathematical experiences: Observing young Black and White children’s everyday activities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(1), 21-39. Waite, S. (2010). Losing our way? The downward path for outdoor learning for children aged 2–11 years. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 10(2), 111–126. doi:10.1080/14729679.2010.531087 van Oers, B. (2009). Emergent mathematical thinking in the context of play. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 74(1), 23–37. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press. Young-Loveridge, J. M., Peters, S. A., Carr, M. (1998). Enhancing the mathematics of fouryear-olds: An overview of the EMI-4s study. Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education, 1, 82–93. Zamani, Z. (2016). ‘The woods is a more free space for children to be creative; their imagination kind of sparks out there’: exploring young children’s cognitive play opportunities in natural, manufactured and mixed outdoor preschool zones, Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 16(2), 172-189, doi: 10.1080/147296 79.2015.1122538 Zamani, Z., Moore, R. (2013). The cognitive play behavior affordances of natural and manufactured elements within outdoor preschool settings. Landscape Research, 1, 268– 278.

207

Chapter 16 The Importance of Educational Materials and Learning Environment in Pre-School Education Ayşegül ŞAKIR SELİMHOCAOĞLU INTRODUCTION As definitions were reviewed in various resources pre-school education covers the period from the birth of a child to 72 months of age. It is a systematic given at institutions and family towards to support cognitive, language, social-emotional, motor developments according to individual characteristics and development levels of children at this age group, aiming at to find out existing potentials, providing rich stimuli environment possibilities. This process takes place in early childhood education. In this process where development and learning take place rapidly, it has a great importance to study the environment which affects learning and the materials presented in this environment which makes learning easy. One of the most important aims of education is to have individuals to adapt themselves to the environment they are in and these sound foundations are formed at pre-school education period (Yaşar, 2002). Pre-school education is a process which provides rich stimuli and environment possibilities in accordance with the development levels and individual characteristics of 0-72 months age group children, support their physical and social development, direct them in the direction of cultural values of society in the best form and preparing them for primary education which is part of wholeness of basic education (Ural and Ramazan, 2007; Turaşlı, 2008; Akduman, 2015; Koçyiğit, 2012). Pre-school education years which covers 0-6 years of age is one of the most critical periods because in this period the personality is emerged and formed, basic knowledge, skills and attitudes are gained and developed, and this period has an effect on further years ( Akman and Taşkın, 2010). The child of pre-school education period, have a great feeling to learn every event and object in his environment (Kuzu, 2008). Developments in this period have important effects on the further life of the child. For this reason, child’s skills and abilities should be supported in the right direction (Poyraz, 2003). From starting early childhood period, in order to understand and learn the world they are in, children are in need of different stimulus. Experiences presented to children, have them direct to search, to learn and to apply what they learned (Olgan, 2015). Piaget notes that intellectual development begins as a result of child’s interaction with objects in his environment. In other words, when child starts interacting with objects begins learning. First with their bodies, in nursery period child starts playing with hand and foot fingers, as his motion skills developed develops grasping, handling and manipulating lots of 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Ahi Evran University, Education Faculty, Primary Education Department, Pre-School Education Division.

materials, so learning experience increases (Altay, 2011). As the pre-school period is critical period for children’s cognitive, social, language and other development areas, parents are looking for environments both safe and providing lots of stimulus and experiences. Pre-school education institutions differ from other educational institutions in terms of features. Features of materials, goods, cupboards, furniture and so on, make pre-school education institutions differ from other educational institutions (Kıldan, 2012). Appropriately organized and adorned with enough material a pre-school education institution is healthy, safe and towards all developments of children at the first place (Demiriz et al.,2003). In order to reach specified objectives for teaching-learning process, is only possible forming educational environment with proper conditions. Effective learning can only be provided using educational materials designed to meet the individuals needs of children with different perceptions (Kaya, 2006). There are countless objects to be used for teaching-learning purposes in our environment. Real objects provide concrete and permanent learning for students (Yalın, 2003). Teachers, through educational materials that they will be using during learning activities, include students into learning process, should encourage them to express themselves freely and to ask questions (Kuzu, 2008 ). Educational materials should be used so that it help students to develop concepts and enrich teaching and learning environment (Kol,2012). Taking into consideration that pre-school education has a positive effect on children’s physical, socio-emotional, language and cognitive developments, it is well understood the importance of the use of educational materials in teaching and learning process. Educational materials, especially at pre-school education period, provide students to see the educational process as a play and a part of play (Kurt, 2011). The environment in pre-school education period, affects students’ development and learning motivation. How much student can explore, what and how fast student can learn are closely related with how much supportive the student’s environment and what kind of possibilities are provided to the child (MEB, 2013). A well organized learning environment for pre-school education children should reflect best the interests, developmental levels and styles of learning of the children (Darıca, 2011). But before such organization of the environment, there are some features should be taken into consideration. These are as follows:  Even if the chronological ages of children are the same, the speed of their growth and development are different from each other.  If children are left free to meet their natural interests and learning needs this would be a support.  Child should participate the learning process with his or her body and senses.  Game is one of the best learning means.  Children learn from each other the learning styles, the feeling of responsibility and success.  It is very important to have a learning environment specially designed, formed with concrete materials providing learning with senses. Because environment an effective means for learning and should include the aids and materials for the child to learn through exploration.  The existence of learning centers in learning environment, and the existence of aids and materials for natural learning activities have an active role in the 209



                               

development of basic skills. In an environment which is safe and giving opportunities for behaving independently, children will learn to move through using their intuition and self confidence. The learning styles of children should be considered. Educational curriculum, to be used in a well designed educational environment, should support all development areas of the children. A good learning environment affects children’s’ Preferences, Plans, Use of materials, Relationship with the other persons. At the design of learning environment; Step: Finding a proper place. In this place: There would be enough number of cupboards and shelves for the materials. Children should be moving around confidently, play using materials as they wish. Small and large group activities should be made. Step: Selection, storing and labeling materials. Selection of materials: Materials should be used multipurpose. Materials should develop creativity. Materials should increase the duration of attention. Materials should be cleaned easily. Storing materials: There should be enough number of shelves. Shelves are at a height reachable by children. Labeling materials: As labels symbols representing materials should be selected in order to help children to find what they are looking for. Step: Helping children to recognize the environment. Children should be supported to help organization of area, placement and labeling of materials. Children should be helped to study all materials at every corner. Children should be helped to study materials in specific areas. There will be small group activities in educational curriculum for the children in order to recognize materials in specific areas. The playing areas should be named verbally for the children in order to recognize better the playing areas that they play. At the organization of the area, it should be specified where materials belong to. Symbol definitions of material labels should be repeated continuously. Step: Exposing the works of children. The works should be exposed at a height of eye level of children. Children should be supported to attend to organization of works in exposing area. 210

AIDS AND MATERIALS IN PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION The effects of rich stimuli environment on perceptions and intellectual development of children are known (Yıldız, Şener, 2003). Pre-school education period is the period in which brain development take place the most intensive and the fastest. According to this rapid brain development, brain is the most open to environmental effects in pre-school education period (MEB, 2013). At the pre-school education period, the learning experiences of children are realized in formal and informal environments. Children learn more easily at specially structured environments, with special teaching methods and techniques and special education aids and materials (Karan, 2012). The quality and function of education depends on elements such as physical and environmental conditions, school climate, aids and materials used in education (Danacı, 2015). Aid is everything benefitted in doing or making anything. It is supposed to be mechanical in general and indispensible element of material (Danacı, 2015; Kelleci, 2011). The material is necessary means to use in doing a work. It is supposed to be in written or printed in nature and dispensable element of tools (Danacı, 2015; Kelleci, 2011). Starting from early childhood period, children are in need of various stimuli in order to understand and learn the world they are in. Experiences in different areas presented to children, direct students to search, to learn and to implement what they learn (Olgan, 2015). The aids and materials used in the educational process are called educational materials. Educational materials are effective means for the children to reach knowledge, skill and experience resources. The aim of educational materials is to ease to reach to knowledge. Films, posters, books, computer software, television and radio programs as long as carried educational messages are called educational materials (Karan, 2012). A well developed educational toy and material provide richer learning environment (Aynal, 2015). Materials developed for various age groups differ in terms of specific features but their main function is the same in educational activities. A number of philosopher and educator who formed the foundation of pre-school education emphasized the importance of educational environment and materials. Comenius was the first educator who gave importance to life experiences of a child; he also advocated the importance of preparation of environment considering interest and needs of children. Jean Jacques Rousseau expressed that children must grow freely in nature. Pestalozzi noted the necessity of environment and materials. Frobel gave importance to game in children’s education and he helped the education of children with the educational games and materials he developed. Montessori educated children with materials he developed (Shonkoff ve Philips, 2000 as cited Akaa, Bıçakçı, 2014). The aids and materials used in teaching and learning process have a great effect on pre-school children’s education (Atik, 2003). The benefits of educational aids and materials on pre-school children’s education:  Enriching intellectual activities with games attached to functions, building construction games and games towards symbols.  Enriching social activities with aids and materials which are individually 211

played and directing to group play. Concept development and reinforcement via concretization. Developing social and cultural values with doctrines of sharing, fraternity and solidarity.  Accelerating physical and emotional developments.  Developing language skills.  Developing artistic expression powers through creative thinking ability. At every level of education, educational aids and materials are often utilized for specific skill acquisition, concretization of abstract concepts difficult to understand, animation of real life events (Dursun, 2011). Materials through sense organs they affected provide a field of experience. Because, materials present multimedia environment. Learning occur through 83 percent visually, 11 percent hearing, 3,5 percent smelling, 1,5 tactile and 1 percent testing (Demirel ve Altun, 2010; Baytekin, 2011). In pre-school education, teacher uses various materials in order to ease classroom management and to make it more effective. He or she may buy some of these materials, but prepares some of them himself or herself. He or she can make some of the materials with the participation of children and their parents. Selection, preparation and use of aids and materials are the most fundamental duties of a teacher. The use of educational aids and materials which address all of the senses so children see, hear, touch, smell and test in educational activities help children participate in the activities more willingly so they learn more and retain more (Karan, 2012). Besides the teacher make his or her business easier with the preparation of a proper learning environment. Important Points Capt in Mind in Material Design and Development How much perfect a material is, it does not have a meaning unless the content is not designed properly. Even if the content of the material designed well, if it is not presented with the right method and effectively there will be no benefit for learning. Fort his reason, these items should be capped in mind.  Learning material must be simple and understandable,  Learning material must be selected in accordance with the objective and prepared likewise,  Learning material must have visual features,  Learning material must be suitable for the age group, not complex and far from extreme.  They must be relevant to the real world.  Material must provide to the children wonder, search and practice possibilities.  Material must be designed so whenever necessary that making changes and updating are possible. Points to Consider in Material Design and Development  Material must be original.  Material should cover both the subject and related concepts.  Material should be designed according to interests, needs and developments of children. Materials must be designed according to the principles from easy to hard, from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. Material could be used more than one way (Yıldız ve Şener, 2007).  The material of a toy should be selected strong enough to be used by a number  

212

of children for a long time. Both the design and chemicals used in material should not be harmful to children.  It is important that designed toy must be economic and produced from low cost materials.  If the toy is going to be designed for kindergarten, it should be designed so that many children play with it.  Toy, in terms of function and size, should be designed suitable to the age of children.  Toys should help children to decide what to do easily and to develop problem solving skills.  Toys should add new dimensions to the game of children.  Toys should not encourage children to aggression. Points to Consider in Material Presentation to Children  Materials must be:  In accordance with health and hygiene requirements,  In order,  Kept in places where children can easily reach,  Changed with new ones from time to time,  Enough for all children.  Available for all children in the property.  Presented in the correct order from simple to complex,  Explained enough with simple language.  Materials  Help children learn through experience.  Help children concrete learning.  Enhances the sense of wonder of children.  Reinforces learning.  Help teacher to send his message correctly.  Provides a sample for experience.  Keeps away educational process from monotony  Help children concentrate on the subject. Incorrect Use of Materials and Results in Education  It may limit the imagination of child.  It may zoom out the child from studies which develop creativity.  It may block the child’s language development.  It may distribute the child’s interest.  The teacher’s effort and time would be wasted.  Money spent for the material production would be wasted. In summary, educational aids and materials support children’s all development areas, concretize learning, help retaining learning, excite the sense of wonder, colorize the learning experiences. These aids and materials also help children develop their learning potentials, creativity, and understand the world through exploration. Their design, production and correct use are very important. At this point, it would be convenient to study the contribution of materials to pre-school children’s’ development areas. 

213

THE IMPORTANCE OF MATERIALS ON DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOL EDUCATION PERIOD CHILDREN Game materials in accordance with development especially are fundamental in pre-school education curriculum. Because these materials support child centered learning on one side in the other they reinforce the power of imagination and creativity of a child, provide meaningful learning experiences, and develop communication with peers. Fort his reason, it is important to prepare suitable materials with knowing the contribution of them to children’s’ development areas. While the gains, a child gained from the environment he or she was interaction with, starting from before birth, form personality, habits, values in adulthood, the materials in this environment give directions to different development areas of a child and it is also an important potential which develops creativity at the same time (Öncü ve Ünlüer, 2010). With these materials, it is aimed to increase skills in all development areas of children. The Importance of Materials on Cognitive/Intellectual Development of a Child The cognitive development comprises processes perception, memory, thinking, comprehension and reasoning which provides individual to recognize and understand the world (Senemoğlu, 2012). The role of both development of brain structure and stimulants coming outside has great importance on cognitive development of a baby who has a certain intellectual potential at birth. Materials help basic intellectual processes of a child, so that child can perceive, coordinate eyes and hands, make reasoning and pay attention (Yenibaş, 2016). Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky draw attention to the role of the stimulants coming outside. According to Piaget, human beings and objects around the child generate multisensory experiences for the child and support his intellectual development (Hendrick and Weissman, 2006; Atalay and Aral, 2001). If the game is defined as the work of a child as theorists emphasize, toys are aids and materials to realize this work. Toys and toy materials develop from one side, reasoning, perception, association, memory, paying attention to the other, identification, classification, putting in order, observation, differentiation, estimation, deduction, comparison and finding cause and effect relationship skills. Children recognize occupations of people around them through wearing costumes for different roles. Animations made by the children with wearing animal and plant costumes, provide children understand, recognize and empathize the living world. With puzzles, Lego sets, matching, sequence, memory, concept cards and various educational toys, children recognize their environment, notice different properties of objects, understand piece and whole relations, develops creative thinking, problem solving, sense of wonder and exploration skills, eye and hand coordination skills (Danacı, 2015). The Importance of Materials on Language Development of a Child The language development is, learning words and symbols and uses them in accordance with the rules of the language (Alisinanoğlu, 2004). Children develop their language skills with communicating through games and toys. The materials especially designed to support language development, help the children both to understand and explain the environment and to prepare the environment for the children to express themselves easily, to develop their knowledge 214

they learned, to relate the knowledge learned before and the new ones and to express details of the process (Akça and Bıçakçı, 2014). Story books, musical instruments, Muppets and audio-visual materials are some of the materials which contribute language skills development. Story telling with visual materials, creating new stories with picture cards, and completing stories left unfinished, supports language skills development of a child (Poyraz, 1999; Erişti, 2008). The best method in order to support language development of a child is to provide an environment where child play materials enriched with language skills acquisition. These environments develop vocabulary of a child. Muppet type educational materials increase child’s desire to talk. Besides children with wearing costumes, try to animate different roles, imitate the role that they undertake, use their gestures and facial expressions effectively, pronounce and intonate vocabulary and sentences correctly (Moyles, 2012 quoted by Danacı, 2015). Story books, musical instruments, Muppets, costumes and audio-visual materials are the means of children’s’ language skills development but also they have an important place in non-verbal communication. Besides while children playing with toys, they start communication, develop receiving and expressing language skills, speaking fluently and meaningfully, and their creativity. The Importance of Materials on Social and Emotional Development of a Child The materials prepared and presented in pre-school education period are used by children either individually or as a group. The materials used by children individually develops children’s’ exploration abilities, the materials used by children with peers’ group together develops social relations among them, help them have group consciousness, and prepare them for interaction more open (Erişti, 2008). Some of the educational materials which provide a contribution to social and emotional development are toys for playing house, repair sets, Muppets, various stuffed toys and pets. With the help of these materials children express their feelings and opinions more easily. Playing with these materials makes child happy and also ease his learning. Social communication, interactivity, group consciousness, sense of belonging, decision making skills are developed through group games (Kızıltaş, 2015). Children develop skills such as understanding feelings of others, expressing their own feelings, controlling their own feelings, lining up, sharing and solidarity skills through wearing costumes and playing with Muppets (Hendrick and Weisman, 2006). Children express their positive and negative feelings with the games they play. In order to relieve children, they are asked to play with Muppets. While playing house games which support social development most, it is understood that miniature and stuffed toys played and costumes worn are appropriate materials to develop their social and emotional development. The Importance of Materials on Physical and Motor Development of a Child Motor development is a process to control outcome behaviors of physical skills which goes on life time. Motor development depends on skills such as attention, force, balance, response rate, coordination and flexibility (Şahin, 2010). Children’s big muscle and small muscle development are supported with 215

educational toys and game materials. Muppet, block, puzzle and so on toys support manipulative skills of children. Children acquire effect-response ability, eye-hand coordination, and ability to dominate the muscles, coordination of body organs, balance development, agility and flexibility in movements (Aynal, 2015). Use of different materials in activities such as jumping, leaping, running, climbing which requires different power, contribute to child’s circulatory, digestion, respiration, excretory systems work regularly, and increase blood circulation, oxygen uptake and transportation of food to tissues (Dodge, Colker and Heroman, 2002). The movements which require physical power such as running, jumping, throwing, climbing, crawling, leaping are very important for gross motor skills development. Using educational materials in movements such as grasping, squeezing, kneading, drilling, buttoning, undoing, opening, closing, drawing, cutting, folding, bonding, wrinkling, child develops fine motor skills. Educational materials provide domination and use at the required speed gross and fine motor muscles, attention development, coordination of body organs and body flexibility (Kızıltaş, 2015). Educational materials and toys which support gross motor skills are Lego, puzzles, blocks, tricycle, rope ladders, wooden planks, sliding, climbing, wagging toys, balls and teeter-totter. Educational materials and toys which support fine motor skills can be counted such as wax crayon, glue, various colored dough, carpentry tools, and stringed beads. These materials increase body flexibility of a child, provide coordination among movements, and make attention skills gained (Kızıltaş, 2015). As it is understood from various resources, while developing motor skills on one hand, on the other children find opportunities to use lots of skills in their daily life by means of educational materials. Besides manual dexterity, imagination power and creativity will be developed and child will be able to have more healthy and flexible body. CONCLUSION Basic knowledge, skills and habits acquired with the experiences at early ages will affect child’s later life positively or negatively. Considering pre-school education is the most important level of the whole educational system, in this critical level, it is required a well designed environment with rich stimulants in order to support development of children at the highest level and let them exhibit their abilities and creativities. Stimulant environment equipped with high quality educational materials, contribute child’s development positively. Educational materials support child’s development and education by means of making out their natural abilities. In order to present educational materials effectively the principles of material design and development must be taken into consideration. Besides, in order to generate a high quality learning environment, it is a prerequisite to know the benefits of materials on child’s development areas. The materials in teaching and learning environment are generally used to support teaching purposes. Various course materials and toys ensure that children meet their needs, concentrate their attention and motivate them. Educational materials support remembering easily, simplify content, concretize abstract concepts and phenomenon, develop imagination and creativity. Learning by doing and living help children empathize with others, share, express themselves easily, develop their gross and fine muscles. 216

As it is understood from various resources, while child develops his motor skills, he will find opportunities to use their skills. In addition to his hand skills, his imagination and creativity will be developed, he will have a more healthy and flexible body. REFERENCES Akça, R. P., Bıçakçı, M. Y. (2014). Okul Öncesinde Materyal Geliştirme ‘Temel Konular’ Neslihan Avcı (Ed.) Her Yönüyle Okul Öncesi Eğitim İçinde (ss.16-34). Ankara: Hedef Yayıncılık Akduman, G. (2015). Okul Öncesi Eğiimin Tanımı ve Önemi. Balat, G. Okul Öncesi Eğitime Giriş.(s.1-14) Ankara. Nobel, 5.Basım Akman, B., Taşkın, N.(2010) Geçmiştem Geleceğe Okul Öncesi Eğitim. Meb.(s=146-154) Alisinanoğlu, F. (2004). Bebeklik Dönemi(0-2 yaş) ve Yeni Yürüme Döneminde (2-3 yaş) Gelişim, Ayşegül Ataman (Ed.), Ankara: Gündüz Eğitim ve Yayıncılık Atalay, A., Aral, N. (2001). Eğitici Oyunlar. Ankara Üniversitesi Ev Ekonomisi Yüksek Okulu Anaokulu/A sınıfı Öğretmeni El Kitabı. (ss:37-68) İstanbul:Yapa Yayınları Atay, M. (2011). Erken Çocukluk Döneminde Gelişim Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık Atik, B. T. (2003). Okul Öncesinde Eğitsel Materyal Yapımının Amaçları ve Önemi, A.G. Namlı (Ed.). Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Araç Geliştirme. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açık Öğretim Fakültesi Yayınları Aynalı, Ş.Ö. (2015). Eğitici Oyuncak ve Materyal Hazırlamaya Başlarken. Şafalı Öztürk Aynalı (Ed.), Okul Öncesi Eğitiminde Materyal Tasarımı İçinde (ss:1-8). Ankara:Eğiten Kitap Baytekin, Ç. (2011). Öğrenme Öğretme Teknikleri ve Materyal Geliştirme. Ankara: Anı Yayınları. Darıca, A. (2011). Okul Öncesi Eğitimcileri İçin Etkinlik Dünyası, İstanbul. Morpa Yayınl. Danacı, M. Ö. (2015). Kurumsal Çerçeve. Miray Özözen Danacı (Ed.), Eğitimde Materyal Geliştirme İçinde (ss.33) Demirel, Ö. Altun,E.(2010). Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Materyal Tasarımı. Ankara: Pagem Demiriz, S. , Karadağ, A., Ulutaş, İ. (2003). Okul Öncesi Eğitim Kurumlarında Eğitim Ortamı ve Donanım, Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık Dodge, D.Colcer, L., Heriman, C. (2002). The Creative Curriculum for Preschool Teaching Strategies . Washington DC: College Dursun, O. Ö. (2011). Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Materyal Geliştirme Süreci ve İlkeleri, S.D. Bedir-Erişti (Ed.). Okul Öncesinde Materyal Geliştirme(ss:1-26) Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları Erişti, D. S. (Ed.)(2008). Okul Öncesinde Materyal Geliştirme ve Görsel Sanatlar Eğitimi. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Hendrick, J., Weissman, P. (2006). The Whole Child. 8th Edition New Jersay: Prentice Hall Kal, S. (2012). Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Teknolojik Araç-Gereç Kullanımına Yönelik Tutum Ölçeği Geliştirilmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi 20, No:20, 543-554. Karan, S. (2012). Eğitimde Araç Geliştirme ve Yaratıcı Etkinlikler. Ankara: Vize Yay.. (2.baskı) Kaya, Z. (2006). Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Materyal Geliştirme (2.Baskı). Ankara: Pagem A Yayınları Kelleci, D. (2011). Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Materyal Geliştirme . Ankara: Vize Yayıncılık Kıldan, A. O. (2012). Yapılandırmacı Yaklaşım. Hülya Tamer (Ed.), Erken Çocukluk Eğitiminde Yaklaşımlar ve Programlar İçinde (ss:15-74). Ankara: Vize Yayıncılık Kızıltaş, E. (2015). Eğitsel araç gereçlerin Çocuk Gelişimine Olan Etkileri. Miray Özözen 217

Danacı(Ed.) Eğitimde Araç Gereç Geliştirme içinde(ss:45-53). Ankara: Eğiten Kitap Koçyiğit, S. (2012) Okul Öncesi Eğitimin Tanımı, Amacı, Önemi ve İlkeleri. Zembat, R. (Ed). Okul Öncesi Eğitime Giriş.(s=14-26).Ankara.Hedef Yayıncılık. Kurt, A. A. (2011). Okul öncesi öğretimde iki ve üç boyutlu öğretim materyalleri, S. D. Erişti (Ed.) Okul öncesinde materyal geliştirme (ss:79-109) Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayını. Kuzu, A. (2008). Okul Öncesi Öğretmenleri için örnek etkinlikler,H.F.Odabaşı (Ed.) Okul öncesinde öğretim teknolojisi ve materyal tasarımı (ss:317-338). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayını. Kuzu, A. (2008). Okul Öncesi Öğretmenleri İçin Örnek Etkinlikler, H.F. Odabaşı (Ed.), Okul Öncesinde Öğretim Teknolojisi ve Materyal Tasarımı (ss:317-338). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları MEB (2013). Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Okul Öncesi Eğitim Programı. Ankara; Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı Olgan, R. (2015). Öykü Kitabı ve Farklı Materyaller Kullanılarak Öykü Anlatım Yöntemleri Olgan, R. (2015). Öykü Kitabı ve Farklı Materyaller Kullanılarak Öykü Anlatım Yöntemleri. M. Gönen (Ed.). Çocuk Edebiyatı İçinde (ss:239-249).Ankara: Eğiten Kitap Öncü, Ç. E., Ünlüler, E. (2010). Preschool Children’s Using of Play Materrals Creatively. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences,2 (2010), 4457-4461 Poyraz, H. (2003). Okul Öncesinin Önemi, Okul Öncesi Eğitimin İlke ve Yöntemleri (s:1722) (2. Baskı). Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık Poyraz, H. (1999). Okul Öncesi Dönemde Oyun ve Oyuncak Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık Senemoğlu, N.(2012). Gelişim Öğrenme ve Öğretim. Ankara: Pagem Yayınları Şahin, S. (2010). 0-6 Yaş Arası Çocukların Temel Gelişimsel Özellikleri, Çocukların Temel Duygusal Gelişimi, İbrahim Diken(Ed.) Ankara: Pagem Yayınları Turaşlı, N. (2008). Okul Öncesi Eğitimin Tanımı Kapsamı ve Önemi. Haktanın,6(Ed). Okul Öncesi Eğitime Giriş.(ss:1-36). Ankara Anı Yayıncılık,2.baskı Ural, O., Ramazan, O. (2007). Türkiye’de Okul Öncesi Eğitiminin Dünü ve Bugünü, S. Özdemir, H. Bacanlı, M. Sözer (Ed.). Türkiye’de Okul Öncesi Eğitim ve İlköğretim Sistemi (ss:11-56). Ankara: Türk Eğitim Derneği Yayınları Yalın, H. İ. (2003). Öğretim teknolojileri ve Materyal Geliştirme, Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık, 8. Baskı Yaşar,Ş.(2002). Okul Öncesi Eğitiminin İlke ve Yöntemleri. Eskişehir: Açıköğretim Yayınları Yenibaş, R. (2006). 0-6 Yaş Çocuk Gelişimi Eğitimi ve Sağlığı, İstanbul:İsmek Yıldız, F. B., Şener, T. (2007). Okul Öncesi Dönemde Yaratıcılık Eğitimi ve Yaratıcı Etkinlikler Kullanmak İçin Materyal Hazırlama. Ankara:Nobel Yayıncılık

218

Chapter 17 The Views of Research Assistants on Their Work Life and Their Well-Being States: Kocaeli University Case Yıldız ÖZTAN ULUSOY, Tuğba KONAKLI INTRODUCTION We experience rapid developments and changes in the standards of living in our current life. The effort to keep pace with these rapid changes and developments affects human live from different aspects. Individuals often ignore their well-being while they strive to adapt themselves to those changes. Especially the environment where individuals spend most of their time might have stress and anxiety generating characteristics. Therefore, human life is valued more by organizations nowadays. Accordingly, the health and general well-being of employees have become more significant. In parallel to this, it has been observed that previous researches have focused on problem solving and coping with difficulties, and that sufficient positive research geared towards preventing problems and improving conditions is very limited (Cameron and Speitzer, 2011). Luthans (2002) emphasizes the necessity of adopting a positive approach and the importance of bringing forward the strengths of the organization and people with the support of scientific researches in order to solve problems and improve their weaknesses. Positive organizational behavior gave prominence to positive aspects and strengths of employees and made it possible to study concepts such as self-efficacy, psychological endurance, optimism, hope, subjective well-being and emotional intelligence (Luthans, Youssef and Avolio, 2007). This is regarded as very useful in making human resources practices more effective. According to Özen Kutanis and Yıldız (2014), managing and directing people requires much more than just pure positive approach. Instead of just focusing on positive sides of people, approaching them with a holistic perspective combining positive and negative sides would be more helpful to understand any phenomenon in this area. The concept of psychological well-being was first used by Bradburn in 1969. Then, psychological well-being was explained by the dominance of positive feelings on negative feelings. According to Bradburn (1969), positive and negative feelings are independent of each other and the level of positive and negative feeling the individual has gives the individual’s state of psychological well-being. While defining well-being, hedonic and eudaimonic viewpoints should be taken into consideration. According to hedonic view, well-being is hedonic pleasure and happiness. According to this approach, well-being consists of subjective happiness. It is concerned with experiencing pleasure and dissatisfaction and evaluating good/bad sides of life (Ryan and Deci, 2001). Hedonic view states that well-being consists of getting as much pleasure as possible and avoiding pain and discomfort (Rozin,1999). On the other hand, eudaimonic view emphasizes that well-being cannot be compared to pleasure; rather it 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Kocaeli University, Education Faculty, Dept. of Educational Sciences. 

is a concept over it (Ryff, 1989; Ryan and Deci, 2001). According to this view, considering oneself as happy does not prove that they are fully functioning psychologically. In general, researchers associate subjective well-being with hedonic approach and psychological well-being with eudaimonic view. Subjective Well-being Subjective well-being is defined as a broad phenomenon comprising individuals’ emotional reactions, job satisfaction and global life satisfaction (Diener et al., 1999). According to Keyes (2002), subjective well-being is that individuals evaluate their emotional states, psychological and social activities according to their own perceptions. According to Lyubomirsky et al.,(2005), chronic happiness or subjective happiness creates different consequences in addition to better standards of living. Based on the data they gathered from their literature review, happy individuals are positively affected by factors such as marriage, friendship, financial income, work performance and health (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Psychological Well-being The concept of psychological well-being has to do with whether the individual is aware of his/her potential and aims in life while s/he continues to live, and whether s/he can maintain a quality life in his/her relations with others (Ryff and Keyes,1995). Robertson and Cooper (2011) defined psychological well-being as “emotional and intentional psychological cases that individuals experience at work place”. Waterman (1993) defined psychological well-being as individual’s fight and attempt against life to ensure personal development. Ryff (1989) defines psychological well-being as psychological functionality and states that it is the combination of six universal needs. These aspects are personal acceptance, life purpose, social dominance, positive relations with others, autonomy and personal development. When the contents of these aspects are analyzed in general, an individual who accepts himself/herself in terms of personal acceptance will perceive himself positively, will know what his/her personal limitations are, and will have positive feelings as to what s/he experienced in the past. Establishing good relations with others will enable an individual to develop intimate relations and to maintain them. Individuals who have environmental control, on the other hand, will be able to make use of resources around to meet their personal needs. An autonomous individual will be able to adjust his/her personal views accord to his/her personal standards despite social pressures. An individual who is aware of his/her life purpose will be able to comprehend the meaning of life. An individual who values personal development will be aware of his/her capacity and be open to new experiences (Keyes, Shmotkin and Ryff, 2002). A healthy interrelation among these aspects might indicate that the individual is psychologically healthy. Therefore, these six aspects altogether includes an individual’s positive evaluations about his/her self and experiences, his/her continuous development as a human being, his/her belief that his/her life has a purpose, establishing good relations with other people, using his/her life and environmental factors effectively, and finally his/her free will (Ryff, 1989b). Robertson and Cooper, (2011) point out that psychological well-being at work place has two important aspects. First one is related to feeling good (hedonic), and the other one is related to meaning and purposes (eudaimonic) that we associate with our job. Individuals with high level of well-being show high performance in spirituality, sense of value, sense of control, logical beliefs, sensitivity, intellectual arousal, sense of 220

humor, nutrition, exercising, looking after oneself, stress management, sexual identity, job satisfaction, hobbies, friendship and love. The purpose of psychological counselling process is to enable consultants to have an accepted level of well-being through a fourlevel method (Myers, Sweeney and Witmer, 2000). Well-being about job is related to employees’ evaluation of their experiences in their workplace, and includes cognitive and emotional elements (Bakker and Oerlemans, 2011). According to Bakker and Oerlemans (2011), if an employee has a high level of work satisfaction, then s/he more often experiences positive emotions, and if s/he experiences negative emotions less often, then s/he has a high level of wellbeing. The Relationship between Well-being and Work Life Psychological well-being is stressed as the effectiveness of an individual’s psychological functionality (Gechman & Weiner, 1975; Martin, 1984; Wright & Cropanzano, 2000). While positive well-being has critical importance in the workplace in terms of performance and job satisfaction, it is strongly associated with leave of employment. Since the well-being of employees is very important for organizations to survive and reach their purposes, creating the state of well-being and maintaining its existence have become a focus of interest for managers and researchers. Because psychological well-being comprises both job-related aspects and others that are not related to an individual’s job, it is a broader concept than job satisfaction (Diener, 1984). Therefore, well-being is of utmost importance for both individuals and organizations. For instance, some research findings are important in that they provide data showing the relationship between job insecurity and physical and spiritual wellbeing of individuals (Ferrie, 1999). Moreover, a significant relationship was found among attitudes towards job, job stress and job satisfaction (Akintoye et al, 2012). According to a research conducted in Turkey, there is a negative correlation between job stress and job satisfaction, and there is a positive correlation between well-being and job satisfaction (Denizli, 2014). In another research in Turkey, findings show that there is positive correlation between well-being and basic needs satisfaction of academics and basic needs of academic predicts well-being (Doğan & Eryılmaz, 2012). In recent years in the US, the occurrence of dispatch for employees on the grounds of depression has reached considerable levels and many researchers directed attention to this topic (Park, Wilson and Lee, 2004). These researchers showed the financial and spiritual damage by depression on individuals and organizations at macro levels. They also pointed out the adverse effects of organizational factors on individuals, and the negative effects of organizational catastrophes on the whole organization (Barton, 1994; Sutherland, 1995; Baruch and Lambert, 2007). Barton (1994) studied the effects of organization catastrophes on employees. He notes that psychological problems experienced after an organizational catastrophe might vary from mild depression to manic depressive disorder, and even as far as suicidal thoughts. Carr (1994) pointed to the results of research on prevalence of depression and anxiety among principles at state schools and underlined its relationship with improvement of psychological structure at schools. Sutherland (1995) studied the problems of practitioner doctors in 1987 and 1990. In the study, administrative practices, routine medical work and role stress are found to be the most important indicators of job satisfaction and well-being. 221

Experimental and longitudinal research findings showed that positive and happy people have better physical and mental health (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005), and strong immune systems (Lyubomirsky, 2008). In addition to this, Wright (2003) stressed that happiness and health of the individual should be seen as primary instruments to approach organizational behavior with a positive attitude rather than seeing an employee as a basic element that provides mere organizational productivity. Likewise, researches show that positive effects of an individual’s happiness and wellbeing can be perceived beyond personal levels. Researches also show the effects of positive social interactions in the organization on employee health and well-being (Heaphy & Dutton, 2008). Organization has to provide various resources in order to meet employee needs and objectives. In addition, overlapping organization expectations and energy and skills of the employee is a very important phase to reach organization objectives. Therefore, various factors affecting employees’ perceptions of organizational setting and their reactions are effective in bringing out their energy and skills. Personal factors are one of the elements affecting employees’ assumptions, expectations and behaviors in individual-organization interaction. It can be put forward that factors reflecting psychological well-being such as the way the employee perceives his/her self, shaping his/her environment according to needs and wishes, developing himself/herself are determinant in showing his/her energy and skills towards organizational objectives. In the literature, it can be seen that researches conducted towards solving organizational problems generally aim to solve problems and fix weak aspects. Positive organizational approaches, however, aims to emphasize strengths of individuals and organizations with a positive approach. Therefore, among the priorities of researches done in Positive Organizational Behavior are psychological states affecting employee performance and their strengths. The purpose of this study is to investigate well-being of research assistants, finding out their views regarding their work life and thus to emphasize the relationship between their well-being and work life. Depending on the general purpose of the study, wellbeing perceptions of research assistants were studied and their views on work life within the framework of well-being were analyzed. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study is a qualitative research model. Based on the purpose of the study, the study group consists of eight research assistants working at Kocaeli University. To create the study group, criterion sampling method was used, and participants who had been working at the university for at least two years, and who volunteered to participate in study were selected to participate in the study. To gather participant well-being data, first WSM (Well-being Star Model) model, developed by Korkut-Owen and Owen (2012) was used. In order to gather data about the effects of participant well-being on their work life, semi-structured interview form was used. As the interview form consists of questions regarding the effects of well-being on work life, it was presented to opinion of three expert faculty members who are experts in Educational Sciences. The questions in the interview were finalized according to expert views. Study Group Based on the purpose of the study, research assistants working at a faculty at Kocaeli University composed the study group. To form the study group, criterion 222

sampling method was used and participants who had been working at the university for at least two years, and who volunteered to participate in study were selected to participate in the study. Data Collection Tools Well-being Star Model and its Application in the literature on well-being, it was seen that there were attempts to develop a scale based on Well-being Wheel Model by Myers, Sweeney and Witmer (2000) (Doğan, 2004; Korkut, 2004). In addition, we used Well-being Star Model which comprises five aspects; social, emotional, physical, intellectual and spiritual. It was developed by Korkut-Owen and Owen (2012) based on Roscoe’s (2009) study where he compares different well-being models. The reason for using this model was to raise participants’ awareness of their self-well-being and prepare them for the focused group interview. Well-being Star Model includes five aspects; psychological/emotional, social, intellectual/professional, and spiritual. It is composed of 50 items. Some items are as follows “Every day, I have a balanced breakfast, I can cope with most of the problems I face, I have friends whom I can trust, I like learning new skills and problem solving methods, I think my personal beliefs give me relaxation and peace”. The meanings that these aspects have are as follows; Physical well-being: This aspect includes such items towards a healthy life as regular sleep, balanced and healthy diet, leading a physically active life, and doctor control (Sackney, Noonan, & Miller, 2000). Psychological/Emotional Well-being: This phase is used for coping with personal feelings in daily events positively and constructively (Roscoe, 2009). Social Well-being: This phase focuses on the quality of individuals’ interactions with others as a social being. It also includes the support that the individual gets from his/her environment. It is stated that individuals who have healthy interactions with their environments also improve the quality of their lives Horton & Snyder, 2009). Intellectual/Professional Well-being: Individuals who have good intellectual/professional well-being are eager to learn (Horton and Snyder, 2009), develop healthy relations with their colleagues and are satisfied with their jobs. Actually, researches have shown that individuals who have high levels of professional well-being have shown high life and job satisfaction scores (Scheer and Lockee, 2003; Chandler, Holden, & Kolander, 1992). Spritual Well-being: The individual who has the highest score in the aspect has the qualities of questioning the purpose and the meaning of life, self-realization and getting satisfied with life (Korkut,2004 ). The participants marked the appropriate answers for them. All the items pertaining to each aspect were calculated and the sum of the aspects was obtained. The obtained scores were marked by the participants on the star in Figure 1. Each participant calculated their scores for the aspects and marked them on the star to create their own well-being. Then, they were asked question based on their wellbeing stars. While talking about the stars, they were asked questions about their wellbeing and its effects on their work life based on their scores, such as “What kind of clues do your scores about five aspects give you?” Are the scores distributed equally? Are some aspects higher or lower compared to others?

223

spiritual

intellectual

physical

emotional

social

Figure 1: Star graph that helps to use Well-being Star Model in practice Korkut-Owen and Owen (2012).

The Effects of Well-being on Work Life Interview Form In order to analyze participant’s work life taking into consideration their wellbeing, literature was reviewed (Ryff, 1989; Diener et al., 2009) analyzing their “Psychological Well-being Scale”. The questions in the form were prepared based on the relevant literature review and personal acceptance, life purpose, environmental awareness, positive relations with other people, autonomy, and personal development aspect defined by Ryff (1989). Draft version of the interview form was presented to three experts and after necessary corrections were made, the interview form was finalized after it was piloted with two participants outside the study group. Some of the questions in the interview form are as follows; “To what degree do the views of your family members and friends affect your work life? How do you define your business when you think of your one day at work? How do you see yourself regarding the things you have done and things you haven’t been able to do at work place?” Data Analysis Data regarding participants’ psychological well-being and professional life were obtained from focused group interviews. Interviews were completed in 3 sessions and each session lasted about 1 hour. Interviews were voice-recorded with the consent of participants and were transcribed after the interviews. The data was analyzed with descriptive analysis method using Nvivo 8 qualitative analysis software. RESULTS Based on the purpose of the study, participants were first administered well-being star analysis. Then, each participant marked their calculated score on the star and created their own well-being stars. The well-being stars of the participants are as shown 224

in Table 1. Table 1: Average Participant Scores on Well-being Star Model Implementation Participant Spiritual Physical Emotional Social Intellectual (SSF1) 5 3 7 6 6 (SSF2) 4 2 6 7 7 (SSF3) 4 6 6 5 8 (SSF4) 6 1 7 9 7 (PSM5) 4 8 9 8 8 (PSF6) 4 6 7 7 5 (PSF7 5 4 5 6 7 (PSM8) 6 5 9 8 9 Total 38 35 56 56 57 Avg. 4,75 4,37 7,00 7,00 7,12 (SS: Social Sciences Major, PS: Physical Sciences Major, F: female, M: male)

When Table 1 is analyzed, the highest average score of the participants is obtained in intellectual aspect, and the lowest average score is obtained in physical aspect. After the implementation, participants were asked questions about their well-being stars. It was observed that verbal statements of the participants conformed to their scores on well-being stars. Participants noted that they needed to work on and give importance the aspects where they got low scores. For instance; SSF1 “My physical aspect is very low, it might be because of that I don’t have breakfast, I don’t really do sports or pay attention to my diet for my health”, PSF2 “I don’t remember waking up energetic”. Although they mentioned they have low expectations of intellectual and social aspects where they obtained the highest scores, they stated that they value friendship and family. For instance; PSF7 “My social aspect turned out to be high. I like spending time with my friends. The strange thing is that my professional aspect turned out to be high, as well. I wasn’t expecting this.”, PSF6 “I don’t think social aspect and family is related, though I like to spend time with my friends, I spend more time with my family” According to findings, participants mentioned that it affects their social life to feel weak in their skills to control their professional life. For instance, “At home, I feel I am not a good mother. Work affects home and social life”, (PSF6) “I have arguments with my family for nothing. I have done things that hurt them. When there are problems at work and personal life, I hurt people around me. For the last couple of week, due extra work load and high number of thesis defenses, all of this in my mind, I have had psychological problems. Put aside working with professors I know, I begin to get angry at one point, I go home and tell them about these. I get mad, and some days I don’t want to go to school. I have stomachaches” (SSF2) According to findings, participants do not regard themselves autonomous enough. The reason for this is that they are not appreciated and are not seen as an individual. Only one participant stated that she is affected by the views of others when is not sure about herself, and she is not affected by others on matters she is sure about.

225

Table 2: Views on Work Place and Social Dominance Category

Code

Participant

Quote

Procrastination

SSF1, SSF2, SSF, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9 SSF1,SSF2, SSF, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

“I procrastinate on everything about myself, my workplace is the priority. I procrastinate on my health but I definitely finish my works here” (SSF1) “If we could plan faculty and academic works here, then we could organize our household responsibilities” (SSF3) “I take my notes home with me, but I bring them back without even looking at them” (SSF4) “While I don’t have anything to do one day, the next day I might take phones from everywhere, I sometimes don’t know who to ask or how to solve it. And this problem goes home with me, I sleep and wake up with it. And when I come to work, I become unhappy, and lose my motivation for my work. (SSF2) “At first I wanted to be here, but now I am disappointed, I feel incompetent” (PSF6)

Planlessness

Social Dominance

Inadequacy

SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

Justice

SSF1, SSF3, PSF6, PSF7, SAE8

“We do all sorts of work here, and when they ask why we don’t have publications, there is no one asking the reason.”(SSF3)

Table 3: Views on Work Life and Autonomy Category

Code Experience

Inability to say no Feeling valuable Autonomy

Views of others

Participant Code SSF1, SSF2,SSF3, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

SÖK1, SÖK2, SÖK3, SAE8, SAE9 SÖK1, SÖK2, SÖK3, SÖK4, SAK5, SAK6, SAE9

SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4, PSF5,SAE8, SAE9

Quote “As I get more experience, I can express myself better” (PSF7) I used to cry for everything at first, transferring from the student role to a research assistant role affected me” (SÖK2) “As I get more experience, I know what I am doing” (PSM,8) “Doing what you know is right is easier at home, but more difficult at work place. However, Getting closer to Phd. this difficulty increases” (PSM9) “You cannot say no to any work given to you.” (SSF2) “Family member put a lot of value on my work, but it’s not the reality here”( SSF4) “Actually a smile from our teachers (professors) or superiors can be enough” I don’t accept underestimation. I don’t think we are perceived as an individual” (SSF1) I psychologically feel tired because I am not appreciated” (PSF5) “I have been a research assistant for ten years, I am seen as an academic staff by the administrative personnel. The problem here is the manner towards us because we are research assistants.”( SSF4) “Because we are single, we are said we don’t have much work to do” (SSF2) “They think that we can work day and night just because we are single” (SSF1) “We direct ourselves based on the views of our managers and colleagues” (PSF7)

226

In this category, the participants’ expressions about their willingness to go to work and carry out works and their perceptions of autonomy attract our attention. For instance; “I try to motive myself to go to work. My feet go backwards. I feel myself good on Fridays. If I cannot finish my works at the weekend, I feel like my tiredness has doubled” (SSF3) “We are not appreciated and this bothers me. So when I do a duty given to me, I feel unhappy and I question why I have to do this for this organization” (SSF2) I was also observed that participants mentioned their body symptoms. For instance; “I suffer from stomachaches and backaches, there were times when I had to use antidepressants” “I have palpitations” “Sometimes I get angry and I don’t want to come to school. I have stomachaches” (SSF2) “I suffer from strong headaches” “I feel myself part of a wrong order, my body is strained” (SSF1) In this category, it can be put forward that research assistants have autonomy perception problems stemming from not being clear on their work definition based on the statement of one participant “I am finishing PhD and people tell me that I am still a student”. Table 4: Views on Work life and Relationships with others Category

Code

Hierarchy

Relationship s with others

Participant Code SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

Professionalism

SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4, PSF5,PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

Insecurity

SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4,PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

Quote “Academic hierarchy is very obvious. I have better relations with people of my status.” (SSF1) “I don’t go into arguments not to worry myself. If I argue, I worry myself. This affects my work life and decreases my motivation.” (SSF2) “I have limited relations, I don’t involve my feelings into my work, it affects my motivation, but not doing my work.” (PSF6) “Being thanked is enough for me, nothing else affects me, it is important to do my work thoroughly”( PSF7) “I get the sense from superiors that I need to keep my distance. This bothers me. I mind this” (SSF1) “Sometimes there are problems in the equal distribution of work expected of us. Sometimes I don’t see it well-intentioned.” (PSF6) “I started to get paranoid” (PSF5) “At work place we need to be careful about what we say, it is not certain how it would get back to us.” (PSM8).

In the category of Relationships with Others, it can be put forward that increase in the feeling of insecurity causes participants to narrow their relations. For instance “I establish limited relations, I don’t share with everybody (PSF6), I narrow my relations (PSM8) I minimize my relations (PSM9), my relations with my students can be better than that I have with my colleagues (PSF5). Therefore, the absence of honesty and clarity in the relationships between research assistants might cause them to narrow their 227

relations and get lonely and isolated. In the study, participants expressed that they value personal development and believe that this supports their work life. The statement of one participant “As we develop ourselves professionally and socially, we can turn a deaf ear to others” (PSM9) can be interpreted as more participation in social development make participants more autonomous at work place. In addition, participants expressed that they feel more autonomous as they get more experience. Table 5: Views on Work Life and Personal Development Category

Code

Participant Code

Quote “I took up playing tennis, then playing the violin, but I gave up. We are too busy to do anything outside work” (PSF5) “I want to do some activities but I delay them thinking that I will lose time with them. I want to read a novel and I want reading to be related to my work” (PSM8) “We procrastinate the things we want to do. I realize that I sometimes push my family in the background.” (PSM9). “I gave up activities such as swimming. Now I only see them in my dreams” (PSF5)

SF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4, Procrastination PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9 Personal Development

Social Inadequacy

“We need professional and personal development but I feel inadequate in social life” (PSF5) “My romantic relationships are bad, and social relationship are only on a limited level” (SSF2) “I was in a theatre group, then I gave up, I have regrets in this regard.” (PSF7). “It is good to work in a laboratory but you get away from social activities” (PSM8) “We get socially limited” (PSM9)

SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6,S PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

Table 6: Views on Work Life and Life Purposes Category

Code

Participant Code

Personal objectives

SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

Work Objectives

SSF2, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

Life Purposes

Quote “I cannot allocate time for my personal objectives” (PSF5) “I need to spare time for myself” (SSF2) “I need to do somethings as “I”” (PSF7). “I wish I could do other things besides academic work. I wished to play the baglama (an instrument with three double strings) for instance” (PSM8) “People tell me to get my associate professorship after completing PhD, but I want to play the lute and enjoy it” (PSM9) “I think I have reached the place where I wanted to be academically, but not personally” (SSF2) “When I publish an article, I feel happy, I can see that I have learned” (PSF6) Being an academician makes me proud and happy” (SSF2)

228

From this, it can be interpreted that age and status in addition to personal development have positive contributions to feel autonomous at work life. Based on the findings, it can be seen that those research assistants who have not realized their personal objectives cannot get satisfaction even if they have reached their work objectives. For instance, “I did not get any pleasure when I wore graduation cap and gown after I finished my PhD” (PSM8), “I lose my motivation, there are so many unfinished works”. Such statements indicate that participants are not fully satisfied even if they reach their work objectives because they cannot realize their personal objectives. Table 7: Views on Work life and Self-acceptance Category

Code

Social

Participant

Quote

SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSF7, PSM8, PSM9

“Questions such as What kind of a mother am I? Why did I act like that? What was his/her fault? begin (PSF6) “I should use all the time available so that I can spare myself some time” (SSF3) “I spare myself some personal time” (SSF2) “I should do some things as “I”” (PSF7).

Selfacceptance SSF1, SSF2, SSF3, Academic SSF4, PSF5, PSF6, PSM8

“I had objectives as an academician. I had achieved them, but I ask whether it had to be like this? The unhappiness at work place causes this.” (PSF6) “I have wondered a lot about whether being an academician is the right thing to do.” (SSF1) “People tell me to be a regular teacher (like the ones in state schools) and live my life comfortably, but I am an idealist. Still, I question what I am doing?” (PSF5)

Participants stated that they keep their lives under constant control and they are not happy about it. For instance, “I don’t feel comfortable in relations; I have to control my wishes. Let’s say I become a professor in 10 years, it sounds nice, but on the other hand, my friends can spare time for the things they want to do” (PSM8) “This also affects my life at home. My unhappiness also affects my wife and child.” (PSM9) DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION In this study, research assistants' perceptions of well-being are examined and their views about work life are analyzed in the frame of their well-being. As a result of the analysis, while the participants perceived themselves more positively in intellectual terms, they perceive themselves negatively in physical terms. When the literature is analyzed, the results show that there is a positive correlation between physical health and psychological well-being (Adams 1999). Moreover, there are some results showing that work problems affect health negatively and increase the expenses related to that (Van Dick and Haslam, 2012; Cooper and Cartwright, 1994; Lubbers Et Al., 2005; Wright and Bonett, 2007). Participants who have a low grade in physical terms, accepted that they ignored sports and their bodies and they have health problems. They stated that they needed to do something about that, but they could not bring it into action. Cramer, Lewman and Lee (1991), found results showing that doing exercises 229

affects well-being positively. Participants perceived themselves more negatively than they expected in spiritual terms. The fact that their spiritual fields are lower than other fields surprised the participants. "I thought that I was spiritually more dominant, but it looks like I am weaker". They stated that they had ignored their spiritual sides and they did not care much about that. In the studies conducted in recent years, findings showing that there is a relationship between spirituality, self-respect and psychological well-being have been found (Ball, J., Armistead, L., & Austin, B. J. 2003, Fehring, R. J., Miller, J. F., & Shaw, C. 1997, Chamberlain, K., & Zika, S. 1988). According to the findings of the study, the fact that participants feel themselves weak about control skills of their work life also affects their social life. It can be argued that, in the category of relationships with the others, the increase in the participants’ feeling of insecurity led them to minimize the relations. Participants stated that they cared about their personal development and believed that this supported their work life. According to the findings, research assistants who cannot realize their personal goals cannot feel satisfied even if they succeed in work life goals. In the conducted studies, the relationship between high performance and low workforce is examined (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990). Participants stated that they continuously kept their life under control and they were not pleased about that. Different expectations from organizations and social network may have a negative effect on individuals. There are some research findings showing that psychological well-being is directly related to the outputs of personal and work life. It has been found that well-being is related to work performance and successful work relationships ( Pugliesi,1999; Wright & Cropanzano, 2000; Tümlü & Recepoğlu, 2013; Akdoğan and Polatçı, 2013, Diener & Seligman, 2002). According to the results of a longitudinal study, employees who have a low job satisfaction and weak psychological well-being have a weak tendency to stay in the business. Moreover, these employees think about changing not only the work place but also their jobs (Wright and Bonett, 1992). On the other hand, negative working conditions, stress sources related to work and long working hours of employees may negatively affect their family relations, psychological well-being, life satisfaction, social behaviors and emotional states (Kinnunen & Mauno, 1998; Perrewe, Hochwarter, & Kiewitz, 1999, Stewart & Barling, 1996, Prosser, D., Johnson, S., Kuipers, E et.all 1997,). In conclusion, research assistants who are in the first step of their academic careers, stated that they cared about their personal developments in their institutions, but they could not be as happy as they expected when they reached their goals. That the organization has a good structure to feel good and the solution of role conflict and time problems in a balanced way will have a positive effect on employees' well-being. This study has been conducted with research assistants who have been working for at least two years in Masters or PhD level. It can be replicated with research assistants working in different universities. Regular group studies based on well-being with research assistants whose academic development is going on can contribute to their personal development and social lives. REFERENCES Akintoye, Goulding, J., Zawdie, G. (2012). Construction innovation and process improvement, Akintoye, Goulding, J., Zawdie, G. (Ed.), Theory and Practice Chapter 1, 1-19 p. John Wiley & Sons. 230

Akdoğan, A., Polatcı, S. (2013). Psikolojik Sermayenin Performans Üzerindeki Etkisinde İş Aile Yayılımı ve Psikolojik İyi Oluşun Etkisi, Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 17(1), 273-293 Bakker, A. B., Oerlemans, W. (2011). Subjective Well-Being In Organizations. 178-189 pp. The Oxford Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship. Ball, J., Armistead, L., Austin, B. J. (2003). The Relationship Between Religiosity and Adjustment Among African-American, Female, Urban Adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 26 (4), 431-446. Barton, L. (1994). Crisis Management Preparing for and Managing Disasters,18-19 p., The Cornell H: R:A Quarterly. Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The Structure of Psychological Well-Being. Oxford, England: Aldine The Structure of Psychological Well-Being. (1969). XVI, 318. Baruch, Y., Lambert, R. (2007). Organizational Anxiety: Applying Psychological Concepts Into Organizational Theory. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(1), 84-99. Cameron, K. S., Spreitzer, G. M. (Eds.). (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship, Chapter 1, .3-13 pp. Oxford University Press.Books. Carr, A. (1994). Anxiety and Depression Among School Principals-Warning, Principalship can be Hazardous to Your Health. Journal of Educational Administration, 32(3), 18-34. Chandler, C. K., Holden, J. M., Kolander, C. A. (1992). Counseling for Spiritual Wellness: Theory and Practice. Journal of Counseling & Development,71(2), 168-175. Chamberlain, K., Zika, S. (1988). Religiosity, Life Meaning and Wellbeing: Some Relationships In A Sample of Women. Journal for The Scientific Study of Religion, 411420. Cooper, C. L., Cartwright, S. (1994). Healthy Mind; Healthy Organization—A Proactive Approach to Occupational Stress. Human Relations, 47(4), 455-471. Cramer, S. R., Nieman, D. C., & Lee, J. W. (1991). The Effects of Moderate Exercise Training on Psychological Well-Being and Mood State In Women. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 35(4), 437-449. Denizli, U. (2014). İş Stresi Yönetimi, Psikolojik İyilik Halinin ve İş Doyumunun Geliştirilmesinde Sportif Faaliyetlerden Yararlanılması: Geleneksel Çin Sporu Taı Chı Chuan Örneği (Doctoral Dissertation). Diener, E. (1984). Subjevtive Well-being Psychological Bulletin, 95. 542-575 Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. (2002). Very Happy People. Psychological Science, 13(1), 81-84. Diener, E.; Suh, E. M.; Lucas, R. E. Y Smith, H. L. (1999).Subjective Well-Being. Three Decades of Progress. Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 125, N° 2, 276 – 302 Doğan, T. (2004). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Iyilik Halinin İncelenmesi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara, (Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi). Dogan, T., & Eryilmaz, A. (2012). Work-Related Basic Need Satisfaction and Subjective Well-Being Among Academicians. Ege Academic Review, 12(3), 383-389. Fehring, R. J., Miller, J. F., & Shaw, C. (1997). Spiritual Well-Being, Religiosity, Hope, Depression, and Other Mood States in Elderly People Coping With Cancer. In Oncology Nursing Forum (24). 4, 663-671 Ferrie, J. E. (1999). Health Consequences of Job Insecuritya. Labour Market Changes and Job Insecurity: A Challenge for Social Welfare and Health Promotion, 59. Gechman, A. S., & Wiener, Y. (1975). Job Involvement and Satisfaction As Related to Mental Health and Personal Time Devoted to Work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(4), 521. Heaphy, E. D., & Dutton, J. E. (2008). Positive Social Interactions and The Human Body At 231

Work: Linking Organizations and Physiology. Academy of Management Review, 33(1), 137-162. Horton, B. W., & Snyder, C. S. (2009). Wellness: Its Impact on Student Grades and Implications for Business. Journal of Human Resources In Hospitality & Tourism, 8(2), 215-233. Keyes, C. L. (2002). The Mental Health Continuum: From Languishing to Flourishing In Life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 207-222. Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing Well-Being: The Empirical Encounter of Two Traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 1007. Kinnunen, U., & Mauno, S. (1998). Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Family Conflict Among Employed Women and Men In Finland. Human Relations, 51(2), 157-177. Korkut-Owen ve Owen (2012). İyilik Hali Yıldızı Modeli, Uygulaması ve Değerlendirilmesi, International Journal of Eurasia Social Sciences, 3( 9), 24-33 Korkut, F. (2004). Preventıon and Wellness. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research , (15), 79-84 Korkut, F. (2004). Çalışma Yaşamında İyilik Hali Modelinin Kullanılması. Kişisel Gelişimde Çağdaş Yönelimler Sempozyumu. K.K. Eğitim ve Doktrin Komutanlığı. s.301-310. Ankara Lubbers, R., Loughlin, C., & Zweig, D. (2005). Young Workers’ Job Self-Efficacy and Affect: Pathways to Health and Performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67(2), 199-214. Luthans, F. (2002). The Need for and Meaning of Positive Organizational Behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(6), 695-706. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2007). Psychological Capital: Developing The Human Competitive Edge, p. 3-229,. Oxford University Press. Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?. Psychological Bulletin, pp. 131(6), 803. Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). The How of Happiness: A Scientific Approach to Getting The Life You Want., 25 pp., Penguin.Press Martin-Lef, P. (1984). Intuitionistic Type Theory. Naples. 76 p. Bibliopolis. Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. (1990). A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences of Organizational Commitment. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 171. Myers, J. E., Sweeney, T. J., & Witmer, J. M. (2000). The Wheel of Wellness Counseling for Wellness: A Holistic Model for Treatment Planning. Journal of Counseling and Development: JCD, 78(3), 251. Özen Kutanis, R., & Yıldız, E. (2014). Pozitif Psikoloji ile Pozitif Örgütsel Davranış İlişkisi ve Pozitif Örgütsel Davranış Boyutları Üzerine Bir Değerleme. Visionary EJournal/Vizyoner Dergisi, 5(11). Park, K. O., Wilson, M. G., & Lee, M. S. (2004). Effects of Social Support at Work on Depression and Organizational Productivity. American Journal of Health Behavior, 28(5), 444-455. Perrewé, P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., & Kiewitz, C. (1999). Value Attainment: an Explanation for the Negative Effects of Work–Family Conflict on Job and Life Satisfaction. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4(4), 318. Prosser, D., Johnson, S., Kuipers, E., Szmukler, G., Bebbington, P., & Thornicroft, G. (1997). Perceived Sources of Work Stress and Satisfaction Among Hospital and Community Mental Health Staff, and Their Relation to Mental Health, Burnout and Job Satisfaction. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 43(1), 51-59. 232

Pugliesi, K. (1999). The Consequences of Emotional Labor: Effects on Work Stress, Job Satisfaction, and Well-Being. Motivation and Emotion, 23(2), 125-154. Robertson, I., & Cooper, C. (2011). Well-Being. Productivity and Happiness at Work. CPI Anthony Rowe. Chapter 7, p.51-62, Chippenham & Eastborne. Roscoe, L. J. (2009). Wellness: A review of Theory and Measurement for Counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development: JCD, 87(2), 216. Rozin, P. (1999) .Well-Being: Foundations of Hedonic Psychology. Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.). Preadaption and the Puzzles and Properties of Pleasure, Chapter 6, p ,109-133, Russell Sage Foundation. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness Is Everything, Or Is It? Explorations on The Meaning of Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069. Ryff, C. D. (1989b). Beyond Ponce de Leon and Life Satisfaction: New Directions in Quest of Successful Ageing. International Journal of Behavioral Development,12(1), 35-55. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The Structure of Psychological Well-being Revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On Happiness and Human Potentials: A Review of Research on Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141-166. Sackney, L., Noonan, B., & Miller, C. M. (2000). Leadership for Educator Wellness: An Exploratory Study. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 3(1), 41-56. Scheer, S. B., & Lockee, B. B. (2003). Addressing the Wellness Needs of Online Distance Learners. 18 (2),177-196 Stewart, W., & Barling, J. (1996). Daily Work Stress, Mood and Interpersonal Job Performance: A Mediational Model. Work & Stress, 10(4), 336-351. Sutherland, V. J. (1995). Stress and the New Contract for General Practitioners.Journal of Managerial Psychology, 10(3), 17-28. Tümlü, G. Ü., & Recepoğlu, E. (2013). Üniversite Akademik Personelinin Psikolojik Dayanıklılık ve Yaşam Doyumu Arasındaki İlişki. Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi, 3(3), 205-213. Van Dick, R., & Haslam, S. A. (2012). Stress and Well-Being In The Workplace.The Social Cure: Identity, Health, and Well-Being, 175-194pp, Psychology Press, New York. Wright, T. A. (2003). Positive Organizational Behavior: An Idea Whose Time has Truly Come. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(4), 437-442. Wright, T. A., & Bonett, D. G. (2007). Job Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being As Nonadditive Predictors of Workplace Turnover. Journal of Management, 33(2), 141-160. Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two Conceptions of Happiness: Contrasts of Personal Expressiveness (Eudaimonia) and Hedonic Enjoyment. Journal of personality and social psychology, 64(4), 678. Wright, T. A., & Cropanzano, R. (2000). Psychological Well-Being and Job Satisfaction as Predictors of Job Performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 84.

233

Chapter 18 Learning Centers in Preschool Education Şermin METIN INTRODUCTION Educational environment, is an important variable which has the power that could change behaviour by the learning opportunities it offers (Dönmez, 2008). Preschool period, which learning and development is rapid and the basic skills are acquired, is not a time for only the improvement of social emotional development and language development, but also the majority of the complex abilities and motivation towards learning are developed in that time (Hanley, Cammilleri, Tiger ve Ingvarsson, 2007). For the preschoolers who learn the life by concrete experiences, learning environment is accepted as an important factor. The related researches display that learning environments in preschool education institutions are important contributions to the childrens cognitive development (Burchinal, Piesner-Feinberg, Bryant, Clifford, 2000; Burchinal and Cryer, 2003; Ceglowski and Bacigalupa; 2002; Feyman, 2006; Maxwell, 2007; Scraf, Eisenberg, Deater-Deckard, 1994), language development and social emotional development (Burchinal et al., 2000; Hewes, 2014). The academic abilities (Anders et al. 2012; Mashburn, 2008), firstly literacy (Blau, 1999; Berris ve Miller, 2011) independency, problem solving and encouragement of social abilities (Coughlin et al. 1997), helps learning by experiences and supports the advancement of skills and put forth the child's interests and learning styles (Day, 2007). The physical environment, besides the emotional and didactic support, effects the classroom management and childrens development in positive way (Mashburn, 2008). Definition and importance of learning centers Desired level of development and positive tendency towards learning, can be provided by the childrens’ pleasure of learning in class. It is related with the effective learning strategies, materials, activities and the density of the preferred events, and it’s based on attractiveness of the effective classroom experiences (Hanley at. al. 2007). Preschoolers need the discovery areas and work areas (Caples, 1996). The leading of child centered education Pestalozzi, stated that children learn with peers interaction in their own areas (Myers ve Maurer, 1987). Stankovic and Stojic (2007) stated the childrens spatial need for their develoment as;  The need of confidence and being superior in the space,  The need of hugging by the different materials that encourage creativeness,  The need of being physically and cognitively active,  The need of being alone with ownself,  The need of knowing ownself, 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Hasan Kalyoncu University, Faculty of Education, Pre-School Education Department. [email protected]

 The need of building emotional relationship, Besides this, it is defined that, space should have properties as safety, simplicity in use, usefulness, complexity, encouragement, constructivism, identity, and confidentiality (Stankovic and Stojic, 2007). In preschool education institutions, all the needs of children are meet by learning centers. The learning centers, that are defined as activity area, center, corner, station, working area or play unit in different countries and different educational programs, are defined areas which are compatible with one another and involves different activities. Learning centers are pysically defined and special areas that, guide children to discover and trial, childrens plan active and meaningful activities, give chance to work in alone or group, has different materials that encorage creativeness, interaction, research and construction, has many experiences and activities (Beaty, 2013; Biçer, 1994; De Carvalho, 2004; Diffily, Donaldson ve Sassman, 2001; Koza and Smith, 2009; MEB, 2013; NYSED, 1998; Null and Sima, 2000; Prevost, 2003; Sanoff, 1995; West, 2011; Yalçın, 2011). Learning centers, that is the root of child centered education and give children opportunity for unique learning and play, are useful for;  Provide area for experiences compatible with their interest and their developmental needs  Give opportunity for independent selections and independent play  Meet the need for movement, practice and expression  To let the improvement regarding the internal strategies, that should guide child and compatible with the child’s personal interest areas and learning style  Give opportunity for discovery and learning by personal experiences  To enhance the prosocial behaviours and group identity by the small group activities  Give opportunity to work in personal speed and level  To support the individual or group thinking, research, questioning and problem solving skills  Develop receiver and expressive language skills  To contribute the improvement of information, concepts, ideas and behaviours and combining these informations and skills for continuos learning  To have responsibility of own learning  Give teachers the opportunity to observe children in indivual or small groups and support the education (Anonymous, 2010a; Butin and Woolums, 2009; Coughlin et al. 1997; Demiriz, Ulutaş and Karadağ, 2011; Hemilton ve Felemming, 1990; Kıldan and Ahi, 2014: Koza and Smith, 2009; Lundgren, 1998: Myers and Maurer, 1987; Null and Sima, 2000; Stankovic and Stojic, 2007; Akt. Wood, 2014). The main aim of learning centers, that is the environmental framework of early childhood education programs, is to support the children’s development by the practices compatible with the development. For this reason, the desigments that are planned and purposeful are required (Anonymous, 2010b; Lundgren, 1998). The designment of learning centers To create learning centers is seen as the key factor of successful programme. The spatial differentation can be provided by the different spaces which meet the childrens need, childrens involvement in different activities related to their interest areas, and 235

provide different learning opportunities (Butin ve Woolums, 2009; Çakır, 2011; Diffily and others., 2001; Knopf and Welsh, 2010; Poyraz and Dere, 2001). These spatial differentation should be used in activity areas and made by visual cues as mobile storage or separators, different flooring materials, different wall colours, different lighting, ceiling or floor height. It is possible to make this differentation by the stationary objects as storage products in the walls, cabinets, cabins, rail and glass furniture and mobile objects as wheeled racks, cabinets and toys baskets (Diffily et.al., 2001; Pool and Carter, 2011; Stephens; 1996). The learning centers that are clearly separated from each other, let children to play or work more effective in alone, small groups and large groups. It avoids disturbing children to each others, reduce the discipline problems and give children’s a sense of security (Güleş, 2013; Kocamanoğlu, 2014; Pool and Carter, 2011; Ratcliff, 2001). The flexibility is an important fact while designing the learning centers. Because the childrens age, developmental properties, interests and skills, the realtions between the centers, the classroom size, and classroom areas should be considered. (ÖmeroğluTuran and Turan, 1998). Also, the centers place and design, and special designs as the lighting and natural light should be taken into account. (Çakır, 2011; Null and Sima, 2000). To use the space effective,for the classrooms that are small spaces ( used in the table activities and play), two or tree centers should be planned. One of the main facts that should be considered while designing the learning centers,is accessibility. The materials should be designed by considering the visual and physical access of materials(child accessible level and open shelves), that should be found in childrens insight, easily accesssible and let the childrens interaction and touch with the materials (Çakır, 2011; Mills, 1998; Moyer, 2001; Pool and Carter, 2011).

236

The other main fact while making design, is to consider the independency regarding the childrens use of centers and materials. The designment as the use of materials in the centers, and the clean up (paint basket or pen box), and the childrens independent use (by visual stimulants) should be supported. These designs will improve the self regulation skills by reducing the childrens dependency to the adults. (Beaty, 2013; Diffily et al. 2001). Learning centers, should developed, changed and regenerated due to the content of the program implemented and needed to sustain the interest of children, under different themes or concepts. To change the materials which are less attractive, use real and concrete materials, and provide experiences related to daily and real life, will make interest sustainability in the centers (Diffily et al., 2001; Lundgren, 1998; Moyer, 2001; Stephens, 1996; West 2011). Lundgren (1998) classified the learning centers that should be in preschool institutions in three areas, unstructured centers (blocks, table toys, sand and water games and art),centers that the teachers guide (Discovery and computer) and the centers that the children guide ( literacy and games). The general acceptance and the centers that should be found in a preschool institution are,  Dramatic play center,  Art center,  Science and discovery center  Block center  Book/Literacy/library center  Music and movement center  Sand and water center  Computer center  Silent center (Anonymous, 2010b; Butin and Woolums, 2009; Demiriz et.al., 2011; Kıldan and Ahi, 2014; Knopf and Welsh, 2010; MEB, 2013; Pool and Carter, 2011; West 2011). Dramatic play center: To have a secure area for the children in terms of imitation play, converting the children's observation to behaviour, exposure and expression of emotions, dramatization and rol playing. It supports the symbolic thinking, and the skills as the problem solving, and social compromising. (Anonymous, 2010b; Huber, 2000; MEB, 2013; NAEYC, 2012; Knopf and Welsh, 2010). The standart materials 237

that should be found in dramatic play center are; clothes( shirts, shoes, jackets, skirts), cleaning materials(brom, mat and shovel), home life supplies( (pots, spoons, plastic food, such as oven refrigerator), dolls, home-based tools, such as living room furniture, desks, chairs, and the cabinets that makes these materials accessible (Anonymous, 2010b; Butin and Woolums, 2009; Diffily et.al., 2001, Koza and Smith, 2009). Art center: The art center is a dynamic structure that support and improve all developmental areas, especially the creativity that is the natural developmental process started from the infancy and peaked during the childhood years. It support the social, emotional and language development with the products and contribute all development by supporting creativity process with these products. Painting, drawing, play dough, different types of paints and brushs, the the residual materials that encourage creativity are the main materials that should be found in the art center. (Anonymous, 2010b; Demiriz et.al., 2011; Diffily et.al., 2001; Knopf and Welsh, 2010; Pool and Carter, 2011). Science and Discovery center: The childrens construct the information and they learn by discovering, doing, and researching the real and concrete materials rather than expression of why. Study books, work sheets and the teacher oriented experiments are far from providing meaningful learning.The science centers support the main skills as comparisons, classification, observation, description, measurement, hypothesis, analysis, and explication .Well designed science centers should be supported by natural materials as the birds nests, leaves, and stones, the materials as the, magnifiers, scales, prisms, flashlight, thermometer , cards, pictures, printed materials, signs, brochures and books (Anonymous, 2010b; Knopf and Welsh, 2010; Pool and Carter, 2011). Block center: The block center involves miniature real-life objects and unstructured materials as the construction materials that gives the change for imaginative constructions. In the block center, children gains the physical, social and cognitive skills by the social interactions(NAEYC, 2012). Block center has the materials as blocks, human and animal figures, signs, wheels, and the materials that are structured by the children (Anonymous, 2010b; Butin and Woolums, 2009; Knopf and Welsh, 2010). Book/ Literacy/Library Center: Although it seems as a basic center,it is essential for cognitive, social, language and literacy skills. Although all centers in the class encourage the use of language, book center involves different experiences as speaking, listening, questioning, marking and other pre-reading behaviour (NAEYC, 2012). It is suitable to design the book center with the books, materials for literacy, comfortable reading chairs, soft cushions, a small table and chairs, accessible shelves and organized colours and codes (Anonymous, 2010b; Knopf and Welsh, 2010). Music and Movement Center: Creative expression is generally limited by art in preschool institutions. Music and movement supports the physical skills as sounds, rhtyms, balance and patterns, durability, speed, changeable movements and encourage the creativity, decrease the stress, spiritually purifying, and soothing (Anonymous, (2010b). The music center, that should be located in a remoted area of the sound, should be enriched with the materials that are used for different sounds as sound boxes, wood and metal spoons, different types of paper and different music instruments (Anonymous, 2010b; Demiriz et.al., 2011; Knopf and Welsh, 2010). Sand and water center: Early childhood educators emphasize that children learn by the senses. Sense experiences are thought as the nutrition of the brain and it is the 238

basis for scientific thinking skills as it supports all development. The sand and water tables should be found in the preschool classes for the relaxing sensory discoveries for children. Instead of expensive materials, container or plastic tubs, buckets can meet the children’s need. The center can involve materials that supports the sensory experiences as potting soil, garden mud, clay, colored aquarium gravel, finger paint, birdseed, confetti, ping-pong balls, cotton balls, dry leaves, feathers, foam, ruff eggs, ice cubes (Anonymous, 2010b; Gainsley, 2011; Knopf and Welsh, 2010). Computer center: The computers are technological tools, that are commonly used in daily lifes, which the childrens use across the screen for research, discovery and problem solving. In the center, the childrens are supported by the programmes which encourage the problem solving, thinking, make decisions, and cretivity. The programs and websites which are culturally sensitive, interactive, supportive(for development), and not adversely affect the children, should be provided and supported (Knopf and Welsh, 2010; Pool and Carter, 2011). Silent area/Silent center: Children need a personal area which let them to be alone, play, have a rest and personal relation with an adult. The center should be enriched by the carpets, comfortable chairs and cushions, low bookshelf for books and filling toys, with objects such as aquarium plants (Butin and Woolums, 2009). In a preschool instutions, it is not enough, to achieve the objectives, to have educational centers and enrich them with the materials. It is essential to consider some items for the effective use of centers: To create rules: In the learning centers that are defined areas by the rules, the children need time and support for learning the behaviors which are expected from them (Diffly et al., 2001; Prevost, 2003). The basic rules as what is the center, how it will be used, how it will be cleaning up, should be talked and defined by the children. Even the rules can be changed according to educator, as general:  To follow up the rules that are defined for the selection of center  To use only one center for the center time  To tidy up before leave the center  Have a sound at an appropriate level  Use the materials carefully  To sit down silently when the activity is finished (Kozaand Smith, 2009; Anonymous,2010a) are accepted. The choice of centers: It is not possible for all the children to use the same center at same time. For this reason, a system about to place the children in the centers should be created in the first school days. The methods as using the labels and coloured tickets should be used and children can select the center he/she will play in the circle time by these methods (Beaty, 2013; Diffily et.al., 2001; Knopf and Welsh, 2010, West, 2011). The number of children: The number od children that are found in the centers should be limited in the first school days to avoid clutter that is compatible with the the proportion of material and the width of the center. If the children know the number of child that should be found in each center, then the confusion will be avoided. A system that is child oriented and supported by visual ways as the numbers that are hang in the center entrance or hang latch of the central entrance as the number of children should be in the center should be used (Diffily et.al., 2001; Knopf and Welsh, 2010). To use all centers and peer interaction: Each center support the childrens development in different ways. For this reason, it should be supported for the children 239

use different learning centers in same rate. Provost (2003) indicate that learning centers should give chance to children for playing in different learning centers with different friends and work with all friends in the class, West (2011) stated the importance of the arrangements that let the children to change the learning center and friend. For this reason, cards that are hang in centers should be used to follow up the children to work in different centers and different groups, so children can use all the centers in a week (Prevost 2003). Encourage independency: The learning centers should be designed to support the skills as free movement, self direction, make own decisions, and take responsibility. They are certain regulations that will allow the children to act independently, as the rules for determining learning centers and accessibility of materials. The teachers, who are primary responsible for the organization and use of learning centers according to educational objective, should consider some points while children play in learning center :  Encourage: To encourage the children for sharing of ideas and experiences with the teacher and the peers.  Be interested in: To interest in children by talking and asking open ended questions  Maintain Learning: providing new material and ideas to maintain the children's learning efforts  Support: Support of children's problem-solving efforts  Observe: To observe children's development, interests, needs, and skills  Lose: To lose observation for use in documentation and planning (Knopf and Welsh, 2010). CONCLUSION The learning centers, that supports the childrens all development and supports the childrens responsibility for own learning and construction of learning and offering rich social and emotional experiences, are essential for preschools. To have learning centers (that is important for preschool) and enrich the materials are not enough to provide the necessary support for learning. Providing developmentally appropriate conditions, effective regulation and the creation of conditions should be considered as an element of increasing the center effectiveness. REFERENCES Anders, Y., Rossbach, H. G., Weinert, S., Ebert, S., Kuger, S., Lehrl, S., & Von Maurice, J. (2012). Home and preschool learning environments and the irrelations to the development of early numeracy skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 27, 231– 244 Anonymous, (2010a). Prepraring children for kindergarten: Learning Centers. Indiana Enstitute on Disability and Community. Indiana University. https://www.iidc.indiana. edu/styles/iidc/defiles/ecc/learningcenters.pdf sitesinden erişilmiştir. Anonymous, (2010b). Learning centers for everyone. Texas Child Care / summer 2010 http://www.childcarequarterly.com/pdf/summer10_centers.pdf Beaty, J. (2013). Preschool appropriate practices: Environment curriculum and development. Australia; Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Berris, R & Miller, E. (2011). How design of the physical environment impacts early learning: educators and parents perspectives. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 240

36(4).1-17. Biçer, M. (1994). Ankara il merkezindeki anasınıfları ile uygulama anaokullarının fiziki özellikler açısından kıyaslanarak değerlendirilmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara Blau, D. 1999. The effects of child care characteristics on child development. Journal of Human Resources, 34, 786–822. Burchinal, M., & Cryer, D. (2003). Diversity, child care quality, and developmental outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18(4); 401–426. Burchinal, M.,Peisner-Feinberg, E., Bryant, D., & Clifford, R. (2000). Children’s social and cognitive development and child-care quality: testing for differentials sociations related to poverty, gender, or ethnicity. Applied Developmental Science, 4(3), 149–165. Butin, D. (2000). Early childhood centers. Clearing House for Educational Facilities, Washington, D.C. Department of Education, Washington, DC.2000-07-00 ERİC ED 446 422. Butin, D., Woolums, J. (2009). Early Childhood Centers. National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities. www.ncef.org sitesinden erişilmiştir. Ceglowski, D., & Bacigalupa, C. (2002). Four Perspectives on Child Care Quality. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30(2), 87-92. Caples, S. E. (1996). Some guidelines for preschool design. Young Children, 51(4), 14-21. Coughlin, P. A.,Hansen, K. A., Heller, D., Kaufmann, R. K., Stolberg, J. R., & Walsh, K. B. (1997). Creating child-centered classrooms. Washington; Children’s Resources International, Inc. DC. Çakır, A. (2011). Okul öncesinden ilgi köşelerinin düzenlenmesinin ve kullanılmasının öğretmen görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi. Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Çanakkale On Sekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Çanakkale. Day, C. (2007). Environment and children: Passive lessons from the everyday environment. Oxford:.Elsevier Ltd. De Carvalho, M.C. (2004). Use of Space by Children in Day Care Centers. Revista de Etologia, 6(1), 41-48. Demiriz, S., ulutaş, İ., ve Karadağ, A. (2011). Okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarında eğitim ortamı ve donanımlar. Ankara: Anı yayıncılık. ISBN 978-605-4434-17-6 Diffily, D.,Donaldson, E., & Sassman, C. (2001). The scolastik book of early childhood learning center. New York; Scholatic. Inc. Dönmez, B. 2008. Okul ve sınıf ergonomisi ya da insanı öncelemek. Eğitim-Öğretim ve Bilim Araştırma Dergisi, 4(11), 10-14 Feyman, N. (2006). Okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarında kalitenin çocukların gelişim alanları üzerine etkisinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara Gainsley, S. (2011). Look, Listen, touch, Feel, Taste: The important of sensory play. HıghScope Extensions, 25(5). http://www.highscope.org/file/Newsand Information/ Extensions/ExtVol25No5_low.pdf Güleş, F. (2013). Okul öncesi eğitimde fiziksel çevreye ilişkin kalite standartlarının belirlenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Konya Hanley, G. P., Cammilleri, A. P., Tıger, J. H., ve Ingvarsson, E. T. 2007. A Method for Descrıbıng Preschoolers’ Actıvıty Preferences. Journal of Applıed Behavıor Analysıs; 40, 603–618. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.603–618 Hemilton, P.S., ve felemming, B.M. (1990). Reseources for creative teaching in early childhood education. ( Forth Worth), Harcourt; Brace Jovanovic Collage Publisher. 241

Hewes, J. (2014).Seeking balance in motion: the role of spontaneous free play in promoting social and emotional health in early childhood care and education. Children,1, 280-301; doi:10.3390. Huber, L. (2000). Promoting multicultural awereness trough dramatic play centers. Early Childhood Educational Journal, 27(4); 235-238. Kıldan, O., Ahi, B. (2014). Okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarında fiziksel mekan. Okul öncesi eğitime giriş. (Ed. Serdal seven) içinden. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Knopf, H. T. & Welsh, K. L.. (2010). Preschool materıals guıde. Child development research center, unıversity of South Carolina. http://www.sc-ccrr.org/media/736/ preschool-materials.pdf Kocamanoğlu, D.Ö. (2014). Öğrenme merkezleri kullanılarak oluşturulan bir okul öncesi eğitim sınıfında çocukların sanat ürünlerinin incelenmesi ve estetik yargılarının belirlenmesi. Yayımlanmış yüksek lisans tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara Lundgren, M.W. (1998). Learning center system preschool resource guide . http://www.center-school.org/ocdel/online/documents/handout-1lcsresourceguidemw.pdf Mashburn, A. J. (2008). Quality of social and physical environments in preschools and children's development of academic, language, and literacy skills. Applied Developmental Science, 12.3, 113-127, DOI:10.1080/10888690802199392 Maxwell, L.E. (2007). Competency in child care settings. the role of the physical environment. Environment and Behavior, 39(2), 229-245, DOI: 10.1177/0013916 506289976 MEB, (2013). Okul öncesi eğitimi genel müdürlüğü okul öncesi eğitim programı (36-72 aylık çocuklar için) kitabı. MEB Yayınları, Ankara. Mills, R.P. (1998). Preschool planning guide building a foundation for development of language and literacy in the early years. The University of the State of New York The State Education Department, Albany, New York Moyer, J. (2001). The Child-Centered Kindergarten Childhood Education, Spring; 161-166. Myers, B. K., Maurer, K. (1987). Teaching with less talking: learinig centers in the kindergarten. Young children, 20-27. NAEYC, 2012. children’s learning centers. Preschool program guide. University of huston. http://www.uh.edu/clc/parent_resources/pdf/preschool_guide.pdf Null, C., Sima, P. (2000). Learning center for ıntermediate classrooms. U.S.A: Teacher Created resources, Inc. NYSED, (1998). Preschool planning guide. building a foundation for development of language and literacy in the early years. The University of the State of New York The State Education Department, Albany, New York .www.nysed.gov Ömeroğlu-Turan, E., ve Turan, M. (1998). Okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarının fiziksel koşullarının ergonomik yönden değerlendirilmesi. Altıncı Ergonomi Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı, 565-575. Pool, J. L., Carter, R. (2011). Creating Print-Rich Learning Centers. Teachıng Young Chıldren, 4(4), 18-20. Poyraz, H.. Dere, H. (2001). Okulöncesi eğitiminin ilke ve yöntemleri. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Prevosto, R. (2003). Much more than learning for kindergarten. Canada; Trafford Publishing. Ratcilif, N. (2001). Using the environmet to prevent discipline problems and a support. Young Children, 56(5), 84-88. 242

Scraf, S., Eisenberg, M., & Deater-Deckard, K. (1994). Measurement of quality in child care centers university of Virginia. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9;131-151. Sanoff, H. (1995). Creating environment for young children. North Carolina University. National and Owment Forthe Arts. Washington D.C. Stanković, D., & Stojić, J. (2007). Psycho–developıng needs of chıldren and spatıal features for children's stay. Architecture and Civil Engineering, 5(1), 71-75, UDC 725.573:15922.7(045)=111 Stephens, K. (1996). The child care professional. USA: Mc Graw Hill. Yalçın, M. (2011). Okulöncesi eğitim mekânlarında fiziksel çevrenin çocuk gelişimine etkisi ve mekân oluşumunu etkileyen psiko-sosyal belirleyiciler. Sanatta yeterlilik tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. West, T. L. (2011). Environments for young children: a qualitative study and design of health and nurturing preschool environments. Yayınlanmış yüksek lisans tezi, The Florıda State Unıversıty College of Vısual Arts, Theatre, and Dance, Florida. Wood, E.A. (2014). Free choice and free play in early childhood education. Troubling the International Journal of Early Years Education, 22(1), 4-18. doi.org/10.1080/09 669760.2013.830562

243

Chapter 19 Enhancing School-Family Collaboration: School Counselor’s Role E.Nihal LİNDBERG, Murat KONUK INTRODUCTION Hill and Tyson (2009) describe the parent-school relationship and parent involvement in education as “a way to close demographic gaps in achievement and maximize students’ potential (p. 740). Considering all of its features, parent involvement is a continuous and systematic approach. It involves activities such as informing and helping students built necessary skills to support both academic and personal development, communicating actively with teachers and school administration, voluntary participation in school and classroom activities, and, building partnerships for utilizing family, teacher and community resources (Lindberg, 2014). Accordingly, some practices intended for prepubertal 3-4. graders can involve, for instance, informing families about the stage characteristics, creating web-based communication boards to improve communication among school staff and families, building teacher and family support/share groups in order to communicate opinion, knowledge and experience about child development and education, involving parents into decision processes for issues such as environmental monitoring of schools or fund raising for school programs. None the less, parent involvement practices are not limited to those that take place at schools. Some examples of extramural parental involvement practices are teacher home visits, parental home practices of developmental and educational support, collaboration with small scaled entities in the school district to support the education of children from low socioeconomic class families, getting help from professionals and institutions for instruction and carrying out observations to improve learning at school (Epstein, Sanders, Simon, Salinas and Van Voorhis, 2002). Studies indicate that programs which aim parent involvement in education and attempts that improve practices with the assistance from families promote academic achievement, attitudes towards school, attendance, learning motivation, social skills and decrease discipline problems (Catsambis, 1998; Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems, Holbein, 2005; Herndon, 1995; Hill and Tyson, 2009; Sheldon, 2007; Sheldon and Epstein, 2002; Şad, 2012). Besides, above mentioned benefits are also true for socioeconomically and socioculturally at risk children and families (Ma, 2009; Smith, 2006). In spite of all innovation and improvement efforts, program planning and implementation attempts are far from being satisfactory (Sabancı, 2009). Probable 

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Kastamonu University Faculty of Education Department of Educational Sciences     Res. Asst., Kastamonu University Faculty of Education Department of Educational Sciences 

causes are psychological and cultural factors influencing teacher and parent attitudes (Flynn, 2007); limiting working hours and conditions for parent-teacher interaction (Flynn, 2007; McBride, Bae and Blatchford, 2003); negative school staff and/or parental attitudes toward parent involvement and, more importantly, lack of knowledge about the subject (Bhering, 2002; Crites, 2008; Gonzalez-DeHass, 2005; Kotaman, 2008; Lindberg, 2013; Sabancı, 2009; Yıldırım and Dönmez, 2008). However, attitudes of parent and school staff can be considered as the most important factor. Restricting parent involvement into few activities such as funding electric, heating and sanitation expenditures or assisting teachers and administrators in organizing events like charity bazaar or theater will cause both a disregard for the above-mentioned benefits and a decrease in family participation to such programs. As a matter of fact, Yıldırım and Dönmez (2008) stated that families may be reluctant to cooperate with teachers and schools due to parental beliefs that they will be asked for money, their contribution is considered worthless or they are not well accepted at school. School Counselors as School Personnel and Parent Involvement In school counselling services, school counselors offer several services to provide a suitable environment for students' educational, vocational and social-psychological development, to help them overcome difficulties and to take necessary precautions before problems arise. Guidance services constitute practices towards both directly students and indirectly other people and institutions to increase the effectiveness of services. Psychological counselling services are intended for school-environment (family) and student. Especially, relationships with environment/parents and consultation services are supportive services in the scope of guidance and counselling and have important functions in the execution of other services and increasing their efficiency. The consultation aims to build relationships among teachers, administrators and family to help student development. Services towards environment and parents, on the other hand, are complementary to and supportive of other practices, sometimes entwined with them. Once ommitted, all other practices will be incomplete and disrupted. All those practices are required as a whole for students’ healthy development, adaptation, achievement and happiness (Yeşilyaprak, 2013). In order to reach these goals, guidance services should be given in cooperation and common understanding. School counselors, school principals and vice principals, and teachers actively provide guidance and counseling services at schools. In Turkish education system, promoting school-family relationships and ensuring parents’active participation in education are emphasized. One of the fourteen guiding principles of national education Basic Low (low number 1739) is on school-family collaboration to ensure parent-teacher associations’ support on achieving goals of educational institutions (National Education basic low no 1973: Article 16). Once more, the need for school-family collaboration is laid down by Parent-Teacher Association Regulation as “Every school must have Parent –teacher associations. Teachers of the school are ordinary members of the association. The goal of the association is to ensure collaboration between parents and school by coalescing them (Parent-Teacher Association Regulation, 2005: Article 5). Besides, Psychological Counselling and Guidance Regulation emphasizes active family participation and says “in order to support student development also in family environment, to be assessed, recognized and 245

introduced as a whole, to assure parents’ participation and contribution to decision processes in guidance and academic life and to raise parents’ awareness about the subject, necessary precautions are taken. (Psychological Counselling and Guidance Regulation, 2001: Article 16).” Similarly, Circular no. 2002/27 of School-Parent Collaboration refers to factors that negatively influence parent participation, and aims to encourage parent participation by holding parents’ meeting. Customarily “family meetings”on parental involvement causes families think that they are summoned for complaints about their children, demands of financial aid, grade point notifications, warnings etc. As a result of it, parents generally feel constraint, fear, indifference and anger. Holding meetings periodically and ensuring both parents’ participation together are best methods to overcome this negativity and to ensure parents’ active participation to education. “To achieve this collaboration, psychological counselling and guidance execution commission, which is referred in 46. The article of the relevant (b) regulation, discusses necessary precautions and determines works to provide healthy and harmonious relationships among students, families, administrators, teachers and psychological counselors. For this purpose, parent-teacher meetings are held at least twice a year when school administration needs it in both public and private schools so as to build collaboration among school-family and teachers, to inform parents about their children’s development stages and academic achievement, to make them adopt the school and to assure their active participation in education services (Special Education and PGC Services Circular, 2002).” As above mentioned school counselors are responsible for fostering student development and collaborating with parents to support the development of all the other school personnel. Actually, school counselors are considered an important professional group due to their knowledge and to the services they give to parents, teachers, administrators, and students (Davis and Lambie, 2005; Amatea and West-Olatunji, 2007). For instance, school counselors should communicate with parents about psychoeducational assessments or interventions toward students and involve them in the process. On the other hand, they may also build bridges between parents, teachers and administrators. In addition to this, they may inform teachers and administrators about parent involvement and guide them to initiate and continue parent involvement practices (Manz, Mautone, Martin, 2009). Besides, school counselors may provide necessary information through their professional practices to create effective and strong collaborations at schools. School counselors may use their knowledge in two ways. First, they may guide teachers and administrators to find both obstacles in collaboration and solution ways to overcome these obstacles (Epstein, Van Voorhis, 2010; Walker, Shenker, Hoover-Dempsey, 2010). Second, as mentioned before, they may directly involve themselves in practices to build this collaboration by taking advantage of their professional expertise. Promoting relationships with families increases psychological counselling and guidance services, thereby ensure that school goals and visions to be understood and students acquire targeted cognitive, emotional and social behaviours. Without the parent participation, which is an important component of psychological counselling and guidance, the effectiveness of services will be low. Informing parents about psychological counselling and guidance services at school influences their expectancies from psychological counselors. It was found that informed parents were less likely to expect services outside a school counselor’s scope of duty (Altıntaş, 2002). It is 246

beneficial to hold meetings in small groups to familiarize parents with school, ensure effective collaboration and promote involvement and support. Those meetings should not be for the sole purpose of notifying parents about their childrens’ grade points. Parents should be informed about their children’s development and what school can do to overcome negative situations. Moreover, their opinions should be asked and their possible contributions should be discussed in the meetings. School administration, parent-teacher association, psychological counseling and guidance department and teachers should work in strict cooperation and common understanding in holding and conducting those meetings (Can, 2002). Parent-teacher associations and school protection associations have also important roles in promoting family-environment relationships. Effective functioning of those associations is of great importance. In general, school counselors’ responsibilities on family-school relations can be summarized as below:  Informing parents about other professionals and institutions who provide psychological counselling services and encourage them to seek help when necessary,  Notifying parents about their children’s skills, interests, achievement and development and school’s educational programs,  Attending parent-teacher association meetings,  The introducing school's psychological counseling and guidance services. (Kepçeoğlu, 1999) can be regarded as the responsibilities of school counselors. Moreover, school counselors should get the support of families in order to solve students’ problems, since it is not possible to evaluate student problems separately from families. Families should adopt, and support knowledge, attitude, skills, and, behaviours that are taught at school and create a proper environment to ensure continuity of learning. In order to minimize negative impacts of out-of-school environment and to promote healthy, steady and positive development of students, parents should act together and have a similar understanding with the school. Primary responsibility for planning, maintenance and improvement of parent involvement programs is on school staff (Epstein, 2008). Therefore all the school personnel including school counselors should have enough knowledge about and positive attitude towards the subject. It is one of the vital components of the success of the parental involvement practices at schools. As mentioned above, school counselors is a school personnel having a mediator role in developing relations between parents and school by their professional knowledge and practices. However, it is vital in order to create and improve parental involvement practices at schools that they have positive attitudes on parental involvement. In this study, it was aimed to describe their attitudes and practices in general. In this sense, the research questions based on this general aim are following: 1) What are school counselors’ opinions on parent involvement and their adequacy perceptions on using involvement strategies? 2) Which parent involvement practices or types should be developed/improved and promoted by other school staff according to school counselors? 3) What are school counselors opinions about the most important problems in the school district and the best parent involvement practices to solve them? 4) What factors prevent implementing parent participation practices according to school counselors? 247

MATERIALS AND METHODS Research Design As a mixed method research design, triangulation was adopted in the study. The design requires collection of qualitative and quantitative data and to be analysed separately yet concurrently. The primary aim of this approach is to determine how well qualitative and quantitative data validate each other or how similar they are (Creswell, 2006). In addition to a likert scale questionnaire to assess school counselors’ attitudes and opinions about parent involvement, a semi-structured interview was conducted in the study. The interview consisted of questions on important problematic areas in the school district, primary topics of communication and collaboration with families, best ways to cooperate with parents, areas that school counselors can support to improve/promote school-family collaboration and finally, factors that hinder the collaboration. Study Group There are a total of 120 school counselors working at different educational stages in the city center. Initially, it was intended to include all 120 school conselors in the study. However, after informing about the aim of the study, 73 of them (25 male, 48 female) accepted participation. Fifty-three per cent of school counselors had 1-5 years of work experience, 26% had 6-10 years, 12% had 11-15 years, 3% had 16-20 years and 6% had 21 years and above. Besides, 24 of them worked at secondary stage, 24 at highschools, 21 at primary schools and 4 at preschools. Data Gathering In the study, School and Family Partnership Teacher Questionnaire, which was developed by Epstein and Salinas (1993) in order to determine teacher opinions and attitudes about parent involvement and then adapted to Turkish by Oğuz (2012), was used. It was redesigned for the present study aims. More specifically, the questionnaire intends gathering information about parent involvement and methods they use to ensure parent involvement and collaboration programs they want to develop for their schools and classes. Besides, the scale enables to make school and classroom assessment according to Epstein’s six parent involvement categories. It consists of likert items, Either separate sections or whole scale scores can be used for evaluations (Epstein ve Salinas, 1993). For the purposes of the study, items from 1., 6. and 9. sections were administered. The first section includes 17 items to determine attitudes towards parent involvement which require stating the degree of agreement ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (4) strongly agree. The sixth section aims to define parent involvement practices that are needed to be improved at their schools and includes 12 items. Responses vary from (1) not important to (4) very important. Ninth section has 8 items to assess perceived support of the school for parent involvement, responses of which ranges from (1) no support to (4) strong support. Besides, one more question was included in order for school counselors to assess their own parent involvement practices by grading their adequacy (1) definitely inadequate to (4) definitely adequate. In sum, 38 likert scale items were administered. As a result of construct validity analysis, chi-square test was computed to determine model-data fit and was found to be significant, χ2(sd=4619)= 10000, p<.01. Fit index results are as follows: RMSEA: .058, SRMR: .072, CFI: .89 ve GFI: .63. 248

Cronbach's alpha internal consistency analysis for each section/subscale separately and for the whole questionnaire was conducted. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of the 1., 6., 9. subscales/sections and the total scale are .78, .89, .83 and.75 respectively. In order to gather qualitative data, five additional open-ended questions were asked. First question is about observed problems in the school district. Second one is related to the most common subjects in which they communicate and collaborate with families. Third question aims at gathering opinions about the best methods of collaboration with parents. Fourth one investigates in what ways school counselors may support the development and improvement of school-family collaboration. Last question investigated thoughts on factors that prevent cooperation with families at school. Besides, three questions were included in order to define demographic characteristics of school counselors. Data Analysis Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentage). For qualitative data, thematic analysis was adopted. Accordingly, participants’ all answers were examined within the scope of relevant question. Secondly, the responses were re-read in accordance with the goal of the given question and general themes were identified. Thirdly, thematic categories and sub-categories were defined. In order to examine the reliability of the analysis, fifteen participants’ responses were re-analyzed by the first author after all analyze processes were completed. The consistency between initial and last analysis of the researcher was .87. FINDINGS Findings for each research question were presented below respectively. 1. Parent involvement and their perceived competency of using involvement strategies Although two school counselors notified that they had never worked with families, most of them spared time to contact and meet with families. Accordingly, 53,4% of counselors allocated 1-3 hours, 27,4% 4-6 hours to communicate with families. Those reports were also related to school counselors’ scores of attitude towards parent involvement, which varied between 2.24 to 3,76 ( =3.0016, SS=.33). The results indicated a general positive attitude of school counselors towards parent involvement. Counselors responses to the item measuring perceived competency of their own parent involvement practices indicated that most counselors saw themselves “quite competent” (70%). On the other hand, a 22% answered the same question as “a little/slightly”. Curriculum and course contents at faculties of education are determined by Council of Higher Education in Turkey and they have standard contents in all country. A review of standard curriculum of psychological counselling and guidance programs revealed no course with such a title as parent/family involvement. However, courses like family education, family counselling, educational and personal psychological counselling and classroom practices may positively affect participants’ competencies on their practices of parent involvement. 2. Parent involvement practices that should be developed at schools and supported by other school staff According to participants, school principals (51%) and teachers (30%) gave “a little” support to parent involvement activities. Accordingly, counselors reported that 249

support of provincial directorate of national education’s relevant personnel (41%) was “weak” and ministry of education’s was “weak” (36%) or “none” (36%). Besides, participants stated that family (38%) and parent-teacher association (29%) support were also “weak”. Correspondingly, participants signified the inadequacy of parent involvement activities at their schools and that there was a need of improvement. Parental involvement types are categorized separately. Those categories include several activities: instructing parents about every aspect of child development and education (parenting), helping parents support children’s learning at home (learning at home), providing and using multiple means for school-teacher and parents to communicate (communication), enabling parents to volunteer all activities organized by school administration and teachers (volunteering), including parents into all decision-making process about classroom and school administration issues (decisionmaking), seek assistance of community to support students, families and school (collaborating with the community) (Epstein, 2005). In the study, school counselors emphasized all of the above-mentioned types of parent involvement practices should be improved. Participants mean responses regarding parent involvement types ranged from 2.63 to 2.89. 3. Most important problems in their school district and the best parent involvement practices in the solution of the problems Counselors notified that most important problem in their school district was divorced families (45%) and the second important one was unemployment (30%). According to participants these two problem areas influenced students’ motivation and attitudes towards school. These two factors might result in decreasing academic achievement and increasing discipline problems. They also reported youth gangs (36%), criminal behaviors (38%), drug use (16%), teenage parenting (10%) as secondary problems in their school district. Counselors signified that personal and direct conversations were the best parent involvement practices in the solution of above-mentioned problems (32%). They also mentioned home visits (17%), family conferences to increase knowledge and skills on problem areas (16,5%), family education programs on child development and education (14%). 4. Factors that hinder family involvement practices According to school counselors, most important factor that hindered school-family collaboration was parents’ indifference to their children’s education (30%). Besides, low parental education levels (21%) and as a consequence, lack of knowledge on how to involve into their children’s education were reported as the second important reason that prevented parent involvement. Another factor that was described and which is especially true for parents of low socioeconomic status was long work hours (18%). Counselors stated that those parents’ working conditions prevented them attending activities even when they wanted to. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The purpose of this mixed method designed study, was to determine school counselors’ opinions and practices on parent involvement. According to this general purpose, five research questions were investigated. Below are given discussions and suggestions regarding to findings. 250

First question was to determine school counselors' attitudes towards parent involvement and their perception of their own adequacy in using involvement strategies. The results indicate that participants of the study generally hold a positive attitude toward parent involvement. Besides, they feel themselves adequate to work on parent involvement. This finding may be explained by the content of the education school counselors' get at the university. Education programs and course contents of education faculties are determined by Higher Education Council in Turkey, therefore they are standard in all education faculties in the country. Investigations on course contents of Psychological Counselling and Guidance programs have revealed no such course titled parent involvement is present. However, courses like parent education, family counseling, educational and psychological counselling etc. and courseworks required for those courses may contribute to participants' adequacy in and attitude towards parent involvement. The second question was about parent involvement practices that should be developed at schools and supported by other school staff according to school counselors. Most of the school counselors (81%) stated that school principals and teachers gave “a little" support to parent involvement activities. There are several possible reasons for it. Firstly, as teachers suggested, although parents believe in the importance of parent involvement, their lack of knowledge and skills may cause school counselors' perceptions of limited parental support. Another possible reason is that teachers have little time and sources to spare for such activities due to their work load and conditions. Accordingly, school counselors are informed about teachers work conditions and problems through both direct communications and indirect ones during their activities intended for students and parents. This knowledge, in turn may have influenced school counselors' responses. Lastly, teachers are generally considered as the only or the most important authority at schools in all studies. This fact might limit their support for parent involvement and counselors might observe this limited support. Actually, there are studies showing negative teacher attitude towards parents' role in child education which restricts their support to parent involvement practices (Flynn,2007; Moris and Taylor, 1998). A subquestion was about parent involvement practices that should be developed in schools. School counselors indicated that all parent involvement practices (parenting, communication, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, community cooperation) are required at schools. Studies reveal that involvement practices gradually decreases from preschool to high school (VadenKiernan and Chandler, 1996; Çubukçu and Girmen, 2006). Although pre- and primary school counselors also participated in the study, many (48) worked at secondary and high school where parent involvement practices are limited. Therefore, this finding may be a case of representativeness. Besides, as mentioned before, even though parent involvement activities are mandatory by law and regulations, and teachers state it is an important part of student development and learning, existing practices do not meet the requirements (Sabancı, 2009). School counselors seem to observe this general situation and responded accordingly in this study. On the other hand, as Manz, Mautone and Martin (2009) indicated, school counselors may help other school personnel in obtaining relevant information and material to start and continue parent involvement activities at schools. Moreover, they may mediate to build cooperative relationships between parents and school. Consequently, it is thought that those deficiencies defined by school counselors may be overcome by the mediator role which accompanies school 251

counselors' professional knowledge and skills. Another question in the study was about the most important problems in the school district and the best parent involvement practices to solve them according to the school counselors. Results pointed out divorce and unemployment were the two biggest problems. Some school counselors indicated that nearly half of the students in some of the classrooms in their schools were children of divorced parents. Their condition also seems to affect their social acceptance negatively especially in socioculturally more conventional and conservative communities like the one in this study. School counselors reported that students, who lived with one parent because of divorce, were subjected to peers' teasing, criticism or questions about their departed parents. Besides, although unemployment is not a problem directly related to the child, it is an important problem area because of the negative economical and social influences on the family and indirectly on the child himself or herself. Since both of these problems causes stress in both family and the child, they can have negative impacts on academic success, and all other school-related behaviors. Those behaviors may vary greatly, from slacking and inattention to non-attendance, even dropout. Furthermore, Adak (2010) referred to a relationship between unemployment and divorce and argued that unemployment might harm and even break off family relationships. Hansen's (2005) study also supported the results which revealed that unemployment increased the risk of divorce. School counselors may not have the power to control all the influences or directly interfere with the problems. However, as mentioned before, they may take some preventive actions through professional practices in order to minimize the negative effects of those problems on children. First, preventive act is to help creating a supportive social and psychological environment for child development and education by guiding communication between teacher and parents. The second one is to reinforce parent involvement by educating parents about the effects of problems in their children (parenting), helping them create necessary conditions for supporting learning at home (learning at home), strengthening communication among child, parent and teacher (communication). The success of such activities depends on the collaboration of school, family and community (Korkut, 2003; Korkut, 2004). Participants of the study said they preferred meeting parents in person and believed this was the most effective method. This preference may be explained by the education they have got which emphasizes personal counselling practices. Another possible reason may be that parents, themselves, prefer this way. The last question of the study was school counselors' opinion about factors that hinder family involvement practices. Compatible with the literature, it was found that parents' indifference to their children's education, low parental education levels and long work hours were indicated as the most important factors that prevent parent involvement practices by school counselors in this study. On the other hand, as Epstein, Van Voorhis, (2010) and Walker, Shenker and Hoover-Dempsey (2010) notified, school counselors may guide teachers and administrators to find ways to overcome the obstacles. First of all, it would be beneficial to make those parent involvement programs prevalent by increasing parents' interest in their children's education for their children's academic, social and psychological development. Parents would develop more positive attitudes toward their children's education and school with the implementation of parent involvement programs that contribute school-family relationships (Kocabaş, 2006). Besides, in order to encourage parents with limited time, parent activity teams can be 252

built, parents can be invited to participate several activities such as going to lunch together with teachers and students (Seligman, 2001; Akpınar and Öz, 2013), attending student conferences or they can be visited at their home or work places. Finally, education programs can be implemented to increase knowledge and skills on child care and development, behavior and time management, communication, and discipline methods and thereby educational disadvantages can be eliminated. SUGGESTIONS 1. First of all, it is suggested that parent involvement courses with practice components are included in the undergraduate curriculum of psychological counselling and guidance programs to enhance school counselors' attitudes towards parent involvement and their perception of self-adequacy of using involvement strategies Practicing school counselors, they can be given in-service training to increase their parent involvement skills. 2. Parents have an understanding about their children’s individual characteristics and this understanding can be valuable for teachers in planning their learning experiences.Similarly, teachers may also help parents know their children better since teachers observe children in a different environment that parents do not. Schools have a responsibility to inform parents about the school’s education program and their children’s progress. Furthermore, parents can also contribute to school programs and goals. They may play an active role in increasing their children’s motivation and helping them build connections between outside opportunities and what they learn at school (Keçeli-Kaysılı, 2008). Programs should be long-term and well-planned. They should not vary according to each administor's demands ve should be made permanent. Besides, school counselors should undertake the mediator role but they should share the responsibility with administrators and teachers by training them on effective interviewing, disciplining, program developing, stress coping and communication etc. and should try to developing a common understanding with them. 3. Considering that parents are children's first teachers and how important education is in the family, it seems vital to educate and strengthen parents according to society's changing needs. This kind of support is called parent education and aims to help them communicate with their children effectively and promote positive behavior change in their children. Similarly programs enriched with activities to meet parents’ needs for knowing their adolescent children better should be made prevalent. Thereby, healthy identity and character development is promoted. By taking advantage of psychological counselling and guidance departments' protective function at schools, risky adolescent behaviors can be prevented. Besides, it is important to support parent involvement in the implementation of school programs and rules in order to ensure students develop sense of belonging and safety, increase communication skills, motivation, and academic achievement and prevent negative behaviors such as abuse, violence, aggression, bullying and adaptation problems. Similarly, informative group trainings on managing and spending time effectively, sex education, helping homework and school studies, guiding school and occupation selection and understanding effective development can be held for parents. 4. Parent involvement programs within the scope of consultation and environmental relations services of school psychological counselling and guidance departments should become prevalent in order for strengthening school-family 253

relationships, contributing healthy student development and supporting different families (low socioeconomic status, unemployment, divorced parents etc.). Therefore it is important to educate school counselors in facilitating parent participation of families from different sociocultural and socioeconomic statuses and preventing risky academic behaviors (academic failure, nonattendance, dropout) of these children. 5. Many limiting factors of parent involvement are mentioned. Socioeconomic status, sociocultural structure, level of education, personal qualities, and working hours are some of these. Teachers and schools in general should consider these factors and make necessary arrangements. Most importantly, families should feel acceptance at school through several activities and precautions. In order to do this, there should be a common understanding beyond legal definitions. In the first place, parent-teacher associations can be made more active and parents can be given planning and organization responsibilities. A strong collaboration which ensures a continuous flow of information between home and school should be built. Besides, school counselling and guidance services should prepare and apply individual and group education programs for families targeting problem areas (academic-vocational-affective). Informative conferences and seminars should be held and different speakers should be invited. Moreover, arrangements should be made in accordance with parents working hours. Parent activity teams should ensure parents’ involvement through arranging office and home visits which take less of parents’ time. In the meantime, school counselors’ mediator role should be entertained as mentioned before. REFERENCES Adak, N. (2010). Sosyal bir problem olarak işsizlik ve sonuçları. Toplum ve Sosyal Hizmet, 21 (2), 105-116. Akpınar, O. & Öz, F. S. (2013). Gerçeklik terapisi: Özellikler, temel kavramlar, tedavi, uygulama ve değerlendirme. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12(43). 1-22. Altıntaş, E. (2002). Psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Amatea, E., West-Olatunji, C. (2007). Joining the conversation about educating our poorest children: Emerging leadership roles for school counsellors in high-poverty schools. Professional School Counseling 11(2): 81-89. DOI: 10.5330/PSC.n.2010-11.81 Bhering, E. (2002). Teachers’ and Parents’ Perceptions of Parent Involvement in Brazilian Early Years and Primary Education. International Journal of Early Years Education, 10 (3), 227-241. Björk, L. G., Lewis, W. D., Browne-Ferrigno, T., & Donkor, A. K. (2012). Building social, human, and cultural capital through parent involvement. Journal of School Public Relations, 33(3), 237-256. Can, G. (Ed.).(2003). Psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Catsambis, S. (1998). Expanding knowledge of parental involvement in secondary education effects on high school academic success. Center for the Education of Students Placed at Risk, Report n. 27, 1-34. Crites, C.V. (2008). Parent and community involvement: A case study. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Faculty of the School of Education Liberty University. May 2008. Çubukcu, Z., Girmen, P. (2006). Ortaöğretim kurumlarının etkili okul özelliklerine sahip olma düzeyleri. Kırgız-Türk Manas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 16, 121-136 Davis, K.M., G.W., Lambie. (2005). Family engagement: Collaborative, Systemic Approach for Middle School Counselors. Professional School Counseling 9(2): 144-151. URL: 254

http://schoolcounselor.metapress.com/content/2m64351l60qq766q/fulltext.pdf Epstein, J. L. (2008). Improving Family and Community Involvement in Secondary Schools. Principal Leadership, 8 (2), 16-22. Epstein, J. L., Voorhis, F.L.Van (2010). School Counselors' Roles in Developing Partnerships with Families and Communities for Student Success. Professional School Counseling, 14 (1). http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=5945b6c0-a268-4735956f-4effa85e779d%40sessionmgr4004&vid=1&hid=4201&bdata=Jmxhbmc9dHImc 2l0ZT1laG9zdC1saXZl Flynn, G. V. (2007). Increasing parental involvement in our schools: The need to overcome obstacles, promote critical behaviors, and provide teacher training. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 4(2), 23–30. Gonzalez-DeHass, A. R., Willems, P. P., Holbein, M. F. D. (2005). Examining the relationship between parental involvement and student motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 99−123. Hansen, H.T. (2005). Unemployment and Marital Dissolution A Panel Data Study of Norway. European Sociological Review, 21 (2), 135–148. Herndon, J. (1995). Parental involvement: The key to preventing discipline problems, NASSP Bulletin, 79; 103. Hickman, C. W., Greenwood, G., Miller, M. D. (1995). High school parent involvement: Relationships with achievement, grade level, SES, and gender. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 28, 125-134. Hill,N.E., Tyson, D.F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A Meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45 (3), 740–763.^ Keçeli-Kaysılı, B. (2008). Akademik başarının arttırılmasında aile katılımı, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 9(1), 69-86. Kepçeoğlu, M. (1999). Psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik. (12. Basım). İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi. Kocabaş, E. Ö. (2006). Eğitim Sürecinde Aile Katılımı: Dünyada ve Türkiye’deki Çalışmalar. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 3(26), 143-153. Kolay, Y. (2004). Okul Aile Çevre İşbirliğinin Eğitim Sistemindeki Yeri ve Önemi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi. 164, 1-8. Korkut, F. (2003). Okullarda önleyici rehberlik hizmetleri. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 2(20), 27-40. Korkut, F. (2004). Okul temelli önleyici rehberlik ve psikolojik danışma. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Lindberg (Ahioglu), E.N. (2013). Turkish Parents’ and Teachers’ Opinions Towards Parental Participation in a Rural Area. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 17 (3): 321-328. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2013.17.03.12150 Lindberg, E.N. (2014). Final Year Faculty of Education Students’ Views Concerning Parent Involvement. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 14 (4), 1339-1375. DOI: 10.12738/estp.2014.4.1920 Ma, Y. (2009). Family Socioeconomic Status, Parental Involvement, and College Major Choices—Gender, Race/Ethnic, and Nativity Patterns. Sociological Perspectives, 52 (2), 211-234. DOI: 10.1525/sop.2009.52.2.211 Manz, P. H., Mautone, J. A., Martin. S. D. (2009). School psychologists’ collaborations with families: An exploratory study of the interrelationships of their perceptions of professional efficacy and school climate and demographic and training variables. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 25(1), 47-70 255

McBride, B. A., Bae, Ji-Hi., Blatchford, K. (2003) Family-school-community partnerships in rural PreK at-risk programs. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 1 (1), 49-72. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Rehberlik ve Psikolojik Danışma Hizmetleri Yönetmeliği. (2001). T.C. Resmi Gazete, 24376, 17 Nisan 2001. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Özel Eğitim Rehberlik ve Psikolojik Danışma Hizmetleri Genelgesi. (2002). MEB Mevzuat, 1333, 27 Mart 2002. Milli Eğitim Temel Kanunu. (1973). T.C. Resmi Gazete, 14574, 24 Haziran 1973. Okul Aile Birliği Yönetmeliği. (2005). T.C. Resmi Gazete, 25831, 31 Mayıs 2015. Sabanci, A. 2009. “Views of Primary School Administrators, Teachers and Parents on Parent Involvement in Turkey.” Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 36: 245-262. Seligman, L. (2001). Systems, strategies, and skills of counseling and psychotherapy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Sheldon, S. B. (2007). Improving student attendance with school, family, and community partnerships. The Journal of Educational Research, 100 ( 5), 267-275. Sheldon, S.B., Epstein, J.L. (2002). Improving student behavior and school discipline with family and community involvement. Education and Urban Society, 35, 4-26. Smith, J.G. (2006). Parental Involvement in Education Among LowIncome Families: A Case Study. The School Community Journal, 16 (1), 43-57. Şad, N. (2012). Investigation of parental involvement tasks as predictors of primary students’ turkish, math and scince & technology achievement. Egitim Arastirmalari Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 49, 173-196. Vaden-Kiernan, N., & Chandler, K. (1996). Parents’ reports of school practices to involve families. National Center for Education Statistics, 1-15. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs/ 97327.pdf. Walker, J.M. T., S.S. Shenker, K.V. Hoover-Dempsey. 2010. “Why Do Parents become involved in their children's education? Implications for school counsellors.” Professional School Counselling 14 (1): 27-41. URL: http://schoolcounselor.metapress.com/ content/768th8v77571hm7r/fulltext.pdf, December 17, 2012. Warren, E., Young, J. (2002) Parent and School Partnerships in Supporting Literacy and Numeracy, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 30:3, 217-228, DOI: 10.1080/ 1359866022000048385 Yeşilyaprak, B. (2013). Eğitimde Rehberlik Hizmetleri. Guidance Services in Education (21.baskı) Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. Yıldırım, M. C. ve Dönmez, B. (2008). Okul-aile işbirliğine ilişkin bir araştırma: İstiklal ilköğretim Okulu örneği, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(23), 98-115.

256

Chapter 20 Opinions of Primary and Secondary School Teachers about School Principals’ Efficacy Nurhayat ÇELEBİ, Gülenaz SELÇUK**, Remzi YILDIRIM** INTRODUCTION Today, within the framework of the quality education understanding perpetuated by the competition among schools, knowledge and support of the school administration and principals are significant to create an efficient learning environment. Thus, the school administration is expected to have a level of proficiency required to fulfill their roles and responsibilities. Efficacy is a concept denoting the proficiency to have special knowledge, skills and licenses to fulfill a task, and sustain it to attain the required results (Alkan, 1984). School principals should have the proficiency to carry out the roles of organizing the employees, issuing orders, directing and coordinating the work, to fulfill the educational objectives (Gürsel, 2003 p. 91). The perception of efficacy is a concept that entails the performance of individuals in realizing their thoughts expectations, learning experiences and responsibilities (Celep, 2000). Individuals with high level of selfefficacy, when they face a task, feel comfortable, safe and efficient independent of the difficulty level of the task (Tschannen-Moran and Gareis, 2004). Administrators with high self-efficacy have a positive influence on the achievements of students and transform learning into a field of interest at school. Studies with supporting findings could be found in literature (Hoy and Miskel, 2008). Individuals with low self-efficacy, believe that their tasks are more difficult than they actually are (Tschannen-Moran and Gareis, 2004). In this respect, the efficacy and life satisfaction levels of educational administrators affect the institution they work at, because, self-efficacy belief defines how individuals feel, how they think, how they motivate themselves and the way they behave, the effort they spend for themselves and the way they deal with failure. A high level of self-efficacy perception increases success and personal satisfaction and people with high self-efficacy display more resolution to reach their goals. People with strong self-efficacy beliefs do not escape from the experiences when they face them and have to cope with them for the first time and they are very determined in completing their activities successfully (Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 1997; Chao, 2003). Individuals tend to engage in work with which they feel safe and efficient and tend to spare the work they feel insufficient about. Employees adjust the effort they would put into work based on the estimated outcome of their actions (TschannenMoran and Woolfolk Hoy, 2001; Thomas and Kay, 1974). Katz (1956) determined the skills of an effective administrator as “technical, human and organizational 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Karabuk Üniversity, Faculty of Literature, Educational Seciences Lecturer, Celal Bayar University. Faculty of Education, Educational Seciences



(conceptual)”. This classification is widely used in educational studies. Technical skills are considered as the administrator’s specialty in methodology, technique, processes and operations in the instruction process, human skills are related to understanding and motivating individuals and groups and the efficiency in working with other people, and conceptual skills include being able to perceive all parts that form the society that the school belongs to within their framework of interaction, to follow up and comprehend the theoretical progress in the field of education and to evaluate the situations that arise using this theoretical and conceptual point of view (Basar, 2000; Demirtas and Yıldırım, 2010; Toremen and Kolay, 2003). In a study by Uslu (2013) upon the skills of the administrators, scholars determined that school principals should possess communication, financing, management process, and use of technology skills as technical efficiencies; respect for diversity, motivation and fairness as human skills; and proficiency in the fields of educational philosophy and management theory as conceptual skills. Furthermore, Chernis (1993) and Denton (2007) expressed the idea that there were three different activity domains of occupations in the studies they conducted on self-efficacy beliefs. These were; the task domain, the organizational domain and the interpersonal domain. The task domain is related to the technical aspects of the occupational roles. An example for this domain could be given by actions such as; “to prepare and to instruct a course, to correct student performance and to motivate student effort.” The organizational domain is related to the political aspects of the occupational role. It means to acquire political powers within the organization pertaining to all activities and to enact regulations related to these. Likewise, the interpersonal domain includes the activities of having effective, good and useful relations with organizational members (coworkers or supervisors), clients, advisees (customers) or students and to sustain these activities (Brouwers and Tomic, 2002). Although some theoretical or applied studies were conducted to determine the areas of efficacy for educational or school principals in Turkey, these efficacies were limited to the theoretical sphere and never practiced, because school administration is not considered as a profession in Turkey. Bursalıoglu (1981) has determined the efficacies for school principals as utilization, protection, maintenance, management, sharing the authority and responsibility of school buildings, utilities and equipment, administering school personnel, leading behavior, creating a positive atmosphere at school, managing schoolenvironment relations, coping with disciplinary and attendance problems. A study by Kaya (1993) determined the administrator efficacies as means “to express the purpose and philosophy of the school, to determine and promote school policy, to address the needs of school activities, to develop a participatory and democratic administration at school, to plan instructive and educational activities, to provide communications and coordination with the environment.” Many recent studies, have demonstrated that school principals generally think of themselves as sufficient. However, teachers do not perceive principals as proficient in practice. Agaoglu, Gultekin and Cubukcu (2002); Agaoglu, Altınkurt, Yılmaz and Karakose (2012); Aksut (1997); Donmez (2002); Guven (2002); Kombıcak (2008); Peker, Selcuk, Dogru and Uslu (2011); Sahin (2000); Terci (2008) conducted studies to determine areas of efficacy for school principals. Argon and Celik (2008) studied administrators’ change management efficacy; Barut (2007) efficacy to implement management process; Cetin and Adıguzel (2006), 258

Gondelen and Yozgat (2009), and Karaca (2009) efficacy to manage financial and human resources; Sener (2004), Sezer (2011) and Hacıfazlıoglu, Karadeniz and Dalgıc (2011) technology efficacy to use information and communication technologies at school; Toprakcı (2001) efficacy of organization; Topluer (2008) efficacy of communication; Sencan (2008) efficacy to conduct a meeting. In their studies, Donmez (2002) stipulated the efficacies of primary school principals as “having a vision, proficiency in evaluation, leading the change, conducting meetings, motivating the employees, having ethical values and sense of trust”; and Agaoglu, Gultekin and Cubukcu (2002) as communication skills, effective organizational administration, administration of education program and media, information and change management. Peker, Selcuk, Dogru and Uslu (2011) depicted the administrator efficacy areas as; administration of the presentation of curriculum, personnel management, continuous professional development, resource management, parent and social relations management, student administration, school system of values and administrative management. In another study by Kombıcak (2008), administrator efficacy was scrutinized in 19 different areas such as; “foundation, execution and evaluation of social clubs, student guidance and counseling services.” Barut (2007) investigated the efficacies of school principals in relation to management processes and determined them as; decision making, planning, organization, communication, coordination, influencing and evaluation. Literature review indicated that individuals’ perceptions are significantly related to coping with long-term behavioral change. Therefore, principal plays an important role for institutional structures and practices of rules in the school, so he/she should know ways of how to better performance and should has a well- communication with the teachers (Campos, Gomez, Shen, 2005; Balcı, 2000). In this respect, the perceptions of teachers on the efficacies of educational administrators and the clues they could present about themselves are of utmost importance. The quality of the administrators’ performances and their determination to succeed in accomplishing difficult tasks reinforce the belief in efficacy. School principals, who could self-evaluate themselves objectively were closer to success than others. As it is indicated, for school principals to demonstrate the performance required by their profession, the necessity of a pre-service training is rather obvious. Today, education administration is still considered as a basic function of teaching, not as a separate vocation and a specialty requiring a pre-service training (Balcı, 2003; Celik 1991). The standards to become an education administrator in Turkey change frequently. Each government determined certain criteria parallel to their own understanding and appointed school principals. The election and appointment of the school principal and department chief candidates, who would be assigned within the National Education System, are based upon the regulations designed by the Ministry of National Education. These regulations have been rectified numerous times since 2000. Lately an edict on appointment and displacement of administrators published in the Official Gazette No: 04.08.2013/28728 declared that the administrator candidates would have to take a written and an oral exam. The rules about the selection of the commission members to conduct the oral exams created a serious debate. This regulation was amended on June 10th, 2014 (No: 29026) and the written exam was annulled and the edict declared that the candidates already meeting the requirements would only take an oral exam. The oral exam 259

commission consisted of the National Education Deputy Chief, one department chief assigned by the Provincial National Education Directorate and three separate department chiefs assigned by the other township National Education Directorates. However, the transparency of the situation is a new matter of debate. Because in Turkey, school administrators haven’t got good and standard qualify regarding school administration and role of their administration or their leader character. Thus, problem of education system in school management and executive issue remains in the agenda of Turkey. The purpose of this study is to exhibit the perceptions of teachers on the efficacy areas that the school principals are equipped with. To reach this goal, responses for the following questions were scrutinized: 1. How do teachers perceive the administrative efficacy areas of principals? 2. Do teachers’ efficacy perceptions on the principles vary with respect to the type of school? 3. Do teachers’ efficacy perceptions on the principles vary with respect to gender? 4. Do teachers’ efficacy perceptions on the principles vary with respect to age? 5. Do teachers’ efficacy perceptions on the principles vary with respect to seniority? 6. Do teachers’ efficacy perceptions on the principles vary with respect to seniority? 7. Do teachers ’efficacy perceptions on the principles vary with respect to branches? MATERIALS AND METHODS This was carried out via way of the relational investigation model. As a descriptive study, this research reflects the approach of teachers’ efficacy of school principals in relation to different variables. Research Model This descriptive study was conducted using the survey method. The survey method is an approach to describe a situation that existed in the past or currently exists as it is (Karasar, 1999). The subject matter of the study as explained above, was the attempt to define the current situation with the aid of the past scientific studies. Study Group A study group was conducted with 272 teachers who was working at the public high schools district in Uskudar and Kadikoy district/ Istanbul using convenient sampling. Convenient sampling was selected since it is a method that enables a rapid and practical study (Yildirim and Simsek, 2011). In the study,54.8% (N=149) of the teachers were primary school teachers, 45.2% (N=123) were secondary school teachers. 43% (N=117) of the teachers were female, 57% (N=155) were male. The distribution of teachers based on their fields of study was as follows: 38.6% (N=105) were classroom teachers; 36.4% (N=99) were mathematics and sciences group teachers; 10.7% (N=29) were Turkish – social studies teachers; 8.5% (N=23) were foreign languages teachers; 5.9% (N=16) belong to other fields of study (fine arts, physical education, and religion – morals). 14% (N=38) of the teachers were 25 or younger; 27.6% (N=75) were between 26 and 30; 31.6% (N=86) were between 31 and 40; 26.8% (N=73) were over 41 years old. 260

Data Collection Tool In the study, “Administrator Efficacy Perception Survey (AEPS),” consisting of 42 items was used to collect the data. This questionnaire was based on the items found in the “Pre-school Education, Public Primary Education and Private Educational Institutions Administrator Inspection Form” used to evaluate the performances of the primary education school administrators as mandated by the Ministry of National Education Primary Education Inspectors Directorates Guidance and Inspection Directives. The form contains 5 sub-dimensions. The first dimension contains 7 items on efficacies related to “the physical conditions” the second dimension contains 12 items on “education and teaching,” the third dimension contains 8 items on “official tasks;” the fourth dimension contains 8 items on “administration and environment relations;” the fifth dimensions contains 7 items on “self development.” Demirtas and Yildirim (2010) conducted the validation study for the administrator efficacy measurement tool. In their reliability test, the Cronbach Alpha value was determined as .947, a high coefficient. The Cronbach Alpha values of the subdimensions were as follows: 1st sub-dimension; Physical conditions: .924, 2nd subdimensions; Education- teaching: .948, 3rd sub-dimension; Official tasks: .947, 4th subdimension; Administration and environment relations: .809, 5th sub-dimension; Selfdevelopment: .935. The question “you find the school principal efficient?” was directed to teachers. In the survey, the information on the type of school the teachers work at, the field of study, gender, and age were included. The scale items are a five point Likert type. These are rated as follows; for strongly agree (5), for mostly agree (4), for “neither agree nor disagree (3), for “agree” (2), for strongly disagree (1). In this content in the 5-rating system, the following ranges were considered: 1.00-1.80 as “never”, 1.81-2.60 as “barely”, 2.61-3.40 as “medium”, 3.41-4.20 as “pretty much”, and 4.21-5.00 as “completely.” The lowest points that could be obtained in the scale are 42, and the highest are 210. Homogeneity of the variance distribution was controlled using the Levene test for the conditions where the distribution did not meet the normality hypothesis. Data Analysis Data was collected via the questionnaire applied to the teachers who attended the in-service training organized by the Ministry of National Education. Questionnaires were filled on a voluntary basis. The questionnaires filled in not in full by 12 participants were considered as void. Thus, responses from 272 teachers were taken into consideration for analysis. Data analysis was conducted using the SPSS 16 software package. Data analysis for the study utilized percentages, median, independent samples t-test, one-way ANOVA and Kruskal Wallis H test.

261

RESULTS Table 1. Mean and standart deviations of the efficacy dimensions. The views of teachers on the Proficiency Areas of School Principals

Sd

4,08 4,05 4,05 4,00 3,95 4,08 4,10

.82 .88 90 .95 .89 .94 .83

15

3,94

16

x

Sd

20 21 22 23 24 25 26

4,08 4,18 4,15 4,01 4,08 4,06 4,15

.87 .86 .92 1,00 .82 .89 .82

28 29 30 31 32 33 34

4,20 4,14 4,14 4,10 4,08 3,99 3,92

.81 .84 .94 .96 .97 .96 .96

.98

27

4,01

.89

35

4,04

.90

3,92

.92

4,09

.63

4,07

.65

17 18 19

3,89 3,98 4,17

.99 .96 .90

4.01

.69

Items

x

Dimension 5 Self-development

x

Sd

36 37 38 39 40 41 42

4,25 4,10 4,12 4,14 4,06 4,25 4,36

.84 .86 .91 .90 .90 .90 .88

Total

.72

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Items

3,98

Sd

Dimension 4 Administrationenvironmental relations

Total

.97 .96 .91 .94 .97 .93 .97

Items

3,93 3,80 3,95 4,25 3,97 3,95 4,01

x

Dimension 3 Official task

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Items

Sd

Dimension 2 Educationinstruction and evaluation

Total

x

Total

Items

Dimension 1 Physical conditions

4,21

.87

Table 1 indicated that the lowest points average for principle efficacy subdimensions was recorded under “Physical Conditions” ( x =3.98, Sd=.72) and the highest points average was recorded under the “School Principals’ Improving Themselves” ( x =4.21, Sd=.87) dimension. The highest average on the first dimension; “Physical Conditions” was observed in “To implement Turkish flag statute and designing the Atatürk tribute pedestal” ( x =4.25, Sd=.94) and the lowest was observed in “Utilization of buildings and utilities in accordance with the floor plan” ( x =3.80 Sd=.96). The second dimension was “Education-Instruction and Evaluation” ( x =4.01, Sd=.69). The highest averages in this dimension were observed in “To inquire about the under achievement of students, to propose solutions and take necessary precautions” ( x =3.94, Sd=.98) and “to coordinate the teachers’ planning, implementation, and measuring and evaluation of the student achievement” ( x =3.95, Sd=.89). The lowest average was related to “To promote pre-school education and ensure its development” ( x =3.89, Sd=.99). In the third sub-dimension, “official tasks,” ( x =4.09, Sd=.63) the highest average was observed in “To practice all tasks related to student affairs,” ( x =4.18, Sd=.86) while the lowest averages were observed in “Regulations in compliance with the principles of adequate and balanced nutrition” ( x =4.01, Sd=1.00) and “Execution of the budget, allowances and floating asset tasks in compliance with the 262

statutes” ( x =4.01, Sd=.89). The highest average in the fourth sub-dimension, “Administration and Environment Relations,” ( x =4.07, Sd=.65) was in “To execute education-instruction and administrative activities in compliance with the laws, regulations and by laws” ( x =4.20, Sd=.81). Table 2. Approach of teachers by the type of school administrations (Independent groups t test) Factors Physical conditions Education and teaching Office Works Administration- environmental relations Self-development

Type of school

N

x

Sd

t

p

Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Primary Secondary

149 123 149 123 149 123 149 123 149 123

24,96 25,04 24.30 24,63 44,61 44,23 28,55 29,44 28,73 29,54

,527 ,534 4,19 4,85 8,86 8,21 4,86 4,38 5,59 4,63

,115

.909

1,04

.292

,361

.719

-1,55

.120

-1,29

.197

The lowest average was observed in “Taking precautions for transportation, security and nutrition of students in the scope of service vehicles and mobile education” ( x =3.92, Sd=.96). The fifth sub-dimension was “self-development” ( x =4.07, Sd=.65). The highest averages in this dimension were observed in “While planning the education and instruction activities, creating a domain of cultural and educational center around the school by taking the requirements of students, staff and the environment into consideration and coordination with parents” ( x =4.25, Sd=.84), “improving oneself, following up modern instruction strategies and management studies, to benefit from technological developments” ( x =4.25, Sd=.90), “to abide by the rules required by the profession and to be a role model” ( x =4.36, Sd=.88). The lowest average value was related to “Recognition and protection of the environment” ( x =4.06, Sd=.90). Table 3. Approach of teachers by the gender of school administrators (Independent groups t test) Factors Physical conditions Education and teaching Office Works Administration- environmental relations Self-development

Gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

N

x

117 155 117 155 117 155 117 155 117 155

24,07 24,74 43,93 44,82 28,51 29,29 28,28 29,72 25,04 25,91

Sd 4,49 4,49 9,63 7,69 4,91 4,45 5,68 4,58 4,31 4,04

t -1,22

p ,222

,848

,397

--1,37

,170

-2,30

,022

-1,70

,089

There was no significant difference between the employment conditions of teachers working in primary or secondary education based on the efficacies of school principals when findings in Table 2 were considered.

263

In Table 3, a difference was observed between the perception of administrator efficacies in the “administration and environment” sub-dimension based on the teacher gender variable favoring male teachers [t(272-2)=-2,30, p<.05]. Table 4. Approach of teachers by the age of the school administrators (One way ANOVA)

Physical conditions

Education and teaching

Office Works

Administrationenvironmental relations

Self-development

x

Sd.

38

24,74

3,91

75

25,01

4,62

86

24,41

4,40

Age

N

25 years and lower 26-30 31-40 41 years and over

73

23,78

4,76 4,50

Total

272

24,46

25ages and lower

38

45,09

5,07

26-30

75

45,23

10,87

31-40

86

43,52

7,50

41years and lower

73

44,37

8,60

Total

272

44,44

8,58

25 ages and lower

38

28,89

4,78

26-30

75

29,24

5,05

31-40

86

28,76

4,46

41years and over

73

28,94

4,50

Total

272

28,96

4,66

25 years and lower

38

28,95

5,89

26-30

75

28,91

5,43

31-40

86

28,48

5,05

41years and over

73

30,11

4,36

Total

272

29,10

5,13

25 years and lower

38

26,08

2,98

26-30

75

25,52

5,07

31-40

86

24,98

4,30

41 years and ower

73

25,93

3,50

Total

272

25,54

4,18

F

P

Differ ence

p>.05

,980 .403

,618

p>.05 .604

,143

p>.05 .934

1,429

p>.05 .235

,942

p>.05 .421

There was no significant difference between the teachers’ perceptions of administrators’ efficacies based on teachers’ age as observed in Table 4 (p>.05). In other words, the views of male teachers for the sub-dimension of “improving the school, designing projects, fulfilling the requirements of the institution, providing in-job training for the staff, creating an institutional vision, fulfilling the transportation and security requirements of students” were more positive than those of female teachers towards their administrators. There was no significant difference between the teachers’ perceptions of administrators’ efficacies based on teachers’ fields of study as observed in Table 5.

264

Table 5. Perception of teachers by the branch of the school administrators (Kruskal Wallis H-Test) Factors

Physical conditions

Education and teaching

Office Works

Administrationenvironmental relations

Self-development

Branches

N

Rank average

Classroom teacher

105

130,28

Math-Science

99

151,28

Turkish- Social

29

133,24

Foreign Language

23

121,30

Other

16

113,63

Classroom teacher

105

132,19

Math-Science

99

149,29

Turkish- Social

29

140,81

Foreign Language

23

112,17

Other

16

112,81

Classroom teacher

105

137,27

Math-Science

99

140,19

Turkish- Social

29

137,26

Foreign Language

23

126,70

Other

16

121,34

Classroom teacher

105

131,30

Math-Science

99

148,30

Turkish- Social

29

131,43

Foreign Language

23

116,74

Other

16

135,25

Classroom teacher

105

140,22

Math-Science

99

144,34

Turkish- Social

29

131,57

Foreign Language

23

96,09

Other

16

130,59

Sd

X2

P

Difference

4 6,433

.169

p>.05

4 6,678

.154

p>.05

1,183

.881

p>.05

4,271

.371

p>.05

7,527

.111

p>.05

4

4

4

N=236, p>.05

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Based on the findings of this study, teachers generally perceived the efficacy levels in fulfilling their administrative duties positively for all sub-dimensions (physical conditions, education-training, official tasks, administration and environment relation, self-development”. However, the teachers found their administrators not efficient in “utilization of buildings and utilities in accordance with the floor plan” related to the “physical” sub-dimension. The teachers didn’t find administrators efficient in “To promote pre-school education and ensure its development” related to the “Education and teaching” sub-dimension; “regulations on the canteen to ensure adequate and balanced nutrition” related to the “official tasks” sub-dimension; “Taking precautions concerning service vehicles, and mobile education” related to “administration and environment,” the fourth sub-dimension; “recognition and protection of the environment of school principals” related to “administration and environment relations,” related to the fifth dimension, “self-development.” 265

The sub-dimension that the teachers’ perceived administrators were efficient in was the “self-development” dimension. In other words, teachers’ perceived the administrators to possess high efficacy in “planning the education and instruction activities, taking the requirements of the environment into consideration, coordination with parents, improving oneself, following up modern technologies, to abiding by the rules, and to being a role model.” These findings correspond with the results of the study by Agaoğlu, Altınkurt, Yılmaz and Karakose (2012). The teachers perceived administrators efficient in sub-dimensions such as “effective organizational administration, designing educational and instructional programs and media, overseeing the legal rights of the employees, application of financial rights, fulfilling their tasks in a ‘planned and programmed manner’,” and they perceived administrators quite efficient in sub-dimensions such as “participating in scientific activities, monitoring the alumni, providing for an efficient education-instruction environment.” A study by Smith, Guarino, Strom and Adams (2006) showed that as the professional experience of the administrators increased, they tend to make less time for administrative tasks. This study demonstrated a significant difference only between gender and the sub-dimension of “administration and environment” in teachers’ approach about the principals. This difference favored male teachers. Male teachers perceived the principals had more efficacy in fulfilling the tasks of “operating the education and instruction activities in compliance with the laws and regulations, performing the school development program, designing plans and projects, providing in-service training for the staff, developing the school culture” more than the female teachers did. In a study by Aydın (2011) however, it has been shown that self-efficacy perceptions of school principals did not significantly differ based on the gender variable, and both male and female administrators in education perceived themselves as efficient in a “high” degree. Another study by Donmez (2002) revealed- that inspectors and teachers perceived school principals less efficient than their self-perceptions. Demirtas and Yıldırım (2012) stated that Faculty of Education graduates were more aware of their shortcomings on self-improvement since they were informed about the administrative efficacies required of a school principal. In a study by Celebi (2010), teachers perceived the efficacies of school principals on supervision as intermediate. Another study by Atay (2001) stated that teachers and inspectors found most of the general and on-the-job attitudes and behavior of primary school principals as “quite important,” their attitudes and behavior on “participating in decisions” dimension as “very important,” however, they perceived that these attitude and behavior were displayed by the school principles at “low” and “intermediate” levels. Sahin (2000) stressed that school principals, in addition to being the individuals who perform the routine tasks at school, are also expected to be democratic and instructional leaders, researchers, leaders in society and administrators of human resources. A study by Guven (2002), demonstrated that primary school principals were “mostly” efficient in the administrative processes of decision-making, planning, organization, communication, influence, coordination and evaluation. The participating teachers in a study by Yıldırım and Aslan (2008) perceived the efficacies of school administrators in using body language, communication, problem solving, rewarding, improving the job satisfaction and commitments of employees, using social activities and legal sanctions as intermediate. These study findings demonstrated that school principals successfully maintained their administrative tasks, which were considered significant, even though 266

they showed incompetency in some administrative affairs at school. However, it has also been reported that they needed support in using financial resources for the organization of the education and instruction environment. Akın’s study (2014) indicated that school principals with high self-efficacy tend to take more initiative. This case could be a factor for self-efficacy to become a criterion in oral exams for administrators and for the selection of candidates with higher self-efficacies. Skaalvik and Skaalvik’s study (2010), teacher self efficacy correlated negatively with both emotional exhaustionand depersonalization. The analyses verify previous results showing that teacher self-efficacy should be treated at a multidimensional construct, but that for research purposes it may be treated as a latent variable indicated by the six subscales. Although collective teacher efficacy was related both to teachers' relations to parents and to teacher autonomy it was most strongly related to supervisory support. RECOMMENDATION The findings of the studies highlight the fact that school administration should be considered as a professional occupation. Programs to enable school principals to be educated in conformity with the stipulated efficacy areas through in-service training programs should be organized; universities should offer courses providing the acquisition of administrative skills in graduate programs in the field of management and to compensate for the insufficiencies in the field. The Ministry of National Education should peruse the study findings, as they have done for the teacher efficacies in the past, initiate restructuring practices, design new standards utilize these standards in the selection and evaluation processes of school principals. REFERENCES Agaoglu, E.; Altinkurt,Y.; Yilmaz, K. ve Karakose, T. (2012). Okul yoneticilerinin yeterliklerine iliskin okul yoneticilerinin ve ögretmenlerin gorusleri [Opinions of school administrators and teachers about proficiency of school administrators in Kutahya]. Egitim ve Bilim (Education and Science),(37)164, 159-175. Agaoglu, E., Gultekin, M. ve Cubukcu, Z. (2002). Okul yoneticisi yeterliklerine dayalı egitim programı onerisi: Hizmet oncesi-Hizmet ici egitim [Training program proposal based on proficiency of school administrator: Pre-service, In-service training.C. Elma ve S. Cınkır (Edit.)]. Il Egitim Yoneticilerinin Yetistirilmesi Sempozyumu: 16-17 Mayıs 2002-Ankara: Bildiriler (Symposium on the 21st Century Education Executive Development: May 16-17, 2002-Ankara: Manifests) (p.145-161). Ankara: Ankara University Press. Aksut, M. (1997). Egitim yoneticisinin yeterlikleri: Ozel egitim okulu mudurlerinin yeterliklerine iliskin bir arastırma [Proficiency of education executive : A research regarding the proficiency of special education school's pricipals]. (Unpublished PhD Thesis). Ankara University Institute of Social Sciences. Ankara. Alkan, C. (1984). Dunyada ve Turkiye’de egitim alanında eleman yetistirme yaklasimlari. Egitim Bilimleri Sempozyumu, [Approaches of personnel training in the field of education in the world and Turkey. Symposium on Educational Sciences] 5-6 Nisan 1984, Ankara: Ankara University Press.(April 5-6, 1984). Akın, U. (2014). Okul mudurlerinin insiyatif alma duzeyleri ile oz yeterlikleri arasındaki iliski [The relationship between principals’ initiative taking levels and self efficacy]. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice, 20 (2),125-149. Argon, T. ve Çelik, N. (2008). Ilkogretim okulu yoneticilerinin degisimi yonetme 267

yeterlikleri [Change management proficiency of primary school administrators]. (Mehmet Akif Ersoy University,Journal Educational Faculty, 8(16),December, ISSN: 1302-8944, 70-89. Atay, K. (2001). Ilkogretim Okulu Müdürlerinin genel ve iş tutum davranışları [General and business attitude-behaviors of primary school principles. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice, Vol. 28, 471-482. Aydın, O. (2011).Çalışanların ozyeterlik algılarının yaşam doyumu uzerine etkileri. Okul yoneticileri uzerine bir araştırma. [Effects on life satisfaction of employees' self-efficacy perception. A survey on school administrators.] Retrieved October 12, 2014, from www.gumushaneram.gov.tr/yazar.asp?yaziID=280. Balcı, A. (2003). “Turkiye’de egitim yoneticisi ve eğitim mufettişi yetistirme uygulamaları: Sorunlar ve oneriler” ["Practices of training administer and training inspector in Turkey: İssuses and suggestions]. Reflections on Education: VII. National Symposium on Teacher Training in Contemporary Education Systems. May 21-23, 2003, Cumhuriyet University Cultural Centre, Istanbul, pp.100-129. Balcı, A. (2000). Etkili okul: Kuram, uygulama ve araştırma. (3 baskı) [Effective school.Theory, practice and resource] Ankara: Pegem A. Bandura, A. (1994) “Self-efficacy” Encylopedia of Human Behaviour (Ed. V.S. Ramachaudran), retrived July 10, 2011, from www.des.emory.edu/mfp/BanEncy.html. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercises of control. New York: Freeman. Barut, E. (2007). Ilkogretim okullarına sınavla atanan yoneticilerle, sınavsız atanan yoneticilerin yonetim sureclerine iliskin yeterliklerinin degerlendirilmesi: Sakarya ili ornegi. [Evaluation of proficiency regarding the management process of the administrators appointed to the primary school by examination and the ones appointed without examination: Sakarya Province instance. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Sakarya University Social Sciences Institute, Sakarya.] Brouwers, A.& Tomic, W. (2002) The factorial validity of scores on the teacher interpersonal self-efficacy scale, Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61 (3) 433-445. Bursalıoğlu, Z. (1981). Egitim yoneticisinin yeterlikleri. Ankara: Ankara Universitesi. Egitim Fakultesi [Proficiency of training manager. Ankara: Ankara University. Faculty of Education, Publication ]. No. 93. Celep, C. (2000).Orgütsel adanma ve ogretmenler [Organizational commitment and teachers]. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.[ Cherniss (1993). Role of professional self-efficacy in the etiology and amelioration of burnout. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach,&T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 135-150). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. Campos, R. L, Gomez, R. R., & Shen, J. (2005). Secondary principals’ educational attainment, experience, and professional development in the USA. Int. J. Leadership in Education. 8(4), 309-319. Chao, W. (2003) Self-efficacy toward educational technology: The application in Taiwan teacher education, Journal of Educational Media & Library Sciences, 40:4, June, 409415, Florida, USA. Celebi, N.(2010). Public high school teachers opinions on school administrators supervision duty in Turkey. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences. A Peer Review Quarterly Journal. September. Vol.5, No.3.pp.212–231.ISSN1305-905X(Online) Celik, V. (1991). Hizmet ici egitimle egitim yöneticisi yetistirme politikasının degerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of the education administrator training policies with in268

service education], Journal of Firat University Social Sciences, ( 5)2, 197-208. Cetin, M. and Adıgüzel, S. (2006). Istanbul ili resmi ilkogretim okulu mudurlerinin uzmanlık yeterliklerinin incelenmesi [Investigation of expert proficiency of Istanbul official primary school principals]. Mersin University Education Faculty Journal] 2(2), 167-183 Denton, E. (2007). Teacher self-evaluations, teaching self-efficacy & Burnout: An American and West Indian sample”, Conference on The Caribbean, A 20/20 Vision, June 19-21, Washington. Demirtas, Z. V. ve Yıldırım, N. (2010). Aday ogretmenlerin kendi yonetsel yeterliklerine iliskin algıları. Fırat Universitesi, Turkish Studies, International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkish. Volume 5/4, Fall 997-1017. Doi Number :http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.1535. Donmez, B. (2002). Mufettis, okul muduru ve ogretmen algılarına göre ilkogretim okulu mudurlerinin yeterlikleri[Proficiency of primary school principals with respect to inspector, school principle and teacher's perceptions],Educational AdministrationTheory and Practice, (8)29, 27-45. Gondelen Y. A. (2009). Ilkogretim okulu yoneticilerinin okulun parasal kaynaklarını yonetme yeterlikleri [Proficiency of managing financial resources of the school of primary school administrators]. Unpublished master's thesis, Ondokuz Mayıs University Social Sciences Institute, Samsun. Gursel, M. (2003). Okul yonetimi [School management]. Konya Education Publishing House. Konya: Eğitim Kitabevi.[ Guven, İ. H. (2002).Ilkogretim okulu yoneticilerinin yeterliklerinin degerlendirilmesi [Assessment of proficiency of primary school administrators]. Sakarya University, Institute of Social Sciences. Unpublished Master's Thesis. Sakarya. Hoy,W.K.& Miskel,C.G. (2008).Educational administration: Theory, research and Practice. London: Mc Graw Hill. Karasar, N. (1999) Bilimsel araştırma yöntemi[Scientific research method], Ankara: Nobel Publishing. Katz, R. L. (1955). Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard Business Review, 33(1), 33-42. Kaya, Y. K. (1993). Egitim yonetimi, kuram ve Türkiye’deki uygulamalar [Education administration, theory and practices in Turkey]. Ankara: Set Ofset. Kombicak, M. (2008). “Ilkogretim okul müdürlerinin yeterliklerinin incelenmesi [Examination of primary school directors' proficiency]. Unpublished Master's Thesis. Yeditepe University Institute of Social Sciences. Istanbul. MEB (4 Ağustos 2013). Egitim kurumu yöneticileri atama ve yer değiştirme yonetmeligi [Educational ınstitution administrators appointment and re-location regulations]. Official Newspaper. No.28728] www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2013/08/20130804-11.htm MEB(10 Haziran 2014).Egitim kurumu yöneticileri atama ve yer degistirme yonetmeligi [Educational ınstitution administrators appointment and re-location regulations), Official Newspaper: 29026, mevzuat.meb.gov.tr/html/egikuryon_1/egikuryon_1.htm..] Peker, S.; Selcuk, G.; Doğru, E. ve Uslu, C. A. (2011). Okul mudurlerinin yeterliklerinin egitim ogretim surecine etkisi [Impact on the education and training process of school managers' competencies]. II. International Conference on New Trends in Education and their Implications, 27-29 April, Antalya. Sezer, B. (2011). Ilkogretim okulu yoneticilerinin teknoloji liderligi rollerine iliskin yeterlikleri[proficiency regarding primary school administrators' roles of technology leadership]. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Institute of Education Sciences, Ankara 269

University, Ankara. Smith, R.V.; Guarino, A. C.; Strom, P. & Adams, O. L. (2006). Effective teaching and learning environments and principal self- efficacy. Journal of Research for Aducational Leaders. 3(2): 4-23. Sahin, A. E. (2000). Ilkogretim okulu mudurlerinin yeterlikleri [Proficiency of primary school principles]. Theory and Practice in Educational Administration, Vol. 21, 243259. Sencan, D. (2008). Ilkogretim okulu yoneticilerinin toplantı yonetimi yeterliklerine iliskin ogretmen algilari: İstanbul ili, Kagithane ilcesi ornegi[Teachers' perceptions regarding the meeting management proficiency of primary school administrators: Istanbul Province, Eyup District example. Unpublished master's thesis, Yeditepe University Institute of Social Sciences, Istanbul. Skaalvik, E.M. & Skaalvik, S. (2010). Teacher self efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of relations. Teacher and Teacher Education.26 (2010).Elseiver. 1059-1069. Terci, F. (2008). Ilkogretim okulu yoneticilerinin yonetici yeterlik davranıslarının bazı degiskenler acisindan ıncelenmesi. Examining in terms of some variables of primary school administrators' executive proficiency behavior. Unpublished master's thesis. Ege University Institute of Social Sciences. Izmir]. Topluer, A. (2008). Ilkogretim okulu yoneticilerinin iletisim yeterlikleri ile orgutsel catisma duzeyi arasındaki iliksi [The relationship between primary school administrators' communication proficiency and organizational conflict level]. Unpublished master's thesis, Inonu University. Institute of Social Sciences, Malatya. Toprakci, E. (2001). Okul mudurlerinin orgutleme yeterligi[ Organizational competence of school principles].Gazi University, Journal of Kırsehir Education Faculty. 2(3): 31-39. Toremen, F. ve Kolay, Y. (2003). Ilkogretim okulu yoneticilerinin sahip olması gereken yeterlikler. [Competencies primary school administrators need having]. Journal of National Education. Fall Number. 160. Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A. & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure, Review of Educational Research, 68: 202-248. Tschannen-Moran, M. & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct, Teaching and Teacher Education, 17. 783-805. Tschannen-Moran, M. & Garies, C. R. (2004). Principals sense of efficacy: Assessing a promising consruct. Journal of Educational Administration. 42, 573-585. Thomas, A. K. & Kay, P. M. (1974). Determining priorities among competencies: judgments of classroom teachers and supervisors, In W. R. Houston (ed.), Exploring Competency Based Education (Berkeley, CA: McCutchan).155-171. Uslu, B. (2013). Egitim yonetimi alanındaki akademisyenlerin Okul yoneticilerinin yeterliklerine iliskin gorusleri. [The opinion on the academics' proficiency of school administrators in the field of educational administration]. Marmara University, Journal of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Education. No.27.172-188]. Yildirim, A. ve Simsek, H. (2009). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel arastırma yontemleri[ Qualitative research methods in the social sciences]. Ankara: Seçkin. Yildirim, N. ve Aslan, B. (2008). Ilkogretim okulu mudurlerinin yeterlikleri ile ogrenme stillerine iliskin bir araştırma (Tokat ili ornegi). [A research on learning styles and proficiency of primary school principles (Tokat Province Example). Electronic Journal of Social Sciences, 7 (24), 238–255.]

270

Chapter 21 Educational and Instructional Strategies for the Education of Talented and Gifted Children Hacer Elif DAĞLIOĞLU, Esra ÖMEROĞLU, Safiye SARICI BULUT, Melek Gülşah ŞAHİN4, Aysun TURUPCU DOĞAN INTRODUCTION In the 21st century, the general frame of the education has been changing and in this particular, class teachers are expected to meet various needs of children with different features in traditional classrooms. Teachers have many students, whose developments, interests, experiences and backgrounds are different from each other. Diversity, increasing in the population of children encumbers teachers to provide proper teaching for talented and gifted children and requires them to introduce a good number of different activities. Since talented and gifted children exhibit significant differences compared to their peers, besides educational opportunities which they are provided together with their typically developing peers, they also need other opportunities through which they will be supported in line with their abilities, interests and potentials (Van Tassel-Baska & Stanbaugh, 2010). Yet, indispensible agents, for the curricula prepared either for mixed classrooms or special classes of which content includes teaching strategies prepared in accordance with different potentials, are the teachers who are to teach talented and gifted children. Teachers should employ the methods which will enable them to differentiate their general programmes academically, practise different teaching strategies, develop teaching materials and improve their potentials for success in order to meet the developmental and educational needs of talented and gifted children. For this reason, teachers who are to teach talented and gifted children should have some qualities and competences different from other teachers. In this section, the concepts of talent and gift, teachers who are to teach these children and teaching and instructional strategies, which can be used in the teaching process, are discussed.



 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Faculty of Gazi Education, Department of Primary Education, Division of Preschool    Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Faculty of Gazi Education, Department of Primary Education, Division of Pre-School    Assist. Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Faculty of Gazi Education, Department of Educational Sciences, Division of Guidance and Psychological Counseling  4  Lec. Dr., Gazi University, Faculty of Gazi Education, Department of Educational Sciences, Division of Assessment and Evaluation in Education    Res. Assist., Gazi University, Faculty of Gazi Education, Department of Primary Education, Division of Preschool 

DEFINITIONS OF TALENT AND GIFT When it comes to talent and gift one of the first notions which comes to mind is “intelligence”. Intelligence is not a power which is tangible or visible. Therefore, intelligence has been considered as a structure exists in a part of brain to some, or a feature endowed by the nature to the others. Still, intelligence is the reflection of coherent and fruitful work of all the elements of brain on the behaviour. Individuals who have superior intelligence quality are generally extraordinary in terms of mental capability. When all the society is observed, seen that people who have these features are rarely met. Because of these extraordinary features talent and giftedness have been scrutinised by a great number of scientists to date (Sak, 2013). When the historical development of studies related to talent and giftedness, seen that intelligence tests have been the milestone. While there is an approach which only giftedness is prominent at the beginning of the 20th century, in Europe, it has begun to lose its actuality together with the scientists like Piaget, Vygotsky and Dabrowski started considering the scope of the “intelligence” in terms of cognitive, emotional, kinaesthetic, social, artistic, moral and linguistic aspects and the “talent” in terms of integrative and developmental aspects since the middle of the 20th century (Akarsu, 2001). In parallel with this point of view, together with Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory, explaining intelligence comprises many abilities, gained weight; this concept has become a concept in which intelligence and talent intertwined. Nevertheless, especially to provide these children with maximum benefits of the school systems, the terms talent and gift have still been in use (CCEA, 2006; Renzulli, 1986; Ziegler, Stoeger & Vialle, 2012). Furthermore, today, when generally accepted terms are to be analysed, seen that it is a reality that the term “gifted” has still been used for the ones who score 130 and above in IQ tests and are determined that they have superior mental potential and the term “talented” for the ones who exhibit superior performance compared to their peers in the areas of creative and productive thinking, art, leadership and sport (Davaslıgil, 2009). TEACHERS AND THE EDUCATION OF TALENTED AND GIFTED CHILDREN Talented and gifted children are the ones, who learn differently from other children, need to be supported socially and emotionally and need a differentiated curriculum, which provides learning opportunities, which will carry their potentials to the optimum level. Because of that it is necessary for schools and teachers to give close attention to the children with special needs like talented and gifted children. Research shows that teachers are the indispensible agents of the curricula developed for these children since they have influence on the curricula, learning process and many domains of educations (Gross, 2002, 2003; Renzulli, 1968). Revealing and developing potentials of talented and gifted children in classroom environments is only possible through a special curriculum, well-equipped learning environments and effective teachers with self-efficacy and confidence to meet the needs of these children. By this means, overall achievement rate of the curricula, applied for talented and gifted children, rises relatedly (Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994). Seen that, in the historical process, a great number of researches have been done related to personal and professional features of teachers who teach talented and gifted 272

children. One of the prominent studies related to the qualities of teachers is the study of Kathnelson and Colleney (1982) in which they question the features of an ideal teacher who will teach talented and gifted children between the ages of 6-16. At the end of the study, they found out that talented and gifted children preferred understanding, humorous, cheerful, supportive, respectful, patient and flexible teachers. Moreover they found out that teachers who were to teach talented and gifted children had to be eager to learn, competent with teaching methods, free from jealousy and selfishness, with strong sense of self and will, honourable and proud (Cited in Sisk, 1987). In 1990s, Feldhusen (1997) analysed the competences of successful teachers who teach talented and gifted children and the results of previous studies; observed the teachers who teach talented and gifted children at that period and gathered the required competences of these teachers under various titles. These are;  To have a high intelligence  To be wise and flexible  To have cultural and intellectual interests  To be respectful to individual differences  To be interested in talented and gifted individuals Yet, Feldhusen (1997) and afterwards Chan (2001) emphasised that the competences of the teachers who teach some content areas such as science and mathematics could be quite different from those in the areas like music and art and they indicated that teaching was required to be diversified in this respect. In addition, Chan (2001) put forward that appropriate changes could be made in teacher training and education together with raising the awareness of the society related to the special needs of talented and gifted children. When the studies, comparing the teachers trained about talented and gifted children with the ones, who weren’t trained were analysed, seen that, trained teachers were more aware of the cognitive needs of talented and gifted children, exhibited more positive attitudes towards these children, used pedagogical strategies such as encouraging high level thinking and supporting independent learning and they also were more creative than those without any trainings in the domain (Chipego, 2004; Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994; Kıldan, 2011; Lassig, 2003; McCoach & Siegle, 2007; Molapo, 2014; Şahin & Kargın, 2013; Polyzopoulou et al., 2014). This situation shows once more that teacher qualities are of great importance when it comes to the education of talented and gifted children. In 2000s, standards in 10 different domains were determined related to knowledge and skills which teachers were required to have in order to be effective in the classrooms including talented and gifted children. These standards include all the topics related to talented and gifted children and are used as a guideline to train teachers who are to teach these children in the future (Van Tassel-Baska & Johnsen, 2007). Standards, including the knowledge and skills of teachers, which The USA National Association for Gifted Children and The Council for Exceptional Children agreed upon were gathered in 10 groups with a thematic approach. Principles: include the information about the necessity for teachers to gain knowledge and skills related to the theories of talented and gifted, laws and regulations, related researches and their findings. Children’s characteristics and developments: covers the information related to having knowledge about the differences of these children from their peers and the 273

effects of parents and environment. Individual learning differences: includes the information about having knowledge about how talent and giftedness influence these individuals’ lives, family structure, culture and language, readiness of individuals, academic achievements, social behaviours, attitudes, values and interests. Instructional Strategies: include the information about having comprehensive knowledge about curricula and instructional strategies which will be able to facilitate and differentiate talented and gifted children’s education. Learning environments and social interactions: include the information about having knowledge about how to establish proper teaching environments in order to meet the social and emotional needs of talented and gifted children and support their active participation. Language and communication: include the information about having knowledge about using different strategies to support children’s written and oral communication skills and coordinating between the differences of their own communication levels and the way they communicate and children’s communication skills, linguistic and cultural differences. Planning of teaching: Teachers should prepare long term teaching plans on the basis of either general or special education. Teachers should work in collaboration with talented and gifted children, these children’s parents and other professionals in the course of realisation of all the implementations. Evaluation: includes the information about having knowledge about using as different evaluation measures as possible while identifying, monitoring and evaluating talented and gifted children’s learning and development. Professional and ethical practices: Teachers’ personal and cultural features affect the identification implementations of talented and gifted children. In order to prevent this, teachers should gain consciousness about ethics and professional implementation standards related to talented and gifted education. Collaboration: includes the practices related to recognition of talented and gifted children through teacher and parent solidarity, receiving the assistance and the support of mentors and school counsellors who show close attention to the education of these children. Standards are dealt as basic objectives in teacher education programmes. Institutions and programmes, which will teach talented and gifted children, should introduce behaviours, which they aim to give teachers, explicitly and in written form. These standards may lead the way to analyse the qualities of teachers who work in institutions or programmes which provide service to talented and gifted children and shape in-service training activities (Sak, 2013). When researches about teacher efficacy are evaluated, it is revealed that talented and gifted children consider that it is important for teachers to have behaviours which are encouraging and give them some elbow room. In this situation, teachers are supposed to know too many things and have knowledge, reaching beyond their teaching areas. Teacher, as an enthusiastic learner herself/himself, is likely to transfer this emotion to her/his children. In addition, she/he has to have strong communication skills. A creative teacher is a person who believes in young generation, likes children, and is collaborative, polite, democratic and thoughtful not only for talented and gifted children but also for other children. This type of teacher prepares all the opportunities necessary 274

for the achievement of all children whether talented and gifted or not by realising their potentials and enabling them to use it at optimum level. EDUCATIONAL STRATEGIES One of the important subjects in the education process is developing pedagogical, personal and vocational skills of children who attend schools with various readiness levels by respecting their differences. Implementing the same teaching strategy or method for talented and gifted children who exhibit outstanding performance in terms of learning speed and depth compared to their peers will not be an education process addressing to these children’s development areas (Gökdere & Çepni, 2004; Torpop, 2014; Çakmak, 2001). The way talented and gifted children learn is different from that of their peers. Because these children learn faster and deeper they need less repetition drills and exercises. Because routine teaching process is most likely to be boring for them, they may lose their motivation easily. In the education of these children whose educational needs are different from their peers, educational strategies like accelerating, grouping, enrichment and mentorship (Sak, 2009; Sak, 2013). These strategies can be structured in different contents in line with children’s area and characteristics (Dağlıoğlu, 2002). These strategies are explained as follows. Accelerating: It is a strategy based on a principle for talented and gifted children to participate in different programmes in accordance with their competences because the teaching speed in general education classrooms fall behind the learning speed of these children (Şahin, 2015:4). As the types of acceleration, these can be expressed; early preschool or primary school start of children who show rapid development compared to their peers, grade-skipping of children who show outstanding success compared to their peers, early entrance to university (Children finish their high school education by taking high school classes while attending university.), attending International Baccalaureate Programme (IB) which has common curricula, taking classes in a university while attending high school (dual enrolment), taking core courses at university level together with other talented and gifted children (honour classes), attending upper grade classes (Davis, 2013; Sak, 2013) or compacting curriculum, conveying the content superficially, completing credit by taking exams (Chih, 2015). One of the points to consider regarding acceleration is the selection of the children to be taught. It is necessary for the children subject to acceleration to be suitable for both cognitive, social and emotional and academic readiness levels. Among the acceleration conditions are exhibiting an outstanding academic achievement or talent in at least one area and being willing and interested (Sak, 2013). Besides, other determinative features for the successful acceleration are; mastery of instruction, level of knowledge, skill of comprehending the logic of a symbolic system, ability of working alone, high interest level, freeness from impulsivity and patience (Davis, 2014:162). Acceleration type should be chosen according to the conditions of children’s developments. Supporting permanent learning in talented and gifted education is a matter of acceleration. It is emphasised that these children gain more academic awards, receive education in more prestige universities and become more successful in their university lives with the help of acceleration (Sak, 2013). Among the most remarkable benefits of acceleration are increasing productivity thanks to early start to career, decreasing 275

education costs and the rates of dissatisfaction and getting bored (Chih, 2015; Davis, 2013). While being in a learning environment suitable for their potentials will lead them to know themselves better, develop insights regarding their abilities and build selfconfidence, getting away from cognitive laziness will contribute to realise themselves. Research findings show that acceleration resulted in well regarding gifted education and using it especially in the areas of science and mathematics would be beneficial (Kanlı, 2011). Furthermore, it is seen that acceleration can be easily adapted into existing education system to meet the needs of talented and gifted children (Tortop, 2012). Grouping: Receiving full or part time or homogenous or heterogeneous education of children with similar abilities, interests and learning traits means grouping (Sak, 2013; Şahin, 2015). In full time grouping children take all the classes together during an academic year. Classrooms can consist of either homogenously including only talented and gifted children or heterogeneously including talented and gifted children and typically developing children together. In part time grouping, children come together in certain hours of day or week and receive special education (Sak, 2013). Grouping can be implemented in different ways. In the type of school-withinschool, talented and gifted children are gathered in a central school and trained in homogenous or heterogeneous groups. In full time special class grouping, talented and gifted children in the same grade level are brought together and trained. Early special classroom consists of children who haven’t turned schooling age yet and are ready to start one year earlier. In the model of “partly special class”, talented and gifted children in the same class level are grouped homogenously. In the model of “XYZ”, children are separated and placed in courses according to their achievements and talents. High performing children are trained in classes X; average performing children are trained in classes Y and low performing children are trained in classes Z. Training of talented and gifted children together with their typically developing peers is considered as mixed grouping. In the type of subject-based grouping, children take each class in different class levels in line with their academic achievements and talents. In the type of grouping between accelerated classes, classrooms are set according to the levels of children’s talents and children with similar talents will take place in the same group. In the implementation of resource room, children will participate in enriched teaching and learning activities together with other talented and gifted children by being taken from their regular classes once or several times in a week (Cutts & Moseley, 2004; Davis, 2013; Sak, 2013). However, as a result of conducted researches found out that especially groupings in heterogeneous classes caused children to compare themselves in terms of their performances and consequently low performing children developed hostile feelings towards their outstanding performing peers. Together with this, in homogenous grouping, on one hand, talented and gifted children influence each other positively and compete with each other fruitfully on the other hand such an implementation causes these children to develop undesired social attitudes and behaviours such as being self-righteousness and self-admiration, disdaining and humiliating other children, As to grouping in resource room or resource centre, both teachers are supposed to handle the system smartly. Otherwise this implementation can make quite negative effects on both typically developing and talented and gifted children. Sometimes, talented and gifted children can experience a dilemma about “which group’s member” they are. These children may start comparing the 276

implementations in the resource room with the implementations in their regular classrooms because they find the implementations in the resource room more exciting (Ataman, 2000; Metin, 1999). Enrichment: Enrichment is diversification of education opportunities by considering personal and in-group features of children (Cutts & Moseley, 2004; Sak, 2013). Enrichment can be tackled in these three dimensions. Adding learning areas and other disciplines, which don’t exist in the offered curriculum, in line with their educational needs, using materials to improve the existing curriculum, developing teaching strategies in accordance with their cognitive features and readiness levels (Chih, 2015). Enrichment includes the methods related to process and content which curriculum comprises (Şahin, 2015:3). The content and process objectives of enrichment strategies are as follows; while content consists of further and enriched subject items, process consists of many thinking skills such as problem solving, creative thinking, critical thinking, logic, analysing, evaluating (Davis, 2013:186). Activities such as seminars, conferences and field trips through which the scope of the programme is expanded and new subject were included are the examples of enrichment strategies. When gradeskipping or taking upper-grade classes are not possible in the mainstream schools which talented and gifted children are taught, enrichment is realised by transferring the course content of the upper-grade class into child’s current course content. Besides, skipping subjects or units in which children are good at, giving children opportunities to study individually in line with their interests and talents, trip fields and after school activities are the types of enrichment (Davis, 2013; Sak, 2013). Enrichment objectives determined for talented and gifted children are highly difficult content including theoretical generalisations and practices, motivating children towards their individual interests, probing, activities meeting educational, psychological and social needs of children in order to develop their sense of self (Davis, 2013). Enrichment is an advantageous strategy in terms of being applicable to every school and children with different features. Because two groups are together during the activities, while talented and gifted children develop rapport and respect for differences, their age peers may take the attitudes towards giftedness and talent as a model (Ataman, 2000). In the course of enrichment programmes, seen that talented and gifted children participated at high level and typically developing children made efforts in the process (Darga, 2010). Beside these educational strategies, mentorship, which is based on the assistance and counselling of experienced and well-informed persons to less experienced and informed persons to move up their learning levels and motivations, is a strategy which has gained quite a popularity for last 20 years. The roots of this strategy go back to the periods before Common Era in spite of its popularity in last 20 years. Mentorship includes counselling talented and gifted children, creating new and interesting opportunities to increase their motivation and boost up their learning, planning their careers and accompanying them as well as assisting them (Davis, 2013; Sak, 2013; Tortop, 2014). As a result of the researches, found out that mentorship is one of the most effective strategies regarding the education of talented and gifted children. According to the research results, talented and gifted children assisted by a mentor are more successful than the ones who are not assisted, less absent from school, develop more positive attitudes towards school, have more self-confidence and their possibilities 277

of attending university are much more (Nash, 2001; Siegle, 2005; Torrance 1984). INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES “We are not all the same; we do not all have the same kinds of minds; education works most effectively for most individuals if these differences... are taken into account rather than denied or ignored” (Gardner, 1995) The analogy “One size doesn’t fit all” is best one for the effective teaching in education. Children differ from each other in terms of their abilities and development. Therefore, an effective teacher must know the children’s needs (Gregory & Chapman, 2007). In order to foster children’s learning and meet their needs, instructional decisions should be determined and specific materials and resources have to be selected. Then the curriculum and the strategies for effective teaching are ready to be applied. Although the effective teaching needs to have clear and appropriate instructional strategies, still there are concerns about the lack of the empirically differentiated curricula and instruction for gifted children (Passow, 1986; VanTassel-Baska et al., 1998, 2002). However, every passing day, studies conducted on the education of gifted and talented children have been increasing and many further steps have been taken to support their education. In order to provide these children to go through an effective and successful education process, teacher are determined to use different teaching strategies (Sak, 2013). While educational strategies discussed above can be used in education process generally, teachers are expected to support children by using various instructional strategies as well, regarding their educational needs and considering that each child is unique. When the strategies to be handled in the teaching process are analysed, much as they seem to be general strategies, what is important here is introducing familiar instructional strategies to the children in a different and new way. Teachers are expected to frame the activity plans and balance the teacher-centred and student-centred activities successfully (Carr & Bertrando, 2012). Furthermore, another important point that teachers should be careful is that they know the strategies very well but they don’t know how to include these strategies into teaching activities. When the literature was analysed, seen that together with the same points stressed as the content in strategies, more authentic explanations were also used related to the implementations in different disciplines. Carr and Bertrando (2012) summed up the most offered strategies in six titles in their study as indicated in Table 1. When Table 1 is analysed, seen that, visuals expressed as the first strategy are stated to support learning in terms of providing tangibility and attract these children’s attention through different materials. Here, talking is supposed to be minimised and instead proceeding activities by offering visuals is grounded. For example, in order to draw attention to the activity not only speech and questions but also video-clips as more attractive materials should be used and this was stated as an undeniable reality. In thinkpair-share strategy, children are expected to think about the addressed question, topic or information alone for a while and then share their opinions in groups of two or three. As the last step, children are supported to convey their opinions which they reach as a group to their classmates in the classroom. Since talented and gifted children whose creativity and abstract thinking skills are high take part in both individual and group works in this process, being used of these strategies by the teachers will bring very 278

fruitful results. Table 1. Instructional strategies for the education of talented and gifted children Strategy Key Points Materials Visuals Less talk more visuals Graphic organizer, (Hall & Strangeman, 2002) Real objects, Pictures, Manipulatives, Media clips, Projections Think-Pair1-individual thinking for 15-20 seconds Oral questions, Share 2-shraing with group member 3-sharing with whole class (Erey, Fisher & Everlove, 2009) Cues 1-Starting with advance organizer Advance organizers, 2-linking between past and future learning Hints, 3-linking the content to real life examples Questions (Dean et al, 2012) Think Aloud Verbalizing the thoughts while reading KWL A chart (three column graphic organizer) Summarization Chunks of information is summarized (by Non-linguistic both teachers and students) during activity illustrations, Sentence frames, (Thurlow, et al,2008) Graphic organizer In addition to this, as for the strategy think aloud, putting verbal skills forward is in question. Therefore this is considered as an effective strategy for the children who excel expressing themselves orally. Regarding to Albus (2007), while different stages of the activity are noted with KWL, a three-columned visual graphic, this chart represents what children know already, want to learn, and what was learned (Cited in Carr & Bertrando ,2012). When the strategies were analysed seen that supporting high level thinking skills, enabling communication between children, determining high standards for these children, finding mentors, supporting individual and independent discoveries and setting up creative and flexible learning groups are overemphasised commonly (Westberg & Archambault, 1997). In addition to generally expressed and frequently used strategies Johnson and Ryser (1996), and Williams (1986) specified the strategies which could be used in the teaching processes of talented and gifted children and activities which could be done to provide these strategies to be more effective (Cited in Carr & Bertrando, 2012).  Asking open-ended questions during activities to foster children’s higherlevel thinking.  Preferring child-centered activities in which children’s ideas and suggestions are accepted.  Facilitating original and independent problems and solutions.  Giving support to children during the identification of classroom rules, principles and relationships with others.  Taking time to explain the nature of errors. 279

 Presenting students with paradoxes to analyse and test.  Using analogies to introduce new concepts; ask students to create their own.  Allowing students to think about discrepancies in what is known.  Asking provocative questions and provide time for inquiry.  Examining examples of change and the process of change.  Using examples of habit and the results of habit-bound thinking.  Encouraging tolerance for ambiguity with open-ended problems.  Encouraging students to use their intuition and follow their hunches.  Studying creative people and their thinking processes.  Evaluating situations by analysing possible consequences and implications.  Helping students practice creative reading, listening, and writing skills. When the strategies are analysed, one can say that generally the development of children’s high level thinking skills is to support the development of their sense of self and communication skills. The role of teachers’ features is great in terms of the implementation of these strategies. In order to catch up with these children with neverending energy teachers who teach these children need more enthusiasm and love learning. Table 2. Instructional variables in the education of talented and gifted children Instructional Variables Continuous assessment Telescoping Pacing Time allotment Level of abstraction Type of subject matter Depth of study Range of resources Independence Sophistication of products Level of evaluation

Characteristics It is a routine for special education but forgotten for gifted. When a child gets higher score on standardized measure, there has to be a higher-level test for this child. Covering the same amount of material in less than the usual amount of time. It gives talented and gifted child more time. The tempo of instruction should be increased to alert the children Covering required material takes less time for gifted children Gifted children have higher-level thinking Use more metaphor, analogy and paradox Interdisciplinary studies, social and ethical issues will be interesting for gifted Brief studies are not preferred by gifted. Advanced level and more variety of resources are used. Gifted have greater independence of thought and action The quality of their products is remarkable There is a reflective judgment The evaluation criteria has to be determined and explained to them

Silverman (1988) explains that there are some consistent differences between strategies that used by teachers of talented and gifted children and the other teachers. The instructional techniques, questioning and feedback techniques and personal interactions show changes for instance; while divergent questions are asked by teachers of talented and gifted children, other teachers prefer to ask convergent questions. Moreover, in Table 2, the instructional variables are listed to enhance the appropriate and qualitatively differentiated educational opportunities for talented and gifted children 280

(Silverman, 1988). As a result, education of talented and gifted children is one of the major challenges of all the societies. Talented and gifted children show quite significant differences in terms of learning speed, depth and areas of interest. In this case, education of talented and gifted children requires providing these children with different opportunities through their abilities, interests and performances, while including educational opportunities which they can be together with their age peers. One of the most important agents regarding offering opportunities to these children is the teacher. Researches had been conducted on teachers who would teach these children for many years and as a result, standards for teachers who would teach these children were determined in the USA. In these standards and conducted researches, emphasised that teachers are expected to be humorous, cheerful, supportive, respectful, patient and flexible, besides, equipped and experienced about these children’s features, teaching strategies, methods, techniques, teaching environments and materials. In this section, by dwelling on especially teaching strategies, it was discussed how a great deal of teaching factors, methods and techniques used for moving these children’s existing potentials to the top level, developing high level thinking skills and supporting the development of positive sense of self and communication skills are brought together in different ways and revealed. REFERENCES Akarsu, F. (2001). Üstün Yetenekli Çocuklar [The Gifted Childrens]. Eduser: Ankara. Ataman, A. (2000). Üstün Zekâlılar ve Üstün Yetenekliler [The Gifted and Talented People]. Anadolu Üniversitesi [Anadolu University]. Eskişehir CCEA. (2006). A Report for the Council of Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment. Retrieved September 19, 2012 from http://www.nicurriculum.org.uk/docs/inclusion_ and_sen/gifted/gifted_children_060306.pdf Carr, J. & Bertrando, S. (2012). Top 10 Instructional Strategies For Struggling Students. Leadership, 24-38. Chan, D.W. (2001). Characteristics and Competencies of Teachers of Gifted Learners: The Hong Kong Teacher Perspective. Roeper Review 23(4), 197-202. Chipego, A.D. (2004). Factors Associated with the Attitudes of Elementary Level Classroom Teachers toward Gifted Education. Presented to the Faculty of the School of Human Service Professions Widener University. Master Thesis. Pennsylvania. Chih, H. C. (2015). Üstün Zekalı Olarak Büyümek [Grow Up as Talented and Gifted]. Fatih Kaya, Üzeyir Ogurlu (Trans.Ed.)Nobel: Ankara Cutts, N. E. & Noseley, N. (2004). Üstün Zekalı ve Yetenekli Çocukların Eğitimi [Talented and Gifted Childrens’ Education]. İsmail Ersevim (Trans). Özgür: İstanbul. Çakmak, M. (2001). Characteristics Shown by Gifted and Their Teachers in the Clasroom. Education and Science, 26, 122, 56-65. Dağlıoğlu, H. E. (2002). Anaokuluna Devam Eden Beş-Altı Yaş Grubu Çocuklar Arasından Matematik Alanında Üstün Yetenekli Olanların Belirlenmesi [The Identification of the Gifted Ones among the Children Who are Attending Kindergarten]. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi [Unpublished doctoral thesis].Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Hacettepe Üniversitesi. [Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hacettepe University] Darga, H. (2010). Brigance K&I Screen II ile İlköğretim 1. Sınıfta Saptanan Üstün Yetenekli Çocuklara ve Sınıf Arkadaşlarına Uygulanan Zenginleştirme Programının Çoklu Zeka Alanlarındaki Performans Düzeylerini Artırmaya Etkisi [The Effect of 281

Enrichment Programme Applied to Gifted/Highly Superior Intelligent Children and Their Classmates Determined from Primary Education 1 st Class Level Via Brigance K&I Screen II, on Improving Their Performance Levels in Multiple Intelligence Field]. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. Gazi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Gazi Üniversitesi [Graduate School of Gazi Educational Sciences, Gazi University] Davaslıgil, Ü. (2009). Üstün Zekalı ve Yetenekli Çocukların Eğitimi [Gifted and Talented Childrens’ Education]. In G. Akçamete (Ed.) Özel Eğitim Okullarında Özel Gereksinimi Olan Öğrenciler ve Özel Eğitim. [Special Education Schools Students with Special Needs and Special Education] p.545-591, Kök Yayıncılık: Ankara. Davis, G. A. (2013). Üstün Yetenekli Çocuklar ve Eğitimi [Gifted Children and Their Education]. Müjde Işık Koç (Trans). Özgür: İstanbul. Dean, C.B., Hubbell, E.R., Pitler, H. & Stone, B.J. (2012). Classroom Instruction that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Feldhusen, J. F. (1997). Educating Teachers for Work with Talented Touth. In N. Colangelo & G. A.Davis (Eds.), Handbook of Gifted Education.2nd ed., pp. 547-552, Allyn & Bacon: Boston. Frey, N., Fisher, D. & Everlove, S. (2009). Productive Group work: How to Engage Students, Build Teamwork and Promote Understanding. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on Multiple intelligences: Myths and Messages. pp: 200203, 206-209, Phi Delta Kappan. Gökdere, M. & Çepni, C. (2004). Üstün Yetenekli Öğrencilerin Fen Öğretmenlerinin Hizmet İçi İhtiyaçlarının Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Çalışma: Bilim Sanat Merkezi Örneklemi [A Study on the Assessment of the In-service Needs of the Science Teachers of Gifted Students: A Case for Science Art Center]. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi [Journal of Gazi Education Faculty] 24(2), 1-14. Gregory, G. H. & Chapman, C. (2007). Differentiated Instructional Strategies: One Size Doesn’t Fit All (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Gross, M. (2002). Musings: Gifts to the Gifted—Training Our Teachers. Understanding Our Gifted 15(1), 25-27. Gross, M. (2003). All Gifts are Equal but Some Gifts are More Equal than Others. Understanding Our Gifted 15(2), 8-12. Hall, T. & Strangeman, N. (2002). Craphic Organizers. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved from http://aim.cast.org/learn/history archive/backgroundpapers/graphic_organizes. Hansen, J.B. & Feldhusen, J. F. (1994).Comparison of Trained and Untrained Teachers of Gifted Students. Gifted Child Quarterly 38, 115–121. Johnson, D.T. & Sher, B.T. (1997). Resource Guide to Mathematics Curriculum Materials for High-ability Learners in Grades K-8. Williamsburg, VA: College of William and Mary, Center for Gifted Education. Kanlı, E. (2011). Üstün Zekalı ve Yeteneklilerin Alan Eğitiminde Hızlandırma [The Domain Education for Gifted and Talented Acceleration]. Hasan Ali Yücel Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi [Journal of Hasan Ali Yücel Education Faculty] 16, 85-104. Kıldan, A. O. (2011). Okul Öncesi Öğretmenlerinin Üstün Yetenekli Çocuklar Hakkındaki Görüşleri [Preschool Teachers Opinions about Gifted Children]. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi [Journal of Kastamonu Education] 19(3), 805-818. Lassig, Carly J. (2003) Gifted and Talented Education Reforms: Effects on Teachers' 282

Attitudes. In Bartlett, B. and Bryer, F. and Roebuck, D., Eds. Proceedings 1st Annual International Conference on Cognition, Language and Special Education Research: Reimagining Practice: Researching Change, 2,141-152, Surfers Paradise, Australia. McCoach, D.B. & Siegle, D. (2007).What predicts Teachers’ Attitudes toward the Gifted? Gifted Child Quarterly 51(3), 246-255.259-274. Metin, N. (1999). Üstün Yetenekli Çocuklar [Gifted Children]. Öz Aşama Matbaacılık: Ankara Molapo, T.P. (2014). Parent-Teacher Shared Commitment as a Predictor for Teachers’ Attitudes toward Gifted Students and Gifted Education. Journal of Studies in Education 4 (1), 190-205 Nash, D. (2001). Enter the Mentor. Parenting for High Potential, 18-21. Passow, A. H. (1986). Issues and Trends in Curriculum for the Gifted. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED 278210). Polyzopoulou, K., Kokarıdas, D. Patsiaouras, A. & Gari, A. (2014). Teachers’ Perceptions toward Education of Gifted Children in Greek Educational Settings. Journal of Physical Education and Sport (JPES), 14(2), 33, 211 - 221. Renzulli, J. (1968). Identifying Key Features in Programs for the Gifted. Exceptional Children 35, 217-221. Sak, U. (2009). Üstün Yetenekliler Eğitim Programı [Education Programme for Gifted]. Maya: Ankara Sak, U. (2013). Üstün Zekâlılar [Gifted People]. Vize: Ankara. Silverman, L. K. (1988). The Gifted and Talented. In E. L. Meyen & T. M. Skrtic (Eds.), Exceptional Children and Youth (3rd ed.), (pp. 263- 291). Denver, CO: Love Pulishing. Sisk, D. (1987). Creative Teaching for Gifted. McGraw-Hill Book Company: England. Siegle, D. (2005). Developing for Mentorhip Programs for Gifted Students. TX. Prufrock Press, Inc. Şahin, F. (2015). Üstün Zekalı ve Yetenekli Öğrencilerin Eğitimi [Gifted and Talented Students Education]. Pegem Akademi: Ankara. Şahin, F. & Kargın, T. (2013) Sınıf Öğretmenlerine Üstün Yetenekli Öğrencilerin Belirlenmesi Konusunda Verilen Bir Eğitimin Öğretmenlerin Bilgi Düzeyine Etkisi [The Effect of a Training Programme on Teachers’ Knowledge on Identification of Talented Students by Primary School Teachers]. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi [Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences Journal of Special Education] 14(2), 1-13. Thurlow, M., Syyan, V., Barrera, M. & Liu, K. (2008). Delphi Study of Instructional Strategies for English Language Learners with Disabilities: Recommendations from Educators Nationwide. (ELLs with Disabilities Report 21). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, National Center on Educational Outcomes. Torrance, E. P. (1984). Mentor Relationship: How They Aid Creative Achievement, Endure, Change and Die. Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited. Tortop, H. S. (2012). Olağanüstü Üstün Yetenekli Öğrencilerin Eğitim Sürecinde Radikal Hızlandırma ve Türkiye’nin Durumu [Radical Acceleration in Educational Process of Highly Gifted Students and the Situation of Turkey]. Yüksek Öğretim ve Bilim Dergisi [Journal of Higher Education and Science] 2(2), 106-113. Tortop, H. S. (2014). Gifted Students’ Views about First Stage of the Education Program for the Gifted Students’ Bridge with University (EPGBU). Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education 15, 2, 62-74. Van Tassel-Baska, J. & Johnsen, S. K. (2007). Teacher Education Standards for the Field of Gifted Education: A Vision of Coherence for Personnel Preparation in the 21st Century. 283

Gifted Child Quarterly 51, 182–205. Van Tassel-Baska, J. & Stanbaugh, T. (2010). Challenges and Possibilities for Serving Gifted Learners in the Regular Classroom. Theory into Practice, 44(3), 211-217. VanTassel-Baska, J., Bass, G., Ries, R., Poland, D. & Avery, L. D. (1998). A National Study of Science Curriculum Effectiveness with High Ability Students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 42(4), 200-211. VanTassel-Baska, J., Zuo, L., Avery, L. D. & Little, C. A. (2002). A Curriculum Study ofStudent Learning in the Language Arts. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46, 30–44. Westberg, K. & Archambault, F. (1997). A Multi-Site Case Study of Successful Classroom Practices for High Ability Students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 41(1), 42-51. Ziegler, A., Stoeger, H. & Vialle, W. (2012). Giftedness and Gifted Education: The Need for a Paradigm Change. Gifted Child Quarterly, 56 (4), 194-197.

284

Chapter 22 Creating and Using Rubrics for Assessment Gökhan ARI INTRODUCTION Assesment: Assessment is to reach a value judgment by comparing the measurement result with certain criteria (Büyükkaragöz, 1997; Erkuş, 2006). Assessment requires measurement. “Measurement is the specification of observed qualities (variables) and observation results regarding the numbers and symbols” (Çelik, 2005: 96). In addition to numbers and symbols, Erkuş (2006: 5) notes that “measurement is also specification/pairing of the degree of results with adjectives.” Because although assessment depends on scoring, the quality of the process is specified with adjectives in measurement tools used in descriptive models. Assessment is a process. It is the decision made as a result of the measurement. Measurement is essential to make a decision in this process. To establish a basis for the decision, it is necessary to determine certain criteria and reach a judgment based on these criteria (Çelik, 2005; Erkuş, 2006; Özden, 2003). The teacher as the assessor needs to determine the purpose of the assessment, the criteria based on this purpose, what method to use for assessment, place criteria on a scale and perform the assessment accordingly. The assessment process is an ongoing cycle that involves the identification of outcomes, the gathering and analyzing of data, discussion, suggesting improvements, implementing changes, and reflection (BuzzettoMore & Alade, 2006: 256). Assessment tools are used to implement this process. To be able to make an accurate assessment, the objectives of the assessment must be identified. In the assessment process, the teacher observes and checks students and tries to improve his/her teaching. At the same time, he/she assesses the level of students using exams. In the assessment process, the teacher assesses the overall success of the entire class on one hand, while attempts to improve the success level of certain students. To this end, after observing shortcomings of students, the teacher tries to improve the most important shortcomings using the most effective techniques and materials and produces alternative assessment tools. According to Aschbacher (1991), alternative assessment does not involve a single method only. On the contrary, there are different approaches such as writing activities where students show their portfolios and skills, open-ended questions with no real answer and assessment of essays where they share their experiences. According to Brualdi (2002: 4), performance assessment models include: Checklists: When teachers use this, they only have to indicate whether or not certain elements are present in the performances. Rating scale model: When teachers use this, they indicate to what degree the 

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Düzce University, Education Faculty, Department of Turkish Language Teaching 

standards were met. Usually, teachers will use a numerical scale. For instance, one teacher may rate each criterion on a scale of 1 to 5. Memory model: When teachers use this, they observe the students performing the tasks without taking any notes. They use the information from their memory to determine whether or not the students were successful. Narrative/Anecdotal models: When teachers use this, they will write narrative reports of what was done during each of the performances. From these reports, teachers can determine how well their students met their standards. The scoring scheme to be used for narrative/anecdotal models can be prepared with holistic and analytic methods. It can be said that analytic scoring increases reliability compared to holistic scoring. However, the choice between holistic scoring and analytic scoring depends on various factors and it is inevitable to resort to holistic rubrics in cases where it is not possible to divide the performance into smaller segments. If the performance can be divided into pieces, it is more appropriate to prepare a detailed rubric for scoring (Turgut, 1992; Moskal & Leydens 2000; MartinKniep, 2000; Çetin & Kelecioğlu, 2004; Erkuş, 2005; Brookhart, 2013; Gunning, 2014). RUBRICS In Latin, the word rubric means a red or red thing (Brookhart, 2013: 3). “The actual use of the term rubric as a noun was first applied to color-enhanced lines in medieval manuscripts, usually church related, wherein initial letters, whole words, or entire sections of text were printed in red ink for emphasis. Red letters were used in handwritten religious manuscripts, much as highlighting or electronic change tracking are used in contemporary manuscripts, to spotlight important sections or significant names, a practice called rubrication” (Selke, 2013: xiv). The word seems to be used because headings in books are written in red. The word is believed to be given to the assessment tool in question since different dimensions are considered as headings in detailed models. Rubrics are guidelines to define excellent, mediocre and unacceptable qualities of different levels and forms of performance to assess works produced by students (Orlich, Harder, Callahan & Gibson, 1998: 357). Many tools can be used to assess student performance. One of these is rubrics. “Teachers in all content areas can use rubrics for some assessment purposes whether they are measuring progress or assessing a final product” (Urquhart & McIver 2005). In scoring keys, there are only the scores for corresponding criteria. For example, if 5 points are allocated for “the heading” in an essay and 3 points are given to a student for his/her heading, the reason why is not presented in the scoring key, but the quality of these 3 points is defined in a rubric. Rubrics are tools developed to assess students; they can be used for both teaching and assessment (Martin-Kniep, 2000: 36). Based on definitions made by several researchers, Kan (2007: 133) suggests that rubric can be defined as “a scoring guide defining characteristics and criteria related to various levels of performance for structured performance tasks and used to make judgments related to performance or product based on these characteristics and criteria.” Rubric is a scoring tool showing what needs to be considered as criteria when different parts of a performance task is assessed (e.g. purpose, composition, details, 286

wording and rules to be taken into account for an essay) and defining quality levels for each criteria from excellent to poor (Goodrich, 1996-1997; Saddler & Andrade, 2004; Hibbard & Wagner, 2013). Rubrics are measurement tools defining qualities to be considered in a performance task given to students according to certain characteristics and levels (e.g. very good, good, average, poor, very poor). They serve as a guide for students since they determine excellent qualities for the product resulting from the performance. According to Popham (2000), “rubrics shed light to teaching and are better guides for scoring compared to other tools; they guide the improvement of teaching.” (as cited in Gunning, 2014: 133). With this approach, Popham points out that an appropriately designed rubric will make great contributions to teaching quality. According to Arter (2002: 15), the use of rubrics has two important purposes. The first purpose is to track the development of the student and collect information for teaching planning by learning objectives. The second purpose is to help the student to become even more sufficient in performance or product assessment. According to Boston (2000: 84), rubrics are a valuable assessment method because “they measure progress toward the achievement of complex learning targets such as problem solving and communication, spell out the criteria to be used for evaluating a product or a task, thus helping students internalize the standards for high quality and teachers make fair and accurate judgments about student achievement and areas for further growth, and increase student and teacher engagement in learning”. Rubrics make it possible to define what is expected at each level and is more beneficial when used as a teaching tool rather than an assessment tool. From the knowledge that they acquire through rubrics, students can learn how to improve themselves (Moskal & Leydens, 2000; Blumberg, 2009; Danielson & Dragoon, 2013). These definitions help students understand what they need in future studies and how many points they will receive from each section. Designing rubrics The determination how many levels to use for assessment of observables in student performance with a rubric is related to assessor's decision related to splitting and definition of features and levels appropriately. According to Gunning (2014: 135) “When there are more than three levels, the middle level is split into two or three parts.” When the middle section is split into two parts, a four-level rubric is obtained, and when middle section is split into three parts, a five-level rubric is obtained. As the level is divided into more parts, it becomes more difficult to define qualities and differentiate levels. Gunning (2014: 135) mentions that four levels should be sufficient. As can be understood from explanations, it should be considered that definition of features and the number of levels depend on the assessor. Tekindal (2005: 508) highlights that care should be taken when dividing levels and gives the following warning: “Too much or too little splitting should be avoided. Too little splitting results in a rough measurement. Too much splitting leads to difficulties in differentiation and the method consumes too much time for.” It becomes more difficult to define distinctive qualities, and it takes more time to prepare the rubric. If the assessment process is taken into account as well, it will consume even more time. Gunning (2014: 135) states that for rubrics to be effective, they should be short and compact. Otherwise, both the teacher and the student may get lost in details. Also, 287

the author notes that each assessment criterion should cover a teachable skill. According to Lund (2006: 16), rather than observing behavior, it should be aimed to demonstrate the absence of behavior in both analytic and holistic rubrics. For rubrics to be used effectively, the elements of the feature, level and definition should be consistent. “Points on the tool should be defined in a meaningful way. For a careful selection of changing adverbs and adjectives, the rubric is provided in a manner appropriate for observers. Identifiers (adjectives showing meanings of points) should have a meaning common to all responders.” (Tekindal, 2005: 508). Naturally, qualifying words must be used in the scoring of features/criteria and to demonstrate the quality of levels. For example, words such as effective, attractive, precise, solid are used to demonstrate top level, words such as appropriate, relevant are used to demonstrate middle level and words such as irrelevant, inaccurate are used to demonstrate bottom level. Thus, the quality is determined, and the difference between levels is understood. If adverbs and adjectives (qualifying words) fall short regarding showing different levels, assessors cannot make an accurate assessment. If qualifying words in the rubric are organized in a way that students will not understand, they cannot follow instructions given in the rubric (since they cannot understand them). Rubrics are not cast in cement. They are flexible, adaptable grading tools that become better and better the more times we use them (Stevens & Levi, 2013: 93). There is no strict rule or standard for rubric preparation, and a strict rule cannot be set. However, a rubric should possess certain characteristics (Graf, 2004: 44). According to Mertler (2001), the following steps should be followed when preparing a rubric: 1. Re-examine the learning objectives to be addressed by the task. 2. Identify specific observable attributes that you want to see (as well as those you don’t want to see) your students demonstrate in their product, process, or performance. 3. Brainstorm characteristics that describe each attribute. Identify ways to describe above average, average, and below average performance for each observable attribute identified in Step 2. 4. a) For holistic rubrics, write thorough narrative descriptions for excellent work and poor work incorporating each attribute into the description. Describe the highest and lowest levels of performance combining the descriptors for all attributes. b) For analytic rubrics, write thorough narrative descriptions for excellent work and poor work for each attribute. 5. a) For holistic rubrics, complete the rubric by describing other levels on the continuum that ranges from excellent to poor work for the collective attributes. b) For analytic rubrics, complete the rubric by describing other levels on the continuum that ranges from excellent to poor work for each attribute. 6. Collect samples of student work that exemplify each level. 7. Revise the rubric, as necessary. Be prepared to reflect on the effectiveness of the rubric and revise it before its next implementation. It is not a coincidence that rubrics have a special place in assessment; rubrics are an indication of a good, accurate and complete assessment. Rubrics are time-savers for teachers (Wilson, 2006: 2). Because “criteria” are defined in assessments made using rubrics. The teacher can rapidly make assessments according to these criteria. However, it should be noted that criteria can be time-consuming to prepare. Also, as in the preparation of other assessment tools, opinions and the help of different individuals (experts, teachers, auditors, etc.) should be taken about assessment characteristics when 288

creating a rubric. “When facing the task of developing a rubric for an assessment, many teacher practitioners employ the strategy of ‘adopt and adapt’, taking an intact rubric and modifying it for the local assessment context.” (Janssen, Meier & Trace, 2015: 53). Rubrics are divided into two according to the scoring method: holistic rubrics and analytic rubrics. These two types of rubrics will later be discussed in detail. To mention the difference between preparation of these two types of rubrics, we can say that holistic rubrics are used to score more general qualities, whereas analytic rubrics are used to score more specific qualities. Holistic Scoring and Holistic Rubrics Assessors making a holistic scoring give a single grade by reviewing the performance quickly and subjectively. In holistic scoring, since the product/result is a whole, the teacher is influenced by the entire product, rather than being over-influenced by an important aspect of it (Wolcott & Legg 1998; Burke, 2010; Gunning, 2014). However, when the entire product is taken into account, a few features shine out, and the assessor can award an undeservedly high grade for a mediocre product, or similarly, can punish the student by giving an undeservedly poor grade for a good product. For this reason, holistic assessment is criticized by several experts. Elbow (2000: 454-455) suggests that, although holistic scoring seems to be a normal, acceptable and attractive method to people, it is a poor assessment method. The author mentions that a lot of people discuss serious problems and question the validity of holistic scoring. In a holistic assessment, points are given using holistic rubrics. If the holistic scoring is to be used to assess performance, the rubric must be holistic as well. As far as construct goes, holistic rubrics are limited regarding obtaining complete and accurate data from students. That is a difficult way to improve students with a mediocre or poor performance in particular. It is difficult to prepare a holistic rubric, because when all features are listed, it is hard to differentiate a level from another. On the other hand, it is easier to apply as a scoring tool compared to an analytic rubric, because it requires the teacher to give only a single point (Martin-Kniep, 2000: 35). Giving only a single point does not consume much time. This section attempts to explain Elbow's and Martin-Kniep’s opinions using the holistic rubric suggested by Akyol with the title of “holistic writing assessment form.” A student may be “aware of the purpose of the writing and the target audience” (4), while his or her “use of words is very limited and wrong” (1). Concerning the description of “writing is not consistent with the subject” (no scoring), although there is consistency, a student may use “his or her language skills effectively with the good choice of words” (5). More examples can be given. The point here is that qualities related to the choice of words may be “good,” while qualities related to an organization are “poor.” Combining these separate parts in a whole is difficult. In this regard, holistic rubrics are aimed at assessing writing assignments such as essays which require a combination of multiple skills as a whole, not separately. Certain mistakes may be made if all features presented by the student are described as very good or very poor in a general assessment. For this reason, this type of rubrics may not be useful to assess a writing or a product resulting from a performance. Analytic rubrics may be more useful since they separately assess the features mentioned above.

289

Table 1: A Holistic Rubric Example (Akyol, 2006: 248) Score 4

Description Writing is very clear and well organized. The student is aware of the purpose of the writing and the target audience. Writing is made more comprehensive original details. The student used his or her language skills effectively with the good choice of words. Once the subject is stated in an appropriate manner, it is developed effectively within the framework of the main idea. 3 Writing is consistent, organized and comprehensive. The student has spelling and language skills. The student can use different words. The student can determine the subject and develop it partially around the main idea. 2 Writing is about the subject, yet not developed sufficiently. Not well organized. There are spelling and grammar mistakes. The use of words is limited and weak. The subject is clear. However, details and examples supporting the main idea are weak. 1 Writing is confusing and inconsistent. There are many spelling and grammar mistakes. The use of words is very limited and wrong. The subject is determined. However, no explanations and examples are given. No Writing is illegible. scoring The student gave a blank paper. Writing is not consistent with the subject. No subject or main idea.

Analytic Scoring and Analytic Rubrics Analytic scoring is to score of parts that make up a product separately. To this end, qualities which must be possessed by a performance are required to be determined. Different quality pieces determined are assessed separately. “In analytic scoring, possible answers to the question and all elements of these answers are separately and carefully written and scoring weights to be given for each answer are determined according to certain criteria. How to behave in the face of correct, partially correct and exaggerative answers given by students, i.e. scoring rules, is determined in advance. Also, rules related to what an acceptable answer looks like and concepts, ideas, input, and volume which an acceptable answer contain are determined. Factors that are irrelevant to learning outcomes to be measured and may affect scoring are defined, and it is demonstrated how these factors affect the scoring.” (Tekindal, 2005:501). Analytic scoring used in assessment overcome limited definitions of holistic scoring and assess specific qualities (Faigley, Cherry, Jolliffe & Skinner, 1985: 104). What is meant by “specific qualities” is that features of the rubric are split into sections? Scientists discuss whether analytic scoring is just a different form of holistic scoring. Some suggest that holistic scoring is not holistic since it depends on analytic methods (e.g. E. White, 1985). However, “most scientists agree on that analytic scoring is broader, more detailed and more useful.” (Babin; Harrison, 1999: 117). 290

Analytic scoring help with determining good and weak aspects in products of a student via regular and detailed feedback. If the teacher is well trained about assessment, they can develop effective assessment tools. Teachers can learn how to improve their writing teaching with analytic scoring and what changes to make in analytic scoring through feedback that they provide to students. The downside of analytic assessment is that it takes a lot of time (Weigle, 2002; Janssen et al., 2015). In this regard, it is very difficult to use this assessment model for teachers who work in crowded classrooms or have a high number of courses per week. When it is considered that preparing an analytic rubric will take a lot of time as well, the difficulty of using such a model can be better understood. However, it may be possible to overcome these difficulties if teachers with a good training in both preparing analytic rubrics and using them for assessment develop a quality rubric and apply these on a regular basis. If the analytic scoring method is to be used in a performance assessment, the rubric must be analytic as well. Martin-Kniep (2005: 35) summarizes the difference between a rubric and other assessment tools as follows: “Analytic rubrics are grading scales which show level differences between definitions and performance; however they are different from checklists, scoring scales and holistic rubrics. They are not like checklists; checklists looks for the presence or absence of quality. They are different from scoring keys; scoring keys mostly demonstrate quality regarding a grade. They are different from holistic rubrics; holistic rubrics give a general assessment related to quality. As a result, analytic rubrics determine all qualitative needs for quality or improvement in a process, production or definition of differences at all levels of a performance and feature.” Since rubrics are designed in a way that they will cover both the entire text and a part of the text, analytic rubrics may involve a holistic measure as a scoring category. One of the difficulties in this approach is that it is inevitable to have overlapping criteria when establishing the holistic measure and other assessed elements (Moskal & Leydens, 2000). Since analytic rubrics attempt to demonstrate the situation of each specific quality of a product in the entire product individually, this “overlapping” of criteria should be taken naturally. Because all parts that make up a product are associated. For example, the role of words cannot be ignored in a good sentence of an essay. It is necessary to consider the role of length of sentences as well as the integrity of the subject in a good paragraph. Comparison of Holistic and Analytic Rubrics In general, features and qualities are written next to levels in the holistic rubrics and levels are ordered from the top level to the bottom level. In analytic rubrics, features are usually written vertically from top to bottom and levels are placed from left to right. The qualifying description of the feature at that level at the junction of the two of them. In this regard, analytic rubrics are more detailed even in shape. Other differences between holistic and analytic rubrics are shown in the table below. The scoring in analytic rubric is clearer compared to holistic rubric since it defined qualities with clearer expressions. In this regard, it has higher reliability.Since a single score is given in holistic scoring rubric, it may not be used for all cases. The analytic rubric is more useful since it assesses performance separately. For example, it is possible to each aspect of an essay individually. Many resources highlight that holistic rubrics are relatively faster and easier to 291

prepare and apply compared to analytic rubrics. “Analytic scoring takes more time since different qualities are scored” (Danielson & Dragoon, 2013). The assessor may need to review a product multiple times when scoring each feature. Table 2: Comparison of Holistic and Analytic Scoring Rubrics (Weigle, 2002: 121) Quality Reliability Validity

Practicality Impact

Authenticity

Holistic Scoring lower than analytic, but still acceptable assume that all relevant aspects of writing ability develop at the same rate and can thus be captured in a single score; correlate with superficial aspects such as length and handwriting relatively fast and easy single score may mask an uneven writing profile and may lead to misleading placements White(1995) argues that reading holistically is a more natural process than reading analytically

Analytic Scoring higher than holistic gives different grades to different aspects of writing ability time-consuming; expensive more scales provide useful diagnostic information for placement and/or instruction; more useful for rater training Raters may read holistically and adjust analytic scores to match holistic impressions

While it is possible to explain with analytic rubrics whether there is a relationship between parts that make up the whole, holistic rubrics prevent revealing these relationships. Many researchers emphasize that analytic rubric is more authentic. This is debatable for holistic rubrics. However some researchers suggest that holistic rubrics are useful for assessment of writing ability in lower classes. BENEFITS OF RUBRICS The use of rubrics prepared and developed in line with explanations above has many benefits. The major benefits of u rubrics can be listed as follows (Martin-Kniep, 2000; Moskal & Leydens, 2000; Wilson 2006, Quinlan, 2011; Brookhart, 2013; Stevens & Levi, 2013; Gunning, 2014; Chow  Woodford, 2014.): • Rubrics are useful to describe the process, performance, and product. Rubrics allow for the exchange between the process and the construct in the development of cooperative learning, discussion, critical thinking and thinking habits. As seen in the table above, rubrics can be used for assessing performance in terms of both process and products in various courses as painting, music, language, linguistics, science and social sciences etc. • A well-structured rubric should clearly state key concepts for students to complete the task they were given and produced an excellent product. This help both the teacher and the student to consider skills necessary for success. • Rubrics are very useful for teachers since they are tools which allow students understand what information they need to use to become successful, contain what is requested from students and help teachers classify work produced by students. Once a rubric is prepared, even if the teacher does not share this with students, the rubric will positively affect teaching in the development process since the preparation is an effort that clearly states what the teacher asks for.

292

Table 3: Types of Performances that can be Assessed with Rubrics (Brookhart, 2013: 5) Types of performances Process Phssical skills Use of equipment Oral communication Work habits Products Constructed objects Written essays, themes, reports, term papers Other academic products that demonstrate understanding of concepts

Examples Playing a musical instrument Doing a forward roll Preparing a slide fort the microscope Making speech to the class Reading aloud Conversing in a foreign language Working independently Wooden Bookshelf Set of welds Handmade apron Watercolor painting Laboratory report Term paper on theatrical conventions ih Shakespeare’s day Written analysis of the effects of the Marshall Plan Model or diagram of a structure (atom, flower, planetars system, etc.) Concept map

• Students can make use of rubrics and recognize characteristics of the sample work. Rubrics help students during the production process and support them when continuing to improve the resulting product, which may increase their performance and success level. • Rubrics can be used in every field since they show that the teacher made the grading correctly. Rubrics allow parents and administrators to see the criteria set by the teacher to assess works of students. Since they reveal features sought in a good work, rubrics help with the improvement of the quality of work produced by students. • Rubrics help with preparation of products using original examples/models outside school such as worksheets, museum visits, laboratory reports, research papers, short stories, poems and other literary products. Rubrics are not for teachers only. They can be used for self-assessment or peerassessment by students. Also, parents may assume the role of assessor when students are assigned homework. For students to understand rubrics, they may be prepared with students and always written in a language that students can understand (Andrade, 2001). If terms and expressions that cannot be understood by students are used, it becomes difficult or even impossible for students to make an assessment. CONCLUSION Rubrics are used as alternative assessment tools for assignments other than exams (e.g. homework, project, experiment, performance, etc.) are in questions. Rubrics, which allow for authentic learning and provide a flexible and more accurate assessment, can be used in almost all courses to determine objectives, characteristics and for assessment. Frequently used holistic rubrics are relatively faster and easier to prepare and apply. Analytic rubrics are relatively more time-consuming and cumbersome to prepare and apply. However, it is accepted that analytic rubrics are more advantageous in that they help with teaching and give more accurate results in assessment regarding validity and reliability.

293

REFERENCES Akyol, H. (2006). Yeni Programa Uygun Türkçe Öğretim Yöntemleri. Kök Yayıncılık, 346 s., Ankara. Alter, C.  Adkins, C. (2006). Assessing Student Writing Proficiency in Graduate Schools of Social Work. Journal of Social Work Education 42: (2), 337-354. Andrade, H. G. (2001). The Effects of Instructional Rubrics on Learning to Write. Current Issues in Education 4: (4). http://cie.asu.edu/ojs/index.php/cieatasu/article/view/1630 Arter, J. (2002). Rubrics, Scoring Guides, and Performance Criteria. In: Carol Boston (Ed.) Understanding Scoring Rubrics a Guide for Teachers. Chapter 1, p. 14-24, Office of Educational Research and Improvement: Washington. Aschbacher, P.R. (1991). Performance Assessment State Activity, Interests, and Concerns. Applied Measurement in Education 4: (4), 275-288. Babin, E.  Harrison K. (1999). Contemporary Composition Studies a Guide to Theorist  Terms. Grenwood Publishing, 338 pp., Portsmouth. Baldwin, D. (2004). A Guide to Standardized Writing Assessment. Educational Leadership 62: (1), 72-75. Blumberg, P. (2009). Developing learner-centered teaching: A practical guide for faculty. John Wiley & Sons, 314 pp., San Francisco. Boston, C. (2002). Scoring Rubric Resources and Review. In: Carol Boston (Ed.) Understanding Scoring Rubrics a Guide for Teachers. Chapter 4, p. 82-89, Office of Educational Research and Improvement: Washington. Brookhart, S.M. (2013). How to Create and Use Rubrics for Formative Assessment and Grading. ASCD, 158 pp., Alexandria. Brualdi, A. (2002). Implementing Performance Assessment in the Classroom. In: Carol Boston (Ed.) Understanding Scoring Rubrics a Guide for Teachers. Chapter 1, p. 1-4, Office of Educational Research and Improvement: Washington. Burke, K. (2010). From standards to rubrics in six steps: Tools for assessing student learning. Corwin Press, 218 pp., California. Buzzetto-More, N.A.  Alade, A.J. (2006). Best Practices in e-Assessment. Journal of Information Technology Education 5: 251-269. Büyükkaragöz, S. S. (1997). Program Geliştirme Kaynak Metinler. Öz Eğitim Yayınları, 311 s., Konya. Chow, A.F  Woodford, K.C. (2014). Analytic Rubrics for Decision Making. In: John Wang, (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Business Analytics and Optimization. Vol. 1, p. 104-114, IGI Global: Hershey. Cohen, L.  Manion L. (1994). Research Methods in Education. Routledge, 758 pp., Newyork. Çelik, D. (2005). Okullarda Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Nasıl Olmalı? Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları, 229 s., Ankara. Çetin, B.  Kelecioğlu, H. (2004). Kompozisyon Tipi Sınavlarda Kompozisyonun Biçimsel Özelliklerinden Kestirilen Puanların Anahtarlarla ve Genel İzlenimle Elde Edilen Puanlarla İlişkisi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 26: 19-26. Danielson, C. & Dragoon, J. (2013). A Collection of Performance Tasks & Rubrics: Upper Elementary Mathematics. Routledge, 189 pp., New York. Elbow, P. (2000). Everyone Can Write Essays Toward a Hopeful Theory of Writing and Teaching Writing. Oxford Universiy Press, 471 pp., New York. Erkuş, A. (2006). Sınıf Öğretmenleri için Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Kavramlar ve Uygulamalar. Ekinoks Yayınları, 120 s., Ankara. 294

Faigley, L.; Cherry, R.D.; Jolliffe, D. & Skinner, A. (1985). Assessing Writers: Knowledge and Processes of Composing. Ablex Publishing, 278 pp., New Jersey. Fleischer, C. (2004). Professional Development for Teacher-Writers. Educational Leadership 62: (1), 24-27. Goodrich, H. (1996-1997). Understanding Rubrics. Educational Leadership 54: 14-17. Graf, D. (2004). Rubrics: Score on Efor the Instructor an Done for the Student. Distance Learning 4: 43-45. Gunning, T. G. (2014). Assessing and Correcting Reading and Writing Difficulties. Pearson Education Inc., 648 pp., Boston. Hibbard, K. M., & Wagner, E. (2013). Assessing and Teaching Reading Composition and Pre-Writing, K-3 (Vol. 1). Routledge, 208 pp., New York. Janssen, G.; Meier, V. & Trace J. (2015). Building a Better Rubric: Mixed Methods Rubric Revision. Assessing Writing 26: 51-66. Kan, A. (2007). Performans Değerlendirme Sürecine Katkıları Açısından Yeni Program Anlayışı İçerisinde Kullanılabilecek Bir Değerlendirme Yaklaşımı: Rubrik Puanlama Yönergeleri. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri 7: (1), 129-152. Lund, J. (2006). Creating Rubrics for NCATE Reports. Journal of Physical Education 77: (3), 13-18. Martin-Kniep, G. O. (2000). Becoming a Beter Teacher: Eight Innovations That Work. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development, 148 pp., Alexandria. Mertler, C.A. (2001). Designing Scoring Rubrics for Your Classroom. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 7: (25), 1-10. Moskal, B. M. & Leydens, J. A. (2000). Scoring Rubric Development: Validity and Reliability. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7: (10), 71-81. Orlich, D.C.; Harder; R.J.; Callahan, R.C. & Gibson, H.W. (1998). Teaching Strategies a Guide to Beter Instruction. Houghton Mifflin Company, 432 pp., Boston. Özden, Y. (2003): Öğrenme ve Öğretme. Pegem A Yayıncılık, 257 s., Ankara. Quinlan, A. M. (2011). A Complete Guide to Rubrics: Assessment Made Easy for Teachers K- College. R&L Education, 214 pp., Plymouth. Saddler, B. & Andrade, H. (2004): The Writing Rubric. Educational Leadership 62: (1), 48-52. Selke, M.J.G. (2013). Rubric Assessment Goes to College: Objective, Comprehensive Evaluation of Student Work. R&L Education, 184 pp., Plymouth. Stevens, D. D., & Levi, A. J. (2013). Introduction to Rubrics: An Assessment Tool to Save Grading Time, Convey Effective Feedback, and Promote Student Learning. Stylus Publishing LLC., 131 pp., Sterling. Tekindal, S. (2005). Hayat Bilgisi ve Sosyal Bilgiler Derslerinde Ölçme ve Değerlendirme. Cemil Öztürk (Ed.) Hayat Bilgisi ve Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi kitabı içinde (bölüm 15, s. 395-449) Pegem A Yayıncılık: Ankara. Turgut, M. F. (1990). Eğitimde Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Metotları. Saydam Matbaacılık, 293 s., Ankara. Urquhart, V. & McIver, M. (2005). Teaching Writing in the Content Areas. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development, 119 pp., Alexandria. Weigle, S.C. (2002). Assessing Writing. Cambridge University Press, 271 pp., Cambridge. White, E.M. (1985): Teaching and Assessing: Recent Advances in Understanding Evaluating and Improving Student Performance. Jossey-Bass, 331 pp., San Francisco. Wilson, M. (2006). Rethinking Rubrics in Writing Assessment. Heinemann, 136 pp., Portsmouth. Wolcott, W. & Legg, S.M. (1998): An Overview of Writing Assessment: Theory, Research and Practice. National Council of Teachers of English, 206 pp., Urbana. 295

Chapter 23 Assessment of Certificate Program Pedagogical Formation Education Students in Terms of Their Technopedagogic Field Information Competencies and Attitudes towards Teaching Profession Murat TUNCER, Melih DİKMEN

INTRODUCTION Technology and technological developments increasingly appear in human life day by day. As a result of that, learners and employees feel the need of constantly renewing and developing themselves. The development of technology has brought along change as well in the education sector as well as many other industries. Developments in the field of education have reflected positively on technology. Technological developments also enriched the educational activities, and led to the emergence of different teaching styles. Because of that technology plays an intensive part in our lives, it has been admitted in general that it has significant effects on learning and behaviors of human (Senel and Gençoglu, 2003; Martinovic and Zhang, 2012; Celik, et.al, 2009). According to Usta and Korkmaz (2010)’s opinions, teachers and students are also expected to have knowledge and awarenes in the field information and communication technologies as well as having the perception of competence for computer use. Teacher qualifications have very important influence on advancing quality of learning outcomes to upper level. One of the features of qualified teachers is to have competency of using information and communication technologies in a dynamic way in the teaching-learning processes (Seferoglu, 2004; Celik and Kahyaoglu 2007; Usta and Korkmaz, 2010; Akinci, Kurtoglu and Seferoglu, 2012). The use of technology in schools is considerably important (Akkoyunlu, 1995; Turan, 2002;Askar and Olkun, 2005; Ozturk, 2013). Teacher’s use of technology in education in a dynamic way means using information of educational field(FI), pedagogical information (PI) and technological information as being integrated with each other. Using these information as being integrated with each other gained the concept, named Technological Pedagogical Field Information (TPFI) , to the literature. TPFI reveals a structure constituted by addition of technology and field of information from Koehler ve Mishra (2005) to the pedagogical field, gained to the literature by Shulman (1986), and blending these three variables (technological information, pedagogical information and field information) with each other. Regarding main components of TPFI; “Technology” covers the relationships between (computer, internet, video, interactive blackboard, e-book and so on tools), “Pedagogy” covers the relationships between ( how teachers get information, how they configure it, how they 

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Fırat University Education Faculty, Dept. of Educ. Sciences    Expert, Fırat University, Distance Training Center 



develop positive attitudes towards learning,learning and teaching methods, strategies, processes), and “field-content” information covers the relationships between (basic concepts that teachers learn and teach, and those in their own educational fields) (Kuskaya-Mumcu et.al., 2008; Kula, 2015). There are seven components of TPFI(Mishra and Koehler, 2006). These components and their meanings are as follows;  Field Information(FI) : Information that educator will learn and teach regarding his branch.  Pedagogical Information (PI): Teaching approaches, strategies and the knowledge of what approach would be appropriate for the subject to be taught.  Technological Information (TI): Knowledge of more advanced technologies such as digital video, internet.  Pedagogical Field Information(PFI):Usage of pedagogical information with field information together.  Technological Pedagogical Information(TPI): Information about how teaching can be changed by using certain technological devices in the teaching environments.  Technological Field Information (TFI): Information in which technology and field information are interrelated.  Technological Pedagogical Field Information(TPFI):Consists of a combination of technology, pedagogy and field information and is the whole of information, different from each part of the whole and far more further of them It seems that there is a tendency toward use of technology for educational purposes. Therefore, change of teacher qualifications is inevitable (Sunbul, 2001; Sonmez, 2003). Indeed, there has been a transformation toward understanding of techno pedagogics, in which pedagogical field information and technology are integrated, and which will keep teacher training and defining of competencies from the effect of behavioral approach (TEA, 2009). Especially recently, it has been seen that technology couldn’t be integrated into the classroom environments despite the large investment made to classroom technology (Kayaduman, Sırakaya and Seferoglu, 2011; Ciftci, Taskaya and Alemdar, 2013). It has been stated in the literature that effective field competencies such as love, values and adaptation towards their profession, as well as cognitive and psychomotor education they receive (McKeachie, 1997) have substantially been effective on teachers’ professional development efforts such as improving the qualifications they have, use of technology in learning environments (Celikoz and Cetin, 2004) Therefore, having positive attitude towards their profession is important for professional development and achievements of teachers. Teachers’ professional attitudes affect students' personality development, teacherstudent relations, teachers' professional successes, and accordingly students’ learning processes (Guclu, 2000; Kucukahmet, 1976; Yasar, Sozer and Gultekin, 2000; Morgan, 1999; Er-dem, Gezer and Cokadar, 2005). That is why a part of educational studies mentioned about teachers’ attitudes and teachers candidates’ attitudes towards teaching profession. Capa and Cil (2000), Dogan and Çoban (2009), Terzi and Tezci (2007), Pehlivan (2008), Kaya and Buyukkasap (2005), Bozdogan, Aydın and Yıldırım (2007), Aslan and Akyol (2006), Hacıomeroglu and Sahin-Taskın (2010) can be given as examples for studies, mentioning about attitudes towards teaching profession. Some studies investigated attitudes of teacher candidates who are not graduate of a faculty of education, towards teaching profession and thus, status of being a student or graduate 297

of faculty of education was intented to reveal in terms of attitude towards profession. It was reported in the studies (Kavcar, 1998; Eraslan and Cakıcı, 2011) performed that students who selected different career field at first have to be investigated from many aspects such as becoming teacher candidate later on, their professional competences, and attitudes towards the profession. Undoubtedly, teachers’ development of positive attitudes towards the profession depends on many variables. TPFI is considered to be one of these variables. Teachers’ abilities and challenges of using of technological elements in classroom will have effect on their professional attitudes to some extent. It was seen when some studies ( Gomleksiz and Fidan, 2011; Dundar and Karaca, 2013; Polat, 2013; Altinkurt, Yılmaz, and Erol, 2014) were examined that despite pedagogical formation program students’ attitudes towards teaching profession were examined in terms of many variables, the relationship between their these attitudes and TPFI competencies weren’t examined. Pedagogical information received during formation education; information towards field information, received during undergraduate education; perception towards technology may be effective on a teacher candidate’s attitude towards teaching profession. On the basis of this basic supposition, perceptions of teacher candidates, studying in pedagogical formation training certificate program, towards technological pedagogical field information, their attitudes towards the teaching profession and the relationships between them were investigated in this study. METHOD The relationship between teacher candidates’ TPFI competencies and ATTP was investigated in this study. Therefore, the study was carried out in compliance with relational screening method. Karasar (2009) defines the studies, which attempts to describe and explain “identity” of events, objects, assets, organizations, groups, and various areas, as descriptive studies. In comparison of opinions towards scales of ATTF and TPFI; analysis was performed through independent groups t test and one-way analysis of variance in case distribution is homogeneous; it was performed through t-test and Kruskal-Wallis H test where variances are not homogeneous in case distribution isn’t homogeneous. The cases in which differences of opinions were identified at a significant level were transferred into tables due to excessiveness of sub-diemensions of both scales. Effect sizes of the cases having difference of opinion at a significant level were also calculated in the study. In interpretation of the effect sizes, the ranges specified by Green and Salkind (1997; Cit. Buyukozturk, Cokluk and Köklü, 2012) (.01 Small, .06: Medium, .14: large effect size) and Cohen's effect sizes (1988) (≥ 0.5: powerful, ≥ 0.3: intermediate and weak ≥ .01) were assessed together (Cit. Gliner, Morgan and Leech, 2015). Correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between the scales. Finally, whether TPFI sub-dimensions predicts attitudes towards teaching profession was determined by multiple regression analysis. Universe and Sample Universe of the study was constituted of students registered in the pedagogical formation training certificate training program of Firat University Faculty of Education. Sample of the study was constituted of 386 student candidates selected according to purposive sampling from the universe. The criteria such as having teaching experience or receiving the lesson of teaching practice, to volunteer to participate in the study, availability at the moment of implementation of collection tool, receiving coeducation 298

were considered in the sample selection. homogeneously formed groups were excluded from the study. The distribution of the teacher candidates constituting the sample, according to the branches they receive education for, are as follows: Justice (N = 22, 5.7%), German philology (N = 12, 3.1%), Coaching (N = 25, 6.5%), Geography (n = 45, 11.7%) Philosophy (n = 23, 6.0%), Public relations (N = 8, 2.1%), Nursing (n = 84, 21.8%), Theology (n = 29, 7.5%), Business administration (N = 11, 2.8%), Public administration (N = 3, 0.8%), Engineering (N43, 11.1%), Sociology (n = 10, 2.6%), History (n = 35, 9.1%) and Literature (N = 36, 9.3%). Thus, opinions of 14 teacher candidates from different branches were collected. Data Collection Tools The first data collection tool of the study is teaching profession attitude scale consisting of 35 items, developed by Cetin (2006).Each student, answering the graded scale according to five point likert scale, responded every positive item in five subscale sizes as follows : “5: Completely Agree; 4: Agree; 3: Undecided; 2: Disagree; 1: Absolutely Disagree”. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the whole scale was calculated as.929 in this study. The second data collection tool of the study is Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge Scale developed by Sahin (2011).The scale consists of 47 items and seven dimensions (Technology Information (TI), Pedagogical Information (PI), Contents (Field ) Information (FI),Technological Pedagogical Information (TPI), Pedagogical Field Information (PFI), Technological Field Information (TFI), Technological Pedagogical Field Information (TPFI). 76.10% of variance is explained by seven dimensions of scale. Scale is graded as follows:1) I don't know at all 2), I know at lower level (3), I know at intermediate level (4), I know at good level (5) and I know at very good level. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the whole scale was calculated as .974 in this study. FINDINGS Whether any significant difference of opinion occurs between teacher candidates’ opinions in terms of gender variable, the first independent variable of the study, was compared by independent groups t-test. In comparisons for gender between ATTF and TPFI scales and sub dimensions, a difference of opinion at significant level was found only at TP sub dimension, and results for this case is given in Table 1. Table1. Comparison of opinions of TP sub dimension of TPFI scale in terms of gender Scale Dim. Group TPFI TI

N

x SD Sh x

t

t Test df p

Female 261 2,89 ,86 ,053 -3,16 383 ,002* Male 125 3,19 ,90 ,080 *<.05

Effect Size ,026

As seen in Table 1, when opinions for sub dimensions of ATTF and TPFI scales were compared according to gender variable, a difference of opinion at significant level was found only at TI sub dimension of TPFI scale (t=-3.16; p<.05) , in favour of male teacher candidates. Effect size determined was calculated as.026. The second independent variable of the study is classroom where education is 299

received. It was seen that classroom variable, whole ATTF (t=.-168; p>.05) scale, and sub dimensions of love (t=.137; p>.05), value (t=.-504; p>.05) and adaptation (t=.666; p>.05) didn’t differentiate at significant level. It was determined that teacher candidates’ opinions didn’t change according to classroom variable at sub-dimensions of TPFI (t=.-193; p>.05) scale and its sub dimensions exhibiting normal distribution function including TI (t=.-642; p>.05), FI(t=1.25; p>.05), TPI (t=-1.06; p>.05), PFI (t=.050; p>.05), TPFI(t=.333; p>.05) , and at its sub dimensions, not exhibiting normal distribution function including PI (U=14557,000; p>.05) and TFI (U=14802,500; p>.05). In the study, it was also intented to investigate whether frequency of daily computer use is a variable, creating a difference at significant level in terms of ATTF and TPFI. But, due to presence of important differences between numbers of people in the groups in terms of frequency of daily computer use, Kruskall Wallis H test was used for analysis of data. The results of this test are given in Table 2. Table 2. Results of Kruskal Wallis H test, where ATTF and TPFI- oriented opinions were compared according to frequency of daily computer use Scale

Dim.

Chi-Square Df p Dif.(*) ES Love 1,254 3 ,740 Value ,399 3 ,940 ATTF Adapt 1,438 3 ,697 Whole ,248 3 ,970 TI 30,981 3 ,000* 1<2, 1<3, 2<3 ,005 PI 1,810 3 ,613 FI 1,164 3 ,762 TPI 3,366 3 ,339 TPFI TFI 10,852 3 ,013* 1<2 ,028 PFI 3,796 3 ,284 TPFI 7,164 3 ,067 Whole 10,07 3 ,018* 1<2, 1<3 ,019 ** Frequency of daily computer use :1 (Never), 2(1-3 Hours), 3(4-6 Hours), 4 (7 hours and more), ES: Effect Size , <> The size of the group average

As shown in Table 2, it is seen as a result of K.W.H. analysis that, there is not a difference of opinion at significant level at whole ATTF scale and its sub dimensions and between sub dimensions of PI, FI, TPI, PFI, TPIF of TPFI scale and daily computer use (p> .05). A difference of opinion was determined at significant level, among teacher candidates stating frequency of daily computer use as “None” in terms of whole TPFI and of TP sub dimension and those stating frequency of daily computer use as“1-3 hours ” and “4-6”. Similarly, a difference of opinion was determined at significant level, among teacher candidates stating frequency of daily computer use as “None” in terms of whole TPFI and of TFI sub dimension and those stating frequency of daily computer use as“1-3 hours (p<.5). Determined effect size is at weak level in TP dimension (.005 ), weak level in TIF dimension (.028 ) and weak level in TPFI WHOLE (.019). In the study, whether there is a difference between the opinions towards ATTF and TPFI at significant level was investigated according to income level perceived. Since 300

number of people stating their income status as high is 14, analysis was performed according to Kruskall Wallis H test, one of non-parametric tests. Findings for this analysis are shown in Table 3. Table 3.Results of Kruskal Wallis H-Test by which ATTF and TPFI scales and their sub dimensions were compared according to income status Scale Dimension Chi-Square Df p Dif.(*) ES Love 3,433 2 ,180 Value ,958 2 ,619 ATTF Adapt 1,657 2 ,437 Whole 2,701 2 ,259 TI 1,664 2 ,435 PI 2,778 2 ,249 FI 10,786 2 ,005* 2<3 ,030 TPI 7,503 2 ,023* 2<3 ,020 TPFI TFI 10,116 2 ,006* 2<3 ,028 PFI 7,756 2 ,021* 2<3 ,023 TPFI 7,396 2 ,025* 2<3 ,017 Whole 6,930 2 ,031* 2<3 ,019 ** Income status: 1 (Low), 2(Intermediate), 3(High), <> The size of the group average

As a result of K.W.H analysis, a difference of opinion wasn’t determined at significant level towards ATTF scale and its whole sub dimensions and TP, PI sub dimensions of TPFI scales (p> .05).A difference of opinion was determined at significant level between teacher candidates stating their income status as “high”and those stating their income status as “intermediate” in terms of FI, TPI, TFI, PFI, TPFI sub dimensions of TPFI scale (p< .05). Effect size determined was found at intermediate level (.030), in FI dimension, at weak level (.020) in TPI dimension, at weak level (.028) in TFI dimension, at weak level(.023) in PFI dimension, at weak level(.017) in TPFI dimension and at weak level(.019) in TPFI WHOLE dimension. Another independent variable which has been believed to affect attitudes and TPFI competencies towards teaching profession is teaching experience. It was investigated how recognition of the profession and having experience of the profession affected dependent variables of the study. In the comparisons for ATTF, a difference of opinion wasn’t determined at significant level between opinions towards the whole scale ( t=,176; p>.05), love sub dimension(t=,272; p>.05), value sub dimension (t=,128; p>.05) and adaptation sub dimension(t=,178; p>.05) in terms of teaching experience. The results obtained as a result of independent groups t-test performed towards TPFI scale are given in Table 4. As shown in Table 4, a difference of opinion was determined at significant level in favour of those having teaching experience, in terms of sub dimensions of TI (t=2,166; p<.05), PI (t=4,596; p<.05),FI(t=3,977; p<.05), TPI(t=3,869; p<.05), FI(t=4,695; p<.05),PFI(t=4,160; p<.05) and whole TPFI scale (t=4,066; p<.05).Analysis was made according to Mann Whitney U test in the sub dimension of TPFI, where distribution is not homogeneous, and a difference of opinion was determined at significant level in favour of those having teaching experience(U=9899,000; p<.05). Effect size (ES) determined was calculated at weak level (.029), in TI dimension, at 301

strong level (.059) in PI dimension, at intermediate level (.047) in FI dimension, at intermediate level (.045) in TPI dimension, at strong level (.063) in TFI dimension and at intermediate level(.049) in PFI, at weak level (.027), in TPFI dimension and at strong level(.054) in TPFI WHOLE dimension. Table 4. Comparison of the opinions towards TPFI scale and its sub dimension in terms of teaching experience

Dim. TI PI FI TPI TPFI Scale

TFI PFI TPFI Whole

T.Exp.

N

Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

90 296 90 296 90 296 90 296 90 296 90 296 90 296 90 296

ss

X

3.15 2.92 3.46 2.96 3.64 3.24 3.61 3.20 3.47 2.94 3.63 3.18 3.49 3.15 3.43 3.06

0.90 0.87 0.88 0.92 0.86 0.80 0.86 0.87 0.98 0.89 0.91 0.88 1.04 0.84 0.79 0.72

Levene test F p

t test

ES

Df

t

p

,791

,374

377

2,166

,035*

,029

,076

,782

377

4,596

,000*

,059

1,168

,281

377

3,977

,000*

,047

,058

,810

377

3,869

,000*

,045

1,237

,267

377

4,695

,000*

,063

,529

,467

377

4,160

,000*

,049

6,878

,009*

-

-

-

,027

1,608

,206

377

4,066

,000*

,054

The study sample consisted of 14 departmens. Therefore, it was intented to investigate whether there is a difference of opinion according to departments, at a significant level, in such a wide range. Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to analyze the data because of presence of significant differences in number of people in groups in terms of department variable. Results of this test is given in Table 5. Table 5. Results of kruskal wallis h-test by which ATTF and TPFI scales and their sub dimensions were compared Scale

Dim. Love

ATTF Whole

Difference Dept. of Justice Turkish Lang. and Lit. Dept. of Justice Turkish Lang. and Lit.

Chi-Square 25,113

Df 13

p ,022

Dif.(*) Jus.
ES ,011

23,355

13

,038

Jus.
,011

As shown in Table 5, it was determined as a result of K.W.H. analysis that, there is not a significant difference between adaptation and value sub dimensions of ATTF scale and department variable for which individual receive education, in whole TPFI scale and its sub dimensions (p> .05). A difference of opinion was determined at significant level between the students studying at the department of justice and department of Turkish language and literature (TLL), in whole ATTF scale and love subdimension (p<.05). Effect size was calculated at lower level in love sub dimension( .011) and at lower level in attitude WHOLE sub dimension (.011) Correlation analysis was performed to identify in which level a relationship exist between ATTF and TPFI scales as well. The levels of relationship resulted in 302

correlation analysis are given in Table 6. Table 6. Relationship between TPFI and ATTF Correlation N Pearson (r) p Love* FI 386 ,161** ,001 Love* TPI 386 ,147** ,004 Love* TFI 386 ,104* ,040 Love* PFI 386 ,170** ,001 Love* TPFI 386 ,156** ,002 Love* TPFIWHOLE 386 ,110* ,030 Value* FI 386 ,189** ,000 Value* TPI 386 ,152** ,003 Value* TFI 386 ,101* ,047 Value* PFI 386 ,148** ,003 Value* TPFI 386 ,148** ,004 Value* TPFIWHOLE 386 ,125* ,014 Adapt* FI 386 ,158** ,002 Adapt* TPI 386 ,147** ,004 Adapt* TFI* 386 ,111* ,030 Adapt* PFI 386 ,138** ,007 Adapt* TPFI 386 ,133** ,009 Adapt* TPFIWHOLE 386 ,136** ,007 Love* ATTFWHOLE 386 ,952** ,000 TPI* TPFIWHOLE 386 .866** .000 ATTFWHOLE* TPABWHOLE 386 ,131* ,010 Technology Information (TI), Pedagogical Information (PI), Contents (Field ) Information (FI),Technological Pedagogical Information (TPI), Pedagogical Field Information (PFI), Technological Field Information (TFI), Technological Pedagogical Field Information (TPFI).

** Relationship at.001 level, * relationship at.05 level

Positive relationships were found between technological pedagogical field information scale and its all sub dimensions, at significant level. A similar situation was determined between attitude scale towards the teaching profession and its sub dimensions. While the highest correlation was determined in TPI sub dimension(r = .866) for technological pedagogical field information scale; it was determined in love sub dimension(r= .952) for attitude towards teaching profession. The highest correlation was determined between value sub dimension and FI sub dimension (r= .189). Besides, positive relationships were found between love, value and adaptation subdimensions of ATTF scale and TPFI WHOLE FI, TPI, TF, PFI, TPFI sub dimensions of that, at significant level. Also, a positive relationship was found between technological pedagogical field information scale and attitude scale towards teaching profession, at lower level. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION In comparasions performed in terms of gender variable as a result of the study, a significant difference of opinion was determined in favour of male teachers candidates, only in terms of TI sub dimension of TPFI scale. Studies performed by Argon, Ismetoglu and Yılmaz(2015), Bal and Karademir (2013) supports this result obtained in terms of TPFI scale. While it is stated in some studies in the literature (Gezer and Sevim, 2006; Bal and Karademir 2013;) that teacher candidates’ opinions for TI 303

dimension change significantly according to gender, contrary findings was found in some studies (North and Noyes, 2002; Kula, 2015; Sancar-Tokmak, Konokman and Yanpar-Yelken, 2013; Sad, Acıkgul and Delican, 2015; Cuhadar, Bulbul and Ilgaz, 2013).Also it was determined in the studies performed by Demiralay (2008) and Tekin (2007) that, female teachers and teacher candidates’ self-efficacy perceptions towards use of technological devices are higher than male teachers candidates. That male teachers have higher opinions average of TI dimension than female teachers was expressed by male teachers’ positive attitudes towards technology (Dikmen and Cağlar, 2015).Considering effect sizes, gender has lower effect for TI sub dimension of TPFI scale. Another finding of the study is that ATTF scale hasn’t a difference of opinion according to gender variable, in terms of its whole and sub dimensions, at a significant level. While it was determined in some studies (Basbay, Unver and Bumen, 2009; Polat, 2013; Ozkan, 2012; Kartal and Afacan, 2012) that attitude towards teaching profession didn’t change according to gender variable, changing at a significant level was reported in some studies as well.(Capri and Celikkaleli, 2008; Kögce, Aydin and Yildiz, 2009; Durmusoglu, Yanik and Akkoyunlu, 2009; Aydin and Saglam, 2012; Karatekin, Merey and Kece, 2015; Demirtas, Comert and Ozer, 2011; Fadlelmula, 2013). The study was intented to be associated with the frequency of the daily use of technological devices. As a result of the study, according to frequency of the computer use, while there wasn’t a change between teacher candidates’opinions, in whole ATTF scale and its sub dimensions, at a significant level; change was occured in favour of teacher candidates, with high computer using time, in terms of TP, TFI sub dimensions and whole TPFI scale. Increase of teacher candidates’experience duration of technology can lead to increase of their beliefs for this area. According to the social cognitive theory, One of the sources that individual's perception of self-efficacy feeds from is his own personal experiences or efforts to become skilful at any field. Undoubtedly, more experienced group will use knowledge and skills that they have acquired, in higher level in daily life (Dikmen and Çaglar, 2015).Considering effect sizes, daily computer usage frequency variable has lower effect on whole TPFI scale and TP, TFI sub dimensions. In terms of perceived levels of income, a significant difference of opinion could not be determined among teacher candidate’s opinions for ATTF scale and sub dimensions. Regarding the relationship between perception of income level and attitude towards the teaching profession, it was denoted in many studies (Erden, 1995; Ozbek, Kahyaoglu and Ozgen, 2007; Akbayır, 2002; Gerek, 2006; Goktaş and Yanık, 2015) that individuals with low income levels prefer the teaching profession more and their attitude levels towards the profession are higher. According to the findings of the study, differentiation of attitude level towards the teaching profession in respect of perception of income level can be considered as a positive result. Remain unchanged of attitude levels towards the teaching profession of individuals with different income groups is an indication of appreciation of the profession, without income concern. In terms of perception of income level, it was seen that the whole of TPFI scale and opinions towards FI, TPI, TFI, PFI and TPFI sub dimensions differentiated in favour of those with high income level. It was denoted in the study performed by Cankorkmaz (2010) that the rate of possessing of information technologies will increase proportionally with increase of income level. Increase of the rate of teacher candidates’ 304

possessing of information technologies and of the use of the experience they gained in the professional field is an expected result. Income level perceived has lower effect on the whole TPFI scale and its TPI, TFI, PFI and TPFI sub dimensions and intermediate effect on its FI sub dimension. It was also investigated that whether teacher candidates’ teaching experiences cause significant differences of opinions among ATTF scale and its all sub dimensions according to teacher candidates’ teaching experience status. Contrary to the previous findings, the findings obtained point out that opinions towards ATTF scale and its sub dimensions don’t significantly change in terms of teaching experiences. It was determined in the study performed by Tarman (2012) that teacher candidates’beliefs for being a teacher after having completed ten weeks’ practical teaching experience lesson quite changed in comparison with their initial opinions. The sample group consisted of the individuals receving education at fourth grade and those who graduated, which can be given as a reason for changing of ATTF according to whether they have teaching experience or not. Inclusion of teacher candidates, graduated or about to graduate, to the pedagogical formation training certificate program is an indication of positiveness of their perceptions towards teaching profession. In comparisons for availability of teacher candidates’ teaching experiences, significant difference of opinion was identified in favour of teacher candidates with teaching experience, in terms of whole TPFI scale and its all sub dimensions. It was seen that there wasn’t any study performed for this finding in the literature. We can say that teacher candidates' attitudes towards technological pedagogical field, observing through their life the aspects such as enrichment of learning environments and increase of academic achievement by technology, increase positively. It was reported in the studies(McCoy, 1991; Geban, Askar and Ozkan, 1992; Guven and Sulun, 2012) performed that the use of technology as an aid for teaching in teaching environments provides positive results, and causes pedagogs to develop a positive attitude towards using technology. The effect size of teaching experience variable is at strong level in whole TPFI scale and its TFI and PI sub dimensions, at intermediate level in its FI, TPI, PFI subdimensions and lower level in its TI, TPFI sub dimensions. In comparisons for depatment of having education, a significant difference of opinion was identified in favour of teacher candidates of Turkish philology(TP) department, in comparisons with justice and Turkish philology departments, in whole TPFI scale and its love sub dimension. These finding is inconsistent with the findings obtained by Aydin and Saglam(2012), Capri and Çelikkaleli (2008). Whereas, Bulut (2009) identified significant differences with regard to department variable, in comparisons between education faculty departments. Similar finding was stated by Eraslan and Cakici (2011), Kartal and Afacan (2012).The reason why calculated effect size yielded lower can be interpreted as not being involved of students’ depatment of having education among main variables that have to be considered in their attitudes towards the profession. It was seen as a result of the study that there are positive (showing a change together) relationships at various levels betweenTPFI competencies and ATTF. While variable of gender was identified in favour of female teachers in terms of ATTF in many studies, recent studies suggests that this issue has changed. Furthermore, many studies suggest significant results in favour of males for attitude towards use of technology. Therefore, the need of the studies intending to explain the issue of attitude 305

towards the teaching profession and that of the attitude towards technology, resulted from gender variable, seems to be required. A remarkable finding in this study is lack of a significant difference of opinion between perceived level of income and attitude towards the teaching profession. It was reported in the studies carried out on individuals who preferred teaching profession that low-income groups generally have preferred this profession. That income status doesn’t chance attitude towards the teaching profession can be considered as an indicator of increase of sentimental value of the profession rather than that of tangible value. Another remarkable finding is that whether having teaching experience doesn’t chance attitude towards the teaching profession. Unlike findings of studies (Çapa and Çil, 2000) investigating the relationship between teacher candidates’ attitudes, studying in the faculties of education, towards class level and the teaching profession; senior student or graduated teacher candidates’ attitudes who registered in a pedagogical training certificate program didn’t change. This situation shows that occupational preferrence of individuals, preferring different professions in the university entrance period, change when they reached to the senior year or graduate status. Performing of more studies regarding individuals’ reasons of preference of university is extremely important. Besides, investigation of attitudes towards the teaching profession of students registered in pedagogical formation program and those of faculty of education may shed light on this issue. TPFI competencies has an effect on attitudes towards the teaching profession at a certain level. Teachers’ attitudes, using technology effectively and correctly in their branches, towards their profession will develop positively within limits. REFERENCES Akbayır, K. (2002). Öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelmede ailenin ve branş seçiminde cinsiyetin rolü. V. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi 2, 1183-1188. Akıncı, A., Kurtoğlu, M., & Seferoğlu, S. S. (2012). Bir teknoloji politikası olarak Fatih Projesinin başarılı olması için yapılması gerekenler: Bir durum analizi çalışması. Akkoyunlu, B. (1995). Bilgi teknolojilerinin okullarda kullanımı ve öğretmenlerin rolü. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(11). Altınkurt, Y., Yılmaz, K., & Erol, E. (2014). Pedagojik formasyon programı öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik motivasyonları. Trakya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(1). Argon, T., İsmetoğlu, M. ve Çelik-Yılmaz, D., (2015). Branş öğretmenlerinin teknopedagojik eğitim yeterlilikleri ile bireysel yenilikçilik düzeylerine ilişkin görüşleri. Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4(2). Aslan, A. G. D. & Akyol, A. K. (2006). Okul öncesi öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları ve mesleki benlik saygılarının incelenmesi. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(2). Aşkar, P. & Olkun, S. (2005). PISA 2003 sonuçları açısından okullarda bilgi ve iletişim teknolojileri kullanımı. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research (EJER), (19). Aydın, R. & Sağlam, G. (2012). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumlarının belirlenmesi. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 10(2). Bal, M. S. & Karademir, N. (2013). Sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin teknolojik pedagojik alan bilgisi (tpab) konusunda öz-değerlendirme seviyelerinin belirlenmesi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(2), 15-32. Başbay, M., Ünver, G., & Bümen, N. T. (2009). Ortaöğretim alan öğretmenliği tezsiz yüksek lisans öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları: boylamsal bir 306

çalışma. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 59(59), 345-366. Bozdoğan, A. E., Aydın, D., & Yıldırım, K. (2007). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumları. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(2). Bulut, İ. (2009). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumlarının değerlendirilmesi (Dicle ve Fırat Üniversitesi Örneği). Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 14, 13-24. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çokluk, Ö. ve Köklü, N. (2012). Sosyal Bilimler için İstatistik. Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayınevi. Cankorkmaz, Z. (2010). Üniversite öğrencilerinin bilgi teknolojilerini kullanma düzeyleri ve internetteki tüketim eğilimleri. CÜ İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 11(2). Çakır, Ö. (2005). Anadolu üniversitesi açık öğretim fakültesi İngilizce öğretmenliği lisans programı (İÖLP) ve eğitim fakülteleri İngilizce öğretmenliği lisans programı öğrencilerinin mesleğe yönelik tutumları ve mesleki yeterlik algıları. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(6), 27-42. Çapa, Y. & Çil, N. (2000). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumlarının farklı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 18(18). Çapri, B. & Çelikkaleli, Ö. (2008). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenliğe ilişkin tutum ve mesleki yeterlik inançlarının cinsiyet, program ve fakültelerine göre incelenmesi. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(15), 33-53. Çelik, G. O., Malak, A. T., Bektaş, M., Yılmaz, D., Yümer, A. S., Öztürk, Z., & Demir, E. (2009). Sağlık Yüksekokulu öğrencilerinin sağlığı geliştirme davranışlarını etkileyen etmenlerin incelenmesi. Ajcı, 3(3), 164-169. Çelik, H. C. & Kahyaoğlu, M. (2007). İlköğretim öğretmen adaylarının teknolojiye yönelik tutumlarının kümeleme analizi. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 5(4), 571-586. Çeliköz, N. & Çetin, F. (2004). Factors which have an effect on attitude of Anatolian teacher high school students towards the vocation of teaching. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 162. Retrieved November 27, 2008. Çetin, Ş. (2006). Öğretmenlik mesleği tutum ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi (Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması). Gazi Üniversitesi Endüstriyel Sanatlar Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 18, 28-37. Çiftçi, S., Taşkaya, S. M., & Alemdar, M. (2013). Sınıf öğretmenlerinin FATİH Projesine ilişkin görüşleri The opinions of classroom teachers about Fatih Project. İlköğretim Online, 12(1). Çuhadar, C., Bülbül, T., & Ilgaz, G. (2013). Exploring of the relationship between individual innovativeness and techno-pedagogical education competencies of pre-service teachers. Elementary Education Online, 12(3), 797-807. Demiralay, R. (2008). Öğretmen adaylarının bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerini kullanımları açısından bilgi okuryazarlığı öz-yeterlik algılarının değerlendirilmesi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Demirtaş, H., Cömert, M., & Özer, N. (2011). Öğretmen adaylarının özyeterlik inançları ve öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumları. Eğitim ve Bilim, 36(159). Dikmen, M. & Çağlar, A. (2015). Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilgisayar Öz-yeterlik Algılarının Çeşitli Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14(28), 231–249 Doğan, T. & Çoban, A. E. (2009). Eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları ile kaygı düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi.Eğitim ve Bilim, 34(153). Durmuşoğlu, M. C., Yanık, C., & Akkoyunlu, B. (2009). Türk ve Azeri öğretmen adayları307

nın öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 36(36). Dündar, H. & Karaca, E. T. (2013). Formasyon Öğrencilerinin ‘Pedagojik Formasyon Program'ına İlişkin Sahip Oldukları Metaforlar. Gazi Üniversitesi Endüstriyel Sanatlar Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 30, 19-34. Eraslan, L. & Çakıcı, D. (2011). Pedagojik formasyon programı öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 19(2), 427-438. Erdem, A.R., Gezer, K. ve Çokadar, H. (2005). Ortaöğretim fen-matematik ve sosyal alanlar öğretmenliği tezsiz yüksek lisans öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumları. 14. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı, 471-477, Denizli. Erden, M. (1995). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik sertifikası derslerine yönelik tutumları. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(11). Fadlelmula, F. K. (2013). Attitudes of pre-service teachers towards teaching profession. Turkish Journal of Education, 2(4). Geban, Ö., Askar, P., & Özkan, Ï. (1992). Effects of computer simulations and problemsolving approaches on high school students. The Journal of Educational Research, 86(1), 5-10. Gerek, R. (2006). Düziçi anadolu öğretmen lisesi öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kahramanmaraş. Gezer, B. & Sevim, Y. (2006). Ortaöğretim kurumlarında çalışan öğretmenlerin internet kullanımlarının mesleki gelişimlerine etkisi (Elazığ ili örneği). Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 79-84. Gliner, J. A., Morgan, G.A., Leech, N. L. (2015). Uygulamada araştırma yöntemleri: Desen ve analizi bütünleştiren yaklaşım (Çev.: Volkan Bayar, Çev. Ed.: Selahattin Turan). Ankara: Nobel yayın dağıtım Göktaş, Z. & Yanık, M. (2015). Beden eğitimi ve spor yüksekokulu öğrencilerinin beden eğitimi öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumlarının incelenmesi. Sstb International Refereed Academic Journal of Sports, Health & Medical Sciences, 16(5). Gömleksiz, M. N. & Fidan, E. K. (2011). Pedagojik Formasyon Programı Öğrencilerinin Web Pedagojik İçerik Bilgisine İlişkin Öz-Yeterlik Algı Düzeyleri. Electronic Turkish Studies, 6(4). Güçlü, N. (2000). Öğretmen davranışları, Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 147, 21-23. Güneş, G. & Gökçek, T. (2012). Pedagojik formasyon öğrencilerinin öğrenme stilleri. Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(4), 28-40. Güven, G. & Sülün, Y. (2012). Bilgisayar destekli öğretimin 8. sınıf fen ve teknoloji dersindeki akademik başarıya ve öğrencilerin derse karşı tutumlarına etkisi. Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi, 9(1), 68-79. Hacıömeroğlu, G. & Şahin Taşkın, Ç. (2010). Fen bilgisi öğretmenliği ve ortaöğretim fen ve matematik alanları (OFMA) eğitimi bölümü öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumları. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Eğitim Fak. Dergisi, 11(1), 77-90. İşigüzel, B. (2014). Almanca öğretmen adaylarının teknopedagojik eğitime yönelik yeterlik düzeylerinin incelenmesi. Journal of International Social Research, 7(34). Karasar, N. (2009). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel Yayınevi. Karatekin, K., Merey, Z., & Keçe, M. (2015). Sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları. YYÜ Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 12(1), 70-96. Kartal, T. & Afacan, Ö. (2012). Pedagojik formasyon eğitimi alan öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumlarının incelenmesi. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Yıl 12, Sayı 24, 76-96. 308

Kavcar, C. (1998) Türkçe eğitimi ve sorunları, Ankara Üniversitesi TÖMER Dil Dergisi, 65. Kavcar, C., Oğuzkan, F., & Sever, S. (1998). Türkçe öğretimi. Ankara: Engin Yayınevi. Kaya, A. & Büyükkasap, E. (2005). Fizik öğretmenliği programı öğrencilerinin profilleri, öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutum ve endişeleri: Erzurum Örneği. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 12(2), 367-380. Kayaduman, H., Sırakaya, M., & Seferoğlu, S. S. (2011). Eğitimde FATİH projesinin öğretmenlerin yeterlik durumları açısından incelenmesi. Akademik Bilişim 2011(2-4 Şubat 2011), Malatya: İnönü Üniversitesi. Koehler, M. J. & Mishra, P. (2005). What happens when teachers design educational technology? The development of technological pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of educational computing research, 32(2), 131-152. Köğce, D., Aydın, M., & Yıldız, C. (2010). Freshman and senior pre-service mathematics teachers’ attitudes toward teaching profession. The International Journal of Research in Teacher Education. Kula, A. (2015). Öğretmen adaylarının teknolojik pedagojik alan bilgisi (tpab) yeterliliklerinin incelenmesi: Bartın Üniversitesi Örneği. Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 3, Sayı: 12, 395-412. Kuşkaya-Mumcu, F., Haşlaman, T. ve Usluel, Y. K. (2008, Mayıs). Teknolojik pedagojik içerik bilgisi modeli çerçevesinde etkili teknoloji entegrasyonunun göstergeleri. International Educational Technology Conference, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eskişehir, Türkiye. 396-400. Küçükahmet, L. (1976). Öğretmen Yetiştiren Kurum Öğretmenlerinin Tutumları. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Yayınları. Martinovic, D. & Zhang, Z. (2012). Situating ICT in the teacher education program: Overcoming challenges, fulfilling expectations. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(3), 461-469. McCoy, S., Everard, A., & Jones, B. M. (2005). An examination of the technology acceptance model in Uruguay and the US: A focus on culture.Journal of Global Information Technology Management, 8(2), 27-45. McKeachie, W. J. (1997). Student ratings: The validity of use. American Psychologist, 52, 1218 - 1225. Mishra, P. & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. Morgan, C. (1999). Psikolojiye Giriş (Çev. Ed.: Sirel Karakaş), Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Psikoloji Bölümü Yayınları, Yay.No:1 Meteksan A.Ş. Mumcu, F. K., Haşlaman, T., & Usluel, Y. K. (2008). Teknolojik pedagojik içerik bilgisi modeli çerçevesinde etkili teknoloji entegrasyonunun göstergeleri. InInternational Educational Technology Conference (IECT),(6-8 Mayıs 2008). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi. North, A. S. & Noyes, J. M. (2002). Gender influences on children’s computer attitudes and cognitions. Computers in Human Behavior, 18(2), 135-150. Özbek, R., Kahyaoğlu, M., & Özgen, N. (2007). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 9(2), 221232. Özkan, H. H. (2012). Öğretmenlik formasyon programındaki öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumlarının incelenmesi (SDÜ Örneği). Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 13(2), 29-48. Öztürk, E. (2013). Sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının teknolojik pedagojik alan bilgilerinin bazı değişkenler açısından değerlendirilmesi. Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler 309

Dergisi, 6(2),223-228. Pehlivan, K. B. (2008). Sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının sosyo-kültürel özellikleri ve öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları üzerine bir çalışma. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(2),151-168. Polat, S. (2013). Pedagojik formasyon sertifika programı ve eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumlarının incelenmesi. e-International Journal of Educational Research, 4(2), 48-60. Sancar Tokmak, H., Yanpar Yelken, T. & Yavuz Konokman, G. (2013). Pre-service teachers’ perceptions on development of their IMD competencies through TPACK-based activities. Educational Technology & Society, 16(2), 243–256. Seferoğlu, S. S. (2004). Öğretmen yeterlilikleri ve mesleki gelişim. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 58, 40-45. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational researcher, 15(2), 4-14. Sönmez, V. (2003). Eğitimin Tarihsel Temelleri. Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş. (Ed. Sönmez, V.). Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Sünbül, A. M. (2001). Bir Meslek Olarak Öğretmenlik. Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş. (Ed. Demirel, Ö. ve Kaya, Z.). Ankara: PEGEMA Yayıncılık. Şad, S. N., Açıkgül, K., & Delican, K. (2015). Senior preservice teachers’ senses of efficacy on their technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack). Journal of Theoretical Educational Science, 8(2), 204-235. Şahin, İ. (2011). Development of survey of technological pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK). The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(1), 97-105. Şenel, A. & Gençoğlu, S. (2003). Küreselleşen dünyada teknoloji eğitimi. Gazi Üniversitesi Endüstriyel Sanatlar Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(12), 45-65. Tarman, B. (2012). Öğretmenlik deneyimi dersinin öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik inançlarına etkisi. Kurann ve Uygulannada Egitim Bilimleri, 12(3), 1951-1973. Tekin, O. (2007). Uzaktan eğitim yöntemi ile verilen hizmet-içi eğitim programlarının öğretmenlerin özyeterlik algıları ve tutumlarına etkisi - Muğla ili örneği. Terzi, A. R. & Tezci, E. (2007). Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumları. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 52(52), 593-614. Türk Eğitim Derneği (TED) (2009). Öğretmen yeterlikleri. http://portal.ted.org.tr/yayinlar/Ogretmen_Yeterlik_Kitap.pdf adresinden 11 Mayıs 2016 tarihinde indirilmiştir. Turan, S. (2002). Teknolojinin okul yönetiminde etkin kullanımında eğitim yöneticisinin rolü. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 30(30), 271-281. Usta, E. & Korkmaz, Ö. (2010). Öğretmen adaylarının bilgisayar yeterlikleri ve teknoloji kullanımına ilişkin algıları ile öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları. Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(1), 1335-1349. Yaman, H., Aydemir, Z. İ., & Demirtaş, T. (2013). The scale of preservice teachers’ digital pedagogic competencies: validity and reliability study. The Online Journal of New Horizons in Education, 3(3), 26-35. Yaşar, Ş., Sözer, E. & Gültekin, M. (2000). İlköğretimde öğrenme-öğretme süreci ve öğretmenin rolü, VIII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Bilimsel Çalışmaları, 452-461, Trabzon: Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Basımevi.

310

Chapter 24 A Bouquet of Regional Plays Compiled from Different Regions of Turkey1 Şafak ÖZTÜRK AYNAL INTRODUCTION Even though plays are considered a leisure time activity by adults; they probably and certainly are the most important occupation in children’s lives. Humans are “Homo Sapiens” and also “homo ludens”, in other words, they “play”. Schiller suggests; “Human beings are fully human only when they play” (Cited by Nutku from 1998 p.13). Being as necessary as nutrition and love for a healthy growth and development; plays offer the most natural learning environment for children. In the seventeenth century, it was determined that children were distinctive beings with different developmental features, which would change the attitudes toward children's plays. Moving is the most natural talent of human offspring. The phenomenon of moving that starts in womb becomes an essential need of infant and child after birth. Indeed, this phenomenon continues even in adulthood. However, moving has a special importance for children. This importance starts with moving hands and arms in a playful way during infancy and continues growingly. It becomes the most frequent activity together with crawling and walking. (Akış, 2015; Başal, 2010; Nutku, 1998; Sun & Seyrek, 1998). The concept of play has been defined in various ways so far. In the Great Dictionary of the Turkish Language Society; “play” is defined as “an entertainment with certain rules that develops talents and mind, and helps have a good time: Tennis, backgammon, check, tipcat and ballet are plays.”. According to Maria Montessori; “play is the occupation of children”. Lazarus explains play as “an activity that emerges by itself, brings happiness and has no target”. Montaigne defines play as “the realest occupation of children”. Freud embraces the functional aspect of plays. He suggests that play contributes to the personality development of children and is a valuable instrument in recognizing them. Piaget explains play as a way of internalizing the stimulus received from the outer world and placing them into the adaptation system. He also suggests that play has certain levels within the mental development process of children; in other words, play development of children shows a parallelism with their mental development. According to the Dutch historian Johan Huizinga (Huizinga, 1995:22); “rather than a childish activity, play is a key element that determines people and cultures”. Huizinga also suggests that play is the basis of human culture and it exists within culture and even before culture. Thus, 1

This study was presented at the International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities 2016 (ICSSH) held in Skopje, Macedonia on May 13-15, 2016     Assoc. Prof. Dr., Manisa Celal Bayar University, Department of Educational Sciences

play is a concept that has been involved in our lives since the beginning of culture until today (Toksoy,2010; Sun & Seyrek, 1998; Poyraz, 2011; Yıldızbaş & Apaydın (Öztürk), 2002 ). Considering from past to present; it is known that children's plays are as old as the history of humanity. Scripts mentioning plays date back to centuries ago. Similarly, the oldest resource mentioning plays in the Turkish culture is known to be the Divanü Lügat-it Türk, written by Kaşgarlı Mahmut. This work involves plays like amorous, walnut, tipcat that are present in our culture even today. Thus, plays have become a cultural expression of their society, region and period and involved in the socialization process of children. The studies show that plays and toys are a cultural expression of social values (Onur, 2010; Onur, 2005; And, 1993). Thus, anthropologists basically use play activities while examining the cultural proliferations and migratory routes and try to present the migratory routes and images of a culture and a civilization with the help of plays. As is emphasized by Huizinga (1995); plays bring the culture of society in children on one hand and the culture of that society is affected by children's plays on the other, which shows how plays are effective upon the change of a social culture. That’s why plays and toys have become important instruments reflecting the culture and life style of a society in almost all countries of the world and survived today (Bener, 2008; Onur, 2005; Özdemir, 2006; Ersoy Yazıcı, 2010). Just like play activities, toys have also become essential elements in the lives of children. Today, it is possible to follow the cultural and scientific development levels of societies via the developmental adventure of toys. Because toys have also changed according to the development of time and been gradually involved in education (like Montessori toys). Even though toys have changed so far; handmade toys (like cloth dolls, woolen dolls, wooden dolls, cıngırlak) are sustained in the Anatolian culture, especially in villages. Play, toy and children’s museums that could be visited in a number of countries today reflect the life-sustaining, cultural, scientific and technological developments of a society. It is more possible to observe the changing image of childhood at these museums (Onur, 2010; Akbulut, 2009; Ak; 2006; Akış; 2015; Özbakır, 2009). Plays are simply considered children’s time adaptation and thus, childhood images and plays of the past easily spread just like folktales, epics and legends, exceed language, time and space and become universal. By this way, we encounter with the concept of “local plays” that are peculiar to various countries, cities and villages. As Metin and (2003) suggests; festivals that are celebrated via seasonal anniversaries, offerings, sacred dances, animal imitations and feasts, as well as ceremonial contests like crossing a river, climbing a mountain, chopping wood have become elements of plays that maintain a culture and such ceremonial plays are believed to be essential for the happiness and welfare of a society. We could add many other examples to these ceremonial elements from Anatolia, which has a rich cultural background. For instance, speech competitions like arguments, conflicts, riddles and challenges, which are among these examples, encountered as competitions and have certain rules; are among the best examples showing the connection of primitive culture with plays (Sormaz, 2011; And, 1993). Being an important part of societies, cultures and the verbal culture; children's plays are observed to appear in a similar way in societies that share the same culture as well. Children that reflect their world on their plays experience both the past and the 312

present in plays. Thus, children's plays that have existed from past to present are important materials that pave the way for interpreting the structure and features of a culture. Anatolian geography probably comprises the richest example in terms of local children's plays in the cultural context. It is possible to see past experiences in these plays through both words and actions. For instance, retracing plays like «jumping over the fire» from Burdur and «jerid» from Tarsus; it is known that they are used as therapy methods in the Central Asia and Shamanist culture (And,1997). Moreover, the same plays may have different names in different regions and the play materials may also have different names according to regions. Apart from this, some plays (like hide-andseek, amorous, ball plays) are encountered in many countries of the world with different names. (And,1997; Bener, 2008; Doğan 2010; Kayar, 2008; Yıldızbaş & Apaydın ( Öztürk ), 2002; Ersoy Yazıcı, 2010). This study also gave a place to the examples of children's plays from various regions of Turkey. The examples were formed with the help of the families of students receiving preschool teaching education at Ondokuz Mayıs University. METHOD In this study, play examples from different regions were compiled with the help of second grade students (aged 20-25) receiving the lesson of “Play Development in Children” in the Department of Primary Education, Preschool Teaching Education in the fall term of the school years of 2011-12, 2012-13 and 2013-14 at Ondokuz Mayıs University. Students were asked to write the names of plays that had used to be played by their parents (like mother, father, grandmother or grandfather) according to a template that was prepared as a homework. Play examples were received from three different classes to be analyzed for the study and only the plays possibly from very different regions of Turkey were tried to be selected. However, as classess generally included students from the Black Sea Region of Turkey, majority of answers came from the Black Sea Region. 18 play examples were given for this study. These plays are as follows: Play 1: Narrator of the Play: Çağrıhan Üzeyir AVCILAR Name of the Play: Foduk Region of the Play: Black Sea Region Who Taught the Play: Father Number of Players: Four and more Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 6 and older Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: 18 hazelnuts for each player How to Play the Play: Players sit down on the floor and collect 18 hazelnuts in three clusters (6 in each cluster). The player distributes the hazelnuts to both her/himself and others starting from any cluster. If there are two and multiples of two in the last cluster receiving the hazelnuts, she/he takes them. The person with the highest number of hazelnuts in the end wins the play.

313

Play 2: Narrator of the Play: Ömer Faruk YAZICI Name of the Play: Nine Rocks Region of the Play: Black Sea Region Who Taught the Play: Father Number of Players: Two Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 7 and older Place of the Play: A flat surface Play Tools: Chalk, brick or rock How to Play the Play: A square is drawn on a flat surface with a piece of chalk or brick. Two more squares are also drawn within this square. And these points are connected with a line from central points. For example; Two players sit face to face. Whoever puts three Linear rocks in a linear way, she/he takes one rock from the other player and puts is away. The play continues until there are two rocks left. The player with two rocks in the end loses the play. Play 3: Name of the Play: Tipcat Narrator of the Play: Fatmanur ÇELEBI Region of the Play: Black Sea Region Who Taught the Play: Mother Age of Players: 10 - 12 Place of the Play: Open space Duration of the Play: As long as children desire Play Tools: Stick, wood, etc. How to Play the Play: A teeterboard-shaped mechanism is established. A stick is placed on one end of the mechanism. Whoever throws the stick the furthest after hitting the other end wins the play. The stick should be mimimum 90 cm. Play 4: Name of the Play: Milk Cooked Narrator of the Play: Melike GÜDEK Region of the Play: Black Sea Region Who Taught the Play: Father Number of Players: At least 5-6 Gender of Players: Boys Age of Players: 9-10 Place of the Play: Open space How to Play the Play: In this play, three people form a roof standing. Others start to jump over the roof. On top of the roof, they ask "is the milk cooked?". They keep jumping until the roof collapses and when it completely collapses, the person on top asks again. This time, the one that gets defeated shouts "it’s cooked". 314

Play 5: Name of the Play: Horelli Narrator of the Play: Merve ALVER Region of the Play: Black Sea Region Who Taught the Play: Grandfather Number of Players: 5-6 Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 7-12 Place of the Play: Dirt surface, open space Play Tools: 1 meter sticks per person Duration of the Play: As long as children desire How to Play the Play: First of all, everyone stands on a line. Sticks are thrown forward in turns. The person that throws the stick in a close range becomes it and puts her/his stick horizontally in the middle of the line drawn on the floor. Other players try to hit the stick on the floor with their own sticks in turns without crossing the flat line drawn five meters away from the circle. When the stick is hit, it runs fast to get her/his stick. The person that throws her/his stick also runs to get it. If it gets her/his stick and captures her/his friend, the captured friend becomes it. If it fails to capture, it keeps being it. The play continues like that. Play 6: Narrator of the Play: Mehmet MUMIN Name of the Play: Gomak Region of the Play: Eastern Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Mother Number of Players: 3-7 Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 5-10 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: A piece of flat and palm-sized marble rock How to Play the Play: A small competition is held for selecting it. The play is played with the same tools. The target is placed in a slightly curved place or on a not-so-high rock. A line is drawn near the target (This line will also be valid when the play starts). Each player throws their rocks toward the line near the target in turns. Player with the rock closest to the line will start the play. This will determine the competition order. Players try to hit the target according to the order. The purpose is to hit the target and throw it the furthest. The person that hits the target starts counting the steps from the former area of the target to the target. When this phase is finished; she/he puts the target back and tries to hit the target again near her/his rock. This process continues until the target is overshot. Once it is overshot, the player remains where her/his rock is. And then the next player starts playing. Unless she/he hits the target, her/his rock will also remain on the floor. If she/he hits it, she/he will firstly count the number of steps between the target and the place of the target and then put the target back and if there are the rocks of other defeated players around it, she/he will try to hit them. If she/he hits the rocks, she/he will continue the play to hit the target from the former area of her/his rock. The competition continues like that. Players that reach a certain number 315

will finish the play and those with the lowest number will be selected as it and the play will start. While it stands near the target; other players stand behind the line and try to hit the target with their rocks. There is no certain order here. Unless they shoot at the same time, the players could shoot as much as they desire. If all the players throw their rocks but overshot, they start running around it to get their rocks. Once they cross the line, it has the right to chase them. The purpose is to step on the rocks without being captured by it. It will not chase the players that step on their rocks. The player that steps on her/his rock puts the rock on her/his foot with the help of both feet, throws it up and tries to catch it with hands. If it catches, it will have the right to go to the line and shoot. Unless it catches, it keeps being it and all the players could take their rocks. In other words, if a few players overshot except for the next player; it will not tag them as long as it fails to put the target back and thus, there will be an opportunity for players to run and step on their rocks. If it hasn’t put the target back when the players step on their rocks and they have the chance, they could take up the rocks and run to the back of the line without doing anything. However, if they get caught by it before crossing the line, they will become it. Play 7: Narrator of the Play: Betül YILDIZ Name of the Play: Flat Rock versus Small Rock Region of the Play: Eastern Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Father Number of Players: Any number Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 7-8 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: Two rocks (one flat and big; one round and small) How to Play the Play: Two rocks (one flat and big; one round and small) are taken. Round and small rock is thrown forward from a certain point on a plain ground. And then this small rock is tried to be pushed by the other flat rock (tried to be hit by the big rock). The distance covered by the small rock is counted with steps. The next player makes the same move. And then she/he calculates the distance covered by each rock with the help of steps. The player that moves the small rock with the highest number of steps gets a score and the play continues. Play 8: Narrator of the Play: Başak Aysu TEMIZ Name of the Play: Crockery Region of the Play: Eastern Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Aunt Number of Players: 2-6 Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 10-15 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: Two sticks (one long and one short). Two rocks. How to Play the Play: The short stick is placed between two rocks in a way to have 316

both ends on the rocks. And then it is hit with the long stick and the player goes to the area where the stick is thrown. And then the short stick is hit with the long stick once again and the distance it covers is calculated with the help of steps. Whoever throws the stick the furthest wins the play. Play 9: Narrator of the Play: Ürküş MUTLU Name of the Play: Tipcat Region of the Play: Thrace Region Who Taught the Play: Mother Number of Players: Any number Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 10-15 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: Wooden sticks. How to Play the Play: Each player finds a stick of approximately 20 cm. with both ends cut as a semi moon. They hit this stick with another stick and whoever throws the stick the furthest wins the play. Play 10: Narrator of the Play: Esra CENGIZ Name of the Play: Can Region of the Play: Aegean Region Who Taught the Play: Mother Number of Players: Any number Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 10-15 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: Ball How to Play the Play: Children are separated into two groups. Each group has equal number of players. They cast lots and the person that wins the lots comes to the center. Other group tries to hit them. The play continues like that. Play 11: Narrator of the Play: Özgenur YILDIRIM Name of the Play: Goco Region of the Play: Black Sea Region Who Taught the Play: Grandmother and grandfather Number of Players: Any number Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 9- 10 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: Sticks and pieces of wood per child. How to Play the Play: A piece of wood is tossed and children try to hit it in the air with the sticks in their hands. Players that are able to hit with their sticks will play again, whereas those that fail will be dismissed. Whoever tosses the stick the furthest wins the play.

317

Play 12: Narrator of the Play: Çisem Yağmur BULUT Name of the Play: Nine Rocks Region of the Play: Eastern Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Elders Number of Players: Two groups of five Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 6 and older Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: Nine flat rocks and a ball How to Play the Play: Nine flat rocks are arrayed on top of one another. Players are separated into two groups. One group collapses the rocks with the ball and then tries to array them on top of one another again. Another group tries to hit the players trying to array the rocks with the ball and dismiss them. Play 13: Narrator of the Play: Kübra DAĞLI Name of the Play: Dalyon Region of the Play: Central Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Mother Number of Players: Three and more Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 13 and older Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: A ball and tiles How to Play the Play: A circle is drawn in the center. Tiles are arrayed on top of one another. Tiles are bowled with the ball from a certain distance. Meanwhile, a player becomes it and tries to hit other players with the ball. Other players try to array the tiles on top of one another. If they succeed, the play will start over. If they fail and it hits someone, that person will become it and continue to prevent others to array the tiles. Play 14: Narrator of the Play: Esra KUBAY Name of the Play: Hit and Run Region of the Play: Eastern Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Grandfather Number of Players: Eight Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 10-12 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: A woolen ball and a stick How to Play the Play: Children are separated into groups of two. A ball is made out of wool beforehand for the play. The ball is soaped, bubbled and hardened. A start and a finish line are determined for the play. One player from each group goes to the start line. Other children line up in the midst of their friends. They cast lots to determine which group would start the play. While the group that starts the play is given a ball, the other group is given a stick. The player tosses the ball and waits for the other group to 318

hit it. When the other player hits the ball, the child holding the ball runs to the finish line. The child that hits the ball also tries to go there. The running child tries to arrive in the start line as soon as possible. Play 15: Narrator of the Play: Ekrem KUYUCU Name of the Play: Calf Region of the Play: Central Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Father Number of Players: Any number Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 10-12 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: A piece of round wood to be erected on the ground and a stick for each player How to Play the Play: Players are separated into two groups. Groups try to respectively hit the wood on the ground from a certain distance. The player that hits the wood gets a score. Play 16: Narrator of the Play: Tuğba EMEK Name of the Play: Nine Rocks Region of the Play: Central Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Mother Number of Players: 10 – 15 Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 8 and older Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: Nine flat rocks and a ball How to Play the Play: Nine rocks are arrayed on top of one another. One person is selected as it. It throws the ball toward the rocks and tries to bowl the rocks. If the rocks are bowled, children run and it tries to capture them. The captured child becomes it. Play 17: Narrator of the Play: Kürşat TIKICI Name of the Play: Mile Region of the Play: Eastern Anatolia Region Who Taught the Play: Grandfather Number of Players: 2 Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 3-7 Place of the Play: Open space Play Tools: Two rocks, two short sticks, 1 short bar How to Play the Play: The short bar is placed between two rocks. Two players take short sticks. One of them stands behind the rock and throws the bar further with the stick. Other player tries to touch the thrown bar with her/his stick. If she/he succeeds to touch it, she/he will get her/his turn in the play. If she/he fails to touch it, the distance between the bar and the rock is measured with steps. The play continues like that. If the 319

player that tries to meet the bar succeeds to catch the bar, the score of the player throwing the bar will be set to zero. Play 18: Name of the Game: Galeli Narrator of the Game: Nermin AKDENIZ Region of the Game: Aegean Region Who Taught the Game: Grandfather Number of Players: 20 Gender of Players: Could be played by both girls and boys. Age of Players: 6 -10 Place of the Game: Open space How to Play the Game: Children are separated into two groups. Eight rocks are piled on a flat ground. One group picks the rocks, whereas the other group bowls them. While one group bowls the rocks, the other group tries to hit the rocks with the ball. Whoever gets hit by the ball can not touch the rocks. REFERENCES Akış, İ. ( 2015 ). Cıngırlak; Toy of Yuruk Children. Journal of Play Life and Education Association, issue:1, pp.8-9. And, M. ( 1993 ). Play and History of Play Objects in the Intersection of Cultures. A Symposium on Children for Social History. Ankara: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Publications. And, M., (1997). Place and Meaning of Children in Traditional Cultures. I. National Congress on Children’s Culture. Ankara: Ankara University Children’s Culture and Research Center And, M. ( 2003 ). Plays and bügü. The Concept of Play in the Turkish Culture. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Publications. Ak, D. ( 2006 ). An Approach to the Historical and Cultural Change of the Concepts of Play and Toy from the Perspective of Industrial Design. Unpublished Postgraduate Thesis. Anadolu University, Institute of Science and Technology. Akbulut, D. ( 2009 ). Traditional Toys Today. National Folklore, 11(84),182-191. Başal, H. A. ( 2007 ). Children’s Plays Played by Children in the Past in Turkey. Journal of Uludağ University Faculty of Education, 20 (2),243-266. Bener, S. S. ( 2008 ). Plays and Toys in the Ancient Greece and Rome. Unpublished Postgraduate Thesis. İstanbul University, Institute of Social Sciences. Doğan, A. ( 2010 ). Traditional Children’s Plays, Sample of Malatya Province Battalgazi District. Unpublished Postgraduate Thesis. Niğde University, Institute of Social Sciences. Ersoy Yazıcı, H. ( 2010 ). Bashkir Children’s Plays. National Folklore, 11(86), 75-86. Huizinga, J.( 1995 ). Homo Ludens. A Study on the Social Function of Plays, (1938 ). (Translated by M.A. Kılıçbay ). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Publications Kayar, P. ( 2008 ). Traditional Children’s Plays of Van and an Educational Analysis of These Plays. Unpublished Postgraduate Thesis. Yüzüncüyıl University, Institute of Social Sciences. Onur, B. ( 2005 ). History of Childhood in Turkey. Onur, B. ( 2010 ). World with Toys. Social History of Toys. ( 3. edition ) İstanbul: İmge Bookstore Publications. Özbakır, İ. ( 2009 ). Natural Toys and Animal Imitations in Traditional Turkish Children’s Plays. Journal of World of Turks, 1,1,147-162. 320

Özdemir, N. ( 2006 ). Turkish Children’s Plays (1. Volume ). Ankara: Akçağ Publications. Poyraz, H. ( 2011 ). Plays and Play Examples in the Preschool Period. (3. Edition). Ankara: Anı Publications. Nutku, Ö. (1998 ). Play, Child, Theatre. İstanbul: Özgür Publications. Sormaz, F. ( 2011 ). Plays and Toys as an Image of Childhood: A Socio-Cultural Analysis. Unpublished Postgraduate Thesis. Dumlupınar University, Institute of Social Sciences. Sun, M. & Seyrek, H. ( 1998 ). Plays in Preschool Education. İzmir: MEY Publications. Toksoy, A. C. (2010).» Competitive Traditional Children’s Plays» Year 2, Issue 1, January 2010 “Competitions in Our History of Culture”, Editors: Emine Gürsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun. Yıldızbaş, F. & Apaydın ( Öztürk), Ş. ( 2002 ). Relation of Culture and Children’s Plays. Journal of Abant İzzet Baysal University Faculty of Education, 2 (3), 96-104.

321

Chapter 25 Creative Movement and Dance in Early Childhood Education Ümit Ünsal KAYA, Münevver CAN YAŞAR & Nezahat Hamiden KARACA INTRODUCTION Creativity has been considered in terms of process, product or person (Barron & Harrington, 1981) and has been defined as the interpersonal and intrapersonal process by means of which original, high quality, and genuinely significant products are developed. In the case of dealing with young children, the focus should be on the process, i.e., developing and generating original ideas, which is seen as the basis of creative potential. Creativity is essentially a form of problem-solving. But it is a special type of problem solving-one that involves problems for which there are no easy answers: that is, problems for which popular or conventional responses do not work (Moran, Milgrim, Sawywes & Fu, 1983). Creativity is life (Kaufman, 2015) taking realistic experience as its foundations while flourishing life to the fullest, deepest, and richest manifestation of the realistic experience (Dewey, 1884). In this context, talent refers to the possession of a high degree of technical skill in a specialized area. Thus an artist may have wonderful technical skills, but may not succeed in evoking the emotional response that makes the viewer feel that a painting, for example, is unique. The twenty-first century education considers creativity an essential life skill. In a recent comprehensive study in Turkey, Can Yaşar and Aral (2010), have concluded that elementary school students who attended preschools had significantly higher creative thinking scores compared to the ones who did not attend. While most people think that creativity is solely related to arts, creativity, indeed, is evidenced not only in music, art, or writing, but throughout the curriculum, in science, social studies and other areas (Pica, 2010). Creativity goes beyond possession and use of artistic or musical talent. One of the areas that creativity can be implemented to is dance. Without any need of a prompt, children move naturally. They move to achieve mobility, they move to express a thought or feeling, and they move because it is joyful and feels wonderful. When their movement becomes consciously structured and is performed with awareness for its own sake, it becomes dance. Dance embodies one of our most primal relationships to the universe. It is pre-verbal, beginning before words can be formed. It is innate in children before they possess command over language and is evoked when thoughts or emotions are too powerful for words to contain. The inclusion of creative dance in the education curriculum has been variously 

Lecturer, Afyon Kocatepe University, School of Foreign Languages Assoc. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of Early Childhood Education  Assist. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of Early Childhood Education.  

justified in terms of its value as art, as movement, as therapy, and as a component of an integrated curriculum. Although creative dance is currently justified in different curricula for contradictory and ambivalent reasons, there is a need for an unambiguous inclusion of creative dance as a legitimate art form in the curriculum (Bergmann, 1995). At early childhood settings, movement sessions provide the perfect forum for integrating physical activities with other areas of the curriculum. Because children can approach many subjects through movement, it is a good vehicle for teaching themed sessions, such as weather, animals, transportation, and colors, and encompassing all learning domains—physical, social-emotional, and cognitive—and potentially addressing early learning standards. In this up-to-date review, the aim is to provide the foundations based on the literature with justifications for the commonly used terms as creativity, motor creativity, creative movement at early childhood settings and creative dance all together with the benefits to the developmental domains of young children. In addition, some suggestions for the practical implementation at classroom settings in the relevant literature are given. Motor Creativity Motor creativity is defined as a combination of perceiving new and brand forms and these forms are described as either a solution for an unconfigured problem or an explanation of an idea, or expressing an emotion by body movements. (Bournelli & Mountakis, 2008). In addition, Wyrick (1968) has defined the motor creativity as a skill of generating numerous and original replies to a stimulus. Da Fonseca (1998) has stated that children who can use his motor skills with a high level can generate gradually increasing movements which are transformed into various behavior kinds and that this is only possible by creative and constructivist motor skills. Trigo (2001), on the other hand, defines motor creativity as an individual’s physical self-expression by using all potential (Justo, 2008). However, motor creativity is not only concerned about movement and its quality, but also it contains imagination, originality and variability, which are among features of creativity (Murcia, Vargas & Puerta, 1998). According to the literature related to motor creativity, it can be concluded in accordance with the research that pre-school centers should play an important role in order to develop children’s creativity and let them show off their creative acts. It is asserted that children are able to feel more relaxed and express themselves in a clearer way by movements when their experiences are enriched by such activities (Justo, 2008; Cheung, 2010). Even though all development areas play an effective role on the development of creativity, according to Wang (2003), the contribution of motor skills can be more to motor creativity (Wang, 2003). Thus, motor creativity can be defined simply as disclosing something new. When children realize their environment, they start to realize their bodies as well. This provides a foundation for movement awareness and plays an important role in nourishing motor creativity. Movement is one of the most important needs for children to let them know their selves and their social environment (Wang, 2003). Therefore, movement which is really important for children’s development and creativity should be nurtured. Creative Dance Dance is a natural method for learning and a basic form of cultural expression nearly in all cultures. Children learn movement patterns as readily as they learn 323

language. Just as all societies create forms of visual representation or organize sounds into music, all cultures organize movement and rhythm into one or more forms of dance. Yet, while our educational systems for early childhood include drawing and singing, they often neglect to include dance. It is essential that education provide our children with the developmental benefits and unique learning opportunities that come from organizing movement into the aesthetic experience of dance (Lykesas et al., 2014). The terms dance and movement are interchangeable when referring to creative movement. Creative movement can be defined as an art form of which medium is the human body in motion. The four basic elements of dance are the body and its different parts and range of movement, and space, time, and energy (Stinson 1988). Understanding and making use of these four elements can open up a range of imaginative possibilities. For example, according to Dow (2010), teachers can enliven marching, a basic locomotor movement, by varying the four elements: Body part movement variations: “Can you march with your arms up high?” “Can you clap? Touch your knees?” “Can you march bending one knee and keeping the other leg straight? On your tiptoes? Lying on your back with your feet in the air?” Spatial variations: “Can you march backwards? Low? High?” “Can you turn?” “Can you march in a square pattern on the floor?” Time variations: “Can you march in slow motion?” “Can you march for seven steps and then freeze? Let’s count together.” “Now, march as fast as you can!” Energy variations: “Can you march as if your feet are caught in quicksand?” “Can you march and stomp through mud puddles?” “Can you march as if you are in bare feet on a hot blacktop driveway on a summer day?” “Can you march without making a sound when your feet touch the floor?” In such a way of dealing with children, the possibilities are endless. Children can easily perform the variations according to their individual abilities and imaginations. Creative movement gives children opportunities to move in new ways and helps them learn that there can be more than one solution to a question, a problem, or a task. On the other hand, the term “creative dance” is currently an exceptional contemporary pedagogical and teaching approach which assists and supports significantly the harmonious kinetic development of individuals. Moreover, it is an amusing educational tool that contributes to the establishment of fundamental motor skills in fostering coordination, cooperation and team co-responsibility, motor development and in the creation of a pleasant teaching environment in early years. Creative movement and dance is an enjoyable way for young children to develop their physical skills, channel their energy, stimulate their imagination and promote their creativity. Creative dance involves using body actions to communicate an image (the wind), an idea (a journey) or a feeling (strength). Many early childhood educators recognize young children's primary need to express themselves through movement. Some teachers include movement exploration to enhance other curriculum areas such as language and literature, science, art and outdoor play. Moreover, the philosophy of creative movement and dance is similar to the aims of early childhood education programs where opportunities for noncompetitive, success-oriented and creative experiences for young children are valued.

324

Dance in Relation with Music Dance can be provoked with a few notes heard spontaneously. Children of all ages are likely to express themselves through music. Even at an early age children sway, bounce, or move their hands in response to music they hear. Many preschoolers make up songs and, with no self-consciousness, sing to themselves as they play. Kids in elementary school learn to sing together as a group and possibly learn to play a musical instrument. Older children dance to the music of their favorite rock and roll bands and use music to form friendships and share feelings. Children who are 4 and 5 enjoy singing just to be singing! They like songs that repeat words and melodies, rhythms with a definite beat and words that ask them to do things. Preschool children enjoy nursery rhymes and songs about familiar things like toys, animals, play activities, and people. They also like finger plays and nonsense rhymes with or without musical accompaniment. The benefits of music can be listed as follows (Flemming & Hamilton, 1977):  Music evokes movement, and children delight in and require movement for their development and growth.  Music engages the brain while stimulating neural pathways associated with such higher forms of intelligence as abstract thinking, empathy, and mathematics.  Music's melodic and rhythmic patterns provide exercise for the brain and help develop memory.  Music is an aural art and young children are aural learners. Since ears are fully mature before birth, infants begin learning from the sounds of their environment before birth.  Music is perfectly designed for training children's listening skills. Good listening skills and school achievement go hand in hand.  Developmentally appropriate music activities involve the whole child-the child's desire for language, the body's urge to move, the brain's attention to patterns, the ear's lead in initiating communication, the voice's response to sounds, as well as the eye-hand coordination associated with playing musical instruments.  Music is a creative experience, which involves expression of feelings. Children often do not have the words to express themselves and need positive ways to release their emotions.  Music transmits culture and is an avenue by which beloved songs, rhymes, and dances can be passed down from one generation to another.  Music is a social activity, which involves family and community participation. Children love to sing and dance at home, school, and while possibly worshipping.  Children often create their own songs, melodies, and movements. Or they learn songs that have already been written about spaceships, kangaroos, or friendships. They learn about themselves and the relationships they have with others. Songs heard in school, in places of worship, and from teachers and parents, teach about life and give hints on living it. The words might teach about hard-to-understand concepts like faith, patriotism, love, and freedom. As most early childhood educators know, music and movement are linked even from birth and infancy (Kulich, 1989). Bouncing and rocking are children's first experiences in music and children cannot help but respond to the rhythm, beat and moods that different kinds of music suggest. A Turkish dance song called "Ankara’nın 325

Bağları – Ankara’s Vineyards" encourages improvised steps while playing an instrument such as the wooden spoons; a Turkish children’s song "Bir Aslan Miyav dedi-A Lion said Miaow" by Kayahan offers clear phrasing for large, proud lion steps until the instruments inspire sustained whole body stretches to portray the powerful roar of a lion. All in all, music in many forms is an accessible accompaniment to either improvised or more structure movement sequences at educational settings. Underlying Educational Philosophy of Creative Dance Dance from creative moment in early childhood through advanced techniques in all genres (Ballet, Modern, Jazz, Social, Ethnic, etc.) is intrinsically aesthetic (Detels, 1999; Spitz, 2006) and adresses the physical development of the individual (Eliot, 1999; Kail, 2004) as well as social (Catteral & Deasy, 2002; Katz, 2008), cognitive (Damasio, 1999; Bresler, 2004), and emotional development (Merriam, 1998), which makes it unique among the arts. Along with motor development afforded thorugh the movement arts, dance is uniquely capable of providing rich opportunities in exploring creativity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Gardner, 1999; Smith-Autard, 2002; Spitz, 2006), creating connections with peers (Whitlock, 2009), supporting critical thinking (Synder, 1999; Warburton, 2008) in all stages of development (Gilbert, 2006; Kail, 2004) and encouraging positive self-image through embodied learning (Katz, 2008; Shusterman, 2008). Sensorimotor explorations are the key to learning in the urgent formative, early childhood years (Burton, 1994). Physically children are total body, perpetual movers and a refining their gross motor skills (walking, running, galloping, skipping, jumping, rolling) while developing fine motor skills (printing, tying, balancing, shifting weigt, stillness). They are able to move in spatial directions primarily concerned with contrasts: up-down, side-to-side, front-back) (Sansom, 2009). Dance is basic to learning. Children learn most readily from experience. John Dewey understood this when he asserted, “Action is the test of comprehension” (Dewey, 1915). To learn by “doing” and to act on knowledge is the basis of kinesthetic learning. Kinesthetic learning is becoming more widely understood through the work of Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Howard Gardner (1944- ), and other cognitive theorists. Basically, creative dance is the use of movement elements to express feelings. Dimondstein (1974) expands on this definition when she considers dance to be “the interpretation of a child’s ideas, feelings and sensory impressions expressed symbolically in movement forms through the unique use of his body” (p. 167). The medium of movement can be further defined using the elements of movement. Rudolf Laban (1975) has comprehensively analyzed movement and its constituent elements. Examples of Laban’s movement elements include body awareness; space awareness; the awareness of weight, time, and flow; and the adaptation to partners and groups. According to Bergmann (1995), the movement themes developed from these elements have formed the basis of numerous handbooks on creative dance, among them Preston-Dunlop’s (1980) A Handbook for Dance in Education, Joyce’s (1980) First Steps in Teaching Creative Dance to Children, and Boorman’s (1969) Creative Dance in the First Three Grades. Dance, in particular, integrates kinesthetic learning with understanding. Preschool children do not conceptualize abstract processes. They primarily learn through physical and sensory experiences. When children are provided with creative movement problems 326

that involve the selection of movement choices, they learn to think in the concrete reality of movement. Thus, learning the art of dance helps young children develop knowledge, skill, and understanding about the world. Dance helps children develop literacy. To the young child, verbal language and movement are entwined. Preverbal movement expression does not cease when a child develops language. The road to literacy involves the translation of movement expression and communication into words. Learning language and learning dance are not separate threads, but are woven together and incorporated into a fabric of communication and understanding. Dance provides young children multiple perspectives. It is “a foundation of experience necessary for the future development of more advanced skills and a way to affirm an inner life and alternate realities” (Stinson, 1988). Through dance, children develop enhanced sensory awareness, cognition, and consciousness. It is this heightened state that creates the magic of movement that is dance. The Benefits of Creative Dance Creative dance is a powerful ally for developing many of the attributes of a growing child. It helps children mature physically, emotionally, socially, and cognitively. Preschool teachers are faced with the challenge of developing strategies to simultaneously address children’s behavior problems and promote positive self expression in addition to everyday activities geared toward promoting positive physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development. There are many positive effects of adding music and movement into a child’s typical day in preschool. By integrating music and dance into a preschool curriculum, teachers would be able to teach children how to express themselves in a way that focuses on promoting pro-social skills and creativity (Sylva et al., 2007). The physical benefits of dance are widely accepted, but the emotional, social and cognitive attributes are also crucial in the process. Below is a categorized list of the benefits of creative dance: Physical Development: Dance involves a greater range of motion, coordination, strength and endurance than most other physical activities. This is accomplished through movement patterns that teach coordination and kinesthetic memory. Dancing utilizes the entire body and is an excellent form of exercise for total body fitness. Young children are naturally active, but dance offers an avenue to expand movement possibilities and skills. Creative dance in early childhood education corresponds to the fundamental phase of movement development that occurs between the ages of two to seven. During this time, locomotion (e.g., creeping, walking, running, jumping, leaping and galloping), non-locomotion (e.g., stretching, bending, twisting, turning, shaking and swinging), and stability and balance skills are able to flourish when children are provided with sufficient practice opportunities (Gallahue, 1982). Emotion Regulation: Dance promotes psychological health and maturity. Children enjoy the opportunity to express their emotions and become aware of themselves and others through creative movement. A pre-school child enters a dance class or classroom with a history of emotional experiences. Movement within a class offers a structured outlet for physical release while gaining awareness and appreciation of oneself and others. Another benefit involves the aesthetic nature of creative movement and dance. "Most definitions of aesthetics involve the capacity to perceive, respond and be sensitive to the natural environment and to human creations" (Feeney & Moravcik 327

1987, p. 7). All the senses are engaged when children explore and discover different aspects of movement. For example, the kinesthetic sense increases as children literally feel the shapes and actions that their bodies are making. Visually, children respond to the images they see in front of them as well as the images they imagine or create. The auditory sense is stimulated as children respond to sounds they make or hear in the environment, as well as to music. Examples of tactile experiences include touching one another to make a bridge, running with bare feet, doing on-the-floor movements, swirling a cloth, or stretching a big elastic band. Such fundamental sensory experiences can lead children to appreciate the beauty and form in nature, art and literature as well as the beauty in everyday living. Social Awareness: Dance fosters social encounter, interaction, and cooperation. Children learn to communicate ideas to others through the real and immediate mode of body movement. Children quickly learn to work within a group dynamic. As the ongoing and sometimes challenging process of cooperation evolves, children learn to understand themselves in relation to others. A social benefit of creative dance is that it encourages an interactive environment where children share space as they explore movement together but in their own way. Gradually, opportunities for children to observe different responses to movement ideas are given and the possibility of creating movements together becomes more appealing. For example, after a group experienced a free flow snow dance with white streamers moving up, down and around in the air, some of the children improvised a solid ice castle of connected body shapes. Also, after stomping around in a friendly dinosaur dance, some of the children decided to line up and take big steps together while the last child was dragged along lying flat, as the tail! Language Development: When language is linked to movement, both assist in children's cognitive and kinesthetic learning. Graham Fishburne's (1989) research on the right and left hemispheres of the brain points out that the right hemisphere, the sensing and feeling side, functions through activities such as music, art and creativity, whereas the left hemisphere organizes sequential and logical skills such as language and speech. Fishburne (1989) stresses that since cross reference between the two sides occurs, both sides of the brain must be developed during the critical learning periods in early childhood. Dramatic Play: Creative dance often provides an opportunity for children to express their emotions through dramatic play as well as nurture a sense of community. For example, “Flutterby” is the story of a butterfly who comes out of his cocoon and finds he cannot fly. Each animal in the forest (squirrels, deer, rabbit, bear, turtle or whoever children suggest) comes to give their help. A drum can accompany the different animal walks and jumps while a softer sound is needed for the butterfly movement. Nobody can get the butterfly off the ground until all the animals cooperate together: they carefully lift the butterfly's wings, stretch and flap them, and give him some lift to fly up and away. Then all the animals do a celebration dance and wave goodbye to their friend. "Let's do it again" is a frequent request after this dance story. Some simple costumes or masks can be made or collected to enhance the experience (Loeffler, 2007). Cognitive Development: Young children will create movement spontaneously when presented with movement ideas or problems that can be solved with a movement response. Movement provides the cognitive loop between the idea, problem, or intent 328

and the outcome or solution. This teaches an infant, child and ultimately, adult to function in and understand the world. Apart from these developmental advantages, creative movement and dance can also benefit children with special needs because they can participate at their own level of ability. For example, children who are physically challenged can explore body parts or keep a beat by blinking their eyes. Props such as feathers; instruments or scarves do not have to be hand-held but can be placed or attached in an appropriate area of the child's body or equipment. All children with special needs can feel a sense of belonging to a group and a sense of joy at being able to learn on a fundamental movement level. "The necessary modifications are often uncomplicated; it is simply a matter of focusing on what the children can do, as opposed to what they cannot" (Pica, 2013, p. 70). Creative movement and dance activities can be used to enhance almost all other areas of learning and growth including health and fitness. Since researchers are becoming increasingly concerned about the obesity of children and have observed that young children have less activity, it is imperative that early childhood programs offer a regular movement program. Because, these kids also have greater risk for high cholesterol, high blood pressure, bone and joint problems, poor self-esteem and other health, social and psychological problems” (RWJF 2006, 1). Thus, providing lots of opportunity for locomotion activity on a regular basis contributes to children's fitness level. Keeping children active is a crucial part of addressing this health crisis, and the good news is that teachers don’t have to find extra time to add dance to the day. Suggested Pedagogical Practices for Creative Dance at Early Childhood Settings According to Gilbert (2006), early childhood through first grade dance classes should include high energy movements which seamlessly flow from one to another, as well as repetitive movement phrases and patterns that include stillness within. Teaching artists should create opportunities for social development by providing children ways to express their feelings through movement in explorations using imagery, stories, sounds, words and games that help build articulation and confidence by making connections with peers (Stinson, 1988). Basic dance skills need to be introduced and repeated which include gross and fine motor skills – jumps, hops, foot articulations (point and flex), bends and stretches which reinforce kinesthetic and neuro-pathways, and strengthen cognitive processing (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002; Finkelstein, 2005). The introduction of movement qualities stimulates awareness and interest in textual qualities of movement (Sansom, 2009). In the case of developmental domains, children process cognitively in concrete thoughts so their movement exercises need to be concise, and singularly focused (Ruffin, 2009). While most activities are full class group, with the teacher modelling students may also begin partner dances such as Tango, which address social interactions of friendship, and build self-awareness together with confidence (Gilbert, 2006). Very short creative explorations that are solo may begin, and need to be structured and brief, to honor their limited focus developmentally at this time (NDEO, 2005). Dancing together with a partner, and following another’s movements create bonds and assists in understanding leadership and social order which is crucial to social growth for Pre-K through first grade students (Eisner, 2002; Bresler, 2004). 329

According to Loeffler (2007), when dealing with young children, there are some considerations to bear in mind. The author puts forward below-mentioned suggestions: Non locomotion/Locomotor Actions: All sorts of sequences of non-locomotion actions can be used for warm-up exercises and relaxation. The image of a balloon growing and collapsing is an image with which children can easily relate. Once the children's balloon body stays all blown-up, it can float and twist on an adventure until it "pops" and has to begin all over again. In contrast, locomotion or travelling through space is often what children consider to be dancing. Children respond to locomotion because it is an exhilarating and freeing activity and, as a result, "horse dances" and "car dances" are very popular with young boys and girls. Shapes and Balance: One way for children to practice their balance and stability is by making shapes with their whole body. Basic body shapes are small, tall, wide and twisted, but all kinds of shapes can be made emphasizing things or different body parts. Shapes can be made on the floor, sitting, kneeling, standing and even in the air. Children can copy shapes or move one another into shapes. Naming a Dance: While very young children are gaining knowledge about functional movement, their playful wiggling and jumping responses may not be considered dance. However, with sufficient practice, it is not long before children can identify which parts of their bodies are moving. Eventually, a name is given to a short movement sequence, the sequence is repeated into a pattern and it becomes a dance (Boorman, 1987). The technique of naming a dance is very similar to a child's remembering the names of songs or stories. Hence the children are able to remember and refer to the dance when they want to do it again in the class. Finding the Magic: Sue Stinson, in her book Dance for Young Children (1988), has another useful technique for helping children recognize that dance is different from everyday movement. She talks with children about how the special magic inside them is what transforms ordinary movement into dance. While she recognizes that young children cannot sustain a magical feeling about movement at all times, it is possible to inspire children to go beyond basic physical exercising of their bodies. Flexibility and Flow: The greatest reward of working with young children in movement activities is seeing them comfortable with their bodies and with the selfconfidence to express themselves through dance. All the children’s songs can be reinterpreted through movement. So a popular kid’s song can easily change the mood of the class as a contingency plan if things did not go well on the daily plan. There are times when children let us know that they would like to express themselves non-verbally. In such a case creative dance sessions can be implemented in class so as to let children express their moods with their bodies. Even without any kind of music or props, children are able to move freely in a way as they are doing pantomime. Creative Dance Starters for Young Children According to Dow (2010) just about anything can be an impetus for children to move and dance, creating a learning experience as well as a playful and lively physical activity. The author puts some remarks on best ways to start creative dance with young children as follows:

330

 Greetings and hello games: “Let’s wave to each other with our hands. What other parts of your body can you use to wave?” “Can you wave with all the parts at once?”  Circle time movement games: “Do you know the game Telephone? You whisper a word in your neighbor’s ear, and she passes it along to the next person. This movement game is like that, except we will be passing along movements. I will think of the first one.” Begin with something simple, like crossing and uncrossing your arms. The next person watches, turns to his neighbor, and performs the same movement. Children pass it along till it goes all the way around the circle. Repeat until everyone has had a chance to introduce a movement. At the end, review all the movements with the children in the order they created them, and do them sequentially all together. Try them standing; play some music, and performing the movements together becomes a dance! Dance stories from books, songs, and poems descriptions of movement images abound in children’s literature.  Themes: Pick up on your daily and weekly themes, and add movement to any topic the children are exploring. For example, for the theme spring, prompt children to dance the making of a garden: dig the holes, plant the seeds, water and weed, watch plants grow, and finally harvest the vegetables or flowers.  Transitions: “Today we are going to think about how animals move. Think of your favorite animal, and I am going to ask you one by one to move like that animal as you go to your cubby to put on your coat.” Use cues for signaling the start and stop for each child’s movement. For the next several days, continue this activity during transitions. Try narrowing the choices each day: animals that fly, animals in the ocean, animals that live in the jungle.  Props: Scarves, streamers, shakers, costumes, small musical instruments, small flashlights or fiber optic lights, stuffed animals, pipe cleaner bracelets with colorful ribbons tied to them, pompoms, hats, and any items the children make. Quiet-down activities bring each activity to a quiet conclusion. You could ask the children to freeze in a shape (connected to the theme) at the end of a dancing session. For example, to finish an activity about winter, prompt: “Can you freeze in the shape of a snowflake? Try to hold that shape as you melt to the floor!” CONCLUSION Throughout the literature, the inclusion of creative dance in the education curriculum has been variously justified in terms of its value as art, as movement, as therapy, and as a component of an integrated curriculum. Rudolph Laban, considered to be the founder of movement and dance education, stated in his book Modern Educational Dance (1948) that educators need to guide children's natural urge to dancelike movement and preserve their movement spontaneity into adult life. Today, our urban environment has many physical limitations on the growing child. It is difficult for children to become physically sturdy and agile without vigorous movement. It is difficult for a child to become coordinated without a variety of movement experiences. And it is difficult for a child to be emotionally responsive if the nonverbal part of their development is not recognized. Early childhood educators worldwide are in a unique position to provide an environment where children are encouraged to learn and grow through movement and dance activities. Once educators become familiar with movement and its many benefits, instead of asking, “What is 331

creative movement?” the question will likely be, “Why not creative movement?” REFERENCES Barron, F. & David, M.H. (1981). Creativity, Intelligence and Personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 439-476. Bergmann, S. (1995). Creative Dance in the Education Curriculum: Justifying the Unambiguous. Canadian Journal of Education, 20(2), 156-165. Boorman, J. (1969). Creative Dance in the First Three Grades. Don Mills, ON: Longmans Canada. Bournelli, P. & Mountakis, C. (2008). The Development of Motor Creativity in Elementary School Children and its Retention. Creativity Research Journal, 20(1), 72-80. Bresler, L. (2004). Knowing Bodies, Moving Minds: Towards Embodied Teaching and Learning. Dorecht, Boston. Burton, J.M. (1994). The Arts in School Reform: Other Conversation. Teachers College Record 95(4), 477-493. Can Yaşar, M. & Aral, N. (2010). Yaratıcı Düşünme Becerilerinde Okul Öncesi Eğitimin Etkisi. Kuramsal Eğitimbilim, 3(2), 201-209. Catterall, J. S. (2002), “The Arts and the Transfer of Learning.” In R. Deasy (Ed.), Critical Links: Learning in the Arts and Student Achievement and Social Development,pp:151157, Washington, DC: AEP. Cheung, R.H.P. (2010). Designing Movement Activities to Develop Children's Creativity in Early Childhood Education. Early Child Development and Care, 180(3), 377-385. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding Flow. Basic Book. Perseus Books Group, New York, NY. Da Fonseca, V. (1998). Manual de Observación Psicomotriz: Significación Psiconeurológica de los Factores Psicomotores [Manual for observing motor skills: Psychological significations for psychomotor factors.]. INDE, Barcelona. Damasio, A.R. (1999). The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. Harcourt, New York. Detels, C. (1999). Soft Boundaries; Re-Visioning the Arts and Aesthetics in American Education. Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Conn. Dewey, J. (1884). The New Psychology. Andover Review, 2, 278-289. Dimondstein, G. (1974). Exploring the Arts with Children. MacMillan Publishing, New York. Dow, C.B. (2010). The Power of Creative Dance. Performing Arts: Music, Dance and Theatre in the Early Years.https://www.naeyc.org/tyc/files/tyc/file/V6N1/Dow2010.pdf 10.07.2016 Eisner, E. (2002). What Can Education Learn from the Arts about the Practice of Education? http://www.infed.org/biblio/eisner_arts_and_the_practice_of_education.htm Eliot, L. (1999). What’s Going on in There? Bantam Books, New York. Fauconnier, G. & Turner, M. (2002). The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. Basic Books, New York. Feeney, S. & Moravcik, E. (1987). A Thing of Beauty: Aesthetic Development in Young Children. Young Children. 42(6), 7-15. Finkelstein, J., Arnhold, J., Ramirez, T., & Klein, J. (2005). Blueprint for Teaching and Learning in the Arts, Dance: Grades PreK – 12. New York City Department of Education, New York. Fishburne, G.J. (1989). Stimulant Drug Therapy and Children with ADHD: an Ethical Issue. McGill Journal of Education, 24(1), 55-68. 332

Flemming, B.M. & Hamilton, D.S. (1977). Resources for Creative Teaching in Early Childhood Education. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., New York. Gallahue, D. (1982). Understanding Motor Development in Children. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligences Reframed: Mulitple Intelligences for the 21st Century. Basic Books, New York. Gilbert, A. (2006). Brain-Compatible Dance Education. Reston, National Dance Association, Virginia. Joyce, M. (1980). First Steps in Teaching Creative Dance to Children (2nd ed.). Mayfield Publishing Company, Palo Alto, CA. Justo, C.F. (2008). Creative Relaxation, Motor Creativity, Self-Concept in A Sample of Children From Early Childhood Education. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 6(14), 29-50. Kail, R.V. (2004). Children and Their Development (3rd Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Katz, M. (2008). Growth in Motion: Supporting Young Women’s Embodied Identity and Cognitive Development through Dance After School. Afterschool Matters, 7, 12-22. Kaufman, J.C. (2015). Creativity is life: A Commentary on the Special Issue. Journal of Creative Behavior, 49, 226-230. Kulich, B. (1989). Friendly Bear’s Song Book. The Empire Music Co. Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. Laban, R. (1975). Modern Educational Dance (3rd ed.). Play, Inc., Boston. Loeffler, G. (2007). Creative Movement and Dance in Early Childhood Education. The Canadian Child Care Federation. http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/ article_view.aspx?ArticleID=368 Lykesas, G., Tsapakidou, A., & Tsopmanaki, E. (2014). Creative Dance as a Means of Growth and Development of Fundamental Motor Skills for Children in First Grades of Primary Schools in Greece. Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Studies, 2(1), 211218. Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Fransisco. Moran, J.D., Milgrim, R.M., Sawyers, J.K & Fu, V.R. (1983). Original Thinking in Preschool Children. Chıld Development, 54, 921-926. Murcia, N., Vargas, J., & Puerta, G. (1998). El Camino de la Creatividad en la Educacion Fisica y el Entranamiento Deportivo Infantil (The Road to Creativity in Physical Education and Early Childhood Sports Training).Revista Educación Física y Recreación, 2(3), 59-79. National Dance Education Organization (NDEO). (2005). Standards for Dance in Early Childhood. National Dance Education Organization, Bethesda, MD. Pica, R. (2010). Learning by Leaps and Bounds: Transition Movement into the Curriculum. Young Children, 65(2), 52-53. Pica, R. (2013). Experiences in Movement and Music Birth to Age Eight (Experiences in Movement & Music, 5th Edition). Wadsworth Publishing, Belmond. Preston-Dunlop, V. (1980). A Handbook for Dance in Education. MacDonald & Evans Ltd., Estover, Plymouth. Ruffin, N. (2009). Adolescent Growth and Development. Virginia Cooperative Extension, USA. RWJF (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation). 2006. Institute of Medicine Report: Progress in Preventing Childhood Obesity: How do we measure up? www.rwjf.org/childhood 333

obesity/ product.jsp?id=18250%20 Sansom, A. (2009). Mindful Pedagogy in Dance: Honoring The Life of The Child. Research in Dance Education, 10(3), 161-176. Shusterman, R. (2008). Body Consciousness: A Philosophy of Mindfulness and Somaesthetics. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. Smith-Autard. J. (2002). The Art of Dance in Education. A&C Black, London. Spitz, E. (2006). The Brightening Glance: Imagination and Childhood. Pantheon Books, New York. Stinson, S. (1988). Dance for Young Children. Teachers College Press, New York. Sylva, K., Taggart, B., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Totsika, V., Ereky-Stevens, K., Gilden, R. & Bell, D. (2007). Curricular Quality and Day-to-Day Learning Activities in Pre-school. International Journal of Early Years Education, 15(1), 49-65. Synder, S. (2003). On Becoming H.O.T. – Creating and Arts-infused Curriculum from Higher Order Thinking, Arts Education IDEAS http://www.aeideas.com/becoming4 Trigo, E. (2001). Motricidad Creativa: una Forma de Investigar. [Creative Motoricity: A Way To Investigate.] University of A Coruna. Wang, J.H.T. (2003). The Effects of Creative Movement Program on Motor Creativity and Gross Motor Skills of Presschool Children. Doctor thesis (unpublished). The University of South Dakota, South Dokato. Warburton, E. (2008). Changes in Dance Teachers’ Beliefs about Critical Thinking Activities. Journal of Education and Human Development, 2(1), 1-16. Whitlock, J. (2009). Adolescent Development: What’s Going on in There? Act for Youth Center of Excellence http://www. actforyouth.net/publications/results.cfm?t=what’s %20going 06.06.2016. Wyrick, W. (1968). The Development of A Test of Motor Creativity. Research Quarterly, 39, 756-765.

334

Chapter 26 Mother-Child Communication in Terms of the Child’s Right to Participation: Playground Dialogues Neslihan AVCI, Fatma YOL INTRODUCTION A child gains his/her first social experiences within the family. Healthy communication within the family has a significant impact on the child’s ability develop successful social relationships. There are many different ways in which parenthood and parenting traits play a crucial role in the socialization of the child. Factors, such as the beliefs and attitudes of parents, together with their expectations of their children, determine a child’s functional status (O’Brien Caughy, Millerb & Genevrob, 2003; Raval, Raval & Deo, 2014). The environment influences a child’s development. According to the ecological systems theory, described by Bronfebrenner, children are affected by a complex system involving the factors by which they are surrounded. The innermost layer of this system covers activities and interactions with the child’s immediate surroundings (Berk, 2013). As the mother is usually the care provider, she is the person with whom the child communicates the most within the family. The relationship between the mother and the child is a long-term and vital interaction and is acknowledged as having a significant impact on a child’s development, A healthy relationship with the mother is of crucial importance for the successful development of a child’s personality and plays have a key part in the development of these relationships, particularly during early childhood (Arı & Çağdaş, 1999; Widarsson et al., 2013). Plays take up most of a child’s time and are the most direct and convenient way for them to express themselves, as well as being the most effective way for them to learn. Plays, are hugely significant in a child’s life, and are as necessary as affection and care for their healthy development (Tuğrul, 2002; Koçyiğit, Tuğluk & Kök, 2007) and for this reason, plays should be supported by parents, and used by teachers at school and by parents at home. According to a study, which was conducted to determine the place that plays have in the daily lives of six-year-olds attending nursery school and their mothers’ perception of these plays, the majority of mothers taking part in the study saw plays as a recreational and entertaining activity that supports development (Erbay & Durmuşoğlu Saltalı, 2012). According to the results of another in-depth study, which interpreted mothers’ perception of their children’s plays and the relationship between the mother, the child and the play, mothers’ perception of what constitutes a play was weak; they believed that plays are useful for children, specifically in terms of their psychomotor and cognitive development (Doğan-Temur & İnan, 2010). As supported by these studies, plays are extremely useful for child development. As, when parents give their 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gazi University Faculty of Education, Department of Early Childhood Education  Child Development Specialist (Teacher), Vakfıkebir İMKB Vocational and Technical High School 



children the opportunity to play and be involved in their plays, they are helping them to develop in a healthier way (Erbay & Durmuşoğlu Saltalı, 2012). A study, based on the interaction of mother and child through plays, revealed that a mother’s participation in the play had a positive impact on the child, and their was shown to be more involvement at a higher socioeconomic level (Akgün & Yeşilyaprak, 2011). However, no specific research regarding paying attention to the child’s views during play could be found in the literature. Yet, the importance of taking the child’s views into account has been acknowledged by a large circle, and a child’s right to be heard was addressed in detail in General Comment No. 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. In this chapter, it is emphasized that the child has the right to express his/her view on issues related to his/her life (UN, 2009). In this General Comment on the child’s right to be heard, it is emphasized that children should have the opportunity to express themselves on all issues affecting them, and that these views should be heard and taken seriously (UN, 2009). The child’s process of building and expressing an opinion is generally referred to as participation. Participation is a multidimensional construct and one that acts as a protective factor for the child, by supporting his/her positive development and can be encouraged by respecting the children’s rights (Covell & Howe, 2009). Encouraging the notion of participation also constitutes the understanding of modern concept of childhood, which proposes the development of characteristics such as independence, autonomy and competence in the child (Sorin, 2005). Listening to the child is seen as an important aspect of participation. Children wish to participate in decisions on issues that are relevant to themselves or their families. Recognizing the child’s right to speech with regard to the solution of various problems also supports the development of the relationship between the child and the family. According to a study concerning the views of parents who have children of 5 and 6 years of age on the rights of the child, their practices relating to teaching their children these rights, and the problems they face during implementation, it was observed that while parents were referring to the child’s right to have his/her way under certain conditions (not harming himself/herself or others etc.), they did not know the issue of children’s rights at a satisfactory level, and there was need for raising awareness (Dinç, 2015). Consequently, in many matters relating to the daily life of the mother and child, it is the mothers that make the decisions on behalf of their children. These may include a broad range of issues from the child’s nutrition to sleeping or dressing. According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the child should have a right to speak on all issues related with his/her life (Sandberg & Eriksson, 2010; Burke, 2010; Akgün & Yeşilyaprak, 2011). Child-adult interaction during outdoor play can be a factor in shaping a child’s right to move and play freely outdoors. An adult’s intervention in a child’s outdoor play activities can also be a factor in determining whether the child is the main determinant of his/her own play or he/she is a passive operator. In this study, mother and child interactions in a playground setting were evaluated with regard to the child’s right to participate and it was determined, in terms of this right, how adult interventions take place. In this context, the following questions were asked: Are mother-child interactions in playgrounds, 1. respectful, 336

2. transparent/informative, 3. inclusive, 4. safe/sensitive to risk and 5. voluntary aspects of participation? MATERIALS AND METHODS The Research Model This is a qualitative study. The objective of qualitative research is to investigate a topic comprehensively and methodically, enabling the researcher to find answers to questions that are difficult to explain using conventional methods. Qualitative research is a methodology used for issues on which the opportunities for quantitative research are limited (Ospina, 2004; Büyüköztürk, Kılıç Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz & Demirel, 2012; Merriam, 2013). The research design is based on a case study. In case study research, which usually depends on qualitative data, the researcher provides detailed information on one or more cases. Case studies, which are employed in various fields, such as evaluation processes, are research designs in which a case, schedule, event, action, process, or one or more individuals are systematically analyzed (Creswell, 2013; Johnson & Christensen, 2014). Data Collection Data for use in this study was collected using the non-reactive measurement method. This method was chosen due to the concern that the mothers’ behaviors might change if it became known that a researcher was present. In non-reactive measurement, subjects are unaware of the fact that they are part of a study; so, their behaviors and attitudes can be observed under their natural environment. The observer is in the environment merely to observe, without having any external impact, and in line with the very logic of the method; he/she records their observations without being noticed by those being observed (Neuman, 2010; Büyüköztürk et al., 2012). Work Group The work group consisted of 14 mother and child dyads, who came to two most popular playgrounds in the city center of Trabzon province between 1:00 and 4:00 p.m., which was assumed to be the hours when children are most commonly taken to playground. Attention was paid to ensuring that all the children being observed were between 3 and 5 years of age, and whose physical characteristics and dialogues had been assessed by the second author. The study examined the different types of communication between mothers and their children of three to five years of age. The kinds of activities on going in the environment, the participation processes of the observed subjects to these activities, and their speech patterns were recorded as heard. In accordance with the study, a description of the environment was also included in the accounts, (Merriam, 2013). Half an hour was allocated to each mother and child dyad. Analysis of Data The observation records were used as the document. Content analysis was conducted on the data obtained through the observations and the qualitative data collected was structured through encoding, categorization and abstraction (Elo & 337

Kyngas, 2008; Demirci & Köseli, 2010). In order to define the categories, the qualities of all processes in which the child participated and was heard according to the General Comment No. 12 on the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN, 2009), and the participatory requirements specified in the Guidelines for Promoting Child Participation prepared by Family Health International (Steinitz, 2009) were used. In the General Comment No. 12 on the Convention on the Rights of the Child, it is stipulated that all processes in which a child or children are heard and participate must be ‘Transparent and Informative, Voluntary, Respectful, Relevant, Safe and Sensitive to Risk, Child-Friendly, Inclusive, Supported by Training, and Accountable’ (UN, 2009). In the Guidelines for Promoting Child Participation, in turn, the requirements of child participation are specified as ‘Voluntary, Informed, Meaningful, Respectful and Safe’ (Steinitz, 2009). The requirements identified in both documents were compared and an appropriate framework relevant for the objective was formed. Accordingly, the requirements of being ‘Voluntary, Respectful, Safe and Informative’, which are common to both documents, were included in the framework. The attribute of being ‘Inclusive’, which was addressed in the General Comment No. 12 on the Convention on the Rights of the Child, was also included in this list, and the data was encoded according to these requirements (UN, 2009; Steinitz, 2009). Having assigned five requirements of participation as the categories, the process of defining codes from the content of the text was initiated. Perceiving these requirements to be either negative or positive was accepted as the code. With the encoding process, the raw data contained in the content of the texts starts to make better sense, and the researcher obtains more qualified data by avoiding unnecessary details (Neuman, 2010). Ethical Issues The utmost attention was paid to not being noticed by the families (non-reactivity), so the observations could be recorded in an impartial way, away from subjective opinions, and to avoid imdyading the spontaneity of the situation. In this context, demographic information was not obtained from mothers following observations. In order to ensure observation reliability, four observations at the beginning of the research were made by two different observers (the second researcher and an independent observer). The consistency of the observations made independently by the observers was checked using the reliability formula proposed by Miles and Huberman (1994); hence, observations were encoded with markings indicating ‘Agreement’ or ‘Disagreement. The analysis conducted in this way revealed that the mean reliability among observers was 78% [Reliability =Agreement/(Agreement + Disagreement) = 18/(18+5)=0.78=78%]. In order to ensure the reliability of analysis, four randomly selected analyses were encoded by two independent specialists (the second researcher and an independent encoder) separately and according to the analysis, reliability among encoders was detected to be 75% [Reliability= Agreement/(Agreement+Disagreement) = 43/(43+14) = 0.75 = 75%]. Even though a reliability ratio over 70% indicates that the study is reliable (Bozkurt & Demir, 2012), a settlement was sought by resorting to the opinion of the first researcher concerning the encodings on which the encoders disagreed. Then the data, evaluated according to the five requirements of child participation, was rendered more comprehensible through definitions referring to quotations from the 338

observations. During the reporting process, participants were assigned codes from A to N, which denoted mother-child dyads, respectively. Finally, the identified findings were defined and interpreted. RESULTS In this study, which investigated the qualities of mother and child interaction in a playground setting in terms of the requirements of child participation, the communication process was assessed to determine whether is was conducted in a ‘respectful, voluntary, safe/sensitive to risk, inclusive and informative’ qualifications in a positive or negative manner. The findings were supported by quotations from the observation records. Table 1. Distribution of Mother-Child Dialogues according to Requirements of Participation Participation Number Total Requirements Positive 11 Respectful 40 Negative 29 Positive 21 Voluntary 55 Negative 34 Positive 21 Safe 36 Negative 15 Positive 2 Inclusive 17 Negative 15 Positive 26 Informative 36 Negative 10

The most common attribute observed in the analyses of dialogues between mothers and their children was voluntariness with 55 cases, whereas the least common attribute was the requirement of inclusiveness with 17 cases. While negative cases for respectfulness, voluntariness and inclusiveness were higher, positive cases were greater for safety and informativeness. Even though during the period of interaction, mothers were observed to have both positive and negative approaches with respect to respectfulness, voluntariness, safety and informativeness, they displayed only negative approaches, which included discriminating patterns, with respect to inclusiveness. Respectful The Respectful requirement of General Comment No. 12 underlines the need to treat children’s views with respect, and to provide them with the opportunity to initiate activities and ideas. Accordingly, adults should acknowledge and respect the participation of children in various environments (UN, 2009). According to the study, among the 40 behaviors detected in relation to the respectfulness, 11 cases set positive and 29 cases set negative examples. Among the mothers’ behaviors that constituted examples in congruence with the requirement of respectfulness, providing the child with the opportunity to express his/her views and supporting him/her with positive reactions were prominent. The dialogue between mother-child dyad H was one of the positive examples of the requirement of respectfulness: “...While the child was continuing to run, the mother called her and said, ‘Come here, let’s talk’. The kid stopped, and replied, ‘Mommy, I’m 339

playing right now, we’ll talk when I’m done, ok?’ The mother laughed. The girl ran to the slide and rode down it shouting ‘Lalala...’ once again, bursting into laughter; her mom laughed as well.” Another example was between the mother-child dyad G. “...The kid came to his mother. ‘Mommy, I’m gonna ride the swing, ok?’, ‘I’m gonna ride the swing, look that one is empty...’ he said, pointing at an empty swing. He started to run towards the swing. His mother went behind him. When he reached to the swing, he held it and started to wait for his mom. The mother came, had him seated in the swing and started to swing.” One could say that mothers communicate rather negatively in relation with this requirement. Even in most of the positive cases, it is possible to observe that while the communication is respectful to a certain extent, the final message of the entire dialogue does not reflect respectfulness. For instance, the dialogue between mother-child dyad I reflects the communication between a mother who wants to take her child home and a child who wants to stay at the playground. It was observed that the mother initially got the child off the swing without asking her opinion, and then let her ride the slide when she said “I’m gonna go down the slide”. The negative behaviors in relation to the respectfulness most typically include setting boundaries to the child’s participation in activities ignoring his/her wishes and forcing him/her to conduct the activities deemed appropriate by the mother, not allowing the child to express his/her views while displaying behaviors that criticizing or humiliating the child, preventing the child’s participations with other children, and expressing warnings intended for protecting the child, in a threatening tone. In this context, analyzing the cases in which the whole communication was negative, the dialogue of mother-child dyad J was an obvious violation of respectfulness: “After riding the slide twice, the child ran out of the playground passing in front of his mother. The mother asked, ‘Where are you going?’, ‘I want potato chips,’ he replied. ‘Where did that come from, ok, but only one’, ‘Just one?’, ‘Yes’, ‘Ok, but you stay here, I’m a big boy now, I’ll get it,’ he said. Then his mother said, ‘Yes, you’re a big boy with no brains,’ while handing him money. ‘Buy only one, and don’t forget to take the change,’ she warned. ‘Watch out for the cars, I said watch out,’ she called out behind him; she stood up muttering ‘I’m fed up with this boy’; while she was going after the boy, he came back with a pack of chips.” Mother’s disapproval of and grumbling about the child’s wish (he asked for potato chips), but granting him permission instead of preventing him to act, yet continuing to grumble about the process of shopping (you’re a big boy with not brains, watch out the cars, did you take the change) reflect the behavioral style of a parent disrespecting the child’s views, but who is resigned to fulfill the child’s wishes, despite her disapproval. A similar example was observed between mother-child dyad D. “The child went towards the adult sports equipment at the other end of the playground, and tried to climb over them. The mother said, ‘You’ll fall down’. The boy did not respond and continued to climb. ‘You’ll fall down I said, they are not for you, get off.’ Having struggled for about ten minutes, the boy came to his mother holding his knee. ‘Didn’t I tell you, they are not right for you. You couldn’t climb over them anyway,’ said the mother; the child did not respond and started to look at the equipment in the playground.” The dialogue between the mother-child dyad G, in turn, is a case that illustrates the 340

violation of respectfulness, which indicates a situation when the child believes that he/she will get support when he/she cries/insists. “While the mother was hanging around the adult sports equipment, the child said, ‘Mommy’. ‘Yeah?’ the mother replied. ‘Mommy, swing me,’ she said; focused on the sports equipment, ‘All right, wait for a while,’ replied the mother without looking at the child. Holding the empty swing, ‘Mommy, come on,’ the child called out; the mother replied while still looking at the sports equipment. The child started to cry, ‘Mommy, come on...’. The mother left the sports equipment and went to the child.” An example of the violation of respectfulness based on arranging the actions of the child by threatening/frightening is the dialogue between the mother-child dyad E. In this case, the events that occurred when Child E was interested in another child’s bicycle and got on the bike, were at stake. “As Child E moved away with the bike, the mother said, ‘Don’t ride up there.’ ‘Ok,’ said the child, came a little bit closer, and then started to move away once again. The mother (pointing at a policeman who was passing by at the moment) said, ‘You’ll not go up there. Look, the policeman is coming; he’ll be pissed with you. I can’t see you when you go up there.’ The child continued to move away looking at the mother. The mother got up and ran behind him, ‘I said no, look the uncle [elderly man] is pissed with you,’ she said this time pointing at the grandfather of the other child. When the man also started to walk towards the child, he returned and entered in the playground.” The dialogue between the mother-child dyad K, is another example of the violation of respectfulness, in which the mother imposed her own choices on the child: “The mother left the child on the slide and sat down. The child wandered around the slide, and climbed to the top of it. She sat down. ‘Be careful, you’ll fall down,’ the mother said without standing up. The child sat down without holding the handgrip, ‘hold the handgrip, you’ll fall down,’ the mother called out. The child went down the slide. When she reached the ground, her mother said, ‘Go and ride the swing.’” While remaining in a passive situation, the mother points at the swing nearby and proposes the child rides the swing. Voluntary Voluntariness implies not coercing children into expressing views against their wishes and advising them that they can cease involvement at any time (UN, General Comment No.12 on CRC, 2009). Among 55 behaviors detected in relation to voluntariness, 21 cases set positive and 34 cases set negative examples. The positive cases observed in this respect involved situations of providing support to the child’s voluntary participation, listening to the child, and letting the child perform and maintain the activity he/she chose to. The behavior of mother A, who was at the playground with her son and daughter was an example of supporting the child’s voluntary participation: “She asked to her son, who was watching those playing with the arcade punch machine nearby, ‘Do you want to punch it?’ The child ran back towards his mother, the mother hugged him, and the boy threw two punches at the machine. The mother looked at the scores and said, “Wow, my son scored big time.’ Then she let the child go and turned back to her daughter. The child continued to play with the playground equipment.” As can be seen, the mother provides support to the child’s activity and leaves him free in the playground 341

without guidance. Similarly, in the dialogue between mother-child dyad D, the mother did what was necessary by taking the child’s wish into account: “When they arrived at the playground the child looked around for a while. The mother waited with him silently. ‘Mom,’ the child said; ‘Yes?’ the mother replied. ‘Let’s go and ride that one,’ he said pointing at the seesaw. The mother said, ‘Ok, let’s ride that one.’ The boy started to run towards the equipment, the mother followed him; the boy sat on the seesaw, and the mother played with him pushing the opposite end of the seesaw with her hands.” Another mother (Mother H), displayed a positive attitude by participating in the activities of the child with a smile. On the other hand, several behaviors displayed by mothers indicate a violation of the requirement of voluntariness. One such behavior is to impose conditions on the activity that the child wishes to perform. For instance, in the dialogue between mother B and her child, the mother uses the child’s wish to play. The expressions used in the dialogue indicate that the child was forced to eat against her wish, and hence, deprived of the play that she wants to participate, for this reason: “The mother came to the playground with her child. The mother was holding food for the child. They sat near playground equipment. ‘If you finish this, I’ll let you play,’ said the mother, and handed a bite to the child... After eating for a while, the child handed the food back to her mother. ‘No, you’ll finish this, you haven’t eaten anything all day long. Otherwise, you can’t play,’ the mother said. ‘No,’ said the child; ‘Ok, we’ll leave then,’ replied the mother and handed another bite to the child. ‘I’m going to play,’ said the child while she was chewing the bite. ‘No, you finish your meal first,’ replied the mother. The child shook her head, in the sense that she did not want to eat. The mother kept on insisting.” Orienting the child towards another activity while hindering the activity he/she has been pursuing and physically interrupting the child when he/she resisted was among the other observed behaviors that violate voluntariness. Even though mother C, who came to the playground with her child, was acting in good faith, trying to protect the child by pursuing his safety, these acts were rather exaggerated, hindering the child from participating in the activities he chose, and even physically intervening: “While the child was trying to climb on the playground equipment using the climbing rope, the mother said, ‘Climb up the stairs, you can’t climb up there.” The boy continued to climb up the rope, but the mother insisted, ‘Climb up the stairs, I said.’ ‘You can’t climb from there,’ she said, then held the boy and had him climb up the stairs.” Even though child C succeeded in his effort to climb up the rope despite his lack of experience, his mother prevented him to complete the activity. The rest of the dialogue indicates that the mother maintained her over-protective attitude and constrained the child’s activities: “While the child was hanging around the equipment, looking interested in the slides, the mother said ‘Come on, slide down here.’ She caught the child who headed towards the climbers once again, and hugged him. ‘Will you slide?’ she asked. ‘Yes,’ said the child. The mother seated the boy on the slide.” As the example illustrates, the child was only permitted to play on the playground equipment that his mother chose, and for as much time as much as she allowed. Mother F also restrained the child’s range of motion by similar behaviors: “Seeing the child was kneeling down, the mother held him and had him stand up again, ‘Don’t kneel, keep your knees off the ground!’ she said. The child reacted with a scream; the 342

mother left him when she came in front of the bench she was sitting, but the child returned to the playground and continued to play with his toy car, kneeling and putting his hands on the ground. ‘Haven’t I told you not to kneel on the ground,’ the mother yelled, grabbed the child firmly and put him on the slide.” In the rest of the dialogue, mother F’s negative behavior towards her child’s acts while playing was striking. “Waiting in front of the slide, the mother called the child to come. ‘Come here!’ ‘Come here, I said!’ she yelled. The child sat on the slide and rode down the slide lying on his back, and fell onto to the ground. Seeing this, the mother grumbled, ‘God, give me patience’. ‘You’ve ruined your clothes. Let’s see whether the swings are empty.” Safe and Sensitive to Risk Safety and sensitivity to risk underlines the need to take precautions to minimize the risk to children, to which they may be exposed because of their participation (UN, General Comment No. 12 on CRC, 2009). Among 36 cases identified in this respect, 21 set positive and 15 set negative examples. It was observed that mothers who acted in compliance with this requirement let their children play freely at the playground, on the equipment on which they wished to play, while mothers remained at an appropriate distance from their children to ensure safety, intervening only when necessary. Mothers H, M, N and B participated in the activity by warning their children to be careful while remaining seated. The dialogue of mother-child dyad K can be indicated as a good example for safety: “The mother left the child next to the slide. “The mother left the child on the slide and sat down. The child wandered around the slide, and climbed to the top of it. “The mother left the child on the slide and sat down. ‘Be careful, you’ll fall down,’ the mother said without standing up. The mother sat down before the child held the handgrip, so she warned her daughter, ‘Hold the grip, otherwise you may fall’, and the child held the handgrip.” Mother L, who acted positively in terms of the requirement of safety, helped her child to overcome his fear while riding the slide. The dialogue between the mother and the child is as follows: “They came next to the slide together. The mother seated her child and let him slide while holding him. The child said, ‘I wanna slide again.’ The mother waited on lower edge of the slide and said, ‘You climb up on your own this time, I’m waiting for you here.’ While she was waiting on the lower edge of the slide, the child climbed up the stairs. He sat on top of the slide. Crossing his legs downwards he stopped. The mother kept waiting at the lower edge of the slide without holding him. The child paused for a little longer. ‘Let yourself down slowly,’ the mother said. The child held the handgrips, and kept waiting. His mother encouraged him saying, ‘Let yourself down, don’t be afraid.’ The boy crossed his legs, paused for a little longer, while the mother kept waiting, and finally he slid down slowly holding the handgrips.” As this example shows, the mother’s display was emotionally supportive but also sensitive to risk, as she kept waiting at a proper distance while providing the necessary guidance. According to observation records, it is obvious that mothers care about the safety of their children and act in a manner sensitive to risk. However, it was seen that the behaviors of some mothers in this respect were over-exaggerated to an extent that they restricted their children’s participation. It is suggested that the over-protective attitudes 343

of these mothers restrained the children’s range of action, and prevented them from participating in certain activities. Mother C did not allow her child to be alone on any playground equipment, only let the child play while she was holding him, and arranged the activities in a way that she believed to be safe; however, such behavior considerably restrained the child’s participation: “Having walked around the playground equipment, the child went towards the jungle gym. ‘You can’t climb on that,’ said the mother, but the boy wanted to play on it. ‘It is for big children, you can’t do that,’ she insisted. ‘All right, I’ll hold you,’ said the mother. She held the child on his waist, then put him on the slide. While the boy was walking around the equipment, ‘Come on, ride the slide,’ she said while tapping on it. ‘I’m gonna hold you.’” On the other hand, even though Mother J’s attitude was violating respectfulness while sending her son to buy chips from the store across the street, her warnings about being careful presented a positive case in terms of the requirement of safety. Moreover, in this case, despite the self-confidence of the child, mother’s lack of confidence is also striking. Mother’s insecure attitude towards the child might cause the child to feel incompetent, and in this respect, it may be considered as an emotional abuse, which sets a negative example in relation to the requirement of safety. Furthermore, mother’s constant grumbling, yet giving permission to the child to perform actions of which she did not approve can be considered as a breach of emotional safety for the child. It can be suggested that, while mothers are usually sensitive in safeguarding the physical security of the child, they ignore the child’s emotional safety in their warnings. Inclusive The General Comment on the child’s right to be heard emphasizes that participation must be inclusive, avoid existing patterns of discrimination, and encourage opportunities for marginalized children, both girls and boys, to be involved. It also underlines that children are not a homogenous group and participation needs to provide for equality of opportunity for all, without discrimination on any grounds (UN, General Commentary No. 12, 2009 on CRC). Among the 17 cases in which this requirement was identified, two set positive and 15 set negative examples. Among those cases investigated, discriminatory actions based on gender and age were identified; moreover, there were cases in which mothers discriminated in favor of their children by thrusting them forward in the playground setting. The dialogues of dyads C and N indicate cases where siblings are compared. While Mother C was taking care of the younger child riding the slide, she chose to compare her older child, who wanted to ride the slide as well, in order to warn her about her behavior: “The mother waited next to the slide. When the younger child rode the slide, she held him; the girl came near the slide at this moment, and the mother said, ‘Watch out’; the girl lay on the slide to ride it. ‘For heaven’s sake, girl!’ the mother reacted. ‘Even your brother doesn’t do that,’ she said.” The behaviors of mother N, who distinguished the children in terms of their gender, explicitly showed how she discriminated boys and girls: “The mother arrived at the playground with her children. They went to the swingset. The boy climbed on the swing. The mother started to swing him. The girl waited next to them. When the girl wanted to swing the boy, the mother pulled her aside (in a protective manner) saying, 344

‘No, you step aside, keep back!’ The boy said, ‘Mommy, swing me,’ and the mother turned back to her son and continued to swing him.” The expression and behaviors of the mother given in this case suggests that she had a more protective attitude towards her daughter. This opinion is supported by the fact that she allowed the boy to swing his sister while she was riding the swing. The reactions of mothers C and A in their communications with their children exemplify discrimination based on age in terms of inclusiveness: “While C... was walking around the playground equipment, he went towards the jungle gym. ‘You can’t climb on that,’ said mother C, but the boy wanted to play on it. ‘It is for big children, you can’t do that,’ she insisted.” Even though all equipment in the mentioned playground were of small sizes and appropriate for small children, mothers restricted their children’s participation based on safety concerns. It can also be suggested that mothers clearly discriminated between their children and other children playing in the playground in favor of their own. Mother B’s attitude is an example as such. While the mother was watching her child from the bench where she was sitting, she saw another child saying something to B who was standing in front of the slide. Then, the following dialogue took place: “The child climbed on the slide, sat down; another child said something to her on the slide while the mother was watching. ‘What did she say to you, won’t she let you ride?’ the mother called out while she remained seated. ‘Come on, you ride,’ she continued. ‘No,’ said the child. ‘Why?’ ‘Because she is mad at me. Should I be mad at her too?’ she asked. ‘Yes!’ ‘Ok, I’ll get off the slide.’” In this case, even though the mother did not know the content of the dialogue between the children, she intervened in the situation. According to the researcher’s observation, the situation in which the mother intervened was actually a case that the other child cautioned child B to ride the slide as she had sat on it for a long time. Mother H, in turn, intervened in a dialogue between children playing on the slide in a manner to favor her daughter, saying “Come on, move over so that he can ride” to the other child, removing him from the slide. The girl came to her mother once again to complain: “While the girl was riding the slide, another child behind her trodden on her, and the girl came to her mother complaining; the mother replied, ‘But you do the same to him.’” Mother’s attitude in this case is much more inclusive compared to her previous behavior, indicating that such behavior happens when playing. Transparent and Informative This requirement emphasizes the involvement of children with full, accessible, diversity-sensitive and age-appropriate information about how participation will take place, its scope, purpose and potential impact (UN, General Comment No. 12 on CRC, 2009). Among 36 cases identified in this respect, 26 were positive, while 10 were negative. Mother L was among those who assisted their children on how participation will take place by acting in accordance with informativeness. Mother L was providing guidance to her son, while she was encouraging him to ride the slide, which was exemplified in the context of safety. Even though other mothers were providing explanations to their children on issues, it was observed that some of these explanations were not appropriate to the age of the children. The following dialogue between mother A and her child was such an example: 345

“While the child was watching the arcade punch machine (as it was necessary insert new coin for the machine to operate), the machine stopped and the child asked her mother ‘What happened mommy?’ ‘To make money,’ said the mother, ‘People will insert coins so that they can make money.’ ‘I see,’ the child said.” In certain parts of the dialogue of the same dyad, it was seen that the mother was violating this requirement: “While the child was jumping on a stack of blue canvas next to his mother, the mother said, ‘You’re jumping on it, but do you know what’s underneath?’ ‘What is under there?’ the child asked, ‘Is this what you found to do when you had all these toys [to chose from]?’ the mother replied.” The mother wanted the child to stop doing something potentially dangerous but she did not tell the child why he should stop or the risks he could face if he continued. At the end of the dialogue, the mother intimidated the child instead of answering his question. As this case shows, mothers acting in violation of the requirement of informativeness, fail to provide satisfactory and/or age-appropriate explanations, and resort to intimidating or threatening the child instead of informing him/her about the potential dangers. The mother’s reaction to D’s wish, who wanted to ride the slide with his mother, set a negative example in terms of the requirement of informativeness: “After sitting next to his mother and watching the playground equipment for a while, ‘Mom,’ the child said. ‘Yes’, ‘Mommy’, ‘Yes’, ‘Let’s ride the slide [together]’, ‘How can I ride the slide with all these people around, you go and ride it on your own’, ‘Will you ride it if there were no one around?’ ‘But there are people around, so I can’t ride it, I said.’” Hence, the mother chose to intimidate the child. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The right of the child to express his or her views freely in all matters affecting the child directly or indirectly, yet consciously and willingly, and to assure these views are given due weight, is defined as the right to participate in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Participation is a process that includes the child’s freedom to express himself/herself or his/her ideas, enables him/her to be included in the decisions that will affect him/her and to encourage him/her to improve his/her capabilities. This chapter highlights that attention should be paid to the child, who has the right to express his/her views freely, and should be encouraged to express them in accordance with his/her age and level of maturity (Erbay, 2003; UN, 2009). Respectfulness is crucial in order to treat a child’s views with respect, and allow them to initiate ideas and activities (UN, 2009). Accordingly, it was noticed that some of the mothers observed in the playgrounds displayed favorable behaviors, such as listening to the child, providing him/her with opportunities to express his/her views and supporting him/her with positive reactions. Supportive behaviors observed in the playgrounds, included allowing the child play on the equipment of their choice, or supporting the child to continue the activity he/she is pursuing. It can also be suggested that these behaviors conform to voluntariness, which is based on the principle that children are not forced to carry out activities against their will and they are told that they can stop whenever they wish. According to a study conducted by Brajša-Zˇganec and Hanzec (2014) on 258 mothers of children with a mean age of 61-62 months, it was found that a mother’s democratic discipline style including warmth was predictive of children’s pro-social behavior. Identification of mother’s democratic discipline style, as 346

a predictor of pro-social behavior, suggests that maternal approaches in support of participation can be related with pro-social behaviors. Among the observed mother-child dyads, a few of the mothers acted in accordance with these requirements of participation, by giving their children freedom during activities, waiting at a distance where they could safeguard the safety of the child, and avoiding interrupting unless necessary. They occasionally supported their children in a controlled manner, in carrying out activities about which they were curious. It is presumed that such behaviors, which are important with regard to the requirement of safety, also provide support for the voluntary participation of the child and treat his/her views with respect. It can be stated that mothers behaving like this were acting in line with the contemporary concept of agentic childhood. Agentic children are those who are more active in social life, participating in education and social life, assuming roles in initiating change and sharing responsibility. Accordingly, while respecting their capabilities, children should be conferred responsibilities in accordance with their age and maturity, so as to enable them to gain experience in social relations, and to provide support for their active participation in daily life (Sorin, 2005; Woodhead, 2005; Uprichard, 2008). Enabling the child who is playing with playground equipment to accomplish the task by encouraging him/her and making the proper explanations or providing the necessary guidance to the child on the matters he/she is curious about, are significant behaviors in terms of informativeness. Even though some mothers were observed to act in line with informativeness, which indicates that clear, age-appropriate information should be provided to the child on matters such as how participation will take place, its objective and effect, it is thought that some of the observed mothers acted in violation of this requirement. In terms of this requirement, the mothers’ behaviors usually took the form of dialogues warning the child against possible dangers or giving them instructions on how to play with a particular piece of equipment, and it was observed that mothers were expecting their children to behave in a specific way, while providing them explanations. In this respect, it was clear that mothers were also restraining their children’s voluntary participation. Within this context, it could also be suggested that respectfulness was also violated. By imposing their own views rather than respecting those of their child, the views and initiatives of the child were at stake. In a study, which evaluated the verbal expressions of mothers in play environment, these expressions were examined according to four aspects of readiness (sensitivity, configuration, non-compelling behavior, acting in a non-hostile way). According to the study, which was conducted by Akgün and Yeşilyaprak (2011), in terms of the sensitivity aspect, which is defined according to the mother’s requirements of being enthusiastic, accommodating, receptive and accessible, it was observed that the mothers had difficulties in adapting to their children’s wishes and kept silent leaving the children without response. As these findings indicate, it was seen in the playground dialogue that some mothers reacted to the child’s wishes in an unaccommodating manner, and tried to guide the child through inappropriate interventions into the child’s activities, rather than providing answers to the issues about which the child was curious. As defined in A Guide to Children and Young People’s Participation Rights, from three years of age, children can participate in decisions about which food they eat, what they wear, the activities they engage in, which group they are part of, and the purchasing of new things (Burke, 2008). In this respect, families should create 347

environments that support their children’s participation. However, the frequently observed negative behaviors of mothers in the study indicated that they ignored children’s wishes, and even restrained children’s participation in those activities in which they were engaged. It was seen that mothers oriented their children towards activities. It can be considered that mothers were not only violating voluntariness in this regard, but also the principle of respectfulness by acting insensitively towards the children’s interests and wishes. Contrary to the concept of the agentic child, which regards the active participation of children as part of their conceptualization of their environment, the mothers in these cases could be considered to have an image of dependent child (Sorin, 2005; Fern, 2008). During the observations made at the playgrounds, mothers were often seen to prevent their children from carrying out the activities in which they were engaged, instead steering them towards different plays/toys, during the course of the activity. In addition to this, it was observed that some mothers exhibited intimidating/humiliating behaviors, were disapproving their children’s activities, and verbally warned them about their behavior. Assuming a negative attitude in relation to the child’s views, these mothers were violating respectfulness. Furthermore, there were cases in which these mothers physically interrupted the child when he/she resisted. In their study, Kertz, Smith and Chapman (2008) showed that the children of mothers who display such anxious behavior were at risk of developing an anxiety disorder. In another study, it was found that mothers showing nervous, anxious requirements are associated with authoritarian parenting (Thornock, Nelson, Robinson & Hart, 2013). Moreover, in the research conducted by O’Brien Caughy, Miller, Genevro, Huang and Nautiyal (2003) it was found that verbal and physical punishments inflicted by parents were generally associated with the manifestion of behavioral problems and mental health issues in the child (such as low self-esteem and depression), and harsh discipline imposed at an early age were associated with the development of aggressive and disobedient behavior in young children and development of anti-social behavior during adolescence (including aggressive behavior). In accordance with the results of this research, it is suggested that the negative maternal behavior observed in our study could have an adverse impact on the children’s personality development. It can be asserted that the mothers observed in the study cared about the safety of their children and were sensitive to risk; however, the behavior of some of the mothers in this respect were exaggerated to an extent that they restrained the participation of their child and hampered the child’s participation by arranging his/her activities due to threats and intimidation. Families can use people who perform essential jobs, such as doctors, dentists, policemen, as an object of fear. As these children become terrified, when there is a need for these professionals, the child may overreact. Whatever the circumstance, the child should never be threatened with a situation that results in fear, if he/she does not do something (Tuzcuoğlu & Tuzcuoğlu, 2005). In this research, it was observed that policemen were used as an object of intimidation, and as the explanation highlights, such an inappropriate stance by the mother could result in the child overreacting to this occupational group. Furthermore, in the research it was seen that mothers were interrupting their children’s actions unnecessarily, due to protective concerns, and limiting their range of action to a high degree, as a result of this overprotective attitude. In a study conducted by Laukkanen, Ojansuu, Tolvanen, Alatupa and Aunola (2014) they identified three parenting styles that illustrated the interactions 348

of parents with their children. These styles are: warmth and affection, based on the acceptance of and communication with the child; psychological control, which refers to guilt stimulation in the child’s emotions and behaviors and withdrawal of love, and behavioral control, which refers to controlling the child, the setting of limits, and keeping the child under supervision. In the present study, which was conducted in playgrounds, even though all three of these parenting styles were encountered, the number of mothers who had warm communication with their children was lower than the other categories. Most of the mothers were acting according to psychological or behavioral control styles. It was observed that children who wandered away from their mothers, lost their toys, or displayed behaviors that were deemed inappropriate by their mothers were exposed to humiliating/judgemental behaviors, or that mothers acted in an over-protective manner, based on a concern that their children could be harmed. Overprotective attitudes that restrain the child may not only cause the child to develop a dependent personality, they may also hamper the child’s social development. These attitudes may cause the child to develop an over-dependent, timid, withdrawn and insecure personality (Arı & Çağdaş, 1999; Tuzcuoğlu & Tuzcuoğlu, 2005). Examining those cases that involved inclusiveness, negative behaviors (such as positive discrimination towards one’s own child), discrimination among siblings, and providing greater freedom to the male child were all observed. Research conducted on the issue indicates that the parents’ discriminatory behavior among siblings can negatively affect the relationship between siblings in the future. According to the results of the research conducted by Suitor et al. (2009) on 708 adults, investigating the effects of maternal favoritism on middle-aged siblings, it was seen that parental favoritism in childhood reduced the intimacy between siblings regardless of which sibling was favored, and that irrespective of the age of the child, maternal behaviors in childhood are crucial in predicting tension between siblings during middle age. In another research conducted by Gilligan, Suitor, Kim and Pillemer (2013), examining the effects of parents’ discriminatory behavior/favoritism on siblings as perceived in adulthood, it was concluded that parents’ favoritism has a life-long impact on the quality of relationships between siblings, and shape their relationships in the coming years. Mothers who exhibited behaviors that respect the child to express his/her own views, to implement his/her decisions in activities at the playground were observed to display behaviors that can also be considered as positive, in terms of other requirements. Nevertheless, in general, in dialogues that violated respectfulness, as well as inadequacies in terms of other requirements, were noticable. Seeing both positive and negative attributes of participation within the same mother-child dialogue implicates the lack of awareness in this respect. Highly sensitive interactions regarding the child’s participation must involve all requirements of participation in a constant and consistent manner (UN, General Comment No. 12, 2009 on CRC; Steinitz, 2009). The results of this current research showed that the majority of the mothers did not treat the views of their children with respect, they did not provide them with the opportunity to initiate and maintain their activities (respectful), and forced them to perform activities they did not choose (voluntary). In addition to this, within the process of participation, dialogues that involved discrimination (inclusive) were observed; moreover, discriminatory behavior based on age, gender and intimacy were encountered. The most frequently observed negative mother-child communications with regard to respectfulness, voluntariness and inclusiveness can be considered as 349

associated with conventional motherhood and dependent/passive childhood concepts (Woodhead, 2005). Even though these mostly constituted cases in which the mothers restrained their children’s activities due to their over-protective attitude, it was seen that mothers displayed the necessary behaviors to safeguard the safety of their children (safe) and informed them on the possible dangers of their activities (informative). Despite its positive aspect, this situation can also be considered as an indication of over-protective motherhood. Likewise, although the warnings of mothers on their children’s safety seemed to be in compliance with safety, they cannot be considered as attitudes that were completely in support of safety and sensitivity to risk aspects, as their way of warning involved elements of psychological violence (emotional abuse), such as intimidation/contempt. A re-conceptualization of childhood from the perspective of the rights of the child can be based on the 1970s child liberationist argument, before the enactment of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. After the enactment of the Convention in 1989, the rights perspective came to the fore, but a marked protective attitude also became prominent. However, the same document has the additional element of being the first legal document addressing the rights of the child to participate (Johnny, 2006). It can be argued that General Comment No. 12 of 2009, which elaborates the rights of the child to be heard/to participate, transformed the conception of childhood into a conception of the citizen child/individual who can take decisions. Yet, despite the previous four decades’ conception of childhood, which emphasizes the fact that the child is not as vulnerable and helpless as he/she is assumed to be, the mothers observed in our study leads to pessimism regarding the replication of this conception in the perspectives of mothers, due to their over-protective attitudes towards their young children, or behavioral styles and attitudes, which lack respectfulness, voluntariness and inclusiveness. A first step to such a transformation may be the adoption of an agentic childhood perspective, instead of considering childhood as needy, inadequate and passive (Sorin, 2005). Accordingly, the limited scope of the agentic child concept in the mothers observed in this study implies that substantial efforts would be necessary for the transformation of the childhood paradigm in Turkish society. Efforts should be directed at increasing the awareness necessary for starting this social transformation in order to strengthen mother and child interaction. A further recommendation is the inclusion of mothers, who do not show the necessary tolerance to their children’s behaviors and restrains their child’s activities, due to the influence of conventional methods used in child care training and support programs, the effectiveness and success of which have already been tested in various studies (Schuhmann, Foote, Eyberg & Boggs, 1998; Herschell, Calzada, Eyberg & McNeil, 2002; Hood & Eyberg, 2003). REFERENCES Akgün, E. & Yeşilyaprak, B. (2011). Anne Çocuk Oyun Etkileşiminde Niteliksel Boyut: Annelerin Sözel İfadelerinin Değerlendirilmesi [Qualitative Aspect in Mother-Child Play Interaction: Evaluation of Mother’s Oral Statements]. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (40), 11-20. Arı, R. & Çağdaş, A. (1999). Anne-Çocuk İletişim Dili Eğitimi'nin 4-5 Yaş Çocuklarının Sosyal Gelişimine Olan Etkileri [Effects of Mother-Child Communicative Language Training on the Social Development of 4-to-5 Year-Old Children]. Selçuk Üniversitesi 350

Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi (5), 391-407. Berk, L. (2013). Bebekler ve Çocuklar Doğum Öncesinden Orta Çocukluğa [Infants and Children: From Prenatal Period to Middle Childhood]. Ankara: Nobel Bozkurt, E. & Demir, R. (2012). Peer Assessment through Students Opinions: A Case Study.Elementary Education Online , 11 (4), 966-978. Brajša-Žganec, A. & Hanzec, I. (2014). Social Development of Preschool Children in Croatia: Contributions of Child Temperament, Maternal Life Satisfaction and Rearing Practices. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 105-117. Burke, T. (2008). Listen and Change- A Guide to Children and Young People’s Participation Rights. London: Published by the Children’s Rights Alliance for England. Burke, T. (2010). Anyone Listening? Evidence of Children and Young People’s Participation in England. England: National Children's Bureau. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö., Karadeniz, Ş. & Demirel, F. (2012). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri. [Scientific Research Methods] Ankara: Pegem, 8, 141, 144. Covell, K. & Howe, R. (2009). Families and Violence- Challengers for Children's Rights.London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Creswell, J. (2013). Araştırma Deseni (Nitel, Nicel ve Karma Yöntem Yaklaşımları) [Research Design (Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches)]. (S. Demir, Çev.) Ankara: Eğiten Kitap. Demirci, S. & Köseli, M. (2010). İkincil Veri ve İçerik Analizi [Secondary Data and Content Analysis]. K. Böke (Dü.), in Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri [Research Methods in Social Sciences] (p. 344-357). İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları, 345. Dinç, B. (2015). Okulöncesi Eğitim Kurumuna Devam Eden Çocukların Ebeveynlerinin Çocuk Hakları Eğitimi Konusundaki Görüşleri. [Views of Parents of Children Attending to Preschool Educational Institutions on Children’s Rights Education] Eğitimde Nitel Araştırmalar Dergisi - Journal of Qualitative Research in Education, 3(1), 7-25. [Online]: http://www.enadonline.com doi:10.14689/issn.2148-2624.1.3c1s1m Doğan-Temur, Ö. & İnan, H. (2010). Anne Rolünde Kadın ve Anne-Çocuk Oyun İlişkisi [Women in Mother’s Role and Play Relationship between Mother and Child]. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3(13), 86-95. Elo, S. & Kyngas, H. (2008). The Qualitative Content Analysis Process. Journal of Advanced Nursing , 62 (1), 107-115. Erbay, E. (2003). Çocukların Katılım Hakkı Üzerine Bir Türkiye Değerlendirmesi [An Assessment of Turkey in terms of Children’s Right to Participate]. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(1), 38-54. Erbay, F. & Durmuşoğlu Saltalı, N. (2012). Altı Yaş Çocuklarının Günlük Yaşantılarında Oyunun Yeri ve Annelerin Oyun Algısı [The Status of Play in Six Year Olds’ Daily Lives and Their Mothers’ Play Perception]. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), 13(2), 249-264. Fern, E. (2008). The Implications of How Social Workers Conceptualise Childhood, for Developing Child Directed Practice: An Action Research Study in Iceland. Warwick: PhD thesis, University of Warwick. Gilligan, M., Suitor, J., Kim, S., & Pillemer, K. (2013). Differential Effects of Perceptions of Mothers’ and Fathers’ Favoritism on Sibling Tension in Adulthood. Journals of Gerontology, Series B:Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 68 (4), 593-598. Herschell, A., Calzada, E., Eyberg, S. & McNeil, C. (2002). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: New Directions in Research. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice , 9, 9-16. Hood, K. & Eyberg, S. (2003). Outcomes of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy: Mothers’ 351

Reports of Maintenance Three to Six Years After Treatment. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology , 32 (3), 419–429. Johnny, L. (2006). Reconceptualising Childhood: Children’s Rights and Youth Participation in Schools. International Education Journal, 7(1), 17-25. Johnson, B. & Christensen, L. (2014). Eğitim Araştırmaları (Nitel, Nicel ve Karma Yaklaşımlar). (S. Demir, Çev.) Ankara: Eğiten Kitap. Koçyiğit, S., Tuğluk, M. & Kök, M. (2007). Çocuğun Gelişim Sürecinde Eğitsel Bir Etkinlik Olarak Oyun [Play as an Educational Activity in Child Development]. Atatürk Üniversitesi Kazım Karabekir Eğitim Fakültesi, 16, 324-342. Kertz, S., Smith, C. & Chapman, L. (2008). Maternal Sensitivity and Anxiety: Impacts on Child Outcome. Child & Family Behavior Therapy , 30 (2), 153-171. Laukkanen, J., Ojansuu, U., Tolvanen, A., Alatupa, S. & Aunola, K. (2014). Child’s Difficult Temperament and Mothers’ Parenting Styles. Journal of Child and Family Studies , 23 (2), 312-323. Merriam, S. B. (2013). Nitel Araştırma:Desen ve Uygulama İçin Bir Rehber. [Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation] (S. Turan, F. Koçak Cambaz, M. Öz, E. Karadağ, D. Yılmaz, H. Özen, et al., Çev.) Ankara: Jossey- Bass-Nobel. Miles, B. M. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Source Book.27.10.2014 http://books.google.com.tr/books/about/Qualitative_Data_Analysis.html?id= U4lU_ wJ5 QE C&redir_esc=y Neuman, L. (2010). Toplumsal Araştırma Yöntemleri- Nitel ve Nicel Yaklaşımlar2 [Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches]. İstanbul: Yayın Odası, 662. O’Brien Caughy, M., Millerb, T. L. & Genevrob, J. L. (2003). The effects of Healthy Steps on Discipline Strategies of Parents of Young Children. Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 517-534. Ospina, S. (2004). Qualitative Research. (G. Goethals, G. Sorenson, & M. J., Dü) Encyclopedia of Leadership . Raval, V., Raval, P. & Deo, N. (2014). Mothers' Socialization Goals, Mothers' Emotion Socialization Behaviors, Child Emotion Regulation, and Child Socioemotional Functioning in Urban India. The Journal of Early Adolescence , 34, 229. Schuhmann, E., Foote, R., Eyberg, S. & Boggs, S. (1998). Efficacy of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: Interim Report of a Randomized Trial with Short-Term Maintenance. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27 (1), 34-45. Sandberg, A. & Eriksson, A. (2010). Children's Particcipation in Preschool On The Conditionds of The Adults? Preschool Staff's Concepts of Children's Participation in Preschool Everyday Life. Early Child Development and Care, 180 (5), 619-631. Sorin, R. (2005). Changing Images of Childhood–Reconceptualising Early Childhood Practice. International Journal of Transitions in Childhood, 1(1), 12-21. Steinitz, L. (2009). Guidelines for Promoting Child Participation. Arlingon: Family Health International, 4. Suitor, J., Sechrist, J., Plikuhn, M., Pardo, S., Gilligan, M., & Pillemer, K. (2009). The Role of Perceived Maternal Favoritism in Sibling Relations in Midlife. J Marriage Fam., 71 (4), 1026-1038. Thornock, C., Nelson, L., Robinson, C. & Hart, C. (2013). The Direct and Indirect Effects ofHome Clutter on Parenting. Family relations, 62, 783-794. Tuğrul, B. (2002). Erken Çocukluk Döneminde Öğrenmeyi ve Öğretimi Kolaylaştıran Özellikler [Characteristics that Facilitate Learning and Teaching in Early Childhood]. 352

Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22, 142-147. Tuzcuoğlu, S. & Tuzcuoğlu, N. (2005). Davranış Bozukluğu Gösteren Çocukları Tanıma ve Anlama [Recognizing and Understanding Children with Behavioral Disorder]. İstanbul: Morpa. UN (2009). Convention on the Rights of the Child. General Comment No. 12. The Right of the Child to be Heard. Geneva: Committee on the Rights of the Child. Uprichard, E. (2008). Children as ‘Being and Becomings’: Children, Childhood and Temporality. Children & Society , 22, 303-313. Widarsson, M., Engström, G., Rosenblad, A., Kerstis, B., Edlund, B. & Lundberg, P. (2013). Parental Stress in Early Parenthood Among Mothers and Fathers in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 27 (4). Woodhead, M. (2005). Early Childhood Development: A Question of Rights. International Journal of Early Childhood, 37 (3), 79-98.

353

Chapter 27 Parent-Child Communication1 Hatice VATANSEVER BAYRAKTAR INTRODUCTION The family is an institution, the effect of which on the child starts during the prenatal period and is maintained throughout the child’s life. The important role of the knowledge, skills and attitudes learned as a result of the parent-child interaction in the first years of life on adulthood has started to be understood better. Modern society needs self-confident, constructive, creative individuals with the developed sense of responsibility, who monitor themselves, can express their emotions and thoughts freely, have developed social skills such as solidarity, sharing and cooperating, and can establish positive social relations with other people. This depends on the healthy communication that parents will establish with their children since early ages and their positive attitudes and approaches towards them (Çağdaş, 2012). This section includes the subjects of the research such as the main elements of the communication with children, communication in family life, family communication models by the communication behavior in the family, family classification by the level of speech and adaptation orientation, attitudes of the parents, and family communication. 1. MAIN ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION WITH CHILDREN 1.1. Acceptance The main principle in the communication process between people is to accept. Accepting people with their unique qualities plays a significant role in communication (Yavuzer, 1996). Individuals that communicate with children, especially parents, should consider their children as different individuals. They should think that they are free in their thoughts and behaviors and accept them as they are. Accepting people as they are is an important element in developing a relationship. In such a relationship, the person who is accepted may grow, develop, go through constructive changes, and learn to solve one’s problems, show important developments in one’s psychological health, become more productive and creative and activate all one’s hidden power. The language of acceptance opens up children. It sets them free in sharing their emotions and problems (Gordon, 2005, p.30). Accepting is different than approving. The person who is accepted is the individual himself/herself. However, it is the behavior that is approved or disapproved. Thus, parents should accept their children as they are, whether positive-negative, good-bad, competent-incompetent (Dönmezer, 1999; Çağdaş, 2012). 1

This study is an excerpt taken from the PhD dissertation of the author. Assist. Prof. Dr., İstanbul Sabahattin Zaim University, Education Faculty, Pre School Teacher Training Department 



Acceptance helps a child increase his/her sense of confidence by feeling that they are loved and cared for, behave according to one’s own self, and become more productive and creative individuals. Thus, adults should accept children as they are, with their positive-negative, good-bad, competent-incompetent aspects. Accepting one’s children and making them feel this are different things. As long as the acceptance of the parents does not reach a child, this does not have any effect on him/her. The parents should know how to show the acceptance in order for the child to feel this. Parents can show that they accept their child by not interfering with what they do. For example, not interfering with a child who draws and letting him/her draw as he/she wants is an acceptance that is sent to the child. Acceptance can be expressed with gestures and mimics. A child whose head is caressed, hand is held, hugged and looked at with a smile receives a message of non-verbal acceptance. Passive listening (silence) is a powerful non-verbal message and can be used effectively in order to make an individual feel that he/she is actually accepted (Gordon, 2005). Active listening method, which is more effective than passive listening, should be used in verbal communication. Children sometimes have difficulty in expressing one’s emotions and problems. They need encouragement for talking and expressing one’s problems. They are encouraged to talk with sentences such as “Would you like to talk about this subject?”, “I’m interested in your thoughts.”, “I’m curious about your emotions.” Talking encouragement or door opening sentences facilitate communication and create the thought that the child is accepted or respected (Dönmezer, 2009, p.71). Among acceptance and effective listening skills, non-interference and passive listening are non-verbal, while encouraging to talk and active listening are verbal communication skills (Dönmezer, 2009, p.73). 1.2. Empathy “Empathy”, which is an individual attitude and quality, is one’s ability to see, hear and perceive the other person’s state of mind, emotions, needs, attitudes, experiences, etc. from their point-of-view (Özgüven, 2010). “Empathy” means that a person puts himself/herself in another person’s place, looks at incidents from their point-of-view, and understands and feels the emotions and thoughts of that person correctly and lets him/her know this. People with developed empathy skills are loved and approved by others (Tutar and Yılmaz, 2010, p.90). Empathy skill has been functional in developing a qualitative social structure and social sensitivity and bringing people closer (Kabapınar, 2003, p. 170). In empathy, the most important element in correctly perceiving a person’s emotions and thoughts is communication. If effective communication cannot be established with another person, meaningless results can be obtained on emotions and thoughts (Holm, 1997, p.131). With the empathic approach in interpersonal communication, it is possible to understand the needs and point-of-view of other people and help them, perceive the environment of the other person, find solutions to the problems of the other person and reduce the defense of the other person, and thus, to establish and maintain a healthy interpersonal communication (Reynolds and Scott, 1999, p.363). Katz, who defends that empathy is a communication process, defines empathy as an interpersonal communication process in which people share their experiences. Empathic communication includes the verbal and non-verbal communication between 355

the person who emphasizes and is emphasized. Interpersonal empathic communication is based on getting to know the other person by sharing his/her experiences, as well as sharing things about oneself. Verbal communication, i.e. understanding the language and symbols of the language, is quite important in empathic communication (Teresa, 2004, p. 23). Empathic communication requires the acquaintance and understanding of each other by the parties. Empathic communication is far from prejudices. Not believing, but knowing is the basis of empathy. The last stage of empathic communication includes expressing to the other party that we understand them (Tutar and Yılmaz, 2010, p. 91). An individual with the developed empathic understanding also has the developed ability to understand the world of other people. However, it is hard for an egocentric person to get into the role of another person and look at incidents from the point-of-view of that person, and understand his/her emotions and thoughts. It is necessary for a person to get rid of egocentrism and assess the other person in terms of perceptual perspective, cognitive perspective, and emotional perspective. The perceptual perspective is about realizing the point-of-view of the other person; cognitive perspective is about realizing what the other person thinks about; and emotional perspective is about wondering about the emotions of the other person (Dökmen, 1994, p.141). According to Dökmen (1994, p. 155-156), two types of communication, which are conflictual and conflict-free occur between individuals when empathic communication cannot be established. Conflict-free communication is a type of communication that is generally targeted in all relations and considered to always bring about positive results. However, parties feel lonely in conflict-free cases as they fail to transmit their emotions and thoughts completely, and they also want to communicate less. Conflictual communication is the type of communication in which the transfer of emotions and thoughts is very little and none. Problems constantly occur between people, conflicts occur and the problems encountered cannot be solved. Thus, people become unhappy and no satisfaction is obtained from relationships. Empathic listening is the effort to understand the inner world of people and see the world with their eyes. This process includes understanding and interpreting individuals within their personal context without judging their behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Empathic listening is to grasp the value judgment of another person. To try to understand what they say from their point-of-view. We do not empathize if we look at what they say from our point-of-view and value judgments (Tutar & Yılmaz, 2010, p. 91). Adults should put themselves in the place of the child in order to be able to emphasize with the child and look at incidents from his/her point-of-view. And for this, it is necessary to get into the role of the child and look behind his/her glasses (Dökmen, 1994). For example, when a child is crying as the pages of his/her book are torn by a friend, instead of saying “Why are you crying for a book?” or “We’ll buy you a new one”, adults should put themselves in the place of the child and try to understand his/her emotions by saying “You are very sorry as the pages of your book are torn.” The adult should understand the emotions and thoughts of the child correctly in order to be able to emphasize. However, this is not sufficient. For, it is important for the emphatic understanding formed in the mind of the adult is transmitted to the child in order to empathize. Emphatic reactions become more effective with the combination of body language and verbal messages. 356

The emphatic understanding, which has the quality of bringing people closer and facilitating communication is important in reflecting the emotions of understanding and being understood in interpersonal communication and establishing effective communication by creating mutual trust. It is possible to ensure mutual benefit as a result of the behaviors of opening up oneself, trusting, being approved and loved by the environment, etc., by creating interaction between the person who empathizes and is empathized (Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p. 39). As an important element of effective communication, the ability to empathize between individuals should be gained and developed. 1.3. Listening Listening is the process of effective receiving and interpreting the messages. It includes mental processes such as perceiving and comprehending. Listening also means to understand, assess, and organize the thoughts that are put forth in speech, organize them, determine the relations between them, and sort out those values that we deem worth keeping in our memory among these thoughts (Ergin, 2008, p. 113). Listening is an indispensable part of verbal communication. Being able to respond to the message received through communication is only possible by perceiving that message correctly. And this, the precondition is to listen, understand and then answer the message. While listening seems necessary for the receiving party at first, the party that starts the communication, i.e. the sender, has the same responsibility in receiving the feedback. Whether the message is correctly received first can be learned by listening to the answer received (Aziz, 2010, p. 91). Listening is showing respect. A person who is listened to has more self-confidence and the probability of being a happy person at peace with oneself is high. In order to be able to listen, our brain should first perceive the messages sent. Above all, it is necessary to be ready to take the message without prejudice; and this is only possible through emphatic listening (Tutar and Yılmaz, 2010, p. 91). The nature of listening in any communication can be either active or passive. Active listening is in question when the listener exhibits certain behaviors (verbal or non-verbal) showing that he/she clearly listens. However, passive listening is about the invisible aspects of the individuals rather than visible behaviors. In passive listening, the listener tries to cognitively give meaning to the messages received, however, he/she does not do this by exhibiting behaviors showing that he/she clearly listens (Hargie et al., 1994; Harlak, 2007, p. 125). While active listening is the way to understand the world of another person. Active listening is to listen to people without judging them for the things they say and exhibiting reactions showing that we understand the emotions revealed by the speaker. The most important key to active listening is to use feedback. As the listener succeeds in receiving and giving feedback effectively in active listening, he/she has the opportunity to check whether what is said is understood (Harlak, 2007, p. 126-127). In active listening, the listener constantly uses the feedback process. The listener with the attitude of active listening gives the impression that he/she is interested in what the speaker tells and actually listens to his/her problem. That the listener listens to the speaker very carefully and shows this gives to the speaker great peace and confidence. Active listening provides a good opportunity to reveal implied meanings. Active listening allows getting to know someone well. Active listening may cause the person in 357

question to share himself/herself with you. Thus, communication and social relations based on stronger bases are born (Yüksel, 2008, p.177-178). In family communication, a person who listens and understands gives the speaker great peace and confidence. It gets the opportunity to penetrate into one’s inner world and reveal the closed, hidden meanings inside of him/her. Although children and mother are two closest creatures, if the mother fails to apply the active listening method to the child, she cannot understand the basic problems of the child. Active listening allows the individual to open up more sincerely and share oneself with the listener. Thus, human relationships are established on stronger bases in the family and relations develop more easily (Doğan and Doğan, 2011; p. 185). A child or adolescent needs a good listener. Gordon (1970) talks about the need for active listening when a child or adolescent has a problem. The child can solve his/her own problem if the adult listens actively with an empathic approach. In this case, the child has a more positive feeling about the situation and oneself. Listening to a person tells the individual that he/she is respected and helps to form a solid relationship. Both respect and relationship help the formation of self-respect (Whirter and Acar, 1998, p. 101). Listening transmits the child such messages as “You are valuable”, “You are strong”, “I love you”, “I accept you” and “I care about you.” Such messages help the child to have positive feelings about one’s own self, feel that he/she is cared for and loved and feel confident. Listening helps the child relax by expressing one’s problems with verbal expressions rather than crying, rage, aggression or turning in upon oneself. A child who knows that he/she is listened to feels more peaceful and relaxed. This ensures that the child develops healthily in emotional and social terms. It increases his/her selfconfidence. A child who is listened to by others learns to listen (Navaro, 2001). Active listening helps children discover their feelings. It helps them not to fear from negative emotions. It develops a warm relationship between the parents and the child. It helps the child solve his/her problem. Active listening renders children more willing to listen to what the parents say and think (Gordon, 2005, p.54). The purpose of active listening is to transmit the child the deep understanding and acceptance feeling. It is assumed that the child can choose a form of expression in which he/she can express one’s emotions and thoughts about one’s problem and is satisfied in this environment of respect and acceptance. In order to achieve this objective, the adult listens to the emotions of the child about the problem with empathy. The adult uses listening techniques that create the feeling that he/she understands the child’s feelings and is together with the child (Whirter and Acar, 1998, p.137). Gordon (2005, p. 55) specifies the main attitudes that should exist while using active listening as follows: Parents should be willing to hear what the child says; if they do not have the time to listen to them, they should indicate this. They must be willing to actually help the problem of the child. They should be able to actually accept the feelings of the child. They should fully believe in the child’s ability to find solutions to his/her problems. They should be able to consider the child as a separate individual. 1.4. Language Used 1.4.1. I Language Parents should send messages to their children using I-language rather than youlanguage in order to communicate with them healthily and effectively. Talking using I 358

language does not mean that the speaker talks or brags about himself/herself. I language is an honest and responsible anger expression that defines the child’s behavior that they do not accept, and explains how this behavior affects them materially and what kind of feelings they experience (Çağdaş, 2012). I language means that parents express their feelings and what they feel as a result of a particular behavior when they do not accept the behaviors of the child. Explaining what one feels about an incident or event requires using I language. Parents sending messages using I language transmit the child that the problem is his/her own problem and express their feelings about the problem. For example, the parents use I message in the statements “I do not want to play when I am exhausted.”, “I feel bad when I see the house messy.” (Dönmezer, 2009, p.105). I statements explain personal thoughts, emotions, and experiences. Statements such as “I am sorry” explain subjective reactions, ideas, hopes and beliefs of individuals. They enable people to express their emotions. This kind of communication includes the transmission of the reactions and emotions of a person (Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p. 157). I statements create more positive results in family communication than you statements. I statements do not threaten the person who is communicated and do not contain provocative statements. They facilitate creating their own behaviors as well as ensuring that they take responsibility in the development of the children. They enable focusing on a particular subject in solving the problems in the family. Gordon, who states that I messages generally express positive situations, problems do not occur in the future as individuals express their feelings and thoughts on time. I statements ensure defining unacceptable behaviors in family communication and the emotions experienced by parents and their subtle effects on parents (Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p.158). I statements do not provoke the child for resistance and revolt. I statements are much more effective as they give the responsibility to change one’s behavior to the child. I statements help the child grow up and take the responsibility of one’s behaviors. I statements are honest. They teach the child to express his/her emotions using similar honest messages (Gordon, 2005, p. 105). 1.4.2. You Language You messages cause defensive communication by activating the defense mechanisms of an individual. You statements cause defensive communication by activating the defense mechanisms of the individual. Defensive communication prevents good communication between parents and the child (Dönmezer, 2009, p. 105). You statements explain the situation, emotions, problems and thoughts of the other party. They enable guessing and explaining the emotions and thoughts of the other party (Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p. 158). That parents use you statements in communication makes the child feel that there is a distance between them. Nevertheless, when you statements are used, the other party feels that he/she is taken responsible and may start to defend oneself most of the time. While I statements are effective in establishing discipline, you statements cause conflicts. In addition to causing conflict, you statements may lead to the decrease of loving emotions within the family by preventing the solution of problems (Urban, 2007; Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p.158). 359

You language is not effective in changing negative behaviors of the child. For, there is no open definition of unaccepted behavior in you language. Thus, the child may not know which behavior is not accepted or which behavior should be corrected. Furthermore, how the behavior that is not accepted in you language affects the other party materially and what kind of emotions it causes are not indicated. Thus, the child may not know how his/her behavior affects the other party and what kind of emotions it causes (Çağdaş, 2009, p.133). 2. COMMUNICATION IN FAMILY LIFE Family, which has many duties and functions for the care, development and education of children, is a very important institution for communication, as well. The first place where communication skills are gained is the family. The attitudes between the mother and father constitute the basis of family relations. Harmonious and warm ties expand from the parents to children. A tense and conflicting husband-wife relationship creates an insecure and nervous atmosphere for children. Healthy families raise healthy and happy children. Healthy families make up a healthy society. Then, the family should be based on solid bases at first. The communication with the child starts by taking the child on one’s lap. The communication and interaction of parents and other individuals in the family with the child determine the place of the child inside the family. Communication, which is the basic and indispensable property of social life, has an important function in the development and education of individuals. Regardless of the age of the children, parents should listen to them and give them the message that they want to hear what they say. Thus, the child will become aware that he/she is valuable, have more self-confidence and be more successful in his/her communication with the environment. Hence, it is important to respect children, accept their existence, make them feel that they are important for their personality development (Doğan and Doğan, 2011, p.319). There must be effective communication between the parents and children in order for children to show good development. Effective communication ensures that family members understand each other’s thoughts and emotions, leads to the behaviors of cooperation, helping each other and sharing, and creates a suitable environment for the development of children. Children develop an autonomous and independent personality and get the freedom and habit to express their thoughts and emotions in a wellcommunicated family environment. On the contrary, the development of children is prevented in a family environment where effective communication cannot be created and there are communication barriers. Children become dependent individuals who cannot think freely and express their thoughts and feelings explicitly; they encounter various problems and adaptation problems in the future (Dönmezer, 2009, p.59). Children need people to talk to and help them when they encounter any problem or obstacle. And parents want to help their children at such moments. However, especially in traditional societies and authoritarian families, children cannot talk to their families about their problems and parents cannot help their children although they want it very much. Then children prefer sharing their problems with their uninformed and inexperienced friends. However, they still cannot solve their problems, and they also move away from their families. Children’s communication with their families is quite important in their world. In the triangle of parents and child, it is possible to find solutions to their problems in case they transmit their emotions and thoughts to each 360

other and establish successful communication. The failure to communicate means the suppression of feelings and failure to solve one’s problems, and such a family environment is unhealthy. Thus, it is quite important to establish effective communication between family members, and especially between parents and children. The failure to establish effective communication in the family occurs when parents do not know how to communicate with their children. The communication in the family, both between spouses and parents and children should be mutual, i.e. bidirectional. The unidirectional communication environment, where one of the spouses constantly talks or gives “directives” and the other constantly listens creates the basis for unbalanced and unhealthy relations. Furthermore, parents should be in dialogue with children in order for them to share their thoughts and emotions with their parents and consult with them. If the communication is unilateral, i.e. parents talk more, criticize, give directions, and the child listens more and cannot express his/her thoughts, emotions, and experiences, the child can neither develop the skill to express oneself nor obtain real information about it. In today’s world that becomes gradually complex, children who encounter many new situations and incidents should be able to ask his/her parents and express the subjects they are curious about. Thus, they can be protected from dangers (Krepner, 1996). A person who can communicate well with one’s environment and get on well with them becomes successful in social life and gets pleasure from life. Many successful women and men owe their success to be able to talk properly, correctly and well in many professions and different fields of life, and principally in the family. The proper functioning and successful maintaining of especially family life are based on verbal communication principles such as talks, discussion and exchange of opinions (Doğan and Doğan, 2011; p.102). Each family has its own ways of behavior, forms of interaction, and different properties in terms of their functions. Nevertheless, all families have certain mutual properties on how family communication is formed and which functions are undertaken by the family. In terms of the system approach, the family may maintain its existence as a system as long as it can fulfill certain functions. Although changes occur in functions and growth characteristics by family type, family communication functions (Caputo, 1994, p. 238-240) are explained as follows: Families have the function of “managing the emotional atmosphere and providing support”. Families make family members feel the feeling of support in many different ways. Families have the function of “personality and identity guidance”. The family is an important source for gaining children personality development and identity. Individuals develop their own communication behavior by being affected by the communication and interaction structure in their family. The family has the function of “managing values”. Individuals’ own perceptions are affected by the value system in the family. Comportments such as family traditions, rituals, celebrations, etc. have decisive significance as they are considered with family communication and as an ongoing type of interaction in the family. The family has the function of “managing the changes and arranging limits.” The family has a regulating structure that ensures the sense of unity and integrity and allows for the flow of necessary and beneficial information for the family from the environment outside the family. The family has the function of “maintaining daily life.” While individuals maintain their lives in the family 361

with fulfilling the daily life needs of family members, the fulfillment of these needs is based on the communication between individuals. 3.FAMILY COMMUNICATION PATTERNS BY THE COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOR IN THE FAMILY “Family Communication Patterns” developed by McLead and Chaffee (1972) focus on how and at which level family members communicate. The “Revised Family Communication Patterns” developed by Ritchie and Fitzpatrick (1990) examine the relations between parents and children and assess verbal and non-verbal communication behaviors of parents about young adults and children. Relational schemes in developed family communication patterns mean repeating, emotion-based and long-term communication system of the family (Ritchie and Fitzpatrick, 1990). The difference between family communication patterns (FCP) and recent family communication patterns (RFCP) is while the communication between children and communication between parents are focused on separately, it is seen that the communication between parents and children is taken into consideration in recent family communication patterns (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p.42). In both patterns, family typologies are determined by associating conversation orientation and conformity orientation with functional results on how families communicate. The determinative effect of these two main dimensions of family communication behavior can be explained as follows (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p. 86). 3.1. Conversation Orientation It is the first main dimension of family communication. Conversation orientation is the degree that family members are encouraged to participate in family interactions. In families with a high level of conversation orientation, family members can interact freely, quite frequently and as they wish, and they can make discussions in quite different and extensive subjects. Family members can spend time by talking to one another and share their personal activities, thoughts, and emotions. In families with a low level of conversation orientation, family members talk to one another in quite rare and specific subjects. Family members share their private/personal emotions, thoughts and ideas quite rarely. Critical issues are not talked about in family activities where all family members come together, and all family members do not participate in making decisions about the family (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p. 86). 3.2. Conformity Orientation Another dimension of the family is conformity orientation. Conformity orientation is about creating a climate in family life, where beliefs, values, and attitudes are homogenous. There is a similarity between attitudes, beliefs and behaviors in families with high conformity orientation, and this is reflected in family life. It is seen that conflict is avoided for the purpose of ensuring conformity between family members, and loyalty is created among family members. The communication in the family is generally based on obeying parents or adults, and listening to them. In general, families with a high level of conformity have traditional family structure. The individuals in the family stick to one another and there is a hierarchical structure in the family. Families with a low level of conformity are characterized by their interactions, the beliefs and attitudes of which focus on the heterogeneous, the independence and privity 362

of family members are in the foreground. Communication is based on the equality among family members; in other words, children can also participate in making decisions. It is seen that these families do not have a traditional structure, and the hierarchical structure of the family is felt less. Family members attach importance to independence, believe in the existence of personal space, and the subjects about the family are generally of secondary importance. This may cause the failure to feel the integrity of the family most of the time and family interaction is not created well. How family members communicate reveals information on the communication behavior of families. The high or low level of conversation and conformity orientation in the family ensures determining family typologies of consensual, pluralistic, protective and laissez-faire family typologies (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p. 87). 4. FAMILY CLASSIFICATION BY THE LEVEL OF CONVERSATION AND CONFORMITY ORIENTATION 4.1. Consensual Families These families show a high level of conversation and conformity orientation. Communication in the family is characterized by the presence of an open communication environment where family members can share their opinions as well as a hierarchy. In these families, parents care about their children more, and consequently, children participate in making decisions about the family. Children accept and care about the messages and values of their parents. Children are raised by their traditional gender roles. Consensual families successfully settle the conflicts in important subjects as required by the obeyance in the hierarchy and traditional structure (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p. 87). 4.2. Pluralistic Families Families that focus on high level of conversation and low level of conformity are called pluralistic families. There is open communication in these families, and discussions are not delimitated. Parents are willing to accept the ideas of their children, and children are allowed to participate in family decisions equally. The children of these families appreciate family conversations, and they also learn autonomy and independence. In addition to this, the family contributes to raising their children as individuals with the ability to make their own decisions, self-confidence and communication competence. In this type of families, men define themselves in their traditional roles, while women undertake such roles as being talented and sensible, in addition to their traditional roles such as child care and closeness. While these couples are successful in settling conflicts, they may become aggressive while talking about important issues. As there is not much conformity orientation in pluralistic families as in consensual families, they do not put pressure on their children for their expectations. This type of families provides a good communication model to their children. In such families, girls show a much more venturous communication (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p. 88). The possibility that consensual and pluralist families supporting conversation orientation have stress-resistant children is high (Fitzpatrick, Kroner, 2004). Problematic behaviors of adolescents are cared for in various ways in an open family communication environment. The quality of communication defines the quality of the relationship between parents and children. Thus, it affects child’s loyalty to the family and participation in the peer group (Noller and Callon, 1991). 363

4.3. Protective Families Families with low conversation and high conformity orientation. The communication in protective families is characterized by listening to/obeying/ complying with the authority of parents; it is seen that the family is open to communication at a low level. Parents in this family believe that they should decide for their families and children, and believe that making causal explanations to children is unnecessary. In protective families, the decision-making skills of children are not trusted, and thus, children do not believe in the value of family conversations. For this reason, children of these families are easily affected by external discussions on authority and obedience. Protective families believe that the father should maintain his leadership role and the mother should maintain her woman’s role within the society. While men show themselves with venturous, skillful and logical roles; women are inadequate in maintaining both female and male roles (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p. 89). It was determined that mothers in protective families are more depressive than other parents (Segrin and Fitzpatrick, 2002). The type of communication that exhibits verbal aggressiveness is high in this type of families that avoid discussion of different subjects. While boys are not restricted as parents are firmly committed to their traditional roles, they restrict girls and expect them to accommodate themselves to society. While the aggressiveness of men is not interfered, it is expected that girls are passive and avoid conflict (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p. 89). 4.4. Laissez-Faire Families Families with a low level of conversation and low level of conformity orientation are called laissez-faire families. In these families, parents believe that all family members should make the decision together, but care very little for the decisions of the children. They value the communication with children very little and are in the form of an emotionally detached family in many aspects. The children of these families may not care about participating in family conversations and making their own decisions. Children start to question their own decision-making skills as they do not expect to get help from their families. Consequently, they are generally affected by the external environment in the process of obtaining information and making a decision, and emotionality outweighs in their decisions (Koerner, Fitzpatrick, 2002, p.89). 5. PARENT ATTITUDES At the beginning of the twentieth century, psychoanalysts showed that the attitudes and behaviors of parents are effective in defining the development of the child (Dönmezer, 2009, p.128). The attitudes of parents affect the personality of a child as they will constitute a role model for the developing child, and the child displays similar attitudes that they have obtained from the identification model (Ömeroğlu, 1996, p. 71). The attitudes and behaviors of parents may significantly affect the development of an adaptive-nonadaptive, active-passive, dependent-autonomous, introverted-extroverted, etc. personality about their conscience and moral development. These attitudes may be classified under six groups: authoritarian (oppressive) attitude, permissive attitude, protective attitude, unbalanced and indecisive attitude, indifferent attitude and democratic attitude (Dönmezer, 2009, p.129). 364

5.1. Authoritarian (Oppressive) Attitude Authoritarian attitude is the attitude, in which children are monitored excessively, but the sensitivity to their interests, wishes, and needs is low. In this attitude, the personality characteristics, interests and needs of children are not taken into consideration. The expectations of parents from the child are much more than what they give to the child. The wishes of the children are tried to be oppressed. There is a strict understanding of the discipline. Authoritarian parents set unchangeable standards for their children and want to shape, monitor and assess their children according to these standards (Dönmezer, 2009, p. 130). As of their general qualities, authoritarian families expect their children to obey them absolutely and fulfill their wishes and orders indisputably. They do not want to behave sincerely and frankly in their relations with their children; they tend to see issues from their value judgments not with the eyes of the children. They make decisions about their children without giving much right to speak (Özgüven, 2010, p. 211). In the authoritarian attitude, the verbal communication between parents and the child is not cared for, and the development of an independent personality and personalization are not supported. Young people are not allowed to express their opinions and thoughts, and reveal their self (Adams, 1995). It can be put forward that authoritarian and oppressive parents set strict rules while raising their children, do not let them express themselves, limit their relationships with their friends and do not find peer support positive (Çeçen, 2008). An insensitive and strict control is also perceived as the lack of love (Kuzgun, 1990). Children of authoritarian parents are anxious, unhappy and worrisome in the emotional sense. They may resort to physical force when they get angry. They have inadequate communication skills, lack self-confidence, and this leads to their passive, shy and even aggressive behaviors in their social relationships. As a result of all of these, these children with inadequate social skills may show many behavior problems in the school environment (Santrock, 1997; Erkan 2013). In the communication based on the authoritarian attitude, the child is communicated with in order to express the rules and orders without discussing and coming to terms with him/her and taking his/her wishes into consideration. As there is an interpersonal relationship that lacks love, children develop a shy personality with insecurity, fighting, argument and aggression-tendency, indecisiveness in emotions, selfishness and the tendency to blame others in addition to obeying without thinking and dependence (Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p. 155). In the findings obtained from the studies carried out by (Ulusoy, Demir and Baran 2005) on high school students, it is seen that parents that adopt the oppressiveauthoritarian attitude, do not give responsibility to their children, do not let their children participate in the decisions about themselves, do not get to know their children’s friends, criticize them, shout at them and find mistakes more than the parents that adopt other attitudes. It was understood that children get the feeling that they are not loved and wanted, are exposed to words and behaviors that make them feel like they are unnecessary, and cannot share their problems with their parents. In such families, it is seen that there are more problems of conflict, and parents apply violence to each other and their children. In the study carried out by Çeçen (2008) on university students, it was found that students who perceive their parents as authoritarian-oppressive feel more loneliness 365

when compared to the students in other groups and get more support from families and friends in the findings related to loneliness and social support scores. 5.2. Permissive Attitude It is an attitude in which monitoring is low and the reactiveness to the interests, wishes, and needs of the child is high. Any kind of behavior of the child is tolerated and accepted. The preferences of the child are not interfered. There is no certain attitude about sleeping, eating and studying conditions. There is no sanction when rules do not comply with (Dönmezer, 2009, p. 131). Permissive parents accept any kind of wish of children with no supervision and limitation. In such families, children are granted unlimited rights and their behaviors are not limited. Children have all the initiative, other family members accept their wishes unconditionally and fulfill them. There is no healthy communication between children and parents. The child, who is raised in an environment of exaggerated love, is spoiled excessively (Ekşi, 1990). Seyars et al. indicated that families who adopt the permissive attitude towards their children have two kinds of beliefs. Such families either find any kind of behavior of their children natural or believe that it is appropriate to turn a blind eye to certain behaviors although they do not support them (Mızrakçı, 1994). Consequently, families will either tolerate the behavior of the child or show an indifferent and disinterested attitude. Parents who adopt a submissive attitude towards their children accept the dominance of children at home, children rule their parents and show them little respect. These attitudes and behaviors that are not only for parents turn into a type of personality that looks for ways to dominate the society and people outside the family in time. That parents are overly indulgent and fond of their children make the children selfish. Their social adaptation level is low. It can be said that children who are used to getting at all times lack sharing and cooperating with other people (Özgüven, 2010, p. 217). 5.3. Protective Attitude In the communication based on the protective attitude, parents care about children more than necessary, and children may get into emotional loneliness due to the excessive care and protection. Children are always treated like babies when communicating with them. Nevertheless, the excessive association is established with parents and it is ensured that children share everything only by communicating with their parents. Children who are in the excessive communication with their parents fail to develop in a social sense (Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p.155). Protective parents bring about support in addition to setting many rules. However, an inappropriate emotional participation and anxiety are observed in parents while doing these. These parents are defined as parents who protect their children from a hostile environment (White and Acar, 1998, p.88). The main characteristics of parents who have developed excessively protective parent attitude: They are giving in their relations with others, excessively protective towards their relatives, warm and loving, and generally anxious. As the anxiety of parents increases, they show more protective behaviors towards their children. In a family environment made up of parents with these qualities, children who are excessively controlled and protected are not let research and discover, and learn by living. Hence, individuals who are not involved in incidents, depend on others, prefer to live under the supervision of others, constantly wait for support in achieving their objectives and make it a habit that others solve their problems for them (Alisinanoğlu, 366

2003). Consequently, excessive protection based on love may become harmful for children. As a result of the protective attitude of the family, children may become dependent on others, lack self-confidence, become emotional and resentful. Children are not allowed to be self-sufficient and independent. The possibility to maintain their lives as “externally controlled” during adulthood is also high. As parents undertake all the chores of the children, they show certain maladaptive behaviors. They wait for support, have a high level of selfishness and always want their wishes to be fulfilled. They are generally dependent, have low leadership properties and a vague personality. They feel insecure and indecisive (Özgüven, 2010, p.214). 5.4. Unbalanced and Indecisive (Inconsistent) Attitude The unbalanced and indecisive attitude of parents may result from the dissensus between parents as well as the variable attitudes between parents themselves. One of the parents may have a tolerant and democratic attitude while the other adopts an oppressive attitude. Thus, while a particular behavior of children is punished by one of the parents, it may be considered normal and even awarded by the other. Furthermore, parents who exhibit contradictory behaviors between each other may have an inciting and awarding attitude, may become really angry or punish the other day. In short, it is seen that parents have consistent and balanced attitudes (Dönmezer, 2009, p. 134). Indecisive and unbalanced behaviors of parents may also last during the adolescence period. Such double standards may lead young people to conflict in the social role they adopt. This may make young people confused and lead to the instability in their behaviors. The adolescent may not be able to estimate what the attitudes of their parents are. As an appropriate attitude, parents must have consistent attitudes within themselves personally and between them as parents, and have similar attitudes for their reactions against the child’s behaviors. The reasons for the limitations on children’s behaviors and the rules that are asked to comply with should be explicitly expressed to the child and these should not be compromised. Thus, children know what they can and cannot do and develop a values system that fits the social and communal life (Özgüven, 2010, p.217). Inconsistent and unbalanced family attitudes prevent creating a values system that will create the basis for personal behaviors of the child and conflicts in their relations with their parents. Such an attitude negatively affects the development of the child, and leads to the formation of internal conflicts, anxieties, and consequently, the development of an unbalanced and inconsistent personality (Oktay 1990; Quoted. Özgüven, 2010, p. 218). 5.5. Indifferent Attitude In the indifferent attitude, both the supervision and the reaction towards the interests and needs of children are quite low. Indifferent parents do not allocate enough time for their children, show the effort needed for them and communicate with them as much as possible. They keep children away; they consider them as an obstacle for their work (Dönmezer, 2009, p. 135). In the indifferent family type, parents do not care much about the lives of their children. Parents do not control the behaviors of the children much; they set them free. Children make decisions on their own. They neglect children and stay indifferent to 367

their basic needs. Children are left alone and ignored by their parents apart from their living needs (Özgüven, 2010, p. 215). In the communication based on the indifferent attitude, children are not cared about much apart from their basic needs. It is not considered necessary to monitor the behaviors of children, determine their rights and wrongs and get them accustomed to the society. Children are communicated as long as it is necessary, and they are generally kept away from parents. That children are emotionally and behaviorally neglected affects their personality development negatively (Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p. 155). The most significant indicator of the indifferent attitude is the lack of communication between parents. Indifferent parents ignore and even psychologically refuse their children. The indifferent parent attitude is an attitude that both shows least love and controls their behaviors least. In the indifferent attitude, both monitoring and the sensitivity towards the interests and needs of children are quite low (Özgüven, 2010, p. 215). Possible attitudes and behaviors of children raised in an indifferent family environment show themselves as a personality that is not accepted in the society, much criticized by others, psychologically angry, aggressive, quarrelsome or introversive, and oppressive. As parents do not care about children both in terms of showing love and their development, health and economic needs, the child becomes rebellious, disobedient, showing rude behaviors, rageful or intimidated towards the parents, fearful and unable to make himself/herself be understood (Özgüven, 2010, p. 216). 5.6. Democratic Attitude Democratic attitudes are attitudes that aim both the monitoring of the children and acting sensitively towards their interests and needs. Parents consider the opinions of their children important as well as asking for their own opinion to be valued. Rights are based on reciprocity. In addition to the sense of responsibility, the autonomy and development of an independent personality are desired and supported (Dönmezer, 2009). The attitude that is preferred in the family in order for the children’s education to be healthy is the democratic and equality expressing competent attitude. This type of parent attitude includes autonomy in addition to regulating monitoring and love. These parents constitute a balance between acting alone and being together (Kağıtçıbaşı, 1998). In the communication based on the democratic attitude, attitudes of valuing everyone in the family, giving them the right to choose and showing respect to the personality are dominant. The things that are wanted to be performed are not made by force but in accordance with equal rights and rules. Studies show that children with democratic parents have higher adaptation levels. Children are communicated with in the family and they are allowed to express themselves. Children are given the right to speak about making decisions about the family and thus, it is ensured that they feel themselves valuable. The feelings of love and closeness are transmitted to children through non-verbal communication, as well as verbal communication (Gürüz and Eğinli, 2010, p. 155). Behaviors of the parents in the democratic attitude are decisive and daring; they attach importance to power; they look for being powerful in themselves and others. They act objectively and rationally; they attach importance to their independence; they tend to express their needs without suppressing them and going against the society. They want to solve interpersonal problems by talking; they never give up struggling. In this democratic family environment created by parents with such qualities, children are accepted as individuals, and loved and respected

368

unconditionally. Decision making and learning by trial and error of the children are supported in this environment. The limits of the accepted and non-accepted behaviors of children are set. Within the scope of these rules, children are free and they have the right to speak within the family. It may be expected that children raised in such an environment have internally controlled personality (Alisinanoğlu, 2003). Being democratic parents is about the social capability of children. Thus, children of democratic parents are individuals with social competence, self-confidence, sense of responsibility, cooperative, friendly, emotionally happy, balanced and self-sufficient (Gordon and Browne,1993; Santrock, 1997; Erkan 2013). In democratic families, opinions of children are valued and children become part of decisions of the family. In the democratic family attitude, parents give information about the rules of family life; they present themselves to children as a source person that they can use at all times. Children are allowed to regulate their lives by themselves to the extent of their facilities. Studies show that children raised in the democratic family environment tend to develop more in terms of personality development as well as mental development, and the democratic environment does not only give the children the right to be free but also encourages them to express themselves and gain experience. Children raised in such an environment become lively, fearless and independent (Özgüven, 2010, p.219). 6. STUDIES ON FAMILY COMMUNICATION Dumlao and Botta (2000) performed the study “Family communication patterns and conflict styles between young adults and their fathers”. It is claimed that conflict behaviors are learned at early ages, and these patterns are protected in future periods. In the study performed on 211 university students, whether the relational order created by the family communication environment leads students to different interpretations and cognitive focusing on the conflict was examined. Results show that family communication patterns between fathers and young adult children are related to the conflict styles of university students with their fathers. Koerner and Fitzpatrick (1997) performed the study “Family type and conflict: Effect of conversation and conformity orientation on family conflict”. This study examines the effect of how conformity and conversation orientation cope with the conflicts between parents and adolescents. A statistically significant relationship was found between conformity orientation and conflict avoidance, emotional expression and depression by examining 35 families and 117 test subject data. There is also a statistically significant difference between conversation orientation and conflict avoidance and seeking social support. Sillars, Koerner and Fitzpatrick (2005) performed the study titled “Communication and understanding in parent and adolescent relations”. This study examined the understanding between communication and parent-adolescent. It includes the understanding, family conflicts, adolescent self-concept and instant ideas (or empathic accuracy). The parent understanding of the self-concept of the child was associated with constant open communication and high parent-child relationship satisfaction and strong child self-concept. The parent understanding of conflict perceptions was associated with high conformity and low relationship satisfaction. While the parent understanding of instant thoughts is generally low, it was found that it is not associated with communication, relationship satisfaction, and child self-concept. 369

Fitzpatrick, Marshall et al. (1996) performed the study titled the “Effect of Family Communication Environments on Children's Social Behavior during Middle Childhood”. The family communication environments of school-age children in Grades 1, 4, 6, and 7 were measured using “talking picture books” containing dialogues representing various types of family communication. Children listened to the dialogues and examined cartoon pictures depicting different families. Using this information, children identified their families as either (a) pluralistic (high conversation and low conformity), (b) consensual (high conversation and high conformity), (c) protective (low conversation and high conformity), or (d) laissez-faire (low conversation and low conformity). Children completed the revised Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and teachers rated each child's social self-restraint and social withdrawal. Results revealed an interaction among family type, sex, and grade level for both social withdrawal and social self-restraint, suggesting that family communication environments may be differentially beneficial for boys and girls at particular points of development. Ritchie and Fitzpatrick (1990) conducted the study titled “Family Communication Patterns: Measuring Intrapersonal Perceptions of Interpersonal Relationships”. Mass communication researchers interested in family communication have traditionally assumed that family norms are shared by all family members, and apparent disagreement about family norms has been ascribed to instrument unreliability. A survey of 308 adolescent children and their parents, using a revised Family Communication Pattern (RFCP) instrument, yields evidence of systematic patterns of agreement and disagreement between mothers and fathers as well as between parents and children. Seventh-grade children are more likely to share their mothers' views on concept-orientation and their father's views on socio-orientation; by the 11th grade, they have just the opposite opinions. These results suggest that future work on family communication cannot ignore the influence of intrafamilial patterns of agreement and disagreement on communication norms defining the family. Fang Hsu (1998) conducted the study “Relationships between family characteristics and communication apprehension”. This study examines relationships between college students’ communication apprehension and their perceptions of characteristics of their families of origin. The results indicated that a linear composite of parental acceptance‐rejection, family cohesion, expressiveness, independence, conflict, and communication patterns was significantly correlated with communication apprehension. When analyzed separately for men and women, men's communication apprehension was only significantly and positively related to conformity‐oriented family communication patterns, whereas women's communication apprehension was significantly and negatively related to parental acceptance, family cohesion, expressiveness, independence, and conversation orientation and positively related to conformity orientation. In master’s thesis titled “Family Communication Patterns: Can They Impact Leadership Styles?” conducted by Prasitthipab (2008), the correlation between leadership styles and family communication models during childhood was examined. Two hypotheses that represent the relationship between conformity orientation and task leadership, and conversation orientation and relationship leadership were suggested. University staff and students in leadership positions completed the Family Communication Pattern Scale and Leadership Behavior Defining Survey. Conformity orientation and task leadership hypothesis were found significant. In addition to this, 370

results point to a positive relationship between conversation orientation and relationship leadership. People in the sample are mainly from conversation oriented families and they use the relationship leadership style. In Nardello’s (2002) master’s thesis titled “Relationship between the communication model and control focus in the family”, the relationship between the family communication patterns of individuals during adolescence and their control focus emotions in their future life was examined. Interpersonal target control focus and revised family communication model scales were used. It is assumed that interpersonal communication patterns are related to the sub-scales of interpersonal target control focus scale. According to the practice performed on 215 university students, it was found that conversation orientation is positively correlated with internal, structural and another person’s control focus, and negatively correlated with prescriptive, factual focus of control. Koerner and Fitzpatrick (2002) conducted the study titled “The impact of family of origin on conflict behavior in romantic relationships”. This study investigates the influence of communication patterns of families of origin on conflict behaviors of adult children in their romantic relationships. Based on the self-reports of 260 participants, differences in conflict behaviors were observed for persons stemming from consensual, pluralistic, protective and laissez-faire families. The differences involved mutually positive and mutually negative behaviors, as well as in the complementary behaviors of avoiding, threatening and resisting. These results support hypotheses predicting a socializing influence of the family of origin’s communication patterns on adult children’s communication in subsequent romantic relationships. In addition, by associating different family types with different socialization outcomes, this study further demonstrates the importance of assessing family types in investigations of family communication and of interpersonal conflict. As a result of the study titled “Effect of Perceived Family Communication Types on the Self-Respect of Adolescents and a Sample Practice” carried out by Özmen (2007), it was found that adolescents with high self-respect have more democratic attitudes when compared to adolescents with low self-respect, and a more pluralistic or tolerating family communication pattern. While adolescents who perceive family communication types as authoritarian communication style and an authoritarian attitude generally develop either medium level or low-level self-respect. Another important point that attracts attention is that the level of self-respect in families with laissez-faire family communication style is not that low. Furthermore, as a result of the study, most (47.8%) of the adolescents in the study group believe that there is effective communication in the family. Those who believe in this are mostly adolescents at the age of 16 and 17. An equal proportion (36.4%) of people share the same thought at both ages. It was determined that adolescents at the age of 15 feel hierarchy more (2.5%). While the rate of male adolescents responding as “There is communication within the hierarchy in the family” is 10.2%, only 1.4% of female adolescents give this answer. This shows that male adolescents perceive the Authoritarian Family Communication Style more. Most of the girls think that they have the Tolerating Family Communication Style.

371

REFERENCES Adams J. F. (1995). Ergenliği Anlamak. Yayına hazırlayan: Bekir Onur, Ankara: İmge Yayınları Alisinanoğlu, F. (2003). “Çocukların Denetim Odağı ile Algıladıkları Anne Tutumları Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi”. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 1 (1), 97-107. Aziz, A. (2010). İletişime Giriş. İstanbul: Hiperlink Yayınları Çağdaş, A. (2009). Çocukla İletişim ve Beden Dilini Kullanma. İnsan İlişkileri ve İletişim. (Ed. Adem Solak), Ankara: Hegem Yayınları Çağdaş, A. (2012). Anne- Baba Çocuk İletişimi, Ankara: Eğiten Kitap Yayınevi Çeçen, A. R. (2008). “Öğrencilerin Cinsiyetlerine ve Ana-baba Tutum Algılarına Göre Yalnızlık ve Sosyal Destek Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi”. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 6 (3), 415-431. Doğan, C. ve Doğan. S. (2011). İnsanlar Konuşa Konuşa. Aile İçi İletişim-Aile SosyolojisiEğitim ve Başarı. İstanbul: Selis. Dökmen, Ü. (1994). Sanatta ve Günlük Yaşamda İletişim Çatışmaları ve Empati. İstanbul: Sistem Yayıncılık Dönmezer, İ. (2009). Ailede İletişim ve Etkileşim. Ankara: Hegem Yayıncılık Dumlao, R. ve Botta R. A. (2000). Family Communication Patterns and The Conflict Styles Young Adults Use With Their Fathers. Communication Quarterly, (Vol. 48, No.2, pp. 174-189). Ekşi, A. (1990). Çocuk, Genç, Ana-Babalar. İstanbul: Bilgi Yayınevi Ergin, A. (2008). Eğitimde Etkili İletişim. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık Erkan, S. (2013). Aile ve Aile Eğitimi ile İlgili Temel Kavramlar, Aile Eğitimi ve Erken Çocukluk Eğitiminde Aile Katılım Çalışmaları içinde, ed. Z. F. Temel, Ankara: Anı Yay. Fang Hsu, C. (1998). Relationships between family characteristics and communication apprehension. Communication Research Reports, (Vol. 15, No.1, 91-98). Fitzpatrick, M. A., Marshall L. J., Leutwiler T., J. ve Krcmar M. (1996). The Effect of Family Communication Environments on Children's Social Behavior During Middle Childhood. Communication Research, (Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 379-406). Gordon, T. (2005). Etkili AnaBaba Eğitimi. Sorumluluk Duygusu Gelişmiş Çocuklar Yetiştirmek İçin Denenmiş Yeni Bir Yöntem. (Çev. Emel Aksay ve Birsen Özkan.) İstanbul: Sistem Yayıncılık. Gürüz, D. ve Eğinli A. T. (2010). İletişim Becerileri, Anlamak, Anlatmak, Anlaşmak, Ankara: Nobel Yayınları Harlak, H. (2007). Temel İletişim Becerileri. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Yayınları No:26 Holm, O. (1997). Ratings of Empathic Communication: Does Experience Make a Difference. The Journal of Pscyhology, (Vol. 131, No. 6, pp. 680-682). Kabapınar, Y. (2003). Bir Öğretim Yöntemi Olarak Sosyal Empati. (Ed. Öztürk C. Dilek D.), Hayat Bilgisi ve Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi. Ankara: PegemA. Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (1998). Kültürel Psikoloji - Kültür Bağlamında İnsan ve Aile. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Koerner, A. F. and Fitzpatrick M. A. (2002). Toward a Theory of Family Comminication. Communiation Theory, (Vol. 12, No.1, pp. 70-91). Koerner, A. F. and Fitzpatrick M.. A. (1997). Family Type and Conflict: The Impact of Conversation Orientation and Conformity Orientation On Conflict in The Family. Communication Studies, (Vol. 48, No.1, pp. 59-75). Koerner, A. F. and Fitzpatrick M.. A. (2002). Understanding Family Communication and Family Functioning: Roles of Conversation Orientation and Conformity Orientation. Communication Yearbook, (Vol. 26, No.1, pp. 37-69). 372

Koerner, A. F. and Fitzpatrick M.. A. (2002). You Never Leave Your Family in A Fight: The Impact of Family of Origin On Conflict Behavior in Romantic Relationships. Communication Studies, (Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 234-251). Kreppner, K. (1996). Communication Behavior Between Parents and Their Adolescent Children and Correlation With Indicators of Self Concept. Praxis Der Kinderpsychologie Und Kinderpsychiatrie, (Vol. 45, No. 3, pp.130-147). Kuzgun, Y. (1990). “Ana-baba Tutumlarının Bireyin Kendini Gerçekleştirme Düzeyine Etkisi”. Aile Yazıları 3 Birey, Kişilik ve Toplum, Bilim Serisi 5/3. Ankara: T.C. Başbakanlık Aile Araştırma Kurumu Yay., 65-78. Mızrakçı, Ş. (1994). Annelerin Çocuk Yetiştirme Tutumlarına Etki Eden Faktörler: Demografik Özellikleri, Kendi Yetiştiriliş Tarzları, Çocuk Gelişimine İlişkin Bilgi Düzeyleri ve Çocuğun Mizacına İlişkin Algıları. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir. Nardello, A. M. (2002). The Relationship Between Family Communication Patterns and Locus of Control. Master of Arts in Communication Studies. West Virginia University. Morgantown. West Virginia. Navaro, L. (2001). Çocukla İletişim Nasıl Kurulur?Ana-Baba Okulu. İstanbul: Remzi Yayınevi Noller, P. and CaIlan. V. (1991). The Adolescent in the Family. London: Routledge. Ömeroğlu, F. (1996). Okulöncesi Dönemde Çocuğun Terbiyesinde Annenin Rolü ve Annelerin Çocuk Yetiştirme Tutumları. Doktora tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Özgüven, İ. E. (2010). Ailede İletişim ve Yaşam. Ankara: PDREM Yayınları Özmen, F. (2007). Algılanan Aile İçi İletişim Biçimlerinin Ergenlerin Benlik Saygısına Etkisi ve Bir Uygulama Örneği. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Prasitthipab, S. (2008). "Family Communication Patterns: Can They Impact Leadership Styles?" Masters Theses, The Faculty of the Department of Communication, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green. Kentucky. Reynolds, W. J. and Scott B. (1999). Empathy: A Crucial Component of the Helping Relationship. J. of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. (Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 363-370). Ritchie, D. L. and Fitzpatrick. M. A. (1990). Family Communication Patterns: Measuring Intrapersonal Perceptions of Interpersonal Relationships. Communication Research, (Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 523-544). Segrin, C. and Fitzpatrick. M. A. (1992). Depression and verbal aggressiveness in different marital couple types. Communication Studies, (Vol. 43, pp. 79-91). Sillars, A., Koerner. A. and Fitzpatrick. M. A. (2005). Communication and Understanding in Parent–Adolescent Relationships. Human Communication Res., (Vol. 31, pp. 102–128). Teresa, J. (2004). “Empathy as a Form of Interpersonal Communication”. Pedagogika. http://www.biblioteka.vpu.lt/pedagogika/PDF/2005/75/jemczura.pdf

Tutar, H. ve Yılmaz K.. M. (2010). Genel İletişim. Kavramlar ve Modeller. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık Ulusoy, M. D., Demir. N.Ö. ve Baran. A. G. (2005). “Ebeveynin Çocuk Yetiştirme Biçimi ve Ergen Problemleri: Ankara İli Örneği”. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi. 3 (2). 367-384. White, J. M. ve Acar N.. V. (1998). Çocukla İletişim. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. Bilim ve Kültür Eserleri Dizisi: 971. Eğitim Dizisi: 32. Yavuzer, H. (1996). Çocuk Eğitimi El Kitabı. İstanbul: Remzi Yayınevi Yüksel, H. (2008). Konuşma ve Dinleme. Ed. Uğur Demiray, Etkili İletişim. Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık 373

Chapter 28 Educational Use of Gesture-Based Technology in Early Childhood Mehmet ÖZKAYA & Yunus GÜNİNDİ

1. INTRODUCTION Human-computer interaction studies have an important role in the development of user interfaces. Before the emergence of the mouse, operations were performed with a linear input via a keyboard connected to a computer. At the time, personal computers could only carry out text-based processes and command-line interfaces (CLIs) were common. As the mouse become a part of computer hardware, computers also began to implement the input process in a two-dimensional way. The user interface evolved into a graphical type and gained a rich look (Jaimesa & Sebe, 2007; Chen & Fang, 2014). As a result, mouse, keyboard and audio input operations are defined as traditional input methods. Recent developments of the natural user interface have made threedimensional input operations possible. In such systems, users can easily transfer their natural movements to a virtual environment and manipulate objects in a digital medium (Blake, 2011; Johnson, Adams, & Cummins, 2012). Robotic processes and augmented reality applications can be achieved with this natural input. Besides gestures, body movements, voice inputs and the more sensitive finger and eye movements and facial expressions can be detected and processed by motion-sensing technology (Sheu & Chen, 2014). More generally, natural user interfaces (NUIs) are intermediary systems that provide a more natural method of communication between users and computers, with movements and gestures similar to those used in the real world (Wojciechowski, 2012). Unlike traditional input methods, these systems require no prior knowledge and information of their use can be learned intuitively. Advances in the field of user interfaces can be summarized as a three-stage paradigm of development, with textbased, graphical and natural user interfaces. Gesture-based technology emerged as a result of the human-computer interaction (HCI) studies. Systems with natural user interfaces allow the human body to interact with a digital medium without traditional input methods. It is adapted to end-users through technical studies in the field of human-computer interaction and computer vision (Wu & Huang, 1999). In such systems, specific action points of the human body are detected and tracked over a limited space and distance. Changes in body movement are calculated with mathematical algorithms and transferred to a digital environment. Cameras and sensors are used to monitor movements and image processing techniques are utilized for computing and interpretation. Mimics can be also used as input data, as 

Res. Assist., Aksaray University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology (CEIT).  Assist. Prof. Dr., Aksaray University, Faculty of Education, Department of Early Childhood Education

can the general movement of the human body. It is then possible to make inferences about facial expressions and emotions. While these operations are performed by a gesture-based system, the human and computer still interact, which is defined as an NUI. This interaction can be tangible or touchless. During the interaction, minimal intermediary motion control equipment such as gloves, wands and armbands are used. Completely touchless interaction is also possible according to the technology’s features. In these systems, the human body is the main input device. In general, these processes are defined as gesture-based computing (Chen & Fang, 2014). As with most hardware development, the emergence of gesture-based technology has been influenced by the entertainment and gaming industries. R&D studies from international trading companies such as Microsoft, Nintendo and Sony are dominating the market, making gesture-based technology easier for end-users to buy. Microsoft's Surface, Apple's iOS and other mobile companies with Android operating systems have previously supported touch-sense technology. This technology includes interactions such as touch, scrolling and dragging. Microsoft's Kinect, Nintendo’s Wii and Sony’s Move have led to a major breakthrough in the field of gesture-based technology. This is particularly so for 'seventh generation' games consoles, which use whole body as a games controller and have had a ground-breaking effect. With these developments, gesture-based systems now include innovative features that support learning and have received much attention from educators and researchers. The NMC Horizon Report investigating trends of educational technology in the near future suggested gesturebased computing would have a major impact on higher education in four to five years (Johnson, Levine, Smith & Stone, 2010; Johnson, Smith, Willis, Levine & Haywood, 2011; Johnson et al., 2012). Similarly, The Open University’s Innovating Pedagogy report stated that motion-based learning will effective within four years (Sharples et al., 2015). When these reports reach a wider audience, the technology could be seen in educational environments. Meanwhile, online user communities (such as KinectEDucation and KinectSEN) also encourage educators to use gesture-based technology in classroom activities (Chang, Chien, Chiang, Lin, & Lai, 2013). The numbers of studies on the educational use of gesture-based computing are increasing. In particular, interest in fields that require the use of body movement such as special education, physical therapy and physical education are growing. On the other hand, innovative educational practices are continuing, such as basic literacy and math skills, hand-eye coordination, promotion of social development and the development of basic life skills for individuals with special education needs. Due to its features, gesture-based technology with NUI attracts the attention of children, so research conducted in early childhood is important (Hsieh, Ho, Wu & Ni, 2016). Hence, more experience is required in learning and teaching environments to support the technology’s learning activities. This work is intended to include identification of the general characteristics of motion-sensing technology and be a guide to educators, instructional designers, technologists, teachers and other practitioners that integrate technology in educational settings. To do this, it focuses on using gesture-based technology in early childhood education. Published academic studies and reports are examined and gesture-based technologies in the market are evaluated from a pedagogical point of view.

375

Gesture-Based Learning in Early Childhood Gesture-based learning is experienced while interacting with a digital medium through natural body movements and the gestures of daily life. A gesture is an action such as touching, body posture and position as well as hand and arm movements (Xu & Ke, 2014). The term ‘motor’ is more commonly used and is a similar concept in this developmental field; it can be considered more inclusive. However, both terms can be used interchangeably. With the development of motion sensors, the concept of ‘gesture’ has led to the use of motor skill responses. Embodied cognition (Wellsby & Pexman, 2014), learning styles (Leite et al., 2009), multiple intelligence (Gardner, 1983) and the learning pyramid (Bruner, 1960) are among the theories that support gesture-based learning (Lee & Wei, 2013). Supporting learning through activities such as motor skills and kinesthetic learning is considered important in an education environment (Begel, Garcia, & Wolfman, 2004; Piao, 2010; Hsiao & Chen, 2016 and Yang et al., 2014). In addition, computer and video games supported by gesture-based technology make learning fun and engaging. These technologies offer significant opportunities by supporting children’s psychomotor development. Until the age of 21, young people spend an average of 10,000 hours of their lives playing video games (Prensky, 2001, 2003). Entering both home and educational environments in a rapid and widespread way via technological devices has also increased children’s interest in technological games. Considering that children can be powerful computer players, making educational use of gesture-based technology in early childhood is important (Kandroudi & Bratitsis, 2012). During early childhood, it is important to provide developmentally appropriate games with the correct educational theory and appropriate strategy in a learning environment. This is because children are often naturally interested in games, which may continue to be an important part of their lives for years to come. While technological devices are entering both home and educational environments in a rapid and widespread way, children's interest in technological games has increased. Although long-term child-technology interaction has been said to have a negative impact on development from an early age, children come face to face with technological devices in every aspect of life, so interaction is inevitable. With planned content that supports a child's developmental areas and learning through experience, child-technology interactions will provide important support to solve this problem. Embodied Cognition in Early Childhood For many years, educational theorists have been interested in the learning process. Theorists do not yet have a clear conclusion on how the process take place, although many only use a basic cognitive approach to explain it. In the cognitive sciences, studies on how the human body’s movements impact on learning reveals that movements can be effective in learning and knowledge acquisition. From this point, embodied cognition (EC) theory has been developed. Embodied cognition claims that learning cannot only be explained by cognitive processes; body movements also play an active role. The theory offers a general framework for investigating the mechanisms of how underlying actions effect reasoning (Kontra, Goldin-Meadow & Beilock, 2012). It focuses on the sensorimotor experience gained through physical interaction with the environment (Wilson, 2002; Wellsby & Pexman, 2014). Meaningful and deep learning can only occur during a learning experience supported by body movements (Sharples et 376

al, 2015). Embodied cognition assumes that the actions and bodily experience are extremely important and emphasizes that sensorimotor interaction is necessary for knowledge acquisition (Borghi, Scorolli, Caligiore, Baldassarre & Tummolini, 2013). In recent years, neuro-imaging studies seem to confirm the thesis of embodied cognition (Esopenko et al., 2012). In fact, EC is not a new concept; it is an emerging concept inspired by the work of Piaget's consideration of the interaction between children and environment (Piaget, 1952). Piaget argued that the sensorimotor experiences of early infancy are an important part of learning. In fact, the relationship between body movements and a child's natural development starts from the fetus stage and increases by the time of birth. Newborn babies cannot control their bodies immediately after birth and their movements are on a reflex level. The baby's nervous system gradually develops and, later, reflexes become learned behaviors. These reflexes include the moro, tonic neck, sucking, catch, search, automatic compression and walking, withdrawal, bending and the Babinski. The first 40 days of life are the extensive period of newborn reflex movements. The third to the 13th month are considered the transition period. After the 13th month, systemic movement begins and increases with age (Yenibaş, 2013). A baby is born with reflexive movement, then it starts voluntary skills such as walking and holding hands. A baby's ability to control its body depends on them learning and on their body reaching sufficient maturity. Over the first part of childhood, there is a lot of movement. As large and small muscles develop, the child begins activities that require hand-eye coordination. By pre-school age, children feel the need to constantly move around. These movements start the learning experience and help the child learn about their environment, affecting all areas of development (Günindi, 2014). Ensuring the fulfilment of bodily functions for educational purposes means researchers and educators are interested in gesture-based technology. In early childhood, giving children the opportunity to experience and observe movement will have a positive influence on their development (Yalvaç, Soylu, & Arikan, 2011; Hsiao et al., 2015). Gesture-Based Technology Gesture-based technology is gaining a more important role in solving development and learning problems. It also constitutes an important research topic in the field of human-computer interaction. Basic working principles involve processing movement as input data, instead of traditional input methods such as with a mouse, keyboard or sound. In the Horizon Report, gesture-based technology was introduced as a new technology "allowing users to participate in virtual activity with similar behavior to the movements used in the real world" (Jhonson et al., 2012). The features of this technology are: - Movement and sound recognition - Position and acceleration detection - Reading visual markers - Rolling, turning to move up and down - Using body and hands as an input device Although there are many motion-detection sensors on the market, the most popular are Microsoft's Kinect, Sony's Move and Nintendo's Wii. Sensors such as ASUS Xtion PRO, Softkinect, Creative Gesture Cam, Intel Perceptual Computing Creative Senz3D, 377

Leap Motion, MagixBox Motionmagix and PrimeSense are also used in the business and gaming industry. When looking at the development stage of gesture-based technology, 2010 can be considered a milestone year. Sony's PlayStation Move and Microsoft's Xbox 360 Kinect achieved a great success with their seventh-generation game consoles. Sony has announced that it sells 4.1 million units every 10 weeks while Microsoft sells 2.5 million in less than a month. a. Microsoft Xbox Kinect Kinect was first announced in 2009 as part of the Xbox 360 game console with Project Natal. It has reached eight million unit sales two months after release. The percentage of sales has made it the fastest-selling electronic product in the market and it has become a Guinness World Record holder (Guinness, 2011). Kinect sold 133,333 units per day between November 4, 2010 and January 3, 2011. Kinect can detect changes in the movement of 25 different types of joints in the human body with its motion-sensing camera. It can determine a user's position at a distance of 1-3 meters by following their movement. Kinect also recognize the user's facial expressions, body movements and voice commands and can compute 2 GB of data per second. During the tracing, no intermediary device is required. In this respect it differs from competitors (Jhonson et al., 2012). Kinect has a two-depth sensing camera, an RGB camera and two microphones. A tilt motor is available at the bottom to move it up and down. Kinect hardware features are shown in Figure 1.

Built-in Microphone

3D Camera

Built-in Microphone Tilt Motor

RGB – Color Camera

Figure 1. Kinect Xbox 360 hardware

In the first version of the Kinect Xbox 360, 20 movement joints could be detected. In 2013, a new generation of Kinect Xbox One was launched, which can detect 25 different joints. It can also scan up to six people simultaneously. Kinect systems are generally able to detect gross motor skills. The two versions of Kinect are showed in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2. Version 1: Kinect Xbox 360, Kinect v1, Kinect for Windows v1

Figure 3. Version 2: Kinect Xbox One, Kinect v2, Kinect for Windows v2

378

b. Nintendo Wii Remote Wii is a seventh-generation games console and was first released in 2006. Compared to its competitors, Microsoft and Sony, Nintendo achieved more sales (101 million units) in 2012. Wii is similar to a television remote control. To track movement, the control unit must be handled properly. Figure 4. Wii Remote nunchuck and strap

c. Sony PlayStation Move Sony developed Move for the PlayStation 3 games console. It was released in 2009 and has similar hardware to the Wii. The motion controller ‘wand’ and the PlayStation USB camera must be available for Move to be able to monitor movements correctly. The wand is capable of vibration control during a particular interaction. It has a built-in rechargeable unit and works with Bluetooth technology. It can be recharged via a USB cable. A maximum of four wands can be used simultaneously. Sony's next-generation PlayStation 4 camera has similar features to the Kinect. However, this technology still remains in the development stage.

Figure. 5. Wand FFigure. 6. PlayStation3 eye

Figure 7. PlayStation4 camera

Technical Comparison of Gesture-Based Technology Kosic, Arzensek, Kuhar & Vogrincic (2013) examined hardware classification based on the features. It shows that Kinect One has the highest video resolution (1920x1080), while other motion sensors vary (320x240 and 640x480). Leap Motion’s detection process uses photo frames, so there is no video resolution support. For classifications based on the presence or absence of the necessary intermediary device while interacting, Sony Move and Wii MotionPlus use hand-held devices, the Myo uses armbands while other devices offer a completely touchless interaction. Details are presented in Table 1. RELATED STUDY There are many different concepts and titles within studies related to gesture-based technology. Studies can be found with keywords such as Bodily Kinesthetic Learning, Body Interaction, Embodied Interaction, Touchless Interaction, Full body Motion Based, Gesture Based, Gesture Computing, Gesture Recognition, Motion Capture (MoCap), Motion Detection, Motion Sensing, Motion Sensor, Motion Tracking and Physical Interaction. This shows there is no consensus on the concept of gesture-based technology yet. This is because the technology is still emerging. All these different concepts can be considered part of 'gesture-based computing'. 379

Table 1. Sensing device comparison (Kosic et al., 2013) Device

Control

K. Xbox 360

Contact-free

Data source A/V/IR

K. for Windows

Contact-free

A/V/IR

Kinect One Asus Xtion

Contact-free Contact-free

A/V/IR A/V/IR

P.Capri

Contact-free

A/V/IR

Video resolution 640 x 480 30fps, 320X240 30fps 640 x 480 30fps, 320X240 30fps 1920 x 1080 60fps 1280x1200 3060fps, 640 x 480

HCI

P.Carmine

Contact-free

A/V/IR

640 x 480 30fps

GS, VC

Leap Motion Sony Move (PS3)

Contact-free With controller

-/V/IR A/V/-

GS GS, VC

Wii MotionPlus Myo

With controller Armband

-/-/IR EMG

/ 640X480 60fps, 320x240 120fps none none

GS, VC GS, VC GS, VC GS, VC GS

GS GS

A-audio, V-video, IR-infrared; fps – Frames per Second GS – Gesture Support, VC – voice control, EMG – Electromyography

Kinect provides advanced natural user interface features, such as voice and face recognition, completely touchless interaction and large software development facilities. These have become the widely preferred motion sensors in the field of educational studies over the last two years. Thus, when searching for the keyword ‘Kinect’ on the Digital Library Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), which is the largest educational database in the world, 12 studies can be found (published between January 2015 and June 2016). When using ‘Wii’ as a keyword, only two studies are found. There do not appear to be any publications for other gesture-based technologies. In recent years it appears that Kinect has become a widely accepted sensor in an educational environment, possibly because it enables touchless interaction in a more natural way without the need of an external hardware controller. Research shows that gesture and cognition positively affect each other (Gullberg, 2006; Xu & Ke, 2014; Chang at al., 2013). Xu & Ke (2014) conducted a systematic literature review of 31 studies and concluded that 'psychomotor' can become 'motorpsycho'. In their study, against a traditional approach, they emphasize that motor activities influence cognitive processes. More precisely, cognition and gesture mutually affect each other. Chao, Huang, Fang & Chen (2013) examined the impact of Kinectbased interfaces and mouse-based interfaces on memory performance. Their results support the theory of embodied cognition. Users of Kinect-based systems demonstrated significantly more effective performance than in mouse-based systems. Hsu Hung & Chan (2013) conducted a study to investigate the impact of three different learning environments (Kinect-based, mouse-based and Kinect with voice-based navigation) on English as a Foreign Language learners' cognitive load and listening comprehension. They found there was no significant difference in listening comprehension of the three learning environments. But for cognitive load, Kinect with voice recognition scores were significantly higher. Kandemir (2012) developed computer-aided motion-based 380

learning materials for pre-school children. He investigated the effect of the material in assessing student motivation and evaluating the teachers’ comments on the materials. At the end of the study, he found positive aspects for both motivation and comments on material. CONCLUSION When considering that appropriate frameworks for natural user interaction for children have not been developed yet, it is clear that more classroom activities must include gesture-based technology (Tse et al., 2011). Its effective use will come from creating developmentally appropriate materials together with instructional designers and technology experts, practitioners and teachers. Thus it is necessary to bring scientists from different fields together to develop gesture-based learning activities. Children become healthy individuals who are confident, capable of empathy and have communication and problem solving skills when their all development needs are supported with correct guidance in the early years. It is considered that gesture-based technology can provide this support. Computers, tablets and game consoles have become children’s play materials in recent years (Avcı, Bayhan & Zembat, 2014) so educators, parents and technology manufacturers must provide healthy child-technology interaction, because in such interaction children concentrate on their areas of interest instead of interacting with other people (Black et al., 2009). Therefore, selecting the appropriate materials for a child's development to support the child-computer interaction is important (Lee & Wei, 2013). Influenced by Piaget, Papert (1980) led computer experiments to positively affect children's social and thinking skills with a LOGO programming kit by putting forward a 'child-centered learning' approach from a self-learning thesis. Since the 1980s, there have been many improvements and changes in technology used in an educational setting. People need to adapt to the speed of change. To do this, they need the knowledge and skills to use emerging technology. Thus, computer training from an early age is important (Kaçar & Doğan, 2007). Games have a very important place in early childhood. A child sees computer technology as a gaming device with computer-assisted instruction. While interacting with computer technology, children have fun and learn; emerging technology offers an interesting and enjoyable gaming environment. Therefore, educators and instructional designers should take advantage of this opportunity. With a predetermined framework, they should use the appropriate technology to support developmental areas and get children involved. Children can play games alone or with peers through the Wii, Kinect and Move games consoles. Especially in games with multiple players, children cooperate with friends trying to reach the same goal, focusing on team success, which offers a significant opportunity to feel team spirit (Bayhan, Kangal & Özkızıklı, 2012). Previous studies on computer games have focused on the impact of violence and computer addiction. But in recent years, researchers have revealed how games can be used as a powerful learning tool. Studies show that playing digital games lets people develop their decision-making in a visual environment and they can use this ability when faced with a more complex situation in real life (Avcı, Bayhan, Zembat, 2014). Providing opportunities to develop spatial perception and reinforcing math skills offers a significant contribution to children's cognitive development (Bayhan, Kangal & 381

Özkızıklı, 2012; Coplan & Arbeau, 2009). The most important point for social development is that digital games are fun and engaging due to their social communication facilities (Voda & Greenberg, 2009). Children experience social norms such as learning and obeying rules, interacting with teammates and winning and losing in a competitive environment. Today, children prefer to spend time playing computer games instead of playing outdoors, which is emerging as a major problem for parents. In 2005, pre-school children spent one hour 36 minutes in front of a screen each day; by 2011 it had increased to two hours eight minutes (Guernsey et al., 2012). Children spend their time sitting or lying down while they are on a computer, tablet or smartphone. This can cause a variety of negative effects. Long-term use of the technology incudes risks such as lack of attention, inability to focus, learning difficulties, problems of self-expression, posture (standing) disorders, obesity, compliance problems and reluctance to cooperate. When all these effects are taken into consideration, giving children the opportunity to move with appropriate child-technology interaction is important; thus, gesture-based activity should be included in a game environment. It gives the opportunity to prevent negative effects on children’s educational and physical development by enabling body movement as a game controller, providing individual and multi-use settings and presenting alternative interactions for different age groups. By providing an open platform for everyone that does not require a specific language or movement, gesture-based technologies facilitate education. Providing a natural user interface by removing barriers between the user and the technology needs to be a key consideration for educators. Related works show that gesture-based technology is widely used in post-primary educational settings, but in early childhood it is rarely adopted. Combining software and hardware in an appropriate pedagogical perspective, gesture-based technology offers significant opportunities for the development of children in early childhood education. REFERENCES Avcı, N., Bayhan, P. & Zembat, R. (2014). Her yönüyle okul öncesi eğitim set 8. Hedef CS Basın Yayın, Ankara. Bayhan, P., Kangal, S. & Özkızıklı, S. (2012). An overview of developmental perspective Nintendo Wii games. III. Uluslararası Okul Öncesi Eğitim Kongresi, 12-15 Eylül, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Adana. Begel, A., Garcia, D. D., & Wolfman, S. A. (2004). Kinesthetic learning in the classroom. ACM SIGSCE Bulletin, 36 (1), 183–184. Black, M., Chang, J., Chang, J., & Narayanan, S.(2009). Comparison of child-human and child-computer interactions based on manual annotations. In Proceedings of the workshop on Child, Computer and Interaction. Cambridge, USA Blake, J. (2011). The natural user interface revolution. In Natural user interfaces in NET (4271–35). Greenwich: Manning Borghi A. M., Scorolli C., Caligiore D., Baldassarre G., Tummolini L. (2013). The embodied mind extended: using words as social tools. Front. Psychol. 4:214 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00214 Bruner, J. S. (1960) The process of education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Chao, K.-J., Huang, H.-W., Fang, W.-C., & Chen, N.-S. (2013). Embodied play to learn: Exploring Kinect-facilitated memory performance. British Journal of Educational

382

Technology, 44(5), E151–E155. doi:10.1111/bjet.12018. Chang, C. Y., Chien, Y. T., Chiang, C. Y., Lin, M. C., & Lai, H. C. (2013). Embodying gesture-based multimedia to improve learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(1), 5-9. Chen, N.-S., & Fang, W.-C. (2014). Gesture-Based technologies for enhancing learning. In R. Huang, Kinshuk & N.-S. Chen (Eds.), The New Development of Technology Enhanced Learning (pp. 95–112). Berlin: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-38291-8_6 Coplan, R. J. & Arbeau, K. A. (2009). Peer interactions and play in early childhood. In K. H. Rubin, W. M. Bukowski & B. Laursen (Eds.). Handbook of peer interactions, relationships and groups. New York: Guilford. Esopenko, C., Gould, L., Cummine, J., Sarty, G. E., Kuhlmann, N., & Borowsky, R. (2012). A neuroanatomical examination of embodied cognition: semantic generation to actionrelated stimuli. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 84. http://doi.org/ 10.3389/ fnhum.2012.00084. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Book Inc Günindi, Y. (2014). Örnek uygulamalarla okul öncesi dönemde fen eğitimi, bölüm: okul öncesi dönemde çocukların gelişim özellikleri (Edt: Metin & Şahin). Pegem Akademi, Ankara. Guiness, Guiness World Records http://www.guinessworldrecords.com. Guernsey, L., Levine, M., Chiong, C., & Severns, M. (2012). Pioneering literacy in the digital wild West: Empowering parents and educators. In Proceedings of The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop . New York, NY: New America Foundation. Gullberg, M. (2006). Handling discourse: Gestures, reference tracking, and communication strategies in early L2. Language Learning, 56, 155-196. Hsieh, S. W., Ho, C. S., Wu, M & Ni, Y. C. (2016). The Effects of Concept Map-Oriented Gesture-Based Teaching System on Learners’ Learning Performance and Cognitive Load in Earth Science Course. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 12(3), 621-635. Hsiao, H. S., & Chen, J. C. (2016). Using a gesture interactive game-based learning approach to improve preschool children's learning performance and motor skills. Computers and Education, 95, 151-162. 10.1016/j.compedu.2016.01.005 Hsiao, H. S., & Chen, J. C. & Hong, K., (2015): Building the vocational phase of the computerized motor skills testing system for use in the Electronics and Electrical Engineering Group and Hospitality Group, Interactive Learning Environments, DOI:10.1080/10494820.2014.994531 Hsu, Y.-C., Hung, I.-C., & Chen, N.-S. (2013). A gesture-speech navigated learning strategy for improving the comprehension of English videos. International Journal on Digital Learning Technology, 5(1), 1–27. 10.3966/2071260X2013040501001. Jaimesa, A., & Sebe, N. (2007). Multimodal human–computer interaction: A survey. Computer Vision and Image Understanding, 108,116-134. Johnson, L., Adams, S., & Cummins, M. (2012). The NMC Horizon Report: 2012 Higher Education Edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium. Johnson, L., Smith, R., Willis, H., Levine, A., & Haywood, K. (2011). The 2011 Horizon Report. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium. Johnson, L., Levine, A., Smith, R., & Stone, S. (2010). The 2010 Horizon Report. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium. Kaçar, A. Ö. & Doğan, N. (2007). Okul öncesi eğitimde bilgisayar destekli eğitimin rolü. Akademik Bilişim 2007, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, Kütahya. 383

Kandemir, B. (2012). Hareket tabanlı öğrenme materyalinin tasarımı uygulanması ve değerlendirilmesi. Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Trabzon. Kosic, Arzensek, Kuhar, & Vogrincic, (2013). Towards new user interfaces based on gesture and sound identification. In Proc. of SQAMIA, 45-53, Kontra, C., Goldin-Meadow, S. and Beilock, S. L. (2012), Embodied Learning Across the Life Span. Topics in Cognitive Science, 4: 731–739. doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2012. 01221.x Kandroudi, M., & Bratitsis, T. (2012). Exploring the Educational Perspectives of XBOX Kinect Based Video Games. Paper presented at the 6th European Conference on Games Based Learning. Lee, L. C., & Wei, W. J. (2013). Child-computer Interaction Design and Its Effectiveness. Research & Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 8(1), 5-19. Leite, W. L., Svinicki, M., & Shi, Y. (2009). Attempted validation of the scores of the VARK: Learning styles inventory with Multitrait-Multimethod Confirmatory Factor Analysis Models. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70(2), 323–339. Papert, S. (1980). Mindstroms: children, computers and powerful ideas. New York: Basic Books. Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY: International University Press. Piao, S. C. (2010). An investigation on children's fundamental motor ability following the life pulse curriculum of the cloud gate dance School, with the effects of parent's attitude examined. Unpublished master's thesis. Taiwan: National Pingtung University. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw Hill. Prensky, M. (2003). Digital game based learning. Exploring the Digital Generation. Educational Technology, US Department of Education. Sharples, M., Adams, A., Alozie, N., Ferguson, R., FitzGerald, E., Gaved, M., McAndrew, P., Means, B., Remold, J., Rienties, B., Roschelle, J., Vogt, K., Whitelock, D. & Yarnall, L. (2015). Innovating Pedagogy 2015: Open University Innovation Report 4. Milton Keynes: The Open University. Sheu, F. R., & Chen, N. S. (2014). Taking a signal: A review of gesture-based computing research in education. Computers & Education, 78, 268-277. Tse, E., Schöning, J., Huber, J., Marentette, L., Beckwith, R., Rogers, Y., & Mühlhäuser, M.(2011). Child computer interaction: Workshop on UI technologies and educational pedagogy. In Proceedings of CHI Workshop. Vancouver, BC, Canada. Voida, A. & Greenberg, S. (2009). Wii all play: The console game as a computational meeting place. CHI April 4-9, MA, USA. Xu, X. & Ke, F. (2014). From Psychomotor to "Motorpsycho": Learning through Gestures with Body Sensory Technologies. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(6), 711-741. Wellsby, M., & Pexman, P. M. (2014). Developing embodied cognition: insights from children’s concepts and language processing. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 506. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00506 Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. Wojciechowski, A. (2012). Hand’s poses recognition as a mean of communication within natural user interfaces. Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences: Technical Sciences, 60(2), 331–336. Wu, Y. & Huang, T. S., (1999). "Vision-Based Gesture Recognition: A Review", In: 384

Gesture-Based Communication in Human-Computer Interaction, Volume 1739 of Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 103-115, 1999, ISBN 978-3-54066935-7, doi:10.1007/3-540-46616-9 Yalvaç, B., Soylu, F., & Arikan, A., (2011). Embodied cognition and education. ETHOS: Dialogues in Philosophy and Social Science, 4(1), 1-20. Yang, S. Y., Lin, S. J., & Tsai, C. Y. (2014). Comparison of fundamental movement skills among young children with different gender, age and BMI. Sports & Exercise Research, 16(3), 287-296. Yenibaş, R. (2013). Çocuk Gelişimi, Eğitimi ve Sağlığı. İSMEK Yayınları, İstanbul.

385

Chapter 29 Social Sciences and History Teacher Candidates' Attitudes toward Oral History Studies Selman ABLAK INTRODUCTION Since the 20th century, historians and history instructors have pondered the questions "What is history?", "What does history do?", and "Why are we learning history?" These questions have intrigued historians from all corners of the world. Answers depend on historians' various points of view, and people from different fields also offer different perspectives (Aslan, 2010). It is hoped that delving into the term history, grasping it thoroughly, and defining it will provide us with a better understanding. History is a scientific discipline that investigates past events by employing cause and effect relationships, providing evidence, and stating relevant places, periods, and witnesses (Köstüklü, 2001, p. 12). Thus, if history is considered to be dynamic, its economic and industrial aspects can be emphasized. However, 'how to live' and 'how to rule the nature' are technical matters that underlie the problems humans have tried to solve since they emerged as a species. Great developments in civilization took place as a result of human intelligence that eliminated slavish dependence on the nature and showed the human mind how to exploit natural powers for various purposes (Ata, 2000). On the other hand, the definition gained importance, and the need to ask another question arose: "how should history be taught?" Teaching methods and techniques are significant for effective and permanent history teaching. A 'method' is a way that is followed in order to achieve a goal. Success in any endeavor entails the use of an appropriate method because anything carried out without a method goes astray and fails to fulfil its objective (Büyükkaragöz and Çivi, 1997, p. 75). A teaching method is a way that is followed to get students to a target. This ‘way’ encompasses all the techniques, experiments, and observations used to equip students with knowledge and skills (Savaş, 2007, p. 156). Another item to take into consideration is that a classroom consists of students with different features. Students' diversity in terms of their features should be taken into account when teaching course subjects. Aside from the consideration of individual differences, numerous methods should be employed for effective learning. Furthermore, giving students first-hand information and teaching by way of acting out subjects ensure more permanency than conventional teaching methods (Taşpınar, 2005). In other words, teachers' skills, abilities, and the degree to which they effectively employ teaching methods are critical for courses to achieve their goals. It is thus possible to bring up the use of oral history as a method that ensures diversification and permanence of learning in history and social sciences teaching. Akçalı and Aslan (2012) suggest that oral history, a part of the 

Res. Assist., Gazi University, Gazi Educational Faculty, Social Sciences Education Dept. Ankara. e-mail: [email protected]

history section of the social sciences course, is a subject that students are actively engaged in. Oral history draws on gathering and recording past events from the perspectives and memories of those who witnessed these events (Tan, 1997). According to Lehane and Goldman (1977), oral history is a systematic dialogue method that is employed for the preservation of the memories of ordinary people who witnessed historically significant events. Put another way, oral history offers a considerable amount of information that is not available in official documents; it provides us with cultural, social, political, and economic insight into any period that is unavailable elsewhere, makes use of witnesses' accounts, and verifies historians' documents (Çakmak, 2011). The use of oral history as a method of teaching history and students' direct contact with people who witnessed historically significant events raise the motivation level of students (Akbaba and Kılcan, 2014). Today, oral history has gained so much importance that interviewing witnesses from all walks of life and bringing them to classrooms are now considered valuable practices (Kabapınar, 2009; Safran and Ata, 1998; Safran 2016). From a perspective that regards family, children, and history education as interrelated entities, families' photographs, letters, documents, newspaper clippings, memories of their ancestors, and knowledge of family history all encourage parents' involvement in school activities (Thompson, 1996). Sarı (2007) argues that the first type of out-of-school oral history education is having talks with grandparents. The use of oral history as a method in history and social sciences education equips students with history skills and enriches courses with different perspectives and information sources (Akbaba and Kılcan, 2014). Overall, the work flow diagram of oral history is as follows: (1) Preliminary Research, (2) Preparation for Interview, (3) Interview, (4) Preparing Interview Questions, (5) Archiving Relevant Documents at City Library. For history to be transmitted orally, preliminary research is conducted; appointments are made, and a question list is prepared for the interview. Once the interview comes to an end, final corrections are made, and the evaluation process goes underway (Danacıoğlu, 2001, p. 161). Although oral history draws on historical documents to an extent, it is mostly based on an oral historian's analysis of a narrative text, which is previously composed by the oral historian and the interviewee and is audio and/or video recorded (Neyzi, 2009, p. 15). In short, oral history is not a research method that discards documents and only depends on stories. If anything, the starting point of oral history is existing documents, and any research is supposed to be supported with them. In addition, oral history studies do not jump to conclusions based on what one or a few people say; it aims to reach as many witnesses as possible to shed light on what is being studied. For this reason, oral history studies are an effort to reach a conclusion through comparison of documents and information provided by as many witnesses as possible (Kaya, 2013, p. 13). This ensures that the researcher obtains a sufficient amount of information on the relevant oral history subject. Students take an active role in oral history studies, and what they learn becomes more permanent as they are the centers that find and process information. This is why engaging students in oral history and training their teachers in this discipline are crucial. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE This study aims to identify Social Sciences and History teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies based on multiple variables. Answers to the following questions have been sought to that end: Do Social Sciences and History 387

teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies change depending on A. gender? B. their major? C. whether they have obtained historical information from their family members? D. whether they have engaged in oral history studies during the course of their undergraduate studies? E. place where they lived in before they began their undergraduate studies? F. the level of curiosity about oral history studies? G. the number of historical novels, stories, and memoirs read by the student? H. time they spare for the use of media tools (TV, the Internet, radio, newspapers) for oral history studies on a daily basis? METHOD Research Model: This study is designed in line with the quantitative research method and employs the sectioning approach, which is part of the general survey model. In a universe composed of many elements, the general survey model consists of survey arrangements carried out on the entire universe or a sample of it in order to reach a broad conclusion about the universe in question (Karasar, 2010, p. 79). The sectioning approach as part of the general survey method, on the other hand, is employed in studies in which determined variables (development features, reading comprehension skills, voting behavior, and attitudes) are measured at a single time. These studies usually make use of large samples and encompass a number of communities with different features (Büyüköztürk et al., 2010, p. 233). Study Group: The study group consists of randomly picked 249 Social Sciences and 89 History teacher candidates studying at the Faculty of Education at Gazi University. Data Collection Tool: Akbaba and Kılcan's (2012) "Attitude Scale Toward Oral History Studies" is employed in order to identify Social Sciences and History teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies. Cronbach's Alpha coefficients of the scale factors are 0.92 and 0.90, respectively. The study shows that Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient of the attitude scale toward oral history studies was 0.93. These results indicate that the construct validity and reliability of the scale are high. A personal information form was used to identify the personal features of the teacher candidates who participated in the study. The personal information form contains questions about the teacher candidates' gender, major, the place where they lived prior to their undergraduate studies, their level of curiosity about oral history studies, the number of historical novels, stories, and memoirs they have read, the amount of time they spare to use media tools for oral history studies, whether they have obtained information about the past by engaging in oral history with their parents, and whether they conducted any oral history studies in their undergraduate courses. A 26 item scale prepared in the style of the five point Likert scale was used in the attitude scale toward oral history studies. Data Collection and Analysis: SPSS 17 for Windows software package was used in the analysis of data collected from 338 teacher candidates who volunteered to take part in the study. The study features a five point Likert scale: "Strongly agree", "Agree", "Neither agree nor disagree", "Disagree", and "Strongly disagree". Frequencies and 388

percentages were used in descriptive analyses. T test was employed for other data. In the case of equal variances, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was utilized, and in the case of unequal variances, Welch's test was used. After one-way analysis of variance, a statistical difference was detected in the paired comparisons. Then, Scheffe and Tamhane's multiple comparison tests were performed to determine the groups between which this difference occurred. The significance level of the scale in the statistical analyses was found to be .05. FINDINGS This chapter shows and evaluates the participants' differing attitudes toward oral history studies based on different variables. Table 1. T-test Results of the Total Points of the Participants' Attitudes Toward Oral History Studies Based on the Gender Variable Gender Female Male

N



S

sd

t

P

206 132

81,55 82,45

10,50 12,72

336

,706

.481

According to the analysis results in Table 1, the participants' total points of their attitude toward oral history studies show no significant difference based on the gender variable [t(336)=,706; p>.05]. The average of women's total attitude points toward oral history studies equals (  =81.55), and that of men is (  =82.45). The numerical difference between the two genders is not significant, which demonstrates that the teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies do not vary depending on the gender. Table 2. T-test Results of the Total Points of the Participants' Attitudes Toward Oral History Studies Based on Their Major Major History Teacher Major

N 89 N



82,46 

S 11,06 S

sd

t

P

336

,540

.589

According to the analysis results in Table 2, the participants' total points of their attitude toward oral history studies show no significant difference based on the major variable [t(336)=,540; p>.05]. The average of the history teacher candidates' total attitude points toward oral history studies equals (  =82.46), and that of social sciences teacher candidates' is (  =81.70). The numerical difference between the two majors is not significant, which indicates that the teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies do not vary depending on the major. According to the analysis results in Table 3, the participants' total points of their attitude toward oral history studies show a significant difference based on whether they have obtained historical information from their family members [t(336)=2.083; p>.05]. The average of the total attitude points toward oral history studies of those who have obtained historical information from their family members equals (  = 83.74), and that of those who have not obtained historical information from their family members is (  = 81.00). The numerical difference is significant, which shows that the participants' total points of attitudes toward oral history studies vary depending on whether they have 389

obtained historical information from their family members through oral history. Table 3. T-test Results of the Total Points of the Participants' Attitudes Toward Oral History Studies Based on Whether They Have Obtained Historical Information from Their Family Members Through Oral History Whether the Participants Have Obtained Historical Information from Their Family Members Yes No

N



S

sd

t

P

111 227

83,74 81,00

8,77 12,42

336

2,083

.038

Table 4. T-test Results of the Total Points of the Participants' Attitudes Toward Oral History Studies Based on Whether They Have Engaged in Oral History Studies During the Course of Their Undergraduate Studies Whether the Participants Have Engaged in Oral History Studies During the Course of Their Undergraduate Studies Yes No

N



S

sd

t

P

122 216

82,32 81,66

12,63 10,68

336

,508

.611

According to the analysis results in Table 4, the total points of the participants' attitudes toward oral history do not show a significant difference based on whether they have engaged in oral history studies during the course of their undergraduate studies [t(336)= ,508; p <.05]. The average of the total attitude points toward oral history studies of those who have engaged in oral history studies during the course of their undergraduate studies equals (  = 82.32), and that of those who have not engaged in oral history studies during the same period is (  = 81.66). Table 5. Welch's Test Results of the Total Points of the Participants' Attitudes Toward Oral History Studies Based on the Place Where They Lived Prior to Their Undergraduate Studies Variable The Place Where the Participants Lived Prior to Their Undergraduate Studies

N (1) (2) (3) (4) Welch

Village Small Town Town center City Statistics 9,592

S 78,77 3,93 82,03 6,27 85,80 11,25 80,22 12,61 Tamhane 1-3 4-3 

30 36 98 174 sd1

sd2

p

3

121,469

,000

The numerical difference is not significant, which demonstrates that whether the participants have engaged in oral history studies during the course of their undergraduate studies does not lead to a difference. According to the analysis results in Table 5, the participants' total points of their attitude toward oral history studies show a significant difference based on the place variable (where they lived before beginning their undergraduate studies) [F(Welch)= 9.592; p <.05]. Tamhane's multiple comparison test was performed to see between which groups this difference existed. The average of the total attitude points toward oral history studies of the participants who lived in villages before equals (=78.77); that of 390

those who lived in city centers is (=80.22), and that of those who lived in districts equals (=85.80), which means that the difference is in favor of the participants who lived in districts. This finding indicates that the participants who lived in districts prior to their undergraduate studies have a more positiveattitude toward oral history studies than those who lived in villages and city centers. Table 6. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results of the Total Points of the Participants' Attitudes Toward Oral History Studies Based on the Variable of the Level of Curiosity About Oral History Studies Variable Not interested at all Level of Moderately interested Curiosity Very interested About Source of KT Oral Variance History Intergroup 437,705 Studies In-group 43418,875 Total 43856,580

N 28 206 104

S 6.60 11.57 11.99 Difference



84.79 81.09 82.72

Sd

KO

F

p

2 335 337

218,852 129,609

1,689

,186

According to the analysis results in Table 6, there is no significant difference between the participants' total points of their attitudes toward oral history and the level of curiosity (variable) about oral history studies F(2-335)= 1,689; p<.05]. This finding suggests that the participants' level of curiosity about oral history studies does not lead to a difference in their oral history studies. Table 7. Welch's Test Results of the Total Points of the Participants' Attitudes Toward Oral History Studies Based on the Variable of the Number of Historical Novels, Stories, and Memories They Have Read Variable The Number of Historical Novels, Stories, and Memoirs Read by the Participants

(1) 5 or fewer (2) 6-10 (3) 11-15 (4) 16 and more Statistics Welch ,574

sd1 sd2 3 131.369

N 96 111 44 87 p ,633

S 82.33 8.51 81.22 5.91 80.89 12.30 82.80 17.54 Tamhane 

According to the analysis results in Table 7, there is no significant difference between the participants' total points of attitudes toward oral history and the variable of the number of historical novels, stories, and memoirs they have read [F(welch)= ,574; p>.05]. This finding shows that the number of historical novels, stories, and memoirs read by the participants has no effect on their attitudes toward oral history studies. According to the analysis results in Table 8, there is a significant difference between the participants' total points of their attitudes toward oral history and the amount of time they spare for the use of media tools for oral history studies [F(welch)= 16.694; p<.05]. Tamhane's multiple comparison test was performed to see between which groups this difference existed. According to these results, the average of attitude points toward oral history studies of those who daily spend less than 1 hour with media tools for oral history studies equals (  = 80.59); that of those who daily spend 1-3 hours 391

is (  = 83.25); that of those who daily spend 3-5 hours is (  = 89.37), and that of those who daily spend more than 7 hours equals (  = 75.50). Among these, there is a significant difference in favor of those who daily spend less than 1 hour, 1-3 hours, and 3-5 hours with media tools for oral history studies. This finding indicates that a greater amount of time spent with media tools for oral history studies could lead to a more negative attitude toward oral history studies. Table 8. Welch's Test Results of the Total Points of the Participants' Attitudes Toward Oral History Studies Based on the Variable of the Amount of Time They Spare for Media Tools for Oral History Studies Variable

Time Spent on a Daily Basis with Media Tools for Oral History Studies

N 175 126 19 12 6

(1) Less than 1 hour (2) 1-3 hours (3) 3-5 hours (4) 5-7 hours (5) More than 7 hours

Welch

Statistics

sd1

sd2

p

16,694

4

42,760

,000



80,59 83,25 89,37 78,17 75,50

S 9,94 11,60 18,42 12,45 1,22

Tamhane 5-3 5-2 5-1

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION This study aims to identify Social Sciences and History teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies based on multiple variables. To that end, data obtained from the teacher candidates in the study group were analyzed. The analysis shows that the teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies do not vary significantly based on their gender, major, whether they have engaged in oral history studies during the course of their undergraduate studies, their level of curiosity about oral history studies, and the number of historical novels, stories, and memoirs. In a similar study, Akbaba and Kılcan (2014) found that no significant difference was caused by the gender, whether the students engaged in oral history studies during the course of their undergraduate studies, and the number of historical novels, stories, and memoirs they read. The teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies do not vary based on their majors, which is probably because these students pursuing a degree in either Social Sciences or History Teaching already took history courses when they were getting ready for their undergraduate studies. Another reason is that the history courses offered as part of undergraduate studies are of the same intensity. On the other hand, a study by Tangülü (2014) found that there was no significant difference caused by the variables of gender and the number of historical novels, stories, and memoirs read by the participants. Kütükçüoğlu (1990) and Özçelik (2001) stated that every literary work is a bearer of oral history. Judging by this statement, it is safe to say that the fact that almost one third of the teacher candidates in the study group read fewer than five historical books, stories, and memoirs is not a good sign. The situation can be partly linked to the fact that the variable of the level of curiosity about oral history studies makes no difference in attitudes. The third sub-problem of the study is that the Social Sciences and History teacher candidates' attitudes toward oral history studies show a significant difference based on 392

whether the participants have obtained historical information from their family members by way of oral history. This result indicates that family members play a key role in oral history studies. Sarı (2007) argues that "the oral history tradition should first be instilled in the individual by the grandparents just like in American and British families." This study also found that the participants' attitudes toward oral history varied significantly based on the place where they lived prior to their undergraduate studies and the amount of time they spared for the use of media tools for oral history studies; the latter, in particular, was an expected result. Today is the age of media and communication; consequently, every individual allocates a substantial amount of time to the use of media tools, and its impact is thus not surprising. REFERENCES Akbaba B., Kılcan, B. (2012). Sözlü tarih çalışmalarına yönelik tutum ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmaları. Pegem Eğitim ve Öğretim Dergisi, 2: 1-10. Akbaba, B., Kılcan, B. (2014). Sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının sözlü tarih çalışmalarına yönelik tutumları. İlköğretim Online, 13(3), 746-758. Akçalı A.A, Aslan E. (2012). Tarih öğretiminin iyileştirilmesi yolunda alternatif bir yöntem: Sözlü tarih, Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 20 (2): 669-688. Aslan, E. (2010). Neden tarih öğretiyoruz?. Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 20, 162-174. http://web.deu.edu.tr/befdergi/19.pdf adresinden edinilmiştir. Ata, B. (2000). Temel eğitimde tarihin amacı. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 147,. http://dhgm.meb. gov.tr/yayimlar/dergiler/Milli_Egitim_Dergisi/147/ata.htm adresinden edinilmiştir. Büyükkaragöz, S., Çivi, C. (1997). Genel Öğretim Metotları, İstanbul: Öz-Eğitim. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E. K., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., ve Demirel, F. (2010). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Pegem. Çakmak, F. (2011). Sözel Tarihçilikte Saptamalar ve Sorunlar, In: Mehmet Ö (Eds). Cumhuriyet Döneminde Türkiye'de Tarihçilik ve Tarih Yayıncılığı Sempozyumu (Bildiriler), Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu. Danacıoğlu, E. (2001). Geçmişin izleri yanı başımızdaki tarih için bir kılavuz. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt. Kabapınar, Y. (2009). İlköğretimde hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. (2.Baskı). Ankara: Maya. Karasar, N. (2010). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi, (21.Baskı). Ankara: Nobel. Kaya, M. (2013). Sosyal bilgiler dersinde kullanılabilecek bir öğretim yöntemi olarak sözlü tarih: amaç, içerik, uygulama. Yayınlanmamış yükseklisans tezi. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Kütükoğlu M. (1990). Tarih Araştırmalarında Usul. İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları. Köstüklü, N. (2001), Sosyal bilimler ve tarih öğretimi. Konya: Günay. Lehane S, Goldman, R. (1977). Oral History: Research and Teaching Tool for Educators, The Elementary School Journal,77(39): 173-181. Neyzi, L. (2009). "Ben Kimim?" Türkiye'de Sözlü Tarih, Kimlik ve Öznellik. İstanbul: İletişim. Özçelik, İ. (2001). Tarih Araştırmalarında Yöntem ve Teknikler. Ankara: Gündüz Eğitim ve Yayıncılık. Safran, M. (2016). Tarih Nasıl Öğretilir? - Tarih Öğretmenleri İçin Özel Öğretim Yöntemleri. Ankara: Yeni İnsan. 393

Safran, M., & Ata, B. (1998). Okul dışı tarih öğretimi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1), 87-94. Sarı, İ. (2007). Sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde sözlü tarih etkinliklerinin öğrenci başarı, beceri ve tutumlarına etkisi. Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. Ankara: Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Savaş, B. (2007), Öğretim İlke ve Yöntemleri, Arslan, M. (Ed.) ss. 155-175, Ankara: Anı. Tan, M. (1997). Çocukluğun tarihi araştırmalarında sözlü tarih yaklaşımı ve sözlü tarihte bir çocuk. Birinci Ulusal Çocuk Kültürü Kongresi Bildirileri Kitabı ss. 31-56. Ankara Üniversitesi Çocuk Kültürü Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Yayınları No: 1. Tangülü, Z. (2014). Analysis on Oral History Attitudes of Pre-service Teachers. The Anthropologist, International Journal of Contemporary and Applied Studies of Man. Volume 18 (3): ss. 959-968. Taşpınar, M. (2005). Kuramdan uygulamaya öğretim yöntemleri. Ankara: Üniversite. Thompson, Paul. (1996). Oral History an Interdisciplinary Anthology. David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum (Eds.). California: Altamira Press.

394

Chapter 30 Irrational Number Knowledge of High School Graduates Necdet GÜNER* The Number Sense The number sense is innate in humans. Research has shown that a three or fourday-old babies can recognize sets of two and three objects (Antell & Keting, 1983), four-five month-old babies know one plus one is two (Wynn, 1992) and then they can recognize two plus one is three (Dehaene, 1997; Wynn, 1995). Children are introduced to the concept that natural numbers are discrete even before they begin to speak (Dehaene, 1997). It can be said that arithmetic arises from the humans’ instinct to count what they see around them and what they own. For instance, addition can be considered as the generalization of counting. The concept of number in humans is a notion that begins in childhood before even going to school and develops with the education received at school. Education which begins at primary school with natural numbers continues with the teaching of integers, rational and decimal numbers. A student who has successfully completed primary education is expected convert a rational number to decimal number, and a decimal number to a rational number. In addition, what a prime number is, prime factorization, finding the greatest common divisor or the least common multiple of two (or more) numbers and using them in problems are other skills students gain in primary mathematics education (MEB 2013; 2009). Students build and exemplify their notions related to numbers on counting and measuring from the beginning of their mathematics education. They see that all properties they have learned for natural numbers and integers also apply to rational numbers, and develop the idea that numbers have similar properties. When they encounter with irrational numbers in the eighth grade, they think that the properties they already know about natural numbers, integers and rational numbers are valid for the irrational numbers as well (Merenluoto & Lehtinen, 2004). When they first discovered irrational numbers, Greek mathematicians (Pythagoreans) chose not to consider these as numbers and tried to keep them a secret. In fact, according to some sources, one member of the Pythagoreans was executed for revealing the existence of irrational numbers to outsiders (Maor, 2007, p.28). The nature of irrational numbers, the existence of which has been known since Pythagoras, that is adverse to the number sense innate in humans creates challenges of learning and understanding. One of these challenges is the fact that irrational numbers are uncountable. Another challenge is the incommensurability of irrational magnitudes (Fischbein, Jehiam & Cohen, 1995). The fact that these challenges and the concept of infinity create obstacles to the comprehension of irrational numbers by students. *

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics Education. Denizli. [email protected]

Irrational Numbers in Mathematics Education Research When the research on the mathematics education is reviewed, studies on the knowledge of mathematics teachers, teacher candidates, and students on irrational numbers are very few in the educational research. In these studies, answers these participants gave to questions such as the definition of irrational numbers, finding which among given numbers are irrational and whether irrational numbers are closed under addition and multiplication are examined. The results of these studies indicate that students, teachers and teacher candidates generally have some misunderstanding about irrational numbers. In a section of the study carried out by Arcavi, Bruckheimer and Ben-Zvi (1987), mathematics teacher candidates were asked which among the seven given numbers were irrational. It was observed that 22/7 (which is an approximate value of  ) was usually marked as irrational number. Researchers though that this error might have arisen due to the fact that participants knew  (given as one of the seven numbers in this research question) was an irrational number and, thus, they might have classified 22/7 (which is a rational number) as an irrational number. In a research conducted on the irrational number knowledge of 9th and 10th graders and teacher candidates, it was observed that some of the participants in both groups were not able to classify rational and irrational numbers correctly. Moreover, participants were found to have conceptual difficulties in defining irrational numbers when they were asked the definitions of rational, irrational and real numbers (Fischbein, Jehiam & Cohen, 1995). Another conclusion of this study is the fact that students intuitively think the existence of two different sets that has an infinite number of elements in a given interval is impossible. Another misconception about infinity arises from the definition of irrational numbers as infinite non-repeating decimal (non-periodic) numbers. Since, irrational numbers have non-repeating infinite digits, students can develop the idea that the sum of two irrational numbers is an infinitely many operations and is impossible to calculate their addition or subtraction. Which is a problem occupying the humans since ancient times (Gray & Tall, 1994). The results of the study carried out by Peled and Hershkovitz (1999) on seventy pre-service teachers in the second and third years of their university education indicate they know the definitions and properties of irrational numbers, unlike the results of Fischbein et al. (1995). However, it was determined that pre-service teachers could not make flexible transitions between appropriate definition / demonstration styles about irrational numbers. In addition, it was found that even though participants stated an irrational number is also a real number, they were not able to predict the approximate values of irrational numbers as rational numbers and, thus, they were not able to place these numbers on the number line correctly. Sirotic and Zazkis expressed the results of a project on irrational numbers they conducted with 46 university students who were also secondary school mathematics teacher candidates through different articles. Firstly, they analysed the answers given by teacher candidates to two questions in the scope of the project in terms of representation styles researchers named as transparent and opaque. It was concluded that teacher candidates did not prefer the representation style named transparent in deciding whether a given number was rational or irrational (Zazkis & Sirotic, 2004). Then, they announced the other results obtained through the same study in two 396

articles (Sirotic & Zazkis, 2007a; 2007b). In the first article, the three subjects of the study were addressed: richness and density of numbers, placement of rational and irrational numbers on the number line, and the operations between the elements of these two sets. This article indicates the finding that there were inconsistencies in the intuitive, formal and algorithmic knowledge of participants (Sirotic & Zazkis, 2007a). In their second article on the aforementioned study, Sirotic and Zazkis (2007b) analysed the answers the same participants gave to the question of demonstrating the irrational number 5 on the number line and during the semi-structured interview conducted subsequently. In this article, Sirotic and Zazkis emphasize that the majority of pre-service teachers had deficient or no conceptual image on the geometrical demonstration of irrational numbers. Arbour (2012) carried out a thesis study on the real, rational and irrational number knowledge of science students in their fourth academic term at a university in Montreal. A seven-question test was applied to 30 university students who participated in the study. The answers given by the participants were classified as “explicit knowledge” and “implicit knowledge” and evaluated accordingly. In Turkey, Adıgüzel (2013) conducted a thesis study on the irrational number knowledge and misconceptions of primary school mathematics teacher candidates and eighth-grade students. Among the participants, 130 eighth-grade students were implemented a 10-question multiple choice test. 180 teacher candidates were asked 12 open-ended questions. The collected data was analysed through descriptive analysis methods. It was concluded that the majority of students and teacher candidates had a lack of knowledge about irrational numbers. In another thesis study conducted on the same subject in Turkey, Ercire (2014) explored the conceptual difficulties about irrational numbers. The participants of this study were 108 eighth and ninth grade students and five mathematics teachers. The researcher implemented an “irrational number concept test” to students and conducted semi-structured interviews with teachers. The thesis study in question indicated that the participants had different irrational number images. While some students think of nonrational numbers when they hear irrational numbers, some think of non-repeating infinite decimal numbers. In a study they conducted with 30 high school students and 30 secondary school pre-service mathematics teachers, Kara and Delice (2012) asked various questions to understand the irrational number knowledge of the participants. One of these questions was related to drawing a Venn diagram consisting of sets of integers, natural, real, rational and irrational numbers. As a result of the study, it was concluded that only seven participants (3 high school & 4 university students) were able to draw an acceptable Venn diagrams. Fourty one freshmen and 39 seniors participated in another study that conducted research on the irrational number knowledge of primary school mathematics teacher candidates. Participants were asked 10 open-ended questions consisting of rational and irrational number definitions, classification of given numbers, and their placement on the number line. The study showed that there was no significant difference in the irrational number knowledge of students in terms of their class level. This study indicated some student confused irrational numbers with complex numbers as well. Even though a great majority of the students was able to place the given rational and 397

irrational numbers on the number line, they failed to explain their actions (Güven, Çekmez & Karataş, 2011). The Importance of Irrational Numbers For the mathematics used in everyday life, rational and two-digit decimal numbers are sufficient. In some engineering studies or scientific research, the decimal digits can be increased for more sensitive measurements and calculations. However, situations in which the first thousand digits of any number are used are also very rare in such calculations. Some scientists may want to calculate the first one million digits of 2 or  to test the performances of the computer programs they have just developed. These calculations have scientific value rather being practical and they do not affect our everyday life (Blatner, 1999). While making their calculations, engineers calculate within the technical limitations of their computers or calculators. Today, calculators generally have the capacity of operating with numbers up to 18 digits. The number of digits can be increased for computers. However, it is a fact that none have the capacity of calculating with infinite-digit numbers. In the light of the facts explained above, we should remember that none of us perform operations with irrational numbers in real life. On the other hand, it would be beneficial to bear in mind that we perform operations by using special signs for some irrational numbers such as e or  . It should be remembered that students use the approximate values of these numbers such as 2 or  in the early years of their education. They begin to use the special signs in subsequent years, and they almost never encounter their characteristics related to them being irrational numbers. Why do we find it necessary to teach irrational numbers to eighth-grade students even though we use approximate values instead of irrational numbers in calculations and they have no role in our everyday lives? One of the reasons is that we need irrational numbers to teach real numbers to students. Despite the infinitely many rational numbers in the number line, the whole number line cannot be filled without irrational numbers (Arcavi, Bruckheimer & Ben-Zvi, 1987; Lakoff & Nunez, 2000). For students to understand the mathematical concepts in mathematical analysis and other advanced mathematics subjects, they first need to understand the number line composed of rational and irrational numbers. In addition, it is also important to make students understand that there are infinitely many irrational numbers between any two rational numbers. Studies show that students cannot intuitively comprehend how two different infinite sets can exist in a finite interval (Fischbein, Jehiam & Cohen, 1995). The natural numbers, integers and rational numbers we use correspond to the counting or measurement need we face in our everyday lives. However, irrational numbers are not among those that meet such needs. On the other hand, irrational numbers are required for the continuity and integrity of the number line. And, it is evident that having an adequate knowledge regarding real numbers has a significant role in understanding and learning advanced mathematical concepts. In the light of the examples above, it clearer why real numbers are introduced to students in the eighth grade. However, in consideration of the conducted scientific studies, what should be paid extra attention to during the teaching of irrational numbers emerges as an issue that must be addressed. 398

Educational Recommendations While teaching irrational numbers to eighth-grade students, it is believed that giving all different definitions and representations of irrational numbers which can be understood easily is important. According to some studies, a great majority of students define irrational numbers as numbers that are not rational (Ercire, 2014). Students’ remembrance of this definition may arise from the fact that it is an easy definition to remember due to a characteristic of the language. With this definition, students have the chance to consolidate that irrational numbers are non-rational real numbers. Combined with the fact that some books indicate rational numbers with Q and irrational numbers with Q ( Q ’s complement), students will more easily understand the irrational numbers and rational numbers are discrete sets. In addition, this will make students understand that the combination of rational and irrational number sets also equals to the real number set. As a result, it will be easier for students understand that every point in the number line corresponds to one rational or irrational number. However, it must be noted that defining irrational numbers as only “non-rational numbers” lead to some misconceptions in students (Ercire, 2014). For instance, as dividing a number by zero (for example 3/0) does not equal to a rational number, students are likely to classify such undefined numbers as irrational numbers due to the explanation of only the definition above (Sirotic & Zazkis, 2007a). Therefore, it is of utmost importance that other definitions of irrational numbers are given to students, that the relations between definitions are explained, and that each one equals to another is stated. The definition which indicate that irrational numbers cannot be written as p/q, a fraction of two integers such as p and q (q being different from zero) that are relatively prime and that irrational numbers are decimal numbers that have non-repeating (nonperiodical) infinite digits must also be explained. Misconceptions that emerge as a result of explaining one of these definitions but not the other can be observed in many studies (Sirotic & Zazkis, 2007a). It is believed that reminding students how periodic decimal numbers are written as a rational number, which they have been taught already, before starting to teach the subject of irrational numbers can be beneficial. Another misconception observed in the conducted studies is related to the fact that as 22/7 is assumed as equivalent to  , students classify the number 22/7 as irrational due to  being irrational (Arcavi, Bruckheimer & Ben-Zvi, 1987). In order to prevent this misconception, we must remind students that when we have to use  to calculate the perimeter of a circle or the area of a circular region, we use 3 instead of  in the primary school, then 22/7 or 3.14. We must make our students understand that these numbers are the approximate values of  , and they are of sufficient sensitivity for the results we aim to find. It would be beneficial to remind students that two-digit approximations of real numbers are generally used in everyday life and to emphasize that the approximate value of 0,33 which is of desired sensitivity are used instead of the number 1/3 which is an infinite decimal number. Another example which can be given to students may be the proof that

2 cannot

be written as p/q. As is known, proving that 2 is not rational by using proof by contradiction is an age-old proof that can be understood by eighth-grade students. Through this example, students are able to see a proof of an irrational number presented 399

hundreds of years ago from today. It is believed that giving a few examples of perfect squares such as 25 and 100 , which show not every root number is irrational, before or after this proof can also be beneficial. Making students draw a Venn diagram which shows the relationships among natural numbers, integers, rational, irrational, and real number sets can be designed as an activity to strengthen students’ idea of numbers as sets. Students can be made to draw a Venn diagram comprising natural numbers, integers, and rational numbers first. Then, how irrational numbers would be added to this diagram (by reminding that rational and irrational number sets are discrete) can be discussed. Finally, students can be made to find the fact that the emerging big set comprises real numbers. Such an inclass application can consolidate students’ knowledge that rational and irrational numbers are two discrete sets and their combination equals to real numbers. According to the results of numerous studies, teacher candidates and students think that irrational numbers are closed under addition and multiplication operations (Adıgüzel, 2012). This misconception is known as “overgeneralization” which occurs as a result of students’ generalization of integers and rational numbers’ closeness under addition and multiplication to irrational numbers as well. It would be appropriate to show students that the sum and product of two irrational numbers is irrational for some examples and rational for some other examples in order to prevent the misconception of overgeneralization. The fact that sum and product of two irrational numbers can be (

3 

3  0 and 2

2

 2 ) rational and ( 3 

3  2 3

3  6 ) irrational must be explained through examples. and 2 In addition to such examples, the fact that irrational numbers are not closed under addition can be shown through examples by taking x=0,03003000300003000003…, y=0.30330333033330333330…,and their addition x + y = 0.33333… = 0.3 = 1/3 which will also rational numbers as repeating infinite decimal numbers. Then, students can be asked to form similar examples. After explaining the Pythagorean Theorem to eighth-grade students, an in-class application related to finding the place of irrational numbers such as 5 or 17 on the number line by using a ruler and a compass can be designed. Hence, we can show that the place of a length we know to be immeasurable such as 5 can be found on the number line as an application of the Pythagorean Theorem. Explaining that there is an infinite number of rational numbers between two irrational numbers is as important as showing that there is an infinite number of irrational numbers between two given rational numbers while teaching students about irrational numbers. Convincing students that, of these two sets with infinite elements, the irrational number set has more elements is a historical challenge as well as being related to the extent to which students have understood the concept of infinity. It should be remembered that, on historical and psychological grounds, that the concept of irrational numbers faced two major intuitive obstacles, one related to the incommensurability of irrational magnitudes and the other related to the uncountable infinity of the irrational numbers. Therefore, we must be aware that students may need more help while learning this subject than other mathematical subjects. Explaining the 400

subject of irrational numbers by taking the aforementioned points into consideration will help students learn it with less misconceptions. Moreover, it is believed that more time in the eighth and ninth-grade curriculum and more space in the course books should be reserved for irrational numbers. REFERENCES Adıgüzel, N. (2013). İlköğretim Matematik Öğretmen Adayları ve 8. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin İrrasyonel Sayılar ile İlgili Bilgileri ve bu Konudaki Kavram Yanılgıları. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Antell, S.E. & Keating, D.P. (1983). Perception of Numerical Invariance in Neonates. Child Development 54: 695-701. Arbour, D. (2012). Students’ Understanding of Real, Rational, and Irrational Numbers. A Thesis in the Department of Mathematics and Statistics. Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Arcavi, A.; Bruckheimer, M. & Ben-Zvi, R. (1987). History of Mathematics for Teachers: The Case of Irrational Numbers. For the Learning of Mathematics 7: (2), 18-23. Baştürk, S. & Dönmez, G. (2008). Üniversite Mezunu Yetişkinlerde Sayı Kavramı. VIII. Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi, Bolu, Türkiye. Blatner, D. (1999). The Joy of  . Walker & Co. New York. Dehaene, S. (1997). The Number Sense. How the Mind Creates Mathematics? Oxford University Press: New York. Ercire, Y. E. (2014). İrrasyonel Sayı Kavramına İlişkin Yaşanılan Güçlüklerin İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Fischbein, E.; Jehiam, R. & Cohen, C. (1995). The Concept of Irrational Number in High School Student and Prospective Teachers. Educational Studies in Mathematics 29: 2944. Gray, E. & Tall, D. (1994). Duality, Ambiguity and Flexibility: A Proceptual View of Simple Arithmetic. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 26: (2), 115-141. Güven, B.; Çekmez, E. & Karataş, İ. (2011) Examining Preservice Elementary Mathematics Teachers' Understandings about Irrational Numbers. PRIMUS: Problems, Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies 21: (5) 401-416. Kara, F. & Delice, A. (2012). Kavram Tanımı mı? Yoksa Kavram İmgeleri mi? İrrasyonel Sayıların Temsilleri, X. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi, Niğde. Lakoff, G. & Nunez, R. (2000). Where Mathematics Comes From. How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being? Basic Books: New York. MEB (2013). Ortaokul Matematik Dersi 5-8. Sınıflar Öğretim Programı. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, Ankara. MEB (2009). İlkokul Matematik Dersi 1-5. Sınıflar Öğretim Programı. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, Ankara. Maor, E. (2007). The Pythagorean Theorem. A 4,000 – Year History. Princeton University Press. Princeton and Oxford. Merenluoto, K. & Lehtinen, E. (2004). Number Concept and Conceptual Change: Towards a Systemic Model of the Processes of Change. Learning and Instruction 14: 519-534. Peled, I. & Hershkovitz, S. (1999). Difficulties in Knowledge Integration: Revisiting Zeno’s Paradox with Irrational Numbers. International Journal of Mathematics Education, Science and Technology 30: 39-46. Sirotic, N. & Zazkis, R. (2007a). Irrational Numbers: The Gap between Formal and intuitive knowledge. Educational Studies in Mathematics 65: (1), 49-76. 401

Sirotic, N. & Zazkis, R. (2007b). Irrational numbers on a number line – Where are they? International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 38: (4), 477-488. Zazkis, R. & Sirotic, N. (2004). Making Sense of Irrational Numbers: Focusing on Representation, in Proceedings of 28th International Conference for Psychology of Mathematics Education, Bergen, Norway, Vol. 4, p. 497–505. Wynn, K. (1995). Origins of Numerical Knowledge. Mathematical Cognition 1: (1) 35-60. Wynn, K. (1992). Addition and Subtraction by Human Infants. Nature 358: 749-750.

402

Chapter 31 From Theory to Practice: Allosteric Learning Model for Teaching Science and Social Studies Lessons Hasan Güner BERKANT & Seda BAYSAL INTRODUCTION Learning has been a central topic which has been intensely discussed by thinkers and researchers during the largest part of the previous century. It is surprising to observe that researchers are not explicit about what they refer to by the term “learning. It is likely that this state results from the fact that there is not an agreement concerning the definition of learning. The reason for this is that it is highly difficult to define such concepts that are as broad and complex as learning (Askew & Field, 2007). Lachman (1997) noted that variety textbooks definitions of learning define learning as a longterm, permanent change in behaviours that are affected by experience. In other words, learning is considered as a function which maps experience upon behaviour. Even though most people have a general sense of what it means to learn, its functional definition is unsatisfactory. As indicated by Wirth & Perkins (2008), teachers presume that as they are “teaching”, students must be “learning”. Students think that as they study and memorize the topics, they have learned everything. However, present research on learning shows that direct teacher-student transmission is a passive way of systems through which new concepts cannot be learned. That is, each of the learners has several questions, conceptions and ideas in mind that are interpreted and developed through various channels (Giordan, 1996a). Therefore, a critical shift regarding the learning process over several decades has been from a conception of learner as sponge” toward an image of “learner as active constructor of meaning” (Wilson & Peterson, 2006). The changes occurring during the learning process have been explained by many teaching-learning models and theories. Minier (2003) presented a classification based upon historical development of learning approaches. Figure 1 shows the historical development of learning approaches. In this regard, new models have been evolved, for instance the allosteric learning model (Modèle d'Apprentissage Allostérique, in French). As seen in Figure 1, Allosteric Learning Model (ALM) is fundamentally based upon Rationalism whose pioneers are Socrates and Platon. Giordan (1995) lays an emphasis on the three main traditions of teaching and scientific thinking stylestransmission of knowledge, behaviourist approach and cognitive approach. The first tradition reflects the frontal transmission of knowledge. The person who knows everything transfers a package of knowledge to the passive listeners. The second 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences  Res. Assist., Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences 

tradition is based on a ‘conditioning’ and 'reinforcement' which in practice means that teachers analyze the behaviours as well as teaching through exercises. As to the third tradition, it is correlatedly linked to what is widely called as “the discovery method”.

Figure 1: Historical development of learning approaches (Minier, 2003)

In plain English, teachers favour children’s freedom of expression, skills and creativity with respect to the needs and interests. On this subject, allosteric learning model is one of those which is included in the third tradition. Education still serves as the result of experience and empiricism. Nevertheless, upon investigating current methods, several implicit axioms, which underlie not only theory but also practice, have been identified. Multiple approaches have been sorted into ten theoretical perspectives situated along three spatial axes: Knowledge (academic, technological, behaviourist and epistemological theories), society (social, socio-cognitive and psychosocial theories) and learner (humanist, genetic and cognitive theories). On this point, Allosteric Learning Model which was designed by Giordan and De Vecchi in 1987 and developed by Giordan in 1989 has been designated as society axis model; it is linked to the other two components in terms of conceptions and 404

didactic environment, though (Giordan, 1996a). Even if allosteric learning model is highly dependent on learning through discovery and constructivist learning, it does not mean to replace them. This model was derived from a biological metaphor related to proteins. The interaction between individual and environment in a learning situation is tried to be clarified by using a metaphor of allosteric regulation. This regulation explains how enzymes and proteins can change form and function according to the environmental factors, in the same way, the model explains how individuals can change their minds as a result of environmental conditions (Giordan, 1996b). Moradi, Brunel and Vallespir (2008) underpin that learning with regard to allosteric learning model is not pertained to a single factor but different conditions that occur in an environment called as ‘didactive environment’. When questioning takes place in the conceptions, the stage of interrogation is reorganized, thus leading to a substantial change in the individual's mental structure. In this way, old conception replaces with the new one (Budak, 2010). Considering the process of the new knowledge’s transfer to the real life as well the environment of the individuals, educators has significant missions to be completed. They are discerned as the knowledge designers rather than presenters of knowledge to the students directly. Besides, teachers are supposed to provide the required ‘didactive environment’ and guide the students to the questioning process via various techniques. It is vital that they help students construct conceptions through providing them with drawing pictures about the subject, watching films, role playing and discussing about the subject that they have learned in advance (Pei, 2006; Giordan, 2010). As regards to the role of learners during the learning process, it is of paramount significance to consider them as “the manager” of their own knowledge. The learners are those who face realities, express themselves in a desired way and develop connections. Figure 2 illustrates allosteric environment which is favourable to the learning process. Figure 2 depicts that students’ role is to create the desire to learn, to question, to accompany, to provide with areas for learning and "thinking aids". The point is to ensure the learner with a relevant allosteric environment which will permanently interfere with his or her own conceptions.

Figure 2: Allosteric environment favourable to the learning process (Giordan, 2010) 405

In allosteric learning model, conceptions are not just regarded as the starting point, nor the result of mental activity. They serve as the instruments of mental activity. Learners must integrate new knowledge into functioning conceptual structures with a view to acquiring it. Thus, new conceptions replace old ones through modifying prior conceptual structures. However, what changes in learners’ minds is the network which connects the data and develops them in a meaningful way. Last but not least, knowledge is not transmitted directly. Hence, the main purpose of the allosteric model is to realize learning by mobilizing learners’ conceptions for producing new meanings (Giordan, 1996b; Topbaş, 2011). Figure 3 shows that it is essential for learners to firstly question information and skills, to reach sources about this information, to understand and to get a conception as a result of it.

Figure 3: The use of Allosteric Learning Model with young people (Giordan, 1995)

Figure 3 points that the major aim of allosteric learning model is to provide learning through transforming conceptions. Therefore, students should have a tendency to encounter new knowledge, to comprehend and achieve new conception. Besides its explanatory value, the allosteric learning model has a number of obstacles to learning. They are observed at different levels, in that the learner may be missing the necessary knowledge. Moreover, the learner is not motivated related to that knowledge despite the fact that he has obtained the necessary knowledge. In other cases, the new knowledge to be learned may not be directly connected to the prior learning. Obstacles to learning are classified as such: Lack of readiness, resistance to the change in current conceptions, feeling oneself self-sufficient, lack of cognitive skills and learning strategies (Topbaş, 2007). As we mentioned before, learners are “the authors” of their learning and also they have their own instruments that are called as conceptions, one of the main variables of allosteric learning model. It is defined as a behavioural and cognitive strategy which is used in order to organize learner’s environment. Conception holds five variables and formulized as CONCEPTION = f (P, C, O, R, S). A deeper look at this formulization is as following: 406

P (or problem) is the pool of questions which provides the putting in place of a conception. C (or frame of reference) is the ensemble of conceptions which learners use to produce a new conception. O (or mental operations) is the collection of intellectual operations or transformations the learner has. They ensure to make inferences and so to produce and use the conceptions. R (or semantic network) is the interactive organization developed from the frame of reference and from mental operations. It allows one to give a semantic coherence to the whole. This process produces a network of meanings and gives a specific sense to the conception. S (or signifiers) is the signs, traces, and symbols required for the production and the explanation of the conception (Topbaş, 2007). In fact, such processes do not occur haphazardly. They are needed to be supported by a didactic environment that is provided to the students by teachers or by educational contexts. There are several qualities that the educational environment must have. For instance, what is required from the learners is develop their desire to learn, and to construct their knowledge. Hence, the learner must be motivated about the question or issue. It is essential to ensure a certain number of authentic confrontations which may be student-reality confrontations via surveys, observations or experiments. On the other, they can be student-student confrontations during group projects, or confrontations with sources of knowledge (Giordan, 2012). All of these activities must ensure learners that their conceptions are not adequate for the problem they are addressing. The activities should help students express their thoughts. Also, activities may enhance learners to collect new data that will enrich their experience. All in all, allosteric learning model differs from the other constructivist models in that it highlights learner interactions. THE SAMPLES OF DAILY LESSON PLANS The second phase of the present study aims to present two daily lesson plans related to social studies and sciences. The acquisitions have been obtained from the 7th grade social studies lesson curriculum and 8th grade sciences lesson that were initiated by the Ministry of National Education in Turkey in 2005. The reason why we have chosen them is that they are the main lessons as well as representing all the other subject areas. They are to provide learning experiences for students with full of diverse intelligences and abilities. Students start playing significant roles in decision-making process. Thus, we have developed two lesson plans to encourage students participate actively in the learning process. Table 1 displays the principles of allosteric learning model related to the stages of a lesson plan. As presented in Table 1, the principles of allosteric learning are in relation to the stages of a lesson plan. Each stage correlates with one principle except for practice. The practice stage encompasses four principles for each activity. The integration of these principles into lesson plans is depicted as regards. Warm-up: Teacher enters the class with an earplug in his/her ear and greets the students. S/he asks with a low voice “What is our topic?” But his voice is so hoarse that no one can answer the question. Then, s/he asks the same question with a loud voice and the students who are scared of the voice answer the question. The teacher asks them

407

Table 1: The Principles of Allosteric Learning Model THE PRINCIPLES OF ALLOSTERIC LEARNING MODEL Learners will confront with the problem and try to compare the information available with the new one. Cognitive dissonance will occur and a sense of wonder will evoke. It is based upon a principle which is “impair cognitive structure and add to create”. Motivation Learners’ motivation will be ensured providing the realization of the functionality of the meaning. Inform about the Raising questions in the minds of students is succeeded. goal Review A sense of wonder is evoked in the minds of the students Content design Planning of learning will be provided at this stage. [1] Learners thus face with a problem which makes the driving force of mental activity. The teacher who serves as the information designer e guides learners to participate in the learning process. [2] At this stage, students are ensured to encounter with the sources. It will also provide for students to form their cognitive structures through establishing relationships with references. Introduction to Learners will achieve wholeness by comparing information and lesson- Practice data. [3] The learning environment will be categorized, prediction will be provided through achieving results and relationship will be ensured. Interaction will be enhanced. Students will create networks and significant indicators by self-expression. Teamwork and role play which are the principles of Allosteric learning will be thus applied. [4] Learners are provided to reach new cognitive structure by generating knowledge. Presummary Linearity is exceeded by repeating previous things in order to enable learning. Summary Full summary is done with students by questions and answers. Results are found. Recommendation Students learn to dream, dare to making innovation, be aware of their creativity using the original competencies of the learners. Worksheet Mental processes of reasoning and interpretation will be provided for the learners. Monitoring tests Students will practice what they have learned. They will correct their mistakes through feedback provided by the teacher. Self-evaluation Learners are provided with new experiences through which functionality and limitations are tested. Closing Practicing the knowledge they have learned will be ensured. Warm up

408

A SAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN FOR SCIENCES PREPARATION Lesson Grade Context Subject Class Period Acquisitions

Teaching Methods and Techniques Sources Instruments

Science 8th Physical Phenomena Sound 40+40+40’ Explore the relationship of the air with the sound propagation. Detect the propagation velocity of sound waves and the change in the sound depending on the findings of the intensity. Compare the velocity of sound in different environments. Teamwork, role playing, experiment, demonstration Course book, workbook Water container, stone, colored pencils and cardboard

“What didn’t you answer the question at first?” The students replied “We have not heard your voice”. Afterwards, the teacher asks them if they will hear his/her voice when s/he asks the same question from the opposite building. Students give the same answer. “Does sound run or walk?” “How can or can’t you hear the sounds?” Students reply but correct answers are not told to them. The teacher tells them that they will give the most appropriate answer. Motivation: One of the most powerful communication channels is the language. We hear each other and we'll reply. You learn the courses through listening. Imagine that we did not have voice, and then we wouldn’t call each other, teach, ask questions and mention our wishes or demand. Our voices serve as a vehicle that transfers our feelings and thoughts. Knowing that voice is one of the keys of communication, it will be good to learn how voice is heard. That a large number of relevant questions related to this topic are available in TEOG exam and its significance is highlighted. Inform about the goal:At the end of our lesson, you will learn how voice spreads and in which environments it is transmitted faster. Review: At this stage, teacher mentions that “Concepts such as sound, vibration, solid, liquid, gas, transmission space are our guests. Let’s entertain them.” Content design: Planning of learning will be provided at this stage. Introduction to lesson – Practice: [1] Our body is our most valuable treasure and we need to behave consciously to protect this treasure. The teacher asks students “Who would like to reminds us the spread of the sound and the description of voice?” In this way, students’ prior knowledge is to be remembered. Necessary feedback is presented for the respondents. [2] Students are distributed the images of two persons who speak through a megaphone and hear sounds in a low intensity. They are asked “What is the difference between these two images?” Then, students are told to examine the images and note what they see in the images. After that, the paper which includes the required explanations of the images is shown to the students. They are encouraged to compare the answers with theirs. Examples are replicated to feel the difference. They are asked whether voice is spread fast under water, in the air or in soil. Students are expected to determine and correct their concept errors. [3] As told in the previous lesson, students form 3 groups. Groups are asked to provide one of the solid-liquid-gas names in accordance with their wishes. Each group is required to stand as they want by taking 409

into consideration the spaces in the particles of solid, liquid and gas. Then, the teacher informs students that 3 students from each group will whisper a word in the ear of the group leaders, the word will be whispered from ear to ear with a low voice without moving. The last person of each group can hear the sound as such: Solid first, liquid second and gas the third. Students are asked what the reason is for such an event. The fact that 1st group- atoms are very close, 2nd group- atoms are slightly close, 3rd groupatoms are far away from one another determines the winner. Students understand that the closer atoms are, the higher velocity of voice energy is. Each group shows their experiments to the rest of the class, respectively. [4] The gates of houses are usually made of solid materials such as wood or metal. The person who comes home makes sound through his hand or mallet. Students are asked “In which environment does the sound spread at first?” Clues are given for the correct response of students. (We hear sounds with the spread in soil first, then in gas environment). “How do we hear sounds above water while swimming under water?” “How do dolphins, whales communicate under water?” “Does the inanimate will sound in the liquid?” The replies will be presented. A basin is brought to the class. A student is said to hit two Stones each other in ambient air. Another student is to be asked to hit each other in the water in the basin. Taking into account the sounds, it is revealed that the sound can spread in both liquid and gas environment. Presummary: Each concept (sound, vibration, soil, liquid, gas, transmission, space) is asked to the students at this stage. This presummary is done for each question. Summary: Full summary is done with students by questions and answers. Results are found. Recommendation: Students will be asked to prepare an acrostics related to the results. It should include various suggestions for people. Acrostics are presented and a discussion environment is created about students' work. Worksheet: With respect to the topic of sound, puzzles and concept maps are asked to fill out. Feedback and correction procedures are performed. Monitoring Tests: Monitoring tests are distributed to the learners. Correct answers will be announced after the process is completed. Learners determine their mistakes and make necessary explanations regarding those mistakes. Self-Evaluation: Students are asked such questions as mentioned below. - What have I learned? - How can we use them in our daily lives? Closing: Our voices serve as a vehicle that transfers our feelings and thoughts. Knowing that voice is one of the keys of communication, it will be good to learn how voice is heard. That a large number of relevant questions related to this topic are available in TEOG exam and its significance is highlighted. So, it will be beneficial for you to review what we have done. Warm Up: The teacher welcomes students. With a view to creating cognitive dissonance and drawing attention, students are told that living without electricity is a good thing. The teacher says “If you want to communicate with people”. Then, students are asked several questions related to the previous lesson. For instance, “Which topic did we talk about in our previous lesson? “Which topic are we going to learn today?” Afterwards, students are told they will discuss the role of mass media concerning the relationship between people.

410

A SAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES PREPARATION Lesson Grade Context Subject Class Period Acquisition Teaching Methods and Techniques Sources Instruments

Social Sciences 7th Individual & Society Communication and Human Relations 40+40’ Discuss the role of the mass media regarding the interaction between people. Question-answer, discussing, argumentation, conceptual cartoon, self-study Course book, workbook Worksheet, monitoring tests, projector, images

Motivation: The fact that we live in the era of communication in today's world is emphasized. Therefore, almost all people use mass media such as mobile phone, internet, computer, television. These tools provide us to communicate any time we want with those who live thousands of kilometres away. The use of these tools shortens the distances. Students are told that “If you listen and participate the lesson willingly, you will learn how to save time through using these tools effectively and in the case of misuse, you will notice how dangerous and addictive they are. So, I am expecting from you to participate actively in the lesson.” Inform about the Goal: Students are told that they will learn how mass media affect our lives in a positive and negative way. Review: We will review vocabulary items related to the mass media. (Mass media, Media, Internet, Sociability, the pros and cons of mass media) Content Design: Planning of learning will be provided at this stage. Introduction to Lesson – Practice: [1] Students are asked to look at the pictures and cartoons that are on the board. 3-4 students are selected and they are asked to comment on the pictures and cartoons one by one. If students provide correct answers, the teachers explain that the pictures show us mass media and their relations with our daily lives. If students do not know the answer, then, the teacher guides them by giving some clues. The same method is conducted for all pictures and cartoons. Questionanswer technique is used for the participation of students in the learning process. [2] Students are handed out some posters related to mass media. The teacher writes the disadvantages and advantages of mass media on the board. Students are asked to decide which poster refers to the pros or cons of mass media. The teacher wants them to choose the correct answer from the board and write them on their notebooks. Then, the teacher shows the correct answers and asks them to compare them with their answers. Thus, students are expected to determine their concept errors. [3] The class is divided into 4 groups. They are given five pictures which refer to mass media. They are asked to make comments related to the pictures. Two pictures describe the advantages of mass media while three of them explain the disadvantages of mass media. The pictures are discussed by each group. Students identify the relationship between mass media and the pictures. [4] Students are presented a case study which is about a famous businessman who is ill. This man keeps his illness as a secret. However, a journalist heard that he is ill and declares the secret in his newspaper. The teacher asks students “What would 411

you do if you were the businessman?” “Is it true to use mass media for spreading the secret news?” Presummary: Each concept is asked to the students at this stage. This presummary is done for each question. Summary: Full summary is done with students by questions and answers. Results are found. Recommendation: Learners are asked to note some suggestions. 3-4 learners’ suggestions are discussed in the classroom. The learner is provided to compare his suggestion with ours comparison to revise the recommendation. Worksheet: Learners are distributed worksheets related to the topic. They are asked to complete the activities. Afterwards, feedback and correction procedures are performed. Monitoring Tests: Monitoring tests are distributed to the learners. Correct answers will be announced after the process is completed. Learners determine their mistakes and make necessary explanations regarding those mistakes. Self-Evaluation: Students are asked such questions as mentioned below: -What have I learned? -How can we use them in our daily lives? Closing: As we said above, the fact that we live in the era of communication in today's world is emphasized. Therefore, almost all people use mass media such as mobile phone, internet, computer, television. These tools provide us to communicate any time we want with those who live thousands of kilometres away. The use of these tools shortens the distances. Students are told that “If you listen and participate the lesson willingly, you will learn how to save time through using these tools effectively and in the case of misuse, you will notice how dangerous and addictive they are. So, it will be beneficial for you to review what we have done.” RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The fact that the student ‘participates actively’ in the development of his knowledge has been on topic for long years. However, when it comes to the active process of learning, studies concerning the conceptions of the learners go much further. In this regard, new models have been produced, for instance the allosteric learning model. By the same token, allosteric learning model which notably shows certain limits of constructivism is a try to go beyond constructivist philosophy. This new model opens new gates for the functioning of thoughts as well as putting great emphasis on a learning environment. It is observed that allosteric learning model activities are learner-centered and students participate actively in the learning process. As mentioned above, students are ready to go to school with cognitive structures. Attitudes, values, reasoning, perception are concerned in terms of these conceptions. During the teaching-learning process, this situation should be taken into account and interaction-based activities should be developed. Besides, learning environment is to be designed based upon available cognitive structures and zone of proximal development. Learning various subjects is a process by which students delve into different worlds with different cultures. Thus, the lessons are best learned through personally meaningful contexts with the need for an appropriate methods and techniques in a didactic environment. Teachers are supposed to integrate activities in their courses that evoke a sense of wonder in students. 412

Various studies have been conducted in science especially in biology about allosteric regulations; however, there are few studies available in Turkey in social studies and sciences about allosteric learning model. The current study also provides a theoretical framework for an experimental study which is planned to be realized in another study in the future. Therefore, new daily lesson plans may be developed in other courses such as Turkish, English, and Maths etc. Accordingly, in-class activities may be prepared through the principles of allosteric learning model and lesson plans may be implemented in classes. REFERENCES Askew, C., & Field, A. P. (2007). Vicarious learning and the development of fears in childhood. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2616–2627. Budak, Y. (2010). (Post yapılandırmacılık) Allosterik öğrenme yaklaşımına göre öğrenme ve eğitim durumlarının olası niteliği. International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, November 11-13, Antalya, Turkey. Giordan, A. (1996a). Les conceptions de l'apprenant: Un tremplin pour l'apprentissage. Sciences Humaines, 12, 48–50. Giordan, A. (1996b). Comment Transformer Une Conception Progressivement, L’enseignant El. Retrieved on 01.06.2016 from http://www.ldes.unige. ch/publi/ vulg/enseignerPasApprendre.pdf Giordan, A. (1995). New models for the learning process: Beyond constructivism? Prospects, 25(1), 101-118. Giordan, A. (2012). The allosteric learning model and current theories about learning. (Translated by Nadine Allal). Retrieved on 18.04.2016 from: http://cms.unige.ch/ ldes/wpcontent/uploads/2012/07/The-allosteric-learning-model-and-current-theoriesaboutlearning1.pdf Giordan, A. (2010). The planet of Allostery: School forging new paths. Retrieved on 01.06.2016 from http://www.ecolechangerdecap.net/spip.php?article137. Lachman, S. J. (1997). Learning is a process: Toward an improved definition of learning. Journal of Psychology, 131, 477–480. Minier, P. (2003). Ancrage historique et développement des courants de pensée de l’apprentissage. Retrieved on 01.06.2016 from http://www.uqac.ca/pminier/ act1/ graph1.htm Moradi, M., Brunel, S., & Vallespir, B. (2008). Design a product for learning and teaching: From theories to developing a process. Retrieved on 01.06.2016 from https://hal. archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00323144/document Pei‚ X. (2006). Allosteric learning model and instructional design. Global Education,35, 12. Topbaş, E. (2007). Öğrenmeyi anlamada yeni bir model: Allosterik öğrenme. 16. Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, (s.140–147), 5–7 Eylül 2007, Tokat. Wilson, S. M., & Peterson, P. L. (2006). Theories of learning and teaching. What do they mean for educators? Retrieved on 01.06.2016 from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ED495823.pdf. Wirth, K. R., & Perkins, D. (2008). Learning to learn. Retrieved on 01.06.2016, from http://www.macalester.edu/geology/wirth/CourseMaterials.html.

413

Chapter 32 Effect of Science Teachers' Pedagogical Content Knowledge on Students' Conceptual Development: Light and Sound Concept Sample Ayberk BOSTAN SARIOĞLAN INTRODUCTION Instructor, student and instruction programs constitute the vital elements of inclass instruction. These three elements are not separated from each other, and they continuously affect instruction processes in interaction with each other. There are many researches in literature which study students' readiness for and the effects of instruction on students' ideas on various concepts in science instruction (Duit, 2009). Program development and evaluation studies are carried out continuously in many countries' program development processes and program development processes proceed in a dynamic manner. However, studies addressing teachers are encountered more scarcely compared to other areas of study. Due to difficulties in reaching in-service teachers and conducting studies in classrooms, there are less researches approaching teachers. Instructors' beliefs on instruction and learning significantly direct in-class studies (Appleton & Asoko, 1996) and they are also influential on the conceptual changes experienced by students. There are many studies which explain teachers' knowledge and in-class studies through pedagogic content knowledge (PCK) studies. PCK enables a new and an extensive perspective in understanding instruction and comprehension (Cochran, DeRuiter & King, 1993). The studies addressing PCK are presented below. Conceptual Framework The concept of pedagogic content knowledge was first suggested by Shulman (1986; 1987). Shulman (1987) expressed that teachers can possess much information that students cannot comprehend. For this reason, Shulman touches upon the importance of pedagogic content knowledge and explains this concept as the act of transformation of the information, by the teacher, into a format comprehensible by the student. Grossman (1990) describes PCK as the knowledge of teachers in terms of instruction methods, in regards to students' comprehension, concepts and misconceptions in relation to the subject. In an area of study, PCK separates teachers from the experts of that area and discusses the knowledge of teachers on the subject to be instructed and how their knowledge on instruction and the subject will be a part of pedagogic processes (Cochran et al., 1993). Shulman (1986) expressed that teachers should possess three types of knowledge, namely knowledge on the area of the subject, pedagogic content knowledge and curriculum knowledge. Grossman (1990) added a fourth type, which is general pedagogic knowledge type. Gess-Newsome (1999) 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Necatibey Education Faculty, Department of Science Education, Balıkesir-Turkey.

classified teachers' pedagogic content knowledge under two models. First of these is models is the "integrative model", the latter being "transformational model". Integrative and transformational models are portrayed in Figure 1 and Figure 2

Figure 1: Integrative Model (Cochran et al. 1993)

Figure 2: Transformational Model (Grossman, 1990)

In the integrative model, subject area knowledge, pedagogic knowledge and curriculum knowledge constitute the pedagogic content knowledge. In the transformational model, formation of pedagogic content knowledge is important. Grossman (1990) categorized PCK into elements of knowledge intended for comprehension of students, curriculum knowledge, knowledge on instruction methods, knowledge intended to evaluate comprehension of students within subject area and tendency to instruction of subject area. Magnusson, Krajcik and Borko (1999) classified PCK into elements of knowledge intended for comprehension of students, curriculum knowledge, knowledge on instruction methods, knowledge intended to evaluate comprehension of students within subject area and tendency to instruction of subject area. PCK means transformation of subject area knowledge and therefore it is effectively utilized in the interaction between the teacher and the students throughout the in-class instruction process (van Driel, Verloop & de Vos, 1998). Grossman (1990) reported that development of PCK was based on classroom observations, area training, specific classes throughout teacher training and instruction experience. While experienced teachers were instructing in a subject that is outside their areas of expertise, they still succeeded in instruction despite limited PCK thanks to their pedagogic knowledge (van Driel, Verloop & de Vos, 1998). In addition, experienced teachers utilize methods and strategies intended to facilitate comprehension of students (Clermont, Borko & Krajcik, 1994). On the other hand, inexperienced teachers utilize subject area knowledge obtained directly from books or instruction materials in their original form, while neglecting prior knowledge of students in deciding instruction strategies (Cochran, et al., 1993). Magnusson, Borko and Krajcik (1994) report that teachers, despite their experiences and pedagogic expertise, may not be sufficiently competent in teaching of certain subjects. Purpose of the Research The aim of this research is to determine the effects of science teachers' pedagogic 415

content knowledge on the concepts included within fifth class "Light and Sound" units, on students' ideas on such concepts. Below four research questions are drawn up for this purpose. 1. Are there any significant differences between the ideas of the students, in the three classrooms taught by different science teachers, before their education on light and sound unit? 2. Are there any significant differences between the ideas of the students, in the three classrooms taught by different science teachers, after their education on light and sound unit? 3. What are the results obtained from the analysis on the pedagogic content knowledge of three different science teachers observed throughout the light and sound unit? 4. Do the pedagogic content knowledge of science teachers have any influence on students' conceptual development? The Importance of the Research Aydın and Boz (2012) reported that PCK studies in Turkey are generally performed with candidate teachers and very few studies in this area are performed with actual teachers. However, many studies report that the PCK of teachers is important in terms of in-class management (Lederman & Gess-Newsome, 1992). For this reason, the studies which uncover and discuss PCK knowledge of teachers and analyze their influence on the changes in students' ideas, are important studies. This research, while discussing teachers' pedagogic content knowledge, also analyzes the influence of teachers' pedagogic content knowledge on development of students' ideas throughout the education process. Defining whether teachers' pedagogic content knowledge is influential on conceptual development of students is important in regards to researching teachers' influences in conceptual change studies. METHOD Mixed research design was determined as the method for this research. Mixed research design is a research which contains a mixture of qualitative and quantitative researches (Johnson & Christensen, 2004). Abell (2008) touched upon the importance of researches which incorporate qualitative and quantitative data collection together, rather than performing of the qualitative and quantitative studies suggested by himself for PCK studies. In this study, data were collected from teachers and students and analyzed using the mixed research design. The case study, which is employed in qualitative studies, was used in the section which involves in-class video observations intended to determine science teachers' pedagogic content knowledge. The section which subjects the students of these teachers before and after education employs the weak experimental design (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2005). In the weak experimental design, the concept test was applied to the research group as a preliminary test. The education process was implemented as experimental study. Finally the same concept test was applied as post test. In conclusion, the influence of these teachers' pedagogic content knowledge on the concepts within the light and sound units on the development of students' ideas on these concepts. Research Group The research group of this study consists of three science teachers working in a 416

city center in the western Turkey, and the 87 fifth class students in the classes of these teachers. These teachers were determined using the easily accessible sampling method, which is one of the purposeful sampling methods. Since all teachers teach at the same school, it was easy to reach these teachers. Since teacher observation during classes was performed by a single researcher, three science teachers, whose class hours do not coincide, were preferred. Demographical information pertaining to these teachers is presented below. Table 1: Demographical information on the science teachers in the study Science Teacher 1. teacher (ST1) 2. teacher (ST2) 3. teacher (ST3)

Experience period

Undergraduate

Educational status

Student number

Class

20

Physics Education

Undergraduate

27

C1

20

Chemistry Education

Postgraduate

30

C2

10

Science Education

Postgraduate

30

C3

As seen in Table 1, ST1 and ST2 graduated from different fields of science at undergraduate level (physics teaching or chemistry teaching) and both have been teaching science for the last 20 years. ST3 on the other hand, is graduated from science education and they have a 10-year professional experience. ST2 and ST3 have master's degrees in the science education field. ST1's class is coded as C1, ST2's class is coded as C2 and ST3's class is coded as C3. Data Collection These teachers were recorded to video in their classes at the "Spreading of Light and Sound" unit for a total of four hours weekly (each teacher was recorded for a total of 23 hours per teacher). Videos were recorded by the researcher in each class. The researcher recorded the video at a location that is the farthest back of the class, where they could both see the teacher and the class. Concept tests, consisting of six multiple-choice questions, were performed at these teachers' classes before and after the process of teaching. The subject of these tests was the concepts of light and sound. These six multiple-choice questions consisted of three questions on the concepts within the subject of light, and three in sound. The students were asked to compose their ideas regarding the answers in all options in the questions. While the part of the test that involved concepts on light included the questions as Q1: Spreading of light, Q2: Reflection of light and Q3: Behavior of light when it encounters matter, the part of the test that involved sound included the questions Q4: Spreading of sound in an airless environment, Q5: Environments where sound spreads, and Q6: Hearing sounds emitted by various sources of sound. Only the 4th question was taken from the Demirci and Efe (2007) study which was conducted for the purpose of determining primary school students' ideas on the subject of sound. The remaining five questions in the test were developed by the researcher. Confidence study of the conceptual comprehension test, which consisted of multiple-choice questions developed for the purpose of measuring fifth class students' ideas on the concepts of light and sound, was performed with 65 students. The cronbach's α coefficient, which is the confidence coefficient of the test, was found .783.

417

Since this confidence coefficient is above .70, the test was considered to be usable. Data Analysis Descriptive analysis method was utilized for analyzing the fifth class students' answers to surveys conducted before and after instruction. In descriptive analyses, data is summarized and interpreted according to pre-determined themes (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2005). The students' answers before and after instruction were analyzed using a rubric which consists of four categories. In this rubric, scientifically acceptable answers includes four categories, namely full answers, partial answers, scientifically unacceptable answers and no answer. Explanations pertaining to these categories and the answers under these categories are presented below. Table 2: Categories utilized in analysis of the questions within the conceptual comprehension test Answer Category Explanation Scientifically Acceptable Answers Full Answer correct option + scientifically justifying answers correct option + no positive or negative remarks in Partial Answer relation to the question Scientifically Unacceptable Answers incorrect option + non-scientific remarks for the Incorrect Answer question no option selected and remark made about the No Answers question

Points 3 2

1 0

After placement of student answers for each question, the category's score was entered into the SPSS. The total scores of students in the concept tests conducted before and after instruction were analyzed using single factorial variance analysis (One-Way ANOVA). Content analysis method was used in analyses of the data acquired from the teachers' classroom videos. The purpose of the content analysis is to discover concepts and relations which can explain the data acquired in the research (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2005). In analyses of video records, the sub categories "knowledge intended for student comprehension", "curriculum knowledge", "teaching methods knowledge", "knowledge intended to evaluate student comprehension in subject area" and "orientation towards instruction of subject area", which were used by Magnusson et al. (1999) for the purpose of explaining PCK. Within these sub-categories, teacher requirements for learning in knowledge sub-category intended for student comprehension and students' level of knowledge in areas they are having comprehension difficulties, science curriculum and levels of knowledge pertaining to the purpose and acquisitions of science and subject-specific science curriculum within the sub-category of curriculum knowledge, science-specific strategies and strategies and knowledge levels for special science subjects within the sub-category of instruction methods knowledge, the dimension of evaluating science learning and knowledge levels pertaining to evaluation methods in science instruction within the sub-category of evaluating student comprehension in the subject area (Magnusson et al. 1999; in cited by Canbazoğlu Bilici, 2012). During instruction, it was researched whether teachers employed PCK and these categories. In video records, the science teachers were analyzed in terms of 418

encountering the phenomena included within these five headings. In instruction analysis, when data pertaining to this category was encountered it was classified as "existing", when data pertaining to this category was not encountered it was classified as "none" and if the data was not sufficient even if the teacher possessed certain data, it was classified as "partial". Content analysis on video records revealed and discussed the science teachers' pedagogic content knowledge in classes. RESULTS Results Acquired in Research Question 1 This section includes the results which are acquired during the analysis on 87 fifth class students' answers to concept tests, which are conducted before and after the instruction on the concepts included within light and sound units. Table 3 portrays the findings acquired during single factorial variance analysis performed on students' answers to the questions regarding the concept of light in the conceptual comprehension test, before instruction. Table 3: Results acquired in pre-instruction analysis of questions regarding the concept of light Source Between Groups Within Groups Total p > .05

Sum of Squares 2,069 116,000 118,069

df 2 84 86

Mean Square 1,034 1,381

F

p

,749

,476

As seen in Table 3, there is no significant difference between the answers of students in different classes, to the questions regarding the concept of light in the concept test [F (2, 84) = .749, p = .476]. The students in these three classes possess the same level of knowledge on the concept of light before instruction. Table 4 portrays the findings acquired during single factorial variance analysis performed on students' answers to the questions regarding the concept of sound, before instruction. Table 4: Results acquired in pre-instruction analysis of questions regarding the concept of sound Source Between Groups Within Groups Total p > .05

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

p

1,679 229,585 231,264

2 84 86

,840 2,733

,307

,736

No significant differences were encountered among the fifth class students' answers in the concept test regarding the concept of sound, before instruction [F (2, 84) = .307, p = .736). The knowledge levels of the students in three different classes pertaining to the concept of sound are equal. Results Acquired in Research Question 2 Table 5 portrays the results acquired during single factorial variance analysis performed on students' answers to the questions regarding the concept of light, after 419

instruction. Table 5: Results acquired in post-instruction analysis of questions regarding the concept of light Source Between Groups Within Groups Total p > .05

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

5,752

2

2,876

104,685 110,437

84 86

1,246

F

p

2,308

,106

As seen in Table 5, no significant differences were encountered among the fifth class students' answers in the concept test regarding the concept of light, after instruction [F (2, 84) = 2.308, p = .106] . Students' answers to the concept of light after instruction do not exhibit differences. Table 6: Results acquired in post-instruction analysis of questions regarding the concept of sound Source Between Groups Within Groups Total p < .05

Sum of Squares 23,369 156,033 179,402

df 2 84 86

Mean Square 11,684 1,858

F

p

6,290

,003

As seen in Table 6, there is a significant difference among the fifth class students' answers in the concept test regarding the concept of sound, after instruction [F (2, 84) = 6.290, p = .003]. A Scheffe test was performed in order to discover among what groups this difference exits. The results of the Scheffe test is provided below, in Table 7. Table 7: Post-instruction 'Scheffe' test results table regarding the concept of light Group 1 Students in the class of ST1 (C1) Students in the class of ST2 (C2) Students in the class of ST3 (C3)

Group 2 Students in the class of ST2 (C2) Students in the class of ST3 (C3) Students in the class of ST1 (C1) Students in the class of S3 (C3) Students in the class of ST1 (C1) Students in the class of ST2 (C2)

Mean Difference

Std. Error

p

,444

,362

,473

-,789

,362

,099

-,444

,362

,473

-1,233*

,352

,003

,789

,362

,099

1,233*

,352

,003

According to ANOVA test results, a significant difference was discovered among students of different classes after instruction regarding the concept of sound. According to Scheffe test results, this difference exists between the students of C2 and C3. While there are no significant differences between the students of C2 and C3 before instruction of the concept of sound, it is observed that after instruction, the students in ST3's class were more successful than the students in ST2's class. There are no 420

significant differences between the students of ST1 and ST2 after instruction regarding the concept of sound after instruction. The reason why C3 students are more successful than C2 students after instruction can be due to the instruction process. The findings acquired in analysis of the instruction process are presented below. Results Acquired in Research Question 3 The results acquired in analysis of these three teachers' instruction processes in terms of pedagogic content knowledge are presented below. Table 8 portrays the results acquired in analysis of the pedagogic content knowledge of the three science teachers observed throughout the light unit. Table 8: Results acquired in the PCK sub-category and analysis of the light unit

ST1 ST2 ST3

Knowledge intended for student comprehension Existing Partial Existing

Curriculum knowledge

Instruction methods knowledge

Existing Partial Existing

Partial Existing Existing

Evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area Existing Existing Existing

Orientation towards learning of subject area Partial Partial Existing

As seen in the above table, the results acquired in the PCK sub-category analysis of the instruction of these three science teachers, on the concept of light, exhibit differences. The category "Knowledge intended for student comprehension", which is the first sub-category of PCK was encountered in ST1 and ST3, while there was a partial encounter with this in ST2. Another PCK sub-heading, "curriculum knowledge" category was present in ST1 and ST3, but partially present in ST2. The category "instruction methods knowledge" was encountered in ST2 and ST3, while ST1 included a partial sufficiency regarding this category. All teachers possess the competency regarding the category of evaluating student comprehension on subject area. In this category, all three teachers performed sufficient level of activities intended to evaluate students' comprehension on the concept of light. While the category of orientation towards learning of subject area was partially encountered in ST1 and ST2, ST3 possesses sufficient level of competency regarding this category. ST1 and ST2 were not sufficiently competent in instruction subject area and were inadequate at certain points. Table 9 portrays the results acquired in analysis of the pedagogic content knowledge of the three science teachers observed throughout the sound unit. Table 9: Results acquired in the PCK sub-category and analysis of the sound unit Evaluating Knowledge Orientation Instruction student intended for Curriculum towards methods comprehension student knowledge learning of knowledge regarding comprehension subject area subject area ST1 Partial Existing Partial Existing Existing ST2 Partial Partial Existing Existing Partial ST3 Existing Existing Existing Existing Existing

421

The "Knowledge intended for student comprehension", which is a sub-category of PCK, was partially encountered in ST1 and ST2, while ST3 possesses the competency for this category. ST1 and ST2 could not sufficiently check student comprehension in the subject of sound. The findings acquired in video records of ST2 regarding this category are presented below. ST2: Yes. Is there anything you have difficulty understanding in our activity? S: Teacher, I cannot understand how sound spreads. ST2: Exactly what didn't you understand? S: How does sound spread? ST2: Sound spreads at different speeds in different environments. We already performed it in the activity. S: I didn't fully understand it. ST2: We'll talk about it again at the end of the class. In this section, ST2 did not fully answer the student's question on spreading of sound, and said they would answer it at the end of the class. ST2 answered that sound would spread at different speeds in different environments. For this reason ST2 was classified as "partial" for this category. While ST1 and ST3 possess required level of competency for curriculum knowledge, ST2 has partial competency in this category. Data regarding ST2's curriculum knowledge while communicate with students, based on video records, are presented below. ST2: What do you know about the concept of light? S: Teacher, we learned noise pollution last year. ST2: Yes. What else? S: We learned about sound devices. ST2: What kind of devices? S: I can't remember. ST2: What was the subject? Let's see what the subjects of last year were. In this section, the teacher does not fully know the acquisitions of students in previous science classes regarding the concept of sound. While the teacher remembers the acquisitions regarding noise pollution, they did not remember the acquisitions regarding sound technologies. For this reason, ST2's curriculum knowledge was classified as "partial". In the instruction methods category, while ST2 and ST3 possess sufficient knowledge, ST1 is observed to possess partial competency. All teachers possess the competency regarding the category of "evaluating student comprehension on subject area" regarding the subject of sound. In the category "Orientation towards learning of subject area", while ST1 and ST3 are observed to possess required competency, ST2 possesses partial competency. The findings acquired in video records of ST3 regarding this category are presented below. ST3: After our experiment, what can you tell me about the speed at which sound spreads in different environments? S: Teacher, sound spreads within solid objects. It also spreads within water. But not in the void. We couldn't hear the bell in the void. 422

ST3: So how does it spread in the air? S: It also spreads in the air. ST3: In which environment did you hear the sound the quickest? S: On the table. ST3: So what environment is it? S: It is solid environment. ST3: From this point, let's answer the question at which environment sound spreads the quickest. S: Sound spreads quickest in solid environments and slowest in the air.

With their experiment on the speed at which sound spreads, ST3 enabled the students to provide scientific answers in regards to the speed at which sound spreads in various environments. The sub-category of orientation towards learning of subject area was encountered with ST3. The observations on the science teachers throughout the units of light and sound concludes that pedagogic content knowledge are at sufficient levels in many sub categories. However, the pedagogic content knowledge possessed by the teachers are not at sufficient levels for several categories. Results Acquired in Research Question 4 In results acquired in research question 1, a significant difference is observed among between the students in ST2's and ST3's class regarding the concept of sound after instruction. Based on the analysis on the pedagogic content knowledge of these teachers pertaining to the concept of sound, it is understood that ST2 possesses partial knowledge on "Knowledge intended for student comprehension", "curriculum knowledge" and "Orientation towards learning of subject area". However, ST2 possesses sufficient knowledge in the other two categories, which are "knowledge on instruction methods" and "Evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area". Based on analysis of the findings acquired during instruction of the concept of sound, ST3 is observed to possess required level of knowledge regarding all sub-categories of PCK. While there were no significant differences between C2 and S3 before instruction of the sound unit, after instruction there was a positive difference between these two classes, in favor of C3. This means that in the subject of sound, the C3 students are more successful than the C2 students after instruction. Instruction means that the C3 students provided more scientific answers to the concept of sound compared to the C2 students, and that the ideas of the C3 students are more scientific. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION The results acquired in this study reflect that before instruction, there are no significant differences among the students in all three classrooms, in relation to the concepts of light and sound. Cognitive structures of all students in regards to the concepts in the light and sound units, before instruction, are similar. After instruction, no significant differences occurred in terms of the concept of light in the students of all three classes, while there is a difference in terms of the concept of sound. The analyses concluded that this difference is between the classes of ST2 and ST3. In terms of sound concepts, ST3's students were more successful than ST2's students. Looking at the analysis of the teachers' pedagogic content knowledge in the sound unit, while subcategories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and orientation towards learning of subject area were partially encountered in ST2, sub423

categories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and orientation towards learning of subject area were fully encountered in ST3. The other sub-categories, knowledge on instruction methods and evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area were fully encountered in both teachers. ST3 fully provided all sub-categories of pedagogic content knowledge in terms of the concept of sound. The differences in the post-instruction ideas of the students in terms of the subject of sound may be caused by the difference between the teachers' pedagogic content knowledge. The differences exhibited by teachers in categories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and orientation towards learning of subject area may have influenced students' ideas. The demographic information of ST2 and ST3 can also influence pedagogic content knowledge. While both ST2 and ST3 have postgraduate degrees, ST2 has a 20-year professional experience, while ST3's professional experience is 10 years. ST3 possesses less professional experience compared to ST2. Contrary to what was reported by Van Driel et al. (1998) and Clermont et al. (1994), the pedagogic content knowledge of the less experienced teacher is seen to be better in this research. This results is similar to the result obtained by Magnusson et al. (1994), which is the conclusion that teachers' experiences may not be influential on instruction of some subjects. Lee and Luft (2008) touched upon scenarios where pedagogic content knowledge of experienced science teachers are not sufficient. While ST2 took their undergraduate degree in chemistry teaching by way of practicing, ST3 graduated from science education. Since the concepts of light and sound, the subjects of this study, are included within the field of physics, it can be said that ST2 possesses insufficient pedagogic content knowledge. Conducted studies report that PCK is affected by competency levels of teachers (Park & Oliver, 2008). ST2's pedagogic content knowledge regarding these concepts is insufficient and this has influenced the students' ideas in this subject. Since pedagogic content knowledge is special to the subject area, teachers may possess different levels of pedagogic content knowledge compared to subject content (Van Driel et al., 1998). ST2 does not possess sufficient pedagogic content knowledge regarding concepts of sound. No significant differences were found among the students of the three classes before and after instruction on the light concepts unit. In ST1, while pedagogic content knowledge in the sub-categories of knowledge on instruction methods and orientation towards learning of subject area was partially encountered, sub-categories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area were fully encountered. In ST2, while pedagogic content knowledge in the sub-categories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and orientation towards learning of subject area was partially encountered, pedagogic content knowledge on instruction methods and evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area were was fully encountered. At the end of the analysis on courses of light concepts, ST3 exhibited pedagogic content knowledge in all these sub-categories perfectly. Looking at analyses of the courses related to the concepts of light and sound, the teacher with the best pedagogic content knowledge is concluded to be ST3. The teacher with the least sufficient pedagogic content knowledge is concluded to be ST2. Based on class success, while there are no significant differences in terms of light, there is a significant difference between the classes of ST2 and ST3 in terms of the subject of 424

sound. It is seen that teachers' competency levels in terms of pedagogic content knowledge influence student success. Similarly, van Driel et al. (1998) underlined the frequency of misconceptions in students in the cases of insufficient subject area knowledge in teachers. The PCK possessed by teachers affects conceptual learning of students. SUGGESTIONS Suggestions based on the results of this study are presented below.  The level of pedagogic content knowledge possessed by the teachers is important in terms of determining their competency levels. More studies can be dedicated on researching teachers' pedagogic content knowledge within the instruction process.  Studies can be conducted on pedagogic content knowledge of teachers in different areas of science. Teachers' pedagogic content knowledge in different areas of science can exhibit differences.  The effects of teachers' pedagogic content knowledge on student ideas should be studied using research groups with more teachers and students.  The possibility of existence for more factors in classes, beside teachers' pedagogic content knowledge, affecting students' ideas, is considered as another subject of research.  In-service training seminars can be organized for the purpose of improving teachers' pedagogic content knowledge. The efficiency of such seminars on teachers' pedagogic content knowledge can be studied.  Further studies should be conducted in order to improve competency levels of teachers in regards to all sub-categories of pedagogic content knowledge. REFERENCES Abell, S. K. (2008). Twenty Years Later: Does Pedagogical Content Knowledge Remain a Useful Idea?. International Journal of Science Education, 30 (10), 1405- 1416. Appleton, K. & Asoko, H. (1996). A Case Study of a Teachers’ Progress toward Using a Constructivist View of Learning to Inform Teaching in Elementary Science. Science Education, 80 (2), 165-180. Aydın, S. & Boz, Y. (2012). Fen Öğretmen Eğitiminde Pedagojik Alan Bilgisi Araştırmalarının Derlenmesi: Türkiye Örneği. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 12 (1), 479-505. Canbazoğlu Bilici, S. (2012). The Pre-Service Science Teachers' Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Their Self-Efficacy. Unpublished Dissertation Thesis, Gazi University, Institution of Education, Ankara. Clermont, C.P., Borko, H. & Krajcik, J.S. (1994). Comprative Study of the Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Experienced and Novice Chemical Demonstrators. Journal of Research on Science Teaching, 31 (4), 419-441. Cochran, K.F., DeRuiter, J.A. & King, R.A. (1993). Pedagogical Content Knowing: An Integrative Model for Teacher Preparation. Journal of Teacher Education, 44 (4), 263272. Cohen, L., Manion L. & Morrison, K. (2005). (5 th ed.) Research Methods in Education. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, ISBN 0-203-22434-5 Master e-book ISBN Demirci, N. & Efe, S. (2007). İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Ses Konusundaki Kavram Yanılgı-

425

larının Belirlenmesi. Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi, 1(1), 23-56. Duit, R. (2009). Bibliography – STCSE Students’ and Teachers’ Conceptions and Science Education. Kiel, Germany: University of Kiel. Gess-Newsome, J. (1999). Pedagogical Content Knowledge: An Introduction and Orientation Nature, Sources and Development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Science Teaching. (Eds. J. Gess-Newsome & N.G. Lederman) Examing pedagogical content knowledge: The construct and its implications for science education (pp. 3-17). Boston: Kluwer. Grossman, P. (1990). The Making of a Teacher. New York: Teachers College Press. Johnson, B. & Christensen, L. (2004). Educational Research, Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Approaches. (2nd Ed.) Pearson, USA. Lederman, N. G. & Gess-Newsome, J. (1992). Do Subject Matter Knowledge, Pedagogical Knowledge, and Pedagogical Content Knowledge Constitute the Ideal Gas Law of Science Teaching?. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 3 (1), 16-20. Lee, E. & Luft, J. A. (2008). Experienced Secondary Science Teachers’ Representation of Pedagogical Content Knowledge. International Journal of Science Education, 30 (10), 1343-1363. Magnussoni, S., Borko, H. & Krajcik, J.S. (1994). Teaching Complex Subject Matter in Science: Insights from an Analysis of Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Paper presented at the annual meeting of National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Anaheim, CA. Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J.S. & Borko, H. (1999). Nature, Sources and Development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Science Teaching. (Ed. Gess-Newsome, J. & Lederman, N.G.). Examining pedagogical content knowledge: The construct and its implications for science education, Boston: Kluwer. Park, S. & Oliver, J. S. (2008). Revisiting the Conceptualization of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK): PCK as a Conceptual Tool to Understand Teachers as Professionals. Research in Science Education, 38 (3), 261-284. Shulman, L.S. (1986). Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. Shulman, L.S. (1987). Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of New Reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57 (1), 1-22. Van Driel, J. H., Verloop, N. & de Vos, W. (1998). Developing Science Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35 (6), 673695. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, A. (2005). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. 5th ed. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.

426

Chapter 33 Education on the Rights of Children Hatice ÖZASLAN*, Elif MERCAN UZUN** INTRODUCTION Historically, the concepts of child and childhood have been assigned different meanings depending on the period and culture. Recognized as the individuals to be protected and covered, the children have sometimes been considered as young adults. As well as the general factors such as social characteristics of historical period, also the factors related with the child’s family have also played important role in formation of child recognition. For instance; in families living in rural areas, the children can pasture the animals as a daily routine, or as a game for their idea, and also feed and care those animals, and even help with the works in garden and/or farm. In this case, it is normal for the families living in rural areas to recognize the children as young adults helping them. The characteristics coming first to the mind when it comes to child also play role in formation of this concept. For instance; the fact that they need the care of adults because they are young and they cannot meet their own fundamental needs may lead the adults to see their children as their belongings. This may lead to the ignorance of the fact that the children are among the “individuals” in life, and it also make children defenseless. The protection of children from any type of approach that may lead to child negligence or child abuse can be possible only through the “child rights”. The child rights consist of the rights regulated by the rules regarding the children act and featured with protection means by the judicial bodies (Akyüz, 2015). Children need the support of their families and other people around them in matters such as living in healthy way, receiving education, and developing themselves from various aspects. In meting these needs, many individuals and institutions such as schools and hospitals might play role. The child rights ensure the protection of children from the institutions and individuals they may interact with. The concept of child rights is a universal concept that the child naturally has and that covers many topics from the education and sheltering to health and sexual abuse. From this aspect, since the disadvantaged children living in poorness and deprivation, not sufficiently enjoying the education and healthcare services, employed in various jobs, neglected or abused, and running away from the war come to the fore in recent years, it can be said that the individuals’ and institutions’ awareness of child rights increased both individually and socially. Increase in awareness of child rights is not enough for realization of the child *

Assist. Prof. Dr., Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Department. ** Res. Assist. Dr., Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Department.

rights in practice. In order for children to know their own rights and the rights of other and to respect all those rights, it is very important to educate the children on this matter. It is important for both adults and children to be aware these rights and to make these rights parts of their lives. In this process, the educators, mothers, fathers and children have separate responsibilities (Turupcu & Gültekin Akduman, 2015). History of Child Rights In international environment, the idea of establishing an institution for protecting the children’s right has been firstly introduced by Jules de Jenue in year 1894. The delegates of some European countries interested in this idea have conducted a special meeting in Paris. The first official step into establishing an international center for protecting the children and mothers has been taken in Switzerland in year 1912. The tasks of centers can be listed as collecting the laws, legislations, regulations and important works related with the child protection, annually publishing these reforms in a yearbook, and making international agreements on ward, paying attention to youth, and protecting the children (Kavak, 2005). In those years, similar studies have been carried out in Belgium until the World War I, and then interrupted due to the war. After the end of war, under leadership of Belgian government, a congress has been organized in Belgium in year 1921, and the “International Organization of Child Protection” has been established as a result of that congress (Akyüz, 2011; Kavak, 2005; Moroğlu, 2003). In convention adopted by International Labor Organization (ILO) in year 1919, it has been ruled that the children to be employed in industrial companies must be older than 14 year-old (Günöz, 2007; Shukla & Ali, 2006). Being impressed from the experiences of children during WWI, Englantyne Jeeb, the English child-right defender, has introduced a campaign with the slogan “Save the Children!” during WWI and, as a result of this campaign, “International Child Aid Society” has been founded in year 1920 in Geneva. The document that this society has prepared has been adopted by League of Nations as “Geneva Declaration of the rights of children” in year 1924. This declaration has relied on the principle that any child in the world must receive at least the minimum care (Kavak, 2005). This declaration, where the child rights have been taken under protection for the first time, has been signed by Atatürk in year 1931. In this declaration, it was emphasized that the children should be in places in harmony with their development, they should be helped firstly in disasters, be protected from any sort of exploitation, be raised as a responsible individual, to be provided with fundamental needs, to be protected from diseases, and to be treated when ill (Akyüz, 2015; Erbay, 2011). General Assembly of League of Nations has re-approved the declaration of the rights of children on 27th of September 1934. As a result of Freund’s works in Balkans in order to find common solutions for problems regarding the child rights, with cooperation of child protection bodies in Balkan countries, the First Balkan Congress has been convened in Athens between 5th and 9th of April 1936. In 1-7 October 1938, 2nd Balkan Congress working on child protection, working age, and medical protection has been convened (Akyüz, 2011; Kaya, 2011; Kor, 2013). Balkan Congresses are the first international organizations related with the child protection, where Turkey has ever participated into. Even though the congresses have been limited to Balkan countries, they have leaded the universal studies on this topic (Akyüz, 2015). In early 20th century, when the empires collapsed after WWII and social 428

revolutions occurred, the universal values that have been widely adopted have emerged. Main values among them are to oppose any sort of inequalities, to advocate the international peace, and to develop together. In order to spread the awareness of protecting these values, an international organization has been formed. The United Nations Organization, which is the most international organization having the widest foundation, has been established in year 1945 and, in year 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has been submitted to the approval of nation states. In following years, the studies on child rights and women’s rights, which are the concrete elements of human rights, have been brought forward again (Moroğlu, 2003). “Assembly of Social Problems”, which has been founded after the establishment of United Nations, has investigated the problems related with the protection of children. In Assembly’s meeting in year 1950, it has been decided to re-organize and expand the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of Children, and the draft prepared has been sent to the member countries (Erbay, 2011). Some of the member states have proposed that the Declaration of the Rights of Children shall be an agreement that is legally-binding for the states. But, most of the countries have stated that they were in favor of the contract not legally binding but containing general principles that were not compulsory. After the suggestions of member states, these suggestions have been reviewed again and, on 20th November 1959, the proposal has been accepted under the title of “United Nations’ Declaration of the Rights of Children” with the decision number of 1386 (Akyüz, 2015; Fortin, 1998; Gregory, 2002). As a special institution of United Nations, United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organization, which is known as UNESCO, has been founded in year 1946. Turkey has signed the UNESCO contract in same year, and Turkish National Commission of UNESCO has been established on 25th August 1949 upon the cabinet decision in order to establish connections with education, science and culture organizations, and to inform the public and government about the processes and results. UNESCO Turkish National Commission Directorate has proposed, in 2nd meeting of 7th Annual General Assembly, preparing a draft of law on child rights by utilizing various declarations of child rights. The text prepared upon this proposal has been submitted to the review of General Assembly, and then accepted as “Turkish Child Rights Declaration” between 28th and 30th June 1963 in first meeting of 8th Annual General Assembly. In justification of the declaration, the warning regarding passing bills related with the children and their rights should be passed. Moreover, the compilation of childrelated principles and rules has been requested (Akyüz, 2015). On 20th November 1959, in plenary session of United Nations, where the representatives of 78 countries have participated, the idea that a new international declaration, which is compulsory for member states, should be prepared has been accepted after 30 years following the announcement of the Convention on Child Rights. As a result of performed studies carried out, General Assembly of United Nations has accepted the Convention on the Rights of Children unanimously on 20th November 1989. The declaration, which has been opened for signing on 28th January 1990, has been signed by 61 countries at the same year. On 2nd September 1990, 20 countries have approved, and the declaration has entered into force as an international law. The agreement, which has been signed by Turkey on 14the February 1990 and approved in General Assembly of United Nations, has been approved by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 9th December 1994. The Convention on the Rights of Children has been 429

published in Official Gazette on 27th January 1995, and translated into a national law via the law Nr. 4058 and entered into force in Turkey (Aral and Gürsoy, 2001). Turkey has reported its reservations about 17th, 29th and 20th articles related with the language and cultural identity rights (UNICEF, 2012). Turkey has approved the Optional Protocol on Child Trade, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography pf United Nations’ Declaration of the Rights of Children in year 2002 and the Optional Protocol on Engagement of Children in Armed Conflicts in year 2004. In year 2005, from the point that protecting the children and considering their positions as child is necessary, the Law of Child Protection has been passed. The European Council’s Convention on Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in year 2011, and the Optional Protocol of Communication Procedure in September 2012 have been signed. Following the amendments made in September 2010, the concept of “Child Rights” has entered into the Constitution of Turkish Republic. In year 2012, the Commission of Child Rights Monitoring and Assessment has been established in order to perform studies on protecting, enabling, and enhancing the child rights, to offer suggestions, to prepare and approve strategy documents and action plan, and to ensure the coordination between the institutions related with the child rights. Under the umbrella of General Directorate of Child Services, with the coordination of Children’s Foundation, General Directorate of Social Services and Child Protection (SHÇEK), and İstanbul University, the shareholders of Turkish Congress of Child Rights convened between 25th and 27th February 2011, the Turkey’s 1st Strategy of Children Rights covering the period between 2012 and 2016 has been prepared with consultancy of TUBITAK and TUSSIDE (UNICEF, 2012). Convention on the Rights of Children For the first time, with Convention on the Rights of Children, the nations have come to an agreement on a legal perspective aiming to interests and necessities of the children (Affolter 2005). The objective of the convention was to specify the universally accepted standards for the protection of children, and to protect them from any sort of negligence, abuse and maltreatment. Besides that, the Convention has also aimed to establish a framework for the programs aiming the development of children’s potential and skills (Akyüz, 2000; Çetinkaya, 1998). The convention consists of foreword and 3 sections. In foreword, the fundamental principles of United Nations and some of the special provisions of special human rights contracts and reports have been referred, and it has been reported that the children need special care and protection because of their defenseless position. It has been emphasized that the responsibility of protecting the children is firstly of the family, and the government will help with that family (Akyüz, 2015; Hale, 2006). In 1st section of the Convention, the rights of -18 year-old young peoples and the tasks assigned to the government for realization of these problems have been emphasized. In second and third sections, after stating the member states’ obligation to teach the rights specified in convention to the adults and children by utilizing appropriate means in Article 42, how the Convention will enter into force and the provisions of Convention to be obeyed have been specified in 43rd and further articles (Aktürk, 2006; Çetinkaya, 1998; Doğan 2000). This convention is a text regulating the universal standards of attitudes and behaviors towards the children and has an obligatory power from the aspect of 430

international law. From the aspect of domestic law, the Convention has the force of law. From the aspect of laws other than constitution, the Convention on the Rights of Children can be interpreted as follows: • If, in domestic law, there was no provision in regulating any of the points regulated by the Convention before signing and approving the convention (such as the case of the children’s right to form association), the relevant provision of the Convention is enforced. • If, in domestic law, there was a provision conflicting with the Convention, the relevant provision of Convention implicitly removes the relevant internal law provision, and the relevant provision of the Convention is enforced. • If a new ruling on contrary with the Convention after the approval of Convention is passed in domestic law, this new ruling will remove the provision of Convention that is on contrary with this ruling. The State’s regulation of domestic law provision that is on the contrary with Convention is considered as the inclination of repealing the International Convention (Affolter, 2005; Aktürk, 2006). Fundamental Principles of Convention on the Rights of Children In Convention on the Rights of Children, some rights have been given special importance, and these have been accepted as the fundamental principles of the convention. The relevant principles are the high benefit of child, absence of discrimination, the right to live and develop, and considering the opinions of child (Öntaş, 2004). Prohibition of discrimination: According to Article 2 of the convention, states shall perform no discrimination between the children living in their countries. At this point, the language, religion, rave, citizenship, and economic and social and cultural levels of the parents of child will be a reason for any discrimination. All of the children principally have the same rights with others (Kor, 2013). High benefit of the child: Article 3 of the convention obliges the States to consider the high benefit of the child when making a decision about the child. Consequently, the legal, administrative or other bodies have to consider the child’s benefit in their decisions (Besson, 2005; Hale, 2006). Right of life and development: According to Article 6 of the convention, ever child has the right of life. The government is obliged to guaranteeing the life and development of child. The right of life is the right protecting the physical and mental integrity of person and preventing the deterioration of existence due to any reason. The child, in environment where he/she is, can develop in various ways such as protecting his/her existence as human from any sort of negligence or abuse, living in healthy environment, receiving education, working on science and art in harmony with his/her desires, and meeting his/her needs (Doek et al. 1992; Aktürk 2006). Taking child’s opinion: According to Article 12 of the convention, the child has been granted with the right of having his/her opinion on any decision on decision about him/her to be taken. This opportunity is in parallel with the age and maturity of the child. The important point is to take child’s opinion seriously and to consider his/her opinions by legal or administrative bodies (Ünal, 1997). The Rights Granted by Convention on the Rights of Children The Convention recognizes the specifically sensitive position of children, and considers the personal, economic, social, and cultural rights of them as a whole in 431

connection with or completing each other. From this aspect, the Convention is an international legal text regulating the child rights from an integrative approach. This contract has granted the children with the same rights with general human rights. But, in general, it has paid attention to increasing the standards to be implemented to entire humanity for the children. The reason for this is to have the special needs of desperate, dependent and developing children to be considered (Aktürk, 2006). Personal Rights (Civil Rights): Some of the rights in this group are fall into the domain of private law related with the personal existence and property of children. Others fall into domain of public law and consist of the personal rights and the rights described as negative rights. Protection of personal rights nowadays is considered a prerequisite for the structure of democratic society. Prevention of the violation of personal rights is the topic, at which international organizations (United Nations, European Council) at most. Personal rights have important position among the fundamental rights. Even though there is no superiority gradation, personal rights should be given priority in cases, where the rights conflict (Akıllıoğlu, 1995). Main personal rights in Convention on the Rights of Children are as follows: Definition of child: Article 1 defines the child. According to the convention, except for the majority at earlier age, all of the individuals are considered child before the age of 18. Prohibition of discrimination: According to Article 2 of the convention, the contracting states grant and guarantee any child with the rights, which are specified in this Convention, without any discrimination due to the child’s or his/her parents’ race, gender, color, language, politic or other opinions, ethnic and social origins, property, disability, and other statuses. Moreover, the contracting states take any sort of precautions to effectively protect the child from any sort of discrimination or penalty due to statuses, activities, declared opinions or beliefs of their parents or legal guardians (Moroğlu,2003; Serozan, 2005; Yıldız, 2011). High benefit of child: In any activity, which is related with children, of public or private social welfare institutions, courts, administrative bodies or legislative organs, the benefit of child shall be the main objective. The contracting states undertake the required care and protection for the welfare of child considering the rights and responsibilities of parents, guardians, and the persons that are legally responsible. They shall take all of the legal and administrative precautions for this purpose (Doek et al. 1992). Child’s right to be raised by his/her parents: The contracting states respect the duties and responsibilities of parents and other persons responsible for the child in enjoying the rights granted by the Convention and in orienting the child. The parents or the legal guardians, if any, who undertake the responsibility of raising the child, discharge the responsibility considering the benefit of child. In order to guarantee and enhance the rights granted by Convention, the contracting states provide the parents or legal guardians with required assistance and the institutions related with the childcare ensure the enhancement of services (Aktürk, 2006). Right of life and development: The contracting states accept that every child has the fundamental right of life. Moreover, the contracting states also put the maximum effort for the life and development of child (Kor, 2013). 432

Child’s right of name, citizenship, and identity: The contracting states promise to respect the child’s right of protecting his/her identity, including the nationality and name and family bonds, and to not illegally intervene. In case that the child is deprived of some or all of the components of his/her identity, the contracting states provide the required assistance and protection for having the child to immediately have his/her identity again (Khanna,1998; Moroğlu, 2003; Serozan, 2005). Right of declaring the opinions and being informed: Any child has the right of freely expressing his/her own opinions and to request his/her opinions regarding any procedure, which is related with the child, to be considered. According to this article, which is one of the fundamental articles of the Convention, the contracting states grant any child, who has the ability of forming his own ideas, with the right of freely expressing his/her opinions about any point related with himself in parallel with the age and maturity level of the child. For this purpose, in any legal or administrative prosecution affecting the child, the child is given the opinion of expressing himself directly or through a representative (Akyol, 2011). Liberty of opinion, expression, conscience, and religion: According to Articles 13 and 14 of the Convention, the contracting states respect the opinions, conscience and freedom to choose the religion. The child has the right to freely express his idea. This right, regardless of the borders of the country, involves any written, verbal, pressed, or artistic means or other means the child will choose, and investigating, receiving and giving any sort of news and opinions. The enjoyment of this right can be limited only due to the respect towards the rights and reputation of others, the national security, the public order, and the protection of public health and public decency, on condition that it is projected and specified by the law (Akyüz, 2015; Duyan, 2004; Fortin, 1998). Liberty of forming association and right of peaceful assembly: The contracting states accept the child’s right to form an association and right of peaceful assembly. The enjoyment of these rights cannot be limited by the restrictions other than those placed due to national security, public safety, public welfare, public health and decency, and protecting the rights and freedoms of others (Akyüz, 2015). Liberty of private life, family, housing, and communication: According to the Convention, as well as the private life, house, and communication of any child cannot be intervened arbitrarily or unjustly, his/her honor and/or reputation shall not be unjustly intervened. The child has the right of being legally protected from such intervenes and offences (Çetinkaya, 1998; Serozan, 2005). Right to not be exposed to maltreatment and persecution: No child shall be exposed to persecution, tyrannous behaviors or punishment, or illegal arrestment or shall be divested from the freedom. If the child suffer from any negligence, abuse or persecution, the state shall take any precaution for rehabilitation of child from physical and emotional aspects and for the child to take place in society again (Akyüz, 2015; Sokullu Akıncı, 2011). Economic, social and cultural rights: The economic, social and cultural rights that are also known as positive rights are the rights regarding the access to manufactured products and services and benefiting from them. When the Convention on the Rights of Children is considered from this aspect, the adequate nutrition, fundamental healthcare, and primary education are among economic, social and cultural 433

rights. International regulations distinguish the economic, social and cultural rights, but these rights are considered to constitute a whole with personal and political rights. So then, the realization of the economic, social and cultural rights specified in the Convention on the Rights of Children contributes to both of main objectives of the long-term development policy and the task of immediately reversing the regressive vicious cycle of excessive poorness, rapid increase of population, and environmental deterioration. Thus, realization of the economic and social rights is not luxurious that might wait for appropriate economic sources, but is an important task for economic development, social integrity, and political stability (Aktürk, 2006) Right to health: The contracting states grant the child with the opportunity of benefiting from institutions providing medical care and rehabilitation services for achieving the best possible medical status. The contracting states put effort for guaranteeing that no child will be deprived from any sort of medical care services. The contracting states shall take the appropriate and effective precautions in order to remove the traditional practices that are harmful for the health of child (Çetinkaya, 1998; Doek et al. 1992). Right of social security: The contracting states accept that every child has the right to have quality of life enough for their physical, mental, emotional, ethical, and social development. The responsibility of providing the life standards required for the child’s development belongs firstly to the parents of child or other persons looking after the child (within the context of their financial sources and opportunities). The contracting states shall take the required steps, in harmony with their national status and opportunities, for assisting the parents with implementation of this right and to implement financial support programs in nutrition, clothing, and sheltering, when needed (Çetinkaya, 1998; Karanfil, 2000; Sund, 2006). Right to education: The responsibility of the state is to ensure compulsory and free-of-charge elementary education, to encourage various secondary education channels that every child can benefit from, and to provide every individual with the higher education in harmony with his/her skills. School discipline shall be in harmony with child’s rights and reputation (Aktürk, 2006). Rights to be protected: In Convention on the Rights of Children, the protection of children living with their families, those having no family, or those in special conditions is regulated in detail. The rights mentioned here fall into the group of civil rights. For instance, the children’s right to be raised by his/her parents, to not be separated from parents, to be taken under protection outside the family, and to be protected from abuse can be given as examples of those rights. And, some of them fall into the group of economic and social rights. For instance; the protection of child from economic abuse, any sort of dangerous work, or the jobs that are harmful for the education, health and social development can be given as example (Aktürk, 2006). Right to be raised by parents and to be protected against the parents: The responsibility of raising and growing the child firstly belongs to the parents and, when needed, to the legal guardians. These persons discharge their responsibility by giving the benefit of child priority. The state, in parallel with the rights granted to the child, shall orientate the parents for better development of child’s skills and also respect the duties and responsibilities of the family and parents (Akyüz, 2015).

434

Prohibition of separating the children from parents: In Articles 9, 10, and 11 of the Convention, there are provisions regulating the relationship of child with his/her parents. According to these articles, the child shall not be separated from his/her parents without his/her consent. But, by considering the high benefit of the child, the authorities might make a counter decision. When the separation is decided, the right of one or two of the parents to communicate with child shall be respected, unless harmful for the benefit of child (Yıldırım Doğru, 2015). Protecting the child outside of family: A system that can replace the parental protection is proposed in these articles. The contracting states are obliged to specially protect the child being deprive of family environment, to find alternative families, or to look after the child through the institutions (Akyüz, 2015). Protection of child in special conditions: In these articles, the provisions related with the immigrant children, disabled children, minority children, and the protection of children and soldiers in armed conflicts are specified (Kaya, 2011). Protection against abuse: Detailed regulations are projected in these articles regarding the obligation of taking any legal, social, educational and administrative measures against any sort of abuse such as violence, mental or physical maltreatment or attacks, abandonment or negligence, and sexual abuse (Akyüz, 2015). Protection of criminalized children: According to Article 40 of the Convention, the child behaving illegally has the right to be treated in the way improving reputation and recognition, considering the age status, and aiming the re-integration with society (Akyüz, 2015). Protection of the children in war environment: The Convention on the Rights of Children obliges the contracting states to obey the humanitarian provisions of international law, which is applicable in case of armed conflict, including the part related with children, to make these provisions be obeyed, and to take any precaution in order to protect and care the children affected from the armed conflict (Doek et al. 1992, Aktürk 2006). Education On The Rights of Children The education on the rights of children covers teaching the rights and ways of protection, and transforming them into attitudes and behaviors, and also constitutes the foundation of human rights (Akyüz, 2015). Starting from the moment of birth, the children take place in society as the individuals enjoying their rights. Conferring the rights in family, then in preschool education, in elementary education, secondary education, and then in higher education would allow the learning and internalization of these rights (Washington, 2010). The social environment, where the child opens his eyes for the first time and meets with the culture, values and beliefs of the society, is the family. The studies have revealed that the family communication and interaction style significantly predicts the child’s future style of interaction with others. For this reason, in order to put the child rights into practice, it is also necessary to allow the child rights to be effective in family relations firstly. The child grown in family environment, where the democracy is practically implemented, is grown as a responsible, entrepreneur, and liberal individual having self-esteem and self-respect, having auto-control, knowing his rights and capable of using them, and respecting the rights of others (Yavuz et al., 2016). If the 435

child is raised in an environment, there the child is independent and his rights are protected, then he will be capable of reflecting it to further generations. At this point, one of the most important investments for any society is to enroot the rights of children (Turupcu & Gültekin Akduman, 2015). In Article 42 of the Convention on the Rights of Children, teaching the rights of children to adults and children has been projected. Thus, children’s acknowledge of their rights, which have been granted via the laws and conventions, is considered as their fundamental right. Beyond the enjoyment of children’s right to education, the schools should be the institutions, where the children are taught their rights are where these rights are put into the practice (Neslitürk and Ersoy, 2007). In raising the children as individuals being aware of and protecting their rights, the education institutions and teachers have very important responsibilities (Torun, 2011). When the children enter into the school system, then teachers, whom the child will interact, who play important role in child’s life and significantly affect his development, will be in child’s life. The relationship of child with his teacher(s) will leave the impressions that the child will carry throughout his life. For receiving the needed education, children need the teachers that know and consider the children’s right of development (Bulut Pedük, 2015). In preschool period, the development and learning are fast, the foundations of personality development are formed, the fundamental skills and habits are gained, and first learning processes are executed. The lives in this period significantly determine how individuals the children will be in future. When the required importance is given to the education of child from the early ages, then it is possible to raise entrepreneur and researcher, mentally and physically healthy, individuals, who can freely express his emotions and opinions, who is respectful towards the rights of others, and who has the ability of utilizing his skills (Köksal Akyol, 2015). The prerequisite of raising the children knowing and capable of using their rights is the effective and efficient education. In preschool education program, there are the achievements that will influence the child rights education in short-term and human rights education in longterm, and the preschool teachers have important responsibility at this point (Bulut Pedük, 2015). From physical organization of classroom to the class atmosphere, the teachers have the responsibility of planning, and they should believe and internalize the education on the rights of children and also adopt the democratic values. For this purpose, the teacher should know the child’s right to development and to consider it in his/her implementations (Bulut Pedük, 2015). The children should be provided with a hands-on education environment, where they can learn and internalize their rights. In a classroom, where the democracy culture dominates, every student has a distinct value. Every individual has duties and responsibilities. There are mutual respect, affinity, tolerance, and trust in classroom (Yavuz et al., 2016). Children should ensure the active participation of the children, benefit from daily life, emphasize the universality, and construct the democratic learning environment. Because the children are in concrete operational stage, the education should be provided through the activities that are suitable for the level of children, where the different methods and techniques are utilized. Moreover, the materials and activities, which may affect them negatively from emotional aspect, should not be involved in activities (Neslitürk & Ersoy, 2007). The activities in program should orientate the children into exhibiting a democratic attitude in terms of both of 436

studying and social relations. Nowadays, the values, respect, and the rights such as freedom of expression included by the rights of children are discussed within the scope of education programs. Especially for the children in preschool period to give the meaning to these abstract concepts and to put them into practice in their daily lives, the education should be reinforced with these concretizing activities. Through the visual and auditory stimuluses, the awareness of the children about these rights should be improved (Turupcu & Gültekin Akduman; 2015). It is very important to improve and realize the educators’ alternative education programs related with to child rights and human rights to be implemented at every stage of the education (Unutkan, 2008). At every stage of education, considering the developmental status of children, the concepts of right and protection of right should be taught through various activities. In preschool period constituting the foundation of this learning, these concepts of rights should be taught by practicing in educational procedure and concretizing the rights of children (UNICEF, 2009). The Importance of Education On The Child Rights For the children, to recognize their own rights through effective and efficient education on the rights of children is the first step for them into being raised as the individuals being aware of their own rights and being capable of advocating these rights (Washington, 2010). The education on the rights of children is of many benefits for both of the children and the adults. These benefits can be listed as follows (Akyüz, 2015; Turupcu & Gültekin Akduman, 2015; Peker Ünal, 2010):  Children gain the fundamental information about the rights and responsibilities. Besides that, they learn that the children having different characteristics have the same rights.  The education on the rights of children allows the child rights to be put into practice and benefited.  Awareness of “right” is constructed in adults and children, so they are oriented to respect the rights of others.  Children realize their roles within the society, and their active participation into social life is ensured.  The children’s advanced awareness of citizenship is formed.  The children are learnt, adopt and practice the democratic values. The child grown in an environment, where the democratic values are in practice, conveys these values to further generations.  By taking the required precautions, the violations of children’s rights are prevented in advance. Moreover, it plays important role in protecting the children from abuse and negligence.  The education on child rights develops the children’s sense of cooperation with other groups that have not the same opportunities with themselves. By eliminating the inequality between the children, a democratic society is shaped.  It supports with understanding the fundamental rights of children.  Through the education on the rights of children, the changes in adults’ negative attitudes towards the children are supported.  It eliminates the bias and damaging attitudes towards the groups of children under risk. 437

 It raises the social awareness that the parents and teachers have no unlimited authority on children and the persons such as neighbors and relatives must apply to the authorities in case of any violation of right. Sample Activity Plans for the Rights of Children We establish a child clothes store Activity Type: Science and Art (Integrated Large Group Activity) Age Group: 60-72 Achievements and Indicators Language Development Achievement 7. He recognizes the meaning of what is listened/watched. (Indicators: He explains what he listened/watched. He interprets what he/she listened/watched.) Social and Emotional Development Achievement 3. He expresses himself in creative ways. (Indicators: He expresses his emotions, opinions, and dreams via original methods. He utilizes the objects in novel ways. He creates original products.) Achievement 9. He explains different cultural characteristics. (Indicators: He specifies the cultural characteristics of his own country. He specifies the similar and different characteristics of the culture of his home country and those of other countries. He emphasizes that different countries have different authentic cultural characteristics.) Materials  Presentation using clothes of different cultures  Waste materials such as fabric, papers, cotton, ribbon, colored fabrics, rope, button, bead, and etc.  Scissor  Glue Words Culture Comprehensions Opposite: Same-different-similar Learning Process  Children watch the presentation of teacher with children clothes of different cultures. Then they discuss about which ones of the clothes presented they have or haven’t seen, and about their similarities and differences.  Children are divided into small groups of 3-4 children. Teacher says that they can prepare whichever cloth they want. The groups create the clothes, which they design, from the materials they want.  The clothes are exhibited in an appropriate part of classroom or school. Assessment What did we do in this activity? How clothes did you design? What did you enjoyed in this activity at most? Why? Have you ever designed a cloth before? What have you used while designing that cloth? Why there are different clothes? Family Participation Families are invited to the school, and the children have their families visit the cloth 438

store. I behave fairly. Activity Type: Turkish Language Activity (Large Group Activity) Age Group: 60-72 Achievements and Indicators Language Development Achievement 5. He utilizes the language for the purpose of communication (Indicators: He states his emotions, opinions and dreams. He expresses the reasons of his emotions and opinions.) Social and Emotional Development Achievement 4. He explains the emotions of others about an event or a case. (Indicators: He expresses the emotions of others. He specifies the reasons of others’ emotions. He states the consequences of others’ emotions.) Achievement 6. He protects his own rights and the rights of others. (Indicators: He specifies his rights. He emphasizes that others have rights. He specifies what he can do when treated unfairly. He specifies what he should do in order to protect the rights of others.) Materials  Drawing paper  Paints Words Right, to be fair Comprehensions ………….. Learning Process  Teacher says that he would tell a story to students, but the students would complete the story. “Eda brought chocolate to give her classmates. She started to give one chocolate to each of her classmates. When Ceren’s turn came, “I am your best friend, so you should give me 2 chocolates” said Ceren. Teacher orientates students into completing the story by asking for their opinions about what happened then, how many chocolates Eda gave Ceren. Teacher allows each of the students in classroom to speak, and then the story is discussed once it is completed. The teacher emphasizes the importance of fairness and protecting the rights.  Children animate the story they formed. Assessment Teacher asks the children for drawing the picture of story they created. Family Participation The families are asked for discussing with children about the sample cases, where it is required to be fair in home, and then for drawing its picture. REFERENCES Affolter, W. F. (2005). Socio-Emotional Enablement and The Convention of The Rights of The Child. The International Journal of Children’s Rights 13, 379-397. Akıllıoğlu, T. (19959. Çocuk Haklarına Dair Sözleşme. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF. İnsan Hakları Merkezi Yayınları, 101s., Ankara. Aktürk, S. (2006). Avrupa Birliği Sürecinde Türkiye’de Çocuk Hakları ve Güvenliği. 439

Yüksek lisans tezi. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi, Hatay. Akyol, S. (2011). Çocuk Haklarına Dair Sözleşme Çerçevesinde Çocuğun Görüşlerine Saygı İlkesi. I. Türkiye Çocuk Hakları Kongresi, 25-27 Şubat 2011, Yetişkin Bildirileri Kitabı1, s.183-188, İstanbul. Akyüz, E. (2000). Ulusal ve Uluslararası Hukukta Çocuğun Haklarının ve Güvenliğinin Korunması. İnsan Hakları Eğitim Dizisi, Milli Eğiti Basımevi, 64 s., Ankara. Akyüz, E. (2011). Çocuk Hukukunun Gelişimi ve Çocuk Koruma Sisteminin Değerlendirilmesi, I. Türkiye Çocuk Hakları Kongresi, 25-27 Şubat 2011, Yetişkin Bildirileri Kitabı-2, s.17-43, İstanbul. Akyüz, E. (2015). Çocuk Hukuku Çocukların Hakları ve Korunması, Pegem Akademi, 642s., Ankara. Besson, S. (2005).The Principle of Non-Discrimination in The Convention on The Rights of The Child. The International Journal of Children’s Rights 13, 433-461. Bulut Pedük, Ş. (2015). Çocukların Hak Ettiği Eğitimi Almalarında Onların Gelişim Haklarını Bilen ve Dikkate Alan Okul Öncesi Öğretmenleri Olabilmek. Milli Eğitim 206, 97-105. Çetinkaya, N. (1998). Öğretmenlerin ve Öğrencilerin Çocuk Haklarına Bakışının Değerlendirilmesi. Yüksek lisans tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Doek, J. , Cantwell, N. and Martenson, J. (1992). The United Nations Convention on The Rights of The Child. Matinus Nijhoff Publishers, 712s., Netherlends. Doğan, İ. (2000). Akıllı Küçük. Çocuk Kültürü ve Çocuk Hakları Üzerine Sosyo-Kültürel Bir İnceleme, Sistem Yayıncılık, 298s., İstanbul. Duyan, V. (2004). Sosyal Hizmet ve Çocuk Hakları, Aydınlar Matbaası, 136s., Ankara. Erbay, E. (2011). Türkiye’de Çocuk Haklarını Tanıtma, Yaygınlaştırma ve İzlemeye Yönelik Uygulamaların Eleştirel Analizi ve Bir Model Önerisi. Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. Fortin, J. (1998). Children’s Rights and The Developing Law, Reed Elsevier Ltd., 502s., United Kingdom. Gregory, L. D. (2002). The United States’ Concerns About The Convention on The Rights of The Child. Education and The Law 14(3), 141-152. Günöz, M. (2007). Türkiye’de Çocuk İşçiliği Sorunu ve Çözüm Önerileri. Yayınlanmamış uzmanlık tezi, Çalışma ve Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanlığı Türkiye İş Kurumu Genel Müdürlüğü. Hale, B. (2006). Fourth World Congress on Family Law and Children’s Rights: Theory and Practice, Family Court Review, 44(3), 350-360. Karanfil, K. (2000). Uluslar Arası Çocuk Hakları Sözleşmesi Işığında Türk Hukukunda Çocuğun Ana-Babasını Bilme Hakkı, Üremeye Yardımcı Teknolojiler ve Adli Bilimler. Yüksek lisans tezi. İstanbul Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Kavak, F. (2005). Çocuk Haklarının Korunmasında Polisin Görev ve Yetkilerini Uygulama Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Yüksek lisans tezi. Polis Akademisi, Ankara. Kaya, S. Ö. (2011). Öğretmen Adaylarının Çocuk Hakları İle İlgili Görüşleri. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Afyon Kocetepe Üniversitesi, Afyon. Khanna, K. S. (1998). Children and the Human Rights, Commonwealth Publishers, 383s., New Delhi. Kor, K. (2013). Okul Öncesi Öğretmenlerinin Çocuk Hakları Konusundaki Görüşlerinin Belirlenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Çanakkale. Köksal Akyol, A. (2015). Okul Öncesi Eğitimin Amaçları ve İlkeleri” (2. Baskı). Aysel Köksal Akyol (Ed.). Her Yönüyle Okul Öncesi Eğitim-7 Okul Öncesi Eğitim 440

Programları içinde (bölüm 1 sayfa 169-177).Hedef CS Basın Yayın: Ankara. Moroğlu, N. (2003). Türkiye’de ve Dünyada Çocuk Hakları. Ulusal ve Uluslararası Hukukta Çocuk Hakları. Yayına Hazırlayan: Nazan Moroğlu. Alman Liseliler Kültür ve Eğitim Vakfı Yayınları, 2, 29-85, İstanbul. Neslitürk, S & Ersoy, A. F. (2007). Okulöncesi Öğretmen Adaylarının Çocuk Haklarının Öğretimine İlişkin Görüşleri. Egitimde Kuram ve Uygulama 3(2), 245-257. Öntaş, C. Ö. (2004). Çocuk hakları ve sosyal hizmetin güçlendirme yaklaşımı açısından suça yönelen çocuk-polis ilişkisi. Doktora tezi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, 248s.,Ankara. Peker Ünal, D. (2010). İlköğretim Öğretmenlerine Yönelik Web Tabanlı Çocuk Hakları Eğitimi Programı. Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara. Serozan, R. (2005). Çocuk Hukuku, Vedat Kitapçılık, 324s., İstanbul. Shukla, C. K., & Ali, S. (2006). Child Labour Scioeconomic Dimensions. New Delphi, Sarup and Sons. Sokullu Akıncı, F. (2011). Kriminoloji ve Hukuk Açısından Çocuk İhmali ve İstismarı. I. Türkiye Çocuk Hakları Kongresi, 25-27 Şubat 2011, Yetişkin Bildirileri Kitabı-2, s.121133, İstanbul. Sund, G. L. (2006). The Rights of The Child as Legally Protected Interests. The InternationalJournal of Children’s Rights, 14, 327-337. Torun, F. (2011). Çocuk Hakları Öğretiminde Oyun Yönteminin Başarıya, Kalıcılığa ve Tutuma Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Adıyaman Üniversitesi, Adıyaman. Turupçu, A. & Gültekin Akduman, G. (2015). Okul Öncesi Eğitim ve Çocuk Hakları. Gülden Uyanık Balat (Ed.) Okul Öncesi Eğitime Giriş kitabı içinde (bölüm 12, sayfa 235-252). Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık: İstanbul. UNICEF (2012). Türkiye’de Çocuk ve Genç Nüfusun Durumunun Analizi 2012. Retrieved on 10.May.2016, at http://unicef.deparyazilim.com/files/bilgimerkezi/doc/sitan-tur-final2012.pdf. UNICEF (2009). State of the World’s Children: Celebrating 20 Years of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Unicef. Unutkan, Ö. P. (2008). İnsan Hakları, Çocuk Hakları ve Eğitimi. A. Oktay (Der.), Eğitim Bilimine Giriş kitabı içinde (sayfa 98-120). Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık. Ünal, Ş. (1997). Avrupa’daki Türk Çocuklarının İnsan Hakları Sorunları, Şafak Matbaacılık Ltd. Şti.,101s., Ankara. Washington, F. (2010). 5– 6 Yaş Grubu Çocuklarına Uygulanan Aile Katılımlı Çocuk Hakları Eğitimi Programının Etkililiğinin İncelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Yavuz, N., Duman, T. & Karakaya, N. (2016). İnsan Hakları ve Demokrasi Vatandaşlık Bilgisi, Pegem Akademi, 174s., Ankara. Yıldırım Doğru, S. S. (2015). Yasal Düzenlemeler. S. Sunay Yıldırım Doğru (Ed.). Çocuk Hakları ve Koruma Aile Refahı ve Koruma kitabı içinde (bölüm 1 sayfa 1-42). Eğiten Kitap: Ankara. Yıldız, M. (2011). Çocuğa Yönelik Ayrımcılığın Önlenmesinde Ders Kitapları ve Eğitim Araçlarının Rolü, I. Türkiye Çocuk Hakları Kongresi, 25-27 Şubat 2011, Yetişkin Bildirileri Kitabı-1, s.161-170, İstanbul.

441

Chapter 34 Secondary School Students’ Difficulties in Learning Mathematics Gülgün BANGİR ALPAN, Özgül YAYLA** INTRODUCTION Mathematics is abstracting and modeling, and a mutual language and tool which sciences employ. Such practical fields as economics, medicine, and engineering, etc. are some of the applied fields of a multi-dimensional mathematics (Meepracha, 2015; Nasibov and Kaçar, 2005). Mathematics, with a critical role among theories and practices, is an abstract language of design of itself. Mathematics is one of the compulsory courses starting from the first years of schooling process (Ersoy, 2003). The teaching of mathematics starts from kindergarten years and expands in primary and the following schooling processes (Küçük and Demir, 2009). On the other hand, whether Mathematics education, in a wider perspective, or Mathematics instruction has achieved its objectives, and the discussion of the problems encountered is still on the agenda. The fact that the achievement scores obtained from TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) and the national exams SBS (National Placement Exam), TEOG (Transition from Primary to Secondary Education) are not at the desired levels is remarkable and thought-provoking. Why are students challenged in Mathematics? Why do students fall for misconceptions? What could be done in order to overcome the challenges? Such questions have managed to capture the attention of education specialists in the last 40 years (Bingölbali and Özmantar, 2012). In the last years, learning difficulties pertaining to mathematics teaching have increasingly drawn the attention of assessment and evaluation specialists and teachers alike. It is thought that some 6% of students suffer from challenges of mathematics education (Jeannette and Manheimer, 1997). According to Stodolsky, Salk, and Glaessner (1991), mathematics and social sciences at primary schools differ in general methods of instruction and content. In a study by Scott and Barbara to discover the attitude and perceptions of 5th graders in learning mathematics and social sciences, it is observed that students hold different attitudes and perceptions in mathematics and social sciences. Negative and positive attitudes, success and failure, homework status of students shape the perceptions and attitude towards mathematics. Students evaluated social sciences in terms of whether the subjects are attractive or boring. On the other hand, students are of the opinion that students will be challenged in mathematics on their own, while they think that they can learn on their own when it comes to social sciences. Şenol, Dündar, Kaya, Gündüz and Temel (2015), in their study in which they 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Gazi Education Faculty, Educational Sciences Department ** Math Teacher, Nimet - Bahri Kutluözen Secondary School 

examined the reasons for fear of mathematics, asked the opinions of teachers. When the opinions are examined, the reason stemming from students takes the lead. In the opinions of teachers, the main reason why students fear Mathematics is their indifference. This is followed by a prejudice against math, a low level of readiness, anxiety over mathematics and lack of self-confidence. While teachers attribute challenges in math learning to students, students refer to themselves and the importance of learning aids. What constitutes a curriculum are objective, content, the process of teaching and learning and the elements of evaluation. There are numerous studies into the use of method, techniques and strategies in the learning and teaching process (Aktepe, Tahiroğlu and Acer, 2015; Baştürk and Dönmez, 2011; Bütüner and Gür, 2008; Cantürk and Başer, 2009; Gürbüz and Toprak, 2014; Kar and Işık, 2014; Lai, &Hwang, 2016; Mercan, 2011; Özer and Şan, 2013; Uygun and Tertemiz 2014; Toptaş, 2008; Turhan and Güven, 2014;), teaching materials (Aydoğmuş, 2010; Aktaş, 2015; Balkan, 2012; Korucu, 2009; Meepracha, 2015;Şimşek and Yücekaya, 2014; Yeniçeri, 2013) and the effect of these on the achievement of students. Then follows the studies into the curriculum of mathematics education related to objective (Ceyhan, 2012; Dağlar and Delil, 2010; Özer and Şan, 2013; Mercan, 2011) and evaluation (Aşık, 2009; Bal, 2009; Erdal, 2005; Karakuş, 2010). However, when the body of literature is examined, studies on content analysis of mathematics educational curriculum (Çetin, Dane and Bekdemir, 2012; Kutluca and Baki, 2009; Meepracha, 2015; Yenilmez and Çimen, 2012) are fewer. On the other hand, to examine the subject matter of mathematics and to determine the subjects which students find difficult to learn, are of great significance in terms of curriculum development and the efficiency of instructional applications. It is necessary to investigate in which subject matters the failures of students are clustered in. On the event that this is not performed in time and students are allowed to pass the class, it will be inevitable for students to fail, for there will be no comprehensive and meaningful learning (Kutluca and Baki, 2009). Besides, it is observed that studies on difficult subjects in math, and the conceptual errors they bring along are held predominantly at high school level. For this reason, this study sets out to examine the math subjects at secondary school level. The general purpose of this research is to identify the math subjects in which secondary school students confront difficulties in learning. In order to accomplish this general purpose, the following questions have been raised and their answers have been sought: (i) What are the challenging subjects in math for secondary school students (5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grade) in terms of the teacher and student views? (ii) What is the nature of the range of variables (gender, class size, taking private lessons, attending a private teaching institution, the final scores of the school reports in the 1st and 2nd semesters, and the gender of the teachers) of the learning difficulties of secondary school students in math subjects? (iii) Is there a meaningful difference between teacher and student views pertaining to the degrees of difficulty in the learning domains in math for secondary school students? MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants The working group of this research has been constituted with the participation of secondary school math teachers (93) and students (1728) from the province of Ankara 443

in order to delineate through their views the difficult subjects in math classes in secondary schools. 446 of the students are attending 5th grade, 414 are attending 6th grade, 429 are 7th grade, 439 are attending 8th grade. 20 of the teachers are teaching in 5th grade, 25 of them in 6th grade, 20 in 7th grade, and 28 are teaching in 8th grade classes. In the process of determining the participants, this research has accommodated a teleological sampling method—the “maximum variation sampling,” which is one of the non-random sampling methods. In relation with the problem analyzed within the universe, the “maximum variation sampling” method is defined as one that requires identifying different situations that are innately homogenous and working on these situations. An important point here is that the sampling must comply with the purpose of the research while representing a variety of situations (Büyüköztürk, Kılıç-Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz and Demirel, 2014). The participants of this study have been chosen from district schools (39 in number) with different socio-economic characteristics in order to provide a variety of perspectives and situations. The participants have partaken by the principle of volunteering. Table 1 portrays the range of the demographic profiles of the students who participate in the study in accordance with the grades they are attending. The elements that capture attention in the table are as follows: the number of the students in each class is predominantly between 31 and 40, more than half of the students have attended math classes in private teaching institutions a year before the study; the students in the 5th and 8th grades, who have received final scores of 4 and 5 out of 5.00 in their school reports (report cards) outnumber the rest in the group. 47 of the participating math teachers are female, 46 are male. The ranges of the teachers’ professional seniority are distributed as: 67 individuals for 1-10 years of experience; 15 for 11-20 years; and 11 for 21+ years of service. Within the participants, there are 10 teachers who hold a Master’s degree. Table 1: Demographic profile of the respondents. Demographic Variables Gender Class Size Non formal support 1st Term Report Card Score 2nd Term Report Card Score

Qualities Female Male Fever than 20 21-30 31-40 41 and above Private Lesso. Private Insti. Less than 3 4 and 5 Less than 3 4 and 5

5th grade f % 209 46,9 237 53,1 34 7,6 358 80,3 54 12,1 0 0 22 4,9 42 9,4 112 25,1 247 55,4 86 19,3 271 60,7

6th grade f % 190 45,9 224 54,1 77 18,6 82 19,8 236 57 19 4,6 40 9,7 64 15,5 138 33,3 194 46,9 128 30,9 207 50

7th grade f % 244 56,9 185 43,1 15 3,5 142 33,1 272 63,4 0 0 40 9,3 121 28,2 157 36, 188 43,8 143 33,4 203 47,3

8th grade f % 264 60,1 175 39,1 0 0 47 10,7 392 89,3 0 0 32 7,3 342 77,9 46 10,5 357 81,3 49 11,1 360 82

Questionnaire Design This study aims to identify the difficult subjects in math classes for students in secondary schools. The researcher has designed a rating scale questionnaire for the purpose. The process of the preparation and application of the questionnaire has taken the following course: A body of literature about the difficult subjects confronted by students in math classes has been consulted; the secondary school educational 444

programme for math classes (Ministry of National Education, 2013) in 5-8 grades has been examined in terms of the expected acquirements, and draft articles have been prepared in the aftermath of preliminary interviews with math teachers, secondary school students and academicians. The draft articles have been presented to the attention of two academicians specialized in the field and a specialist in educational sciences with the purpose of validating the scope of the study. In accordance with the specialized views, the necessary corrections have been made. Due to the fact that the subjects taught at every level in every grade vary, four different questionnaires have been designed for the purpose. The same questionnaires were applied on the teachers as well. Before completing the final draft of the questionnaire form, the articles have been presented to the attention of five students and teachers and their views have been consulted in order to see the duration necessary for the completion of the questionnaire and to make sure that the articles are intelligible. 5 students have been given a 5-point likert scale questionnaire (“I absolutely agree”—“I agree”—“I can’t decide”—“I disagree”—“I absolutely disagree”) and a 3-point likert scale questionnaire (3—easy, 2—partly difficult, 1—difficult). The students have reported that the 3-point likert scale questionnaire is much more intelligible. 9th grade students were given the 8th grade questionnaire, the students in 8th grader were given the 7th grade questionnaire, the students in 7th grader were given the 6th grade questionnaire, and finally the 6th grade students were given the 5th grade questionnaire. This strategy was preferred because students who complete a degree and move up are expected to be familiar with all the subjects taught in the lower grade classes and in this way, the results would be considered more reliable. The questionnaires applied to math teachers, on the other hand, were given a special attention in order to ensure that the teachers fill out the questionnaire that involves only the levels of the classes at which they have taught uninterruptedly for a whole year within the 2012-2013 educational year. While the teachers were filling out their questionnaires, they were reminded to consider all the subjects which students found difficult to learn. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient is 0,99 for the 5th grade teacher questionnaires, 0,99 for 6th grade teacher questionnaires, 0,98 for 7th grade teacher questionnaires, 0,98 for 8th grade teacher questionnaires, 0,96 for 5th grade student questionnaires, 0,98 for 6th grade student questionnaires, 0,97 for 7th grade student questionnaires, and 0,98 for 8th grade student questionnaires. Data Analysis The subjects which constitute a difficulty for the students in math classes and their distribution according to some variables have been demonstrated in terms of frequencies and percentages. In the comparison between the views of the teachers and students, on the other hand, it has been delineated through a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test that the sample values of the study (p<0,05) have not shown a normal distribution; therefore, nonparametric statistics, a MannWhitneyU test has been preferred instead. With the thought that all data distributions will require too much space, the data tables have been made more concise by including only the most noteworthy findings. This study has attempted to describe the math subjects which constitute a difficulty for secondary school students. The learning domains and the number of the subjects that have been included in questionnaires applied to students and teachers according to their class levels are as follows: four domains (numbers, measures, statistics and geometry) 445

and 134 subjects in 5th grade; five domains (numbers, algebra, measures, geometry, statistics and probability) and 178 subjects in 6th grade; four domains (numbers, algebra, geometry, statistics, and probability) and 153 subjects in 7th grade; four domains (geometry, numbers, algebra, statistics and probability) and 200 subjects in 8th grade. As it may be inferred, it is not possible to squeeze in this part both student and teacher views regarding all the totality of 665 subjects. For this reason, in the light of the student views shown below in Table 2 and teacher views shown in Table 3, the most difficult math subjects and domains that challenge secondary school students are registered in accordance with their class levels. Table 2: The Most Difficult Math Subjects for Students Domain

Subjects

Numbers

Writing the steps of num Representing fractions in Solving GCD problems Solving LCM problems Calculating “interest” Multi-step operations… Scientific notation of …

5th grd 6th grd

Solving equations with .. Equating by appropriate.. One-degree equation .. Using two-dimensional.. Graphing two-variable.. Operating with rational ..

6th grd

Calculating the perimeter Converting units of… Problem-solving over… Problem-posing for … Problem-solving for find Forming the cubic unit.. Forming the cubic unit.. Solving problems on the. The perspective drawing.

5th grd 6th grd 7th grd

Making estimates based Calculating permutation Interpreting interquartile Distinguishing between Interpreting a histogram

6th grd 7th grd

Algebra

Geometry

Statistics Probability

Grades

7th grd 8th grd

7th grd 8th grd

8th grd

8th grd

f

Easy %

Partly Difficu f %

214 175 208 201 143 121 292

48 42,3 50,2 48,6 33,7 28,2 66,5

170 154 132 134 168 194 93

38,1 37,2 31,9 32,4 39,2 45,2 21,2

61 85 71 75 113 111 53

13,7 20,5 17,1 18,1 26,3 25,9 13,1

228 224 159 191 221 277

55,1 54,1 37,1 44,5 50,3 63,1

122 132 167 135 126 104

29,5 31,9 38,9 31,5 28,7 23,7

61 57 101 101 87 55

17,7 13,8 23,5 23,5 19,8 12,5

224 182 126 179 159 184 182 143 200

50,2 44 29,4 41,7 37,1 42,9 42,4 33,3 45,6

172 155 172 169 170 167 165 175 132

38,6 37,4 40,1 39,7 39,6 38,9 38,5 40,8 30,1

50 76 129 77 100 78 82 109 105

11,2 18,4 30,1 17,9 23,3 18,2 19,1 25,4 23,9

227 169 211 257 330

54,8 39,4 49,2 58,5 75,2

111 137 143 124 64

26,8 31,9 33,3 28,2 14,6

75 122 72 58 45

18,1 28,4 16,8 13,2 10,3

Difficult f %

When 5th grade classes are put under scrutiny, it is possible to say that students do not encounter much difficulty in math. When student views about the most difficult subjects in math shown in Table 2 are referred, the most challenging domain is “numbers” with 13 % for a subject such as “writing the required steps of number patterns by a given rule;” and in the domain of geometry, 11,2 % for a subject such as “calculating the perimeter of a trapezoid.” In the light of teacher views (as shown in Table 3) concerning the difficult subject that students confront in the domain of “numbers” is “calculating the whole number as represented in proper fractions,” and in 446

the domain of geometry, it is “calculating the surface area of the rectangular prism" (30%). Including those who find these subjects “partly difficult,” the ratio grows up to 50%. In the occasion of the 6th grades, the difficulty of subjects varies in different proportions; students report that in the domain of “numbers,” the most difficult subject accounts for “representing fractions in different ways” (difficult—20,5% ; partly difficult—37,2%); in the domain of algebra, “solving equations with one unknown” (difficult—17,7%; partly difficult—29,5%); in geometry, “converting units of volumetric analysis into volume units of liquids ” (difficult—18,4%; partly difficult— 37,4%); in the domain of statistics and probability, “making estimations based on given data” (difficult 18,1%; partly difficult 26,8%). In teacher responses, however, the situation is different (Table 3). Teachers have similar views with students only in the domain of algebra. They think that in the domains of numbers, geometry, statistics and probability, students encounter the most difficulty in subjects rated as follows: “solving problems with Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) and Least Common Multiple (LCM)” (difficult—44%); “solving problems on volumetric analysis of rectangular prism” (difficult—24%), “problem-posing over the probability of an event” (difficult—20%). As seen in Table 3 and Table 4, in 7th grade, the subjects which students find difficult outnumber those in the other grades. It is observed that the challenges become more intense mainly in the domain of geometry. According to students, “Solving problems on volumetric analysis of right cylinder” is by 30,1% a difficult subject, whereas to teachers, it presents a difficulty only by 25%. When the “partly difficult” responses are added, the percentage grows up at the rate of 70%. In the 8th grade, both students and teachers believe that students are faced with the greatest difficulties in similar subjects in all domains of math. For example, in the domain of statistics and probability, students (10%—21%) and teachers (18—32%) declare that students find most challenging some subjects such as “distinguishing between permutation and combination,” “interpreting a histogram,” in algebra, “drawing the graph of linear inequalities with two unknowns,” “operating with rational algebraic expressions,” in geometry, “the perspective drawing of a cube or a prism from a particular distance.” Different from the teachers, the students think that in the domain of “numbers,” they have a hard time in understanding subjects like “writing down the scientific notation of very small numbers” (13,1%); on the other hand, different from the students, the teachers state that in the domain of geometry, “solving problems with similar triangles” (42,9%) is the most challenging one. Looked from a general viewpoint, it strikes the attention that the most difficulty faced in 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th grades predominantly refers to the domains of “numbers” and geometry according to both students and teachers. Another sub-dimension of the purpose of this research was to analyze the variables of the degree of difficulty which secondary school students encountered in the domains of learning in math classes. These variables may be delineated in terms of gender, class size, taking private lessons, attendance in a private teaching institution, and their final scores in the school reports/ report cards of the 1st and 2nd semesters. Every variable has been attributed a paragraph heading. Every variable has been interpreted in correspondence with each grade/ class.

447

Table 3: The Most Difficult Math Subjects According to Teachers Easy Domain Numbers

Algebra

Geometry

Subjects Calculating the whole num Solving GCD problems Solving LCM problems Multi-step operations in .. Problem-solving related to. Writing the scientific .. Subtracting square root …

5th grd 6h grd

Equations with one … Equating by appropriating Drawing the graphs of Drawing the graph of line. Operating with rational ..

6th grd

Calculating the surface ..

5th grd 6th grd 7th grd

Problem-posing for solving Graphing rotating figures Solving problems about the Forming the cubic unit of a Forming the cubic unit of a Solving problems about the Perspective drawing of a .. Solving problems with .. Statistics Probability

Grades

Problem-posing over the .. Interpreting interquartile .. Distinguishing between .. Interpreting a histogram

7th grd 8th grd

7th grd 8th grd

8th grd 6th grd 7th grd 8th grd

Partly Difficult f % 8 40,0 9 36,0 9 36,0 5 25,0 5 25,0 6 21,4 7 25,0

f 6 5 5 6 7 17 13

% 30,0 20,0 20,0 30,0 35,0 60,7 46,4

3 3 5 7 7

12,0 12,0 25,0 25,0 25,0

15 9 11 12

4 5 6 5 5 8 8 7 9 7

20,0 20,0 24,0 25,0 25,0 40,0 40,0 35,0 32,1 25,0

10 6 12 14

40,0 30,0 42,9 50,0

Difficult f 6 11 11 8 8 5 8

% 30,0 44,0 44,0 40,0 40,0 17,9 28,6

60,0 60,0 45,0 39,3 42,9

7 7 6 9 9

28,0 28,0 30,0 32,1 32,1

10 14 11 10 10 7 7 8 13 9

50,0 56,0 44,0 50,0 50,0 35,0 35,0 40,0 46,4 32,1

6 6 8 5 5 5 5 5 6 12

30,0 24,0 32,0 25,0 25,0 25,0 25,0 25,0 21,4 42,9

10 11 11 8

40,0 55,0 39,3 28,6

5 3 5 6

20,0 15,0 17,9 21,4

Gender and learning difficulty in math; In terms of the relationship between gender and the learning difficulties of secondary school students in the math classes of 5th, 6th, and 7th grades, a different kind of ranging has not been observed. Only in 8th grade, the female students have stated that they find some math subjects “partially more difficult” when compared with male students. Class size and learning difficulty in math; In terms of the relationship between class size and the learning difficulties of secondary school students in the math classes of 5th, 6th, and 7th grades, a different kind of ranging has not been observed. In the case of the 8th graders, students whose class sizes range between 21 and 30 have found math subjects “partially more difficult” than those who attend classes of 31 to 40 students. Attending a private teaching institution and learning difficulty in math; In terms of the relationship between attending a private teaching institution and the learning difficulties of secondary school students in the math classes of 5th, 6th, and 7th grades, a different kind of ranging has not been observed in the responses of the participants. In the 8th grade, students who do not attend a private teaching institution have stated that they find the subjects of sub-learning domains in math “partially more difficult” in 448

comparison with those who receive support from a private teaching institution. 1st and 2nd semester school reports/ report cards of the final scores and learning difficulty in math; In terms of the relationship between the 1st semester school reports of secondary school students from 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grades and the learning difficulties, a different kind of ranging has been observed in the responses of the participants that account for “It was partly difficult,” and “It was easy.” Naturally, this difference stems from the fact that students, who have final scores calculated as 1, 2, and 3 out of 5.00, find math subjects more challenging in comparison with the others. Table 4: A comparison of student and teacher views with regard to difficulties in learning math. Mean Grade Domain Group N U p Rank 7 Geometry Student 429 222,34 3147 ,044* Teacher 20 282,15 Statistics and Probability Student 429 221,57 2817,5 ,009** Teacher 20 298,63 Geometry 8 Student 429 240,22 3417,5 ,00** Teacher 20 136,55 Numbers Student 429 238,82 4031,5 ,002** Teacher 20 158,48 Statistics and Probability Student 429 237,96 4409,5 ,011** Teacher 20 171,98 Algebra Student 429 238,74 4064,5 ,003** Teacher 20 159,66 *p<. 05

**p<. 01

Gender-related teacher views and students’ learning difficulty in math; When we cast a look at the levels of students’ learning difficulties in math according to the gender-related views of secondary school teachers, the ranging shows that in 5th grade, in subjects such as “measures” and “geometry;” in 7th grade, in all the subjects; in 8th grade, in subjects except “algebra,” the female teachers have stated that students are more challenged in comparison with male teachers. In 6th and 7th grades, however, male teachers have declared that students find subjects like “algebra” partially more difficult when compared with female teachers. When the opinions pertaining to the subjects which students find most difficult in math are compared in terms of learning domains, it is seen that there is no meaningful difference between the views of 5th and 6th grade students and their teachers (p>.05). This finding shows that the opinions of the students and teachers pertaining to the learning difficulties in math appear to be on the same plane. In 7th grade, there is a difference between the views of students and teachers in the domain of geometry (p<.05); in statistics and probability (p<.01); whereas in 8th grade, there is a meaningful difference between the views of students and teachers with regard to the learning difficulties in all domains of math (geometry, numbers, statistics and probability, and algebra) at the level of p<.01 (Table 4). In correspondence with this finding, teachers 449

believe that students are more challenged in the related learning domains of math when their views are compared with the views of the students themselves. In 7th grade, student and teacher views are of similar nature when it comes to other “numbers” and “algebra” domains. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This study has attempted to describe the learning difficulties in math for secondary school students. The subjects that challenge students most in mathematics have been identified with the help of student and teacher views. According to 5th, 6th, and 7th grade students, the most challenging learning domain in math is “numbers.” According to students of 8th grade, the most difficult domain is “geometry.” Teachers, too, agree with 8th grade students. According to math teachers, the most challenging field in all classes is “geometry.” In regard with the difficulty of geometry for students, there are a number of studies within the body of literature that support this outcome. For instance, in a research made to assign the misconceptions of secondary school students related to the concept of the trapezoid in geometry, Çakır, Baysal and Gün (2012) have confirmed that students tend to comment more on the appearance of geometrical figures than their traits. İnce (2012) has carried out a research on 8th grade students in the province of Ankara and the city centre in order to shed light on the levels of student understanding about transformational geometry and spatial visualization. The research has ensued with a result against the students in the provincial area. Geometry is a sub-branch of mathematics that deals with spatial relationships. It may be considered necessary in almost every area of daily life. The reason why students have difficulty in learning geometry may be because they are offered incomplete and insufficient learning experiences. For example, if subjects that involve figures do not employ effective materials and methods for visualization, teaching technologies may not be efficiently benefitted. When Khan (2015) tells about the teaching models in his book titled World School, he mentions that when “The Committee of Ten” was founded in 1892 in America in order to standardize the National Education Institution, the committee consisted basically of university rectors, with Harvard University being in the leading place. He finds it interesting what this committee says about teaching mathematics by making the subjects of geometry a sample. Khan (2015) cites the following quote from a book titled “Sphere in Europe and North America, 1760-1820,” published by Cambridge University (2002): After a student learns the art of proving, s/he must cease to be only a recipient. S/he should start developing interpretations and verifications on his/ her own. Geometry is not learned by reading the verifications from the course books; if a study of this kind, based on only receiving, takes a very long time, this subject may lose its novelty much faster than all other subjects; however, at the same time, there is no other subject that can be rendered as interesting and exciting as this one by means of independent working. Shortly, geometry may become the reason for students’ difficulty in learning if it is studied or taught without giving them a chance to work on its subjects by making and experiencing. When looked from another angle, it may be accepted that math teachers are not equipped well enough in the matter of teaching geometry. It was mentioned in advance that differently from math teachers, students share the view that they have difficulty in understanding the math subject “numbers.” There are 450

studies that support this outcome: Avcu and Durmaz (2011) have carried out an inquiry with 6th and 7th grade students about the challenges they confront and the errors they make in operations related to “whole numbers.” As a result of the inquiries, it has been observed that students are not completely in command of the subject referred to as “whole numbers.” While students show a capacity for differentiating between positive integers and negative whole numbers, they have repeated mistakes when comparing whole numbers. They have been unable to decide if they need to place the number “zero” between the positive integers or negative whole numbers, and they have come across the problem of sign for “zero.” They have avoided using a sign in the operations referred to as “multiplication” and “division,” and even if they have used one, they have extrapolated incorrect results. When they have tried to make a “subtraction,” they have shown the tendency for subtracting only the small number from the large number. In their study pertaining to the conceptual errors, Küçük and Demir (2009) have found that 6th, 7th, and 8th grade students do not have full knowledge of the concept of “rational number,” and that they have not fully reached the competence to make elementary operations and to form equations. Zengin (2013) has pointed out the conceptual errors related to rational numbers. In his research on 7th grade students, he has stated that while students had difficulty in showing the rational numbers on the numerical axis, he also has found out that while they were supposed to segment the axis into equal particles, they tended to add one extra particle, to place the negative whole numbers on the wrong side, to make mistakes while turning a compound fraction into a mixed fraction, to ignore the fact that some numbers were negative while they were making an ordering of rational numbers, to add up rational numbers without equalizing denominators, to misplace the numerator and denominator while writing the proper fraction by looking at the fraction model, to equalize the denominators while making a multiplication when there was no such need, to process from left to right while ignoring the priority of processing in questions where there is process priority, to make errors while multiplying two mixed fractions, to make errors in questions that require arithmetic operation skills, especially when adding up a negative number to a positive number in reference to directed numbers. When students begin their education at elementary school by learning natural numbers, this process is followed by learning rational numbers in secondary school, which are taught to them every year by degrees. The subject pertaining to rational numbers carries importance to the extent that it foregrounds the teaching of other math subjects such as ratio and proportion, probability, and measurement. Although rational numbers, which are an important part of everyday life, may be associated with some characteristics of natural numbers and whole numbers, it is a number system with complex and different characteristics that distinguishes it from them. This peculiarity and complexity of rational numbers brings forth some challenges along with its teaching process (Durmuş, 2005). Generally, rational numbers can be expressed in terms of four distinct ways—verbal, symbolic, objective, and modelled. The ability to make transitions between these categories of expression, to establish connections between them, and to operate through these categories of expression will be achieved thanks to the balancing of operational and conceptual knowledge. It is believed that this balance is going to cultivate a higher level of mathematical thinking needed for understanding advanced mathematics, an ability to make logical reasoning, hypothesize, generalize, and correlate more easily between other subjects of mathematics (Birgin and 451

Gürbüz, 2009). The reason why students have difficulty in the sub-learning domain of numbers may be thought as the presence of more than one set of numbers, whose individual characteristics students tend to confuse. As is known, mathematics is a subject whose units are never considered wholly independent from each other. Therefore, it is not expected from a student who has not fully comprehended the natural numbers to proceed with whole numbers. In the same way, it may not be expected from a student who has not comprehended whole numbers to comprehend fully rational numbers which follow sequentially. This situation invokes the analogy of the domino effect. The conceptual errors and the lack of full comprehension in the first set of numbers which students come across, may project itself as a problem in learning other sets of numbers as well, and it may be said that the difficulties pertaining to each set of numbers they learn get accumulated only to multiply further in the future. In regard with the relationship between gender and the learning difficulty in math, the female students attending 8th grade have stated that they find math subjects in the related domains partially more difficult when compared with the male students. Studies which support and do not support this outcome may be listed as follows: Özgen and Bindak (2011) have detected in their research, which aimed to explore high school students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in mathematics, that male students’ perception of self-efficacy in math was relatively higher than that of female students. Yenilmez and Uysal (2011) have reached the conclusion that male students occupy a place in the upper degrees of efficacy in mathematical literacy when compared with female students, in a research in the province of Eskişehir which encompassed 12 different schools, 1047 8th-grade students, and which aimed to explore the mathematical literacy of students who attended the PISA 2003 exam (Programme for International Student Assessment) by asking them 39 math questions that appeared in that exam. In a research made by Alcı and Altun (2007), however, which was applied on 314 high school students and aimed to detect if the preconditioning and metacognitive skills varied according to gender, class, and the domains of math, a meaningful difference has emerged between female and male students in favour of the female students, pertaining to both their preconditioning and metacognitive skills. The relationship between class size and the learning difficulty in math has revealed that while there is no significant difference in 5th, 6th and 7th grades, in 8th grade, students who attend classes with a size between 21 and 30, state that they find math subjects partially difficult when compared with classes with a size between 31 and 40. This kind of outcome may be interpreted as the implication that having more crowded classes is not a reason for seeing math subjects as a challenge; if it had been otherwise, the more crowded classes would have been expected to encounter more difficulty in dealing with math subjects. Studies that approximate this kind of a result are listed as follows: In the study of Aksu (2008), where the researcher undertakes the views of teachers about the new primary education math curriculum, the teachers have agreed that the new curriculum is also applicable in crowded classes. In a research by Mercan (2011), where the researcher aimed to evaluate the teachers’ and students’ views on the situational dimension of the educational curriculum of primary education math classes, teachers who teach in classes of 15-20 students have expressed a more positive opinion about the teaching and learning process than teachers who work with classes of 36-45 students. Finally, in a study by Aşık (2009), where the researcher aimed to explore the 452

level of the math teachers’ skills for using assessment and evaluation devices and approaches, the crowded classes, the lack of time, and the difficulty of evaluation have taken the priority among the top-ranking problems they come across most frequently. 8th grade students, who do not attend a private teaching institution, have stated that they find some math subjects partially more difficult when compared with those students who receive support from a private teaching institution. In the study of Kalecioğlu (2002), who examines the views about the nature of the university qualification exams and their impact on the learning of high schools students, 1934 high school students in total who attend 10th and 11th grades, have stated in the questionnaire that they prefer mostly to prepare for the qualification exam by studying individually, which was followed by those who prefer to prepare with the help of a private teaching institution, and that 11th grade students resort to the latter strategy more frequently. It is quite noteworthy that in this very research, 8th grade students who prepared for the TEOG (Transition from Primary to Secondary Education) exam shared a similar opinion with final year high school students. The relationship between the report card scores from the 1st and 2nd semesters and the learning difficulty in math has revealed that students who hold a score of 1-2-3 (out of 5.00) in their report cards, be it in the 1st or 2nd semesters, find math subjects more challenging in comparison with the other students. This result is not surprising. Kinay (2011) has examined the fears and anxieties of primary education senior students pertaining to mathematics and has confirmed that students who hold a score of 5 out of 5.00, feel the least anxiety over math, whereas students who hold a score of 2 over 5.00 in their report cards possess the highest degree of anxiety. Another variable of this research has touched the matter of how the gender of the math teachers and their views on the learning difficulty in math exposed any difference. Female teachers think that students encounter more difficulty in math classes when compared with their male colleagues. This finding corresponds to the parallel implication that female students feel they have more difficulty in math classes. However, this subject may be undertaken as a distinct subject for research. When student and teacher views about the learning difficulties in math subjects are compared, there is a meaningful difference between the student opinion and teacher opinion in 7th grade over the domains of geometry, statistics and probability; whereas in 8th grade, this difference shows itself in all learning domains of math (geometry, numbers, statistics and probability, and algebra). Teachers are of the opinion that students face much more difficulties in the learning of math domains in question when compared with student views. This outcome induces one to think that students need to improve their awareness or perceptions of self-learning. In conclusion, applying non-traditional methods, techniques, strategies and materials may reduce the aforementioned challenges confronted in mathematics teaching. Essentially, there are studies carried out in this regard and they should continue to be produced (Aydoğmuş, 2010; Aktaş, 2015; Balkan, 2012; Birgin, 2008; Bütüner and Gür, 2008; Ersoy, 2013; Jeannette and Manheimer, 1997; Korucu, 2009; Lisa, Lewis, Bryant, Kathleen, Richard, Rettig, and Kimberly, 2010; Meepracha, 2015; Özdemir, 2011; Özer and Şan, 2013; Özkök, 2010; Stodolsky, Salk, and Glaessner, 1991; Şimşek and Yücekaya, 2014; Turhan and Güven, 2014; Umay 2004; Uygun and Tertemiz, 2014;Yeniçeri, 2013). In order to find solutions to problems of the teaching of math, the education field specialists who work in the discipline of 453

mathematics teaching technologies, math teachers, curriculum development specialists, specialists of graphic and visual design, which is an interdisciplinary domain, and informatics specialists need to perform a conjoined effort, a systematic study, and develop new programmes and learning experiences. On the other hand, in order to cope with the difficulties students come across in domains of math which include subjects like Geometry, Numbers, etc., math teachers can be provided with in-service education in regard to special teaching methods and teaching technologies. REFERENCES Aksu, H. (2008). Öğretmenlerin Yeni İlköğretim Programına İlişkin Görüşleri. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(1), 1-10. Aktaş, M. (2015). 7. Sınıf Matematik Dersinde Bilgisayar Animasyonları ve Aktiviteleri ile Simetri Öğretiminin Akademik Başarıya Etkisi.Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 35(1), 49-62. Aktepe, V., Tahiroğlu, M. & Acer, T. (2015). Matematik öğretiminde kullanılan öğretim yöntemlerine ilişkin öğrenci görüşleri. Nevşehir Hacı Bektaşi Veli Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 4(2015),127-143. Alcı, B., & Altun, S. (2007). Lise Öğrencilerinin Matematik Dersine Yönelik Öz Düzenleme ve Bilişüstü Becerileri, Cinsiyete, Sınıfa ve Alanlara Göre Farklılaşmakta mıdır? Ç. Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 16(1),33-44. Aşık, İ. (2009). Matematik Öğretmenlerinin Ölçme Değerlendirme Araçlarını Kullanabilme Düzeyleri ve Yaklaşımları. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Avcu, T. & Durmaz, B. (2011, Nisan). Tam Sayılarla Ilgili Işlemlerde Ilköğretim Düzeyinde Yapılan Hatalar ve Karşılaşılan Zorluklar. 2. International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their İmplications’ da Sunulmuş Konferans, Antalya. Aydoğmuş, B. (2010). Matematik Öğretmenlerinin Öğretim Yazılımlarından Yararlanma Konusundaki Görüşleri. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Bal, A.P. (2009). İlköğretim Beşinci Sınıf Matematik Öğretiminde Uygulanan Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Yaklaşımlarının Öğretmen ve Öğrenci Görüşleri Doğrultusunda Değerlendirilmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Balkan, İ. (2012). Bilgisayar Destekli Öğretimin, Ilköğretim 7. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Matematik Dersi ‘‘Tablo ve Grafikler’‘Alt Öğrenme Alanındaki Akademik Başarılarına ve Tutumlarına Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Baştürk, S. & Dönmez, G. (2011). Matematik Öğretmen Adaylarının Limit ve Süreklilik Konusuyla Ilgili Kavram Yanılgıları. Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi, 5(1),229-249. Bingölbali, E. & Özmantar, M. (2012). Matematiksel Zorluklar ve Çözüm Önerileri. Ankara: Pegem. Birgin, O. (2008). Alternatif Bir Değerlendirme Yöntemi Olarak Portfolyo Değerlendirme Uygulamasına Ilişkin Öğrenci Görüşleri. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 6(1),1-24. Birgin, O., & Gürbüz, R. (2009). İlköğretim Ikinci Kademe Öğrencilerinin Rasyonel Sayılar Konusundaki Işlemsel ve Kavramsal Bilgi Düzeylerinin Incelenmesi. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi , 22 (2),529-550. Bütüner, S., & Gür, H. (2008). Açılar ve Üçgenler Konusunun Anlamlı Öğrenme Araçlarından V Diyagramları ve Zihin Haritaları Kullanılarak Öğretimi. Necatibey 454

Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi, 2(1),1-18. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç, E. K., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2014). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri (18. Basım) Ankara: Pegem Akademi Cantürk, B., & Başer, N. (2009). Probleme Dayalı Öğrenmeye Ilişkin Öğrenci, Öğretmen ve Öğretim Üyelerinin Görüşleri. Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi, 3(1),134-155. Ceyhan, E. (2012). İlköğretim Matematik Dersi Öğretim Programı Çerçevesindeki Öğretimin Öğrencilerin Cebir Başarısına Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Çakır, N., Baysal, D. & Gün, P. (2012). İlköğretim Ikini Kademe Öğrencilerinin Yamuk Kavramına Ait Yanılgıları ve Bu Yanılgıların Sınıf Seviyelerine Göre Değişimi. Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 5(1),104-116. Çetin, Ö., Dane, A. & Bekdemir, M. (2012). Yığılma Noktası Kavramı ve Kullanımı. Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi, 6(2),221-233. Dağlar, S., & Delil, A. (2010, Mayıs). Yeni Ilköğretim 6. Sınıf Matematik Programının Öğrenci ve Öğretmenlerce Değerlendirilmesi. 12. Annual International Conference On Education’ da Sunulmuş Konferans, Athens, Greece. Durmuş, S. (2005). Rasyonel Sayılarda Bölme Işlemini Ilköğretim Öğrencilerin Algılayışları. Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9, 97- 109. Erdal, H. (2005). İlköğretim Matematik Programı Ölçme Değerlendirme Kısmının İncelenmesi. Unpublished Master’sthesis, Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Afyonkarahisar. Ersoy, E. (2013). Gerçekçi Matematik Eğitimi Destekli Öğretim Yönteminin 7. Sınıf Olasılık ve Istatistik Kazanımlarının Öğretiminde Öğrenci Başarısına Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Sakarya. Ersoy, Y. (2003). Teknoloji Destekli Matematik Eğitimi-1: Gelişmeler, Politikalar ve Stratejiler. İlköğretim-Online, 2(1),18-27. İnce, H. (2012). Kırsal Bölgelerde ve Şehir Merkezindeki Öğrencilerin Dönüşüm Geometrisi Anlama Düzeylerinin ve Uzamsal Görselleştirme Yeteneklerinin Incelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Osmangazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Jeannette, E., & Manheimer, A. (1997). Math Interventions For Students With Learning Disabilities: Mythsand Realities. School Psychology Review, 26(3),397-413. Kar, T. & Işık, C. (2014). Ortaokul 7. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Kesirlerle Çıkarma Işlemine Kurdukları Problemlerin Analizi. İlköğretim-Online, 13(4),1223-1239. Karakuş, F. (2010). Ortaöğretim Matematik Dersi Öğretim Programında Yer Alan Alternatif Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Yaklaşımlarına Yönelik Öğretmen Görüşleri. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 8(2), 457-488. Kelecioğlu, H. (2002). Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Üniversiteye Giriş Sınavları ve Sınavın Öğrenimlerine Etkisi Hakkındaki Görüşleri. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 23, 135-144. Khan, S. (2015). Dünya Okulu, Eğitimi Yeniden Düşünmek. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Kinay, İ. (2011). İlköğretim 2. Kademe Öğrencilerinin Matematik Dersine Yönelik Korkuları. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Dicle Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Diyarbakır. Korucu, S. (2009). Çokgenler Konusunda Karikatür ve Bilgisayar Destekli Öğretim Yöntemlerinin Karşılaştırılması. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Kutluca, T. & Baki, A. (2009). 10. Sınıf Matematik Dersinde Zorlanılan Konular Hakkında Öğrencilerin, Öğretmen Adaylarının ve Öğretmenlerin Görüşlerinin Incelenmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 17(2),609-624. 455

Küçük, A. & Demir, B. (2009). İlköğretim 6-8. Sınıflarda Matematik Öğretiminde Karşılaşılan Bazı Kavram Yanılgıları Üzerine Bir Çalışma. Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 13(2009),97-112. Lai, C.L. & Hwang, G.J. (2016). A Self-Regulated Flipped Classroom Approach to Improving Students' Learning Performance in A Mathematics Course.Computers&Education.(100),126-140 Lisa, A., Lewis, L., Bryant, J., Kathleen, A. Richard, A. Rettig, M. & Kimberly, A. (2010) . Doesmath Self-Efficacy Mediate The Effect of The Perceived Classroom Environment on Standardized Math Test Performance? Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3),729-740. MEB (2013). Ortaokul Matematik Dersi (5,6,7,ve 8. Sınıflar) Öğretim Programı, Ankara: MEB Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Meepracha, W. (2015). The Learning Application Development On Tablet Formathematicssubject. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 197, 1621-1626. Mercan, Z. (2011). İlköğretim Matematik Dersi Öğretim Programının Eğitim Durumu Boyutunun Öğretmen ve Öğrenci Görüşleri Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Muğla Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Muğla. Nasibov, F. & Kaçar, A. (2005) . Matematik ve Matematik Eğitimi Hakkında. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 13(2),339-346. Özdemir, E. & Üzel, D. (2011). Gerçekçi Matematik Eğitiminin Öğrenci Başarısına Etkisi ve Öğretime Yönelik Öğrenci Görüşleri. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 40, 332-343. Özer, M., & Şan, İ. (2013). Görselleştirmenin Özdeşlik Konusu Erişisine Etkisi. International Journal of Social Science, 6(1),1275-1294. Özgen, K. & Bindak, R. (2011). Lise Öğrencilerinin Matematik Okuryazarlığına Yönelik Öz-Yeterlik İnançlarının Belirlenmesi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 11(2), 1073-1089 Stodolsky, S., Salk, S. & Glaessner, B. (1991). Student Views About Learning Math and Social Studies. American Educational Research Journal March 28(1), 89-116. Şenol, A., Dündar, S., Kaya, İ., Gündüz, N. & Temel, H. (2015). Ortaokul Matematik Öğretmenlerinin Matematik Korkusu ile Ilgili Görüşlerinin Incelenmesi. Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama, 11(2),653-672. Şimşek, E. & Yücekaya, G. (2014). Dinamik Geometri Yazılımı ile Öğretimin Ilköğretim 6. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Uzamsal Yeteneklerine Etkisi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 15(1), 65-80. Toptaş, V. (2008). Geometri Alt Öğrenme Alanlarının Öğretiminde Kullanılan Öğretim Materyalleri ile Öğretme-Öğrenme Sürecinin Bir Birinci Sınıfta Incelenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 41(1),299-323. Turhan, B. & Güven, M. (2014). Problem Kurma Yaklaşımıyla Gerçekleştirilen Matematik Öğretiminin Problem Çözme Başarısı, Problem Kurma Becerisi ve Matematiğe Yönelik Görüşlere Etkisi. Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 43(2),217-234. Umay, A. (2004). İlköğretim Matematik Öğretmenleri ve Öğretmen Adaylarının Öğretimde Bilişim Teknolojilerinin Kullanımına Ilişkin Görüşleri. Hacettepe Üniversitesi E¤Itim Fakültesi Dergisi, 26, 176-181. Uygun, N. & Tertemiz, N. (2014). Matematik Dersinde Probleme Dayalı Öğrenmenin Öğrencilerin Derse Ilişkin Tutum, Başarı ve Kalıcılık Düzeylerine Etkisi. Eğitim ve Bilim, Xxxss-Ss, 1-16. Yeniçeri, Ü. (2013). İlköğretim 6. Sınıf Matematik Öğretim Programında Yer Alan Kesirler Alt Öğrenme Alanı Kazanımlarının Öğretiminde Sanal Manipülatif Kullanımının 456

Öğrencilerin Başarısına Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Yenilmez, K. & Çimen, E. (2012). Onbirinci Sınıf Matematik Öğretim Programında Zorluk Çekilen Konular ve Olası Nedenleri. X. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi’ nde Sunulmuş Bildiri, Niğde. Yenilmez, K. & Uysal, E. (2011). Sekizinci Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Matematik Okuryazarlığı Düzeyi. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12(2),1-15.

457

Chapter 35 An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Foreign Language Anxiety of University Students Studying at the Preparatory School of Beykent University Meltem KAYGUSUZ 1. INTRODUCTION “Those who know many languages live as many lives as the languages they know.” ‒ Czech proverb The expression above stating the significance of learning at least one language other than one’s native language highlights the vital role knowing more than one language. Our world is dynamic and knowledge is changeable, updatable according to conditions and needs of people all over the world. For this reason, learning/knowing a new language puts someone one step further to keep up with this globalized world. In an increasingly globalized and interconnected world, English has an important place among uncountable languages. In line with this trend in the world, English has become a priority among the subjects taught in Turkish education curriculum. There are also considerable amount of private foreign language courses for teaching English. Hence, it is the most widely taught foreign language at all stages of the education system. Many Turkish learners start learning English during primary education and continue learning English throughout their academic life. Yet the problem is that the most are far from having the desired level of proficiency either in receptive or productive skills or in both. The situation has no difference at the university. For example, Beykent University where this research was conducted the students have to pass the proficiency exam that is held at the beginning of academic year, September. The students who are awarded 60 or above 100 can start their professional studies in their faculties whereas those who fail, have to enroll in the preparatory school whose language program aims to develop learners' language competences through an intensive language program. The learners in this condition find themselves under various pressures while coping with the difficulties of language learning at a level of proficient enough to pass the final test. The challenges learners face during the process of language learning are various. First, foreign language learning itself is a rather difficult task. It includes many new structures and rules, a new culture, a new way of thinking and learning. Although some learners are successful to perceive and comprehend a new foreign language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate, some have great difficulties in reaching the desired level of proficiency and find the learning process frightening. Furthermore, there are many barriers which are psychological in nature. These relate to anxiety, previous experiences, beliefs, attitudes, etc. Researchers (Horwitz, 2001; Maclntyre, 1999) have been investigating the triggering factors and 

Lecturer, Beykent University, Istanbul, Turkey

reasons behind why some learners are better at acquiring a new language than others. In the light of this purpose, a number of studies have been conducted on the crucial points like cognitive, affective and demographic variables in order to reach a reasonable explanation. In this respect, the affective domain and its influence on foreign language learning context have received considerable attention. Hurd states that “the role of affective variables such as motivation, self-esteem, and risk taking on foreign language acquisition strategies are discussed with a closer look at the ways in which variables are seen to interact with each other to promote successful learning.” (2008). In these studies, the role anxiety plays in foreign language learning comes into play. Anxiety is a vital subject to attract much interest in language education setting, in especially foreign education context. Some defines anxiety as an uncomfortable emotional state in which one perceives danger, feels powerless and experiences tension in preparation for an expected danger (Blau, 1955). Horwitz & Young support the data that most of the foreign language learners experience a degree of anxiety in their learning (1991). Because language anxiety is accepted as a huge problem in language teaching, to acknowledge the fact that existence of foreign language anxiety is reasonable to investigate the possible sources of language anxiety so as to minimize it. Foreign language learning anxiety is associated with a number of negative outcomes in terms of psychological, social and physical (Andrade and Williams, 2009). For instance, when they are tension, they have rapid heartbeat, excessive perspiration, feeling of helplessness, embarrassment, poor memory, etc. These have pervasive detrimental effects on communication skills in language learning. They lead to low performance and achievement. Students opt for remaining silent considering speaking before the classroom as a threat instead of a chance to improve their speaking competence. Andrade and Williams (2008) support the idea that anxiety might hinder good performance and achievement in language learning because anxiety commonly affects learners badly and negatively. 2. Statement of the Problem Considering anxiety is a problem for students who learn English as a foreign language, it seems necessary for language educators to be well aware of the importance of affective factors including anxiety for effective teaching. According to Bailey, Daley and Onwuegbuzie, many students display high level of anxiety because of poor knowledge, fearing of making mistake, losing face, teachers’ behaviors, embarrassment, etc. during the lesson (1999). As a researcher and instructor, I have also been observing negative effects on anxiety on my students’ language proficiency. Due to their anxiety, they avoid using English in the classroom. And thus, they couldn’t benefit various opportunities provided them in the classroom. 3. The purpose of the Study The current study investigates the possible relationship between anxiety and academic achievement, learners’ autonomy, learners’ attitudes towards English learning, emotional intelligence, multiple intelligence areas, learning styles, language learning strategies and motivation. In the light of the outcomes of this study, the factors might have effect on language anxiety in the EFL context are aimed to be identified. Hence, it aims to contribute to language educators by making them well aware of factors affecting learners’ anxiety.

459

4. Significance of the Study According to Horwitz and Cope (1986), anxiety is a major obstacle to be overcome in learning and it is must create a low anxiety classroom for the learners. To understand the foreign language anxiety and its relation with various variables which have impact on learning should be identified. Parallel with this argument, this study investigates if there is a significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and variables such as motivation, multiple intelligence, learners’ achievement in the context of Beykent University preparatory school by raising their awareness of students’ foreign language anxiety and its various effects so that they take some measures to reduce the anxiety levels of students experiencing difficulties in language learning setting. 5. The following Research Questions guided our study; 1. Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and motivation? 2. Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and learners’ achievement? 3. Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and the learners’ language learning strategies? 4. Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and learner autonomy? 5. Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and learners’ emotional intelligence? 6. Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and the learners’ attitude towards English? 7. Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and multiple intelligence? 8. Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and learning styles? 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 The context of the Study and Participants This study investigated the factors relating foreign language anxiety in preparatory students at Beykent University. It implemented a quantitative research design. Firstly, the literature on foreign language anxiety was studied in detail. Then, the research questions were developed. The data collected through the questionnaire were analyzed to measure the correlations between anxiety and its variables. The study was conducted at Beykent University in the first term of the academic year 2014-2015. All of the participants, 150 in total, were students attending a one-year English Foreign Language instruction at the Foreign Language Preparatory School. They were A1 students who were placed according to the placement test results given at the beginning of the academic year. Most were obliged to enroll in the preparatory school courses. Participants’ age ranged from 17 to 21 years. 2.2 The Data Collection Tools Data were gathered by means of utilizing eight questionnaires used in existing studies in literature. The original Turkish versions of the questionnaires were administered to the participants in case the students may misunderstand or cannot comprehend all of the statements in the questionnaires. 460

2.2.1 Questionnaire Concerning Anxiety The questionnaire was originally developed by Kitano (2001), Schmidt et al (1996) and then translated into Turkish and used by Boyno (2011).In the questionnaire, there are 14 items scored on three-point scale with 1 means “Disagree”, 2 means “Undecided”, 3 means “Agree”. The questionnaire is composed of no sub-headings but 14 items investigating to recognize expressions of stress in learners, gather specific information on the sources of foreign language anxiety from participants’ perspective. 2.2.2 Questionnaire Concerning English Language Learning Strategies The questionnaires for measuring language learning strategies were developed by Peacock and Ho’s (2003) and translated into Turkish, then used by Boyno (2011). There are 55 items under 6 sub-headings which are memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social strategies measuring which the participant utilizes that specific English language learning strategy in the questionnaire. The questionnaire is a 5-point scale with 1 labelled as ‘never’ and 5 as ‘always’. 2.2.3 Questionnaire Concerning Students’ Perceptions of Learner Autonomy The original version of this questionnaire used in the study was developed by Holden and Usuki(1999,), translated into Turkish and then used by Boyno (2011). The questionnaire includes 106 items investigating students’ beliefs, expectations and perceptions about leaner autonomy. Each question has nine sub-headings focusing the different aspect of learner autonomy. All of the items in the questionnaire have an evaluation of a 10-point scale. The items were ranged from 1 to 10. The Cronbach’s Alpha score was tested over the questionnaires. The related score was found as 97, which reveals that the questionnaire is reliable. 2.2.4 Questionnaire Concerning Emotional Intelligence The questionnaire was developed by Bar-On in 1997. It was translated into Turkish and then used by Boyno (2011). The questionnaire composes of 88 items that investigate the interpersonal relationship, intrapersonal ability, adaptability, managing stress and general mood in participants with regard to the dimensions of emotional intelligence. All items are scored with 5-point scale: 1 indicating “I completely disagree”, 2 indicating “ I disagree”, 3 indicating “Undecided”, 4 indicating “I agree”, 5 indicating “I completely agree”. 2.2.5 Questionnaire Concerning Attitudes towards English Language Learning The questionnaire was developed by Gan, 2004; R. C. Gardner, 1985, translated into Turkish and then used by Boyno (2011). It includes 79 questions scored on a 3point scale with 1 indicating “disagree” and 3 indicating “agree”. The items investigate the attitudes of participants towards both their English teacher and English courses. The items were used to determine the level of the given adjective in the questionnaires by asking them to choose the most appealing one for them. 2.2.6 Questionnaire Concerning Multiple Intelligence Areas This is an 8-item questionnaire which was developed by Selçuk, Kayılı and Okut (2002), translated into Turkish and then used by Boyno (2011). In the questionnaire, multiple intelligence areas which are visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, verbal linguistic, musical, naturalist, logical, interpersonal and intrapersonal were evaluated under 8 sub461

headings. The items measured the developmental level of the intelligence in the participant. Each area had 10 items scored on a 5-point scale with 1 indicating unappealing, 2 indicating less appealing, 3 indicating highly appealing, 4 indicating completely appealing. For both the whole questionnaire and each of the sub-headings, Cronbach’s Alpha scores were obtained. 2.2.7 Questionnaire Concerning Learning Styles The questionnaire was developed by Grasha-Riechmann (1975), translated into Turkish and used by Boyno (2011). There are 60 items in the questionnaire and the items are handled under six sub-headings (independent, avoidant, collaborative, dependent, competitive and participant). Each of them has 10 items that represent the learning style. In the scale, 1 indicates completely disagree, disagree, 3 undecided, 4 agree and 5 completely agree. 2.2.8 Questionnaire Concerning Motivation This is another standard questionnaire which was developed by Kiss & Nikolov, 2005; Schmidt, Boraie & Kassabgy, 1996; Csizér & Dörnyei, 2005; Yashima, n.d.; Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide & Shimizu, 2004; and R. C. Gardner, 1985), translated into Turkish and used by Boyno (2011). It contains 34 Likert scale items scored on a 3-point scale. And it is used 2 different evaluation types. The items from 1 to 27 are evaluated in accordance with three-point scale: 1 indicating disagree, 2 indicating undecided, 3 indicating agree. The items from 28 to 34 were multiple choice. The items measured the dimension of motivation in the participant in terms of the instrumental or integrative motivation. 2.3 Data Collection Procedure Before the questionnaires were administered to the participants, the permission was taken from Beykent University. The students were also asked for their approval to participate in the study. The data were collected in the middle of the first semester, from 3rd week of November to the end of December in 2014. Each questionnaire was given during the lesson under the supervision of their instructors during lesson time in order to reach more valid data. Also, the students were assured with regards to the confidentiality of the information they would provide by announcing them that their responses would not affect their course grades. To create a secure and sincere environment, the researcher informed the students about the nature and aim of the study. 2.4 Data Analysis The data gathered from the questionnaires were analyzed to find out what foreign language anxiety is and how it impacts the dependent variables in education context. The data obtained from the raw scores of the questionnaire were processed utilizing the SPSS statistical program (Version 21.0). Pearson Correlation analysis was performed to find out the correlation between anxiety and independent variables. Descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, maximum, minimum, and percentages of the variables were computed. In interpretation of the findings, It is assumed that any difference below p=0,05 probability level is considered as “significant”, whereas any difference above p=0,05 probability level is considered as “insignificant”. 3. RESULTS The analyses of the data obtained through the questionnaires administered to the participants were presented. In order to display the results and discuss the findings, 462

tables and figures are utilized. Pearson correlation was employed and the results are given in Table 1. Table 1. The Correlation between Foreign Language Anxiety and 8 variables Foreign Language Anxiety p R N Learner Motivation 0,012 -0,205 150 Learners’ Achievement 0,003 -0,088 150 Language Learning Strategies 0,001 -0,258 150 Learner Autonomy 0,377 -0,073 150 Learners’ Emotional Intelligence 0,026 -0,182 150 The Participants’ Attitudes Towards 0,009 -0,211 150 English Language Learning Multiple Intelligence Areas 0,019 -0,192 150 Learning Styles 0,037 -0,170 150 Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). As can be seen in Table 1, the correlation between Foreign Language Anxiety and the eight sets of questionnaires doesn't display positive and statistically significant value. Thereby, the hypothesis which states "There is a negative relationship between Foreign Language Anxiety and eight variables." can be safely supported by the findings, and it is possible to be claimed that there is a negative and statistically insignificant correlation between Foreign Language Anxiety and variables. 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Research Question 1: Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and motivation? As to the findings of the present study, both instrumental and integrative and in general, motivation appears to be in a negative correlation with foreign language anxiety. When the studies (Clement, Dörnyei and Noels, 1994) mentioned in literature are taken a closer look, the findings are supported positively. The participants are mostly integrative motivated learners who are eager to learn English. The source of low language motivation may be thought as a cause of anxiety when they have a low level of motivation. In this regard, it shows evidence of the importance of anxiety a positive perception of the participants to raise the level of motivation. The increasing level of anxiety will also create a negative perception in foreign language learners. Not being eager to learn English, having high level of anxiety could decrease the level of motivation of the students regardless of their achievement and language proficiency. It might be the reason why learners having high level of anxiety have a low motivation to learn English. Research Question 2: Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and learners’ achievement? The findings show that foreign language anxiety has a significant negative effect on learners' achievement. The direction of the correlation between foreign language anxiety and learners' achievement is in a negative way. The literature sets evidence for these findings concerning the relationships between foreign language anxiety and learners’ achievement. Whereas the studies in literature (Gardner, 1987; Trifoni and Shahini, 2011) support the findings about that if language learners have a level of anxiety in their learning, it is extremely hard to achieve in their activities and 463

performance, some studies (Scovel, 1978; Jain and Sidhu, 2012) claim that a degree of anxiety helps learners to have a success in tasks and exams. However, the present findings show that since learners have some kinds of negative perception such as fear, worries about making mistakes, lack of self-confidence, they may not show a remarkable performance even though they are good at English. Through considering the responses of the participant to the items of the questionnaires, the anxious learners simply have difficulty displaying the language competence they have attained because they have personal experiences related to anxiety that impedes their good performance. Therefore, foreign language anxiety plays a central role in learners’ effective learning process. Research Question 3: Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and the learners’ language learning strategies? To the results, there is a negative correlation between foreign language anxiety and each dimension of the learners' language learning strategies. In literature, the learners make use of the learning strategies in various ways while learning the English language. Especially anxious learners even utilize the strategies to alleviate the effects of negative feelings experienced by them in their learning process (Mohammadi, Biria, Koosha and Shahsavari, 2013). However, the findings indicate that the more anxious the participants were the less frequently they used the strategies. Among the obtained data ranking memory, cognitive, compensation, metecognitive, effective, social strategies, the participant opt for cognitive, metacognitive and memory strategies the most. The main possible explanation of this correlation is that they tend to get and process the new language in cognitive way including solving problem, reasoning, encoding, employing self-regulated way. The reason why the learners employ cognitive, compensation and memory strategies more while learning foreign language might be explained that they are aware of the importance of learning English and using the strategies to improve their learning and decrease of the negative effects of anxiety properly. Research Question 4: Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and learner autonomy? The negative correlation between foreign language anxiety and learner autonomy which is statistically significant indicates that high levels of anxiety have a negative effect on the autonomy of language learners, whereas moderate level of anxiety can be helpful to encourage the learner to take charge of their own learning. In this sense, the study of literature can be proved (Onwuegbuzie, 1999). On the other hand, some studies find out that the learners can cope with the challenges of anxiety successfully since they are aware of their weaknesses and lack in their learning (Boyno, 2011; Grenfell and Harris, 1999). It can be an effective way to solve the problems occurring in language classroom. However, the results of most studies are mostly based on its negative effects on learner autonomy in language classrooms. It supports that anxiety isn’t in concordance with learner autonomy in a positive relationship. The learners who experience high levels of foreign language anxiety have some avoidant behaviors to English learning. It might appear that anxiety damages personal confidence, self-esteem, language achievement, motivation, etc. As a result, it hinders learners to benefit from the vital sides of learner autonomy that is an essential part of learning.

464

Research Question 5: Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and learners’ emotional intelligence? The findings find out that relationships of emotional intelligence with foreign language anxiety, have statistically significant, negative correlation with foreign language anxiety. The findings show that the participant students are lack of some features which are a way of promotion to employ the skills of emotional intelligence. In addition to this, anxiety is an extra barrier to their learning that causes to keep them away implementing their skills of emotional intelligence to the language learning context. There is a great amount of research highlighting the negative relationship between foreign language anxiety and learners’ attitudes in general towards foreign language learning (Khaledian, Amjadian and Pardegi, 2010; Malik, Akhter, Fatima and Safder, 2013). It isn’t a possible to say that anxiety plays a positive considerable role in encouraging the learners to utilize from the dimensions of emotional intelligence. Anxiety is a negative predictor of foreign language learning. To this respect, enhancing optimism among learners may help them in minimizing the negative effects of anxiety. Optimism which is thought one of the vital aspects of emotional intelligence may provide a way to find solutions for better stress management and overcoming the negative effect of anxiety. Research Question 6: Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and the learners’ attitude towards English. The learners’ attitude towards English has a significant value but negative correlation with foreign language anxiety. All of the other dimensions studied on (the attitudes towards the learning situation which is the combination of the attitudes towards the English teacher and the English course, towards out-of-school learning, towards confidence and ability, towards learner’s role, towards teacher’s role and towards initiation along with learners’ attitudes towards English language learning in general) display the significant negative correlation with anxiety. Accordingly, foreign language anxiety doesn’t display a positive role to affect the learners’ attitudes towards English language learning in a positive way. The findings of the present study support the studies in literature significantly (Hussaina, Shahidb and Zamanc, 2011). The findings indicate a close and strong link between foreign language anxiety and learners’ attitudes. The atmosphere of inside classroom environment may be a possible potential predictor of influencing the learners’ perceptions, feelings and attitudes. Considering the potential factors, the language classrooms can be designed by leading learners start enjoying English learning process. Research Question 7: Is there a statistically significant difference between foreign language anxiety and multiple intelligences? The analysis of data of multiple intelligence indicates that all dimension (verballinguistic, logical, visual- spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist) are correlated a negative correlation with foreign language anxiety. The literature indicates that foreign language anxiety influences the dimensions of multiple intelligence area negatively (Saidi and Khosravi, 2013). In the analysis of interpersonal, bodily-kinesthetic and visual learners tend to overcome the difficulties of anxiety more. It can be postulated that the higher degree of interpersonal, bodily-kinesthetic and visual the learners own, the less anxiety they might experience in language learning process. These findings can be explained that the learners have tendency to possess the features of interaction, problem-solving and empathetic (interpersonal intelligence), 465

participation, energetic, learning by doing (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence), exploring things and focusing on details (visual intelligence). For this reason, it may indicate that applying some intelligence areas to their learning might be influenced more by the detrimental effect of foreign language anxiety. Research Question 8: Is there a statistically significant correlation between foreign language anxiety and learning styles? The negative correlation between foreign language anxiety and learning styles which is statistically significant indicates that the result of anxiety factor in the language classroom can be seen clearly. It influences the learners to apply their learning way to the learning context in a negative way. Among learning styles, the participants are apt for having avoidant and dependent learning way due to negative effects of anxiety in the learning setting. The findings show that the dimension of negative effect of anxiety may depend on the characteristics of the learners. The learners having fear, avoidant behaviors and divergent show almost the highest level of foreign language anxiety. On the contrary, the types of learners who are participant, collaborative and independent tend to overcome the negative effects of anxiety in their learning. 4.1 Implication Some interesting results were found in this study. This study has concluded that the students of Beykent University Preparatory School experienced high levels of anxiety. To analysis of findings, the issue appears due to the negative perceptions and belief of the learners towards English, the worries about making mistakes, and fear of negative evaluation. The ultimate purpose of this study is to help researchers and practitioners to lead their way to learner autonomy. In this sense, it is extremely essential that instructors must be aware of the language anxiety in order to foster the educational setting and reduce students’ anxiety may be important to enhance their learning outcomes. First, language instructors should identify the symptoms of anxiety such as the avoidant behaviors to involve the activities, a reluctance to speak English, a lack of self-confidence. They should provide some opportunities make them aware of their own anxious performance and study in cooperation with them to reduce its existence in English language learning context. Over and above, instructors should create less intimidating learning atmosphere to make the learners more involved in their learning without the feelings of fear and unease. 4.2 Suggestions for Further Research In light of the findings and limitations of the study; some suggestions can be made for future research. The questionnaire may be conducted on all students at Beykent University Preparatory School in order to determine the anxiety levels of these students. Therefore, the findings of this study cannot be generalized for all the foreign language students. Second, a longitudinal study can be carried out with a group of participants to investigate the factors influencing foreign language anxiety of university students on to see the long-term effects since this present study was conducted in the limited period of time. Additionally, a follow-up questionnaire could be applied.

466

REFERENCES Andrade, M., Williams, K. (2009). Foreign Language Learning Anxiety in Japanese EFL University Classes:Physical, Emotional, Expressive, and Verbal Reactions. Sophia Junior College Faculty Journal Vol. 29, 2 Bailey, P., & Daley, C. E. (1999). Foreign language anxiety and learning style, Foreign language annals, 32, 63-75.009, 1-24. Blau, A. (1955). A unitary hypothesis of emotion: Anxiety, emotions of displeasure and affective disorders. Psychology Quarterly, 24, 75- 103 Boyno M. ( 2011); An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Learner Autonomy in the Turkish EFL Context Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1994). Motivation, self-confidence and group cohesion in the foreign language classroom. Language Learning, 44, 417-448 Gardner, R. C., Lalonde, R.N., Moorcroft, R. ve Evers, F. T. (1987). Second language attrition: The role of motivation and use. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 6, 29-47. Grenfell, M., & Harris, V. (1999). Modern languages and learning strategies: In theory and practice. London: Routledge Horwitz, (2001). Language Anxiety and Achievement. Annual Review of Applied Linguistic (2001 ) 21, 112 126. Horwitz, E. K., Young, D. J. (Eds.). (1991). Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, Jo Ann. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70 (2), 125-132 Hurd, S. (2008); Affect and strategy use in independent language learning. Settings. Second Language Acquisition. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters, pp. 218–236. Hussaina, S. Z. (2011); Anxiety and Attitude of Secondary School Students Towards Foreign Language Learning. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 29 (2011) 583 – 590. Jaina & K. Sidhu. (2012). Relationship between anxiety, attitude and motivation of tertiary students in learning English as a Second Language .Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013) 114 – 123 Khaledian M. , Amjadian S. and Pardegi K. ( 2013 ). The relationship between accounting students’ emotional intelligence (EQ) and test anxiety and also their academic achievements. European Journal of Experimental Biology, ISSN: 2248 –9215. MacIntyre, P. D. (1999). Language anxiety: A review of the research for language teachers. In: D. J. Young (Ed.), Affect in foreign language and second language learning: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere. Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 24-45 Malik, A., Safder, F. (2013); Emotional Intelligence and Test Anxiety, Journal of Elementary Education Vol.23, No. 2. Mohammadi, B., Koosha, S.. (2013). The Relationship between Foreign Language Anxiety and Language Learning Strategies among University Students. ISSN 1799-2591Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 637-646, April 2013. Oxford, R. and M. Ehrman, (1993). Second Language Research on Individual Differences. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 13, 188-205. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Bailey, P. & Daley, C. E. (1999). Factors associated with foreign language anxiety. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20 (2), 217 – 239. Saidi M. & Khosravi, M. (2013). The Relationship Between EFL Learners Multiple Intelligences And Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. International Journal of Basic Sciences & Applied Research. Vol., 2 (3), 261-266, 2013. 467

Scovel, T. (1978). The effect of affect on foreign language learning: a review of the anxiety research. Language Learning, 1978, 28, 129- 141. Trifoni, A. & Shahini, M. (2011), How Does Exam Anxiety Affect the Performance of University Students? Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2039 - 2117 Williams, K., & Andrade, M. (2008). Foreign Language Learning Anxiety in Japanese EFL UniversityClasses: Causes, Coping, and Locus of Control. Electronic Journal.

468

Chapter 36 The Evaluation of Problem Solving Skills of Primary School Teachers in Terms of Different Variables Selma GÜLEÇ, Nejla MUTLU INTRODUCTION A life without problems or a new problem is not likely. It is also impossible to lead a life or find a place without problems. For this reason, instead of expecting a life without problems, it is important to learn how to solve problems (Güner, 2000). Although problem solving is a systematic approach, most individuals resort to different primitive approaches, like the completely random trial-error approach, in problem solving or wait for some time to pass without spending any effort for the solution of a problem (Hisli Şahin, 1994; Güner, 2000). An individual who wants to lead a healthy and happy life is supposed to have the ability to solve problems which they face effectively. A successful and healthy life depends on the individual's ability to solve problems (Basmacı, 1998). In the literature, there are many studies defining the concept of problem differently. While Dewey defined the problem as everything causing complexity in human's mind, creating a challenge before him and obscuring beliefs (Cited by Güçlü, 2003), Öğülmüş (2001) defined it as obstacles or difficulties faced during the transition from an environment or a situation to a more preferred one, and Altun (2013) defined it as a situation in which the individual wants to do something but cannot decide what to do immediately and about which he has no idea. According to Öğülmüş (2001), starting from these definitions, we can mention three basic characteristics of the problem: 1. Problem is a difficulty which a person has or an obstacle appearing before him. 2. The person needs to solve the problem and sets a goal. 3. Having not encountering the problem before, the person does not have any preparation to solve it and this situation creates an internal tension urging him to reach his goal in the individual. Problem Solving For teachers who are in intensive interaction with people as required by their social lives and profession to establish healthy relationships, make an effort to solve problems, be a good role model is possible through acquiring sufficient social skills. One of the most important social skills making the individual an individual and playing a determinative role in his positive communication with his environment is the problem solving skill (Tavlı, 2009). 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Uludağ University, Faculty of Education, Social Sciences Teaching Department.  PhD Candidate, Uludağ University, Faculty of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences.

Problem solving is defined as “a process requiring a series of efforts "aiming to eliminate difficulties in order to reach a specific goal" (Izgar, Gürsel, Kesici and Negis, 2004). Having the knowledge of the problem solving concept is not sufficient to solve a problem. A person with developed problem solving abilities can use their knowledge effectively in case of problems. A person with insufficient problem solving abilities does not use their knowledge functionally but he only carries it (Altun, 2013). The problem solving approach has one of the most determinative roles in the process of an individual's becoming an individual and adaptation to his environment. Instead of becoming the slave of problems encountered in daily life, an individual is expected to cope with their environment and problems with their own strength and problem solving skills (Tavlı, 2009). According to Bingham (Cited by Yılmaz, 2011 from 1998), although problem solving behavior changes from problem to problem and from individual to individual, the problem solving procedure has some general and basic aspects which seem certain and rather common. These aspects can be listed as follows: 1. Identifying the problem and feeling the need for dealing with it. 2. Effort to explain the problem, identify its nature and area and comprehend secondary problems related to it. 3. Gathering data and information related to the problem. 4. Selecting and organizing the data which will fit the essence of the problem. 5. Identifying various possible solution ways under the light of gathered data and pieces of information about the problem. 6. Evaluating ways of solution and selecting the best from among those which are appropriate for the situation. 7. Applying the determined way of solution. 8. Evaluating the problem solving method used (Bingham, 1998: Cited by Yılmaz, 2011). The problem solving process is composed of the steps of recognition and identification of the problem, determination of the goal, establishment and evaluation of solution alternatives, decision making and evaluation (Kösterelioglu, 2007). Such factors as appropriateness of the problem for the age of the individual who is faced with it, the degree of having background knowledge or education required for the solution, ability, health, attitude, and benefits of the solution for the individual and personality characteristics might be effective in the solution of the problem (Ulupınar, 1997). It is necessary to do a careful and scrupulous work to solve the problem. It is necessary that the individual should gather information, adapt and use this information within the frame of a strategic plan and make predictions and evaluate them. And to do these, the need for time is important (Çetin, 2011). When the literature was examined, it was observed that teachers attached importance to the relationship of problem solving skills with other concepts. That teachers undertaking the duty of training the future's building blocks correctly healthily and knowledgeably should have high level of problem solving skills and share these skills with their students is important in terms of individuals' lives. In this study, determining the level of teachers' problem solving skills is expected not only to be a mirror to show teachers themselves, but it is also expected to make a contribution to the accumulation of studies aiming to establish more special meanings when its relationship with other concepts is examined. 470

In this study, it was aimed to evaluate the classroom teachers' problem solving skills in terms of various variables. To achieve this aim, answers were sought for the following questions: 1. What are the problem solving skill levels of the classroom teachers? 2. Do the classroom teachers' problem solving skill levels differ significantly according to the variables of service length, satisfaction from the school of service and the frequency of having problems at the school of service? 3. What are the types of problems which the teachers face at their schools? MATERIALS AND METHOD The Model of the Study Since it aims to determine an existing situation, the study is a descriptive one in which the ‘screening’ model is used. The screening model is the research approach aiming to describe a past or a current situation in its existing form (Karasar, 2011). Population and Sample of the Study The population of the study was composed of the classroom teachers working at the primary schools in the Osmangazi District of Bursa during the 2013-2014 education year. And the sample of the study was composed of 181 classroom teachers working at the primary schools in the Osmangazi district of Bursa. The descriptive statistics belonging to the teachers in the sample was given in Table 1. Table 1: Distribution of the participant teachers according to various variables Variables Gender Service Length

Satisfaction from the school of service Frequency of having problems at the school of service

Category Female Male 1-5 years

N 122 59 76

% 67,4 32,6 42,0

6-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years 21 years and over Satisfied a lot Satisfied Not satisfied at all Always Often Sometimes Never

48 25 21 11 37 131 13 2 18 147 14 181

26,5 13,8 11,6 6,1 20,4 72,4 7,2 1,1 9,9 81,2 7,7 100

Total

When Table 1 was examined in terms of gender distribution, it was observed that 67.4% of the participant classroom teachers (122) were female and 32.6% of them (59) were male; when it was examined in terms of service length, it was seen that 42% of them (76) had a service length of 1-5 years, 26.5% (48) had a service length of 6-10 years, 13.8% (25) had a service length of 11-15 years, 11.6% (21) had a service length of 16-20 years and 6.1% (11) had a service length of 21 years and over; when it was examined in terms of satisfaction from the school of service, it was understood that 20.4% (37) were satisfied a lot, 72.4% (131) were satisfied and 7.2% (13) were not satisfied; when it was examined in terms of the frequency of having problems at the 471

school of service, it was observed that 1.1% (2) always had problems, 9.9% (18) often had problems, 81.2% (147) sometimes had problems and 7.7% (14) never had problems at their schools. Data Collection Tool To collect the data, a measurement tool composed of two sections was used. In the first section, there were questions aiming to determine the personal characteristics of the teachers (gender, service length, satisfaction from the school of service and frequency of having problems). In the second section, there was the Problem Solving Inventory developed by Heppner and Peterson (1982) and adapted by Şahin, Hisli Şahin and Heppner (1993) into Turkish. The inventory was a 6-point Likert type one composed of 35 questions. The inventory was scored in this way: I never act in this way (1); I rarely act in this way (2); I sometimes act in this way (3); I often act in this way (4); I mostly act in this way (5); I always act in this way (6). In the scoring, the items numbered 9, 22 and 29 were not scored. The items numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 21, 25, 26, 30 and 34 were scored inversely. It was assumed that these items represented sufficient number of problem solving skills. The total score to be obtained from the scale varied between 32-192; while the scores changing between 32-80 indicated a high level of problem solving skill, the ones varying between 81-192 indicated a low level of problem solving skill (Savaşır & Şahin, 1997). That is to say, a high score (the highest score was 192) was interpreted as indicating the inability to find effective solutions to problems and a low score (the lowest score was 32) was interpreted as indicating the effectiveness in problem solving and behaviors and attitudes related to successful problem solving and the individual's confidence in his problem solving ability. As a result of the factor analysis, the scale was found to be composed of the following 6 factors (Sahin, N., Sahin N.H. and Heppner, P. P. (1993). Impulsive Approach (13, 14, 15, 17, 21, 25, 26, 30 and 32) Reflective Approach (18, 20, 31, 33 and 35) Avoidant approach (1, 2, 3, 4 and 11) Monitoring Approach (6, 7 and 8) Problem-Solving Confidence Approach (5, 23, 24, 27, 28 and 34) Planfulness Approach (10, 12, 16 and 19) The factors included in the inventory include the followings:  Impulsive Approach: It measures if an individual acts in the direction of the first idea which comes to his mind without stopping and thinking to solve a problem when he confronts it.  Reflective Approach: It measures if an individual tries to understand the situation, goes over it and take every kind of information into consideration when he confronts a problem.  Avoidant Approach: It measures if an individual hesitates to cope with a problem when he confronts it and when a solution which he applies does not work.  Monitoring Approach: It measures if an individual tries to think of all of the ways to which he will resort to solve a problem and examines his emotions to understand how he feels.  Problem-Solving Confidence Approach: It explains a person's self-confidence related to problem solving. It measures if an individual perceives himself as capable of solving problems and spending effort. 472

 Planfulness Approach: It measures if an individual thinks about only the problem he is faced with and reaches a solution by evaluating the data in hand in a planned way. Analysis of the Data After coding the answers given to the data collection tools, they were loaded into the SPSS 20.0 statistical package program. In the analysis of the data, arithmetic mean, frequency, standard deviation and variance were used and the significance level was taken as .05 in all the statistical analyses. The teachers' problem solving skill levels were determined by using the arithmetic means. To examine if the answers distributed normally, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was applied. The test results were given in Table 2. Table 2: Kolmogorov-Smirnov Normality Test Results of the Problem Solving Skills Inventory Kolmogorov-Smirnov

N

Problem solving

181

X 81,58

Sd

K-Smirnov Z

p

19,75

0,834

0,491

When Table 2 was examined, it was observed that the Problem Solving Inventory showed normal distribution (p>,05) and some findings were reached as a result of the ttest with two independent samples (Independent Samples t test) and One-Way ANOVA, two of the parametric tests. RESULTS This section includes the findings obtained from the study. The teachers' problem solving skills The results related to the classroom teachers' problem solving skills inventory mean scores obtained from the sub-dimensions of problem solving skills were presented in Table 3. Table 3: The teachers' problem solving skill levels Problem solving inventory

n

X

Ss

Impulsive Approach

181

26,69

5,78

Reflective Approach

181

12,06

4,60

Avoidant Approach

181

11,22

4,20

Monitoring Approach

181

7,40

3,13

Problem-Solving Confidence Approach

181

14,57

5,29

Planfulness Approach

181

9,61

3,67

Total

181

81,58

19,75

When Table 3 was examined, it was observed that the classroom teachers' problem solving skills were at low level with the mean score of 81.58. When the scores obtained from the sub-dimensions of the problem solving inventory were examined, it was found that the classroom teachers’ impulsive approach dimension mean was 26,69; the reflective approach dimension mean was 12,06; the avoidant approach dimension mean was 11,22; the monitoring approach dimension mean was 7,40; the problem-solving confidence approach dimension mean was 14,57 and the planfulness approach 473

dimension mean was calculated as 9,61. According to this, it can be stated that since the teachers mostly exhibited an impulsive approach when they confronted a problem, they apply the first idea coming to their minds and are driven randomly instead of thinking of and applying solution ways when solving the problem and, if they do not work, investigating reasons for failing and spending effort to solve the existing problem. According to this result, it can be stated that the participant teachers perceived themselves as low-level problem solvers. Teachers’ problem solving skills according to their gender According to the classroom teachers’ problem solving inventory score means, the t-test results indicating the significant relationship between the problem solving skills and genders the sub-dimensions were presented in Table 4. Table 4: The teachers' problem solving skills according to their gender (Independent Samples T-test) Impulsive Approach Reflective Approach Avoidant Approach Monitoring Approach Problem-Solving Confidence Approach Planfulness Approach Problem solving skills

Gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

n 122 59 122 59 122 59 122 59 122 59 122 59 122 59

X 26,57 26,94 11,90 12,40 11,16 11,33 7,07 8,10 14,34 15,05 9,43 10,00 80,49 83,84

Sd 5,65 6,08 4,51 4,80 4,26 4,11 2,87 3,53 5,10 5,66 3,55 3,90 19,29 20,65

T -,398

p ,691

-,676

,501

-,265

,791

-1,943

,055

-,812

,419

-,939

,350

-1,046

,298

When Table 4 was examined, it was observed that according to the classroom teachers’ genders, there were no significant differences between their problem solving skills (p= .298; p> .05) and the sub-dimensions of the impulsive approach (p= .691; p> .05), the reflective approach (p= .501; p> .05), the avoidant approach (p= .791; p> .05), the monitoring approach (p= .055; p> .05), the problem-solving confidence approach (p= .419; p> .05) and the planfulness approach (p= .350; p> .05). The teachers' problem solving skills according to the variable of service length The One-Way ANOVA results indicating if the relationships between the classroom teachers' problem solving skills and their service lengths were significant in the sub-dimensions according to their problem solving inventory mean scores were presented in Table 5. When Table 5 was examined, no significant differences were found between the sub-dimensions of impulsive approach (p= .492; p> .05), reflective approach (p= .599; p> .05), avoidant approach (p= .632; p> .05), monitoring approach (p= .816; p> .05), problem-solving confidence approach (p= .311; p> .05) and planfulness approach (p= .720; p> .05) according to the classroom teachers' service lengths. When we looked at the total, the result did not change, either (p= .691; p> .05). 474

Table 5: The teachers' problem solving skills according to their service lengths (One-Way ANOVA)

Impulsive approach

Reflective approach

Avoidant approach

Monitoring approach

ProblemSolving Confidence approach Planfulness approach

Total

Service Length 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21+ 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21+ 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21+ 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21+ 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21+ 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21+ 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21+

N

X

Sd

76 48 25 21 11 76 48 25 21 11 76 48 25 21 11 76 48 25 21 11 76 48 25 21 11 76 48 25 21 11 76 48 25 21 11

26,5658 26,0833 28,2400 25,9524 28,1818 11,9211 11,8750 13,2400 12,3333 10,7273 11,3947 10,4792 11,2400 11,7143 12,2727 7,4342 7,5208 7,4800 7,5714 6,2727 14,3289 13,9583 15,7600 16,1905 13,1818 9,4474 9,6875 10,0800 10,1429 8,4545 81,0921 79,6042 86,0400 83,9048 79,0909

5,8750 5,5499 6,7717 5,8350 2,8920 4,6007 4,6977 5,2542 3,3813 4,9212 4,2648 3,8259 4,4090 4,4625 4,7347 3,0302 3,1622 3,5133 3,3402 2,7236 5,1701 4,9549 6,5337 4,8230 5,0560 3,7287 3,3208 4,5361 3,0868 3,9588 20,4640 18,5710 21,3687 18,6705 19,4805

Sum of Squares

Mean of Squares

114,801 5901,486

28,700 33,531

59,020 3758,185

F

p

,856

,492

14,755 21,353

,691

,599

45,996 3141,165

11,499 17,848

,644

,632

15,531 1752,215

3,883 9,956

,390

,816

134,116 4904,127

33,529 27,864

1,203

,311

28,455 2402,241

7,114 13,649

,521

,720

884,410 69343,513

221,102 393,997

,561

,691

The teachers' problem solving skills according to the variable of satisfaction from the school of service According to the classroom teachers’ problem solving inventory score means, the One-Way ANOVA results indicating the significant relationship between the problem solving skills sub-dimensions and their levels of satisfaction from their schools of service were presented in Table 6.

475

Table 6: The teachers' problem solving skills according to the levels of satisfaction which they derive from their schools (One-Way ANOVA) Satisfaction Impulsive approach

Reflective approach

Avoidant approach

Monitoring approach

ProblemSolving Confidence approach

Planfulness approach

Total

Satisfied a lot Satisfied Not satisfied Satisfied a lot Satisfied Not satisfied Satisfied a lot Satisfied Not satisfied Satisfied a lot Satisfied Not Satisfied Satisfied a lot Satisfied Not satisfied Satisfied a lot Satisfied Not satisfied Satisfied a lot Satisfied Not satisfied

N

X

Sd

37

27,05

6,52

13 1

26,76

5,50

13

25,00

6,48

37

11,51

4,79

13 1

12,05

4,42

13

13,76

5,70

37

11,62

4,67

13 1

11,19

4,04

13

10,38

4,59

37

7,10

3,37

13 1

7,51

3,00

13

7,23

3,83

37

14,51

6,04

13 1

14,41

4,87

13

16,38

7,01

37

9,48

3,63

13 1

9,58

3,55

13

10,30

5,03

37

81,29

22,34

13 1

81,51

18,87

13

83,07

22,17

Sum of Squares

Mean of Squares

F

p

42,73 5973,55

21,36

,63

,53

49,02 3768,17

24,51

1,15

,31

15,15 3172,00

7,57

,42

,65

5,13 1762,60

2,56 9,90

,25

,77

46,18 4992,06

23,09 28,04

,82

,44

6,94 2423,75

3,47 13,61

,25

,77

32,56 70195,3

16,28

,04

,96

When Table 6 was examined according to the classroom teachers’ levels of satisfaction from their schools of service, no significant differences were found between the sub-dimensions of impulsive approach (p= .530; p> .05), reflective approach (p= .316; p> .05), avoidant approach (p= .654; p> .05), monitoring approach (p= .772; p> .05), problem-solving confidence approach (p= .441; p> .05) and planfulness approach 476

(p= .775; p> .05). When we looked at the total, the result did not change (p= .960; p> .05). The teachers' problem solving skills according to the variable of frequency of having problems According to the classroom teachers’ problem solving inventory score means, the One-Way ANOVA results indicating the significant relationship between the problem solving skill sub-dimensions and the frequency of having problems were presented in Table 7. Table 7: The teachers' problem solving skills according to the variable of frequency of having problems at their schools (One-Way ANOVA) Frequency n Having Problems Impulsive a) Always 2 approach b) Often 18 c) Sometimes 147 d) Never 14 Reflective a) Always 2 approach b) Often 18 c) Sometimes 147 d) Never 14 Avoidant a) Always 2 approach b) Often 18 c) Sometimes 147 d) Never 14 Monitoring a) Always 2 approach b) Often 18 c) Sometimes 147 d) Never 14 Problema) Always 2 Solving 18 Confidence b) Often c) Sometimes 147 approach d) Never 14 Planfulness a) Always 2 approach b) Often 18 c) Sometimes 147 d) Never 14 Total a) Always 2 b) Often 18 c) Sometimes 147 d) Never 14

X

Sd

25,50 28,38 26,49 26,78 10,50 14,88 12,02 9,14 7,00 13,27 11,10 10,42

10,60 6,39 5,70 5,52 4,94 5,08 4,47 3,46 1,41 4,22 4,14 4,43

4,50

,70

8,33 7,40 6,71

3,74 3,09 2,70

9,00

2,82

17,88 14,40 12,92

5,66 5,17 4,53

7,50

,707

Sum of Squares 60,40 5955,88

Mean of Squares

F

20,13

,598

p Difference

,61 b-d

268,27 3548,93

89,42

4,46

,00

122,65 3064,50

40,88 2,361

,07

39,06 1728,67

13,02 1,333

,26

302,21 4736,02

100,73 3,765

109,30 2321,39

36,43 2,778 13,11

,01

b-c b-d

b-d

11,2 3,65 9,62 3,71 7,71 2,52 64,00 4,24 94,05 22,1982 4327,45 81,04 19,14 65900,46 73,71 17,55

1442,4 372,31

3,87

,04

,01

b-c b-d

When Table 7 was examined, it was determined that according to the frequency of classroom teachers’ having problems, no significant differences were found in the subdimensions of impulsive approach (p= .671; p> ,05), avoidant approach (p= ,073; p> .05) and monitoring approach (p= ,265; p> .05). Moreover, no significant differences were determined between the problem solving skills (p= ,010; p< .05) and between the sub-dimensions of reflective approach (p= ,005; p< .05), problem-solving confidence 477

approach (p= ,012; p< .05) and planfulness approach (p= ,043; p< .05). The significant differences were found between the teachers often having problems and the ones sometimes having problems and the ones never having problems. It was also observed that the teachers never having problems at their schools had higher problem solving skills compared to the teachers often having problems at their schools and the ones sometimes having problems had higher problem solving skills compared to the teachers often having problems. In the reflective approach and the planfulness approach subdimensions, it was determined that the teachers never having problems at their schools had higher problem solving skills compared to the ones often having problems at their schools; in the problem-solving confidence approach, the teachers sometimes having problems at their schools had higher problem solving skills compared to the ones often having problems at their schools and the ones never having problems at their schools. Types of problems which teachers confront at their schools The frequency results indicating the types of problems which the classroom teachers had at their schools were presented in Figure 1. 120 100

98

80

63

60 40

27

31

20 0 student

parent

professional administrative

Figure 1: Types of problems which the teachers have at their schools

When Figure 1 was examined, it was determined that most of the teachers (98 teachers) had problems with students; 63 teachers had problems with parents, 27 had problems with their professions and 31 had problems with the administrators. DISCUSSION In this study, the classroom teachers’ problem solving skills were evaluated in terms of various variables. As a result of the study, it was observed that the classroom teachers’ problem solving skill levels were at low level with a score mean of 81.58. That’s to say, it can be stated that the teachers perceived themselves as low-level problem solvers. Çınar, Hatunoğlu and Hatunoğlu (2009) found that the participant teachers’ problem solving skills were a bit above middle level; Çetin (2011) stated that the primary school teachers’ problem solving skills were at the ‘mostly’ level. While these results do not overlap those of this study, Üstün & Bozkurt (2003) reached the result in a study with the primary school administrators that the administrators’ problem solving skills were at low level. This result shows consistency with the result obtained from the present study. According to the variables of the classroom teachers’ gender, service length, satisfaction from schools of service, no significant differences were 478

found in the problem solving skills and in its sub-dimensions. While, in a study, Biber & Kutluca (2013) reached a finding that the female students had higher level problem solving skills compared to the male students; Çınar, Hatunoğlu and Hatunoğlu (2009) and Çetin (2011) found that the teachers’ and Üstündağ & Beşoluk (2012) found that the preservice teachers’ and Kösterelioğlu (2007) found that the school administrators’ problem solving skills did not differ according to their genders. This finding shows consistency with the study. Çetin (2011) determined a significant difference between the teachers’ problem solving skills based on their service lengths. The problem solving skill levels of the teachers with a service length period of 6-10 years and 11-25 years were higher than those of the teachers with a service length period of 26 years and over. This finding is consistent with the study. Moreover, no significant relationships were found between the primary school principals’ (Üstün and Bozkurt, 2003), the school administrators’ (Kösterelioğlu, 2007) and the teachers’ (Çınar, Hatunoğlu and Hatunoğlu, 2009) service lengths and their problem solving skills. This overlaps the result obtained from this study. Serin (2006) determined a significant difference in the problem-solving confidence approach subdimension between the teachers’ problem solving skill levels according to the levels of satisfaction from their schools in favor of the ones who were satisfied form the working environment. This result overlaps the result obtained from this study. According to the variable of the frequency of having problems, the classroom teachers’ problem solving skills differed significantly. Significant differences were found between the teachers often having problems and the ones sometimes having problems and the ones never having problems. The problem solving skill levels of the teachers never having problems at their schools were higher than those of the teachers often having problems at their schools and the problem-solving skill levels of the teachers sometimes having problems at their schools were higher than those of the teachers often having problems at their schools. Significant differences were found in the sub-dimensions of the reflective approach, the problem-solving confidence approach and the planfulness approach. It was found in the sub-dimensions of the reflective approach and the planfulness approach that the problem-solving skill levels of the teachers never having problems at their schools were higher than those of the teachers often having problems at their schools. It was also determined in the subdimension of problem-solving confidence approach that the problem-solving skill levels of the teachers sometimes having problems at their schools were higher than those of the teachers often having problems at their schools and the problem-solving skill levels of the teachers never having problems at their schools were higher than those of the teachers often having problems at their schools. No significant differences were found in the sub-dimensions of impulsive approach, avoidant approach and monitoring approach significant. The teachers had problems mostly related to students at their schools (98 teachers). 63 teachers had problems with parents, 27 had problems with their professions and 31 teacher had problems with the administrators. SUGGESTIONS Environments where teachers can exhibit their problem solving skills at the highest level to continue their educational duty healthily, effectively and permanently should be arranged. 479

Studies can be made to find out problem solving skills of teachers working at secondary education level. Moreover, similar administrations can be carried out to evaluate problem solving skills of student groups. REFERENCES Altun, M. (2013). Eğitim Fakülteleri ve Sınıf Öğretmenleri İçin Matematik Öğretimi (18. Baskı). Bursa: Aktüel Alfa Akademi Bas. Yay. Dağ. Basmacı, S. K. (1998), “Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Problem Çözme Becerilerini Algılamalarının Bazı Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi”, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İnönü Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Malatya. Biber, A. Ç. & Kutluca, A. Y. (2013), Farklı Öğretim Kademelerindeki Öğrencilerin Problem Çözme Becerisi Algılarının Çeşitli Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Çetin, E. (2011). İlköğretim Okulu Öğretmenlerinin Problem Çözme Becerileri ile Yıldırmaya Maruz Kalma Düzeyleri Arasındaki İlişki. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Bolu: Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Çınar, O., Hatunoğlu, A. ve Hatunoğlu, Y. (2009). Öğretmenlerin Problem Çözme Becerileri. Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Cilt-Sayı: 11-2 Yıl: 2009. Güçlü, N. (2003). Lise Müdürlerinin Problem Çözme Becerileri. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, Güz(160), 273–279 Güner, P. (2000), “Sorunlarla Etkili Baş Etme Yolu”, Atatürk Üniversitesi Hemşirelik Yüksek Okulu Dergisi, c.3. S.1. ss.62–67. Izgar, H., Gürsel M., Kesici S. ve Negis A. (2004). Önder davranışlarının problem çözme becerisine etkisi. XIII. Ulusal Egitim Bilimleri Kurultayı (6-9 Temmuz, Malatya). Karasar, N. (2011). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi Kavramlar-İlkeler-Teknikler. (22. Basım). Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık. Kösterelioglu, M. A. (2007). Okul yöneticilerinin problem çözme becerileri ve tükenmişlik düzeyleri arasındaki ilişki. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Bolu: Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Öğülmüş, S. (2001). Kişilerarası sorun çözme becerileri ve eğitimi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın. Sahin, N., Sahin N.H., Heppner, P. P. (1993). Psychometric Properties of the Problem Solving Inventory in a Group of Turkish University Students. Cognitive Therapy and Research, Vol. 17, No. 4, 1993. Savaşır, I., ve Şahin, N.H. (1997). Bilişsel-davranışçı terapilerde değerlendirme: Sık kullanılan ölçekler. Ankara: Türk Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları. Serin, O. (2006). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Problem Çözme Becerilerinin Çeşitli Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, Cilt 31. Sayı 142. 80-88. Tavlı, O. (2009). Lise Öğretmenlerinin Problem Çözme Becerileri İle Tükenmişlikleri Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul: Yeditepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Ulupınar, S. (1997). Hemşirelik eğitiminin öğrencilerin sorun çözme becerilerine etkisi. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Üstün, A. & Bozkurt, E. (2003). İlköğretim Okulu Müdürlerinin Kendilerini Algılayışlarına Göre Problem Çözme Becerilerini Etkileyen Bazı Mesleki Faktörler. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi Mart 2003 Cilt:11 No:1 Üstündağ, S. & Beşoluk, Ş. (2012). Fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının problem çözme becerilerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. X. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi, Niğde Üniversitesi, s. 532, 27-30 Haziran 2012, Niğde. Yılmaz, N. (2011). Okul Öncesi Öğretmenlerinin İletişim Becerileri, Problem Çözme Becerileri ve Empatik Eğilim Düzeyleri. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Muğla: Muğla Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.

480

Chapter 37 An Investigation on Students’ Attitudes towards the Physical Education Course1 Yakup KOÇ  , Kemal TAMER  INTRODUCTION An individual’s attitude towards courses during his/her education life has an influence on him/her throughout the life. This influence covers all areas ranging from the success he/she achieves and choice of profession to life style and quality. Tamer and Pulur (2001) define physical education as the process in which a person makes a change in his behaviors deliberately in accordance with the purpose of physical education (physically, emotionally, socially and mentally) by means of participating in physical exercises. An attitude is defined as “a disposition attributed to an individual which regularly creates feelings, thoughts and behaviors with regard to a psychological object” (Kağıtçıbaşı, 2005). Physical education and sport activities, which play an effective role in guiding human behaviors, leading a healthy life and discovering talented athletes for competitive sports, should be introduced at early ages and be established as a habit. It is very hard to establish this habitat advanced ages (Yenal et al., 1999). Societies consider physical education and sports as an integral and complementary part of creating healthy generations. Therefore, they adopt this process as a government policy and execute in such a way encompassing all periods of human life. Particularly, schools take an important place in making students love and perform physical education and sports activities (Bilge, 1988). In the school environment, students develop attitudes towards the physical education and sports course as is the case with other education fields. The students’ developing a positive attitude towards the physical education course can lead efficient teaching of lessons and motive the teacher (Demirhan and Altay, 2001). Throughout their education, students may develop both positive and negative attitudes towards the physical education course which is included in the curriculum as a mandatory and/or elective manner. Students who exhibit positive attitudes towards the physical education program likely participate in activities willingly and with enthusiasm whereas those who exhibit negative attitudes may behave unwillingly and involuntarily. These attitudes may lead them to develop negative attitudes towards physical activities also in their future lives (Chung and Philips, 2002). Harrison and Blakemore (1992) state that students show more interest to physical education courses than they show to other courses, and their attitudes towards this course are generally positive. A scientific study by Güray (2002) supports this argument. In this study, primary school (grades 1-8) students were asked “Which course 1

This study is a summary of Yakup Koç’s PhD Dissertation completed at Gazi University, Institute of Educational Sciences.  Assist. Prof. Dr., Erzincan University, Faculty of Education, Erzincan  Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Sports Sciences Faculty, Ankara.

do you like most at school?”. Out of 12 courses, 20 % of male students and 12 % of female students mentioned the physical education course in the first place. Understanding the factors affecting attitudes of students towards physical education courses during rearrangement of the syllabuses of courses by the Ministry of Education within the framework of “Restructuring in primary (grades 1-8) and secondary (grades 9-12) education” may have an effect on choice of activities and achievement of students during the process of rearrangement of syllabuses of the physical education course. If attitudes of students towards physical education and sports during their development period can be kept at a high level, the shortest path for avoiding sedentary lifestyles which constitute a great risk for their future lives can be achieved. This investigation was made to determine the primary and secondary school students' attitudes towards physical education course according to their personal information differences. MATERIALS AND METHODS Research Model: This research aims to define and explain an existing situation. Therefore, a descriptive model has been preferred as the research model. Research Group: The research group was formed from the randomly selected total of 960 students attending the primary schools (4-8th grades) and students of secondary schools (9-11th grades) from the city of Delice (Kırıkkale) during the spring term of 2006-07 Academic Year. The research group consists of students with an average socio-economic level who live in rural areas of the Central Anatolia Region. Physical education lessons of all of the involved students were performed in gardens of schools without gymnasiums under the tuition of physical education teachers. 422 female and 538 male (totaling 960) students from 5 primary (grades 4-8) and 4 secondary (grades 9-11) schools which were selected through random sampling technique were involved in the study. Data Collection Tools: In the investigation, questionnaire was used as data gathering tools. In the questionnaire applied, the first part was formed by questions to determine the students' personal information. The second part of the questionnaire was related to attitude scale concerning physical education and sports (BESTÖ) which was developed by Demirhan and Altay (2001). Cronbach Alpha scale reliability coefficient was calculated as .93, criterion validity coefficient as .83 and in-class correlation coefficient as .85. Since a previous scale reliability study for grades 4-7 does not exist, before implementing this scale to the group, we conducted a survey among groups of 50 students from grades 4-7 of a randomly selected school with two weeks’ intervals using the test-retest method. Primary school (consists of grades 1-8) grades 4-5 and grades 67 were considered as one group each since they have the same mental development level according to the test-retest method (Erden and Akman, 2006). The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated as .85 for grades 4-5 and as 82 for grades 6-7, both of which were handled as one group each. The scale was prepared as a five-level Likert scale with “Strongly Agree, Agree, Neither Agree nor Disagree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree” items. Statements 6-7, 9-10, 12, 14-18, 21, and 23. of the survey were considered as positive and 1-5, 8, 11, 13, 19-20, 22, and 24 were considered as negative statements. The highest possible score is 120 and the lowest possible score is 24. A score of 1 to 24 represents the most negative attitude, 25 to 48 a negative attitude, 49 to 72 a 482

neutral attitude, 73 to 94 a positive attitude and 95 to 120 the most positive attitude. Another way of interpreting scores obtained from the scale is dividing the sum of item scores of marked statements by the answerer by number of items. By this way, a statistic of 1 to 5 would be obtained (Demirhan and Altay, 2001). Data Analysis: During data evaluation, primarily, frequency, mean and standard deviation of demographics and physical education course attitudes of students were tabulated for all grades. We observed that some variables did not exhibit a normal distribution; however, parametric tests were preferred for all analyses since the research group was large and variable measurements were powerful. The differences between the students’ attitudes towards physical education courses and their grades were tested using the one-way Variance Analysis (one-way ANOVA), and significant dual comparisons were tested using Tukey HSD Test with a significance level of α=.05. Whether attitudes are different in terms of grade and sex factors was tested using the two-way Variance Analysis (two-way ANOVA). RESULTS Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses: Table 1 shows mean attitude of students towards the physical education course by their grades. Besides, table 2 shows that there is a significant difference (p<.01) between mean attitudes of students by their grades. Table 1 shows that mean attitude towards the physical education course is 4.31 for grade 4 students, 4.35 for grade 5 students, and 4.32 for grade 6 students, and these numbers are significantly higher compared to other grades. Table 1:Attitudes of Students towards Physical Education Courses by their Grades and Sex GRADE 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL

FEMALE N X 71 4.31 70 4.33 54 4.28 75 4.06 51 4.21 46 4.05 28 3.98 27 3.93 422 4.18

Sd .41 .47 .49 .58 .41 .52 .58 .55 .49

MALE N X 87 4.30 70 4.38 66 4.36 72 4.24 88 4.20 60 4.22 35 4.17 60 4.14 538 4.26

Sd .44 .50 .58 .42 .47 .48 .51 .55 .55

TOTAL N X 158 4.31 140 4.35 120 4.32 147 4.15 139 4.20 106 4.14 63 4.09 87 4.08 960 4.22

Sd .43 .49 .54 .46 .47 .50 .55 .56 .50

Table 2: ANOVA Results of Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses by Their Grades Source B. Groups W. Groups Total

Sum of Square 9.26 229.69 238.94

df 7 952 959

Mean Square F 1.32 5.48 .24

p .000

(Tukey HSD) Groups 4-11 *, 5-7 * 5-9 *, 5-10 ** 5-11 **, 6- 10 * 6-11 *

* P<.05 ** P< .01

Table 3 shows mean attitudes of students towards the physical education course by their sex. Figure 1 shows a graphical representation of mean attitudes of students by their grades and sex. Table 3 shows that the mean score of attitudes towards the physical education course is 4.18 for female students, 4.26 for male students and 4.22 483

for combined male and female students. Results of a two-way ANOVA (grade and sex) showed that mean attitudes of students by grade and sex factors are not significantly different (p>.05). Table 3: Two-way ANOVA Results of Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses by Their Grades and Sex Sum of Square 10.21 2.43 1.72 226.04 17362.87

Source Grade Sex Grade *Sex Error Total

df 7 1 7 944 960

Mean Square 1.46 2.43 .25 .24

F 6.09 10.16 1.03

p .000 .001 .410

Figure 1: Graphic Representation of Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses by Their Grades and Sex

Attitudes Based on Demographics: As table 4 indicates, there is not a significant difference (p>.05) between attitudes of students towards the physical education course by their residential environment. This means that the type of place they live in does not affect the students’ attitudes towards the physical education course. However, mean attitudes of students living in county towns are higher than that of students living in towns and villages. Table 4: ANOVA Results of Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses by Type of Residential Environment Source of Variable

Group N

X

Sd Source

1 211 4.20 .52 B. Groups Type of 2 462 4.20 .50 W. Groups Residential 3 287 4.27 .50 Total Environment Groups: 1: villages, 2: towns, 3: county towns

Sum of df Square

Mean F Square

p

1.06

2

.53

.120

237.89

957

.25

238.95

959

2.12

Table 5 shows that there is not a significant difference (p>.05) between attitude scores of the students towards the physical education course by education level of their

484

fathers. Mean attitudes of students by education level of their fathers are close to each other whereas attitude scores of students the education level of whose fathers are the highest (high school or above) ( X =4.22) is higher than attitude scores of students the education level of whose fathers are the lowest (primary school stage I (grades 1-4) or below) ( X =4.19). Table 5: ANOVA Results of Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses by Education Level of Their Fathers Source of Group Variable 1 Education Level of 2 Father 3

N

X

Sd Source

479 4.19 .51 B. Groups 230 4.26 .49 W. Groups

Sum of df Square

Mean F Square

p

1.16

.58

.098

2

2.33

237.79 957 .25 251 4.22 .50 Total 238.94 959 Groups: 1: Primary school stage I (grades 1-4) or below, 2: Primary school stage II (grades 5-8), 3: High School or above

Table 6 shows that attitude scores of the students the education level of whose mothers is primary school stage II (grades 5-8) are the highest ( X =4.26) whereas attitude scores of the students the education level of whose mothers is primary school stage I (grades 1-4) or below are the lowest ( X =4.21). Table 6 shows that there is not a significant difference (p>.05) between attitudes of the students towards the physical education course by education level of their mothers. Table 6: ANOVA Results of Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses by Education Level of Their Mothers Sum of Mean Source of df F p Group N X Sd Source Square Square Variable Education 1 716 4.21 .50 B. Groups .28 2 .13 .56 .574 169 4.26 .51 W. Groups 238.67 957 .25 Level of 2 Mother 3 75 4.24 .50 Total 238.95 959 Groups: 1: Primary school stage I (grades 1-4) or below, 2: Primary school stage II (grades 5-8), 3: High School or above

Table 7 shows mean attitudes of students towards the physical education course by how they view economic conditions of their families. It is seen that there is not a significant difference (p>.05) between attitudes of the students towards the physical education course by how they view economic conditions of their families. Table 7 indicates that attitudes of students towards the physical education course who view economic conditions of their families as good are the highest ( X =4.25) whereas attitudes of students towards the physical education course who view economic conditions of their families as poor are the lowest ( X =4.16). Table 7: ANOVA Results of Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses by How They View Economic Conditions of Their Families Source of Group N X Sd Variable Economic 1 524 4.25 .51 Conditions 2 332 4.20 .47 of Family 3 104 4.16 .54 Groups: 1: Good, 2: Mediocre, 3: Poor

Source B. Groups W. Groups Total

485

Sum of Square .85 238.10 238.94

df 2 957 959

Mean F Square .43 1.71 .25

p .182

Table 8 shows mean attitudes of students towards the physical education course by academic success. It is understood that there is a significant difference (p<.01) between attitudes of the students towards the physical education course by how they view their academic success. Table 8 indicates that attitudes of students towards the physical education course who view their academic success as good are the highest ( X =4.29) whereas attitudes of students towards the physical education course who view their academic success as poor are the lowest ( X =4.09). A Tukey HSD multiple comparison test which was conducted to understand where the difference originated showed that attitudes of students who view their academic success as good are significantly higher than attitudes of students who view their academic success as mediocre and poor (p<.01). Table 8: ANOVA Results of Attitudes of Students Towards Physical Education Courses by How They View Their Academic Success

Academic Success

G ro u

Source of Variable

** P< 0,01

1 2 3

N

X

Sd

Source

Sum of df Square

Between 5.33 Groups Within 313 4.17 .50 233.61 Groups 129 4.09 .53 Total 238.94 Groups: 1: Good, 2: Mediocre, 3: Poor 518 4.29

.48

2

MS

F

p

(Tukey HSD)

2.67

10.92

.000**

1-2 **

957 .24

1-3 **

959

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Attitudes of Students towards Physical Education Courses Based on an examination of attitude scores of the students we can conclude that attitudes of all of the students towards the physical education course are positive. A literature review reveals that there are studies particularly conducted in Turkey on attitudes of grades 6-8 and 9-11 students towards the physical education course, but no study exists on grades 4 and 5 students from primary stage I schools. Studies have generally reported positive attitudes of students towards the physical education course (Alenezi, 2005; Birtwistle, 1991; Çetin, 2007; Chung and Philips, 2002; Hünük and Demirhan, 2003; Kangalgil, Hünük and Demirhan, 2004; Koca and Asçı, 2004; Koca and Asçı, 2006; Koca and Demirhan, 2004; Koca et al, 2005; Stelzer et al., 2004; Stewart and Green, 1991, and Şişko and Demirhan, 2002). Studies conducted both in and out of Turkey report that as age and grades of students advance, their attitude scores towards the physical education course reduce (Erkmen et al., 2006; Hatten, 2004; Holoğlu, 2006; Hünük, 2006; Hünük and Demirhan, 2003; Kangalgil, Hünük and Demirhan, 2004; King, 1994; Krouscas, 1999 Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007; Şişko and Demirhan, 2002; Tannehill and Zakrajsek, 1993). Data by grades in Figure 1 indicate that mean attitudes of male students towards the physical education course are parallel to that of female students. Contrary to a general tendency of reducing mean attitudes, only grade 8 female students and grade 9 male students display an increased attitude. The difference between attitude scores of students by their sex is statistically significant. Based on these results, we can conclude that in general, attitudes of male students in primary (grades 1-8) and secondary (grades 9-12) schools are more positive compared to female students in such schools. This is supported by results of similar studies (Stelzer et al., 2004; Şişko and Demirhan, 2002; 486

Hünük and Demirhan, 2003; Koca et al., 2005; Koca and Asçı, 2004; Chung and Philips, 2002; Koca and Demirhan, 2004; Kangalgil, Hünük and Demirhan, 2004; Balyan et al., 2005; Çetin, 2007; Hatten, 2004). However, some studies on students from primary schools (grades 1-8) report higher attitude scores for female students compared to male students (Altay and Özdemir, 2006; Koçak and Hürmeriç, 2006; Koçak and Hürmeriç, 2004; Birtwistle and Brodie, 1991). Apart from these, King (1994) has reported a higher attitude for female students until age 14 compared to males and vice versa after that age. Similar studies have emphasized on development characteristics of female students as a cause of their development of low attitude especially after puberty, and female students have been shown to feel uncomfortable in coeducation systems (Kimball, 2007). In terms of directing student to sports, we can conclude that particularly high positive attitudes of grades 4 and 5 female students towards physical education and sports activities make directing them to sports easier. If particularly female students are not directed to sports when they are at such grades, attempts of directing them to sports in further years may be unsuccessful due to their development characteristics. In the same way, as Figure 1 shows, after grades 4 and 5, attitudes of male students towards physical education and sports courses regress. If male students can be directed to regular sports activities at least during such grades, it would be an advantage in terms of achieving sportive success. Güllü (2007) suggests that for primary (grades 1-8) and secondary (grades 9-12) school students, males enjoy and participate in physical education lessons more, fulfill their responsibilities more and have more positive opinions regarding the physical education course compared to females, which is also supported by other studies. A study by Treanor et al. (1998) reported that male students feel themselves stronger, more capable and powerful during physical education lessons compared to female students. A reason for attitudes of female students towards physical education activities being less compared to male students may be socio-cultural factors. Particularly, in some areas, female students abstain from bringing their body image into the forefront in coeducation environments. Attitudes Based on Demographics In his study, Çetin (2007) failed to find a significant difference with regard to attitudes of secondary school (grades 9-12) students towards physical education and sports in terms of the environment they live in. However, Çetin reported a higher attitude for students living in county towns compared to those living in towns and villages. Holoğlu (2006) found a significantly lower attitude towards the physical education course for students living in villages compared to those living in other places. The reason for higher mean attitudes of students living in cities and country towns may be the opportunities they have in terms of sports facilities and leisure. Koçak and Hürmeriç (2006) found that there is not a significant difference between attitudes of primary school (grades 1-8) students towards the physical education course in terms of education levels of their fathers. However, in a study on primary school (grades 1-8) female students, Holoğlu (2006) concluded that there is a significant difference between attitudes of them towards the physical education course in terms of education levels of their fathers. 487

Güllü (2007) stated a significant difference between attitudes of high school students towards the physical education course in terms of education levels of their fathers, namely between students whose fathers are illiterate and those who fathers are university graduates. Güllü argues that interests, thoughts and attitudes of an educated person and the child he/she raised towards sports, arts and cultural activities would be positive. Güllü concluded that in development of attitudes of primary school (grades 18) students, who can be considered as small children, towards the physical education course, education level of their fathers do not have a significant role whereas education levels of fathers of secondary school (grades 9-12) students who are in puberty play a role on development of their attitudes. Development of basic skills of children, detecting capable ones, discovering and training successful student are important in terms of future of sports. For this purpose, families should believe in all benefits of sports and attach a great importance to parentteacher association. In short, families should have a sports culture in order to educate their children with regard to this subject. Only families with adequate knowledge will encourage and support their children with regard to healthy sport (Hergüner, 2001). In a study on female students from grades 6-8, Holoğlu (2006) found that attitudes of students towards the physical education course were significantly different in terms of education levels of their fathers in that attitudes of students with higher education level for their fathers were higher. Although results obtained in that study do not suggest a significant difference, they indicate that a father with a higher education level helps the student in developing a positive attitude towards physical education in parallel to other studies. Studies on students from primary school (grades 1-8) (Koçak and Hürmeriç, 2006; Koçak and Hürmeriç, 2004) reported that there is not a significant difference between attitudes of students towards the physical education course in terms of education levels of their mothers. However, Holoğlu (2006) has found a significant difference between attitudes of female students from primary school (grades 1-8) towards the physical education course in terms of education levels of their mothers. In a study on students from secondary school (grades 9-12) by Güllü (2007), a significant difference was found between attitudes of students in terms of education levels of their mothers. In a study conducted on the influence of families on directing their children to physical activities, Brustad (1993) has shown that families with a relatively high socioeconomic level direct their children in participating in physical activities more. Birtwistle and Brodie (1991) reported that there is not a significant difference between attitudes of students towards the physical education course in terms of their socio-economic levels. Likewise, Güllü (2007) and Çetin (2007) reported that there is not a significant difference between attitudes of students towards physical education and sports in terms of monthly income of their families. Academic failure is a great source of motivation for sportive success in social point of view and therefore, students without academic success may display a better sportive performance. This conclusion may be the best shortcut for those who are successful in sports, but not academically. Starts (1961, 1966) could not find any supporting evidence (in both studies), i.e. an evidence to conclude that sportive success depends on the motivation caused by academic failure. Indeed, results of these suggest existence of a positive relationship between academic success and sportive performance (as cited by Dexter, 1998). Furthermore, Çetin (2007) has found that academic success of a student 488

affects his/her attitude towards physical education and sports significantly. It has been observed that as academic success level reduces, attitudes towards physical education and sports regress as well. Hines (2001) has found a significant relationship between the attitude towards physical activity and the success in mathematics. Today, we observe that the opinion of families regarding that sportive activities negatively affect academic success of their children is becoming less common and even many families are directing their children to various branches of sports for a fee. In terms of directing student to sports, we can conclude that particularly high positive attitudes of grades 4 and 5 female students towards physical education and sports activities make directing them to sports easier. Likewise, if male students can be directed to regular sports activities at least during grades 4 and 5, it would be an advantage in terms of achieving sportive success. After a legislation change in 2012, physical education lessons for grade 4 students are instructed by class teachers. We can conclude that for achieving more satisfactory outcomes in physical education and sports fields in Turkey, physical education teachers should instruct physical education lessons also for grade 4 students. Researchers are suggested to conduct studies on why students of higher grades have reduced attitude scores towards the physical education course. REFERENCES Alenezi, M.A. (2005). Attitude of Secondary Students Toward Physical Education Classes in Kuweit. Ph.D. Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University. Altay, F. ve Özdemir, Z. (2006). Ankara İli Merkez İlçelerinde İlköğretim Birinci Kademesinde Öğrenim Gören 4. ve 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Dersine İlişkin Tutumlarının Karşılaştırılması. 9. Uluslar Arası Spor Bilimleri Kongresi. 3–5 Kasım, Muğla Üniversitesi. Muğla: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Balyan, M., Moralı, S. and Onursal, A.M. (2005). The Attitudes of Various Secondary School Students Toward Physical Education Lessons (İzmir Sample). 46th ICHPER-SD Anniversary World Congress, November 9- 13, Grand Cevahir Hotel and Convention Center, İstanbul. Birtwistle, G.E. and Brodie, D.A. (1991). Children’s Attitudes Towards Activity and Perceptions of Physical Education. Health Education Research, 6, (4), 465-478. Bilge, N. (1988). Türkiye’de Beden Eğitimi Öğretmeninin Yetiştirilmesi. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1095. Brustad RJ. (1993). Parental and Psychological Influences on Children’s Attraction to Physical Activity. Pediatric Exercise Science; (5): 210-213. Chung, M. and Philips, D.A. (2002). Attitude Toward Physical Education and Leisure- Time Exercise in High School Students. Physical Educator, 59, (3), 126-139. Çetin, M. (2007). Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Beden Eğitimi ve Spora İlişkin Tutumlarının Karşılaştırılması (Kırşehir İl Örneği). Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Öğretmenliği Ana Bilim Dalı. Ankara. Demirhan, G. ve Altay, F. (2001). Lise Birinci Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Dersine İlişkin Tutum Ölçeği II. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Dergisi. 12. (2), 9–20, Ankara. Dexter, T. (1999). Relationship Between Sport Knowledge, Sport Performance and Academic Ability: Empirical Evidence From GCSE Physical Education. General Certificate of Secondary Education. Journal of Sport Science. 17 . 283-295. UK 489

Erden, M. ve Akman. Y., (2006). Gelişim Öğrenme-Öğretme. (Onbeşinci Baskı). Ankara: Arkadaş Yayınevi. Erkmen, G., Tekin, M. ve Taşğın, Ö. (2006). Özel İlköğretim Okullarında Örgenim Gören Öğrencilerin Çeşitli Değişkenlere Göre Beden Eğitimi Dersi Hakkındaki Tutum ve Görüşleri. 9. Uluslararası Spor Bilimleri Kongresi. 3-5 Kasım, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi, Muğla. Güllü, M. (2007). Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Beden Eğitimi Dersine İlişkin Tutumlarının Araştırılması. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Güray, E. (2002). İlköğretim Okullarındaki Öğrencilerin Beden Eğitimi Dersi Hakkındaki Düşünceleri ve Beklentileri (Gebze Örneği). Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Sakarya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Sakarya. Harrison, J.M. ve Blakemore, C.L., (1992). Instructional Strategies For Secondary School Physical Education (3rd Ed.) Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Hatten, J.D. (2004). Racial Differences in Student’s Interest and Attitudes Toward Physical Education Considering Grade Level and Gender. Ph.D Thesis. The Florida State University. [online]. [cited 2008 Dec 27]. Available from: URL: (http://proquest. umi.com/). Hergüner, G. (2001). Farklı Liselerde Sporcu Öğrencilerin Problem ve Beklentilerinin Belirlenmesi ve Karşılaştırılması (Ankara İl Örneği). Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Öğretmenliği Ana Bilim Dalı. Ankara. Hines, S. H. (2001). Physical Fitness, Academic Achievement and Attitudes Toward Physical Activity Among Fifth Grade Elementary School Students. Ph.D. Thesis. Northern Arizona University. [online]. [cited 2008 Dec 27]. Available from: URL: (http://proquest.umi.com/) Holoğlu, O. G. (2006). İlköğretim İkinci Kademede Öğrenim Gören Kız Öğrencilerin Beden Eğitimi Dersine Karşı Tutumları. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Uludağ Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eğitim-Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Ana Bilim Dalı. Bursa. Hünük, D. (2006). Ankara İli Merkez İlçelerindeki İlköğretim İkinci Kademe Öğrencilerinin Beden Eğitimi Dersine İlişkin Tutumlarının Sınıf Düzeyi, Öğrenci Cinsiyeti ve Spora Aktif Katılımları Açısından Karşılaştırılması. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Ankara. Hünük, D. ve Demirhan G. (2003). İlköğretim Sekizinci Sınıf, Lise Birinci Sınıf ve Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Beden Eğitimi ve Spora İlişkin Tutumlarının Karşılaştırılması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 14, (4), 175-184. Kangalgil, M., Hünük, D. ve Demirhan, G. (2004). Spor Yapan ve Yapmayan Öğrencilerin Beden Eğitimi ve Spora İlişkin Tutumları. 10th ICHPER.SD European Congress and the TSSA 8th Internation Sport Science Congress, 17 November, Mirage Park Resort, Antalya. Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (2006). Yeni İnsan ve İnsanlar. (Onuncu Basım). İstanbul: Evrim Yayınevi. Kimball, R. S. (2007), Sixth Grade Fitness Levels and the Fitnessgram Assessment Program, Ph.D. Thesis. Liberty University. King, M. H. (1994). Student Attitudes Toward Physical Education at the Intermediate School Level. Master Thesis. Memorial University of Newfoundland. Ottawa. [online]. [cited 2008 Dec 27]. Available from: URL: (http://proquest.umi.com/). Koca, C. ve Asçı, F.H. (2004). Atletik Yeterlik Düzeyi ve Cinsiyetin Beden Eğitimine Yönelik Tutum Üzerine Etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri 490

Dergisi, IX, (1), 15-24. Koca, C. ve Asçı, F.H. (2006). An Examination of Self-Presentational Concern of Turkish Adolescents: An Example of Physical Education Setting. Adolescence, 41, (161), 185197. Koca, C., Demirhan, G. (2004). An Examination of High School Students’ Attitudes Toward Physical Education Wiht Regard to Sex and Sport Participation. Perceptual &Motor Skills, 98, (3), 754-758. Koca, C., Aşçı, F.H., Demirhan, G. (2005). Attitudes Toward Physical Education and Class Preferences of Turkish Adolescents in Terms of School Gender Composition. Adolescence, 40, (158), 365-373. Koçak, S., Hürmeriç, I. (2004). Attitudes of Primary School Students Toward Their Physical Education Classes in Turkey. 10th ICHPER-SD European Congress and TSSA 8th International Sports Science Congress, 17-20 November, Mirage Park Resort, Antalya. Koçak, S.,Hürmeriç, I. (2006). Attitudes Toward Physical Education Classes of Primary School Students in Turkey. Perceptual &Motor Skills, 103, (1), 296-300. Krouscas, A.J. (1999). Middle School Students’ Attitudes Toward a Physical Education Program. Ph.D. Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. [online]. [cited 2008 Dec 27]. Available from: URL: (http://proquest.umi.com/). Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2008). İlköğretim beden eğitimi dersi (1 ve 8. sınıflar) öğretmen kılavuz kitabı. Ankara, Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. Stelzer, J., Ernest, J. M., Fenster, M. J., Langford, G. (2004). Attitudes Toward Physical Education: A Study of High School Students From Four Countries- Austria, Czechrepublic, Engand and USA. College Student Journal, 38(2), 02-611. [online]. [cited 2008 Dec 27]. Available from: Database: Academic Search Premier. Stewart, M.J., Green, S.R. and Huelskamp, J. (1991). Secondary Student Attitudes Toward Physical Education. Physical Educator, 48 (2), 72-79. [online]. [cited 2008 Dec 27]. Available from: Database: Academic Search Premier. Subramaniam, P.R. and Silverman, S. (2007). Middle School Students’ Attitudes Toward Physical Education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23 (5), p.602-611. Şişko, M. ve Demirhan, G. (2002). İlköğretim Okulları ve Liselerde Öğrenim Gören Kız ve Erkek Öğrencilerin Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Dersine İlişkin Tutumları. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 23, 205-210. Tamer, K. ve Pulur, A., (2001). Beden Eğitimi ve Sporda Öğretim Yöntemleri. Ankara. Kozan Ofset. Tannehill, D, and Zakrajsek, D. (1993). Student attitudes toward physical education: A multicultural study. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 13, 78-84. Treanor, L., Graber, K., Housner, L., Wiegand, R. (1998). Middle School Students’ Perceptions of Coeducational and Same–Sex Physical Education Classes. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 18, p.43-56. Yenal, T. H., Çamlıyer, H. ve Saraçaloğlu A.S. (1999). İlköğretim İkinci Devre Çocuklarında Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Etkinliklerinin Motor Beceri ve Yetenekler Üzerine Etkisi, Gazi Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi. IV (3) s.15-24.

491

Chapter 38 Values Education in Preschool Period Özkan SAPSAĞLAM I. INTRODUCTION Society is a constantly changing and living system. It is culture, tradition and values that sustain society, keep it alive and continuous. A sustainable society can be possible by transferring culture, tradition and values to next generations. A child’s obtaining values occurs in the way of transferring values to the child particularly from parents, in other words family, and cultural and social environment. Family is the first source of many skills, values and information. Preschool period is the period after birth when development and learning are the fastest and most intensive. Starting by biting, touching and moving objects, the process of learning leaves its place to questions involving the sense of wonder and desire to learn. The experiences the child has in this period have a significant effect on his later social and academic life and his personality; it also determines the type of person he/she will be in the future. Most of the information and behaviors learnt during preschool education are obtained by observation and imitation. Therefore, both parents and preschool education institutions have the responsibility to be a model and provide a rich and stimulant environment to support developments of children. 1.1. Concept of Personality and Personality Education “Personality” is an old concept that recalls a series of inherent traits that are always seen and admired as requirements of kindness, virtue and moral maturity (Kirschenbaum, 1995). The word “personality” is used as individual’s center of morality. Furthermore, in addition to being an individual, the word personality also includes phenomenon with regard to being a group (Shields and Bredemeier, 2005). Davis (2003) defines “personality” as an individual’s natural tendency to do morally the best. Personality consists of particularly thought and behavior patterns in personal living areas. A good personality requires morally good preferences. There might be numerous types of good personality but it is of significance to be reliable morally (Kupperman, 2005). Personality comprises of values shaping behaviors of individual. Character consists of three inter-related sections: moral information, moral emotion and moral behavior. Good personality is to know what is good, desire what is good and do what is good (Lickona, 1991). In ancient Greek, the first westerner educationist to emphasize the necessity of teaching children to be a good person is Socrates (Trout, 2008). Personality education contains all the values that are known, applicable and covers all variables of ethnicity, gender, age, politics or religion (Josephson, 2014). Personality education is the learning 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Gaziosmanpaşa University, Education Faculty, Dept. of Primary Education

process for students in school society and adults for respect, citizenship and responsibility towards oneself and others (United States Department of Education, 2007). Supporters of personality education stated that preschool education programs have a significant role in children’s obtaining values (Trout, 2008). Families, teachers, educationists, instructors and other implementers around the world are interested in an ethics-based personality education for children and strive to build it (Narváez, 2006). Personality education focuses on modelling and teaching certain personality traits such as honesty, courage, determination, loyalty, attention, citizenship virtues, justice, respect, responsibility and reliability (Sunal & Haas, 2003). It is observed that the studies conducted for children to have a good personality also support their moral developments and academic success (Viadero 2003; Berkowitz and Bier, 2004; Benninga et al. 2006). In many studies concerning Personality and Personality Education (Lickona, 1991; Sunal & Haas, 2003; Viadero 2003; Berkowitz & Bier, 2004; Mckinon, 2005; Benninga et al. 2006; Trout, 2008; Lake, 2011) the concept of “value” is emphasized and “values” that are necessary to bring in are mentioned. So, what is “value”, which “values” should be brought in children and how should method and process of bringing in value should be? 1.2. Value as a Concept and Values Education Values are moral principles and rules that are effective on individual’s thoughts and courses of action. By assuming a duty of control and inspection on individual’s behaviors, values prevent behaviors that are unwelcomed by the society. Thanks to his values, the individual performs his internal control before exterior controlling systems such as law or norms. To make a universal definition of value as an abstract concept is difficult. On the other hand, there are numerous definitions concerning the concept of value. In some of these definitions, social aspect of the value is emphasized; in some others, individual aspect and economic aspect of the value are emphasized. Some of the definitions regarding the concept of “value” that is effective on individual’s thinking, decision-making and behavioral processes are: Value; is the belief that a certain behavior or anything is preferable or not (Rokeach, 1973). Values are purposes that serve as lodestar principles for lives of individual or other social beings, have different levels of significance and are desired beyond relevant situations (Schwartz, 1994). By leading the way to our behaviors, carrying our actions, judgements and instantaneous targets to higher purposes, values tell us how to be and act in ultimate aspects (Simon, Howe and Kirschenbaum, 1978). Value is the principles, rules or standards that are desired or deemed valuable (Cooper, 2014). Values are the things that are good and desired and the criteria that motivate and direct human behaviors and affect decision-making processes (Schaefer, 2012). Values are cognitive principles shaping choices of individuals (Sagiv, 2002). Individuals determine their priorities of value in a way that is suitable to their lives. Different values of priorities and features such as age, gender and income in different countries support this thought (Schwartz, 2012). Values’ level of meaning and effect of values might change depending on cultural groups, countries and even time, therefore values might display social differences and changes (Davidov, 2010). While values have universal dimensions, they also might change from society to society in terms of the value attached. Values that are significant for some societies might be less important for others (Singh and Lu, 2003). As stated in many researches 493

(Schwartz, 2012; Davidov, 2010; Singh & Lu, 2003), the meaning carried by the value and the principles it involves might vary basing on societies, time and demographic features. Therefore, values vary across societies in terms of the meaning they carry. Values have a significant role for all relevant disciplines, not only for sociology, psychology and anthropology. Values are used to identify individual and society, follow the change during the time and describe attitudes and behaviors on motivational basis (Schwartz, 2009). In Schwartz’s opinion, values consist of motivational elements that are relatively stable and barely develop during adulthood. As the answer to question of “What are the basic contents of values?”, Schwartz state that universal requirements of human’s existence constitute the basis of values (Bardi and Schwartz, 2003). Schwartz points out that values consciously represent universal requirements of societies and individuals that they need to overcome (Ros, Schwartz & Surkiss, 1999). Value education approach became popular between 1960-1980 and endeavored to make people become aware of their own emotions, beliefs and values. Values education is the main one among subjects that have been increasingly known around the world. Recently, many countries started to put emphasis on this subject (Turan and Ulusoy, 2014, borrowed from Kirschenbaum and Pring). India, Australia and Singapore are the countries which combined values education with their curriculum and make a strong emphasis on values education (Singh, 2011). Values education is intentional and planned activities that are performed in order to bring in responsibility, love, respect, helpfulness, tolerance and other values to children. Values education is an educational activity that encourages bringing in moral values and principles and carrying individuals from youth to adulthood. With this aspect, values education contributes in growing responsible individuals with moral judgement (Aslan, 2013). Values education is to create learning environments consciously and in a planned way in an attempt to bring in the traits that help the individual to know himself, to be in harmony with himself and to have coherence in his thoughts and actions (Akbaş, 2008). Values can only be adopted with an emotional life. To understand and to feel something requires many different operations and phenomenon (Aral, 2012). The objective in values education is to ensure the child becomes aware of his responsibilities towards himself and his surroundings and also his tasks in home, school and consequently in creating a suitable future (Yılmaz, 2010). As it is asserted, values education can also be defined as a study that is openly conducted concerning teaching of values. The purpose of values education is to improve students’ existing values, to introduce the values that are deemed significant by the school and to help the students to change their behaviors in certain situations (Yiğittir, 2009, borrowed from Hooper). It is an effective step to provide education to students on values and ethical subjects in order to create a strong personality (Howard, Berkowitz and Schaeffer, 2004). Values education is provided both formally and informally; with this education, the individual improves his/her value judgement, obtains general values such as integrity, honesty and justice and learns to take responsibility (Stephenson, Burman and Cooper, 2001). Bailey (2000) states that values education should cover four general processes in a democratic society; 1) Reasoning encouragement, 2) Empathy improvement, 3) Self-respect improvement 4) Cooperation improvement.

494

1.3. Purpose and Significance of Values Education The interest towards values education increases around the world (Darling, 2002; Halstead & Pike, 2006, Lovat and Toomey, 2009). Young people are affected by situations such as violence, social problems and lack of interpersonal respect increasing each passing day. Many parents and instructors find the solution in teaching of values. Qualified education perceives the human as a whole and supports the education that involves affective area as much as it does cognitive area (Unesco, Living Values Education 2005). Vincent (2003) stated that moral decline in young generation has increased within the last thirty years. Along with increase of technological developments today, the number of stimulants that will affect the children positively or negatively also rose. Now the children are affected more from the violence, social problems and interpersonal disrespectful behaviors on earth (El-Hassan and Kâhil, 2005). A healthy and happy existence of society does not only depend on the intelligence level of people. It is also related to moral values and personality structures of the individuals constituting the society. Parents are bothered with people’s being disrespectful towards each other, gradual corruption of human values, violence among people and the pressure on limits of communication (Erkuş, 2012, borrowed from Fichter). In Doğanay’s (2006) perspective, individuals who are not equipped with necessary values might display behaviors that might harm the mankind and environment with the information they possess. Providing values education is significant in an attempt to prevent these negativities. When the children learn values, values will help them to reduce their destructive behaviors, prevent them from using alcohol and drugs and support them in understanding their responsibilities towards their families, schools and society (Schaafer, 2012). Through values education, it is necessary to ensure creation of sensitiveness in humane, moral, cultural, spiritual, social and universal dimensions (Yaman, 2012). It is necessary to mention the balance between information and value in terms of significance of values education. The individual equipped with knowledge reaches maturity with humane, moral, social and cultural values (Aydın and Gürler, 2013). 1.4. Methods Used in Values Education There is not a difference between learning values and learning other behaviors. The principles valid for other learnings also apply to this area. However, learning of values is slightly more complicated than learnings in cognitive area. Learning by taking example of a model and identifying with someone else is high in number in learning of values (Aydın and Gürler, 2013). Superka (1973) suggested five methods on values education approaches. These are: value suggestion, moral development, value analysis, value concretizing and action/behavior obtaining. Doğanay (2006) dealt approaches aimed at values education under four topics; direct learning of values (suggestion), clarifying-concretizing values, value analysis, and contradiction discussion. 1.4.1. Direct Teaching of Values (Value Suggestion Approach) Adults’ beliefs of teaching moral values directly to children, shaping their behaviors, bringing in good habits and helping them lie behind direct teaching of values. In this approach, problem solving, cooperative learning, experience-based projects, thematic learning, implementation and discussion methods and techniques are 495

used (Halstead and Taylor, 2000). This approach where it is aimed to teach values to students directly through programmed activities is one of the most frequently used methods. Suggestion approach is one of the most common approaches used in values education since the past. The point to pay attention in suggestion approach which provides convenience of application to teachers is to strive to ensure students perceive the meaning of values and adopt the values as principles to guide their behaviors instead of imposing values to students strictly (Çengelci, 2010). 1.4.2. Value Analysis Approach In this approach which is also named as “value communication” by Ziebert (2007), “interaction” is the determinant factor in obtaining values and norms. Students do not accept the values they are provided in this approach. They develop an opinion on these values and try to interpret them. In their communication environment, they discuss, reason and defend validity of rules, thus they learn discussion. Therefore, they learn not only to express values from their own points of view, but also to put themselves in others’ shoes and see the events from others’ perspectives (Yiğittir and Kaymakçı, 2012). In implementation of this approach, students are given a true incident or story involving social problem in the first step and they are required to identify the incident. In second step, choices are presented and similarities and contrasts among the choices are compared. In this stage, the teacher asks questions about how they should act when they encounter similar situations. In other steps, the students are required to express their experiences and feelings concerning the choices and to develop empathy with values of others. Furthermore, students are asked to make judgement concerning whether their decisions are right or wrong and to give evidence. In the last stage, the student is expected to pick the best one among alternatives that are considered and produced and to make a decision regarding new situations (Seefeldt, 2004). 1.4.3. Value Clarifying (Value Concretizing) Approach The main objective of value clarifying approach is to analyze students’ personal behavior models and to help them use both rationalist thinking and emotional conscious to separate and realize their values (Huitt, 2004). According to this approach, youngsters’ awareness should be raised regarding the values and norms they interiorized in the past and they should be made notice consistencies and inconsistencies. Afterwards, it should be studied on these consistencies and inconsistencies in detail in order to help them create a union of thought, emotion and decision that will enable youngsters to find their own personal identities (Ziebertz, 2007). Kirshenbaum stated that there are four main points of value clarification. In the first step, a subject or a moral problem regarding values is chosen. In the second step, teacher or group leader help participants to think, read, write and speak on a subject by means of questions or activities. In the third step, the teacher of group leader ensures creation of a suitable environment during activity or discussion and lastly encourages students to develop their skills of value (Kirshenbaum, 2000). 1.4.4. Moral Judgement Approach Founder of this approach is Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg is focused on students’ 496

skills of moral reasoning and instead of directly engraining in values to students, he asserted the significance of critical thinking and bringing in values by making judgement. In moral judgement approach, it is aimed to analyze the dilemmas in students’ stories on moral subjects and to get them to highest moral step. This approach rather focuses on moral values such as being understanding, justice, equality and humanitarian sensitivity (Huitt, 2004). There are two different morally dilemmatic situations in the approach. The first one is “Real Life Dilemmas”. Real life dilemmas have many advantages because these dilemmas might automatically arise and they are much closer to children and more sincere. The children are the actors of situations in a way. The other one is “Fictional Moral Dilemmas”. These might be developed by teachers or experts. Since the children will not feel the situation emotionally in fictional moral dilemmas, they might not be as effective as the ones in real life. However, the biggest advantage of these dilemmas is that the children can express their opinions without taking any risks since they know they will not hurt anyone (DeVries and Zan, 2012). II. VALUES EDUCATION IN PRESCHOOL PERIOD 2.1. Moral Development in Preschool Period The word morality in Turkish comes from Arabic word “hulk” (Devellioğlu, 1978). It has the same meaning with Ancient Greek word “ethos” and Latin word “mos” (moral) (Tanyol, 1960). Morality; is the way of behaviors and rules that individuals of a society must follow (TDK, 2015). It is the values, norms and social rules regarding the right and wrong (Özeri, 1994; Ülken, 2001; Aydın, 2003). With the ending of babyhood, the children start to know and discover the world surrounding them. This discovery is not only related to physical dimension of the world. Children also start to learn the rules, values and norms of the world they are living in. Preschool years are considerably effective on moral development as they are in other development areas. Significant theorists such as Freud and Kohlberg stated in their theories that preschool years are effective on moral development. When the literature is reviewed regarding moral development in preschool years, it is seen that below theories and approaches come to the fore. Psychanalytic Theory: Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of the theory, associated moral development with emotions and motives. In his point of view, development of personality consists of; Id (main system of personality), ego (interaction of personality with the environment) and super ego (moral aspect of personality). Super ego exists for “ideal” rather than “truth”. Super ego decides about right-wrong, appropriateinappropriate basing on moral values. Super ego decides whether behaviors are in compliance with moral rules and wants to act in accordance with the criteria approved by the society. Super ego is moral center of personality. Freud stated that especially the range of 3-5 ages is significant in moral development (Aydın, 2003; Freud, 1965; MEGEP, 2013; Özeri, 2004). Cognitive Approach: Jean Piaget is the pioneer of this theory who associated moral development with cognitive development. He created his theory on moral development by observing the behaviors displayed by male children, between ages of 2 to 12, when they were playing marbles and female children, between ages of 2 to 12, when they were playing hide and seek and by looking at their answers to his questions on rules, justice and theft (Berkowitz, 1964; Santrock, 2011). According to Piaget, 497

moral development in children starts after the age of six and moral development, like cognitive development, also consists of successive phases. Piaget reviews moral development under two topics; 1. Outside-Dependent (Heteronomous-Moral Reality) Period (6-10 Ages): This period is also called moral reality period. Children in this period see rules of adults as absolute, fixed and unchangeable sacred structures and think that other people also see the rules in the same way. To change or break the rules is wrong and to follow them is right. In this period, children decide whether if an action is wrong or right by observing the outcomes of that action. 2. Self-Reliant (Autonomous) Period (Age 11 and over): In this period, children think the rules are not unchangeable and might be changed when needed. When they are deciding what is wrong and right, they pay regard to situational and personal factors and make decision depending on the intention of individual. Their relationships with peers are also effective in children’s opinions on wrong and right in this period (Aydın, 2003; Hammond, 2014; MEGEP, 2013; Morrison, 1991; Özeri, 2004; Özgün, 2011; Piaget, 1965; Yalçın et al., 2012 p, 4). Kohlberg and Moral Development: Lawrence Kohlberg associated moral development with cognitive development like Piaget and stated that moral development takes place in a hierarchical way. By giving sample situations involving moral dilemmas to children and adults in his researches, Kohlberg asked questions regarding their opinions on these situations and created his moral development theory basing on the answers he obtained. Kohlberg pointed out that moral judgements in children change depending on situations, prizes or punishments and sense of justice, matured cognitive skills and moral rules in advancing ages direct moral judgements. In his point of view, moral development occurs in 3 levels and 6 phases (DeVries & Zan, 2012; Kohlberg, 1978; Leming, 2000; Selçuk, 2005, p. 112; Senemoğlu, 2011, p. 63). Three moral development levels and six moral phases included in Kohlberg’s moral development theory are presented in Table 1 in summary. 2.2. Preschool Period and Values Education Preschool education is the determinant of many things such as which traits child will have in his future life, how his relationships with other people will be and what level of adaption he/she will have to social life. Children who have a healthy development, form positive relationships with their parents and other people and have a good growing environment in this period become happier and more successful in their future life. Children learn the information regarding values throughout their lives but the first knowledge is started to be obtained during early period. This process continues during the lifetime. However, main values are formed in this period (Balat and Dağal, 2006). Scientific studies conducted on children’s psychology reveal that behavior development in child starts quite early and main traits of child’s personality develop during the first six years. Starting with taking family as models and imitating parents, value education develops with the information and experience learnt from school and environment (Yılmaz, 2010). In early childhood period, there is a focus on providing moral experiences to children along with problem solving skills (Nucci, 2001). The skills that children obtain during preschool years generally create building blocks of their future educations 498

Table 1: Kohlberg Moral Development Theory* Moral Development Levels Level I : Pre-Tradition Moral Development Level It is the first level in Kohlberg’s moral development theory. In this moral development level, while making a decision on good-bad or wrong-right, child acts according to opinions of surrounding adults. Child decides whether a behavior is good or bad by observing that behavior’s outcomes. In this phase, behavior is managed by prizes and punishments.

Level II: Traditional Moral Development Level Opinions of other people are highly significant for individual. Therefore, the main target is that family, circle of friends and other social groups think of the child as a good boy or girl. In this period, the child thinks in a more social way and believes he/she should follow not only persona expectations or social order but also the rules of the group he/she is included in.

Level III: Post-Tradition Moral Development Level Moral values and principles are considerably effective on individual’s thoughts in his moral development level. However, these values and principles are not values, rules or principles determined by authority, society or groups, they are individual’s personal values and principles. *Source: (Kohlberg & Hersh, 1977).

Moral Development Phases 1st Phase: Punishment and Obedience Tendency Physical results of the action determine whether that action is wrong or right. In this phase, the child tries to avoid punishment and obeys the authority unconditionally. The child knows he/she should avoid punishment for his/her own sake. 2nd Phase: Instrumental Relationship Tendency What is important in this phase is that child’s own necessities are met. Kohlberg resembled this phase to an environment of interchange where terms such as reciprocity, justice and equal share dominate. In this phase, the main idea that overtakes the child is reciprocity such as “you scratch my back and I will scratch your back”. 3rd Phase: Interpersonal Harmony or Good Child Tendency In this phase “correct behavior” for child is the behavior that is approved by surrounding adults and will satisfy them. Behaviors of surrounding people are frequently judged in terms of the intention to exhibit the behavior. The intention underlying the behavior starts to be important for the first time. The main idea is to gain approval or appreciation of surrounding people. 4th Phase: Law and Order Tendency In this phase, the individual has a tendency to follow social order, authority and rules. The proper behavior for individual in this phase is to fulfil his/her duties, respect the authority and endeavor for continuation of social order. This is also something that individual should do for his/her own sake. 5th Phase: Social Contract Tendency Proper behavior tendency for individual in this phase is to follow individual right and rules accepted by the entire society. Individual is aware that personal values and opinions are relative but social rules are actualized as a result of consensus. 6th: Universal Moral Principles Tendency While making decisions on situations, individual evaluates basing on his/her own moral principles and conscience. Moral principles such as justice, equality, respect to human rights and human dignity are significant primary for individual.

499

(Pagani, Jalbert and Girard, 2005). The quality of preschool preparation education will affect students’ possibility of success in secondary education. The rate of studying in university students who received preschool education is higher than those who did not receive this education (Education Commission, 2006). Researchers prove that child’s personality is mostly created during the first five years after birth. Furthermore, it is known that childhood is the period when observation skills, going into action with interest and enthusiasm and studies on socialization of individual and his directing future’s society are learnt most efficiently when compared to adults (Yeşil and Aydın). Values should be brought in children via experience as of early ages. These experiences should be accepted, shared and supported by society (Sevinç, 2006). Preschool period is the first period when foundations of information regarding values are laid in children. Traditionally, the main purpose of preschool education institutions is considered as early socialization of children and development of preparation for academic skills. A qualified preschool education program should include purposes such as personality education, development of social and emotional skills and adopting social values along with academic skills (Greenberg et al., 2003). Many people from different ideological classes believe that society faces a deep problem in terms of morality. There are indications of this everywhere; broken families, politeness lost in daily life, increasing greed, the fact that one out of five children grows in inadequate conditions, sexual publications filling up television screens, youngsters’ experiencing sexual intercourse and abuse in early ages. Moreover, it is enough to announce moral crisis in many countries because of causes such as increasing violence against children, early pregnancy and suicide (Lickona, 1993). Children who adopt values in early ages have self-confidence, can make their own decisions, solve their own problems and this situation contributes in their happiness (Mencious, 1997). It is possible for societies to maintain a healthy existence through newly-growing citizens’ adoption of social values. The fact that individual do not follow social values might result in his failure, being alienated from society and unhappiness (Alpöge, 2011). By providing values education to children as of early ages, it can be ensured that the child is aware of his responsibilities and fulfil them and also obtains the skill to self-control; these skills will also affect child’s academic success in school positively (Balat and Dağal, 2006). Early ages are a critical period in development of moral values and creation of a society with harmony and tolerance (Walker et al. 2012). It is possible to reply a question about the age to provide values education by saying always. However, considering that personality development in children occurs eighty percent in the first five years, it is more suitable to provide values education during these ages (Dilmaç, 2007). Warneken & Tomasello (2007), in their research, revealed that even 18 months old babies help surrounding people. The scope of the values education given in preschool period; should involve social and individual values completely in accordance with child’s development and no area should ever be dealt separately. In an education that is dealt in this way, the child will both adopt universal values and develop the competency to understand himself and his society towards adulthood (Arıkan, 2011). So, which values should values education to be provided to children in preschool period include? Some of the researches on this subject are as such; as a result of the 500

research conducted by Ogelman and Sarıkaya (2015) it is observed that values of respect, responsibility, love, tolerance, sharing, honesty, helpfulness and cooperation are included in the sequence of the first three values to be brought in preschool period children by preschool teachers. Yazar and Erkuş (2013) stated in their research that preschool teachers pointed out the necessity to provide values of respect, love and sharing to children initially. In the research conducted by Uyanık Balat, Özdemir Beceren and Özdemir Adak (2011), the parents sequenced the universal values they want their children to possess respectively as honesty, responsibility, respect, happiness, justice, mercy and reliability, being a good citizen and peace. In the research conducted by Sapsağlam and Ömeroğlu (2015), preschool teachers pointed out values of respect, honesty, helpfulness, responsibility, politeness, love, mercy, friendship, cooperation and self-control as the values they incorporate most frequently in education activities. Alpöge (2011) and Dinç (2011) stated that values such as self-respect, self-control, responsibility, cooperation, love, respect, honesty and patience can be brought in children in preschool period. 2.3. Role of School and Teacher in Values Education One of the functions of school as a social institution is to ensure transferring of social and cultural values through education programs. School should aim not only academic success but also child’s learning social culture and values and obtaining social skills. Teacher should raise students to create their own values rationally during children’s process of obtaining value, should impress respect in them and bring in the skill to implement moral principles (Thompson, 2011, borrowed from Wilson and Yvonne). Children’s emotional experiences in real life situations might form a foundation or have a key role in their moral learning. Therefore, educators should be aware that moral dilemmas in real life situations are an opportunity for children’s moral education (Malti and Latzko, 2010). The significance of education for countries and societies result not only from its providing information but also from its delivering skills, habit and value. One of the purposes of education is to create value, to bring in values to individual so that he shares responsibilities, becomes aware towards his surroundings, manages and improves himself and therefore to ensure individuals’ improve their relations in social life (Ravinger, 2006). Educational institutions are significant social control instruments since they deliver values, norms and attitudes that are mostly accepted by society in a planned and controlled way to children and youngsters and follow whether individuals act in accordance with these rules (Erden & Fidan, 1998). Being one of the primary cultural institutions, education environments are responsible from transferring information and values from generation to generation and from contributing in this aim. Schools should contribute in students’ social-emotional and moral development through hidden or open programs. Dewey stated that schools are social and moral learning centers and should provide opportunities to children so that they generate their moral actions (Elias, Parker, Kash and Dunkeblau, 2007). Schools should prepare children not only in academic terms but also as moral representatives of society (Halstead and Pike, 2006). Schools focused on academic success until recent past but today it is widely accepted that school should support personality development (Trout, 2008, borrowed from Josephson Institute of Ethics, Leming and Ryan). When schools prepare 501

environments involving ethical values for children and when students obtain the opportunity to reflect these values in their behaviors, they start the transformation for both themselves and the world (Cooper, 2014). If there is not a parallelism between the values transferred by school and the values existing in and accepted by society, the individual might deny the society he lives in (Akpınar, 2011). As a society, school is an institution that has its own values and reflect them to individuals it provides service (Akbaş, 2004). Many teachers refrain from teaching anything regarding moral or values since they are afraid of offending religious beliefs (Nucci et al., 2005). The aim of values education in school is to create a healthy, consistent and balanced personality in students. This purpose, namely “to create a healthy, consistent and balanced personality in students” actually is the main purpose of education because without it, even if other specified purposes are reached, it would not mean much (Aydın and Gürler, 2013). Actualizing a successful process of value obtaining / bringing in value along with an active educational activity in school does not only depend on teachers. On the contrary, there are significant duties falling to all school personnel and employees since it is a subject that interests every employee of school. The shareholders in question should contribute in creation of a positive school culture or school values system in terms of moral values (Elias, Parker and Kash, 2008). It should be kept in mind that schools are environments to reinforce the values obtained in family and to obtain new values. As in family, the most suitable way to deliver values also in school life is to make it a component of educational life (Hökelekli and Gündüz, 2007). III. CONCLUSION Human is a social being and affected by the society while affecting it as well. Therefore, there is a mutual interaction between individual and society. With the values he possesses, the human brings in value to the society which is a living institution. Similarly, he also threatens maintainability and future of the society with the values he lacks. Therefore, when the human is qualified, society becomes qualified as well. Preschool time is the primary one among periods were development and learning are the fastest. Individual learns many information and skills he uses in daily life by observing and imitating his parents in preschool period and knowledge and skills obtained in this period are the most permanent. This situation also applies to values. First values are obtained in family and every child obtains his family’s value judgements by means of taking example and imitation. Therefore, in order for the family to fulfil its function to bring in value to children in a healthy way, it is significant for the family to possess adequate awareness and knowledge on this subject. Obtaining values in preschool years ensures that the child uses these values throughout his life and internalizes them. Preschool education institutions are the first education environment that a child meets. Preschool education institutions should aim not only academic success of children but also their obtaining social values because the school, as a social institution, is responsible from bringing in values to children. Values education works performed in preschool period should definitely base on real life. The values that the child obtains from family and school should be in accordance with the values of society and family, school and society should be the environments where the values that the child learnt are accepted and reinforced. 502

REFERENCES Akbaş, O. (2004). Türk milli eğitim sisteminin duyuşsal amaçlarının ilköğretim 2. kademedeki gerçekleşme derecesinin değerlendirilmesi. Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Akbaş, O. (2008). Değer eğitimi akımlarına genel bir bakış. Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 6(16), 9-27. Akpınar, B. (2011). Değerler eğitiminde bileşke modeli. Eğitime Bakış, 7 (19), 30-39. Alpöge, G. (2011). Okul öncesinde değer eğitimi. İstanbul: Bilgi. Aral, V. (2012). Eğitimin temeli olarak özgür irade. Düşün ve Ötesi Dergisi, Sayı 2. Arıkan, A. (2011). Değerler eğitiminin tanımı, önemi ve kapsamı. (Edt. Arzu Arıkan). Okulöncesi Dönemde Değerler Eğitimi. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Web-Ofset Tesisi, 1-26. Aslan, E. (2013). Eğitimde bir arayış: Değerler eğitimi. Uluslararası Antalya Değerler Eğitimi Sempozyumu, Sempozyum Bildiri Kitabı (28-29 Mayıs 2013), Antalya. Aydın. M.Z. (2003). Ahlak öğretiminde örnek olay incelemesi yöntemi, Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Aydın, M.Z. & Gürler Ş.A. (2013). Okulda değerler eğitimi: yöntemler-etkinliklerkaynaklar. Ankara: Nobel. Bailey, R. (2000). Teaching values and citizenship across the curriculum: educating children for the world. London: Routledge. Balat, G.U. ve Dağal, A. B. ( 2006). Okul öncesi dönemde değerler eğitimi etkinlikleri. Ankara: Kök. Bardi, A. & Schwartz, S. H. (2003). Values and behavior: strength and structure of relations.Personality Social Psychology Bulletin, (29), 1207- 1220. Benninga, J. S., M. W. Berkowitz, P. Kuehn, & K. Smith. (2006). Character and academics:What good schools do. Phi Delta Kappan 87(6): 448–52. Berkovitz, L. (1964). The development of motives and values ın the child. New York: Basic Books. Berkowitz , M. W. & Bier , M. C. (2004). “Research-based character education.” Amerikan Academy of Political & Social Science, ( 591 ), 72 - 85. Cooper, D. (2014). Character education: a study of an elementary school leadership academy. Doctoral Thesis, Wilmington University. Çengelci, T. (2010). İlköğretim beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitiminin gerçekleştirilmesine ilişkin bir durum çalışması. Doktora tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Darling, H. L. (2002). Research and rhetoric on teacher certification: A response to "Teacher Certification Reconsidered.” NY: National Commission on Teaching and America's Future. Davidov, E. (2010). Testing for comparability of human values a cross countries and time with the third round of the european social survey. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 51, 171–191. Davis, M. (2003). “What’s wrong with character education?”. American Journal of Education, 110, 32 - 57. Devellioğlu, F.(1978). Osmanlıca- Türkçe Ansiklopedik Lügat. Ankara: Doğuş Matbaası. DeVries, R. & Zan, B. S. (2012). Moral classrooms, moral children: creating a constructivist atmosphere in early education (2th edition). New York: Teacher Collages Press. Dilmaç, B. (2007). Bir Grup Fen Lisesi Öğrencisine Verilen İnsani Değerler Eğitiminin İnsani Değerler Ölçeği ile Sınanması. Doktora Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler 503

Enstitüsü, Konya. Dinç, B. (2011). Okulöncesi dönemde değerler eğitiminin yeri ve önemi (Editör: Arzu Arıkan). Okulöncesi Dönemde Değerler Eğitimi. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi WebOfset Tesisi, 149-164. Doğanay, A. (2006). Değerler eğitimi. Hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım (Edt. Cemil Öztürk). Ankara: PegemAkademi. Education Commission (2006). Early learning. Retrieved November 10, 2006 from www.ecs.org/html/IssuesSection.asp.issued=37&s=Overview adresinden 23/03/2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. El-Hassan, K. & Kâhil, R. (2005). The effect of “living values: an educational program” on behaviors and attitudies of elemantary students in a private school in Lebanon. Early Childhood Education Journal. 33, 81-90. Elias, M.J.,Parker, S.J., Kash, V.M. & Dunkeblau, E. (2007). Socıal-emotional learning and character and moral education in children synergy or fundamental divergence in our schools? Journal of Research in Character Education, 5(2), 167–181. Elias, M.J., Parker, S.J., & Kash, V.M. (2008). Socıal-emotional learning, moral education and character education: A comparative analysis and a view toward convergence. (Edit. L. P. Nucci& D. Narvaez). Handbooks of moral and character education. Newyork and London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis. Erden, M. & Fidan, N. (1998). Eğitime giriş. İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi. Erkuş S. (2012). Okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin okul öncesi eğitim programındaki değerler eğitimine ilişkin görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Dicle Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Diyarbakır. Freud, S. (1965). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York: Norton (Original work published 1933). Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnik., H., & Ellias, M. J. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning, American Psychologist, 58 (6/7), 466-474. Hammond, S.I. (2014). Children’s early helping in action: piagetian developmental theory and early prosocial behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 5:759. doi:10.3389/fpsyg. 2014.00759. Halstead, J. M. & Taylor M. J. (2000). Learning and teaching about values: a review of recent research. Cambridge Journal of Education, 30 (2), 169-202. Halstead, J.M., & Pike, M.A. (2006). Citizenship and moral education: Values in action. Cornwall: Routledge. Howard, R., Berkowitz, M. & Schaeffer, E. (2004). Politics of character education. Educational Policy, 18 (1) 188-215. Hökelekli, H. & Gündüz, T. (2007). Üstün yetenekli çocukların değer yönelimler ve eğilimleri. Değerler ve Eğitimi Uluslararası Sempozyumu (Edt. Kaymakcan, R.ve diğ.), İstanbul: Dem. Huitt, W. (2004). “Values”. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:Valdosta State University. Josephson, M. (2014). The six pillars of character [Online blog]. Los Angeles, CA: Josephson Institute. Retrieved fromhttp://charactercounts.org/sixpillars.html #sthash. sJwFSV6A.dpuf sitesinden 04/03/2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. Kirschenbaum, H. (1995). 100 Ways to enhance values and morality in schools and youth settings. Massachusetts: A Longwood Professional Book. Kirschenbaum, H. (2000). From values clarification to character education: A personal journey. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education & Development. 39 (1), 4- 17. 504

Kohlberg, L. & Hersh, H.H. (1977). Moral development: A review of the theory. Theory into Practice, 16 (2) pp. 53-59. Kohlberg, L. (1978). The cognitive developmental approach to moral education. In P. Scharf (Ed.), Readings in moral education (pp. 36-51). Minneapolis: Winston Press. Kupperman, J.J. (2005). Character psychology and character education. Daniel K. Lapsey & F. Clark Power (Ed.), How not to educate character. University of Notre DamePress, 201-218. Lake, K. (2011). Charactere ducation from a children’s rights perspective: An Examination of elementary students’ perspectives and experiences. International Journal of Children’s Rights 19 (2011) 679–690. Leming, J. S. (2000). Tell me a story: An evaluation of a literature-based character education programme. Journal of Moral Education, 29, 4. Lickona, T. (1991). Educating for character: how our schools can teach respect and responsibility. New York: BantamBooks. Lickona, T. (1993). The return of character education. Educational Leadership,51(3), 6-11. Lovat, T., & Toomey, R. (Eds.). (2009). Values education and quality teaching: The double helix effect. Netherlands: Springer. Malti, T., & Latzko, B. (2010). Children’s moral emotions and moral cognition: Towards an integrative perspective. In B. Latzko & T. Malti (Eds.), Children’s moral emotions and moral cognition: Developmental and educational perspectives. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 129, 1–10. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mckinon, C. (2005). Character psychology and character education. Daniel K. Lapsey & F. Clark Power (Ed.), Character possession and human flourishing. University of Notre DamePress, 36-66. MEGEP (2013). Ahlak Gelişimi. file:///F:/Moral%20Development-2/MEGEP-Ahlak %20 Geli%C5%9Fimi.pdf. Mencious, L. (1997). Moral education: A comparative study of the Confucian Plutonic and Kohlbergian approaches. Michigan: UMI Dissertation Services. Morrison, G.Z. (1991). Early childhood education today. New York: Merrill Publishing Company. Narváez, D. (2006). Integrative ethical education. In M. Killen & J. G. Smetana (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (p. 703-732). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Nucci, L. (2001). Education in the moral domain. England: Cambridge University. Ogelman, G. H. & Sarıkaya, E. H. (2015). Okul Öncesi Eğitimi Öğretmenlerinin Değerler Eğitimi Konusundaki Görüşleri: Denizli İli Örneği. Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi; (29), s. 81-100. Özeri, Z. N.(1994). Okul öncesi dönemde ahlak gelişimi ve çocuk yetiştirme tutumlarının beş yaş çocuğunun adalet gelişimine etkisinin incelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Özeri, Z. N. (2004). Okul öncesi din ve ahlak eğitimi. İstanbul: DEM Yayınevi. Özgün, Ö. (2011). Ahlak gelişimi, Erken çocukluk döneminde gelişim, (Edt. Deniz, M.E)., s. 273-278, Ankara: Ertem Basım Yayıncılık. Pagani, L. S., Jalbert, J. & Girard, A. (2005). Does preschool enrichment of precursorsto Arithmetic influence intuitive knowledge of number in low income children? Early Childhood Education Journal, 34, 2, 134-146. Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child (M. Gabain, Trans.). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. (Original work published 1932). Ravinger, R. (2006). Value-based education for human development-Eritrean perspective. USA: Essays in Education. 505

Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Pres. Ros, M., Schwartz, S.H. & Surkiss, S. (1999). Basic individual values, work values, and the meaning of work. Applied Psychology: An International Review, January, 48(1). Sagiv, L. (2002). Vocational interests and basic values. Journal of Career Assessment, 10 (2), s. 233–257. Santrock, J.W. (2011). Yaşam boyu gelişim. Galip Y. (Ed.), Life Span Development içinde (s.242-272). Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Sapsağlam, Ö. & Ömeroğlu, E. (2015). Okul Öncesi Öğretmenlerinin Eğitim Programlarında Değerler Eğitimine Yer Verme Düzeylerinin Belirlenmesi, International Journal of Eurasia Social Sciences, Vol: 6 (21), p. 244-264. Schaefer, M.P. (2012). Determining methods for teaching character education in elementary schools. Doctoral Thesis, Northcentral University, Arizona. Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there üniversal aspects in the structure and content of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50 (4), 19-45. Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Cross-National Comparison Seminar on the Quality and Comparability of Measures for Constructs in Comparative Research: Methods and Applications, Bolzano (Bozen), Italy, June 10-13, 2009: Schwartz, S. H. (2012). Studying values: personal adventure, future directions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(2), 307–319. Seefeldt, C. (2004). Social Studies for the preschool/primarychild. Columbus: Pearson. Selçuk, Z. (2005). Gelişim ve öğrenme. Ankara: Nobel. Senemoğlu, N. (2011). Gelişim, öğrenme ve öğretim; kuramdan uygulamaya. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Sevinç, M. (2006). Evrensel ve yerel değerlerin eğitime yansıması. (Yurdagül Mehmedoğlu, Ali Ulvi Mehmedoğlu Edt.). Küreselleşme ahlak ve değerler. İstanbul: Litera, s. 205239. Shields, D. L. & Bredemeier, B. L. (2005). Character psychology and character education. Daniel K. Lapsey & F. Clark Power (Ed.), Character sports build character. University of Notre DamePress, 121-140. Simon, S.B., Howe, L.B. & Kirschenbaum, H. (1978). Values clarification: A handbook of practical strategies for teachers ands tudents. New York: A&W Publishers. Singh, M. ve Lu, M. (2003). Exploring th efunction of heroes and heroines in children’sliterature.18 Şubat 2015 tarihinde www.eric.ed.gov. sayfasından erişilmiştir. ERIC Document No: ED 477609. Singh, A. (2011). Evaluating the impacts of value education: Some case studies. International Journal of Educational Planning & Administration. Volume 1, Number 1 (2011), pp. 1-8 Spranger, E. (2001). İnsan tipleri bir kişilik psikolojisi (A. Aydoğan, Çev.). İstanbul: İz. Stephenson, J., Ling, L., Burman, E. & Cooper, M. (2005). Values in Education. London: Routledge. Sunal, C.S. & Haas, M. E. (2003). Social studies for he elementary and middle grades: A constructivist approach. USA: Pearson. Superka, D.P. (1973). A typology of valuing theories and value education approaches. Doctoral Thesis, University of California. Tanyol, C. (1960). Sosyal Ahlâk. İstanbul: İ.Ü. Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları. TDK. (2015). Türk Dil Kurumu Güncel Türkçe Sözlüğü. http://www.tdk.gov.tr. Sayfasından 21/05/2015 tarihinde erişilmiştir. Thompson, M. (2011). Developing moral values in children: observations from a preschool. Ife PsychologIA; 19(2), 2011, 394-411. 506

Trout, N. J. (2008). Building character education in the preschool. Doctoral Thesis, Capella University. Turan, R. & Ulusoy, K. (2014). Farklı yönleriyle değerler eğitimi. Refik Turan, Kadri Ulusoy (Ed.), Değerli bir kavram olarak “değer ve değerler eğitimi”, (s. 2-14). Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Unesco. (2005). Living values education. www.livingvalues.net. US Department of Education. (2007). Character education…Our shared responsibility [Brochure]. Retrieved from US Department of Education. 04/03/2015 tarihinde http://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/character/brochure.html adresinden alınmıştır. Uyanık B. G., Özdemir B., B., Adak Ö. A. (2011). The evaluation of parents’ views related to helping pre-school children gain some universal values. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences (15), 908-912. Ülken, H. Z. (2001). Ahlâk. İstanbul: Ülken Yayınları. Viadero, D. (2003). Nice work. Education Week, April 30. Vincent, P. F. (2003). Roles and procedures for character education: The first step toward school civility (2nd ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: Character Development Publishing. Walker, S., Brownlee, J., Whiteford, C., Cobb-Moore, C., Johansson, E., Ailwood, J. & G. Boulton-Lewis (2012). Early years teachers’ epistemic beliefs and beliefs about children’s moral learning. Teachers and Teaching, 18(2), 263-275. Warneken, F. & Tomasello, M. (2007). Helping and cooperation at 14 months of age. Infancy, 11 (3), p. 271-294. Yalçın, A., Yemenici, F., Sabancı, H., Kısmet, K.K., Halisdemir, M., Bakülü, N. ve diğerleri. (2012). Okul öncesinde değerler eğitimi ve etkinlik örnekleri. Balat, G. U. (Ed.). Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Yaman, E. (2012). Değerler Eğitimi. Ankara: Akçağ. Yazar, T., & Erkuş, S. (2013). Okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin okul öncesi eğitim programındaki değerler eğitimine ilişkin görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi. Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 20, 196 - 211. Yeşil, R. & Aydın, D. (2007). Demokratik değerlerin eğitiminde yöntem ve zamanlama. Türkiye Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 11(2), 65-84. Yılmaz, H. (2010). Çocuğun ailede kazanacağı önemli bir değer: Kanaatkârlık. Eğitime Bakış Dergisi, (18), 55-58. Yılmaz, M. (2010). Ergenlerde şiddetin önlenmesinde din eğitiminin rolü. Doktora Tezi, Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Erzurum. Yiğittir, S. (2009). İlköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi 4 ve 5. sınıf değerlerinin kazanılma düzeyi. Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Yiğittir, S. & Kaymakçı, S. (2012). Sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı uygulama kılavuzunda yer alan etkinliklerin değer eğitimi yaklaşımları açısından incelenmesi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD),13 (2), 49-73. Ziebertz, H.G. (2007). Çok kültürlü bir toplumda değerler eğitimi modelleri. Bir değer olarak çoğulculuk içinde (ss.445-466). Değerler ve Eğitimi Uluslararası Sempozyumu, İstanbul: Değerler Eğitimi Merkezi Yayınları.

507

Chapter 39 Social Sciences Teacher Candidates’ Value Judgements about Environmental Pollution Ufuk KARAKUŞ, Arcan AYDEMİR INTRODUCTION Recent developments in science and technology have impacted human life as well as the environment. While this interaction is generally considered to be positive, it is definitely negative in some cases. Problems caused by the use and nature of new technologies have an adverse effect on humans and the environment. It is thus the duty of humankind to minimize any negative impact. The most important objective of environmental education is to maintain sustainable habitat (Kopnina, 2011). Environmental education equips people with awareness, and people learn to respect the environment through values education, and hence the environment is protected. Indispensable for all living beings, the environment is defined as the whole that contains water, air, soil, plants, animals, and all external factors that affect humans and living creatures (Karpuzcu, 2007). Environmental awareness, environmental education provided in the family and school, the individual’s environmental attitude, and the effect of environmental education on the individual should be considered in solving environmental problems (Çabuk & Karacaoğlu, 2003). Unsustainable use of natural resources and economic and social consequences brought about by environmental problems pose serious threats to Turkey (Teksöz, Şahin & Ertepınar, 2010). Not putting a stop to environmental problems could even lead to the end of life (Yılmaz, Morgil, Aktuğ & Göbekli, 2002). Unconscious and high consumption of natural resources will adversely impact the environment and, consequently, all other living beings. The first thing to do in order to minimize these impacts is to find out the true cause of environmental problems. Among the reasons for environmental pollution are constant degradation of the environment by humans, population increase, overconsumption, unwise use of resources, and insufficient recycling (Karpuzcu, 2007). Since the 1970s, effective environmental policy making efforts have been made in all over the world, mainly in the USA, Canada, Turkey, and the EU countries (Çolakoğlu, 2010). It is crucial that environmental campaigns are supported by teachers and school staff (Short, 2009). Increased spending on and support for the environment are vital for providing solutions to environmental problems. Cultural elements of societies play a key role in the perception and protection of the environment (Karakuş and Keçe, 2012). The main objective of environmental education, which is regarded as the most important tool against environmental problems, is to elicit positive and permanent behavior change (Şimşekli, 2004). Besides, 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Faculty of Education, Ankara, Turkey Res. Assist., Artvin Çoruh University. Faculty of Education, Artvin, Turkey 



raising environmentally literate and active citizens can be a crucial factor in the fight against environmental problems (Ardoin & Bowers, 2012). Aside from courses on science and technology, life sciences classes and social sciences classes are environmentally important in the first phase and second phase of education, respectively. The social sciences teaching program features the units ‘the place we live in’ for the 4th grade, ‘Let’s get to know our region’ for the 5th grade, ‘life on earth’ for the 6th grade, and ‘population in Turkey for the 7th grade (Kodal & Tarhan, 2014). These units and the gains they provide encompass environmental issues to a certain extent. Some gains in the social sciences program are as follows (MEB, 2005):  Students realize the importance of international cooperation and solidarity for environmental pollution and disasters. (6th grade)  Students learn their responsibilities in the implementation of solutions to global problems. (7th grade) The above-mentioned gains in the social sciences programs for the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th grades are directly and indirectly related to environmental issues. Apart from gains and units, another important component of the social sciences program is the teaching of values such as awareness, love, cleanliness, and responsibility (Özdemir, 2009). These values are also intimately related to environmental issues. In addition, the following statements given in the general purposes section of the social sciences teaching program are also about the protection of the environment and environmental awareness (MEB, 2006): “Students learn the geographical features of the world and their environment, getting to know the interaction between humans and the environment.” and “Students become aware of the issues that concern their country and the world, realizing that they are part of humanity.” As for secondary education, Law No. 2358 dated 11.06.1992 was passed by the Board of Education and Discipline and published in the Ministry of National Education Magazine of Communiqués to add the elective course “Environment and Human” to the high school curriculum. The Board of Education and Discipline also dictated that this be taught as part of the biology classes particularly in the first year of high school (Ünal & Dımışkı, 1999) as of the 1998-1999 academic year. In addition to these courses, high school geography classes also feature some units and gains that are related to environmental issues (MEB, 2011). There are certain problems with environmental education in higher education institutions such as the lack of pedagogical training and development for academics, inadequate technical know-how regarding the environment, and insufficient education (Demirkaya, 2006). In tackling these problems, many responsibilities fall to teachers as well as families. In successfully teaching the environment-related topics, the most important task is that of social sciences teachers who equip students with knowledge on ecology and the environment, environmentally responsible behavior, and environmental awareness (Karatekin & Aksoy, 2012). In order to instill environmental conscioussness and awareness in students, the social sciences teacher must, first and foremost, fully comprehend the importance of the environment and be aware and conscious of the environment. Particularly courses on general and human economics, which are required courses, touch upon environmental problems. Electives such as environmental ethics, disaster geography, and energy sources also deal with environmental issues. 509

The Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to assess the views of students in the social sciences teaching programs for elementary schools on environmental problems such as soil pollution, water pollution, and air pollution. In line with this objective, answers to the following questions have been sought: 1. What are the views of social sciences teacher candidates on environmental problems? 2. Are social sciences teacher candidates aware of environmental problems? 3. What kind of solutions have social sciences teacher candidates come up with to tackle environmental problems? MATERIALS AND METHOD The research draws on phenomenology, a qualitative research method. Qualitative research provides a deeper insight into social incidents and psychological states in particular than other types of research. Qualitative research can be employed in looking for answers to questions that are hard to express with traditional research methods (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz & Demirel, 2011). This study identifies future social sciences teachers’ value judgements about the environment. Data Collection Tool The study uses an interview form created by the researchers as a data collection tool. The interview form contains two fictional stories and relevant questions. The stories are inspired by those Kohlberg used to determine the moral development stages in his moral development theory, and these stories involve moral dilemmas. The stories employed in the study are inspired by the scenarios used in Uzel's (2014) PhD thesis. Stories with moral dilemmas should have a simple scenario and a protagonist (Aksoy, 2003). The stories created aim to pose to the social sciences teacher candidates some dilemmas about environmental problems and to find out what kind of behavior they exhibit in response. Working Group The working group has been selected with the use of purposive sampling. The basis of this sampling is not to take a representative sample of a stage but to take one or more subsections in line with the goals of the research. Purposive sampling is the analysis of the section of a stage that is most suitable for dealing with the problem at hand (Sencer, 1989). The research group consists of 25 students in the social sciences teaching programs (12 female and 13 male). Data Analysis Descriptive and content analysis, a qualitative analysis technique, has been employed in data analysis. Data obtained through descriptive analysis has been interpreted according to the predetermined themes. Descriptive analysis is composed of four stages which are frame formation, data processing based on the thematic frame, identification of the findings, and their interpretation (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2006). In addition, analysis of data helps us understand the relationship between findings, incidents, and concepts (Büyüköztürk, 2011). In content analysis, codes and themes can be employed for the verbal expression of findings (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz & Demirel, 2011). For this study, students’ responses have been coded, and frequency tables have been prepared to show the repetitions. 510

FINDINGS AND COMMENTS This section contains the tables and table comments on the findings. Data obtained by the researchers have been analyzed to produce codes. Below are Story I and the relevant findings. STORY – 1 Mr. Ali is a business man with three children. He is the founder of a textile factory and employs 30 middle-aged workers. They depend entirely on this factory for their livelihood, and they need their jobs for themselves and their families. Mr. Ali wants to minimize costs and obtain more efficiency by employing more workers. However, his factory lacks certain things such as a waste treatment plant. As such, waste is dumped haphazardly into the river that runs right next to the facilities. Besides, there is no filter in the chimney, so this causes both air and water pollution. Mr. Ali is aware of the environmental consequences of the situation and knows that he will be fined for not having a waste treatment plant installed, which is compulsory for every factory. Yet, building this plant means he will have financial problems and have to lay off a certain number of his workers. He also cares about them and their families. If you were in his shoes, what would you do? Explain by giving reasons. Table 1: Findings Regarding Story I Codes

n

I would take the risk of laying off workers and build a waste treatment plant. I would not build a waste treatment plant and not lay off any worker. Total

8 7 25

Table I features findings regarding the dilemma in Story I. Story I gives students an account of a situation in which students face a dilemma, and the views have been converged in two codes. Whereas some of the participants have advocated the construction of a waste treatment plant at the expense of the workers (n=18), others have ignored environmental pollution, choosing to keep the workers and not build the plant (n=7). Table 2: Findings Regarding Certain Students’ Reasons for Building a Waste Treatment Plant Codes n Preventing air pollution 2 Preventing water pollution 3 Protecting human health 8 Handing down a healthy environment to posterity 1 Preventing damage to natural life 2 Preventing environmental pollution 4 Ensuring recycling 2 Total 22 Table 2 shows the findings regarding the reasons for the code ‘I would take the risk of laying off workers and build a waste treatment plant’ given in Table 1. An analysis of Table 2 reveals that the most important reason for the construction of a waste treatment plant is the protection of human health (n=8). In addition, the 511

participants have defended the construction of a waste treatment plant for preventing environmental pollution (n=4), preventing water pollution (n=3), preventing air pollution (n=2), preventing damage to natural life (n=2), and ensuring recycling (n=2). The reasons given by the students who have advocated the construction of a waste treatment plant are as follows: “I would build a waste treatment plant and lay off a required number of people because environmental pollution will affect everyone.” (Ö-20) “I would definitely build a waste treatment plant because dumping waste into rivers threatens all of us.” (Ö-22) “The first thing I would do in such a case would be to build a waste treatment plant to minimize air and water pollution.” (Ö-1) “I would build a waste treatment plant no matter what because the environment is not only for us but also for the next generations.” (Ö-5) “I would choose to build the waste treatment plant even at the expense of laying off some workers as I would not want to cause environmental pollution, not least water pollution.” (Ö-25) “I would definitely build a waste treatment plant because the environment would be polluted if it was not constructed, and this would cause harm to humanity.” (Ö-16) Table 3 features findings regarding the students’ reasons for building a waste treatment plant. Table 3: Findings Regarding Certain Students’ Reasons for Not Building a Waste Treatment Plant Codes n Lay-off of workers who need their jobs 4 Financial problems workers and their families will have 4 Inability of the waste treatment plant to prevent environmental pollution 1 Effects of environmental pollution that will only do harm in the long-term 1 Difficulty of finding a job 1 Total 11 An analysis of Table 3 reveals that the most important reasons of the participants who argue against the construction of a waste treatment are the lay-off of workers (n=4) and financial problems workers and their families will have (n=4). Accordingly, the students in the working group have made the following comments: “I would not build a waste treatment plant because an entire family would suffer if one worker lost his job. So, I would not lay off workers and keep on causing environmental pollution though I would not want to.” (Ö-19); “I would not build a waste treatment plant so workers would not suffer.” (Ö-9); “Because workers would have a hard time finding another job and their families would be economically impacted, I would not lay them off and not build a waste treatment plant” (Ö-21). Table 4 contains recommended solutions to the dilemma presented in Story I. Table 4 shows that the students’ most important and common solution to the problem is enabling workers to find another job (n=6). Besides, the students have come up with solutions such as gently breaking the news to workers (n=4), lowering wages (n=5), providing financial support to workers (n=3), limiting the factory expenses (n=2), installing a recycling system (n=1), and asking municipalities for support (n=1). 512

Table 4: Findings Regarding Recommended Solutions to the Problem in Story I Codes Enabling workers to find other jobs Installing a recycling system Gently breaking the news to workers Providing financial support to workers Lowering wages Asking municipalities for support Limiting the expenses Total

n 6 1 4 3 5 1 2 22

“I would gather the workers and tell them that the factory lacked certain things that needed to be dealt with and that this would come at a cost.” (Ö-6) “I would construct a special site for waste disposal to minimize environmental damage and prevent waste from going into the river. I would then make an agreement with the municipality for waste collection from the site.” (Ö-3) “I would first talk to my workers and explain the situation to them, but I also suggest halving their wages.” (Ö-23) Below are Story II and the relevant findings. STORY – II A Turkish construction company undertakes big state-funded projects such as hydroelectric plants and thermal plants The company has won the bid for a hydroelectric plant. It is presumed that this plant will partially close the energy gap and reduce dependence on foreign sources for energy about 50%, which is crucial for the country’s economy and energy. This plant will substantially contribute to the economy and have a height of 200 meters, which means an area of approximately 200 km will be submerged. However, as the dam that is planned is partly located in the municipality’s territories, it cannot be built without its approval. There are 23 villages of varying sizes, a district and a town on the banks of the river where the dam will be constructed. Besides, this settlement area is home to some endemic plants, and agricultural activity is intense. The dam will submerge this area; plant species will be destroyed, and natural life will be harmed. On the other hand, a hydroelectric plant is necessary for closing the energy gap and reducing dependence on foreign sources for energy. Mr. Göksel is ambivalent about the dam, which could only be built upon Mayor Mr. Ahmet’s consent, because the plant will lead to environmental damage on the one hand and will contribute to the economy on the other. What would you do if you were in Mr. Göksel’s shoes? Explain by giving reasons. Table 5 features findings regarding Story II. Some students in the working group advocate the construction of a hydroelectric plant (n=6) while others argue against it (n=19). Table 6 contains findings regarding certain students’ reasons for not backing the construction of a hydroelectric plant. An analysis of Table 6 reveals that certain students have not supported the construction of the hydroelectric plant because of the damage to the environment (n=6), damage to human health (n=5), shrinkage of living space for humans (n=5), and loss of endemic plants (n=5) and plant diversity. The reasons given by the students who have 513

advocated the construction of a waste treatment plant are as follows: Table 5: Findings Regarding Story II Codes

n

I would approve the construction of the hydroelectric plant.

6

I would not approve the construction of the hydroelectric plant.

19

Total

25

Table 6: Findings Regarding the Students’ Reasons for Not Approving the Construction Codes Damage to human health Destruction of endemic plants Damage to the environment Loss of plant diversity Shrinkage of living space for humans Total

n 5 3 6 3 5 22

“I would not approve the construction of a hydroelectric plant because the dam would not only endanger endemic plants and natural life but also do considerable harm to people living nearby.” (Ö-21) “I would definitely disapprove the construction of the dam as I would not want to force people to move away.” (Ö-14) “I would absolutely not approve the construction because people would lose their home due to the submergence of villages, towns, and districts, and this would adversely affect the environment.” (Ö-22) “I would not consent to the plant. Though it would decrease the country’s dependence on foreign energy sources, many people would be displaced, and a variety of plants and agricultural products would be lost.” (Ö-8) “I think nature is a blessing to us. We can always fix our country’s economy somehow, but if we lose nature, we can’t take it back easily.” (Ö-17) “I would not approve the construction because dams cause environmental pollution.” (Ö-3) Table 7: Findings Regarding Certain Students’ Reasons for Approving the Construction Codes Contribution to the country’s economy Reduction of dependence on foreign sources Total

n 5 3 8

Table 7 contains findings regarding certain students’ reasons for backing the construction of a hydroelectric plant. The reasons for their support are the plant’s contribution to the country’s economy (n=5) and reduction of dependence on foreign sources (n=3). Some students in the working group have made the following comments: “I would build a hydroelectric plant because I would want the state to be independent at least in terms of energy as it depends on foreign sources in many respects.” (Ö-9); “As the economy of the country is at stake, I favor the construction of the plant.” (Ö-2); “I would approve the construction as the interests of the country outweigh everything 514

else.” (Ö-16). Table 8: Findings Regarding the Recommended Solutions to the Problem Presented in Story II Codes n Meeting the needs of people who will be affected by the construction of a 1 hydroelectric plant Constructing the hydroelectric plant in a different area 5 Taking precautions to prevent damage to natural life 7 Relocating people 4 Making amendments to the hydroelectric plant project 2 Total 19 Table 8 contains the students’ views of the solutions to the problem presented in Story II. Regarding the construction of a hydroelectric plant, students have produced solutions such as taking precautions to prevent damage to natural life (n=7), building the plant in a different area (n=5), relocating people (n=4), making amendments to the project for less environmental damage (n=2), and meeting certain needs of people who will be affected by the construction (n=1). “I would relocate people living in the planned site of construction and provide them with jobs.” (Ö-2) “I would first provide people with housing prior to the construction of the dam.” (Ö-9) “I would not want to displace people who were born or making their livings there. I would thus reject the project, stating that the hydroelectric plant should be built somewhere else.” (Ö-19) “First, I would come up with a plan that would not do harm to plants and natural life, and I would ensure sustainability of the natural world.” (Ö-25) “I would change the purpose of the hydroelectric plant project; instead of a hydroelectric plant, I would build a solar power plant.” (Ö-10) “Only if the vegetation in the site was moved to another area, and the plant species were grown in a different place would I approve the construction of the dam.” (Ö-4) An analysis of the statements and data in Table 8 reveals that the students who have participated in the study have offered various suggestions as people will be affected and the environment will be damaged because of the construction. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Findings suggest that the participants in the working group have differing views of environmental problems. Fictional stories based on moral dilemmas have been used, and the results show that the students’ views are in favor of the environment. A study by Çabuk and Karacaoğlu (2003) focuses on university students’ environmental consciousness and concludes that they are particularly aware of soil and water pollution. This study also points out that students are conscious of soil and water pollution and that they advocate measures that can prevent these types of pollution. With the use of similar scenarios, Uzel's (2014) PhD thesis investigates biology teacher candidates' moral approach toward environmental issues, and the study concludes that teacher candidates develop a social perspective of such issues. Genç’s (2014) study on teacher candidates’ environmental awareness and attitudes 515

demonstrates that individuals who receive environmental education are more environmentally conscious and that this does not vary based on gender. In line with other studies, this one concludes that teacher candidates are environmentally aware. Some students in the study have been found not to be environmentally conscious. Some students have emphasized the unnecessity of a waste treatment plant while some have put hydroelectric plants before the environment, arguing for its construction. Their common reason is that certain factors such as the state, economy, and workers outweigh the environment. It is also observed that the students in the working group have come up with different and viable solutions to environmental problems. For the construction of a waste treatment plant, for instance, some students have produced solutions such as gently breaking the news to workers, reducing wages, providing financial support to workers, limiting the factory expenses, installing recycling systems, and asking municipalities for support. As for the construction of a hydroelectric plant, they have come up with solutions such as building it in a different area, relocating people, making amendments to the project for less environmental damage, and meeting the needs of people who will be affected by the construction. SUGGESTIONS Below are some recommendations to teachers, teacher candidates, administrators, and researchers in light of this research on awareness of environmental pollution:  Research can be carried out in different areas with a different sample group in order to demonstrate value judgements about environmental pollution.  Revealing negative impacts of environmental pollution could enhance teachers’ and teacher candidates’ awareness of the issue.  Steps can be taken in environmental education by way of in-service and preservice training. REFERENCES Aksoy, B. (2003). Problem çözme yönteminin çevre eğitiminde uygulanması. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 2(14), 83-98. Ardoin, N.M. & Bowers, A.W. (2012). Trends in philanthropic support: foundation giving in environmental education, The Journal of Environmental Education, 43(4), 259-273. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, Kılıç, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş. & Demirel, F. (2011). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Büyüköztürk, Ş., (2011). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Çabuk, B. & Karacaoğlu, Ö., C. (2003). Üniversite öğrencilerinin çevre duyarlılıklarının incelenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi. 36(1-2), 189-198. Çolakoğlu, E. (2010). Haklar söyleminde çevre eğitiminin yeri ve Türkiye’de çevre eğitiminin anayasal dayanakları. Türkiye Barolar Birliği Dergisi. 88, 151-171. Genç, M. (2014). The Project-based learning approach in environmental education. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10382046.2014.993169 (accessed on June 01, 2016). Demirkaya, H. (2006). Çevre eğitiminin Türkiye’deki coğrafya programları içerisindeki yeri ve çevre eğitimine yönelik yeni yaklaşımlar. Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi. 16(1), 207-222. Karakuş, U. & Keçe, M. (2012). Türk atasözlerinde doğal çevre algısı ve çevre eğitimi 516

açısından önemi. Journal of World of Turks. 4(3), 131-145. Karatekin, K. & Aksoy, B. (2012). Sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının çevre okuryazarlık düzeylerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. Turkish Studies. 7(1), 1423-1438. Karpuzcu, M. (2007). Çevre kirlenmesi ve kontrolü. Özal: İstanbul. Kodal, T. & Tarhan, Ö. (2014). Sosyal bilgiler eğitimine giriş. İçinde, S. İnan (Ed.), Sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde kazanımlar (ss. 47-82), Ankara: Anı. Kopnina, H. (2011). Education for sustainable development (esd): the turn away from ‘environment’ in environmental education? Environmental Education Research, 18(5), 699-717. MEB. (2005). Sosyal bilgiler 6. ve 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler programı. Ankara: Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. MEB. (2006). Sosyal bilgiler 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler programı. Ankara: Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. MEB. (2011). Coğrafya dersi öğretim programı (9, 10, 11 ve 12.sınıflar). Ankara: Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. Özdemir, M., S. (2009). Sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. İçinde, M. Safran (Ed.), Sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve değerlendirilmesi (ss. 17-47), Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Sencer, M. (1989). Toplum bilimlerinde yöntem. İstanbul: Beta. Short, P.C. (2009). Responsible environmental action: its role and status in environmental education and environmental quality. The Journal of Environmental Education, 41(1), 721. Şimşekli, Y. (2004). Çevre bilincinin geliştirilmesine yönelik çevre eğitimi etkinliklerine ilköğretim okullarının duyarlılığı. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(1), 83-92. Teksöz, G., Şahin, E. & Ertepınar, H. (2010). Çevre okuryazarlığı, öğretmen adayları ve sürdürülebilir bir gelecek. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 36, 307-320. Uzel, N. (2014). Biyoloji öğretmen adaylarının çevre sorunlarına yönelik ahlaki muhakemeleri, (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Ünal, S. & Dımışkı, E. (1999). Unesco-unep himayesinde çevre eğitiminin gelişimi ve türkiyede ortaöğretim çevre eğitimi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(17), 142-154. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2006). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin. Yılmaz, A., Morgil, İ., Aktuğ, P. & Göbekli, İ. (2002). Ortaöğretim ve üniversite öğrencilerinin çevre, çevre kavramları ve sorunları konusundaki bilgileri ve öneriler. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22, 156-162.

517

Chapter 40 Self-Efficacy of the Parents Having Children Aged 0-3Years Old Fatma ELIBOL, Fatma ÇALIŞANDEMİR, Aygen ÇAKMAK INTRODUCTION Early years of life are the most intense period of human development in terms of content, quality and speed. Development and education of the child between the ages of 0 and 6 have been scientifically proved to affect the success of the child in later years of life. Optimization of the development potential of the child depends on the extent to which this period is healthily, consciously and meaningfully spent. Importance of Early Years Early childhood period is a period in which the child is steadily changing and developing. Months following the birth of the child are of great importance for the development of the brain and the development of the brain is affected from the environmental conditions much more than assumed. The effect of early years on the brain and development is long-term. Most of the brain and the brain cells have already been formed when the child is born and formation of the connections between the nerves of the brain has been completed in the first two years of life. Except for special cases, almost all of these connections have been completed up to the age of 6. During this period, cell connections allowing learning to take place increases twenty-fold. Therefore, providing opportunities for children to have experiences that nurture their brain development at early ages will have positive contributions to the development of different learning skills in the further stages of their lives. The quality of the interaction with the environment and the results of the experiences lived by the child in the early years of life can lead to irrecoverable problems in children brought up in deprived and neglected environments (Sucuka & Şenocak, 1999). Provision of family environments that are safe, responsive, stimulating, supportive to the development and self-efficacy of the child and free of any abuse and timely provision of support services that can empower the child and the family are of vital importance. Various risk factors might result in delay in the development of the child, deterioration of his/her psychology etc. Such risk factors may stem from the conditions of the child (birth weight, nourishment and health), the conditions of parents (education level, health and nourishment, age of pregnancy) and from the family and support systems (size and composition, employment and income, existence of alternative child care). Research emphasizes the importance of determination of the risk factors that might pose a threat to the development of the child as early as possible and provision of opportunities for children to have experiences that promote their growth and development especially in periods when development is fast (Sucuka, Şenocak et al., 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Kırıkkale University, Faculty of Educational Science Assist. Prof. Dr., Mehmet Akif University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Dept.



1999). The problems that can emerge should be detected as early as possible. Thus, it can be possible to support the development of the child, provide support and help for the family and meet the societal needs of the family. Each child can reach his/her potential development level. Potential development level is higher than the development level to be accomplished by the child on his/her own and close environment of the child can play an important role for the child to achieve his/her potential development. As the children raised in deprived and neglected environments lag behind their potential development levels, they can be disadvantaged in the rest of their lives when compared to their counterparts brought up in better environments. Rather than trying to find remedies to solve the problems brought about by adverse conditions, it would be better to prevent negative impacts generated by negative conditions by means of support programs (Shonkoff and Meisels, 1990). As clearly stated by Myers in 1996, it is a right for every child to realize their potential and children need the help of others to realize their potential. This should be taken into consideration while designing early childhood development and education programs and particularly the programs for children at risk (Bekman, 2000). Permanent enhancements in the development of young children require changes in the knowledge, attitudes and child care behaviors of the care-taker. Starting from the period of pregnancy, factors that can nurture or hinder the development of the child in a holistic manner should be evaluated and thus potential risks should be identified. Determination of the factors that can pose a threat to the development of the child as early as possible makes it possible to plan support services to be needed by the child and parents on time through early intervention programs. The purpose of such early intervention programs is to increase preventive/supportive factors and decrease risk factors. The first social environment of the child is his/her family. During the period between the ages of 0 and 3, the child is completely dependent on his/her family to meet his/her needs. Parents are the first teachers of their children; parent-child interaction shapes the child’s mental, emotional and linguistic development. However, parents may not know what to do in relation to many issues; thus, they might need support in certain areas and in this important period of development, opportunities should be provided for children to have experiences to support their growth and development. Parents rarely get training to learn how to support the development of their children (Corter, 1996). Many parents view their parenting experience as enjoyable and pleasing experience. Yet, parents may have to encounter many social, physical, emotional and mental challenges during the growth of their children. Therefore, parents’ parenting skills and needs should be evaluated and they should be supported when necessary. Parental Self-Efficacy Parental self-efficacy is a concept intensely researched in recent years and closely related to adequacy and quality of parenting skills and accordingly to the healthy development of the child. Self-efficacy is one of the mental processes determining how parents should behave. Self-efficacy is defined as one’s belief in success in his/her performance related to a behavior. Self-efficacy is associated with motivation, cognitive processes, experience etc. People’s perceiving themselves as skillful mostly depends on their environment. Self-efficacy is related to the individual’s having the knowledge of what is the required behavior in any setting and approval of this behavior by other people around (Coleman 519

& Karraker, 1997). Self-efficacy skill determines how individuals think, motivate themselves, feel and behave. In order to develop a strong self-efficacy, people should first master the required skills. Success reinforces people’s self-efficacy beliefs. Particularly when failure occurs before competency develops; it might demolish selfefficacy belief (Bandura, 1994). Self-efficacy in parenting skills can be defined as feeling confident about parenting responsibilities and parents’ perception that they can support the development of their children in a positive and effective manner (Belegeman, 2005). In other words, selfefficacy belief can be defined as parents’ believing that that they can fulfill their parenting duties. The quality of parenting skills directly affects the development of the child. Selfefficacy in parenting skills is known to be related to the quality of parenting skills. High parenting self-efficacy is related to higher efficiency in executing parenting skills. Research revealed that when self-efficacy is high, the quality of child-care provided by parents increases and parents become more sincere, sensitive and responsive to their children (COPMI, 2016). High self-efficacy is known to be positively related to parents’ educating themselves in this subject, reading books about it etc. When it is low, the interaction with the child and quality of parenting deteriorate (Coleman & Karraker, 1997). Coleman and Karraker (1997) stated that there are four mechanisms to develop parental self-efficacy. These mechanisms: Childhood Experiences: Self-efficacy is related to the individual’s relationships with others. It is particularly connected with children’s attachment styles with their prime care-taker. External Messages:It is related to key messages given by the society and culture in which the individual lives in relation to parental values. Current Parenting Experiences: These experiences are related to cases encountered by parents in relation to their own children or the children of their relatives, friends and other members of community. Some research argues that feedbacks obtained from such adult-child interaction strongly affect individuals’ judgments about their parental competencies and accordingly their self-efficacy beliefs. The State of Mental and Behavioral Readiness for the Role of Parenthood: Though there is not much systematic research in this issue, for example it is reported that when the mother creates a positive image of herself as a mother during pregnancy, she can give more companionate responses to the baby when it is born. In order to promote parents’ self-efficacy, their awareness of the above-mentioned mechanisms should be raised, they should be given positive messages and they should be supported. Low parental self-efficacy might affect many aspects of children’s lives (Cited by Young from Ontai & Sano, 2011). Research has demonstrated that motherhood depression might result from low parental self-efficacy (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Cited by Young from Teti & Gelfand, 2011). Depression is one of the sources of stress adversely affecting mother-child interaction. The effects of poor mother-child interaction may find reflections in other areas of child development (Young, 2011). When parents having low self-efficacy are faced with more than one stress factor, they are more likely to feel depressed and desperate (Young, 2011). According to Grusec, Hastings, and Mammone (1994), individuals having low self-efficacy experience 520

difficulties in applying their knowledge and cannot maintain their parental roles in a balanced manner. Self-efficacy has a strong influence on the quality of the relationship between the parent and the child. Parental self-efficacy is not only connected with stress, depression and passive coping skills, but also with the mental processes of the parent (Young, 2011). Parental self-efficacy is a strong determiner of parental functionality. The fact that self-efficacy is a driving force behind parental skills should not be overlooked. In addition to this, promoting parental efficacy seems to be a useful means of enhancing the quality of parenthood and family life. Parents displaying risky and inconsistent parenting applications should be supported to acquire more consistent information and skills about effective parenting. However, traditional interventions focusing only on information and skill development might not be sufficient, the quality of parenting should be optimized and parents should be encouraged to believe in their abilities. When they internalize the sense of adequacy in their roles, they can feel parental satisfaction and pleasure (Coleman & Karraker, 1997). For parents to feel competent in their parental roles, they should have the qualifications given below (Coleman & Karraker, 1997). a) Enough information about child-care, b) Enough confidence to fulfill their parental roles, c) The belief that their child-care behaviors are approved and supported by other people (Coleman & Karraker, 1997). Coleman and Karraker (1997) conducted a literature review about self-efficacy in parental skills. Parents with high self-efficacy do not attempt to solve the problems concerning their children with threat and fear rather they try to cope with them. On the other hand, parents with low self-efficacy prefer emotional ways of dealing with the problems. When the research conducted in the last fifteen years was reviewed, the following conclusions were reached. • There is a strong relationship between parents’ perception of their own competencies and their exhibiting behaviors important for social and mental development of their children. • Self-efficacy continuous in a stable manner over time. • Individuals having high self-efficacy are more likely to display analytic thinking skills, realistic goal setting skills and problem solving skills. • Parents having low self-efficacy are more likely to treat their children badly. • Self-efficacy is positively related to efforts invested by parents to get education. In general, parents having high self-efficacy read more books about child development and participate in more family training programs. When the relevant literature is reviewed, it is seen that the effect of self-efficacy belief in terms of parental duties on parents’ behaviors and responses is highly complex. Moreover, it has direct and indirect effects on parents’ behaviors. Self-efficacy has a mediating function in the mother’s depression, the child’s behaviors, social support and the child’s deprivation. This means that in case of children who are psychologically at risk, parents’ high self-efficacy can serve the function of balancing this risk. Selfefficacy also has a mediating function between income, workload or child-care responsibilities and psychological comforts of women (Australian Government Department of Family and Community Services Parenting Information Project Literature Review, 2004). 521

Coleman and Karraker (1997) stressed that self-efficacy in parental duties is related to the following. • Having enough information about child care and development, • Having skills and competencies necessary to apply this information, • Having the belief that parents can affect their children’s behaviors and development, • Having the belief that family members around the child can support the child. Personal experiences and feedbacks taken from parent-child interactions have much stronger effect on parents’ perception of competency in parenting than external factors. The relationship between the parents’ level of information about child development and care and self-efficacy is much more complex than expected. The relationship between the mother’s self-efficacy and the interaction taking place between the mothers and their children aged at 1-3 years old was investigated. A strong relationship was found between the mother’s information level and mother-child interaction. Thus parents should be supported with parenthood programs to increase their information level. Program directors should know that the relationship between parents’ self-efficacy and behaviors and the child’s behaviors is complex and multifaceted (Raikes & Thompson , 2005). It was also reported that there is a positive correlation between motherhood roles and parental self-efficacy; mothers feeling happier about being a mother feel more competent and perceived parental self-efficacy is related to proper parental skills and behaviors (Cited in Cavkaytar et al., 2014). Review of the Related Literature Some research was conducted to determine the parenting-related perceptions of the mothers executing their parental roles successfully and having positive experiences. Some research compared mothers having been able to see themselves as mothers during their pregnancy with those having not been able to do so. Research revealed that mothers who are able to adapt after birth get greater satisfaction from parenting and display positive parenting behaviors (cited in Oakley 1980; Shereshefsky, 1973). Some more recent longitudinal studies proposed that one of the personal characteristics needed to be a good parent is to be able imagine oneself as a mother. Coleman and Karraker (2003) investigated the relationship between parental selfefficacy skill and the mother’s parental skills and the child’s development and behaviors. A total of 68 mothers having medium socio-economic level and their children aged 1-3 years old participated in this study. The mothers completed the scale of self-efficacy in parental duties and Bayley scale was administered to their children. Moreover, the mother and the child were observed in unstructured environment and a direct correlation was found between the mother’s self-efficacy belief and the child’s development and some behaviors of the child (negative behaviors, ignorance of the mother, docility). Recent research showed that while high self-efficacy promotes positive interaction with the child, provision of stimuli for the child and active effective communication skills, low self-efficacy is associated with the mother’s depression, the child’s negative perceptions and behavioral problems in the child. Self-efficacy belief of the family directly affects the development of the child (Coleman & Karraker, 1997). Raikes and Thompson (2005) investigated the effect of social support and parental 522

self-efficacy on mothers’ stress level. Here, the hypothesis that the stress level of 65 mothers enrolled in Head Start Program is affected from self-efficacy, social support, income level and risk factors is tested. It was found that when self-efficacy in parenting is high and social support and psychological resources are sufficient, stress level is low and income level and some risk factors affect stress level (Raikes & Thompson, 2005). Coleman et al. (2002) investigated the effect of self-efficacy in parenting skills on the results of Bayley Scale for children aged at 1-3 years old. A total of 68 mothers from medium socio-economic level and their 1-3 years old children participated in this study. It was found that parents’ negative behaviors negatively affect children’s results from Bayley Scale and Bayley scores of the children whose mothers’ self-efficacy scores are low were found to be low, too(Coleman et al., 2002). Tucker et al. (1998) looked at the effect of Behavioral Mother-Father Intervention Program on the parents’ self-efficacy, the mother’s stress level and the quality of mother-child interaction. A total of 46 one-year old children and their mothers and fathers participated in the study. Of the participating children, 23 were assigned to the experimental group and 23 were assigned to the control group. In the study, it was investigated whether Behavioral Mother-Father Intervention Program results in positive changes in parental self-efficacy, the mother’s stress level and the quality of motherchild interaction. It was found that the program has positive effects on self-efficacy, mother-child interaction and stress level and the fathers were able to make less use of the program. In the immediate follow-up evaluation in the study, an increase was observed in the self-efficacy of the experimental group and a decrease in the selfefficacy of the control group. This evaluation was repeated three months and one year after the completion of the study. In the evaluation performed one year later, a decrease was found in the arithmetic mean self-efficacy score of the control group. The difference between the self-efficacy mean score of the mothers in the experimental group and that of the mothers in the control group was found to be significant. While a decrease in the negative behaviors exhibited by the children in the experimental group was observed, an increase was found for the control group children in the evaluation conducted one year later. Moreover, in this evaluation, besides the decrease in the negative behaviors of the children, an improvement was observed in positive parentchild interaction. It was found that the Mother-Father Intervention program has longlasting impacts. As a conclusion, it was strongly emphasized the necessity of motherfather intervention programs to be implemented before negative behavioral patterns are internalized by the child and the mother and father (Tucker, Gross, Fogg, Delaney & Lapporte, 1998). Teti and Hess (2004) examined whether there is a correlation between the selfefficacy skills in parenting duties, child development information level and motherhood behaviors of the mothers of the high-risk babies. For this purpose, Scale of Self-efficacy in Parenting Duties and a questionnaire to measure their Child Development Information Level were administered to 64 mothers. Data related to motherhood behavior skills and mother-child interaction was collected by observing ten-minute free play sessions. No certain correlation was found between self-efficacy skills in parenting duties and child development information and motherhood behaviors. It was also found that self-efficacy skills in parenting duties and motherhood behaviors are moderately affected by child development information. With mothers’ increasing child development scores, their self-efficacy scores and positive parenting skill scores also 523

increase. Contrary to this, with decreasing information scores, self-efficacy scores and positive parenting skill scores were also found to be decreasing (Hess, Teti & Hussey, 2004). Halsamet al. (2006) investigated the effects of the mother’s self-efficacy and social support on post-partum depression. The would-be-mothers were evaluated in the last three months of the pregnancy (n=247) and in the fourth week after the birth (n=192) were reevaluated. When social support was abundant and self-efficacy was high, the mothers were found to be displaying low level of post-partum depression syndromes. Spouse support was found to be having positive effects on both self-efficacy and postpartum depression (Halsam, Pakenham & Smith, 2006). Macpee et al. (2003) examined the effects of self-efficacy in parenting skills on child raising skills and parenting skills. In the study, a large sampling participating in family training program intended to promote parenting skills was investigated. It was found that the mothers’ self-efficacy increased after the training and punishment and pressure-based interaction with children decreased. Increase in self-efficacy was found to be contributing to the development in parenting skills (MacPhee & Miller-Heyl, 2003). Esther and Crockenberg (2002) investigated the effect of self-efficacy on the sensitivity of the mother. The participants of the study were 92 mothers having sixmonth old babies. The calmness of the baby was found to be related to high selfefficacy of the mother. The reason for the stress of the baby was found to be related to insensitive behaviors of the mother towards the baby due to low self-efficacy. The mother’s high level of sensitivity was found to be related to high self-efficacy (Esther & Crockenberg 2002). Hudson et al. (2004) investigated for four months whether the self-efficacies of the mothers and fathers having their first babies differentiate. It was found that the fathers’ self-efficacy linearly increased for four months but the mothers’ self-efficacy increase continued for three months; the fathers’ self-efficacy is lower than the mothers’ selfefficacy and the self-efficacy of the fathers having sons is higher than that of the fathers having daughters (Hudson, Elek, & Fleck, 2004). Only in America, 25% of the children under the age of 6 do not have secure care conditions. When parents do not have enough social, educational and financial resources, depression, anxiety in parents and developmental risks in children may emerge. In this connection, the intervention programs aim to provide new positive experiences for parents and to impart positive behaviors and skills to support their children in supportive environments. Research shows that self-efficacy increases by means of family training and intervention programs. Particularly the parenting skills of parents having children at risk should be promoted. Rather than classic intervention programs in which information is conveyed, programs that can impart this belief to parents, optimize the quality of parenting and make them believe in their natural abilities are needed. Satisfaction from parenthood and skill of feeling adequate can be inculcated through environmental support (Coleman and Karraker, 1997). CONCLUSION Particularly in early childhood period, the factors that can pose a threat to the development of the child should be determined as early as possible and opportunities for children to have experiences to support their growth and development should be 524

provided. As a result of the early detection of the problems that can stem from the child or the family, it can be possible to promote the development of the child, to provide support and help for the family and to meet the social needs of the child and family. Particularly at early periods, parents can play vital roles for children to reach their optimal development level. However, parents have many needs in terms of raising children and properly promoting the development of the child. While many people are preparing for parenthood, they are affected from their childhood experiences. Spending a good childhood can be enough to be a good parent. Yet, parents having negative childhood experiences need guidance and support about positive parenting techniques (Australian Government Department of Family and Community Services Parenting Information Project Literature Review, 2004). Research shows that intervention programs are effective and their effect is longlasting. Rather than trying to find remedies to solve the problems brought about by adverse conditions, it would be better to prevent negative impacts generated by negative conditions by at early periods. Therefore, it is of great importance to inform families about child development, raise their awareness of training programs suitable for the development level of the child and promote their parental self-efficacy beliefs (Oktay, 2003) so that positive parenting applications and parenting skills can be enhanced. Research on how to support children in early periods of their lives when their development is fast is rapidly increasing in the world. Much research has revealed that various intervention programs have positive effects on parental self-efficacy and the development of children.Parental support programs are becoming more widespread. There are different educational models focusing on how parents should promote the development of their children. Developing countries like Turkey need to determine the functionality of realistic and applicable educational systems and then adopt the most suitable one. REFERENCES Australian Government Department of Family and Community Services Parenting Information Project Literature Review (2004). Research Conducted for Facs by the Center for Community Child Health Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, http://www.facs.gov. au/family/early_childhood_pip/volume2/sec3.hm. (11.05.2016). Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press. Bekman, S. (1998). Eşit Fırsat: Anne-Çocuk Eğitim Programı’nın Değerlendirilmesi. İstanbul: Anne Çocuk EğitimVakfı Yayınları-12, YapımMatbaası. Belegeman, T. (2005). Annede Depresyonun Bebeklik ve Erken Çocukluk Dönemi Üzerinde Etkileri. Ö. İ Ertem (Editör) Gelişimsel Pediatri (211-223). Ankara: Çocuk Hastalıkları Araştırma Vakfı. Cavkaytar, A., Aksoy, V., Ardıç, A. (2014). Ebeveyn özyeterlik ölçeği geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmasının güncellenmesi.Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, 4(1), 69-76. 43. Coleman, P.K., Karraker, K.H. (1997).Self efficacy and parenting quality findings and future applications. Developmental Review, 18, 47-85. Coleman, P.K., Trent A., Bryan S., King B., Rogers, N., Nazır, M. (2002). Parenting 525

behavior mothers’ self-efficacy beliefs and toddler perfmance on bayley scales of infant development. Early Child Development and Care, 172 (2), 123-140. Coleman, P., Karraker, K. (1997). Self-efficacy and parenting quality: Findings and future applications. Developmental Review. 1997;18:47–85. Copmi, (2016) Parental self-efficacy and competence. http://www.copmi.net.au/ professi onals-organisations/what-works/evaluating-your-intervention/parents-carersfamilies/competence. Access. 20.06.2016. Esther, M. L., Crockenberg, S. C. (2002). The development of maternal self efficacy and its impact on maternal behavior. Infancy, 3 (2), 227-247. Halsam, D. M., Pakenham, K. I., Smith, A. (2006). Social support and postpartum depressive symptomology: the mediating role of maternal self-efficacy. Infant Mental Health Journal. 27 (3), 276-291. Hess, C. R., Teti, D. M., Hussey, B. (2004). Self-efficacy and parenting of high-risk ınfants: the moderating role of parent knowledge of ınfant development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25(4), p 423- 437. Hudson, D.B., Elek, S. M., Fleck, M.O. (2004). Fırst-time mothers' and fathers' transition to parenthood: Infant care self-efficacy, parenting satisfaction, and infant sex. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 24 (1), 31-43. MacPhee, D., Miller-Heyl, J. (2003). Parent Self-Efficacy Mediates the Impact of Family (Poster). Presented at the Annual Conference of the American Psychological Association, 111th, Canada. Myers, R. (1996). Hayatta Kalan Onİki: Erken Çocukluk Gelişimi Programlarının Güçlendirilmesi. İstanbul: Anne Çocuk EğitimVakfı Yayınları, Varol Matbaası. Oktay, A. (2003). Türkiye’de Erken Çocukluk Eğitiminin Dünü, Bugünü, Geleceği. OMEP Dünya Konsey Toplantısı ve Konferansı, Kuşadası. Raikes, A.H., Thompson, R.A. (2005). Efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting stress among families in poverty. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26 (3), 177-190. Sucuka, N., Şenocak, D. (1999). Yedi Çok Geç: Erken Çocukluk Döneminin Önemi Üzerine Düşünceler ve Öneriler. İstanbul: Yapım Matbaası. Tucker, S., Gross, D. Fogg, L., Delaney K., Lapporte, R. (1998). The long term efficacy of a behavioral parent training intervention for families with 2 years old. Research in Nursing Health, 21, 199-210. Young, S. L. (2011). Exploring the relationship between parental self-efficacy and social support systems. Master of Sciences. Iowa State University

526

Chapter 41 Prospective Primary Teachers’ Subject Matter Knowledge’s About Prism and Pyramid Yasin GÖKBULUT 1. INTRODUCTION Geometry is an important area of mathematics program. As well as the use of mathematics to solve problems it is also used to solve day life problems and except mathematics it is used in other disciplines such as art. The research, which is quite important in mathematics education, showed that students encounter many difficulties in this area (Burger & Shaugnessy, 1986; Clements et all, 1999; Crowley, 1987; Mullis et all 2000; Van Hiele, 1986; Pusey, 2003). The studies on Turkish students supported it (Ubuz, 1999; Kılıç, 2003; Yılmaz et all, 2000). In geometry the studies about subject matter knowledge when analyzed in terms of content we have seen that they focus on more two-dimensional issues but not threedimensional ones (Maxedon, 2003; Manizade, 2006) investigating misconceptions about geometric shapes in context of subject matter knowledge gets important because, when we looked primary mathematics 1-5 curriculum it can be seen that it consider geometric shapes for each class levels, children’s can see geometric shapes easily in their day life and its appropriate to exemplify to determine and to exemplifying definition and because of gaps in literature. 1.1. Definition and Making Definition Definition is also important for development of geometric thinking. When Van Hiele geometric thinking levels considering the definition, it has seen that when the level increase the definition also changed, and in 0 level it begins with informal definition and it can be said that in 3 level it take process that which the concepts formal definition has reached maximum level. The definitions position in van Hiele levels was described for each level by Jaime and Gutiérrez (1994). In “0” (Visual) level students take into consideration only attributes which refer to physical objects in a global way, or non-mathematical properties like “round” for circle, so they are not able to use and state mathematical definitions. Sometimes the name of concept is the definition itself; for example, children quite often say that “square is square.” “1” (Analysis) level the students play attention to mathematical properties but, when using or stating definitions, they may have problems with some logical particles, such as “at least”. When stating a definition, sometimes the students omit a necessary property, which they are using implicitly. Other times, they provide a list with more properties than needed, even when the dependence among them is easy to realize. For example, some students define a rectangle as “a parallelogram having two pairs of equal sides, being 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Gaziosmanpaşa University, Education Faculty, Primary Department, Classroom Training Department, Tokat, Turkey

two sides longer than the other two” (they omit the reference to the right angles). Other students define a rectangle as “a parallelogram having two pairs of equal parallel sides, being two sides longer than the other two, four right angles and two equal diagonals” (they include an extra property). “2” (Informal Deduction) the students are able to interpret and state mathematical definitions, being conscious that a necessary and sufficient set properties is needed and that adding more properties to the definition does not result in a better one. Therefore, when providing a definition, the students try not to be redundant, although some redundancies may appear when the relationships among the properties do not consist on one-step implications. “3” (Deduction) and “4” (Rigor) the progress from the level 3 reasoning consist on a better understanding of definitions and the ability to prove the equivalence of different definitions of the same concept. While making a concepts definition, if concept images formed clearly in persons mind that will make definition he or she could make definitions immediately in terms of accessibility but to define this concept immediately does not mean that it is done right in terms of accuracy. Making right concept definition is related to belonging peoples right concept images in their minds. If wrong concept image gets persons mind the definition of concept which has been made by this person cannot be expected to be right definition (Oklun & Toluk Uçar, 2007). The wrong definition which has made for correctness is generally focused on typical general features instead of concept distinctive critical features. Counter to this, made correct definitions are includes a set of conditions that is necessary and sufficient. In learners mind to settle concepts correct informal definitions we must make correct definition process as well as we must chose good exemplifiers which consists concept images. 1.2. Exemplifying Definitions The importance of mathematical definitions in teaching and learning mathematics is irreducible. The definition of a concept, once determined in a curriculum, influences the approach to teaching mathematics, the learning sequence, the set of theorems and proofs. Consequently, definitions, and the ways in which they are presented to students, shape the relationship between a concept image and a concept definition, forming an essential part of one's knowledge structure that affects the learner's thinking processes (Zazkis & Leikin, 2008). When the concept presented to the learners, it feels to distinguish between things that are owned or not. When discussing the general principles of concept formation, instances of a concept may also be called exemplars or examples. In mathematics, these examples are absolute, determined by the canons of mathematical correctness (Tsamir, Tirosh & Levenson, 2008). Within the set of examples, a prototypical example is intuitively accepted as representative of the concept. That is, it is cxcepted immediately, with confidence, and without the feeling that any kind of justification is required. In a similar manner, mathematics educators have come to recognize that prototypical examples are both a help and a hindrance to the formation of concepts. On the one hand, prototypical examples are easily recognizable, aiding in the initial formation of concepts (Wilson, 1990). Reasoning based on prototypes may often lead to a limited concept image. In fact, studies have shown that students tend to regard only prototypical examples as examples of the concept. Other examples, non-prototypical ones, are often regarded as nonexamples (Tsamir, Tirosh & Levenson, 2008). 528

People could give one concept’s samples faster than its definitions in terms of accessibility. Because when we ask some one to give samples of conceps (giving day life or drawing samples) he or she presents comcepts image in his or her mind. In a similar manner, mathematics educators have come to recognize that prototypical examples are both a help and a hindrance to the formation of concepts. On the one hand, prototypical examples are easily recognizable, aiding in the initial formation of concepts (Wilson 1990). If in presons mind samples of concepts image has formed clearly for accessibility person can do sampling of concept quicly. Persons making quickly samples do not mean it’s correct. If wrong concept image settled in peoples minds it is expectable that to be made unsuitable sampling which considered as wrong sample. All examples of a concept must contain the entire set of critical attributes for that concept. On the other hand, non-critical attributes are only found in some of the concept examples. For instance, the critical attribute of equal measure when considering the four equal sides and four equal angles of the square, is a non-critical attribute when considering examples of a quadrilateral (Tsamir, Tirosh & Levenson, 2008). So containing all the critical features of examples are in terms of correctness for logical sutructure necessary and sufficient conditions that are suitiable examples. However person also makes wrong definitions they could give correct samples, even these samples could be rich samples. For instance some one can make wrong prism definition but could give hexagonal prism sampling drawings. 2. METHOD Research Design: This study aimed to investigate prospective primary teacher’s knowledge on prismand pyramid by exploring the definitions and examples generated by them. Case study was used in this study. This study was realized with “integrated multi-state” pattern which has been one of the patterns of qualitative research methodology (Yin, 2003). Two male and two female teacher candidates who have designed with inconsistent sampling, total four teacher candidates participated in the study. 2.1. Selection of the Working Group This inconsistent sampling was made by considering the success that candidates take lessons which contains mathematics subject matter knowledge. According to inconsistent sampling, we chose candidate’s trough the highest and lowest degree to the success of primary teaching lessons by taking voluntary principles, we chose two candidates having the highest degree and two candidates having the lowest degree totally four primary teaching candidates has chosen. The study group were consist of two male and two female totally four teacher candidates which were at a state university in the academic year 2008-2009 in the province of Ankara in the last year studying in the Department of Primary Teacher Education. Features of the working group are given in Table 1. Mathematics Course is represented by M1, M2 and M3. M1: Basic Math II, M2: Mathematic Teaching I, M3: Mathematic Teaching II. For work ethics not used the real names of the teacher candidates were given code names.

529

Table 1: Features of the Working Group Participants Bahar Fatma Mustafa Gürcan

Gender and Age Female (21) Female (26) Male (25) Male (23)

M1

M2

M3

79 39 74 59

89 74 100 69

100 79 89 69

Grade Average 90,67 69,83 90,17 69,55

ÖSS Score 325,96 327,24 325,27 326,08

2.2. Data Collecting Tools and Process Steps The data collection tool which used in the study was existed eight open ended questions that prepared for to explore teacher candidates defining and exemplifying about prism and pyramid which they don’t need operation to answer that belongs to sort of expressional knowledge. 1st question is about drawing prism sample, 2nd question is to explain critical features of prism with drawn by a previous drawing, 3rd drawing different prism samples, 4th question drawing pyramid sample, 5th question is to explain critical features of pyramid with drawn previous drawing, 6th question drawing different pyramid simples, 7th question is to make different definition of geometric shapes and 8th question is related about giving examples of using geometric shapes in day life. The interviews were made with each of participants by face to face which takes average of 20 minutes with each one. The interviews, before been under video recording with the consent of the participants then transcribed. 2.3. Data Analysis Data analysis was evaluated by descriptive analysis method. Prospective primary teacher’s definitions and exemplifications relating to geometric shapes were investigated by accessibility, correctness, richness and generalization criteria referred as in Table 2 (Zazkis & Leikin, 2008). With the help of these criteria as well as we could described correctness of definitions and samples which made by participants and the process and structure in definition of the participants answer and the nature of sampling could be well represented. Table 2: Criteria for identification and sampling QUESTIONS CATEGORIES Able to draw prism and pyramid By helping his/her drawings able to explain prism and pyramids critical features For prism and pyramid able to draw different drawing which is different from the previous draw Able to make different definition of prism and pyramid Able to give examples of using prism and pyramids in day life

Accessibility 

CRITERIA USED IN ANALYSIS Correctness Richness Generalization 

















   

In what follows we introduce these criteria and explain how they were implemented in analyzing process: Accessibility: In this category we consider whether examples satisfy the conditions of the task and whether they are generated with ease or with a struggle. In 530

addition, the number of description and sampling which are different is taken into consideration. Definition and sampling done while answering questions without any hesitation the answer considered as given easy answers, the answers in other states is considered as hard given answers, and if not given any answer it is evaluated as no answer. To be given an easy answer, it does not mean that the answer is the right answer. The accuracy of the given answers is being researched with the following correctness criteria. Correctness: In this category participant’s generated examples for a definition of a prism and pyramid were related to the logical structure of the mathematical statement. Correct logical structure of a definition includes a set of conditions for the concept that is necessary and sufficient. Exemplifying concept definition by a set of conditions that is necessary but not sufficient or sufficient but not necessary is a manifestation of logical difficulties. Such difficulties may relate to the lack of understanding of the specific concept and its critical features or lack of understanding of the concept of definition itself. The definitions from prospective teachers which contain all critical features considered as appropriate situation- it is necessary and sufficient condition for the logical structure. As the basis of research mathematical description of geometric objects are defined by Turkish Language Institution’s mathematical definitions are posted on the web page in the Great Turkish dictionary. It is defined as, prizm “The upper and lower bases of the two parallel and equal polygons, polyhedral object which side surface are consist of equal and parallel plane” and pyramid “Hill converge at a common point, bases are in which an edge of any polygon consisting of a number of triangular object” (http://www.tdkterim.gov.tr). Critical features of geometrical objects according to this definition it is defined as for prism; have polygonal bases, bases are equal and parallel, side faces are parallel, for pyramid; have polygonal base, polygons edges combine in one common place. The missing critical features and even the non-critical features that has defined and sampled considered as in unsuitable situation and described as “insufficient” because the logical structure is necessary but insufficient. In adition to this the definition and samples which contains any critical features considered as in unsuitable situation and described as “wrong” because the logical structure is neither necessary nor sufficient. Richness: In this category, samples are in which type of samples heve been examined. So given samples’ suitability or prototype or not has been considered. Samples that are suitiuble but not prototype are considered as rich samples, the other evaluated as not reach samples. The study unit is prospective primary teachers thus protoyps for prism and pyramid we looked 1-5 and 6-8 mathematic ciriculums (Baykul, 2006; Olkun & Tolluk Uçar, 2007; Altun, 2000). As a result of this review for prism teaching; square, rectangle and triangle prisms, for teachin pyramid; square and triangle pyramid are considered as prototypes. In the study we focused samples prototype rather than definition prototype so by this criteria we only examined samples. Generalization: In this category, it has been examined that whether definations belongd to only releated concepts or general definations which contains the other concepts. The definitions which indicate only requested objects are specific definition; besides the definition inculuding other concepts are evaluated as general definition. In geometric shapes drawings and giving day life examples of them it’s not possible to 531

give general samples so with this criteria only the definition of generalization situations have been examined. As a result, the criteria accessibility, correctness, richness and generalization which has used in analysis has been made as stated categorically in Table 3. Table 3: Categories of Criteria’s CRITERIAS Accessibility Correctness

CATEGORIES Given easy answer Right answer

Given hard answer Inadequate answer

Richness Generalization

Rich samples Private answer

Not rich samples Close to private answer General answer

No answer Wrong answer

3. FINDINGS AND COMMENTS 3.1. Able to Draw Prism and Pyramid Under this title the drawings of prism and pyramids which drawn by participants have examined. When participants requested to draw one prism examples to place left empty for them it has seen that Fatma, Mustafa and Gürcan draw squer prism which is a prototype for theaching prism, Bahar drawn trianle pyramid for prism examples. When the drawings are examined in terms of accessibility, it has seen that all participants are able to draw easily drawings. When the drawings are examined in terms of correctness, it has seen that excepts Bahar’s triangular pyramid drawing examples for prism, the drawing examples of other participants are in necessary and sufficient logical structure so they are considered as suitable examples, the drawing of Bahar is in neighter necessary nor sufficient sutructure so its considered as not suitable wrong examples. When participants requested to draw one pyramid examples to place left empty for them it has seen that Bahar, Fatma and Gürcan draw squre pyramid which is a prototype for teaching pyramid, Mustafa has drawn triangular pyramid wich is also prototype for prism. When the drawings are examined in terms of accessibility, it has seen that all participants are able to draw easily drawings. When the drawings are examined in the terms of correctness, it has seen that the drawing examples of all participants are in necessary and sufficient logical sutructure so it’s considered as suitable examples. The drawings which have done by participants indicates concept image of prism and pyramid in their minds because it is the first drawing from the mind. 3.2. Able to Explain Prism and Pyramids Critical Features by Drawings Under this title the explanations have examined such that these explanations are about participants drawing examples for prism and pyramid why they are prism and pyramid. The reasons participants the drawing examples for prism are given in blow. When requested the drawings for prism why it is prism, we had seen that three diffrent answers occurred. The firs one is Bahar and Fatma indicated that “it has volume and heigt” the other one Mustaf indicated that “top and base geometric shapes are equal and three dimensional object” and last one Gürcan indicated that “the object which has cornered bases”. From these answers we have seen that Bahar consider as a critical feature for prism is volume, base and height Fatma consider height and side areas Mustafa consider bases are equal and three dimensional and Gürcan consider has cornered bases, side areas and three dimensional objects. When the given answers are examined in the terms of accessibility, it has seen 532

that all participants are able to give easily answers. When the given answers are examined in the terms of correctness, it has seen that Bahar and Fatma give wrong answers because their answers contains any critical features of prism so it is in neither necessary nor sufficient sutructure, Mustafa has given unsuitable answer which is in necessary but not sufficient logical structure because it contains only equality of bases but not the other critical features, Gürcan mentioned bases must be cornered so we think that he knows inituviley one of the critical features like that bases must be polygonal. But he didn’t mentioned the other critical features that bases must be equal and side face are parallel so his answers considered as unsuitable answer which is in necessary but not sufficient logical structure. When the given answers are examined in the terms of generality, Bahar and Fatma give general answers that contains all geometric shapes they think “volume and height” features but it is general features of all geometric shapes not critical features of prism, Mustafa give not containing all geometric shapes but contains cylinder and geometric shapes which has equal bases, Gürcan give not containing all geometric shapes but contains pyramid so Mustafa and Gürcan’s answers considered as nearly special answer. When requested the drawings for pyramid why it is pyramid their explanations are given blow. Bahar: Surface areas converge at a point on the hill, what another else pyramid that’s okery. It still has a valume but importance is merging surface of the peaks Fatma: When you said pyramid I draw this because it looks like Egyptian pyramids. Mustafa: As a name Egyptian pyramids comes in my mind. Whit out making pyramid definition in this way I remember memorizing the pyramid. Base is triangle and converges at three points. When we draw triangles they converge at one point. Gürcan: I draw because it looks like Egyptian pyramids. When we looked explanations we saw that participants in generally have made their drawings by memorizing Egyptian pyramids in thir minds and they thougt that pyramids bases can be square and triangular. When the given answers are examined in the terms of accessibility, it has seen that all participants are able to give easily answers. When the given answers are examined in the terms of correctness, Bahar ve Mustafa mentioned “base must be combining in one common place” it is the one of critical features of pyramid but they didn’t mentioned base must be polygonal so their answer considered as in necessary but not sufficient logical sutructer and unsuitable answer. Fatma and Gürcan’s answers are considered as unsuitable wrong answers in neither necessary nor sufficient sutructure because it contains any critical features for pyramid. When the given answers are examined in the terms of generality, Bahar given general answer that contains cone as nearly special answer, Mustafa given a reduction answer that pyramid bases must be only triangular so we consider Mustafa’s given answer is more nearly special than Bahar, Gürcan and Fatma given general answer according to Egyptian pyramids. 3.3. For Prism and Pyramid Able to Draw Different Drawing Which is Different from the Previous Draw Under this title we examined the drawings wich have been drawn for prism and pyramid to show existence of other different prism and pyramid saples which participants have drawn periviosly in first question. We requested from participants if there is any other prism and puyramid samples which they previously drawn in first 533

question, if their answer yes tere are, then we request to draw them too, if thir answer is no then we request to wrie reason of it and participants have made different drawings for prism and pyramid samples is given in Figure 1. Different Sample Drawing for Prism BAHAR FATMA

Different Sample Drawing for Pyramid BAHAR FATMA

MUSTAFA

GÜRCAN

MUSTAFA No Difirent Drawing

GÜRCAN No Difirent Drawing

Figure 1: Different Sample Drawings of Participants for Pyramid

For Prism; When the drawings are examined in terms of accessibility, it has seen that Bahar draw square and rectangular prism quicly and cone is drawn in as an example of the prism after stopping for a while. It is indicated that Bahar has dificulities to draw another prism examples becose her luck of confusion. So Bahar’s this answers considered as hard given answer. Fatma draw triangular and pentagonal prism quickly and indicated that there are a lot of prism which can be drawn. Then we consider Fatma’s answer as a given easly answer. Mustafa draw rectangular prism quicly then a little thinked and he draw triangular pyramid for prism samples and then thinked a little more he mentioned there can be hexzagonal prism when we request to draw it he couldn’t. This shows that Mustafa has dificullity in drawing different prism samples so his answer considered as hard given examples. Gürcan mantoined there can be drawn different prism samplas for the different prism samples he draw triangular and pentagonal pyramid easly and mentioned that when the bases changes there can be more and more prism samples. Gürcan has made his drawings easly so his answer considered as easily given answers. When the drawings are examined in terms of corectness, it has seen that Bahar has made two drawings they have all crictical features of prism and in neceserary and sufficient logical sutructure considered as suitable examples (square and rectangular prism saples), but lack of knowledge of critical features bases must be polygonal and parallel, she draw cone as a prism that is in neigther necessary nor suficiant situation considered as wrong answer. Fatma has drawn two difrent drawings for prism which 534

has all critical features of prism and in necessary and suficiant logical situations considered as suitable examples while she were drawing she thalked her self that, “forexample triangular prism, pentagonal prism, square prism and hexzagonal prism could be…” from this explanation we could understand that she knows prisms bases must be polygonal intuvitily. Mustafa has made one drawing that has all crictical features of prism and in neceserary and sufficient logical sutructure considered as suitable examples (square prism saples), but in perivious questin he although menteioned in prism bases must be equal he draw pyramid which is unsuitable wrong drawing for prism and in neighter necessary nor sufficient logical structure. Although even he drawed wrong example for drawing different prism samples (triangular pyramid) while he was drawing he said that “they named as their bases”, “if there can be hexzagonal prism?” expressions indicated that he knows prism named as their bases but when he was learning this concept he has lack knowledge of prisim because of his limited examples of the prototype. Gürcan has made wrong drawings which haven’t all critical features of prism and in neigter necessary nor sufficient logical sutructure (triangular and pentagonal pyramid), while he was drawing he said that “pentagonal prism, hexzagonal prism, octagonal prism it can goes on adding bases corners” expressions indicated that although he knows base must be polygonal but don’t know must be equal bases. When the drawings are examined in terms of richness, it has seen that exept Fatma others participants have drawn square and rectangular prism samples which are prototype for teaching prism, different from these drawing samples they draw wrong drawings so the drawings of participants for this request considered as not rich. Fatma has drawn pentagonal prism, which is not prototype for prism so her drawing is considered as a rich examples for drawing prism. For Pyramid; When the drawings are examined in terms of accessibility it has seen that although they must draw to many different drawing samples Bahar draw one, Fatma draw two and Nustafa and Gürcan draw any different drawings for pyramid and participants made their drawings easily so their answers considered as a given easly answer. When the drawings are examined in terms of correctness it has seen that Bahar and Fatma have made suitable drawings which have all critical features of pyramid in necessary and sufficient logical sutructure, Mustafa and Gürcan couldn’t draw any different drawings for pyramid. Participants have lack knowledge of pyramid has polygonal base so lack of this knowledge Bahar had made one, Fatma two, Mustafa and Gürcan none drawing. In adition this although participants don’t know pyramids base must be polygonal but it has seen tahat they have misconceptions of pyramid like that “it must have only square, rectangular and triangular base”. This indicates that participans have only limited prototype examples of pyramid. When the drawings are examined in terms of richness, it has seen that Bahar and Fatma have drawn rectangular and triangular pyramid samples which are prototype for teaching pyramid, so the drawings of participants for this request considered as not rich. 3.4. Able to Make Different Definition of Prism and Pyramid Under this title we examined the definitions which participants have made different definition for prism and pyramid. When we requested to make different definition for prism from participants blow dialog ocured between participants and 535

researcher. Researcher: Can you describe the prism differently? Bahar: The solids which has base and height. Researcher: Can you do a different definition of it? Bahar: Does it still have the same features? Researcher: So do you have any difrent definition for prism? You can adhere the same features it’s your choice. Bahar: Nope Researcher: Can you describe the prism differently? Fatma: Heiht and ıhım prism, have two different base area forexample with two different base area ıhım when a combination of side surfaces of the base but cylinder also can be like this, prism is a geometric shapes whith a combination of two different bases and side surfaces. Researcher: Do you have different definition in your mind? Fatma: Difrent none. Researcher: Can you describe the prism differently? Mustafa: I can say it is a geometric shapes which consisting of base and top part. Researcher: Can you do a different definition of it? Mustafa: Diferent I don’t know. Researcher: Can you describe the prism differently? Gürcan: Is it a different way than we know, the classic definition of normal? Researcher: We want different definitions also you know in clasically. How do you tell a person who does not know prism? Gürcan: Matchbox. Researcher: How could you define mathematically? Also man don’tknow matchbox. Gürcan: Atfirst when we looked it we can see three faces of it three difrent edges, there are three different edges, when we looked dimensional we can olso see it in three dimensional form. Researcher: The definition didn’t get in your mind? Gürcan: What we know things can not think of something different. When the definitions are examined in terms of accessibility it has seen that participants could make only one definition, Bahar and Mustafa make their definitions quickly Fatma realized that her definitions contain cylinderand returned her definition again so it is indicated that she have dificulities to make prism definitions. Gürcan give day life examples instead of prism definition, his definition were in not matehematical form, when required to make his definition in mathematically he had difficulities and couldn’t make any one. So the participant’s answers are considered as Bahar and Mustafa given easy answer Fatma and Gürcan given hard answer. When the definitions are examined in terms of correctness it has seen that Bahar has made wrong definition because her definition contains any critical features of prism so it is in neither necessary nor sufficient logical sutructure, in Fatma and Mustafa’s definition it contains only “bases must be equal” critical features of prism so it is considered as not suitable definition because in necessary but not sufficient logical sutructure. Gürcan has made wrong definition because her definition contains any critical features of prism so it is in neither necessary nor sufficient logical sutructure and rather than mathematical definitions he has tendency to examples from day life as making definition. 536

When the definitions are examined in terms of generalization, it has seen that Bahar has made general definition which contains “having volume and height” features, Fatma and Mustafa have made nearly special definition which contains “having equal bases” features Gürcan has made the most general definition by tendency to examples from day life insited of to make definition. When we requested to make different definition for pyramid from participants below dialog ocured between participants and researcher. Bahar: Pyramid: side edges combines at the top, and it is solid shapes which has also a base. Researcher: Do you have any different definition for pyramid? Bahar: None. Fatma: I think its, combines in one point, and it has one base area which has equal side surface. Researcher: Have a different definition comes to your mind? Fatma: None. Mustafa: Its bases are triangles, three dimensional shapes which edges are combined in one top point. Researcher: Can you make different definition? Mustafa: Three dimensional shapes, each side are triangle. Gürcan: Three, pyramid has three surface and edges, four triangles one of them is base combines at one point, triangles surfaces erected at one point. Researcher: Do you have any other definitions in your mind? Gürcan: Egyptian pyramids. When the definitions are examined in terms of accessibility it has seen that Mustafa has two and the others have made one definition, Bahar and Mustafa make their definitions quicly, Fatma has dificulities to make definition of pyramid, she made definition but not surely and Gürcan had also dificulities to make definition of pyramid. When the definitions are examined in terms of correctness it has seen that all participants definitions contains only “side edges combines at the top” critical features of pyramid so it is considered as not suitable definition because in necessary but not sufficient logical sutructure. When the definitions are examined in terms of generalization, it has seen that Bahar has made nearly special definition which contains cone but not contain the other shapes, Fatma mentioned that “it has one base area which has equal side surface” thus her definition contains shapes wich have regular base so this definition considered as reducing concept definition but nearly special definition. Mustafa and Gürcan also made reducing concept definition, their definition contains only triangular pyramid so they made nearly special definition. 3.5. Able to Give Examples of Using Prism and Pyramids in Day Life The participants were requested to give three examples of day life uses of prism. Bahar, give hexagonal pencil during the interview in her hand, Fatma give a rectangular box, legos shaped prism, cupboard shaped prism examples, and Mustafa give machbox, eraser, cupboard examples, and Gürcan give machbox,soap, chewing gum examples. When the given examples are examined in terms of accessibility, it has seen that exept Bahar participants could give easly examples of daylife for prism. Bahar has 537

dificulities to give day life examples of prisim and also she couldn’t give requested number of examples. When the given examples are examined in terms of correctness, it has seen that all examples for use of day life examples of prism which participants gave are suitable examples in necessary and sufficient logical sutructure. When the given examples are examined in terms of richness, it has seen that except for Bahar the other participant’s examples are prototype examples for prism so they are in necessary and sufficient logical structure and considered as not rich examples. Bahar has given hexagonal prism samples so we consider her examples as rich examples. The participants were requested to give three examples of day life uses of pyramid and given examples are presented in below. Bahar: “Egyptian pyramids as a pyramid that’s it.” Fatma: “About pyramid none, but maybe it can be legos shapet as pyramids, and it can be something in used science lessons.” Mustafa: For pyramid could I give Egyptian pyramids? I can not think otherwise Gürcan: “Stones in rings, there are triangular pyramid, and then may lamps and ornamental items.” When the given examples are examined in terms of accessibility, it has seen that Bahar can give one example also we expected to give more and more and her examples was Egyptian pyramids it is not day life using examples of prism it is common examples, and she had difficulities to give any other examples. When we expected form Fatma to give required examples she could give firs one example then add two more but she have difficulity for this. When we expected form Mustafa to give required examples he could give only one example and this examples were Egyptian pyramids it is not day life using examples of prism it is common examples, and he had difficulities to give any other examples, Gürcan can give intended examples of day life examples for use of pyramid and these examples are considered as easly given examples. When the given examples are examined in terms of correctness, it has seen that except Fatma the other participant’s examples for use of day life examples of pyramid which participants gave are suitable examples in necessary and sufficient logical sutructure. In the example given by Fatima in the minds of the researchers couldn’t ilustriated so researcher did no comment for it. When the given examples are examined in terms of richness, it has seen that the example of Egyptian pyramids is not day life using examples of pyramid and the other given examples are prototype examples for prism so all examples for day life using pyramids are considered as not rich examples. 4. CONCLUSION 4.1. Results for Prism Considering the results of the survey in terms of accessibility, we have seen that participant’s response to the requested questions easy or having difficulty is not related to sutructure of answers suitability. In terms of correctness, we have seen that in making definition and examplifiying by leading participant’s misconception about prism they give wrong examples and make wrong definitions. Forexample Bahar’s misconceptions “every thing which has volume is prism” leads her to draw pyramid for prism in first question and resulted by drwing cone as a prism example. Another example of the misconceptions causing false is in Gürcan’s drawings pyramid for prism. Gürcan’s misconceptions which belong to prism “every objects which bases are 538

cornered” although he knows critical features of prism bases must be polygonal also he didn’t know the critical features of prism bases must be equal so it is resulted as his pyramid drawings as prism examples. Similarly Mustafa’s misconceptions belonging to prism “every equaled base objects are prism” resulted him to draw cylinder as prism example. Participants have suitable drawing examples but in definition they made not suitable definitions. In terms of richness, we have seen that according to exemplifying samples participants given first examples were prototype examples, when the in deep investigation in later examples by leading their misconception they give wrong examples and also they are not rich. For all that the examples of Bahar which she given for day life use examples of prism and the drawing samples which Fatma drawn for different prism examples are considered as rich examples. In terms of generalization, we have seen that when requested to the Bahar and Fatma prism which they draw why is prism they give general explanation which contains evey objects, Mustafa’s contains equaled bases objects and Gürcan also give nearly special expesions which contains pyramid. In making different definition to prism Bahar made general definition which contains all objets releated “it has heigt and volume” features, Fatma and Mustafa made nearly special definition which contains objects that has equal bases, Gürcan has made the most general examples for day life uses of prism. 4.2. Results for Pyramid Considering the results of the survey in terms of accessibility, participants have difficulties to make definition than drawing answers. In drawing different pyramid samples the think that “pyramid bases only can be triangular and square” leads them to draw one some one draw nothing although we expected them to draw so many samples. Also almost all of the participants have dificulities to give day life use examples is anather notable resuls. In adition to this we have seen that participant’s response to the requested questions easy or having difficulty is not related to sutructure of answers suitability. In terms of correctness, we have seen that participants don’t know the critical features of pyramid base must be polygonal but hey have misconceptions like that “base must be square and triangular” and by leading this misconception they give wrong examples and make wrong definitions. In terms of richness, we have seen that according to exemplifying samples participants given first examples were prototype examples, when the in deep investigation in later examples by leading their misconception that “pyramid base must be triangle or squre” they couldn’t give examples or they draw another prototype of pyramid. In addition to this they give restrich examples of using day life examples of pyramid, and given these examples are not rich, examples of Pyramid of Egypt has been seen that the leading. However Egyptian pyramids are not using day life examples of pyramid but it is famous example. In terms of generalization, we have seen that Mustafa and Gürcan have made reducing definition hich has contain only triangular pyramid, Fatma mentioned side surfaces equalities then made definition that contains only bases are regular geometric shaped pyramids and Bahar has made nearly special definition which contains cone. According to result of this study, we have seen that participans couldn’t use mathematical language well, for prism and pyramid they didn’t know necessary and sufficient logical sutructures, they couldn’t chose necessary and sufficient features of prism and pyramid to make definitions, they assume non critical features as crictical features and academic success is not effective neighter positive nor negative in 539

exemplifying and making definitions. REFERENCES Altun, M., (2000). Eğitim Fakülteleri ve İlköğretim Öğretmenleri için Matematik Öğretimi 8. Baskı, ALFA, İstanbul. Baykul, Y. (2006). İlköğretimde matematik öğretimi (1-5 sınıflar için). (9. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Burger, W. F., and Micheal Shaughnessy. (1986). Characterizing the van Hiele Levels of Development in Geometry. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 17. 1: 3148. Clements, D.H., Swaminathan, S., Hannibal, M.A. and Sarmara. J. (1999). Young children’s concept of shape. Journal for Research In Mathematics Education. 30(2). 192-212. Crowley, M. L. (1987). The van Hiele Model of the Development of Geometric Thought. Learning Teaching Geometry K-12. Edited by: Mary M. Lindquist and Albert P. Shulte. Reston: NCTM. Jaime, A., Gutiérrez, A. (1994). A model of test design to assess the van Hiele levels. Paper in PME 18 Proceedings, Lisboa, vol.3. 41-48. Kılıç, Ç. (2003). İlköğretim 5. Sınıf matematik dersinde Van Hiele düzeylerine göre yapılan geometri öğretiminin öğrencilerin akademik başarıları, tutumları ve hatırda tutma düzeyleri üzerindeki etkisi, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimler Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Manizade, A. (2006). Designing measures for assessing teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge of geometry and measurement at the middle school level. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia University. Maxedon, S.J. (2003). Early childhood teacher’s content and pedagogical knowledge of geometry. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona University. Mullis I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez E. J., Gregory K. D, Garden R. A., O'Connor K. M., Chrostowski S. J., and Smith T. A. (2000). TIMSS 1999 International Mathematics Report: Findings from IEA’s Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study at the Eighth Grade. Chestnut Hill, MA, Boston College Oklun, S., ve Toluk Uçar, Z. (2007). İlköğretimde etkinlik temelli matematik öğretimi, Ankara: Maya Akademi. Pusey, E. L. (2003). The Van Hiele Model of Reasoning in Geometry: A Literature Review, Unpublished master’s thesis, North Carolna: North Carolna State University, A.B.D. Tsamir, P., Tirosh, D. and Levenson, E. (2008). Intuitive nonexamples: the case of triangles Educ Stud Math. 69. 81–95. Ubuz, B. (1999). 10. ve 11. sınıf öğrencilerinin temel geometri konularındaki hataları ve kavram yanılgıları. Haccettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 16-17: 95-104. van Hiele, P. M. (1986). Structure and Insight. A Theory of Mathematics Education. Orlando, Florida, A.B.D: Academic Press. Yıllmaz, S., Cenk K., ve Şuur, N. (2000). İlköğretimde ve Ortaöğretimde Geometri Öğretimi- Öğreniminde Öğretmenler-Öğrencilerin Karşılaştıkları Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri. IV. Fen Bilimleri Kongresi Bildirileri 6-8 Eylül, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Yayınları, Ankara. Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: design and methods. (3rd ed.). United States of America: Applied social research methods series.v.5. Zazkis, R., and Leikin, R. (2008). Exemplifying definitions: a case of a square, Educ Stud Math. 69.131–148.

540

Chapter 42 Examination of the Picture Story Books Published for Preschool Children in Terms of Social Gender Stereotype Nilay DEREOBALI, Sinem GÜNDÜZ ŞENTÜRK 1. INTRODUCTION Gender is a native feature of humans and they grow up learning to be a man or woman according to the roles that their native society and culture determines concerning the genders. Moreover, they are equipped with values and judgments that their native society determines. Socialization is one of the most important processes of human development from early ages. Socialization is the process by which individuals become functional parts of a certain group and gain the values and attitudes of the other members of the group. The socialization process starts at birth and continues through life (Gander & Gardiner, 1993/1998). Learning the appropriate male or female roles is one of the development tasks that children face while they gain their personalities and social behaviors. Children make sense of their identities as male or female, try to understand the concepts belonging to both roles and adopt suitable behaviors and activities. Additionally, they obtain information about the real or supposed rights and the extents of the powers of these two groups. Although this information varies according to culture, in essence, it has many common points. Parents, schools and society treat boys and girls differently and influence the children to adopt appropriate gender roles. It is stated that gender emphasis starts right after birth, in the arrangement of the child's room (Gander & Gardiner, 1993/1998; Ecevit, 2003). After the children are labeled as male or female by the society, they start to learn and gain the cultural meanings of gender. Boys and girls learn to identify various objects, activities, games, professions and even personality traits as "appropriate" or "inappropriate" during the socialization process. According to Bütün (2010), gender roles are attributes, expectations and behaviors associated with males and females, and define "womanhood" and "manhood". According to Franzoi (1996), the attributes that the society expects females as a group and males as a group to exhibit, are called social gender stereotypes (quoted by Dökmen -Yaşin, 2010). Gender stereotypes are examined under two main categories. Psychological or behavioral attributes that are thought to influence one gender more or less than the other are called gender attribute stereotypes; and conceptions about many roles and activities that are considered appropriate for women and men are called gender role stereotypes (Şirvanlı, 1992). In addition to the attitudes of families towards boys and girls, it is stated that mass 

Asst. Prof. Dr., Ege University, Faculty of Education, Department of Early Childhood Education, [email protected]  MSc., Preschool Education Teacher, Ministry of Education (M.E.B.), [email protected] 

communication tools are also very influential in creating and perpetuating social gender stereotypes and gender-based prejudices. It is emphasized that children learn their gender roles from their parents and teachers, but also from the television, radio, books, magazines, and newspapers (Dökmen-Yaşin, 2010; Oskamp, et al., 1996). In early childhood, one of the most common mass communication tools that the children encounter at home and at school is the picture story book. Picture story books are an important source of information prepared for children at the pre-school education age. Children at that age want those books to be read over and over again and look at their pictures. This is why they are easily influenced by the books at an early age (Oskamp et al., 1996). Picture story books play an important part in the first stages of socialization based on gender roles because these roles are a medium to teach the children about the social values. The books reflect the cultural values and are important tools to make children adopt these values. Moreover, they contain role definitions that encourage the children to practice acceptable behavior standards (Weitzman, et al., 1972). It is very hard for children to escape the heavy influence of role models presented in picture story books. The role models contained in the picture story books, the presentation of men and women in the books and the roles and behaviors they present become very important (Dündar-Zeybekoğlu, 2012). Messages hidden in these social gender cues in the picture books contribute to the emergence of the child's gender identity (Sabuncuoğlu, 2006). In this respect, it is very important for books to present alternative role models and help children adopt more equal social gender attitudes (Vannicopulou, 2004). Social gender is depicted in various forms in picture story books. The illustration of males and females in the pictures -hair length, hair color, emotional expressions- the accessories they use, their clothes, numbers of male and female characters; the personality traits, professions, interests, locations and actions that they engage in the text are considered social gender clues. Long or short hair of the characters, their hair colors and facial expressions, usage of accessories and masculine or feminine clothes for male and female characters show that social gender stereotypes are relayed in unnoticed features. Moreover, more traditional professions attributed to female characters, depicting males with strong and invulnerable personality traits and associating "being active" in their interests with males contribute to the perpetuation of these stereotypes. In this regard, it is rather important to understand and evaluate the presentation of these roles, since social gender roles can be relayed through children's books in early childhood. Thus, the main question of this study is, "Are there elements that emphasize gender equality and contains gender stereotypes in the picture storybooks for pre-school children?" Purpose Basic information about gender differences are learned and consolidated in very young ages. Moreover, children learn information about social gender in early ages too. The gender information they acquire are very hard to change due to children's tendency towards stereotypes. Thus, it is important to ensure that the gender information acquired very early by the children do not contain stereotypes. One of the tools used to relay information concerning gender is the picture book. These books present cues about which social norms and purposes are especially suited for the gender of the reader (Oskamp et al. 1996). Pre-school children use these clues in picture story books to form 542

and shape their personalities. Thus, reading books that do not stereotype (discriminate) genders to children in the pre-school period, which is one of the most critical periods of life due to its impact on the formation and shaping of the personality, the acquisition and development of basic knowledge, skills and habits, will contribute to their definition of the attributes they identify themselves with without being associated with genders. Moreover, in the long run, children will be able to develop the view that differences between people are not due to genders but to individual differences based on the books that will be read to them. Since picture story books involve social values and role models, Kolbe & LaVoie, (1981) state that it is necessary to evaluate whether these books handle gender roles stereotypically. In this context, the main purpose of the study is to evaluate picture story books that are published for pre-school children in Turkey in terms of gender stereotypes and identifying sexist approaches. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Method of the Study The study is in the form of a qualitative research. Document examination was the sole data collection method in this study. The design of the study is phenomenological. Phenomenology focuses on phenomena that people are aware of but do not have a deep and detailed understanding. The phenomena are events, experiences, perceptions, tendencies and concepts encountered in life (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). According to this definition, social gender is a phenomenon that people are aware of but needs to be studied with its many aspects. Study Group Maximum variety sampling was used as purposeful sampling method. The picture books evaluated in the study were bought by the authors, ensuring variety in location and publishing house. The authors acquired all the books between 2012 and 2014. The authors also took care to buy the books that others that may be present in the isles bought. Picture books were procured from bookstores in shopping malls in Bornova, İzmir and Manisa, office stores in Manisa and supermarkets in Bornova. The author procured the picture books from 9 locations and 36 different publisher. The estimated number of books to be evaluated was thought to be 60 but more books were needed in the process of data collection. Thus, 10 more books were examined and data from 70 books was collected. Attention was paid to ensure the number of translated and original books to be near each other. 38 of the evaluated books were originals, and 32 were translated works. Data Collection Tools Three data collection tools were used in the study: "Book ID - Book Information Form," "Text Assessment Form," and "Illustration Assessment Form." Text and illustration assessment forms were designed after examining the relevant studies in the literature. These form drafts were modified after consulting the opinions of 6 lecturers who work in social gender studies. The data collection tools were finally evaluated by a lecturer specializing in qualitative research methods. a) Book ID - Book Information Form Prepared based on Book ID samples. This form contains the name of the book, the 543

name of its author, its illustrator, number of printed copies, publication year and publishing house information. b) Text Assessment Form This form contains the genders of authors and illustrators of the book, the gender cues in the beginning of the book, and sections to indicate the profession, activities, interests, toys and personality traits of the characters in the text. c) Illustration Assessment Form This form contains sections to indicate the professions, activities, toys of the illustrated characters, and the locations where the main character is mostly present in the book. Data Collection and Analysis The books were read and illustrations were examined prior to filling out the forms. For each book, the book ID, text analysis form and illustration analysis form were filled out in this order. The data were recorded on electronic forms. Each file contains three forms and the file is recorded with the name of the examined book. Each book that was examined was numbered. E.g. "Book 1." The examined books were analyzed using the content analysis method. Content analysis involves encoding the data, figuring out the themes, organizing code and themes, and defining and interpreting the findings. This study encodes the data wit "encoding based on predetermined concepts." In cases where a theory or conceptual framework that constitutes a basis for the research exists, it is possible to create a list of codes before collecting the data. This code list may be both in the level of themes, and the level of concepts under the themes (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). This study establishes the cues that may lead to social gender or social gender stereotypes based on previous studies and the data was encoded into forms created by using the information in the literature. At the end of the data collection process, the data for each question in the text and illustration assessment forms of each book were collected on the same Word page. The number of the book from which the data is obtained is written beside the data. Thus, viewing which book is the source of which data item became easier. Moreover, the data were categorized as "male" or "female" to reveal the differences between genders. Word files were printed and the data set was read over and over again to obtain the codes. The encoded data set was read over and over to reveal categories and similar points between the codes, and the sub-codes were collected together. The same themes that were used in the text and illustration assessment forms were combined in this stage to prevent data loss. The data was presented in percentages. Frequencies and percentages for various findings in categories were calculated and presented in tables. Validity and Reliability According to Kirk & Miller (1986), validity in qualitative studies involves observing the phenomenon as it is and as objectively as possible (quoted by Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). This study used the examples in the literature while determining the themes that constitute the study findings. Moreover the examination forms used in the study were sent to various specialists and the dimensions of the study subject were confirmed after being assessed by specialists. This approach is considered to ensure internal validation. The sample and process of the study was defined in a manner to allow comparison with other samples. Moreover quoting the examined documents 544

without referencing their names and detailed depiction of the content that is relevant for the sub-problems of the study are considered to impart external validity to the study. According to Le Compete & Goetz (1982) reliability is about the repeatability of the study results (quoted by Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). In this respect, the method and stages of the study are described in detail. The results were clearly associated with the data. Moreover, the authors kept the raw data concerning the evaluated documents. 3. RESULTS The findings concerning the genders of the authors and illustrators of the books examined in the study are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Information concerning the genders of the authors and illustrators of the picture books. Author/Illustrator Gender

Author Illustrator

Female

Male

Male-Female Unknown together Author/Illustrator f % % f

f

%

f

%

50

71.43

18

25.71

1

1.43

1

45

64.29

21

30.00

-

-

4

Total f

%

1.43

70

100

5.71

70

100

It is observed that 74.43% of picture book authors are females and 25.71% are males. 1.43% of the books were written by male and female authors together. The author of 1.43% of the books is unknown. It is observed that 74.43% of picture book illustrators are females and 25.71% are males. The illustrator of 5.71% of the books is unknown. Table 2: Existence of gender cue words in the picture book titles. Gender cue word Exists Feminine word Masculine word Together No Total

f

%

12 9 2 47 70

17 13 3 67 100

The examination of the titles of picture books reveals that 23 books contain gender cue word(s) in their titles. This question concerns gender-specific words, in addition to given names. Words such as hairpin, father, princess, etc. are identified as gender cue words. 17% of the book titles in the study contained female gender cue words, %13 contained male and 3% contained both male and female gender cue words. 67% of book titles didn't present any gender cue words. Table 3: Distribution of characters in picture books according to gender Gender of the main character

f

%

Female Male Unknown More than one main character

22 24 17 7

31.4 34.3 24.3 10.0

Total

70

100

545

The categories concerning the genders of main characters in picture books are presented in the table above. According to this, 31.4% of the main characters in the books are female 34.3% are male and the genders of 24.3% are unspecified. Some books tell the story based on a family or more than one main character. The percentage of books that tell the story based on a family or more than one main character was 10%. Table 4: The categories of locations where the main characters are prevalently present in the books. Location

f 10 4 3 5 22

Home and around the home External environment Organization or institution Unspecified Total

Female % 21.73 8.70 6.52 10.87 47.83

f 12 10 1 1 24

Male % 26.10 21.74 2.17 2.17 52.18

f 22 14 4 6 46

Total % 47.83 30.44 8.69 13.04 100

The locations where the main character is prevalently present show that males are depicted in the external environments (21.74%) more than females (8.70%). Organizations and institutions were the places where females (6.52%) were depicted more than males (2.17%). Table 5 presents the categories of toys that female and male characters play with in the story books. Table 5: Categories of toys to play for the child characters in a picture books Toy Park - garden toys Models Imagination toys House play Doctor play Construction Repair tools - cutting tools Costumes - Accessories Real object Toy pet Toy doll Puppet LEGO - Blocks Transportation vehicles Robot Musical instruments Puzzles Balls - Balloons Total

6 1

Female % 2.98 0.50

(5,36)* (0,90)*

f 6 3

9 1 3 2 32 19 3 15 7 1 4 1 8 112

4.47 0.50 1.50 1.00 15.90 9.45 1.50 7.46 3.48 0.50 2.00 0.50 3.98 55.72

(8,03)* (0,90)* (2,67)* (1,79)* (28,57)* (16,96)* (2,67)* (13,39)* (6,25)* (0,90)* (3,57)* (0,90)* (7,14)* (100)*

1 2 3 3 20 1 2 8 22 1 5 12 89

f

Male % 2.98 (6,82)* 1.49 (2,27)* 0.50 1.00 1.49 1.49 9.95 0.50 1.00 3.98 10.94 0.50 2.49 5.97 44.28

(1,13)* (2,27)* (3,40)* (3,40)* (22,73)* (1,14)* (2,27)* (9,10)* (25,00)* (1,14)* (5,69)* (13,64)* (100)*

Total f % 12 6.0 4 1.5 10 1 2 3 6 2 52 20 5 23 29 2 9 1 20 201

5.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 3.0 1.0 26.0 10.0 2.5 11.5 14.5 1.0 4.5 0.5 10.0 100

* The ratio between parentheses show the percentage values for the male and female groups among themselves.

Examination of the total number of toys that male and female child characters played with reveals that female characters (56%) played with more toys than male characters (44%). The pictures in the books presented house play toys, doctor play toys, real objects, toy pets and dolls, LEGO - block toys as toys used more by females; while construction sets, repair tools - cutting tools, transportation vehicles and balls-balloons 546

as the toys that are mostly used by males. Book 22 contains the statement "Utku is very happy to see Hav Hav near him each morning." It is understood that the pet toy that the male character holds and that is depicted as his best friend is a dog. Moreover, there is a ball, a toy bear and a toy bus is seen around him. It was determined that this book contains toys encoded as toy pet, ball, and transportation vehicles (Book 22, p. 5). In Book 27, a toy pet, a ball and blocks are depicted beside a female character. Moreover the text contains the statement "Not only toys, empty boxes, empty bottles and various other things were toys to Deniz." indicates that real objects are considered toys. The data for the code real object was obtained from this book (Book 27, p. 4). In Book 23, a girl who goes to the doctor says these words after getting out: "Since I've been a good patient, I'll choose a toy from the toy box. I see a pink, heart-shaped ring at the bottom. Can you help me reach it? Reach it with your arm. Good!" The female character is depicted in the act of choosing a pink ring. The pink ring was categorized as a toy with the code "Costume - Accessories" (Book 23, p. 21). As an example of the code "Model," a picture in Book 54 depicts the female and male characters building a model city together and the mother of the male character states that she likes their toy very much (Book 54, p. 12). The female and male characters of Book 11 are depicted wearing a costume together and playing a theater game at home (Book 11, p. 13). The text of Book 37 contains the statement "Atakan wanted to build roads and bridges with his father. He put together his construction toys together." The data for the code construction was obtained from this book (Book 37, p. 1). Table 6: The activity categories for the characters in picture books Activity

Female

Hose chores - Cleaning Cooking - Serving Nature - Taking care of animals Repairs Maintenance/Construction Child care Self care Strength - Force - Carrying Weawing - Hand crafts Art - Cultural Activities Sportive Activities TV - Computer Driving Transportation Vehicles

f 13 29 10 3 39 7 5 5 8 10 3 2

% 5.37 12.00 4.13 1.23 16.11 2.89 2.06 2.06 3.30 4.13 1.23 0.82

Total

134

55.33

Male (9,70)* (21,64)* (7,46)* (2,23)* (29,10)* (5,22)* (3,73)* (3,73)* (6,00)* (7,46)* (2,24)* (1,49)*

f 5 8 15 14 16 3 10 1 15 11 1 9

% 2.07 3.30 6.20 5.80 6.61 1.23 4.13 0.41 6.19 4.60 0.41 3.37

(100)*

108

44.67

Total (4,62)* (7,40)* (13,90)* (13,00)* (14,81)* (2,77)* (9,25)* (0,92)* (13,90)* (10,18)* (0,92)* (8,33)*

f 18 37 25 17 55 10 15 6 23 21 4 11

% 7.44 15.30 10.33 7.03 22.72 4.12 6.19 2.47 9.49 8.73 1.64 4.54

(100)*

242

100

When all the activities of characters in picture books depicted both in the text and in the illustrations, it was observed that females (55.33%) engaged in more activities than males (44.67%). Females were depicted more in the house chores - cleaning, cooking - serving, child care, self-care, weaving - hand crafts and TV - computer codes; while males were depicted more in the repair - maintenance - construction, strength force - carrying, art - cultural activities and driving transportation vehicles codes. Moreover, males and females were depicted most in the act of child care in picture books. The book number 3 contains an illustration with the code "House chores cleaning." The mother is washing the dishes in the picture. Additionally, the text states 547

that washing the dishes is the mother's duty (Book 3, p.20). In a book that tells the story of a family taking their children to the dentist depicts the mother in the activity of "Driving a vehicle." Moreover, the picture shows that the father stays at home and waves at those in the car (Book 66 p: 2). In the illustrations and text of Book 5, it is stated that the male and female characters worked together to build a slide, as an activity in the "Maintenance - Repair Construction" code. Moreover, the female characters are depicted with hammers and saws, and the male character has a drill at hand (Book 5, p. 13). In book 67, the father helps the child to get dressed. This activity was encoded as "Child care," since the father is taking care of the child (Book 67, p. 3). As an activity in the "Self-care" code, a boy is depicted brushing his teeth in Book 55 ( Book 55, p. 12). As an activity in the "Nature - Feeding animals," the male character is depicted while digging a hole and planting a tree (Book 42, p. 5). According to the findings of the study, positive personality traits of female characters (with 67.61%) have been emphasized more than the positive traits of males (32.31%). Being understanding, caring, charitable, frugal, responsible and cheerful have been credited more than female characters. In addition, patience and being a dreamer were also determined as personality traits appearing only in female characters. In a text of a book prepared by quotes from children, the animal characters without a gender list the personality traits of their fathers. One of the characters says, “I love my father because... He is always kind,” as an example for empathy code. Funniness, which is included in the cheerfulness code, was expressed as, “I love my father because... He is fun.” (Book 50, p. 13). Cleverness was stated as, “I love my father because he is clever,” and “I love my father because... He is intelligent.” (Book 50, p. 3, p. 23). With regards to understanding, the text of this book notes that upon forgetfulness of the male character, the mother pats her child on the head and stares compassionately into the eyes of her child. This indicates that compassion is a quality attributed to the female character (Book 42, p. 12). There is a sentence stating that the female character quietly went into her room book 52, took off her clothes and that she is a clean and tidy child (Book 52, p. 4). In the text of the book on a child who has a working mother and is looked after by a nanny, there is a sentence on how the female nanny is loving and funny. (Book 59, p. 13). The book 43 is about how the female character donates the goods she doesn’t any need more to those in need. The female character has been depicted as being charitable and sharing. (Book 43 p. 4). When negative personality traits in the book are examined, it is revealed that the ratios of negative personality traits attributed to both genders are close. Not being able control one’s temper has been ascribed more to males (18.75%) than females (12.50%). Also, no females revealed traits of being spoilt. Insecurity is a trait attributed more to females, while untidiness is attributed to both genders. In the text of the book in which the mother’s positive personality trait of compassion is depicted by her teaching her son how to plant saplings; the forgetfulness of the male characteristic has also been addressed. The male character who has planted the sapling forgets to look after it; as a result the sapling doesn’t grow (Book 42, p. 11). The text of the book on the girl who doesn’t want to put her hair up, the female character is depicted as being impatient (Book 26, p. 5).

548

Table 7: Positive personality trait categories in picture books Positive personality traits

Female f

Male

%

f

Total

%

f

%

Understanding (full of love, compassionate, caring, nurturing) 6 9.23 (13,7)* 1 1.54 (4,8)* 7 10.77 Caring (warm, cute, sympathetic) 8 12.30 (18,2)* 1 1.54 (4,8)* 9 13.84 Charitable (hospitable, sharing, friendly) 5 7.70 (11,4)* 3 4.61 (14,2)* 8 12.31 Brave (ambitious) 2 3.08 (4,5)* 2 3.08 (9,5)* 4 6.16 Patient 1 1.54 (2,2)* 1 1.54 Empathetic (kind, courteous, graceful) 6 9.23 (13,7)* 5 7.70 (23,8)* 11 16.93 Smart (Intelligent, logical, self4 6.15 (9,1)* 4 6.15 (19,1)* 8 12.30 expressive, perfectionist) Frugal (clean and orderly, carefully uses 2 3.08 (4,5)* 1 1.54 (4,8)* 3 4.62 objects) Responsible (follows rules, listens to their elders) 4 6.15 (9,1)* 3 4.61 (14,2)* 7 10.76 Joyful (Funny) 4 6.15 (9,1)* 1 1.54 (4,8)* 5 7.69 Dreamer 2 3.08 (4,5)* 2 3.08 Total 44 67.61 (100)* 21 32.31 (100)* 65 100 * The ratio between parentheses show the percentage values for the male and female groups among themselves

Table 8: Negative personality traits of the characters in the picture books Negative personality trait

Female %

f

f

Male %

f

Total %

Angry (impatient, sharp-tongued, quarrelsome, short-tempered, easily offended and easily forgiving) 2 12.50 (28.57)* 3 18.75 (33.34)* 5 31.25 Insecure (jealous, shy, diffident, anxious, easy to cry) 3 18.75 (42.86)* 2 12.50 (22.22)* 5 31.25 Spoilt - 2 12.50 (22.22)* 2 12.50 Untidiness (lazy, forgetful) 2 12.50 (28.57)* 2 12.50 (22.22)* 4 25.00 Total 7 43.75 (100)* 9 56.25 (100)* 16 100 * The ratios inside the parenthesis indicates the percentages of the codes within female and male groups.

Table 9: Interest categories of characters in the picture books Interests Nature-Animals Art-Cultural Activities Cars-Machines Collection Sports activities Entertainment Total

f 5 3 1 4 1

Female % 16.66 10.00 3.33 13.33 3.33

f

(35.71)* (21.43)* (7.14)* (28.58)* (7.14)*

8 2 4 2 -

Male % 26.70 6.66 13.33 6.66 -

f (50.0)* (12.5)* (25.0)* (12.5)* -

13 5 4 1 6 1

Total % 43.36 16.66 13.33 3.33 19.99 3.33

(100)* 16 (100)* 30 14 46.65 53.35 100 * The ratio inside the parenthesis indicates the percentages of the codes within the groups.

549

In terms of interests of characters, it is observed that books refer to the interest areas attributed to males (53.53%) more frequently than the interests of females (46.65%). It was determined that female characters are depicted as being more involved in arts-cultural and sports activities. While interest in cars- machines was only attributed to males, collection and entertainment were attributed only to females. Male characters were interested in nature-animals (26.70%) more than women (16.66%). Table 10: Professions of characters in picture books Professions Female Male Medicine Teaching Car-Bicycle Racing Sportsmanship Cookery Astronaut Musicianship Sales Science Government service Farming Dentistry assistance Nursery Tailoring Architecture Archaeology Veterinary Private investigation Nature photography Babysitting Secretary services Caretaking Dentistry Pharmacy Herbalism Aviation Illusionism Post delivery Gardening Computer engineering Fire fighting Vehicle driving Plumbing Construction site foremen

f

f

3 6 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -

4 1 1 3 4 1 1 5 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

In terms of nature-animal code, in the book on what the girl who went on holiday with her mother did, the male character was depicted as fishing (Book 52, p. 2). In book 17, a female character is depicted as having no one besides her cat, whom she lives with. The female character to have a pet and the male character described above to be fishing is deemed as an example of interest in nature-animal code (Book 17, p. 3). In the book about the activities a female character did at the beach during her holiday, her collecting seashells and keeping them in a jar is depicted as an interest included in the 550

“collection” code (Book 11, p. 14). In the book on the female character who is interested in juggling to attend a talent contest, “juggling” has been deemed as an interested included in entertainment code (Book 4, p. 6) Book 30 depicts a male character going to the movies with his family. The movie they are watching is shown to be about cars. The sentence, “The heroic car fell down the bridge and got lost in the waters,” included in the text of the book emphasizes that the movie was about cars. The male character as depicted while watching the movie and it is evident that the movie is about cars (Book p. 10). Dentistry assistance, nursing, tailoring, architecture, archeology, veterinary, private investigation, nature photography, babysitting, secretary services and caretaking have been attributed to female characters out of the professions indicated in picture books. Whereas, dentistry, pharmacy, herbalism, aviation, illusionism, postal services, gardening, computer engineering, fire-fighting, vehicle driving, plumbing, carpentry and construction site work are professions that have been ascribed to male characters. Medicine, teaching, car-bicycle racing, sportsmanship, cookery, astronautics, musicianship, science, sales, government office and farming are attributed to both males and females. Female characters are depicted more than males in teaching and astronautics. The rates females (3 times) and males (4 times) are depicted while practicing medicine are close. It is determined that the farmer in the book showing how wheat is processed for flour production is male (Book 24, p. 1). In the book on the boy whose mother is pregnant with his sibling, the doctor is a female (Book 44, p. 20). In the book on students preparing a birthday gift for their teachers, the students choose a profession and show their teachers what they would do in these professions; the male characters usually chose professions such as musicianship or diving, while females pick mostly architecture or tailoring. For example, the student who chooses to become a musician says, “If I was a musician, I would compose the best song ever.” (Book 46, p. 7). In the book on a family taking their children to the doctor, the doctor is a female (Book, 67 p. 9) whereas; the dentist in the book on a family taking their children to the dentist, the dentist is a male (Book 66, p. 6). The balloon seller is a male in book 19 (Book 19, p. 12). In book num. 56, few nursery school children are talking to each other about their fathers’ professions. While other children note that their fathers are teachers and doctors, one states that he is a firefighter. (Book 56, p. 9, p. 13, p. 12) In the book on which profession the female character desires to choose in the future, the character is depicted as an astronaut, car racer and a scientist (Book 10, p. 2, p. 13). 4. DISCUSSION When the genders of the authors of picture books are examined, it is determined that there are more female authors (71.43%) than males (25.71%). The number of female authors being higher than man leads to an expectation that the texts would not contain may social stereotypes in favor of women. However, various inequalities regarding females have been determined by the first findings of this study with regards to location, profession, the toys preferred, interests and professions of characters. The social stereotypes against women to be present in the books even though most of the authors are female is striking as it shows negative stereotyping against women still continues. In a study conducted by Narahara (1998) the 4th grade teacher asks children 551

to list 10 books they read every year. The study, which examined 20 books by selecting 5 books out of every list, demonstrated that the number of female authors is almost twice the number of male authors. Anagnostopoulos’ study (1981) reveals that although most children’s book authors in Greece are females, there are various gender inequalities in the books. (As quoted by; Vannicopulou, 2004). It was determined that 60% of the books written for children between 4-11 on stories taking place hospitals in the research conducted by Raol & Smith (2014) were written by females and 24% by males. The research noted for the remaining 16%, it was not possible to determine the gender based on the basic information on the books and the books have been co-written by female and male authors. In this respect, the findings of this research match the findings of Narahara (1998) and Raol & Smith (2014). Accordingly, various other similar studies conducted in different years and in different cultures reveal that the female stereotyping continues in children’s books. Brugeilles, et al., (2002) works offer a different perspective in terms of gender of authors. These researchers have examined the characters in picture books in terms of the daily activities they perform and tried to ascertain whether the gender of authors of children’s books have an effect on character and personality trait choices. The results of the study revealed that the picture books are mainly male dominant and that the characters are mostly adults. It was stated that the books push the gender hierarchy agenda through subtle differences. Burgeilles et al. (2002) further noted that social gender roles are reproduced in the books. In books co-written by female and male authors, better qualities and traits are attributed to female characters, whereas, in books written by males, the male characters continue using the masculine characteristics generally attributed to males. Further, these authors have stated that women authors are self-censoring their works in order not to produce books written only for women to read. Verboord (2012) compared science fiction authors of bestsellers, most printed books and books awarded with prizes between 1960 and 2009 in France, Germany and the Unites States in terms of gender inequality. The study revealed that while female authors were in bestseller lists and successful, they are underrepresented than normal levels in all three countries. The number of female authors in bestseller lists was also higher than female authors winning literature prizes. Verboord (2012), who believes that females are underestimated and excluded from areas in which status is crucial, claimed that the findings of this study proves his argument. Within the context of Verboord’s study (2012), the genders of award-inning children’s book are critical. Building on this, research can be conducted for determining the prominent gender in children’s books in terms of “prizes,” - the stage where status becomes crucial. When the genders of the illustrators of picture books discussed in this study are examined, it is determined that there are more female illustrators (64.29%) than males (30.00%). As stated above, the number of female illustrators to be higher than males lead to an expectation that illustrations will not contain any social gender stereotypes in favor of female characters. However, as the illustrations in the books examined depict female characters through the use of objects that are traditionally associated with female gender such as hairpins, jewelry, dresses and aprons while male characters are drawn with objects such as ties, bowties, hats, glasses, etc.; the use of bright colors such as pink, red, purple and maroon in female clothing and blue, white, brown, gray and black, it is evident that gender stereotyping is present in these books. The study of Oskamp et al., 1996 published revealed that the number of male illustrators were higher than 552

females in books that were awarded with Caldecott prize between 1986-1991. In Paynter’s research dated 2011, which examined 3 Caldecott-winning books and 48 best seller picture books, the number of male authors and illustrators was higher than females. The findings of this study matched the findings of Oskamp et al. (1996) and Paynter (2011.) It is anticipated that the reason for the numbers of female authors and illustrators to be higher than their male counterparts in this study is females to be encouraged more than males to participate to studies and works related to children as a result of a perspective that affect the female gender perception within the culture we live in. It was determined that 67% of the picture books examined did not have any clues regarding gender. The book titles not to have any reference to genders can be deemed as a positive aspect. On the other hand, 17% of the book titles included words or terms generally connoted with female gender, while 13% included words usually associated with the male gender. This finding indicates that the female and male genders in our culture are represented with very close rations in the titles of picture books. Further, it can be claimed that there is an improvement in favor of women. Nilsen revealed that among 80 books selected for the study conducted in 1971, 14 had male, 4 had female names used in their titles. Gooden & Gooden (2001), conducted a research on the main characters, drawings and book titles of 83 books printed between 1995-1999. Their study was compared to a previous study and it was revealed that the male names were used more in the former study. Further, for the books concerned, the number of male and female names used in book titles was almost at the same level and the use of female names within the years had increased. Given the importance of book titles and the cover drawings of books when purchasing books, it can be asserted that they are suitable for conveying hidden messages. In this respect, book titles provide a clue with regards to gender roles. It is recommended to pay attention to these subliminal messages and cues when purchasing book and for teachers to especially prefer and recommend books in which both genders are represented equally in order for children to correctly perceive gender characteristics and roles. It was observed that even though the number of male characters (34.3%) and female characters (31.34%) are almost the same, there is still a slight difference in favour of male characters. The male and female character ratios to be so close to each other are a positive sign indicating that sexist approaches are being gradually abandoned. Gooden & Gooden (2001) have also noted that since more female characters were used in the books they studies, there was a gradual progress toward gender equality. In the study of Hellies (2004), in which more than 100 books of 20 authors were examined, it was noted that there were more male characters than female and more positive qualities were attributed to the male characters. The study of Çınar (2013) on Turkish textbooks studied at middle school, state that the character distribution in the books are in favor of both male adults and boys and that males are pictured outdoors more than female characters. The findings of our study on depiction of main characters and characters outdoors are in line with Çınar’s (2013) findings. In our study, female characters were portrayed more frequently than males in company-organization and unidentified categories listed among the locations of the main characters. However, Çınar (2013) determined that both adult males and boys were depicted more in company-organization and unidentified categories than females. Accordingly, it can be 553

claimed that the drawings in picture books depict women in more different locations than the drawings in text books. Esen & Bağlı (2002) have examined 1st grade Alphabet and Turkish text books and determined that women are mostly show inside or around the house while males were displayed mostly in various outdoor areas. In Ölçer’s (2003) study on 32 Turkish folktales, it was claimed that since home is a location to protect the unity of the family and to continue traditions, it belongs mostly to women, whereas, outdoor areas are usually associated with males. Yorgancı (2008) has stated that in text books for 1st to 5th grades, girls are depicted inside the house more than boys, whereas, boys are mostly shown in public areas. Yasin et al., (2012) have visually analyzed the English text books used in Malaysia. Accordingly, the area preserved for women participants is still deemed as private spheres while, men are presented outside the home, in public areas more. In this study, even though the males are usually shown inside and around the house, the percentage of males being present in outdoor areas is higher than the females. In this respect, it can be claimed that stereotypical and non-stereotypical perspectives appear simultaneously within the concept of location. In texts and drawings of books examined in our study, there is a distinct difference between toys played by boys and girl. The toys used for playing house, dolls and repair tool toys can be deemed to carry a sexist approach. Boys are depicted as be playing with playing house toys very few times (0.5%) and with dolls (0.5%) as well: Whereas no women were shown using repair tool toys. In Carter’s (2009) research, 4 female main characters of 4 books out of 19 books have played with dolls, 4 with stuffed animals and female characters of 3 books with balls. These findings prove that it cannot be asserted that the majority of girls played with dolls. However, when all books are considered, it was revealed that characters played with toys mostly associated with boys such as cars and boats and also, with gender-free toys such as blocks and kites. The study also demonstrated that gender stereotyping in picture books also apply to the occupations or professions of the characters. The findings point out to sexist division of labor in profession codes. Women were shown as being more involved in domestic works, cleaning, cookery, knitting - handcrafts, childcare and self-care more than males. On the other hand, males were mostly featured in areas related to nature animal care, repairs - maintenance - building, power - strength, handling, vehicle driving, sporting activities and art-cultural activities. Another interesting evidence proving that gender stereotyping continues is that even though males were widely involved in child care duties, their main chore was playing with children. On the other hand, duties such as child cleaning, feeding, etc. were works undertake mainly by the female characters in the stories. Gümüşoğlu (2005) states in his study that before 1950, in text books, both parents acted towards a common target whereas after 1950, the books contained sentences to the effect that the main duties of the mother were cooking, cleaning, dishes, etc. Köseler (2009) also indicates that in the works he examined in his study, women were mostly shown while undertaking domestic works such as cooking, setting the table and taking care of children, while male characters were mostly engaged in works such as playing with the children, doing repairs, collecting firewood, etc. The findings of both these studies point out that while females mostly remain at home, males are usually depicted as being outside of the house. Yorgancı (2008) further states that all cooking, cleaning and child care duties are undertaken by women. Çınar (2013) note that women are mostly involved in domestic duties in text books, while male 554

characters are usually shown in business life. Further, females take more part in activities related with children and assume the role of mother. In the study conducted by DeWitt, et al., (2013), 300 children’s picture books printed between 1902 and 2000 were examined by considering the publication date as a independent variable to ascertain whether the roles of mother and father have undergone a change during these years. The study pointed out that fathers acted more as the friends of the children than mothers. While taking the children out for some fresh air is an activity assumed by both parents, mostly fathers were involved in both physically and non-physically playful activities with the children. This finding matches the finding of this research and other similar researches that prove that males are illustrated more while “playing with children” than females. On the other hand, DeWitt, et al., (2013) have noted that the disciplining role was shared between both parents It was detected that in general, females are more actively involved in nourishment and care taking activities, whereas males were mostly active in acting as the friend of the children and earning a living for the family. However, it is also noted that within the last 30 years of the 20th century, both genders have been more equally portrayed. In books published in the 2000s, fathers are depicted as being more involved in childcare when compared t previous years and mothers are portrayed more outside of the house in business environments. Even though males are still mostly shown as playing with children, since they are portrayed more in activities related with child care and women are shown as astronauts, doctors, veterinarians and tailors, it can be claimed that equal gender depictions and portrayals have increased in picture books. Fitzpatrick & McPherson (2010) have categorized the behaviors of characters under 3 activity levels - static, busy (static but using fine motor skills such as drawing) and active (using gross motor skills). They have described their finding that males (57%) use their fine motor skills more than women (43%) as surprising. Women were predominant in only the static category; in activities such as sitting or standing and doing nothing. In respect of gross motor skills, there was a great distance in favor of males. It was highlighted that males are frequently depicts as doing various activities such as running, climbing and saving others (usually women and young children). Fitzpatrick & McPherson (2010) assert that children are being exposed to inherent stereotypes depicting males as “working” and women as “doing nothing”. Yasin et al. (2012) note that the stereotypes attributed to women in the society are usually wife mother and caretaker and these duties are all restricted to the house and therefore, women are only portrayed at the front or back gardens; which are still private spheres. They have expressed that women were mostly portrayed as being in charge of kitchen and gardening chores. The findings of this research are in line with other researches. The illustrations of children’s books to adopt a sexist approach towards the roles and works assumed by females and males, labeling duties and chores as belonging to males and females and such point of view to conveyed to children through these books might cause children to adopt gender stereotypes at an early age without noticing. It was determined that ratio of negative personality traits attributed to both males and females in texts of picture books are very close to each other. Yet, most positive personality traits have been attributed to females. Further, the books have emphasized positive personality traits of all characters rather than the negative traits. The positive personality traits such as being caring, sweet, understanding and charitable to be expected more from women is the product of a sexist approach. In fact, an equal stance 555

proving that both genders may have positive and negative personality traits should be developed and explained to children in a correct manner. For example, it was determined that being smart has been attributed to both genders equally in picture books. This quality mostly identified with males in the sexist perspective to be attributed equally to both genders in picture books is a pleasing finding. In addition, there wasn’t a major gap between ratios of being empathetic in males (7.70%) and females (9.23), which contradicts with the literature that usually attributes empathy to females. This finding might be a sign that being empathetic is becoming another quality that may be attributed to males. Anger, one of the negative personality traits, was associated mostly with males. It can be concluded that the society tolerates angry behavior of males in negative situations more than females. This concept also applies to the picture books studies. Craig (2008) has analyzed the emotional expressions of characters in 60 books that have the highest publication and sales figures since 1950. His research revealed that while female characters are more frequently depicted when expressing more affectionate behaviors, whereas male characters were mostly portrayed as showing their angry attitudes. When the emotional expressions of the characters in this study are observed, it is also determined that while male characters mostly expressed anger, women showed more loving, caring attitudes. Since being angry is attributed to men and being love to females, it can be asserted that the findings hare are in line with Craig’s (2008) findings. Further, the traits listed under insecurity title are widely attributed to women. Paynter’s (2011) research on picture books also demonstrated that self-confidence/aggressive traits are not associated with women. In this respect the insecurities of women (18.75%) (being jealous, shy, lacking self-confidence, being anxious and easy to cry) have come forth in this study. The findings hare match Paynter’s findings. Interests of males (53.35%) have been depicted more than females’ interest areas (46.35%). The society perceives males to be interest in science, technology, business, adventure, machinery, tools and guns, while females are mostly interested in house chores, fine arts and charities. Even though it is revealed that women are highly active in arts-cultural and sports activities according the codes they are mostly involved in, interest areas such as cars and machinery to be only attributed to males indicated that the gender stereotypes continue to exist. Women are more involved in collection and entertainment activities than males. Whereas, male characters are more frequently depicted in natural settings - interested in animal care, etc. These findings indicate that while females are involved more in calmer activities, males prefer more active activities. The results have also demonstrated that males are depicted in outdoor areas more than women. Accordingly, there is a relation between males being depicted at outdoor areas more and females to be shown more in indoor areas. Çınar (2013) have determined that in text books, males are shown while fishing or hunting, reading newspapers, gardening and having picnics while women are mostly depicted while knitting, watching TV, embroidering and having picnics. They have asserted that the distribution of these activities in males and females are in line with traditional gender roles. Yasin et al., (2012), deducted that while females are shown within the house while being engaged in limited number of activities, males are portrayed mostly outside while engaging in various activities. Some of these activities of males are cycling, playing football and basketball and performing another sports activities. Our research has concluded that males are mostly interested in fields such as cars, machinery and 556

nature - animals. As a result, we cannot assert that children’s picture books are completely free of stereotypes. In many societies, professions are categorized according to genders as “women’s work” and “men’s work,” (Parlaktuna, 2010). For example, if a profession consumes all time, energy and demands all emotional and material resources of a person, then, this profession is not deemed as suitable for women. Women’s main duty to be domestic chores even though they are employed limits their business lives. A lot has changed after being a housewife became a norm for womanhood. Now, the only appropriate occupation for women became no occupation. A woman can work only if it is necessary and as an exception. Today, this line of thought still exits however; more importance is paid to women to have a vocation these days. Yet, no matter how successful women are in their professional lives, it is asserted that they do not pay enough attention to their families and therefore, business life is not suitable for women. As a result, there is a popular view that women’s professions should be part-time jobs that allow women more time to spend in domestic environments (Çayır & Ceyhan, 2012). For example, in Köseler’s (2009) study the professions attributed to females were nursery, singing, kindergarten management and tailoring. Yorgancı (2008) stated that in classroom books for 1st - 5th grade students, the professions of teaching, medicine and nursing were recommended for females, while professions recommended for males mostly involved mechanical jobs. It was determined in this study that in addition to traditional professions, nontraditional professions were also attributed in the texts and illustrations of picture books. For example, architecture, archaeology and veterinary are only a few of professions attributed to women. In Köseler's 2009 study, architecture and veterinary were only attributed to males. This study determined that the traditional social gender perspectives were not present in the children's books since females were depicted in different professions, and that this may be considered a development in the direction of equality of genders. However, when the professions that were only attributed to males are examined, it is difficult to state that gender stereotypes were abandoned altogether. Males were, as in the study by Köseler (2009), depicted as mechanics, mailmen, engineers, pilots, gardeners, etc. In both studies, teaching was a profession that was mostly attributed to females. Medicine was mostly attributed to males in Köseler's study (2009), but in this study the ratio of male and female doctors was almost the same. Moreover, based on their frequencies in this study, females were depicted as car bicycle racers, athletes, cooks, farmers and salespeople, albeit in a smaller percentage than men. Additionally, the frequency of astronaut and scientist occupations that were considered more appropriate for males was higher for females. It is thought that this may be because females are increasingly taking part in social life and because their status is higher today. Gümüşoğlu (2005), in their study about class books states that prior to 1950, females were depicted as having an occupation in the books, but after 1950, they were confined to house chores and the one who worked outside was the father. In this study, the females' professions were various and reflected the positive developments in this regard. The results of this study are not consistent with Köseler's (2009) and Gümüşoğlu's (2005) findings in this regard. In Fitzpatrick and McPherson (2010) stated that they couldn't find a female scientist, truck driver or doctor in painting books. Keith, L. (1995), determined that while females were generally depicted as stereotyped and female-appropriate professions, they are also depicted as butchers and 557

cab drivers in his study. In addition to the increased representation of females in picture books, their depiction in various occupations can be seen as the result of the mobility of females in the society. Today, the effort to ensure that females are educated is increased compared to the past. The works of public institutions and non-Governmental Organizations implanted the view that educating woman will change many things in society. The fact that females are depicted in more diverse professions than in the past may be considered an indication of the changing gender views concerning professions. 5. CONCLUSIONS This study examined 70 picture story books that were published in Turkish for children of 3 - 6 years of age, in terms of social gender. Although the ratio of female authors and illustrators was higher than males, it was observed that social stereotypes were still in place against females both in the texts and illustrations of these books. One of the most striking results of the study is the fact that female writers and illustrators produced works that reflect the stereotypes against their gender. Most of the picture book titles didn't contain statements concerning social gender stereotypes. Examination of the books containing gender cues revealed that male given names were more prevalent than female given names in the books' titles. Positive personality traits were more frequent than negative personality traits for all characters in all the books. This may be considered a positive result since it encourages the pre-school children to adopt better traits. However, most of the positive personality traits were used for females. Some of the positive personality traits used for females were observed not to have departed from the stereotyped views (females being understanding, cute, etc.). The percentages of negative personality traits were close between males and females. The fact that "anger," among negative personality traits was attributed to males more frequently is one of the more important results indicating that stereotypes are still in force in some ways. In conclusion, the study determined that the social gender stereotypes are presented to children based on professions attributed to males and females, activities, personality traits, interests, games and toys along with the physical appearances of males and females, their clothes, accessories and the locations in which they are present in the texts and illustrations of picture books. Although the social gender stereotypes were diminished in some areas for male and female characters in picture children's books, it is seen that it goes on in other areas. REFERENCES Brugeilles, C., Cromer, I., & Cromer, S. (2002). Male and female characters in illustrated children’s books or how children’s literature contributes to the construction of gender. Population (English edition), (57)2, 237-267. Bütün, M. (2010). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği Perspektifinden Çocuk Bakım Hizmetleri: Farklı Ülke Uygulamaları. T.C. Başbakanlık Kadının Statüsü Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara. Carter, J. (2009). Gender Role Portrayal in Board Book Illustrations. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Craig, A. B. (2008). Gender Stereotypes About Emotion Portrayed in Children’s Picture Books. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans tezi, North Carolina State University. Çayır, K. & Ceyhan, A. M. (2012). Ayrımcılık: Çok Boyutlu Yaklaşımlar. İstanbul; İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. DeWitt, L. A., Cready, M. C. & Seward, R.R. (2013). Parental Role Portrayals in Twentieth 558

Century Children’s Picture Books: More Egalitarian or Ongoing Stereotyping?. Sex Roles, 69:89–106. Dökmen, Z. Y. (2010). Toplumsal cinsiyet (Sosyal Psikolojik Açıklamalar). İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Dündar, Z. Ö. (2012). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Rollerinin Televizyon Reklamlarına Yansıması, http://www.ethosfelsefe.com/ethosdiyaloglar/mydocs/Ozg-Cinsiyet.pdf , 5 (1), 121-136. Erişim tarihi: 15 Kasım 2014. Ecevit, Y. (2003). Toplumsal Cinsiyetle Yoksulluk İlişkisi Nasıl Kurulabilir? Bu İlişki Nasıl Çatışabilir?. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi, 25,4, 83-88. Esen, Y. & Bağlı, M. T. (2002). İlköğretim ders kitaplarındaki kadın ve erkek resimlerine ilişkin bir inceleme. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 35(1-2), 143-154. Fitzpatrick, J. M. & McPherson, J. B. (2010). Coloring Within the Lines: Gender Stereotypes in Contemporary Coloring Books. Sex Roles, 62:127–137. Gander, M.J. & Gardiner, H. W. (1998). Çocuk ve Ergen Gelişimi. (Çev: Bekir Onur) İstanbul: İmge yayıncılık. Gooden, A. M., & Gooden, M. A. (2001). Gender representation in notable children’s picture books: 1995–1999. Sex Roles, 45:89–101. Gümüşoğlu, F. (2005). Ders Kitaplarında Toplumsal Cinsiyet (Cumhuriyetin İlk Yıllarından Günümüze). (2. Basım). Çağdaş Eğitim Vakfı Yayınları. İstanbul Keith, J. L. (1995). The portrayal of Gender and Ethnicity in Children's Picture Books. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans tezi, San Jose State University. Kolbe, R., & LaVoie, J. (1981). Sex-Role Stereotyping in Preschool Children’s Picture Books. Social Psychology Quarterly, 44(4), 369-374. Köseler, F. (2009). Okul Öncesi Öykü ve Masal Kitaplarında Toplumsal Cinsiyet Olgusu. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Aydın: Türkiye. Narahara, M. (1998). Gender stereotypes in children’s picture books. East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED419248). Nilsen, A. P. (1971). Women in children’s literature. College English, 32, 918–926. Oskamp, S., Kaufman, K., & Wolterbeek, L. A. (1996). Gender role portrayals in preschool picture books. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11(5), 27–39. Ölçer, E. (2003). Türkiye Masallarındaki Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve Mekân İlişkisi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Bilkent Üniversitesi, Ekonomi ve Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara: Türkiye. Parlaktuna, I. (2010) Türkiye'de Cinsiyete Dayali Mesleki Ayrimciligin Analizi/Analysis of Gender-Based Occupational Discrimination in Turkey Ege Akademik Bakis. Paynter, K. C. (2011). Gender Stereotypes and Representation of Female Characters in Children's Picture Books. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, http://digitalcommons.liberty. edu/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1500&context=doctoral Erişim tarihi: 11 Ocak 2015. Raol, H. & Smith, H. (2014). The representation of women doctors in children’s picture books. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 107 (12), 480-482. Sabuncuoğlu, A. (2006). Televizyon Reklamlarında Toplumsal Cinsiyet. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir: Türkiye. Şirvanlı, Ö. D. (1992). Annenin Çalışma Durumu ve Ebeveynin Benimsediği Cinsiyet Rolü Değişkenlerinin Çocuğun Cinsiyet Özelliklerine İlişkin Kalıpyargılarının Gelişimine Etkisi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara: Türkiye. Vannicopulou, A. (2004). Resimli Çocuk Kitaplarında Kadın Karakterler. (Çev: Dilek Çiftçi 559

Yeşiltuna), Ege Eğitim Dergisi, 5 (2): 65-73. Weitzman, L., Eifler, D., Hokada, E., & Ross, C. (1972). Sex-role socialization in picture books for preschool children. American Journal of Sociology, 77, 1125-1150. Yasin, M. S. M., Hamid, B. A., Othman, Z., Bakar, K. A., Hashim, F. ve Mohti, A. (2012). A Visual Analysis of a Malaysian English School Textbook: Gender Matte. Social and Behavioral Sciences, (69), 1871 – 1880. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2008). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Ankara: Seçkin Yayınevi. Yorgancı, F. (2008). İlköğretim ders kitaplarında toplumsal cinsiyet rollerinin inşası, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Afyonkarahisar.

560

Chapter 43 Constructivism Hakan TURAN 1. HISTORIC PROCESS

"What is information?", "What is reality?"; Not only the philosophers or epistemologists but also those who are involved in science, language and values, education-psychologists and computer programmers are searching to find out the answers for these questions, as well (Murphy, 1997). In time, the attitude towards the nature of information has changed as a result of the changes at every field. This change in the nature of information can be said to have effects on the learning theories, too. In addition to behavioural and cognitive learning theories, constructivist learning theory has emerged. The word ''construct'' comes from con struere in Latin, and it means ''to construct or restore a building'' (Mahoney, 2004). Numerous different definitions of the constructivism can be found in the Literature. According to Bruning and et al (1999), constructivism is a philosophical and psychological approach that is about what people learn or understand individually (Quoted by Schunk, 2004, p. 285). According to Savery and Duffy (1995, p. 1), constructivism is a philosophical view on how we come to understand or know. Brooks and Brooks (1999) define it as the process in which the person connects the old information with the new one; Lefrancois (1998), however, says it is a discovery centred learning approach that assumes the person can construct what he learns. Idealism only considers the mind and the information that is formed by the mind as the truth (Glasersfeld, 1991, p. 2). According to idealists, the truth and values are absolute, unchanging in time and universal. These truths in the person’s mind that are called ''idea'' are assumed to come from birth. Realists explain the universe as the one with matterand concrete. As the truth that comes from the matter is accepted as unchanging, they defend the idea that the person should use his mind to reach these absolute truths. Pragmatists, though, accept the truth as changeable so they refuse absolute and universal truths (Erden, 2005, p. 125). Constructivist learning theoreticians, however, suggest that human behaviours change constantly, they differ according to conditions and they are seity and unpredictable (Aldrich and Thomas, 2002; Gensemer, 1980, p. 13; Mergel, 1998). Philosophical basis of constructivism dates back to B.C. V and VI century philosophers Lao Tzu, Budha, Heraclitus and XVIII century philosopher, Vico, who says "Knowing is to know how to do." "Human brain can only know what it creates." The mind can only comprehend what the person creates according to his own design.", "The truth is the same as what is created." Furthermore, constructivism can also be 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Kocaeli University, Faculty of Education.

based on other philosophers as listed below: Kant, who claims that the person is not passive, but active in acquiring the information; Rousseau, who emphasises the role of the teacher to offer the student intriguing problems and who says that the interaction of the person with his environment is the basic factor for constructing the information; James, who states that information cannot be gained quiescently; and Dewey, who says "Education is not a preparation for life, it is life itself."; Kuhn and Morty, who claim that the information is not the representation of the outer truth but it is the construction formed by individuals; Wittgenstein, who emphasises the problems of the Philosophy are linguistic problems; even Socrates, who finds himself not a teacher but an intercessor that comes up with ideas, and who believes learning is in the person’s cognition (Boudourides, 1998, Brooks and Brooks 1999; Duffy and Cunningham, 2001; Duman, 2004; Koç, 2003, p. 19; Larochelle et al., 1998; Mahoney, 2004; Mergel, 1998; Özden, 2003; Tezci and Gürol, 2003; Glasersfeld, 1989, 1992; Yager, 1991). From the past to the present, the information used to be considered to represent the real world independently from the individual. The information used to be accepted as the truth only when it reflected the real world accurately. However, the constructivists do not agree with this traditional belief, and they defend the idea that the information depends on the person, that’s why it is relative. The person who interacts with his environment gains the necessary information from the outer world and he makes a sense of it for himself. So, the information is given a meaning by the person. This thought can lead us to sceptics who defend that the real world cannot be fully represented so the information cannot always be valid in every respect. (Boudourides, 1998; Brooks and Brooks 1999; Duffy and Cunningham, 2001; Duman, 2004; Koç, 2003, p. 19; Larochelle et al., 1998; Mahoney, 2004; Mergel, 1998; Özden, 2003; Tezci and Gürol, 2003; Glasersfeld, 1989, 1992; Yager, 1991). People have suggested theories about the nature of the material since prehistoric times. Ancient Greeks used to believe that the matter consisted of fire, water, soil and air. After this theory, another idea- the matter could be split up into very small pieces without any change- was brought forward. Greek philosophers Democritus and Lucippus claimed that the matter consisted of very small pieces that were too small to be split up and they called these small particles as ''atomos ''. A very long time later, in 1803, John Dalton came up with an important law of solid proportions which is based on the existence of atoms. According to him, all of the atoms of an element are the same as each other. The behaviourist hypothesis, which appears in the same century, can be compared to Dalton’s atom hypothesis by ignoring the changes in mind but focusing on observable behaviours.In Nature Sciences, some scientists,such as Crookes, Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr, realised that there was something inside the atom which caused the movements of atom. Cognition theorists correspondingly suggested that there was something remarkable in the organism that was considered to affect the behaviours. Sooner, atom was understood to have been indecisive and unpredictable. Constructivist Learning Hypothesis suggested that each organism was a continuous variable (Mergel, 1998; Gensemer, 1980, p. 13). In accordance with these explanations, it can be said that there is a parallelism between the improvements of atom theories and the improvements of learning theories. This relationship has been illustrated comparatively in Figure 1:

562

Year 1803

Atomic Theory Dalton's Atomic Theory: All of the atoms of an element are the same as each other.

Learning Theory Behaviorism: Mind is a ''black box''

1897

Thompson's Atomic Theory: Positive and negative charges

1909

Rutherford's Atomic Theory: There was something inside the atom which caused the movements of atom.

1913

Bohr's Atomic Theory: Energy levels

-

1926…

Schrödinger's Atomic Theory: Indecisive and unpredictable atom

Constructivism: Proccesses in the mind are constantly in flux depending on state, etc.

-

Cognitivism: Proccesses occuring inside the mind

Figure 1: Learning Theories and the Development of Atom Theories (adapted from Mergel, 1998)

It can be said that the theory of constructivism, too, has been built over the previous learning theories, likewise the theory of quantum had been built over the other atom theories. According to Reigeluth (1997), some of the "key markers" that should distinguish the new (information-age) paradigm of instructional theories from the old (industrial-age) paradigm are: Table 1: Old and New Teaching and Learning Theories Industrian age Information age Standardization Customization Centralized control Autonomy with accountability Adversarial relationships Cooperative relationships Autocratic decision making Shared decision making Compliance Initiative Conformity Diversity One-way communications Networking Compartmentalization Holism Parts-oriented Process-oriented Teacher as "King" Learner (customer) as "King" (adapted from Reigeluth, 1997)

It might be useful to compare the constructivist learning theory to behaviourist and cognitive theories so that it can be understood better. Behaviorist: Equates successful 563

learning with behavioral change; information is transmitted by the teacher, replicated by the learner. Cognitive theorist: Equates successful learning as understanding and skill performance; is learner centered. Constructivism: The theory that people learn by constructing meaning and through interpretative interactions with and experiences in the environment (Brown, 1998, p. 9) 2. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM Constructivism has different types that are commonly accepted (Ernest, 1994, 62; McDonnough, 2004, p. 275). The main ones can be listed as cognitive (individual), social (socio-cultural) and radical constructivism. 2.1. Cognitive Constructivism Information is created by individuals and it is organised (Vermette and Foote, 2001). According to Piaget, all the information has been constructed and it has been formed as a result of the activities of the individuals that are physically or mentally active (Philipps,1981, p. 28; Glaserfeld, 1995, p. 8). Learning is the outcome of selforganisation. Piaget defines this as ''intelligence organises the world by organising itself.'' (Glaserfeld, 1989, p. 11). According Maypole and Davies (2001), the new information is constructed when the real life of the individual and his new ideas or point of views are combined with the information gained before. Minimum four elements are needed so that the construction of the information can be done. These are; 1) the individual 2) the thing, the phenomenon or an event 3) the interaction between the individual and the thing, the phenomenon or the event 4) the interpretation that the person makes to the event or the phenomenon mentioned before (Saban, 2005; p. 168). Information isn’t gained passively, because innovation is dealt as assimilation of a cognitive construction that is ever present. In reality, the person does not accept his every experience as something new, he sometimes has concerns that irritate his mind until he reaches the expected results (Glasefeld, 1989, p. 11). Piaget explains ''why and how the mental development occurs'' via four basic concepts. These concepts are schema, assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium (Wadsworth, 1971, p. 10). Schemes are cognitive structures that are used to organise the environment and to assimilate it. Piaget uses the ''scheme'' concept to explain many things about memory and the person's reactions towards the stimuli. According to Feldman (1996; p.235), schemes are general themes in the memory that include small relative details. Pieget used to believe that people ought to have a mental shape as well, in addition to having a body shape. Now that the stomach is a biological structure that animals use successfully to adapt their environment, schemes, too, are equivalent structures for the mental development and adaptation (Wadsworth, 1971, 10). According to Piaget (1952, p.7), schemes are reflected out via the obvious behaviours of the child. However, schemes mean more than behaviours and they reveal the structure of the behaviour that is to be shown. Each scheme is in coordination with all the other schemes and it is a whole with different parts. Assimilation is a cognitive process in which the person involves new cognitive stimuli into his scheme or behavioural pattern ever present (Wadswoth, 1971; p.15). According to Ungar (2004), assimilation is the act of bringing a new piece of information into the existing information structure by ''filtering it through the mind or changing ''. According to Glaserfeld (1989, p.5), with the help of assimilation process, 564

the environmental factors are included into the structure of the organism. In addition, the organism is adapted into the nature, and this is a lifelong process (Wadsworth, 1971, p.15). Accommodation is the creation of a new scheme or the changing of the substantial scheme. When the child meets a new stimulant, he tries including it in his existing scheme. This might not be possible sometimes. Because, the existing scheme might not be coherent with the new stimulant. Under this condition, the child might create a new scheme that is appropriate for the stimulant or he may make his existing scheme coherent with the stimulant by changing it. The result is accommodation under both conditions. Both of these activities results with the changing or improvement of the cognitive structures (Wadsworth, 1971, p.16). According to Wadsworth (1971, p.18), both the assimilation and accommodation process hold the same importance and both are necessary for the cognitive improvement. Equilibrium is the adaptation between the Assimilation and Accommodation process. (Wadsworth, 1971, p.18). Piaget believes that people are in search so as to eliminate the contradictions and incoherence in their cognition. In other words, people look for ''balance'' in their cognition (Ungar, 2004). To get this balance, they benefit from assimilation and accommodation processes. According to constructivism, as the person grows older, he forms a consistent structure in the interaction with his environment. This consistent structure is necessary for the organism to adapt the changes in the environment (Phillips, 1981, p.9). Accommodation is a continuous change as a result of the person’s interaction with the environment. It starts with birth and the child gets the raw materials that are necessary for assimilation and accommodation process. The person’s information about the world is not a copy of the objective world. Each person forms a new, distinctive cognitive structure, information and truth by assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium (Charles, 2003, p.2; Glasersfeld, 1989, p. 11; Wadsworth, 1971, p.117-121). 2.2. Social/Socio-cultural Constructivism Social constructivists believe that making sense of something can only be achieved with the interaction among people. They accept that information is the result of social interaction and their use of the language. They are more interested in the effects of socio-cultural elements on the student perception (Doolittle, 1999; Eggen and Kauchak, 2001, p.60; McDonough, 2004, p.275; Glaserfeld, 1989, p.6). Vygotsky suggests that child's intelligence is naturally social and that all the information is constructed via the previous experience and the interaction with the other people in the social environment (Bourodies,1998; Brown, 1998; p.7; Doolittle, 1999; Garrison, 1995, p.725; McDonnough, 2004, p.275). According to Fosnot (1996; p.24), it is not possible to understand the cognitive structure of a person without observing him while he is in communication with his own cultural context. According to Vygotsky, the development of a person can be compared to an unlimited cylinder. The base of this development which looks like a cylinder is formed by the problems that the person can deal without getting help; the top of the cylinder, though, is formed by the problems that he can never deal even though he gets help. And between this top and bottom, there are problems that the person can deal by getting some help. When the person’s problem solving skill gets better, he moves up to the higher part. This area in the middle is called ''the Zone of Proximal Development 565

(ZPD)'' (Özden, 2003, p.60). ZPD is the distance between the level of the child’s problem solving improvement with his potential development level and the level of improvement which is determined via more skilled peers or adult guides. ZPD is a social means which is necessary to set a collaborative communication in a coordinated manner. This zone is really important for transmitting the culture, self-formation, success, development, freedom and creativity (Vigotsky,1978 p. 86-87; quoted by Garrison 1995,724-726). According to Schunk (2004, p.295), ZPD shows the possible amount of learning by the student under suitable learning conditions. According to Duffy and Cunningham, the aid that is supplied to the students is gradually decreased at this zone. That’swhy; students take more responsibility for problem solving. This process has been Figure 2: The Zone of Proximal illustrated at Figure 2. Unlike Piaget and Development Glaserfeld, who are highly interested in (adapted from Özden, 2003) individual constructivism, socio-cultural constructivists focus on social and cultural context of the information and they suggest that the information should be shared. Information is created when people agree about the truth (Doolittle, 1999; Duffy and Cunningham, 2001). According to Wadsworth (1971, p.127), when the child is ready to assimilate; if the child’s perspective is different from other people’s perspective, peer communication becomes more important than cognitive development. The importance of peer communication can be realised when the child starts school. Children learn to evaluate his thoughts opinions by comparing his to the other people’s thoughts. For this reason, constructivists consider the processes based on collaboration as important (Duffy and Cunningham, 2001). 2. 3. Radical Constructivism The information is constructed actively by the person himself. So, it cannot be transmitted into a passive receiver (Glasersfeld, 1991, 2-3). For this reason, there is no only one piece of information that should be accepted as the same by everybody. Radical Constructivists are more interested in personal side of learning (Ernest, 1994, p.62). And they claim that social interaction does not have a role in the construction of the information (Glasersfeld, 1991, p.3). The distinctive feature of Radical Constructivism is that the students cannot be taught something but they can be supported to create the information that they need (Anderson et al., 1998). According to Glasersfeld (1990, p.23), the basic principles of radical constructivism are these; 1. Information is not gained passively via sense organs or communication. Information is constructed by the person actively. 2. a. The function of the cognition is for adaptation and it serves to organise hisexperiential learning world ratherthan the discovery of objective truth. b. Cognition organises the person’s experiential learning world, not the discovery of neutral, ontological truth. 566

These principles do not comply with the traditional tendencies of the truth and the objectivity. They require a radical construction in the structure of the truth that depends on the person. From now on, there is a heuristic worldin which we really live instead of an inaccessible area beyond the perception and cognition (Glasersfeld, 1990, p.23). 3. LEARNING-TEACHING PROCESS According to constructivism, the information is not free from the knower, which is the subject (Glasersfeld, 1995). The subject forms the information for himself with other subjects during his interaction with other subjects and both he himself and his environment are affected by this information (Vygotsky, 1978 quoted by Larochelle et al., 1998). According to Boudourides (1998), the person in interaction with his environment interprets the necessary information by getting it from the outer world. So the collected information is given a sense via the person’s beliefs and experiments. Behaviorist epistemology focuses on intelligence, domains of objectives, levels of knowledge, and reinforcement. Constructivist epistemology assumes that learners construct their own knowledge on the basis of interaction with their environment. Four epistemological assumptions are at the heart of what we refer to asconstructivist learning: 1. Knowledge is physically constructed by learners who are involved in active learning. 2. Knowledge is symbolically constructed by learners who are making their own representations of action. 3. Knowledge is socially constructed by learners who convey their meaning making to others. 4. Knowledge is theoretically constructed by learners who try to explain things they don’t completely understand (Brown, 1998: p.7-8). The main common characteristic of these four acceptances is the fact that learning is performed by the person himself under every condition. According to constructivism; the information is not the something which other people transmit to the person. It can be said that the information is something which the person performs himself. According to behaviourist approach, the designer determines the objectives the student is supposed to achieve, and he systematically forms the learning content. Later, this content is transmitted to students within learning environments via course books by the teacher with narration method. The student is supposed to learn this information. (Brown, 1998, p.15; Hawkins, 1994, p.9; Jonassen et al., 1995; Murphy, 1997). Questioning through independent thinking or learner interactions is given less place in behaviourist approach. However, students need to share their ideas or opinions with other students (Brown, 1994, 175; Murphy, 1997). To solve this problem, two changes need to be made in traditional schooling according to Dewey. The first is forming an active learning platform instead of passive, rote-learning based education system. The latter is the fact that the school needs to have a natural and social interaction environment for real life (Quoted by Childs and Kilpatrick, 1939, p.427). Constructivist approach defends that people learn by constructing the information, having a direct interaction with the environment and by their own experiences (Brown, 1998, p.15). The biggest difference between the Constructivist and Behaviourist Approach is about the responsibility of the Teaching- Learning Process. While Behaviourist Approach gives the responsibility of learning to the teacher, Constructivist approach gives it to the 567

student (Brooks and Brooks, 1999; Gensemer, 1980, p.12-13). The differences between the Constructivist and Behaviourist teaching designs depend mainly on the perception of the source of information. Behaviourist teaching design consists of linear process that needs to be followed. The focus is teaching in Behaviourist teaching classrooms, yet the focus in Constructivist teaching classrooms is the learning process. This radical change draws the attention to the learner and learning methods. Constructivism refuses the tendency of imposing in the traditional education. Constructivism prefers eliminating standard education programmes. Instead, it considers real life problems adapted to students’ background information more. The teacher and the students have collaborations in learner-centred platforms.Objectives are determined by teacher-student interviews during the process. Students try to benefit every opportunity that can contribute to their mental development. They make their own decisions and they give a direction to the learning process with their teacher. The common outcome of the activities done together with the teacher and the student is the construction of the information. Students have to learn how they should think instead of expecting the teacher to tell them what they should think. Students are efficient in the learning platform and they take more responsibility in the learning process. Learners become the creators of their own learning. They play a key role in the direct learning inside the classroom and they perform activities for the construction of the information. Some activities are organised at school to promote peer interaction, such as acting or games. They organise the order of the activities and the duration. They have critical thinking and they take part in debates actively (Açıkgöz, 2004, 65; Brooks and Brooks, 1999; Brown, 1998, p.8-28; McDonnough, 2004, p.276; Wadsworth, 1971, p.128; Tam, 2000). The role of technology should also be mentioned in the Constructivist learning platforms. The use of computer-based learning approach inside the classroom is emphasised to help the development of creative thinking by the researchers, who support Constructivist learning approach (Koçoğlu and Köymen, 2003). Technology is increasingly viewed as an ''optimal medium for the application of constructivist principles to learning''. Although the advent of the personal computer has streamlined and economized the processing of information, new Technologies such as e-mail, listservs, synchronized chat, and the World Wide Web have facilitated the exchange of information and expanded access to a global environment. The constructivist approach to learning is facilitated by the World Wide Web because ''the theory focuses on making connections and making meaning in the learning process. Web-based courses that are designed with a constructivist approach encourage the learners to navigate, create, and construct their unique knowledge base'' (Brown, 1998: p.41). A typical ISD model is divided into five stages: analysis, design, production/ development, implementation, and maintenance/revision (Bagdonis and Salisbury, 1994). To summarize, the traditional Objective-Rational Instructional Design model has the following eight characteristics (Willis, 1995): 1. The process is sequential and linear 2. Planning is top down and systematic 3. Objectives guide development 4. Experts, who have special knowledge, are critical to ID work 5. Careful sequencing and the teaching of subskills are important 568

6. The goal is delivery of preselected knowledge 7. Summative evaluation is critical 8. Objective data are critical (Tam, 2000). Willis (1995) offers an alternative model to the traditional Objective-Rational ID model. Willis termed it the Constructivist-Interpretivist Instructional Design Model, which has the following characteristics: 1. The design process is recursive, non-linear, and sometimes chaotic. 2. Planning is organic, developmental, reflective, and collaborative. 3. Objectives emerge from design and development work. 4. General ID experts do not exist. 5. Instruction emphasizes learning in meaningful contexts (the goal is personal understanding within meaningful contexts). 6. Formative evaluation is critical. 7. Subjective data may be the most valuable (Tam, 2000) 4. TEACHER According to Vgotsky, the role of the teacher inside the classroom is important. Because students perform the learning process by interactingwith adults (Brooks and Brooks, 1999). According to Gutek (1996, 10) the teacher is the authority in his branch in subject-centred education programme whereas the student is an immature person who comes to school to gain information and to be skilled at some areas. On the contrary, in process-centred education, the teacher takes the students’ interests into consideration. He focuses on the child, not the subject.He becomes a guide in the process but he does not act as a superior person. The role of the teacher in constructivist learning platform should be a facilitator (Tam, 2000). The teacher as a facilitator helps the students by creating authentic assignments (Flavell, 1999). He makes the learning strategies appropriate for their expectations; he encourages them to reach the information, to do analysis and to make interpretations (Brooks and Brooks, 1999). Teachers who adopt constructivism performs some tasks, such as creating appropriate activities for students, encouraging them to be in connection both with each other and with the teacher, and forming platforms where they can express their opinions and questions freely. The teacher offers suitable options for the personal differences of the students, gives them instructions, he helps the student to make his own decisions. He should be aware of the learning requirements, necessities,and different learning strategies of the students who come from different social environments. The role of the teacher is leading the way, coaching, counselling and guiding. The teacher supports the dialog between them by asking open-ended questions and he encourages them to think at high level, to do research and to solve problems (Aldrich and Thomas, 2002; Brooks and Brooks, 1999; Brown, 1998, p.15-28; Tam, 2000). Teachers can use many different ways to ease the learning process. First of all, the students’ Daily experiences, ordinary materials, vocabularies, reliable atmosphere and problems make the learning process easy. Teachers can apply the following tools: analogies, metaphors, pictures, graphs, examples, performances and photographs. Teachers act like a leader to students. For instance, students can learn to make summarising or definitions while they are studying about force and movement in Physics problems. In addition, students may want to form their own summary, draw 569

their mind map, or pictures (Wittrock, 1994, p.34-36). According to Gold (2001), the learning principles of constructivist approach and the role of the teacher;  Creating appropriate learning conditions for the student capacity,  Evaluating the learners from their point of views,  The teacher should know that permanent learning takes long time and it is the result of a struggle with his social interaction. 5. EVALUATION According to behaviourist and cognitive theory, evaluation is performed after the learning activity has been completed in accordance with the objectives determined long before. First the information is told, and then some questions are asked to the student to find out whether the information is stored successfully or not. Or A skill is shown by the teacher and the student is tested if he can perform that skill or not (Duffy and Cunningham, 2001). Because learning is a complicated process, people constantly change their intellectual structure. When this complicated process is measured with tests, the evaluation is limited with the information and that’s why it is insufficient. However, evaluation in the constructivism naturally comes out in teaching process, instead of a separate activity (standard tests and grading) done at the end of teaching process. In fact, in constructivism, the teacher does not evaluate what the student does, what he says and what he can repeat. They do care about what he creates, shows and the performance the student shows. Teachers help students to think about their insufficiencies and show them the reasons of this insufficiency. Previous information is tried to be adapted into new conditions and the assimilated information is evaluated; not the memorised one. For this reason; evaluation in constructivism is more personal. The fact that the outcomes might not be the same for every student is taken into consideration. Thus, students play an active role in the evaluation of their selfdevelopment. Teacher-student collaboration is not only essential in the determination of the objectives and educational positions but it is also essential in the determination of testing, too. The function of the testing activity is to help the learner (Brooks and Brooks, 1999, p.16-20; Mergel, 1998; Glasersfeld, 1991, p.12- 13). In the constructive approach, an authentic evaluation based on the performance is used. According to constructivism, learning is not producing scientific results but it is the process in which these results are produced. And they need to be evaluated within the environment they are produced. Therefore, in the evaluation process, besides the products, the production process is also given importance, too. The evaluation of the student performances in this process is made by discussion, interviews, by problemsolving skills based on real life situations, how the information is gained, what kind of new opinions are gained and how they are constructed. (Brooks and Brooks, 1999, IX; Cunningham, 1992; Gold, 2001, p.46). Evaluation is accepted as a part of the learning process, where students can discuss their works and their friends’ works freely, and where they can think deeply. They can help each other during the learning process via ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) if all of them need to do the same activity. Self-evaluation forms can be used at the end of each activity. During the evaluation, tools should be used such as mind maps, portfolio, and performance tests as many as possible (Cunningham, 1992; 570

Gold, 2001, p.46). REFERENCES Açıkgöz, Ü. K. (2004). Aktif Öğrenme. İzmir: Eğitim Dünyası Yayınları Aldrich, J. E. & Thomas K. L. (2002). Evaluating the Diverse Constructivist Beliefs of Early Childhood, Elementary and Middle School Education Majors. 2002-10-00 14p. Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association. Columbia: OH. October 18. 2002. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED472815.pdf Boudourides, M. A. (1998). Constructivism and Educatıon: A Shopper’s Guıde. International Conference on the Teaching of Mathematics Samos, Greece, July 3-6, 1998 http://www.math.upatras.gr/%7Emboudour/articles/constr.html#Philosophy %20and%20Constructivism Brooks, J. G. & Brooks, M, G. (1999). In Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms. USA. Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/9173/mod_resource/ content/1/In% 20 Search%20of%20Understanding.pdf Brown, B. L. (1998). Applying Constructivism in Vacational and Creer Education. Information Series. No. 378. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vacational Education Center on Education and Trainig for Employment College of Education. USA. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University. http://www.calpro-online.org/ eric/docs/brown/brown01_02.pdf Brown, S. I. (1994). The Problem of the Problem Curriculum Fallacies Constructing Mathematical Knowledge: Epistemology and Mathematics Education. ed. Paul Ernest. London-Washington D.C.: The Falmer Press: 73-92 Charles, C. M. (2003). Öğretmenler İçin Piaget İlkeleri. (Çev. Gülten ÜLGEN, 2003). Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Childs, J. L. & Kilpatrick, W. H. (1939). John Dewey as Educator (The complete table of contents of The Philosophy of John Dewey). USA, New York: Progressive Education Association Cunningham, D. (1992). Assessing Constructions and Constructing Assessments: A dialogue. In T. Duffy & D. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: a conversation (pp. 36–44). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Doolittle, P. E. (1999). Constructivism and Online Education. Online Conference on Teaching Online in Higher Education. http://edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/ workshops/ tohe1999/types.html Duffy, T. M. & Cunningham, D. J. (1997) Constructivism: Implications for the Design and Delivery of Instruction. http://vrd.ucv.cl/importaciones/TeachingLearning/ Constructivi smo _ (1) /www.aect.org/Intranet/Publications/edtech/07/index.htlm Duman, B. (2004). Öğrenme-Öğretme Kuramları ve Süreç Temelli Öğretim. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık Eggen, P. D. & Kauchak, D. P. (2001). Strategies for Teacher: Teachin Content and Teaching Skills. USA: A Person Education Company Erden, M. (2005). Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş. İstanbul: Epsilon Yayıncılık Ernest, P. (1994). Social Constructivism and the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Constructing Mathematical Knowledge: Epistemology and Mathematics Education. ed. Paul Ernest. London-Washington D.C.: The Falmer Press: 62-73 Feldman, R. S. (1996). Understanding Psychology. (4th edition). USA: Mc Graw-Hill Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive Development: Children's Knowledge About the Mind. 3rd 571

ed., New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1993. Annual Review of Psychology. Vol. 50: 21-45 http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.21 Garrison, J. (1995). Deweyan Pragmatism and the Epistemology of Contemporary Social Constructivism. American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 32, No. 4. (Winter, 1995), pp. 716-740. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8312%28199524%2932%3A4 %3C716 %3ADPATEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U Gensemer, R. E. (1980). Humanism and Behaviorism in Physical Education. National Educational Association of the United States. Washington D.C. Glasersfeld, E. von. (1989). Cognition, Construction of Knowledge. and Teaching. Synthese. 80(1), 121-140 (special issue on education) http://www.univie.ac.at/ constructivism/EvG/papers/118.pdf Glasersfeld, E. von. (1990). An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like It Radical. Monographs of the Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. Vol. 4. pp. 19-29. http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/EvG/papers/127.pdf Glasersfeld, E. von. (1991). Questions and Answers about Radical Constructivism. Scope, Sequence, and Coordination of Secondary School Science. (ed. M. K. Pearsall.) The National Science Teachers Association. Vol. II: Relevant research (169–182). http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/EvG/papers/151.pdf Glasersfeld, E. von (1995). Radical Constructivism: A Way of Knowing and Learning. Studies in Mathematics Education Series: 6. Bristol: Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis Inc. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED381352.pdf Gold, S. (2001). A Constructivist Approach to Online Training for Online Teachers. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Volume 5, Issue 1-June. http://www.aln.org/ publications/jaln/v5n1/v5n1_gold.asp. Gutek, G. L. (1996). Philosophical and Ideological Perspectives on Education. Eğitimde Felsefi ve İdeolojik Yaklaşımlar. (Translated by Nesrin Kale, 2001) Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi Jonassen, D.; Davidson, M.; Collins, M.; Campell, J.& Haag, B. (1995). Constructivism and Computer-Mediated Communication in Distance Education. The American Journal of Distance Education. 9 (2). 7-26. http://www.c3l.uni-oldenburg.de/cde/ media/ readings /jonassen95.pdf Koç, G. (2003). Yapılandırmacı Yaklaşımın Problem Çözmeye, Erişiye ve Kalıcılığa Etkisi. Doktora Tezi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Koçoğlu, Ç. & Köymen, Ü. (2003). Öğrencilerin Hiperortam Tasarımcısı Olarak Katıldığı Öğrenme Çevresinin Yaratıcı Düşünmeye Etkisi. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology - TOJET July 2003 ISSN: 1303-6521 Volume 2, Issue 3, Article 15 Larochelle, M.; Bednarz, N. & Garrison, J. (1998). Constructivism and Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lefrancois G. R. (1998). Psychology for Teaching. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company Mahoney, M., J. (2004). What is Constructivism and Why is it Growing? Contemporary Psychcology, 49, 360-363. http://constructingworlds.googlepages.com/what Maypole, J. & Davies, T.G. (2001). Students' Perceptions of Constructivist Learning in a Community College American History II Survey Course. Community College Review. Fall. McDonnough, J., T. 2004. Implications of Reported Use of Constructivism with Diverse Populations. Science Education International. Volume 16, No. 4, December 2004. pp. 273-292 572

Mergel, B. (1998). Instructional Design & Learning Theory. University of Saskatchewan. http://etad.usask.ca/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm Murphy, E. (1997). Constructivism from Philosophy to Practice. http://www.cdli. ca/~elmurphy/emurphy/cle.html Özden, Y. (2003). Öğrenme ve Öğretme. Ankara: Pegem A Yayınları Piaget, J. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence In Children. (Translated by Margaret Cook). International Universities Press, Inc. USA. New York http://www.questia.com/ PM.qst?a=o&d=82225768 Reigeluth, C.M. (1997) What is the New Paradigm of Instructional Theory. IT Forum Paper December 4 -15. 1996. #17: http://itech1.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper 17/paper17.html Saban, A. (2004). Öğrenme Öğretme Süreci: Yeni Teori ve Yaklaşımlar. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım Savery, J. R. & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem Based Learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. CRLT Technical Report No. 16-01. Center for Research on Learning and Technology, Indiana University. http://www.ross.mayfirst.org/files/saveryduffy-problem-based-learning.pdf Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. New York, NY, England: Macmillan Publishing Co, Inc. (1991). xi, 402 pp. Tam, M. (2000) Constructivism, Instructional Design, and Technology: Implications for Transforming Distance Learning. Educational Technology & Society. 3(2). Tezci, E. & Gürol, A. (2003). Oluşturmacı Öğretim Tasarımı ve Yaratıcılık. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology - TOJET January 2003 ISSN: 1303-6521 Volume 2, Issue 1, Article 8 Ungar, S. (2004). Developmental Psychology Piaget (…and his critics) http://homepages. phonecoop.coop/vamos/work/lecturenotes/notes/dev2/dev2piaget.pdf Vermette, P. & Foote, C. (2001). Constructivist Philosophy and Cooperative Learning Practice: Toward Integration and Reconciliation In Secondary Classrooms. American Secondary Education; Fall2001, Vol. 30 Issue 1, p26, 12p, 1 chart ISSN: 0003-1003 Accession Number: 5601798 Vygotsky, L., S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Pres. Quoted: Larochelle, Marie., Bednarz, N. and Garrison, J. (eds.). 1998. Constructivism and Education. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, xii +305 pp. http://www.springerlink.com/content/v045h27810563571/ [07.12.2007] Wadsworth, B., J. (1971). Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: An Intruduction for Students of Psychology and Education. USA, New York: David McKay Company, Inc. Wittrock, M. C. (1994). ''Generative Science Teaching.'' The Content of Science: A Constructivist Approach to its Teaching and Learning. ed. Peter J. Fensham, Richard F. Gunstone, Richard T. White. London-Washington D.C.: The Falmer Press: 29-39 Yager, R. E. (1991). The Constructivist Learning Model Towards real reform in science education. The Science Teacher. http://flash.lakeheadu.ca/~ed4260/4260/Papers/yager. pdf

573

Chapter 44 Developing Historical Thinking Skills in Turkish Elementary Schools Behsat SAVAŞ INTRODUCTION Historical thinking does not necessarily occur easily or naturally, and teachers need to incorporate strategic teaching practices to foster its development. Social studies educators in the United States and Europe have merely focused on helping students think critically in ways that approximate the thinking of professional historians, who continue to construct new ideas about the past and who have helped us come to more nuanced understandings about prior events (De La Paz, 2013). Historical education cannot be perceived as the only path to produce a democratic society, or it cannot create an educational platform that students could reason together, care for the common good, or listen to each other, but the topic being studied can contribute to each of these phenomena. Levstik and Barton (2015) assert that such contributions can only be achieved if students are given the chance to take part in reasoned judgment inclass discussions. Historical thinking education process benefit from all other fields of study to draw upon and synthesize knowledge, values and methodologies (Whelan, 2006). Indeed , historical thinking as an instructional model forms a pedagogical approach for engaging students in historical events or facts in ways that can foster historical empathy and critical thinking, as well as deeper levels of understanding about the past. Defining what students think about how history works is an important element while building historical thinking (Viator, 2012). Viator also suggests that ‘facilitating discussions among students either in the whole group, and cooperative learning groups or pairs can be used as a beginning to promote historical thinking’. Critical historical thinking creates unbiased ends, purpose, and values embedded in the master historical narrative (Salinas, Blevins & Sullivan, 2012). So what is historical thinking? The College Board defines historical thinking in their new Advanced Placement Program History standards for 2014-2015: The curriculum framework begins by describing the historical thinking skills that are central to the study and practice of history. These are organized into four types of skills: chronological reasoning, comparison and contextualization, crafting historical arguments from historical evidence, and historical interpretation and synthesis. Teachers should develop these historical thinking skills with students on a regular basis over the span of the course. As it is clearly depicted, historical thinking is the name of a method and a skill, both grouped into the term. In this sense, the term “historical thinking” indicates particular cognitive processes that are unique to the study of history (Andrews & Burke, 2007; Garcia, 2008). Historical thinking involves different abilities, such as 

 Assist. Prof. Dr., Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Faculty of Education 

understanding what it was like during a certain time period to recapture the spirit of the time, and to make sense of people’s actions. In order to support the development of historical thinking skills, The College Board proposed some frameworks. For example, The College Board presented the overview of the new United States History exam in the Advanced Placement Program United States History Curriculum Framework (2014-15): By understanding the theory [of historical thinking] that guides this approach, teachers can apply and adapt these suggestions to meet the needs of their students. Teaching and learning must have a purpose. Learning means in-depth understanding. Instruction must build on students’ prior knowledge. People learn through disciplined inquiry. Teaching means scaffolding. Constructive assessment. Similarly, Shanahan (2015) claims that if students are asked to enhance their historical thinking skills, they should be supported to have awareness over and preparedness for the academic and societal challenges because historical thinking includes: a) Chronological thinking and periodization; b) Describing or understanding an event within a broader context; c) Finding and analyzing multiple sources of information about an event; d) Considering divergent perspectives about a topic; e) Formulating questions for further research; and f) Making decisions about issues. These are all very critical components of historical thinking in class activities because they all contribute to the instruction. For example, while students are working on historical facts, they don’t stick to one single idea or perspective. They can move beyond the limitations and bias in textbooks, and they begin to question the past by reading different sources and act like real historians (Hutton & Hembacher, 2012). The teaching of historical thinking is important for democracy. It uses prior skills more than any other competency. Historical thinking skills draw upon that which democratic citizenship is based. Developing habits of historical thinking contribute to students’ ability to engage important democratic practices: primarily, students can recognize perspectives of other people. Citizens in a democracy must collaboratively approach and analyze the evidence to come up with the best course of action. This process can also work while analyzing historical information in class. When students consider historical events and how those events affected their communities, they question the justice in such events. Ultimately they get better prepared, motivated, and engaged with current issues. In a sense, history can play a critical role in helping students understand perspectives that are different than their own (Levstik & Barton, 2015). On the other hand, students can also use the social studies classroom as a practice field where they can actively use the evidence from the past, develop their thinking skills, and understand realities about the content and democratic dispositions. That is, when they are away from school and when they face the harshness of real life, they can easily transfer the skills that they acquired at school, make proper evaluations and act accordingly using their well-informed conscience (Callahan, 2013). This phenomenon can be also important for teachers. A teacher’s historical thinking is affected by his or her educational background and depth of content knowledge. When teachers are asked to think historically, they are asked to engage in 575

10 cognitive acts. The challenges, according to Pellecchia (2015), are in planning and teaching lessons for historical thinking, educational background in history matters, challenges in planning and teaching lessons for historical thinking, resilience of traditional approaches to history instruction, failure to contextualize, generalizing, simplistic understanding, difficulty choosing appropriate sources and designing lessons, using sources for different purposes, models of teachers teaching historical thinking, assessments (Pellecchia, 2015). As for the instruction, Seixas & Ercikan (2011) questioned how and in what areas historical thinking can help teachers focus more on their teaching. Teachers tend to use seemingly more appropriate resources. From the perspective of a teacher, imposed curricula and exams are prescriptive and limiting. Therefore, additional resources provide them with more tools and choices to some extent. However, teachers should prioritize how reading, writing, and speaking support disciplined, reflective historical inquiry. Needless to say that asking the right questions is at the heart of this approach to history. If children are expected to be engaged in productive conversations about the events in the past, four steps are required: “the questions are worth discussing; they do not have simple or single answers; there are sufficient and appropriate data sources so that students can attempt to answer the questions; and there is imaginative entry into the past “(Levstik & Barton, 2015, p. 25). During elementary school years, history is not taught as a problem-solving activity. Instead, history is presented through lives of famous people, events, dates, and meanings that children are supposed to learn by heart (Fertig, 2005). Studies conducted about historical thinking have generally focused on the development of historical thinking in historians, students, and teachers, and the efforts to design and implement lessons that teach historical thinking (Fehn & Schul, 2014; Fillpot, 2012; Lee, 2013; Shanahan, 2015). Obenchain, Orr & Davis (2011) noticed that pushing students to memorize facts was detrimental to student engagement and to an understanding of the interrelationship between eras and events in history. Studies on the development of historical thinking result in two central arguments: students read differently than historians, and students can develop historical thinking. It would be a delusional perspective to put students and the historians in the same category because students can only be evaluated in broader terms, such as objective test completion, observation of activities, and oral or visual output as opposed to historians (Burenheide, 2007). Ancient sites, monuments, statues, buildings, jewelry or even symbols can function as historical resources, and the presence of such structures can help students develop the critical thinking and analytical skills which are commonly viewed as important goals of history and social studies education. Urban spaces, the term that is commonly used to refer such structures, provide evidence of important historical themes and concepts, and they vividly reflect the life and the experiences of people in the past (Marino, 2012). For elementary students, stories, legends, myths and eyewitnesses can create a context that extends students’ shared prior knowledge towards historical thinking. It is critical for elementary teachers to reevaluate in-class practices while teaching about historical events so as to bridge gaps between historians’ understandings and thinking patterns and elementary students’ understandings and thinking patterns (Bickford, 2013). Teachers can actively and easily introduce inquiry activities at all levels by simply involving primary sources in their instruction. Students may bring a more creative perspective while studying history. For 576

example, when they are involved in a historical play, they can achieve more meaningful connections among past and current events, the lives of those around them, and their own lives. Their genuine participation in role play helps them emphasize with the character they are acting and get more insights about the historical incidents. Teachers who engage their students in such role-play activities deepen students’ understanding in regards to the connections between past and present (Levstik & Barton, 2015). There are always some close connections between historical problems and the issues students are currently experiencing in today’s modern world (Stone, 2007). Activities addressing such connections can reveal many productive results in class environment because they simply provide students with a variety of sources and opportunities on various grade levels and time allotments (Weintraub, 2000). Involvement in historical role-plays, which are accompanied by guiding questions written in the frame of historical thinking, encourages students to consider history on a deeper level (Drake & Brown, 2003). Historical study is based on a few fundamental principles that revolve around the relationship between the past and present, and not simply about the past. Students are supposed to interpret rather than simply memorize historical information, and eventually to construct their own understanding of its meaning; to investigate a wider range of social and cultural issues, and to reflect on the possible consequences of alternatives to historical decisions (Whelan, 2006). Assessment Portfolios can be actively used in teaching history. Teachers generally organize student portfolios into three levels. The first is a learning portfolio that contains ongoing collections representing student work either across the curriculum or for one content area. Friday Portfolio, the second level, involves weekly activities that students, in cooperation with their teacher, select some work to share with parents. The third level is assessment portfolio. When assessment portfolios are completed, they serve as a means for formal evaluation that is required by the school or district. (Levstik & Barton, 2015). Writing activities can also be used for assessment purposes. One possible creative writing activity is based on interpretation and contextualization over historical thinking concepts. A second assessment could focus on visual representation of historical events. The final suggestion for assessment synthesizes the historical writing skill from the first assessment and the creativity of the second (Bickford, 2013). Historical thinking activities can be performed in three basic steps: the reading of the literature selection to the class, the analyzing of primary and secondary documents, and the writing of a culminating report (Cowgill II, 2015). The integration of historical knowledge and skills is typically invisible to most students and in most textbooks (Lee, 2013). Historical thinking is an important skill for kids to reconstruct a past culture and thought system, and understand that it is different from present ideas (Olwell & Stevens, 2015). In this paper, there are four proposed historical thinking activities that might appeal to children. Students can complete these activities to ensure a more historical thinking experience. Such samples will contribute to the social studies courses and will assist teachers at all levels while developing historical thinking among their students. Turkey’s social studies curriculum has eight interdisciplinary thematic standards in fourth grade (www.meb.gov.tr). These standards are basically: 1. Individual development and society 577

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Culture and heritage People, places, and environments Production, distribution, and consumption Science, technology, and society Individuals, groups, and institutions Power, authority, and governance Global connections

Samples Grade 4 Unit: Culture and Heritage Topic: Ephesus Antic Theatre What type of source is it? When was it constructed? Who produced the source? And for what purpose? What was the historical context? What is the difference between Ephesus Antic Theatre and current theatre? How does where we live affect the way, we live, work, and view the world? What benefits would the theatre provide? What are the unique characteristics of the theatre? (List 5 things) What do you want to add to the current theatre? If you worked there as a staff, what would you say to the audience? What benefits would the Aegean Sea provide to the theatre? Why was the theatre built? What happened after the construction? What you think the conditions were like during the winter? What kind rows do you think it had? What kind of lights do you think it had? When did they build the theatre? How old is the theatre? Please decide with the class for assessment. Grade 4 Unit: Culture and Heritage Topic: Verbal history method The teacher can use students’ parents old photos or objects. They can also interview relatives, grandparents and neighbors about the photographs or objects What do you see in this photograph? What details do you notice? Who do you think this was taken for? When was taken? Why was it taken? How old is the photo? What is the difference between photo technology and current pictures? What does this add to what you think about the picture? What is the difference between parent’s clothes and your clothes? What benefits would the picture provide? What questions do you have about this photograph? (List 5 questions) 578

What technology was used to take the picture? What would you need to take a photo? What does this add to what you think about the photo? If you took the photo, what would you have used for studio? What benefits would the photo provide? When was the picture taken, and what else happened that same year? (List 3 events) What happened after the photo? Who kept it? What you think elementary school was like for the people in the photograph? If you lived there, what would your day be like? If you were to go back in time, what would you expect life to be like during the time period of the photograph? What conclusions do you have about the individual portrayed in this photo? Please, decide with the class for assessment. Grade 4 Unit: Science, Technology, and Society Topic: Change Old Telephone When was it created? Where was it made? Who produced the source? And what purpose? What would you add to the phone to improve it? What do you think the communication was like during the 1980s? What made that method harder or easier to use than current technology? How do you think people talked on that phone? If you lived during that time, what would your day be like? What would you need to connect to someone else? What benefits would the phone provide? If you were a scientist, how could you improve a phone? What do you think the owner of the phone considered as the most important feature? What kind of communication tools do you think they had? How would your life be different if we did not have phones in general? What would happen if companies did not have a communication web? What benefits do you think come with living in developed country? Why do you think it was harder to gather news if you lived farther from the city? What tasks were required to construct the phone? Where did they buy their phones? What kind of shops did they have? Why old phones were structured this way? How important was electric to people? What happened after the phone was invented? Please decide with the class for assessment.

579

Grade 4 Unit: People, Places, and Environments Topic: Interview Interview about Migration What city/town/village did you come from? What was the difference between your village and this city? What benefits might be had living in a rural area? What kind of climate did your region have? What kind of flora did your region have? What kind of fauna did your region have? If you lived there, what would your day be like? Why did you come to this city? What difficulties did you have when you first arrived? How did you figure them out? How important were animals for you? How did your day begin in your village? Did you have free time? What do you think you might get in return from moving here, in addition to education? How would your life be different if you did not come here? What geographic features are common in your region and here? If you had gone back in time, what would you do then? Please decide with the class for assessment. CONCLUSION Historical thinking is an accumulative process that requires time, practice, and a safe space in which students can improve some basic skills necessary to interpret, interact, and to make proper assumptions about primary sources (Toman & Thifault, 2012). For example, Lee (2013) noted that students' involvement while reasoning a historical text works much better than conventional lecturing texts. Only in this way, students can make solid progress in terms of historical thinking. Indeed, a deliberate focus on historical thinking is also important for teachers professionally, especially while using instructional techniques to develop their students’ skills. In this way, they also bring some variety in their teaching in terms of meaning, application, historical empathy, comparative analyses, and making reasonable predictions about the future based on what happened in the past. Above all, teachers should avoid lecturing texts and should prevent their students from memorizing list of dates, concepts, incidents and facts. In other words, engaging students with historical thinking and developing arguments based on factual information will help students pass midterm and final exams in social studies and history courses from the elementary to the university levels. Historical thinking does not necessarily occur easily or naturally, nor is it an intuitive skill that students bring to learning context with them. That’s why teachers need to incorporate several strategic teaching practices to foster its development. Learning through classroom experiences like the one described above has potential to strengthen students’ historical awareness that can help individuals become good local and global citizens, especially when teachers encourage their students to employ their 580

skills through active participation in society (Callahan, 2013). It must be taken into consideration that historical thinking requires time, practice and reciprocal efforts in class environments, and it can’t be simply limited to reading about the past. REFERENCES Andrews, T., & Burke, F. (2007). What does it mean to think historically? Perspectives on history. Retrieved from http://www.historians.org/publications-anddirectories/ Perspectives-on-history/what-does-it-mean-to-think-historically AP US history curriculum framework, 2014-15. The College Board. Retrieved October 3, 2015. www.collegeboard.org. Bickford, J., H. (2013). Initiating historical thinking in elementary schools. Social Studies Research and Practice, 8 (3), 60-77. Retrieved from www.socstrp.org Burenheide, B. (2007). I can do this: Revelations on teaching with historical thinking. The History Teacher. 41 (1). Retrieved http://www.jstor.org/stable/30037103 Callahan, C. (2013). Thinking historically about the depression era. 8 (2), 25-42. Social Studies Research and Practice, 9 (2), 1-14. Retrieved from www.socstrp.org Cowgill II, A., D. (2105). Primary sources in the social studies classroom: Historical inquiry with book backdrops. Social Studies Research and Practice, 10 (1), 65-83. Retrieved from www.socstrp.org De La Paz, S. (2013). Teaching and learning in history: Effective and reform-based practices for students with learning disabilities. A Contemporary Journal 11(1), 89-105. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=32&sid=207 d8763-9bf8-4f9d-a4e5-d03f2f3fdc7d%40sessionmgr111&hid=122 Drake, F. D., & Brown, S. D. (2003). A systematic approach to improve students’ historical thinking. The History Teacher, 36(4), 465-489. Fehn, B., & Schul, J., E. (2014). Selective Appropriation and Historical Documentary Making in a Special Education Classroom. Social Studies Research and Practice, 9 (2), 1-14. Retrieved from www.socstrp.org Fertig, G. (2005). Teaching elementary students how to interpret the past. The Social Studies, 2-5. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid= 41&sid= 207d8763-9bf8-4f9d-a4e5-d03f2f3fdc7d%40sessionmgr111&hid=122 Fillpot, E. (2012). Historical thinking in the third grade. The Social Studies, 103, 206–217. DOI: 10.1080/00377996.2011.622318 Garcia, J. (2008). Reinventing social studies: By all means! Phi Delta Kappan, 89(9),660– 663. Hutton, L., A. & Hembacher, D. (2012). Developing historical thinking with english learners. Social Studies Review. 30-45. Retrieved https://www.questia.com/ Lee, M. (2013). Promoting historical thinking using the explicit reasoning text. The International Society for the Social Studies. Published by Elsevier. DOI: Org/10.1016/J. Jssr.2012.12.003 Levstik, L., S. & Barton, K., C. (2015). Doing history investigating with children in elementary and middle schools. New York. Routledge. Marino, M.,P. (2012). Urban space as a primary source: Local history and historical thinking in New York City. The Social Studies.103, 107–116. DOI: 10.1080/00377996. 2011.592166 Obenchain, K. M., Orr, A. & Davis, H. S. (2011). The past as a puzzle: How essential questions can piece together a meaningful investigation of history. The Social Studies 102, 190–199. DOI: 10.1080/00377996.2010.543193 Olwell, R., & Stevens, A. (2015). I had to double check my thoughts”: How the reacting to 581

the past methodology impacts first-year college student engagement, retention, and historical thinking. The History Teacher, 48 (3), 561-572. Retrieved from http://www.societyforhistoryeducation.org Pellecchia, S. (2015). Teaching with primary sources: The overlap between historical thinking and critical literacy. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3683457) Roberts, L., S. (2014). Effectively using social studies textbooks in historical inquiry. Social Studies Research and Practice, 9 (1), 119-128. Retrieved from www.socstrp.org Salinas, C., Blevins, B., & Sullivan, C. C. (2012). Critical historical thinking: When official narratives collide with other narratives. Multicultural Perspectives, 14(1), 18–27. DOI: 10.1080/15210960.2012.646640 Seixas, P., & Ercikan, K. (2011). Historical thinking in Canadian schools. Canadian Journal of Social Research. 4 (1), 31-41. Retrieved from http://connection.ebscohost. com/ c/articles/86941892/historical-thinking-canadian-schools Shanahan, C. (2015) See yourself in history: Using imagery and journaling to promote historical thinking in secondary world history (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3690058) Stone, G. C. (2007). Dewey's argument for teaching history. Journal of Philosophy and History of Education, Volume 57. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/ pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=48&sid=207d8763-9bf8-4f9d-a4e5d03f2f3fdc7d%40sessionmgr111&hid=122 Toman, C., & Thifault , M., C. (2012). Historical thinking and the shaping of nursing identity. Nursing History Review 20. 184–204. Springer Publishing Company. DOI: 10.1891/1062–8061.20.184 Viator, M. G. (2012). Developing historical thinking through questions. The Social Studies. 103, 198–200. DOI: 10.1080/00377996.2011.606438 Weintraub, S. (2000). “What’s this new crap? What’s wrong with the old crap?” Changing history teaching in Oakland, California. In P. N. Stearns, P. Seixas & S. Wineburg (Eds.), Knowing, teaching, and learning history (pp. 178-193). New York, NY: New York University.

582

Chapter 45 Museum in Early Childhood Özlem ŞİMŞEK ÇETİN* What is a museum? According Article 4 of the Regulations of International Council of Museums (ICOM) Turkish National Committee, museum is an institution in the service of society, which conserves and exhibits cultural objects for the purposes of education, study, and esthetic pleasure, and which has collections of art, science, health and technology (URL 1). According to Mercin’s definition, museum is an institution which conserves, repairs, exhibits and transfers cultural heritage to the next generations for the purposes of education and pleasure of the society (Mercin, 2016: 153). With the changes of the views about culture because of the concept of globalization and with the development of technology, modern museology has replaced classical museology which incorporates the function of only collecting, conserving and keeping the objects. Exhibition and display techniques suitable to contemporary concept has increased the influence of objects on audiences, and allowed the meeting of cultural and art treasures with the society (Altunbaş & Özdemir, 2012: 1). Traditional museums focused on helping visitors commemorate and remember the past and displaying the real objects belonging to the past. These museums aimed to entertain and enlighten visitors, and to preserve the values belonging to the past. However, the purpose of museums today is not only to provide information, but also to create opportunities for visitors to gain experience (Kervankiraz, 2014: 349). According to the contemporary concept, museums have the missions of collecting, preserving (maintenance and repair), documentation, display and education. In addition to these, entertainment mission of museums has started to gain importance as well (Alakuş & Mercin, 2011: 216). The missions of museums have changed and so has the implementation of museums. Virtual museology reflects the image and content of modern museology perfectly and is developing rapidly. For example, leading museums like London British Museum and New York Metropolitan Museum attracts visitors not only from their countries but also from many various countries by using the modern technology of our day. Thus, museums make their collections and exhibitions accessible to large masses quickly and practically, and connect people quickly (Okan, 2015: 191). With the help of easy and practical museum applications, visitors can access all the information about museums only by using their mobile phones and tablet computers (Yıldırım, 2012: 20). Touchable museology is accepted as one of the important approaches of modern museology today. Please Touch Museum in Philadelphia is a very important example. This museum has reached children in the suburbs of the city by organizing exhibitions for children. Museum copies were carried in chests and children were allowed to play with them. At the same time, both children and their families were taught and given *

Assist. Prof. Dr., Kırıkkale University, Education of Faculty, Preschool Education Dept.

information. This endeavor, called “Philadelphia Initiative” is a good example of activities which show how institutions of art and culture have changed and can change the social and economic life of a city (Cited: Keleş, 2003:7). Charity museology is also gaining importance in today’s modern museology. The most important example of charity museums is the Smithsonian Institute. Established in 1846 with funds from Smithson family, Smithsonian Institute is comprised of sixteen museums of different fields, research centers and a library, and has its own TV channel, and is visited by about twenty-five million people in a year (Cited: Keleş, 2003: 8). According to Atasoy (1994), it is believed that good analysis of human psychology is as important as knowing the objects well in the concept of modern museology. In this period of 2000s, the concept of living museology should also be adopted. In this concept, museums also use elements to help visitors understand and visualize the life in the period an object belongs to (Keleş, 2003: 10). Another aspect in modern museology is to effectively display the effort of attracting visitors to museums as Ambrose and Paine (2006) stated. The changes in the free time habits of people and the occurrence of new concepts of education have increased the number of museum visitors; the museums have been contemporarily restructured to meet visitors’ needs such as eating, drinking, reading, shopping, babycare, summer and winter camps and workshops (Cited: Karadeniz & Okvuran, 2014: 868). Museum and Education Museums, institutions which collect, search and preserve the cultural heritage of a society for the service and education of people, are considered to be one of the essential institutions to exist in a contemporary society. The basis for the establishment of museums has been the purpose of education since the beginning. However, since the middle of 20th century, one of the essential functions of museums has been education. The mission of museums to make people meet museum collections through education is accepted as the most important function of museums. With this understanding, a new field called “Museum Education” has developed (Tezcan Akmehmet & Ökedan, 2006: 49). A relation has necessarily occurred between display forms of museums and museum visitors who came by themselves. In this relation, a learning situation has happened by itself depending on the ages of the visitors and their interests. However, in the 20th century we left behind, museums got closer to people, and turned into institutions which directly served to the education of society, particularly children. The educational function of museums wasn’t happening by itself anymore, but as a result of the programs of the education units organized in museums and of the cooperation between schools and museums, it added a creative value to education (Önder, Abaci, Kamaraj, 2009: 104). With the changes in the concepts of educational sciences and museology, museums have taken on different missions than their classical approach. One of the most important of those missions is to create alternative learning environments to support the learning in class. From this point of view, museums and exhibitions have been considered as learning environments that could commonly be used for out-of-school activities in recent years (Adıgüzel, 2011: 33). In the modern concept, a museum should be considered as a culture unit with its library, meeting halls, laboratory and education departments rather than simple exhibition halls (Koçer Metin, 2012: 125). Museums are 584

one of the most effective institutions which offer opportunities to learn by living based on real-life experiences in the process of education. Moreover, museums are main and common educational institutions which contribute to the development of admiration, observation, reason, creativity and imagination in people with an esthetical understanding (Denizci & Mirza, 2012: 71). Especially in developed countries, museums have started to organize education services for schools, students, teachers, parents and people (Buyurgan & Bingöl, 2012: 148). Started in the United States of America, and developed in England and Germany, “museum education”, in other words “museum pedagogy” has become a field of science. Museums Pedagogisches Zentrum in Germany is extremely important for Germans since it is the education center for children and teenagers in the museum. In this center, students from different education periods are given a guided tour, and they make activities of explanation and discussion and workshops. Learning in the center is in the form of active learning than passive learning. Museums in Europe and America have seriously taken on the responsibility of education besides schools. Almost all museums in Germany have private courses and workshops. In these workshops, preschool children are given real-like archeological objects and asked to make the same with clay or dough. Thus, under the observation of teachers, they meet with archeology and art history in very early ages. In secondary education, history classes are mostly conducted in museums. Another educational function of European and American museums is that life in the past, starting from the Neolithic Period, is displayed on boards and with models (Okan, 2015; 191-192). Museum education covers the ways to reach visitors directly or in directly to make the visits productive. Museum education which aims to reach visitors directly is composed of these steps: managing all activity procedures related to pre-, during-, and post museum periods, developing a curriculum in the museum regarding the conditions there, determining the objectives of the education in the museum, choosing the methods and techniques to be implemented during the education, defining and preparing the materials to be used in the education. Today, almost all the museums in the developed countries, by reaching their visitors directly or indirectly, provide experiences which schools or other educational institutions cannot. According to Dimichino (2004: 42), children’s museums especially reflect the most basic features of modern museology since they display concepts in a concrete way, prepare object-based learning activities, and include hands-on activities. These museums, with their hands-on activities, stand out as intergenerational interaction centers which bring together mothers, fathers and children under the same roof (Karadeniz & Okvuran, 2014: 868). Museum education generally involves the active use of museums which are experience-based, sophisticated learning and living space in the process of primary education and lifelong learning. This field aims to make use of museums and galleries effectively for every individual at any age as they are great learning and culture environments. From this aspect, museum education is a field which can bring teachers, students and parents together as museums are active learning and culture environments (Adıgüzel, 2011: 34). With its functions of displaying, informing, explaining and proving to different units of a society (children, elderly, people from different education levels), museum education becomes integrated with formal and informal education. Moreover, museum education is an interdisciplinary field since it gathers many other disciplines together (Karadeniz & Çıldır, 2014: 21). It includes many disciplines such as art, art history, archeology, anthropology, ethnology (Denizci & Mirza, 2012: 54). 585

The outcomes of the learning in museums are listed as below by Pena (2007): Content and ideas: Museums make the content and ideas of a subject area accessible to visitors. In museums, visitors have the opportunity to meet objects directly and to comprehend the ideas deeply. Research has shown that museum visitors have meaningfully improved their vocabulary, their knowledge of museum contents and their concept development abilities. Learners’ comprehension of the subject area, ability of relating different ideas, and ability of integrating their own thoughts with new contexts can be improved with museum education studies. Future learning: Museums contribute to future learning of visitors by promoting their interests. Experience gained in museums encourages learners to keep learning and use their gains in the future. That is to say, museums promote life-long learning by supporting increasing the visitors’ interests in going learning. Learning process: Museums can change the learning processes of learners by making them think of their surroundings. Visitors develop their research methods by interacting with the objects displayed in museums. In this way, their critical thinking abilities improve, their knowledge of the methods used by the experts of a subject increases, and they find the opportunities to make use of these methods. Social identity: Museums help visitors develop an identity in and a sense of belonging to the learning community they are in. During the museum visits with families, friends or school friends, visitors acquire an awareness of themselves and their positions in the groups they are in (Cited: Oruç & Altın, 2008: 127). Museum education serves the following objectives: understanding one’s own self and people especially in time and place, protecting the cultural heritage, meaningfully relating the past, present and future, understanding, protecting and keeping the cultural assets and old objects alive, recognizing and understanding your own and different cultures with a multi-perspective and friendly approach, turning museum into a life style and making them living institutions, developing cross-cultural understanding and empathy (Yılmaz & Egüz, 2015: 1641) According to Buyurgan and Mercin (2005), the objectives of museum education are listed as below: 1. Obtaining information about the history, types, objectives and functions of museology, 2. Obtaining information about museums, cultures and civilizations, museum and art, museum and education, museum and society, 3. Forming a habit of benefiting from museums for the purpose of art education, 4. Comprehending the preparations and process of a museum visit by performing them, 5. Noticing the differences and similarities between the objects belonging to different cultures in museums, 6. Developing a sense of respect towards other civilizations by assessing different cultural objects of which museums are composed, 7. Raising the consciousness of protecting museum objects, the interest in them and the value given to them, 8. Providing hands-on education which will enhance visitors’ imaginations through art education in an exciting, enjoyable and fun environment in museums (Cited: Turgut, 2015: 25). Museums aren’t just collections of objects. Today, museums have become dynamic and extraordinary institutions which interact with their visitors, educate 586

different age groups, contribute to personal development, and promote social peace and development. Museums have become really valuable for education because of the changes in museums as an institution, of the political, economic and social changes in societies, and of the changes in the concept of education. By developing collections according to the target group they determined based on these changes, today’s museums have prepared education programs which address to different age groups (Karadeniz & Okuvuran, 2014: 868). Contrary to expected, the use of museums for the purpose of education and schoolmuseum meetings haven’t actually been observed very often. Museum visits are mostly trips which aren’t strongly based on school studies; they are considered as simple trips rather than being a part of integrated education. To have a more effective collaboration, schools need to know more things about museums. If a close cooperation between teachers and museum educators is created and teachers know how to use museums, museums can effectively be used for education. Schools have to keep themselves informed about the content and programs of museums to make more use of museums as an education tool and environment. However, in the same way, museums also need to have opinions about the needs and expectations of teachers (Seidel & Hudson, 1999: 31-32). It is an important necessity to have knowledge of visitors’ profiles and their purposes if museums are to be used and exploited effectively. However, it is also important to keep in mind that each museum visitor has a different purpose than the other (Oruç & Altın, 2008: 127). Museum Education in Early Childhood Early childhood is the stage where children’s physical, cognitive and social growth and development are the most rapid. The number of synapses generated in the first 7 years of life is almost the double of the number in adulthood. These synapses get permanent through repeated experiences. However, unused cells are eliminated. That is why, it is really important to have positive experiences in the early childhood. (Kuru Turaşlı, 2011: 9). Learning by living and doing opportunities should be given in the early childhood stage. Children’s experiences especially with real materials create more meaningful learning environments for them (Çakmak Güleç, 2010: 140). Museum education is one of the children-centered teaching methods where alternative learning methods are discovered, a cause and effect relationship is formed, and children spend enjoyable time (Karadeniz, 2010: 602). One of the mostly criticized issues about museums is that the amount of information given to children is really dense. From this viewpoint, museums should turn into institutions which satisfy children’s curiosity and trigger their learning rather than giving them dense information. Museum education not only allows children to get information about the objects in museums, but also contributes to improving their verbal expression, enhancing their observation skills, and developing their cognitive, sensory and lingual abilities such as interpretation and relating (Cited: Dilli & Dümenci, 2015: 218). Thus, one of the most effective ways to gain children the skills belonging to the early childhood stage is museum education. When the education function of museums is taken into account, they have many positive effects on children. According to Abacı (2005), the contributions of museums to children are listed as below:  Children learn the ways to enhance their knowledge, and form the habit of comparing their knowledge with book knowledge. 587

 Children have the opportunity to see the real objects of historical periods which they read about in their books.  Children try to form a relation between historical events and objects of those periods. This helps children acquire correct historical awareness.  Children compare the similarities and differences between the objects in museums and objects today in their thoughts.  Children improve their observation skills, reasoning, creativity, imagination and sense of admiration.  Children improve their esthetical admiration.  Children learn to think creatively.  Museums show children that growth and change are inevitable.  Museums teach children to think of and assess events in all aspects (Multidimensional thinking)  Besides, children know different cultures.  Children gain awareness of protecting the cultural values they have (Önder et al, 2009: 105-106). For museum visits to be effective, teachers need to plan the visit appropriately. A well-planned museum visit has three steps: 1st step: Pre-visit 2nd step: Responsibilities in the museum 3rd step: Things to do post-visit (Buyurgan & Bingöl, 2012: 148-149). In the pre-visit; the museum to be visited must be decided depending on the subject, trip procedures must be completed, teachers must visit the museum and determine the galleries to be visited, education programs must be created according to the outcomes, materials to be used and methods and techniques to be implemented must be prepared, preparatory work must be done through activities at school. During the visit: materials, educational games and creative drama activities must be set to work in accordance with the program created, observation notebooks must be used for drawings, and parts of the museum determined beforehand must be visited. In the post-visit: notes on the observation notebooks must be discussed, comparison must be made between the objects seen in the museum and today, designs must be made by making predictions about future. When educations services of museums in Western countries are examined, especially when children are the case, these services aren’t confined to activities only in museums. The important period of museum education for museums is the time spent in museum galleries. However, it is observed that museum personnel responsible for education of children, before museum visits, go to schools and carry out the activities which make children ready for visits with teachers at schools to make the utilization from museums and learning more permanent. Thus, children both get ready for museum visits and spend the limited time in museums more effectively. After the visit, museums provide an environment for children to practice what they have seen and they workshop. In this way, children not only just see objects but also learn by living (Cited: Önder et al, 2009: 105). Ages of museum visitors are as various as their purposes of visits. Participant tour techniques include really positive teaching methods for children in kindergarten and primary school. Children between 6-11 have really active imaginations; therefore, they learn best through activities with sensory teaching, pleasing experiences, role-plays, 588

narration, creative impersonation, motivation and guiding methods (Şahan, 2005: 496). While putting these programs into use, museums mainly make use of various methods such as art education and drama method. Art education makes children learn by prompting creative sides of children. Drama is a crucially important teaching method for children. It is regarded that it is important to use museums as real environments in drama activities (Cited: Önder et al, 2009:105). Contemporary museums are dynamic institutions which not only promote personal and interpersonal development, but also develop intra societal communication and education. Museums of such concept try to develop their collections and education programs according to their target groups. Toy museums, children’s museums, children’s museums of art, museums of education, school museums, children’s museums of science and technology and museums of discovery centers have been especially established to affect and enrich the lives of children and teenagers (Karadeniz, 2010: 600). Children’s museums, which provide active participation for children in the early childhood, are established to offer information and materials for children generally between 0-12 and to inform them about technology, art, and science (Karadeniz, 2010: 601). First children’s museum was established in Brooklyn Central Museum in America in 1899. Early children’s museums did limited work by using the available museums’ collections generally of natural sciences and art history. The advance in new display forms turned children’s museums into institutions which had features peculiar to themselves (Adıgüzel, 2012: 61). The concept of children’s museums is based on cooperation, touching, and learning by creating activities. Children are in the center of all children’s museum studies in any subject (Adıgüzel, 2011: 35) Children need to touch, see and hear. An education process of such helps children learn in a fun, useful and nice way (Pekgözlü Karakuş, 2012: 133). Children’s museums have the concept of display where life experiences are transferred with different objects or in the fields of specific themes. Displays can be about both history and daily objects. In these displays, children are expected to make connections with the objects they cannot see in daily life and relate them to their lives. It is an important principle for displays to have the features of game playing, touching, using and replacing. The most important purpose of children’s museums is to gain children –adults of the future- the awareness of culture heritage (Adıgüzel, 2012: 63). Children’s museums also consist of museum types such as children’s museums of art and childhood museums which study the history of childhood. In childhood museums, the focus is on ancient toys of childhood, ancient clothes, materials used in child care and education and children’s literature. Children’s museums of art are the museums which study and collect visual art work made by children or prepared by adults for children, and which organize activities to improve artistic levels of children (Karadeniz, 2012:71). Game and toy museums have an important place especially in the early childhood. These museums, which are really common in Germany, Japan, England and the USA, are inadequate in Turkey. Although the first step was taken with the children’s museum in 1868 in Turkey, the studies in this field were inadequate because of the fact that philosophical basis of museum education wasn’t laid completely and suitable policies weren’t developed (Keskin & Kaplan, 2012: 97). Children’s museums in Turkey are named as toy and children’s museums. İstanbul Children’s Museum, Rahmi Koç 589

Museum (İstanbul-Ankara), İzmir Toy Museum, Gaziantep Toy Museum, Antalya Toy Museum are the toy museums in service. However, these museums limited in number are located in big cities. For this reason, most children in their early childhood are deprived of museum experience. CONCLUSION Museums are important institutions to transfer cultures. In time, these important institutions have taken on the mission of educating rather than just collecting and displaying collections in stable places. New developments in education have brought out the education concept in which children are in the center and actively participate in the process. This situation corresponds to the concept of museum education in modern museology. Education process in museums contains in itself that visitors spend their time in museums effectively and enjoyably, and it supports the learning at schools. It is considered as an alternative and effective approach for out-of-school learning. Early childhood is the stage where children learn fastest. In this stage, positive results of museum education experiences of children cannot be denied. Children’s museums, which are designed for children, are considered as important learning and entertaining tools especially in developed countries. Limited number of children’s museums in Turkey reach really few children. It is suggested that the number of children’s museums be increased and available children’s museums become more active with the concept of mobile museology. It’s also suggested to raise the early childhood teachers’ awareness about museum education and to include selective courses related to museum education for teacher candidates in Faculties of Education. REFERENCES Adıgüzel, Ö. (2011). Okul Dışında Farklı Bir Öğrenme Ortamı Olarak Çocuk Müzeleri. Eğitim Bilim Toplum, 4(14), 32-41 Adıgüzel, Ö. (2012). Çocuk Müzelerinin Amaç ve İşlevleri . İnci San (Ed.) Çocuk Müzeleri ve Yaratıcı Drama kitap bölümü içinde (sayfa 57-68), Naturel Yayıncılık: Ankara Altunbaş, A. & Özdemir, Ç. (2012). Çağdaş Müzecilik Anlayışı ve Ülkemizde Müzeler. http://www.teftis.kulturturizm.gov.tr/Eklenti/4655,makale.pdf Buyurgan, S.& Bingöl, M. (2012). Müzede Öğrenme ve Çocuk Müzeleri. İnci San (Ed.) Çocuk Müzeleri ve Yaratıcı Drama kitap bölümü içinde (sayfa 147- 170), Naturel Yayıncılık: Ankara. Çakmak Güleç H. (2010). Okul Öncesi Eğitimin Temel İlkeleri. Gelengül Haktanır (Ed.)Okul öncesi Eğitime Giriş kitap bölümü içinde (bölüm 5 sayfa 131-158). Anı Yayıncılık: Ankara. Denizci, A. & Mirza, H. (2012). Müze Eğitimi. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları (img.eba.gov.tr). Dilli, R., & Dümenci, S. B. (2015). Okul Öncesi Dönemi Çocuklarına Anadolu’da Yaşamış Nesli Tükenmiş Hayvanların Öğretilmesinde Müze Eğitiminin Etkisi. Eğitim ve Bilim Dergisi, 40(181), 217-230 Karadeniz, C. (2010). Children's museums and necessity for children's museums in Turkey. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 600-608. Karadeniz, C. (2012). Atina’dan Çocuk Müzesi Örnekleri ve Yunanistan’da Müze Eğitim. İnci San (Ed.) Çocuk Müzeleri ve Yaratıcı Drama kitap bölümü içinde (sayfa 69-90), Naturel Yayıncılık: Ankara. 590

Karadeniz, C. (2014). Müzenin Toplumsal İşlevleri Bağlamında Türkiye’deki Devlet Müzeleri İle Özel Müzelerde Çalışan Uzmanların Kültürel Çeşitlilik ve Müzenin Ulaşılabilirliğine İlişkin Görüşlerinin Değerlendirilmesi. The Journal of International Social Research, 7(35), 405- 422. Karadeniz C. & Çıldır, Z. (2014). İngiltere’de Müze Eğitimi Londra’dan İzlenimler. Bekir Onur (Ed.) Kalem Kitap Yayınları: Ankara. Karadeniz, C., Okvuran, A. (2014). Müzede Bir Gece: Ankara Üniversitesi Öğrencileri ile Çorum Arkeoloji Müzesi’nde Müze Eğitimi. Elementary Education Online, 13(3), 865‐ 879 Kervankiran, İ. (2014). Dünyada Değişen Müze Algısı Ekseninde Türkiye’deki Müze Turizmine Bakış. Electronic Turkish Studies, 9(11), 345-369 Keskin, S. C., & Kaplan, E. (2012). Sosyal Bilgiler ve Tarih Eğitiminde Okul Dışı Öğrenme Ortamı Olarak Oyuncak Müzeleri. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 41(41), 95-115 Koçer Metin, M. (2012). Türkiye’de Doğa Tarihi Müzesinin Gelişimi ve Çocuklar. İnci San (Ed.) Çocuk Müzeleri ve Yaratıcı Drama kitap bölümü içinde (sayfa 119- 128), Naturel Yayıncılık: Ankara. Kuru Turaşlı, N. (2010). Okul Öncesi Eğitimin Tanımı ve Kapsamı. Gelengül Haktanır (Ed.)Okul öncesi Eğitime Giriş kitap bölümü içinde (bölüm 1 sayfa 1-23). Anı Yayıncılık: Ankara. Mercin L. (2011). Müze Eğitimi. Ali Osman Alakuş, Levent Mercin (Ed.) Sanat Eğitimi ve Görsel Sanatlar Öğretimi kitabı içinde(bölüm 17, sayfa 226-251).Pegema Yayıncılık: Ankara. Mercin, L. (2016). Müzeler ve Toplum. (www.ayk.gov.tr/wp) Okan, B.. (2015). Günümüzde Müzecilik Anlayışı. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sanat & Tasarım Dergisi, 5(9), 187-198 Oruç, A. G. S.& Altın, B. N. (2008). Müze Eğitimi ve Yaratıcı Drama. Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 3, 125-141. Önder, A., Abacı, O., & Kamaraj, I. (2009). Müzelerin Eğitim Amaçlı Kullanımı Projesi: İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzesindeki Marmara Örneklemi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(25), 103-117. Seidel, H. & Hudson, K. (1999). Müze eğitimi ve Kültürel Kimlik. Uluslar Arası İki Çalışma Raporu. Bekir Onur (Ed). Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yayınları No:12. Şahan, M. (2005). Müze ve Eğitim. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 3(4), 487-501. Pekgözlü Karakuş, D. (2012) Müzelerde Uygulanabilecek Müze Eğitim Etkinlikleri. Mediterranean Journal of Humanities, 2 (1), 131- 138. Tezcan Akmehmet, K. & Ödekan, A. (2008). Müze Eğitiminin Tarihsel Gelişimi. İTÜ Dergisi.3 (1), 47-58 Turgut, G. (2015). Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde Bir Eğitim Aracı Olarak Sanal Müzelerden Yararlanma. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Aydın Yıldırım, A. (2012). Müzecilik Faaliyetlerinde Bilgi Teknolojilerinin Kullanılması : Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Örneği ve Dünya Müzelerindeki Uygulamalar. Uzmanlık Tezi. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Topkapı Sarayı Müze Müdürlüğü (https://www.kultur.gov.tr/Eklenti/31195,alperenyildirimpdf.pdf. ) Yılmaz, A., & Egüz, Ş. (2015). Tarih ve Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmen Adaylarının Tarih Öğretiminde Müzenin Önemi Hakkındaki Tecrübe ve Düşünceleri. Electronic Turkish Studies, 10(11). 1637-1650 URL 1: ICOM (2015) http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/TR,44442/icom.html

591

Chapter 46 Giftedness, Its Theories and Areas, and Developmental Features of Gifted Children Bayram SEYHAN, Zeynep KURTULMUŞ INTRODUCTION To understand whether the children are gifted or not it is very important to know which characteristics or behaviors are expected to occur in children. Therefore, there are different ideas about the concept of giftedness. Nevertheless, many researchers have reached a consensus on the following expressions.  Being gifted expresses being extraordinarily successful in one or more areas compared to other individuals of the same age.  Giftedness is inherited but it can also be developed through external factors.  Gifted ones can be found among people from all cultures, ethnic and socioeconomic groups.  Gifted ones can also be found among those people who are with physical disabilities, hearing disabilities and learning difficulties (Bevan-Brown and Taylor, 2008, p.12). When researches about giftedness concept and definition are examined, it is seen that there is a transition from conservative definitions to more liberal definitions in the historical process. Conservative definitions put the concept of giftedness into strict limits and express them with numbers. According to this approach the ones who receive more than the determined threshold score are identified as gifted. On the other hand, though there are certain limits and restrictions in liberal definitions, the giftedness concept is still viewed from a wider angle. According to this approach giftedness is referred to an outstanding talent or high potential or capacity shown in any performance area compared to peers (Sak, 2014 p.500-501). THE DEFINITIONS OF GIFTEDNESS According to Renzulli (1978) giftedness arises from the interaction of general or special ability above the average (including high intelligence), creative ability (creation of high ideas and the ability to use these ideas to solve the problem) and motivation (high responsibility of fulfilling tasks). In giftedness education many experts are not distinguishing giftedness and being talented from each other. Almost everyone is using these words as synonyms. Gagne has argued in the literature that these two concepts should be distinguished. The concepts of giftedness and being talented have been broadly associated with outstanding 

 Res. Assist., Gazi University Institute of Educational Sciences, Department of Pre-School Education  Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gazi University Faculty of Education, Department of Pre-School Education 

and potential success. In other words, giftedness is considered as natural ability and being talented is considered as skills that are developed systematically. According to distinguished Giftedness and Being Talented Models, giftedness is related with not being trained at least in one skill area and having a natural ability which gives the individual the opportunity to get in the top 10% among his peers. In other words, giftedness is corresponded with being superior in one or more areas with above-average qualifications (natural talent). However, being talented is corresponded with being successful in at least one human activity area that is developed systematically and giving the individual the opportunity to qualify in the top 10% among his peers. In other words, giftedness represents clearly having superior performance in one or more human performance areas of above average (Gagne, 1985, p. 108; Gagne, 2003, p.60). According to Sternberg and Zhang (1995) to consider an individual as gifted s/he has to meet at least one of the criterion such as perfection (being superior in one or more areas compared to peers), rarity (having the skill level to be very rare compared to skill levels that his/her peers have), productivity (having the gifted area open to productivity), evidence (having the giftedness confirmed with tests or products) and value (having the society value giftedness). According to Tannenbaum, his star model is composed of five factors including general skills (skills such as abstract thinking, reasoning and making inferences), outstanding talent (skills in areas such as maths, music, art and language), factors that are not mental (motivation, perseverance, vision, wellness, positive self-identity perception), environmental factors (family environment, peer environment, school environment, social, economic and political situation of the country) and chance factor (having a teacher that supports his/her student or mentoring his/her student) (Sak 2013, p.42-43; Tannenbaum, 2003, p.47). According to Marland (1972) gifted children are expressed as children who have been identified by professionally qualified people because of their exclusive features and the high performance they demonstrate. In order to provide services to community or support themselves, differentiated training programs or services that are beyond the ones provided by normal school programs are required for these children. Gifted children (children with high performance capability) are children who exhibit potential talent or high levels of success at least in one or more areas of general intellectual ability, specific academic ability, creative or productive thinking, leadership skills, visual or performing arts, and psychomotor skills. According to the National Association for Gifted Children [NAGC]) (2010) in America gifted children are defined as children who show outstanding ability in one or more areas (maths, music, language, art, dance, sports, etc.), and competence (outstanding learning and reasoning ability) that is documented as rare or performance in 10% average). According to the Federal Government of the United States Public Law 107-110 named as No Child Left Behind (Act, P. L. 107-110) (2002) gifted children are defined as children who show high achievement in intellectual, creative, artistic fields or leadership skills services or in specific academic areas and who need services and activities different from those given in ordinary schools to fully develop these skills. According to the Science and Arts Centre Guidelines, which is an organization that takes care of the gifted children’s education in Turkey, a gifted child is a child whose performance is determined as high level by experts considering the intelligence, 593

creativity, art, leadership capacity, or particular academic areas compared to his peers (Ministry of Education [ Ministry of Education], 2009a). For Special Education Services Regulation, a gifted individual is defined as an individual who demonstrate high levels of performance in intelligence, creativity, arts, sports, leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields compared to his/her peers (MNE, 2006). When the definitions above are examined it can be said that a gifted child is the child who exhibits superior performance in one or more areas of general intellectual ability, specific academic ability, creative or productive thinking, leadership skills, visual or performing arts and psychomotor skills compared to his peers and meet the criterion of excellence, rarity, productivity, evidence and value and feels the need for schools to develop his skills more in order to provide services and activities beyond the common ones (Marland, 1972; Renzulli, 1978; Sternberg and Zhang, 1995). GIFTEDNESS THEORIES The main output sources of the theories related to giftedness consist of social values, individual experiences, beliefs and scientific studies (Sak, 2013, p.11). In this section Renzulli's Ring Theory, Sternberg and Zhang’s Pentagonal Implicit Theory and Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory are described. Renzulli’s Three Ring Theory According to Three Ring Theory giftedness arises from the interaction of superior talent or special ability over average, creative ability and the capability of loyalty to duties. When one of these skills misses or the threshold value decreases it will prevent forming of the genius (Renzulli, 1978; Sak, 2013, p.23-24).

Figure 1. Renzulli's Three Ring Theory (Renzulli, 1978) Although the researches conducted on creative-productive people reveal that there is not only one certain criteria describing giftedness, they show that people who have achieved recognition for their creative contributions and unique success have the consistent set of a relatively well-defined interlocking feature group. These feature groups are above-average giftedness, devotion to duty (motivation), and creativity. Only one of these groups cannot create the giftedness. Each group will contribute 594

significantly to show characteristics of giftedness (Renzulli, 1998). There is no need to have a high potential in all three ability groups to be gifted. According to this theory, individuals with outstanding talent potential in general or specific fields at 15-20% are also counted as gifted (Sak, 2014, p.505). Gifted children have a set combination of these characteristics (above-average ability, motivation and creativity) or have the ability to develop combination set of these properties and apply these properties to a valuable performance area potentially (Renzulli, 1978; Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.21). These children need a wide range of educational opportunities and services given via a program different from those provided by normal schools (Renzulli, 1978). In Three Ring Theory, gifted students are classified according to their individual characteristics. Renzulli evaluated gifted students in two groups as gifted at school and creative-productive ones. Giftedness at school is measured with IQ tests and other cognitive skills and test-taking and taking classes are expressed as a giftedness. The skills that are revealed in children via IQ and aptitude tests are very important for the traditional learning situations. Studies show that children who scored good grades in high school classes are likely to get high scores in IQ tests too. The creative-productive giftedness may not be noticed by the teacher. Creative-productive gifted children may not be academically as successful as gifted children at school. Such students may be considered as problem students because of their extraordinariness (Renzulli, 1998; Sak, 2014, p.506). Renzulli agreed that young children may not show the properties of the above average ability, motivation and creativity rings but if they show the potential to develop future features of the ring they can be defined as gifted. Here two major problems arise. The first one is that assessing this potential in young children is difficult. The second one is that the environment provides an inadequate environment for these kind of children so their motivation is low (Porter, 1999, p.37) Above Average Ability Above average ability refers to the state of having a potential above average in any field (Akar and Şengil-Akar, 2012). Above average can be expressed in two ways as above average ability and above average special ability. - General Skills: General skills consist of knowledge processing capacity, capacity to use the experiences in new situations of life and the ability to engage in abstract thinking. Verbal and numerical reasoning, spatial relations, memory and word fluency can be given as examples of general skills. These abilities are usually measured with intelligence or aptitude tests and can be applied to various traditional teaching situations. - Special Skills: The capacity to generate knowledge, skills and abilities. These capabilities are defined as the ways that people use to express themselves in real life and are skills that can be observed in the professional field. Chemistry, ballet, mathematics, sculpture, photography can be given as examples of special abilities (Renzulli, 1998; Sak, 2013, p.25). Creativity According to Renzulli, children’s success in their school years, levels of performance in aptitude or IQ tests do not provide us the prediction for their success and their level of creativity in the years ahead. According to this it can be thought that children who were identified as gifted during school years can be considered as 595

ordinary people in the community during their adult years. In this case the creativity feature is important to anticipate the years ahead (Sak, 2013, p.26-27). According to Three Ring Theory, creativity includes features such as being flexible, fluent and original in thinking, being open to experience, being sensitive to situations, being able to take risks, having a positive reaction to innovations and changes, being sensitive to the aesthetic qualities of mind and matter and ready to take risks in action and thoughts (Akar and Şengil-Akar, 2012; Renzulli, 1998; Grand National Assembly of Turkey [GNAT], 2012, p.101; Sak, 2013, p.27). According to this theory gifted individuals are creative. According to some theorists, it is also possible to be gifted without being creative (Sak, 2013, p.27). Motivation According to Three Ring Theory motivation can be expressed as sense of mission or devotion to duty. The terms like perseverance, desire, interest, tolerance, hardworking, special applications, self-confidence, belief of diagnosing and solving significant problems and believing in one's ability to perform important tasks can be used to define a sense of mission (Renzulli, 1998; Sak, 2014, p. 507). This theory does not discover gifted children who fail and therefore it only provide services to academically successful children. Many of the gifted children who show low success are also children who have very low motivation. According to this theory, these children cannot be considered as gifted. On this point, the Three Ring Theory is being criticized (Porter, 1999, p.37; Sak, 2013, p.27). Sternberg and Zhang’s Pentagonal Implicit Theory Sternberg and Zhang (1995) proposed pentagonal implicit theory to express giftedness. According to this theory, an individual must provide five criteria to be considered as gifted. These criteria are the criterion of being extraordinary, rare, productive, having value and evidence. Extraordinary

Productivity

Value PENTAGONAL IMPLICIT THEORY

Rarity

Evidence

Figure 2. Sternberg and Zhang’s (1995) Pentagonal Implicit Theory

596

Extraordinary Criteria Extraordinary criteria can be expressed as showing a much better performance in one or more areas of any field compared to their peers (Akar and Şengil-Akar, 2012; Sak, 2013, p. 18; Sternberg and Zhang, 1995; Sternberg and Zhang, 1998; Sternberg and Zhang, 2004, p.16). A gifted individual must be extremely proficient in his field (Davis and Rimn 2004, p.27). In order to decide whether an individual is gifted or not s/he should be compared to his/her peers. While making comparison it shouldn’t be only age or level of education that is taken into account but the experience possibilities in the field should also be considered (Sak, 2013, p.18). Rarity Criteria To be considered as gifted this criteria refers to being so rare when compared to peers in terms of the ability level of the area (Akar and Şengil-Akar, 2012; Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.27; Sak, 2013, p.19; Sternberg and Zhang, 1995; Sterberg and Zhang, 1998; Sterberg and Zhang, 2004, p.17). A rarity criterion looks as if it is supporting the criteria of extraordinary. When there are so many people in one field at the same levels, then no matter how extraordinary the level is, the individual cannot be labeled as gifted, because in this case the rarity criteria is not met. In other words, an individual may seem extraordinary, but as long as the individual’s extraordinariness is not rare, s/he cannot be seen as gifted (Sak 2013, 20; Sternberg and Zhang, 1995; Sterberg and Zhang, 2004, p.17). Productivity Measure Giftedness property should lead individuals to be productive (Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.27). Productivity measure means the field that one has talent in is open to productivity (Akar and Şengil-Akar, 2012). In other words, the individual needs to perform giftedness in that field more than once (Sternberg and Zhang, 1998). According to some theorists it is not sufficient for an individual to get high scores in intelligence tests to be called as gifted. Because the individuals’ receiving the highest score does not mean s/he can do something. According to some other theorists; even though getting high scores from tests does not show individual's productivity, it is an indication of his potential to produce (Sak, 2013, p.20; Sternberg and Zhang, 1995; Sterberg and Zhang, 2004, p.17). Children can be expressed as being gifted without showing productivity criteria compared to adults, because children’s productivity is assessed based on their potential productivity rather than the real productivity. The actual productivity level of adults is an important criteria in the identification of giftedness (Sternberg and Zhang, 1995; Sterberg and Zhang, 2004, p.17). Evidence Criteria Evidence criteria expresses proving giftedness with one or more valid tests or products (Akar and Şengil-Akar, 2012; Davis and Rimn 2004, p.27; Sterberg and Zhang, 2004, p.18). Although an individual meets the criteria of extraordinary, rarity and productivity he has to prove that he meets these criterions to be considered as gifted. Here, while determining the individual’s giftedness, the validity of the measuring instruments that are used is very important. The tools are required to measure the giftedness accurately (Sak, 2013, p.21; Stenberg and Zhang, 1995).

597

Value Criteria According to this criteria, in order to be considered gifted an individual should demonstrate a superior performance in an area that is valued by members of the community (Sterberg and Zhang, 2004, p.18). A value criterion expresses the giftedness area seen valuable by the community (Akar and Şengil-Akar, 2012; Davis and Rimn 2004, p.27; Sterneberg and Zhang, 1998). According to the Pentagonal ımplicit Theory, the kind of value given to giftedness varies between societies. A kind of gift that is valued in one society can be considered not valuable in another community (Sak, 2013, p.22). Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory The Theory of Multiple Intelligences has aroused great interest in recent years in early childhood education. Until Gardner, the researchers were focusing mostly on numerical and verbal-logical components of intelligence (Erdiller, 2012, p.82). This theory is opposed to a single intelligence model and draw attention to the presence of different types of intelligence. At the same time Multiple Intelligences Theory rests on the belief that every human being has his own unique intelligence profile (GNAT, 2012). Although in most of the sources eight different intelligence types are mentioned (linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, visualspatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, internal personal intelligence) (Christison, 2005 p.5-6; İnanç, Bilgin and Atıcı, 2012; Sak, 2013, p.45; Sak, 2014, p.502-503) Gardner (2009) mentions the ninth intelligence and names this as existential intelligence. Linguistic Intelligence Linguistic intelligence refers to the ability to use written and oral language, being able to learn new languages, to learn through speaking and writing skills, the ability to use symbols, to use the language in order to fulfill personal goals, to understand the meaning and layout of words, ability of reading poetry and telling stories (Erdiller, 2012, p.82; İnanç et al., 2012, p.147; Sak 2014, p.502; Vural, 2004, p.238). Individuals who have this type of intelligence tell stories and make jokes. They keep names and dates in their memory very well. They like word games and love rhymes. They have a rich vocabulary. They communicate well (Sutherland, 2005). Overall, it can be said that bards, poets, journalists, lawyers and debaters have high linguistic intelligence (Sak, 2014, p.502; Gardner, 2009). Li Po, William Shakespeare, Toni Morrison, Hemmingway, J. K. Rowling, Agatha Christie, Elizabeth Barrett and Browning are people with high linguistic intelligence (Gardner, 2009; Karolyi, Ramos-Ford and Gardner, 2003, p.102; Sutherland, 2005). Logical-mathematical intelligence Logical-mathematical intelligence is expressed as solving math questions, dealing with logical theory, making comparisons and classifications, making researches scientifically and solving problems, learning through reasoning and problem solving, analyzing problems mathematically, solving issues through scientific means, using numbers effectively, being able to understand the basic features of numbers, being able to establish relationship between components of knowledge and having the capacity of making simple tools (Christison 2005, p.5; Erdilli, 2012; p.82; İnanç et al., 2012, p.147; Sak 2014, p .502, Sak, 2013, p.46; Uzun, 2004, p.16; Vural, 2004, p.245). Individuals 598

with this type of intelligence play chess and strategy games. They understand cause and effect relationships. They ask questions about how to run objects and make calculations quickly (Sutherland, 2005). In science, linguistics, social sciences and many other areas logical thinking skills are used (Sak 2013, p.46). Scientists, computer programmers and mathematicians may be included in this group. Piaget was a Swiss psychologist whose logical-mathematical intelligence was very high (Gardner, 2009). In addition, Paul Erdos, Archimedes, Sir Isaac Newton and Einstein were people with high logicalmathematical intelligences (Karolyi et al., 2003, p.102; Sutherland, 2005). Visual-Spatial Intelligence Visual-spatial intelligence can be defined as the ability to be able to think with pictures, images, shapes and lines, to detect three-dimensional objects, and find the way in an environment and expressing and reasoning spatial ideas with graphics ones. People with visual spatial intelligence can find their way even in places that they are not used to wander (Christison 2005, p.5; Erdilli, 2012; p.82; İnanç et al., 2012, p.147; Sak, 2013, p.46; Tunnicliffe, 2010, p.20; Uzun, 2004, p.16 ; Vural, 2004, p.241). Individuals who have this kind of intelligence can read maps, graphs and charts easily. They love puzzles. They like to build three-dimensional structures. They have drawing skills ahead of their age. They understand pictures more than they do writings (Sutherland, 2005). Overall, sailors, pilots and chess players said to have strong intelligence in this area (Sak, 2014, p.502). Visual-spatial intelligence is the ability to use wide zones like a pilot or more regional zones like a chess player (Gardner, 2009). Michelangelo, Picasso, Steven Spielberg, Monet, Leonardo Da Vinci and Frank Lloyd Wright are examples of people with visual and spatial intelligence (Karolyi et al., 2003, p.102; Sutherland, 2005). Musical Intelligence Musical intelligence is expressed as the capacity to recognize sounds, notes and rhythms, to play a musical instrument very well, thinking with sounds, notes and rhythms, to recognize different sounds and to produce new sounds and rhythms, to perform, form and evaluate music structures, to sing beautifully, to capture a tone and to recognize simple songs (Christison 2005, p.6; Erdilli, 2012; p.82; İnanç et al., 2012, p.147; Sak, 2013, p.46; GNAT, 2012; Uzun, 2004, p.16; Vural, 2004, p.250). Musical intelligence is the capacity to think with music (Gardner, 2009) and generally musicians are considered to have intelligence in this area above the normal average (Sak, 2014, p.503). Individuals with this kind of intelligence remember the tone of a song. They sing very well and can keep rhythm. They can easily imitate others. They can play a musical instrument (Sutherland, 2005). Mozart, Beethoven, Scott Joplin, John Lennon, Charlie Parker and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart are people with musical intelligence (Karolyi et al., 2003, p.102; Sutherland, 2005). Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence can be expressed as the capacity to use gestures, facial expressions and be able to express self with movements, to use brain and body coordination effectively and use the body while dancing, doing sports and in drama. Indicators include being successful in one or more sporting activities, not being able to stay still in a place without moving for a long period of time are indicators of bodilykinesthetic intelligence (Christison 2005, p.5; Erdilli, 2012; p.82; İnanç et al., 2012, 599

p.147; Sak 2014, p.503; GNAT, 2012; Tunnicliffe, 2010, p.20; Uzun, 2004, p.16; Vural, 2004, p.247). Individuals with such intelligence are successful in sports. They can mimic gestures. They have fine motor skills. They like art activities with play dough, clay and they love using their hands. They are very active (Sutherland, 2005). Dancers, actors and ballet dancers have high ability in this area (Sak, 2013, p.47). Tiger Woods, Marcel Marceau, David Beckham, Wayne Rooney, Martha Graham and Tiger Woods are examples of individuals with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (Karolyi et al, 2003, p.102; Sutherland, 2005). Interpersonal Intelligence Interpersonal intelligence can be defined as the capacity to work collaborative within groups, learning through interaction with others, to establish communication verbally and non-verbal, to understand people's emotions, thinking and behaviors, to recognize people's facial expressions, to share, to express, to interpret, and to be able to convince people (Christison, 2005, p.6; Erdilli, 2012; p.82; İnanç et al., 2012, p.147; Sak, 2014, p.503; GNAT, 2012; Tunnicliffe, 2010, p.20; Uzun, 2004, p.16 ; Vural, 2004, p.253). Individuals with this type of talent enjoy being with their peers. They are natural leaders. They build very close friendships and their friends look for them. They give advice to their friends. (Sutherland, 2005). Leaders and marketing staff can be examples for individuals with superior social intelligence (Sak, 2013, p.47). Virginia Woolf, Dalai Lama, Oprah Winfrey, Abraham Lincoln, Gandhi and Martin Luther King are people among individuals with high interpersonal intelligence (Karolyi et al., 2003, p.102; Sutherland, 2005). Internal / Personal Intelligence Internal /personal intelligence can be expressed as the ability to be aware of feeling one’s feeling of his inner world and thoughts, to self-evaluate, to set goals for his own, to recognize the process of his thoughts, to manage his own behavior, to recognize his own strengths and weaknesses and define his feelings (Christison, 2005, p.6; Erdilli, 2012; p.82; İnanç et al., 2012, p.147; Sak, 2014, p.503; GNAT, 2012; Tunnicliffe, 2010, p.20; Uzun, 2004, p. 16; Vural, 2004, p.256). Individuals with internal /personal intelligence love to be free and love to play alone. They are aware of their strengths and weaknesses. They express their feelings. They learn from their mistakes (Sutherland, 2005). Psychologists, philosophers and poets are said to have high intelligence in this area (Sak, 2013, p.47). Joan of Arc, Sir Edmund Hillary, Neil Armstrong, Columbus, Mahatma Gandhi and Oprah Winfrey are examples of individuals with internal/personal intelligence (Karolyi et al., 2003, p.102; Sutherland, 2005). Naturalistic Intelligence Naturalistic intelligence can be expressed as the capacity to recognize the animate and inanimate objects in nature, to understand and to classify, to think on their creation, to have consciousness of a healthy environment, to observe nature, to live in harmony with nature, to be sensitive to nature, to be interested in natural science, to classify animals, plants and minerals and recognize the characteristics of his environment (Christison 2005, p.6; Erdilli, 2012; p.82; Sak, 2014, p.503; GNAT, 2012; Tunnicliffe, 2010, p.20; Uzun, 2004; p.16; Vural, 2004, p.259). Individuals with this kind of intelligence love to learn about nature and animals. They are interested in biology, geology and astronomy. They have environmental awareness. They easily classify. 600

They love beauty and the outside world (Sutherland, 2005). Biologists, ecologists and other naturalists are considered to have high naturalistic intelligence (Sak, 2013, p.47). Charles Darwin, Galileo, Jacques Cousteau, Dian Fossey and Jane Goodall are examples of individuals with naturalist intelligence (Karolyi et al., 2003, p.102; Sutherland, 2005). Existential Intelligence Existential intelligence can be defined as the ability to ask big questions about life and death, about other planets, to be fully aware of the universe (Sutherland, 2005, p.9). It can be said that people who ask questions like "Who am I?", "What will become of me?", "Why do we fall in love?", "Why do people fight?", "Is there life after death?" have existential intelligence (Gardner, 2009 p.10). Aristotle, Confucius, Einstein, Plato and Socrates are examples of individuals who have existential intelligence (Sutherland, 2005, p.9). GIFTEDNESS AREAS According Marland (1972) gifted children exhibit outstanding talent at high levels of performance in one or more of the following areas: - General mental ability area - Specific academic ability area - Creative or productive thinking area - Leadership skill area - Visual or performing arts area - Psychomotor skills area General Mental Ability Area Children with general mental ability have broad and detailed memory in areas that they are interested in and show a rapid and accurate recalling ability. In addition to this, the language and verbal skills of these children have developed to an advanced level and they have a very large vocabulary compared to their peers. They are also an avid reader and start reading early. They have an advanced level of speaking in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. Additionally, they have advanced communication skills and express their ideas, feelings and thoughts very well (Clark, 2013, p. 47-48; Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.33, Jeong, 2010, p.115; Johnsen, 2005, p .9; Porter, 1999, p.74-75). Children with general mental ability have extraordinary information processing capacity—they process information very fast and think very quickly. They use different patterns in the thinking process at early age. They remember information very fast and correctly. They have logic to reach right-minded answers. In addition, they synthesize problems in a comprehensive manner and have very good judgment. However, they understand abstract ideas and complex concepts. They use problem solving and reasoning strategies very effectively. They have a flexible mindset. In solving difficult and unusual problems they generate original ideas and use a high level of thinking skills and effective strategies. They generalize, analyze and synthesize new ideas and products easier than their peers. They understand principles, generalize and use them in new situations. They establish cause-effect relations. They prefer independent work more (Clark, 2013, p. 47-48; Dağlıoğlu, 2012, p. 325; Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.33, Jeong, 2010, p.115; Johnsen, 2005, p.9; Porter, 1999, p.74; Ulusoy, Sakaltaş, Güneş, 601

Dokgöz, Akın and Köseoğlu 2014, p.3). Gifted children are very eager to learn and they learn very quickly. They can show what they have learned and teach other children. They work carefully and they have very high motivation related to their interests. They have a long attention span. They particularly have broad information about the areas they are interest in. They are very curious and ask questions about everything. They are very good observers and they are smart. They are creative and have a broad imagination. (Clark, 2013, p. 47-48; Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.33, Jeong, 2010, p.115; Johnsen, 2005 p.9-10; Porter, 1999, p.74). Gifted children enjoy being with children older than themselves. They have a higher level of problem solving and planning skills than their peers. They understand the rules of the game immediately, learn from their mistakes and offer ideas to do what they want and to convince others to make what they want. They show close attention to values, ethical and fair-related events from an early age. They have a high sense of humor compared to their peers. They do not like routines and repetitive tasks. Stimulants encountered at school are usually insufficient for them. They get bored quickly (Dağlıoğlu, 2012, p.325; Porter, 1999, p.74, Özbay, 2013, p.31; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.4) In addition, gifted children see unusual connections and various connections and combine ideas in inter-relating areas. They think through events fully, understand the meaning and make logical connections (Clark, 2013, p.48; Jeong, 2010, p.115). Special Academic Talent Area Children with such capabilities exhibit similar characteristics as children with general mental intelligence and their talents are limited to only one or a few fields (Dağlıoğlu, 2012, p.325). These children show high performance in achievement and aptitude tests (Metin, 1999, p.20). Gifted children in terms of special academic intelligence have a long attention span in areas that they are interest in and have intense and constant attention. Their studies are goal-oriented. They are very determined and persistent. They are academically superior in their fields compared to their peers, they have a broad knowledge base and are seen as the source. They have hobbies related to their areas of interest. They understand the subject field of at an advanced level. They like to solve complex problems. They read deeper into the academic field. They examine and remember the details. They learn fast. They have an excellent memory. They are sharp and careful observers. They see connections and relationships in one area and generalize them to other situations and practices (Clark, 2013, p. 47; Davis and Rimn 2004, p.33, Jeong, 2010, p.115; Johnsen, 2005 p.10-11; Metin, 1999, p.21). Additionally, children who are gifted in special academic areas are researchers and ask very good questions. They analyze problems and think of other options as well. They understand abstract ideas and concepts. They use words at a level above their peers, express complex concepts and processes with words. They establish cause-effect relationships and prefer more to work independently. They like working on issues that are related to the area they are interested in rather than other subjects. In order to increase their knowledge in the field they are interested in, they get help from people who are knowledgeable (Johnsen, 2005, p.10; Metin, 1999, p.21-22; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.3).

602

Creative and Productive Thinking Area Children who have creative and productive thinking have flexible problem-solving abilities. They produce a large number of original ideas and solutions to problems. They are very creative. They give unusual and clever answers to questions. There is originality in their written, verbal or artistic expressions. They think independently. They believe in their own ideas and maintain their ideas in a study or debate. They don’t accept authoritative statements that are not involving their decisions. They think on different ideas and combine them. They have extremely fluent thinking and many original ideas. They criticize in a constructive way (Dağlıoğlu, 2012, p.326; Jeong, 2010, p.116; Johnsen, 2005, p.12; Metin, 1999, p.21-22; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.4). Creative and productive children constantly ask questions. They are adventurous and like to take risks. They are tolerant of ambiguity. They prefer the hard way. They are not tolerant with boring situations. They are people who does not like to abide by the rules of society, uninhibited in expressing and can withstand the group pressure. They show a deep focus on a task. They have a sense of dedication to work in the fields they are related to (Dağlıoğlu, 2012, p.326; Jeong, 2010, p.116; Johnsen, 2005, p.12; Metin, 1999, p.21-22; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p. 4). Children who have creative and productive thinking have a developed sense of beauty and they understand aesthetic characteristics. They are aware of their own creativity. They have a positive self-perception. They are open to experiences. Their senses are strong. They have a deep sense of humor and they can easily realize witty jokes that not many people can understand. They are funny. They are extremely sensitive. They are emotionally intense. They like to spend time alone. They like to deal with fantasy and daydreaming (Dağlıoğlu, 2012, p.326, Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.33; Jeong, 2010, p.116; Johnsen, 2005 p.12-13, Metin, 1999, p.21 -22 Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.4). Leadership Capability Area Metin (1999) expresses leadership as the ability to lead individuals or groups to a common decision or action. Leadership depends on variables such as personality, position within the group, characteristics of intelligence and followers (Johnsen, 2005, p.15). People with leadership have qualities that increase expectations from them. They are perfectionists and can make self-criticisms. They are willing to take risks. Their self-confidence is complete. They are emotionally balanced. They are respected by the community. They are responsible and reliable people. People usually ask for their ideas and suggestions. They affect behaviors of those around them and perceived as leaders by their peers (Jeong, 2010, p.116; Johnsen, 2005 p.15-16, Metin, 1999, p.23-24). Gifted children who are superior in leadership field have vision. They can see the problems from different angles. They provide solutions to environmental and social problems. They can adapt to new situations. They participate in social activities and enjoy being around people. They can work with their teachers and classmates through cooperation. They can express their thoughts and feelings in a comfortable way. They can choose words in their expressions and understand what is said very well. They can empathize. They can interact with others easily by engaging their social skills. They can do more than one task at the same time (Jeong, 2010, p.116; Johnsen, 2005 p.15-16, Metin, 1999, p.23-24; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.4). 603

The Area of Talent in Arts Children who have talent in fine arts use arts as a communication tool. They chose art activities for the project or leisure activities. They have time for arts events. They take arts seriously and enjoy it. They make effort to improve their skills and can focus on art projects for a long time. They can display their artistic talents for a long time. They are extremely sensitive and responsive. They show interest in talented people in arts and they observe them. They are a good observers. They are eager to learn about arts. They bring high standards to the field of arts. They exhibit their self-confidence in arts. They reveal original products (Ersoy and Avcı, 2004; Johnsen, 2005, p.13). However, they exhibit similar characteristics in creativity like the ones in general intellectual ability and specific academic ability fields. They have extraordinary awareness in non-verbal communication, physical coordination and in their relationships with other people (Dağlıoğlu, 2012, p.326). Psychomotor Skills Area Having skills in the psychomotor domain refers to displaying high performance in using motor muscles in the whole body or in one section. Children who are talented in psychomotor domain often do not have a high mental performance (Metin, 1999, p.26). There is an extraordinary mismatch between their physical and mental development (Clark, 2013, p.51). Children who have ability in this area have a physical athletic structure. They love games that they can Show their physical power. They exhibit coordinated, balanced and safe movements in physical activities (Dağlıoğlu, 2012, p.326). They are creative in forming and modifying games. They have appropriate statures for bodybuilding. They are energetic and rhythmic (Metin, 1999, p.26). They like to exhibit patience and endurance in physical activities. They understand the intellectual aspects of psychomotor activities (Sumreungwong, 2003, p.21). DEVELOPMENTAL FEATURES OF GIFTED CHILDREN When the developmental characteristics of gifted children are examined it is seen that there are different aspects emerging in gifted children according to their giftedness area. However, gifted children generally exhibit developmental characteristics at a more advanced level than children with normal development (Kurtulmuş, 2010, p.13). In general, in the studies conducted it is found that gifted children reach the development stages faster than children with normal development from the earliest period of their life time. However, this rapid progress varies depending on the area of giftedness. In other words, a child who is gifted in a particular area of giftedness is not expected to be fast in all areas of development (Metin, 1999, p.28). Physical and Motor Development Characteristics It is more accepted today than before that there is no direct relationship between children's physical development areas and giftedness areas. No diagnostic form of physical properties is used while identifying giftedness (GNAT, 2012, p.105; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.3). According to the studies about gifted children it is expressed that gifted children’s weight and height at birth is more than their peers with normal development and in future years it is stated that this continues in the future years (Metin, 1999, p.30). Gifted children's body structure is larger and stronger than their peers who are with normal 604

development. Their body and general health is above normal. They are resistant to diseases. Their body health and health of whole organs is better than their peers. They protect their health very well. It is seen that their shoulders and hips are wider and lungs are stronger than their peers. They walk early, talk early and begin to read at an early age (Ataman, 1998, p.183; Çağlar, 1972, p.98-99 Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.20). Gifted individuals pay attention to their appearance, they are clean and polite. They have more proper physical appearance. Sensory organ disorders, tooth decay and body injury is seen less compared to their peers. They can hear very well (Ataman, 1998, p.183; Kurtulmuş, 2010, p.18; Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.20; Şenol, 2011, p.16). Gifted children have an appetite during infancy and cry very little. It is emphasized that gifted children have longer life. Many parents with gifted children stated that their children sleep less (Ataman, 1998, p.183; Metin, 1999, p.31). Gifted children have outstanding qualities of nerve system. They get mature faster than their peers. They have faster progress than their peers in motor development stages. They gain crawling, standing and walking skills earlier than their peers. They are strong and their responses are faster in tasks that require strong coordination (Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.20; Metin, 1999, p.31). Gifted children learn their right and left at an early age. They solve more complex puzzles. They show an extraordinary ability and disrupts objects and they do them again. They create interesting shapes and patterns with objects. They have a high degree of physical energy (Porter, 1999, p.75). Cognitive Development and Language Development Features Gifted children show more interest than their peers to objects that they see, hear and touch from birth compared to their peers and can focus more on these objects. Their attention span is longer than their peers in older ages. Since they are more curious than their peers with normal development, it takes longer to think of a solution to a problem that they encounter. They are more successful than their peers in hard work. They dislike of routine and repetitive tasks. As the stimulants they encounter at school are insufficient for them they get bored quickly. They love to study independently (Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.21; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.4). Gifted children are good observers. They are careful and vigilant. They are flexible and unconventional thinkers. They have a complex thinking structure. Their thoughts are fluent. They use higher thinking skills and can look events from different perspectives. They are open to new ideas and thoughts. They have the skill of solving confusing things. They learn quickly. They are always ready to learn and love to learn. Their reasoning and problem solving skills are more advanced than their peers. They are better than their peers in keeping up with developments. They establish a cause and effect relationship. They have deeper knowledge than their peers on a topic. They understand abstract concepts such as death and time. They are creative and can produce original ideas. In making generalizations, seeing relations and transferring information they are more advanced than their peers (Bates and Munday, 2005, p.6; Callard-Szulgit 2010, p.11; Clark, 2013, p.48; Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.33; Hertzong, 2008, p.6; Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.21-22; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.3-4). Gifted children have excellent long-term memory. Since their memory is strong they don’t forget important details, concepts and principles. They can easily get what 605

they see and hear in their memory and keep them in their memory for a long time. They keep information in their memory fully and complete and they remember it very quickly. Gifted children memorize the material that they are going to use in the future and have no difficulty in remembering it when he wants at appropriate intervals (Cutt and Morseley 2004, p.69; Çağlar, 1972, p.100; Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.22; Porter, 1999, p. 74) Gifted children often begin to speak 3-4 months earlier than those who are developing normally. They make more meaningful sentences than children with normal development and they use the words appropriately. Gifted children exhibit an advanced level of language development. They use more complex vocabulary and sentence structure in their speech. They use language as an effective communication tool. Their verbal skills are at an advanced compared to their peers. They love to talk. They use more words in their speech than their peers do. They refer less to signs and body language while talking. They pronounce words correctly. They have a fluent conversation and an extensive vocabulary. They love creating new words and sentence structures by using the language. They give quick answers to questions. Gifted children are more successful than their peers in using abstract words meaningfully and appropriately (Callard-Szulgit 2010, p.11; Clark, 2013, p.47; Çağlar, 1972, p.100; Kurtulmuş, 2010, p.14; Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.21; Metin, 1999, p.31; Porter, 1999, p.63; Sumreungwong, 2003, p.126). Advanced level of language development in gifted children allows them to get easily understood at an early age. Gifted children understand descriptions of adults easily. They use metaphors and analogies. They use the language at an early age to exchange ideas and transfer information. They use language in a way that other children understand (Porter, 1999, p.63). Gifted children have interest in reading and books at an early age. They are interested in reference books such as atlases, encyclopedias and dictionaries. They are also interested in symbols and alphabet at an early age. They love reading a lot, learn to read on their own and often learn to read and write before they begin to school. They are quick and avid readers. Their success level of understanding what they read is high. They can easily read works above the level of their peers. They do a lot of reading compared to their peers. They enjoy reading books of all kinds and topics. They are interested in science and literature. Showing interest to reading at an early age spontaneously is considered as one of the most reliable indicators of giftedness by many researchers (Callard-Szulgit 2010, p.11; Coşkun, 2007, p.28; Hertzong, 2008, p.6 Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.22; Metin, 1999, p.35; Sumreungwong, 2003, p.126). Gifted children may not always have a personality that makes everyone laugh but a clever joke or witty banter are both indicators of giftedness. Gifted children have perfect joke capabilities. The features like telling jokes, making the events fun or behaviors of dramatizing in a funny way make gifted children popular among their friends. Gifted children have crazy and funny ideas. Being gifted is being able to understand jokes that are made easily (Cutt and Morseley, 2004, p.70; Davis and Rimn, 2004, p.33; Kurtulmuş, 2010, p.15; Metin, 1999, p.33). Social-Emotional Development and Personality Traits Gifted children are less egocentric than their peers. They are more sensitive than their peers to other people's feelings and needs. They can notice people's emotional 606

states. They listen to people through empathy. They generally have an emotional depth (Clark, 2013, p.49; Hertzong, 2008, p.6; Porter, 1999, p.65). Gifted children want to help everyone. These children often finish their homework quickly and want to help those who are slower. These children take roles in general needs such as cleaning the board, picking up paper fallen on the floor, organizing the books in the library (Cutt and Moseley, 2004, p.77). Gifted children have stronger friendship with one or two friends as they can understand the feelings of others and have not so many peers who are also gifted like themselves. While normally developing children choose their friends from those who play games with them most, gifted ones should be more sensible about making friends. Instead of choosing their friends from their peers, they usually choose friends who have similarities with them in terms of intelligence and interest. They manage to get along with others (Çağlar, 1972, p103; Porter, 1999, 65-66) Gifted children are the people sought by their peers for their friendship. Gifted children have high expectations from those children that they are going to be friends with. They look for perfectionism and ability to make moral judgments in these children at advanced levels. They have high expectations from themselves and from friends (Clark, 2013, p.97; Porter, 1999, p.66; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.5). As gifted children are interested in games or activities that are above level of normally developing children, some gifted children don’t interact with their peers who are with normal development and can be left alone. These children usually prefer to play with children or adults who are much older than themselves (Coşkun, 2007, p.29; Metin, 1999, p.32). Gifted children learn playing regular games at an earlier age compared to their peers. They add academic and literary events into their games naturally. They are interested in the advanced game. They are interested in advanced level games. When interest of normally developing children decrease in the game they perceive this lack of interest as a rejection (Porter, 1999, p.65). Gifted children exhibit leadership qualities at an early age and try to get involved in social projects. They participate in social activities and enjoy being with other people. They love working in groups and they organize others. They are aware of the purpose of the group and express it clearly. They understand how someone feels and how a group works. They are willing to take responsibility. They are happy to be part of the group. They are respected by their peers and they are searched for their ideas. They adapt to a task easily, they are flexible and have high self-esteem. Because of their verbal and reasoning skills gifted children solve conflicts in a peaceful way by offering many solutions (Clark, 2013, p.97; Johnsen, 2005, p.16; Porter, 1999, p.66; Sumreungwong, 2003, p. 131). Gifted children who display leadership characteristics direct the group effectively. They help the group members feel good and help them in appropriate cases. They regulate and share the work in the group. They affect others in achieving their goals and they are the first to choose by their friends. They can easily fit into new situations. Gifted children significantly stand out in jobs such as planning activities, managing the group and activity organization. They want their own set of rules to be applied and obeyed. They show their reactions in various ways when the rules are not obeyed. They participate in many of the school activities. They are reliable people to continue the activities. They know their responsibilities very well and fulfill tasks in the very best way. They act as a natural leader among their peers. (Coşkun, 2007, p.29; Sumreungwong, 2003, p.131; Ulusoy et al., 2014, p.4). 607

Because gifted children are less self-centered and more comfortable with understanding the feelings of others they have developed an advanced sense of justice. They make complex moral judgments at an earlier age than their normally developing peers. Something that other children make and seems okay disappoints gifted children as they know it is wrong. Gifted children’s moral values direct their personal preferences. Their excessive honesty can sometimes disturb others. Moral sensitivity is seen as intense at an early age. They are more sensitive than their peers to world problems such as hunger, nuclear war, pollution, peace and international relations. Since they display characteristics such as questioning, being a sharp observer and thinking logical they realize inequality, injustice and double standards and being ineffective in preventing causes frustrates them. Gifted children have very high concerns about honesty and integrity. This high interest and concern provide them to demonstrate an advanced moral judgment ability (Porter, 1999, s.66-67; Ulusoy et al., 2014 s.5-6). Gifted children do not let external factors control their behaviors as they are independent. Gifted children’s independent feature is also seen in activities. They have conflict with authority; they do not like to be forced in something. They do not fit the group norms a lot and insist on something that is right to them. Their self-confidence is higher than their normally developing peers. Their internal audit is very high. Selfconcept develops at an earlier age. They learn very quickly that they are different from other children. While they trust in themselves in areas where they are gifted, they may feel a lack of confidence in the physical and social fields. They don’t need external factors to start activities. They are stable and stubborn in matters they believe. They enjoy tasks that have a high degree of difficulty (Çağlar, 1972, p.105; Davis and Rimn, 2014, p.33; Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.21; Özbay, 2013, p. 27; Porter, 1999, p.68; Ulusoy et.al., 2014, p.5). Gifted children are perfectionists. They have high goals and ideals. These children set high standards for their performances. Their expectations from themselves are more than what their parents expect from them. The healthy perfectionism is to be happy and to have fun while reaching the targets. The destructive perfectionism is the one that although the individuals successful enough they make efforts to achieve unrealistic standards and they are rarely satisfied. Gifted individuals with healthy perfectionism need an intense streamline and organization. They accept their own mistakes. They use positive coping strategies for perfectionism tendencies. Their personal efforts are high. They have no role models. Gifted children with destructive perfectionism are afraid of making mistakes. For this reason they stopped doing a behavior or skill. They set extremely high standards for themselves. They need to be confirmed by others (Clark, 2013, p.100; Ministry of Education, 2009b, p.21; Porter, 1999, p.88-89). Gifted children enjoy achieving their goals and being successful. They are hardworking and can see and correct their personal errors. They like trust and loyalty. Their friendship is long-lasting. They trust others and they expect trust from others. They like taking and fulfilling this responsibilities. They have original and critical thinking structure. They are humble and want to help others. These children who can solve their problems on their own via unique ways can easily adapt to new situations. While they are fulfilling responsibilities that are given to older children, on the other hand they experience explosion of non-mature emotions. They criticize themselves excessively. They show their dissatisfaction about the difference between the actual 608

performance they evaluate and their ideal performance (Clark, 2013, p.97; Çağlar, 1972, p.105-106, Metin, 1999, p.33; Porter, 1999; p.70). REFERENCES Akar, İ. & Şengil-Akar, Ş. (2012). İlköğretim okullarında görev yapmakta olan öğretmenlerin üstün yetenek kavramı hakkındaki görüşleri. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 20(2),423-436. Ataman, A. (1998). Üstün zekâlılar ve üstün yetenekliler. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıköğretim Fakültesi. Bates, J. & Munday, S. (2005). Able, gifted and talented. New York: Continumm. Bevan-Brown, J. & Taylor, S. (2008). Nurturing gifted and talented students. Wellington, New Zealand: Learning Media Limited. Callard-Szulgit, R.(2010). Parenting and teaching the gifted (Second Edition). United Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefield. Christison, M. A. (2005). Multiple ıntelligences and language learning: A guide book of theory, activities, inventories, and resources. San Francisco: Alta. Clark, B. (2013). Growin up gifted-Developing the potential of children at school and at home(8th Edition). USA: Pearson. Coşkun, B. (2007). Görsel sanatlarda üstün yetenekli çocukların eğitimi ile ilgili öğretmen görüşleri ve değerlendirilmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Çağlar, D. (1972). Üstün zekâlı çocukların genel özellikleri. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi,5, 95-110. Dağlıoğlu, H. E. (2012). Üstün yetenekli çocuklar. İbrahim H. Diken (Ed.), Erken çocukluk eğitimi içinde (s.322-356). Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Davis, G. A. & Rimm, S. B. (2004). Education of gifted and talented (Fifth Edition). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Erdiller, Z. B. (2012). Erken çocukluk eğitiminde temel kuram ve yaklaşımlar. İbrahim H. Diken (Ed.), Erken çocukluk eğitimi (2. Baskı) içinde (s.56-90). Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Ersoy, Ö. & Avcı, N. (2004). Üstün zekâlı ve üstün yetenekliler. Mustafa Ruhi Şirin, Adana Kulaksızoğlu, Ahmet Emre Bilgili (Ed.), Üstün yetenekli çocuklar seçilmiş makale kitabı içinden (s.195-210). İstanbul: Çocuk Vakfı. Gagné, F. (1985). Giftedness and talent: Reexamining a reexamination of the definitions. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29(3), 103-112. Gagne, F. (2003). Transforming gifts into talents. The DMGT as a developmental theory. In Nicolas Colangelo & Gary A. Davis (Eds), Hand book of gifted education (Third Edition) (p.60-74). USA: Pearson. Gardner, H. (2009, Mayıs). Çoklu zekâ kuramı-yaratıcılık- gelecek için beş akıl. Birinci Uluslararası Yaşayan Kuramcılar Konferansı’nda sunulmuş bildiri. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sürekli Eğitim Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi (MAKÜSEM), Burdur. Hertzong, N. B. (2008). Early childhood gifted education. USA: Prufrock. İnanç, B.Y., Bilgin, M. & Atıcı, M. K. (2012). Gelişim psikolojisi: Çocuk ve ergen gelişimi (8.Baskı). Ankara: Pegem. Jeong, H. W. G. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions regarding gifted and talented early childhood students (three to eight yeras of age). Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of Doctor of Phılosophy.Saint Luis University, USA. Johnsen, S. K. (2005). Identifying gifted students. USA: Prufrock. Karolyi, C.V., Ramos-Ford, V., & Gardner, H. (2003). Multiple intelligences: A perspective 609

on giftedness. In Nicolas Colangelo & Gary A. Davis (Eds), Hand book of gifted education (Third Edition) (p.100-112). USA: Pearson. Kurtulmuş, Z. (2010). Bilim ve sanat merkezine devam eden üstün yetenekli çocukların ailelerine verilen bilgisayar temelli eğitimin aile bireylerinin aile ilişkilerini algılamalarına ve çocukların mükemmeliyetçilik düzeylerine etkisinin incelenmesi. Doktora Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Marland, S. P., Jr. (1972). Education of the gifted and talented. Vol. I, Report to the Congress of the United States by the U.S. Commissioner of Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Metin, N. (1999). Üstün yetenekli çocuklar. Ankara: Öz Aşama. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı. (2006). Özel eğitim hizmetleri yönetmeliği. http://mevzuat. meb. gov.tr/html/26184_0.html, 03.12.2014 tarihinde erişilmiştir. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı. (2009a). Bilim sanat merkezleri yönergesi. Tebliğler Dergisi, Sayı:2530, Cilt:64. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı.(2009b). Mesleki eğitim ve öğretim sisteminin geliştirilmesi projesi: Üstün zekâlı ve üstün yetenekli çocuklar. Reached on web page http://mebk12. meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/06/01/334395/dosyalar/2014_03/24112217_stnzekavezely etenekliocuklar.pdf on 16th November 2014. National Association of Gifted Children.(2010). Redefining giftedness for a New Century: Shifting the Paradigm. http://www.nagc.org/resources-publications/resources/definitions -giftedness reached on 13.06.2015. No Child Left Behind Act, P.L. 107-110 (Title IX, Part A, Definition 22) (2002); 20 USC 7801(22) (2004)). Özbay, Y. (2013). Üstün yetenekli çocuklar ve aileleri. Ankara: Hangar. Porter, L.(1999). Gifted young children. A guide for teachers and parents. Buckingham: Open University. Renzulli, J. S. (1978). What makes giftedness? Re-examining a definition. Phi Delta Kappa, 60, 180-181. Renzulli, J. S. (1998). Three-ring Conception of Giftedness. Reached on web page http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/sem/semart13.html on 29.0.2015. Sak, U. (2014). Üstün zekâlı öğrenciler. İbrahim H. Diken (Ed.), Özel eğitime gereksinimi olan öğrenciler ve özel eğitim içinde (s.497-553). Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Sak, U. (2013). Üstün zekâlılar(3. Baskı). Ankara: Vize. Sternberg, R. J., Zhang, L. (1995). What do we mean by giftedness? A pentagonal implicit theory. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29(2), 88-94. Sternberg, R.J. & Zhang, L. (1998). The pentagonal implicit theory of giftedness revisited: A cross‐validation in Hong Kong. Roeper Review, 21(2), 149-153. Sternberg, R. J. & Zhang, L. (2004). What do we mean by giftedness? A pentagonal implicit theory. In Robert J. Sternberg(Ed.), Definitions and conceptions of giftedness (p.13-29). California: Corwin. Sumreungwong, U. (2003). Preservıce elementary teachers’ attıtudes toward the characterıstıcs and needs of gıfted chıldren. Doctoral dissertation. Unıversıty of Northern Colorado, USA. Sutherland, M. (2005). Gifted and talented in the early years-Practical activities for children aged 3 to 5. California: SAGE Publications Inc. Şenol, C.(2011). Üstün yetenekliler eğitim programlarına ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Fırat Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Elazığ. Tannenbaum, A. J. (2003). Nature and nurture of giftedness. In Nicolas Colangelo & Gary A. Davis (Ed.), Hand Book of Gifted Education(Third Edition) (p.45-59). USA: Pearson 610

Education. Tunnicliffle, C. (2010). Teaching able, gifted and talented children. London: SAGE. Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi. (2012). Üstün yetenekli çocukların keşfi, eğitimleriyle ilgili sorunların tespiti ve ülkemizin gelişimine katkı sağlayacak etkin istihdamlarının sağlanması. Reached on web page http://www.sck.gov.tr/Tbmm/%C3%9Cst %C3 % BC n%20yetenekli%20%C3%87ocuklara%20Y%C3%B6nelik%20TBMM%20Komisyonu %20Raporu.pdf. (2012) on 16.11.2014. Ulusoy, H. F., Sakaltaş, E., Güneş, H., Dokgöz, M., Akın, Ö. & Köseoğlu, S.(2014). Özel yetenekli çocuklar aile klavuzu. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı- Özel Eğitim ve Rehberlik Hizmetleri Müdürlüğü, Ankara. Uzun, M. (2004). Üstün yetenekli çocuklar el kitabı. İstanbul: Çocuk Vakfı. Vural, B. (Ed.) (2004). Öğrenci merkezli eğitim ve çoklu zekâ. İstanbul: Bilge Matbaacılık.

611

Chapter 47 Gendered Hate Speech in Cartoons: A Critical Discourse Analysis Yaşare AKTAŞ ARNAS, Seval ÖRDEK İNCEOĞLU, İrem GÜRGAH OĞUL INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM As a result of increasing intolerance and sternness today, individuals come up against many speeches. In fact, it will be more precise to characterize the 20th and 21st centuries as “speech era”. Speech and its effect which is an ideology that is produced by means of the usage of the language with a specific context stamped to our age (Çınar, 2012). Hate speech is the leading speech among the ones which can cost people’s or even a large mass’s lives today. Hate speech causes individuals to develop stereotypes and prejudices against a specific group and provides a basis for those individuals to bring on hostility against that group (Walsh, 2015). The media, especially, sets ground for the consolidation of hate speech, formation of prejudices, intolerance and hostility, in short, hate crimes in society (Binark, 2010). From this point of view, television which can reach the large masses and which is an easily accessible device has an important role on the increase of the power of affecting large masses and hate speech in society. The hate speech which is presented through television programmes appears not only in the form of racist, religious and political but also gendered hate speech. Baydar (2013) suggests that the stereotypes about the women which patriarchal societies have are presented to people also by television programmes, TV series and cartoons. The figure and image of woman which are displayed in the media are generally reflected as beings who meet the needs of men, who are desired by men because of their sexual characteristics, who only exist only with their body and whose opinions, emotions and identities are denied and ignored (Baydar, 2013). And this might increase the prejudice and hate speech against women. Cartoons that are at the top of television programmes preferred most by children are considered very innocent by parents and they give permission to their children to watch cartoons without any control. Bandura; however, emphasizes that learning does not always take place by experiencing directly but at an important extent, it also occurs by observing a model (another person), taking someone as a model, imitating and indirect experiences (Bandura, 1977; Bukato and Daehler, 1992; Crain, 2000). Bandura states that children can also learn their behaviours by observing the symbolic models in books or on TV in addition to observing the behaviours of the adults and peers who are in the environment they live (Crain, 2000). The models on TV can easily draw the attention of children without a need for a special motivation (Bandura, 1977). Social learning theoreticians; including Bandura, support that many complex social behaviours such as aggression, acquisition of gender roles, social skills and moral development are 

Prof. Dr., Çukurova University, Education Faculty, Early Childhood Education Department Res. Assist., Çukurova University, Education Faculty, Early Childhood Education Dept. 



learnt by observing others’ behaviours. Through various stories and characters which the media presents, children acquire social and cultural values, behaviours and skills and then they adapt these to social norms. In other words; children learn a lot of things from the programmes on TV starting from very early ages (Ahmed & Wahab, 2014). The studies on the media and children focus on the negative effects of the media on children more (Oruç, Tercim, Özyürek, 2011). In the great scheme of things, the relationship between the violence in the cartoons and the aggressive behaviours of children has been investigated so far (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963; Friedrich & Stein, 1973; Hapkiewicz, & Roden, 1971; Yaşar & Paksoy, 2011; Siegel, 1956; Sanson & Muccio, 1993). In these studies, the effect of violent scenes in the cartoons on the children’s subsequent aggressive behaviours was investigated and it was found out in several of them that they had long-term and short-term effects (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963; Yaşar & Paksoy, 2011). Apart from these studies, the content analysis on cartoons was carried out in many studies and the messages they presented to children were investigated (Ahmed & Wahab, 2014; England et al., 2011; Gökçearslan, 2010; Hamarat et al., 2015; Li-Vollmer & LaPointe, 2003; Keneş, 2015;Klein & Shiffman, 2006; Klein & Shiffman, 2012; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1995; Towbin et al., 2003). In these studies, the sexual role stereotypes presented to children by the characters in cartoons were scrutinized. Thompson and Zerbinos (1995); for example, showed in their study that there were some important differences in the presentation of female and male characters in cartoons. It was found that the male characters were athletic, stereotypical, independent, attractive while the female characters were more sensitive, friendly, romantic, hearty, weak and domestic compared to the male characters. Ahmed & Wahab (2014) presented that female and male characters were described in a stereotyped and prejudiced way in the cartoons of Cartoon Network channel, which was preferred by children the most. They found out that the male characters were described as more dominant than the female characters both physically and mentally while the female characters were described as sexual objects for the males’ selfsatisfaction and as a passive member of society in addition to being described as beautiful characters. England, Descartes & Collier-Meek, (2011) analyzed more than 25000 cartoons about gender role description. As a result; they found out that the prince and princess characters were different from conventional stereotyped female and male characters and the stereotyped behaviours of the male characters were less changeable and more androgenous. Towbin et al.(2003) analyzed 26 full-length Disney cartoons in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, age and sexual tendency. They specified that stereotyped sexual, racist and cultural behaviours were continuing in addition to positive changes by years. Eick (1998) determined significant differences between the descriptions of all females and males in 4 popular cartoons. It was revealed that the male characters were superior to the female characters in terms of physical appearance and number and the female characters were never protagonists or problem-solvers in the cartoons. They also found that a great majority of the female characters were described stereotypically as with mini skirts and slim waisted. To sum up, societal gender roles which were used to describe the female and male characters in the cartoons were analyzed in these studies and the roles attributed to the 613

females and males and the messages presented to children about these roles were handled in a detailed way. These results display the whole picture about the societal gender roles presented to children in cartoons. These studies; however, do not provide much information about the gendered speech against the females in cartoons. Yet, Klein& Shiffman (2012) determined in their study in which they analyzed the cartoons broadcasted between 1930s and the mid-1990s that oral aggressiveness increased while the violent behaviours decreased in the cartoons by years. It was found that the main reason of oral aggressiveness was anger and the victims were mostly females. This study is an outstanding one to make us realize to what extent gendered hate speech takes place in aggressive behaviours against the females in cartoons and to provide us with important clues about the reasons and preventive measures of the increasing violence against women. When the related literature was reviewed, it was seen that there were some studies which were carried about hate speech. These studies; however, were the ones that focused on hate speech mostly about politics, race and ethnicity (Daunt, 2015; Gelber & McNamara, 2016; Matias, 2016; Singh, 2015). Only a few studies that investigated hate speech in terms of gender were seen in the literature ( Dickter, 2012; Mantilla, 2013). On the other hand, no studies which targeted gendered hate speech in cartoons were found among these studies. From this point of view, this study aimed to investigate gendered hate speech in the cartoons that were preferred most by children. Therefore, this study seeks answers to the following questions. 1) What is the gendered hate speech in the cartoons? 2) How does gendered hate speech take place in cartoons? LITERATURE REVIEW Hate Speech Hate expresses a type of mood which springs against “the other” as it is different and it doesn’t look like itself and for anger, fear and potential danger. Hate speech is used for types of expressions that result from every kind of intolerance, that are nourished with prejudices and which encourage, advocate or justify hate. Hate speech is the most important factor in the constitution of hate crimes (Yaman, 2012). Hate speech consists of messages which give social damages by causing stress and self-confidence destruction and limiting the personal and action freedom (Matsuda, 1993). Internationally accepted definition of hate speech takes place in the Recommendation No.20 which was taken by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe about the hate speech in 1997 (Yaman, 2012). In this decision, hate speech is defined as “every kind of expression which spreads, encourages or justifies other kinds of hatred which are based on racial hatred, xenophobia, anti-Semitism and intolerance” (Weber, 2009, Yaman, 2012). Hate speech can be aimed at an individual or a group. Aggressive, nationalist, ethnocentric, hostile and discriminatory expressions against immigrants or of immigrant origins are also in the scope of hate speech. In addition, hatred based on racist and religious beliefs and expressions containing homophobic hatred are considered as hate speech (Weber, 2009). Furthermore; it is also necessary to deal with gendered discourse as hatred speech as gendered discourses are as disruptive as hatred speech itself (Lillian, 2007). Hate speech reprobates and marginalizes a specific group by impolite, hard, 614

provocative, aggressive, discriminatory and angry speech and creates an “other” from this group (Güranlıoğlu, 2016). In this tense, although hate speech is not considered as a crime, it becomes an important issue to be dealt with rigorously as it leads up hate crime, encourages and provokes crime (Şensever, 2012). In fact, the sources of hate speech and hate crime are stereotyped opinions, prejudices and discrimination (Güranlıoğlu, 2016). Societies dominate women’s all lives from business lives to their education, from their social relationships to close relationships by producing hate speech against women in many ways (Sakallı Uğurlu, 2003). Cartoons Cartoons which are one of the most preferred TV programmes by the children (Aktaş Arnas, 2004; Aktaş Arnas, 2005; Cesur & Paker, 2007) have been entertaining children for over 80 years (Kirsh, 2006). Children start discovering cartoons from their very early ages. This is a repeated exposure and continues for years (Klein& Shiffman,2008; Klein& Shiffman,2012). Moreover; the most important content of cartoons is unfortunately the violence constituents. Violence is an inseparable part of the content of cartoons (Kirsh, 2006). Before young children are eight years old, they can not see the difference between the reality and the imagination and they try to give meaning whatever they see. That's why; they regard everything that they see in the cartoons as real (Aktaş Arnas, 2004). In this sense, cartoons have an important place in young children’s processes of ego and identity formation and acculturation (Oruç, Tercim, Özyürek, 2011). In this context, cartoons play a role of an effective tool in children’s developing information about the society and acquisition of ideological perspectives (Ahmet & Wahab, 2014). The studies show that young children can be affected easily by the things they watch on TV, they try to build identification and they imitate these film characters (Yaşar & Paksoy, 2011). Unfortunately, television programmes and cartoons support the dominant ideology aimed at male-dominancy that maintains the existing social structure and they serve for this hegemony (Ahmet & Wahab, 2014). It is seen in the studies that there are differences in the presentation of the female and male characters described in cartoons (Thompson and Zerbinos, 1995). For example; male characters are presented as more independent, sociable and athletic while female characters are shown as more emotional, romantic and home-loving. Besides, female characters are expressed as the individuals who need to be protected and supported. According to Frueh and McGhee (1975), this makes the children who are exposed to TV a lot have increased traditional societal gender roles and stereotyped attitudes (see: Williams, 1981). While the negative behaviours and the language of cartoon characters who are strong and sympathetic and who have magic powers display negative samples for children, this language can transfer to the language which they use in their daily lives (Aktaş Arnas & Erden, 2006). Aktaş Arnas & Erden, (2006) found in their study that many negative language expressions such as insulting expressions, anger and offensive expressions are used in cartoons in addition to meaningless words. Yaşar and Paksoy (2011) determined that young children imitated the words and movements which are used by the characters in cartoons. In conclusion, young children are exposed to discrimination and hate speech against women in cartoons at repetitive processes for long years starting from early 615

ages. As a result of this, children develop many stereotype judgements and prejudices about societal structure starting from a very early period and they internalize these judgements in time. METHOD This is a descriptive research. Critical discourse analysis was used to analyze the data of the research. Critical discourse analysis has become a strong tool as procedurally and theoretically to explain the ideological assumptions embedded in textual speech and power relationhips (Akalu, 2014). Critical discourse analysis investigates inequalities expressed through speech or language use and structured and which have become legal critically (Wodak, 2009). In this research, it was aimed to reveal how gendered hate speech was used in cartoons and how it was placed in the context of gender. 50 children who were attending a pre-school were interviewed. Two cartoons which they were watching the most (Winx and Spiderman) were determined. 10 randomly selected episodes of the cartoons that were specified according to the interviews were included in the sample. The selected cartoons were watched and analyzed by two of the researchers. Data of 500 minutes were analyzed in total. These episodes were investigated in terms of gendered hate speech. The hate speech which was found in the episodes was analyzed in line with the critical discourse analysis principles. The gendered speech and the concepts related with sexism were investigated and the codes were specified at the beginning of the analysis process. Then, critical discourse analysis was carried out in the light of the codes which had been specified. Detailed descriptions were included in order to raise the validity of the study (Creswell, 2003). Next, the researchers came together to settle the conflict that showed up between the data and they arrived at a consensus about the content related with the codes. In this way, a complete agreement was reached on the findings which had been generated. FINDINGS The findings obtained from the investigation of the cartoons which were preferred by children in terms of gendered hate speech were presented in this part. The components of gendered hate speech were given in Table 1: Table 1. The components of gendered hate speech in cartoons

Category Sexism

Code Commoditization Derogation Benevolent sexism Marginalization by creating cliches (producing stereotyped judgements) Hostile sexism

Reflections related with sexism were observed in the analysis of the cartoons which were watched. These findings were classified under six categories. These are; commoditization of the woman, derogation, benevolent sexism, marginalization by creating clichés and hostile sexism. The results and samples were presented according to these sub-titles. 616

Commoditization The woman body has been placed into various locations and has become a commodity as a “consumption object” in today’s consumption society from past to present. It was observed in the cartoons which were analyzed that a lot of physical emphasis was made about women and the woman was presented as a sexual object. For example; in the cartoon of Winx, Princess Stella who was characterized with ideal body sizes turned into a monster as a result of magic. She was rescued by her friends when she fell down the tower while she was escaping from her enemies. Stella, who was downed without being injured, said “I wish I hadn’t seemed like this and you hadn’t rescued me”. After a while, she said “No, it is not the right time. I don’t want Brandon to see me like this” while Brandon, her boyfriend, was coming towards them and she hid herself behind a tree. In this tree, the female character prefers dying to having an undesired body (as it is seen in Figure 1). This speech gives a “marginalization” message to children subliminally and also emphasizes aesthetic worries on children. Figure 1. Princess Stella and Stella, who turned into a monster Derogation Derogation which means underrating, disregarding and underestimating the woman herself and the things she does, represents the sexist perspective directed to the women. It was observed in the cartoons which were analyzed that the women were trivialized and speeches about this were sometimes developed. For example; in the cartoon of Spiderman, while Spiderman was fighting with two male creatures, he asked “Hello, ladies, is there anyone who wants to play a technology game” to them with the purpose of insulting them. Here, being a woman was looked down on and it was aimed to insult the men. In the cartoon of Winx, Stella said “I am telling you a real problem: What should we wear for this gala?” by not considering the situation as a serious problem while she was talking about a meeting which they were going to hold to emphasize that Tritannus, their enemy, had become a very big danger and all kingdoms had to conjoin against Tritannus. Here, it was implied that the woman cares about her own physical appearance and focuses on it despite a very serious environment and an important problem and the women were trivialized. Benevolent sexism Another dimension of sexism confronts us as benevolent sexism, in addition to commoditization and trivialization. Benevolent sexism is the fullest extent of prejudices that advocate male dominance and emphasize that the women are at a lower status and it confronts us as helping, supporting, working and making money for the women who are considered weak. Loads of findings about benevolent sexism were encountered in 617

the analyses which were made. In the film of Winx, for example, the female character named Stella said after a sad event for her “Brandon, Brandon, I wish you were here with me and gave solace to me. I would get you closer to myself and entwine you with my arms from your wide shoulders and I would tell you you would be my only love forever. I wonder where you are now”. In this statement, the female character’s need for a strong man to being solaced is an example of benevolent sexism. Here, a message which emphasizes that the women need a man without caring how strong they were is given. In the same cartoon, although Winx female characters managed to get out of the cave by overcoming the obstacles (giant spiders, rocks etc.), after they got out of the cave, they wanted help from the male characters, Sky and Brandon, who were there to rescue them. This emphasizes the weakness of the women while it also creates a perception that the women need to be protected by the men. Even though benevolent sexism seems a positive attitude towards women, it precipitates for discrimination and punishment addressed the women who do not abide by the traditional gender roles. Marginalization by creating cliches / forming stereotyped judgements Another sexist discourse against the women is creating clichés devoted to the women and men in people’s minds and forming stereotyped judgements. Discourses of marginalization by creating clichés were also encountered in the cartoons which were analyzed. In the cartoon of Spiderman, for example; the spiderman said “Hey, the guest of a program for women! Why don’t you choose a person the same size as you?” while he was fighting against two male characters whose sizes were different from each other. Here, the main character marginalizes the women with the statement of “a quest of program for women” over the situations related with women by forming stereotyped judgements. This mentioned statement is a discourse which emphasizes that being a woman is an undesired status, which can be said by a man to provoke the other. Hostile sexism Another sexist discourse against the women in the cartoons analyzed is hostile sexism. Hostile sexism mostly distinguishes itself as antipathy against the women. The analyses showed that there were discourses of hostile sexism. In the cartoon of Winx, for example; the female characters, Bloom and Diaspro, are in love with Sky, the male character. After Diaspro said “Look, Bloom! I think you had better desist from Sky before he sens you away”, Bloom replied “You have to call me Princess Diaspro. You cannot intervene between us. Don’t bother trying.” Here, there are two women fighting against each other to conquer a man and they adopt a hostile attitude towards each other. The attitude which is adopted by two women against each other serves for male hegemony. DISCUSSION This study has presented significant clues about hate speeches against women which are presented to children through cartoons today. The findings that were obtained in this study showed that there was an emphasis on the weakness of the women and a lot of sexist hate discourses which strengthen the men. It is also conspicuous that there are emphases on showing women are commodities and they are entities which are valueless and need to be protected. Besides, it was found that the women are marginalized by creating stereotyped judgements and by being exposed to hostile sexism expressions. 618

These findings also show consistency with the similar studies in which cartoons were analyzed. Thompson and Zerbinos (1995); for example, investigated the female and male roles in cartoons in a study and they found that the female characters were presented as more sensitive, affectionate, romantic, friendly, emotional, domestic and weaker than the male characters and there were stereotyped descriptions in terms of the male and female character gender roles. In similar study by Ahmed & Wahab (2014), it was confirmed that the female and male characters in the cartoons which were preferred most by children were described in a stereotyped and biased way. In the same study, the male characters were represented as more physically and mentally dominant than the female characters while the female characters were pictured as sexual objects in addition to being beautiful. In this study, it was seen that there were emphasis on the female characters showing their physical qualities, romantism and being helpless. Throughout the history, in many societies, hostility against women prevented the women from living their own identities and personalities freely. It is known that the factors which are presented by the social role, status and the identity of the women from a patriarchal perspective serve for the denigration of the women and gender inequality (Baydar, 2013). In this study, it is seen that being a woman is used on the purpose of being denigrated or defemation. This exalts the men and serves for patriarchal structure. When it is considered that children, the intended population of cartoons, could not develop their skills to distinguish the imagination and the reality adequately, it is clear that they can easily interiorize these kinds of discourses in cartoons. While the ethical judgements of adults are pursuant to their personal experiences, those of children still depend upon the others’ associatively with their developments (Chan, McNeal, 2002). It must be kept in mind that the language/the hate language which is presented in cartoons to young children is really important for their development. In order to protect children from the negative effects of hate speeches, producers, politicians and experts should take joint action and they should take urgent precautions. An interesting result was obtained in this research. Two cartoons which were preferred the most by children were specified and these cartoons were analyzed in terms of hate discourse. While one of these cartoons was Winx, which was preferred more by girls, the other one was Spiderman, which was preferred more by boys. It is interesting; however, that hate speeches against the women were included more often in Winx, which was preferred more by girls. This shows that messages were presented to children through the characters of the same sex with themselves which they assimilate more. This may provide basis for developing low self-esteem for them. Gendered hate discourses which are embedded in children’s subconsciouses from the very early ages serve for hate crimes, violence against women and subordination of women in the future. It is important to take all necessary precautions against every kind of media component which contains hate discourses when they are considered to damage societal peace and equality. CONCLUSION It was concluded in this study that weakness of women is emphasized through cartoons, the men are made superior, the women are presented as commodities and trivialized and they are presented as entitites which need to be protected. However, this study focused only on hate speech against women. Further studies can investigate hate speech in terms of all groups which are called as “the other”. Most 619

importantly; the effects of hate speech in cartoons on children can be evaluated through profound and longitudinal studies. The effects of hate speeches against the women on young girls’ self-esteem should also be investigated. Even though this study presents valuable findings about sexism against the women, it also has some limitations. First of all, only two cartoons were analyzed in this research. This does not provide us with chance to make generalizations about other cartoons. Therefore; further studies can focus on more cartoons. Moreover, short cartoons (25 minutes) were analyzed in this study. Long cartoons can be analyzed in terms of hate speech against the women in further studies. REFERENCES Ahmed, S., & Wahab, J. A. (2014). Animation and socialization process: Gender role portrayal on cartoon network. Asian Social Science, 10(3), 44–53. http://doi.org/ 10.5539/ass.v10n3p44 Akalu, G. A. (2014). Interrogating the continuing professional development policy framework in Ethiopia: a critical speech analysis. Professional Development in Education, 42(2), 179-200. Aktaş Arnas, Y. (2004). The habits of using the mass media of the children at the ages of 3 to 6 and the family environment. In O. Ramazan, K. Efe ve G.Güven (Ed.),1st International Pre-School Education Conference, Turkey, (2). 349-359. Aktaş-Arnas, Y.,(2005). 3-18 yaş grubu çock ve gençlerin interaktif iletişim araçlarını kullanma alışkanlıklarının değerlendirilmesi. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 4(4): 59-66. Aktaş Arnas Y., Erden Ş.,(2006). Çizgi filmlerdeki şiddet unsurlarının incelenmesi, I.Uluslararası Okul Öncesi Eğitim Kongre Kitabı. İstanbul, Ya-pa Yayınevi, 3. Cilt, P.249-258. Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66(1), 3−11. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Prentice-Hall,Inc: New Jersey. Baydar, V. (2013). Popüler kültürde mizojini. Electronic Turkish Studies, 8(12), 151-165. Binark, M (2010). Nefret söyleminin yeni medya ortamında dolaşıma girmesi ve tüketilmesi. Tuğrul Çomu (Ed.), Yeni Medyada Nefret Söylemi, İstanbul: Kalkedon. s.11-53. Bukato, D.& Daehler, M.W. (1992). Child Development: A Topical Approach. Houghton Mifflin Comp: Boston. Cesur, S. ve Paker, O. (2007). Televizyon ve çocuk: çocukların Tv programlarına ilişkin tercihleri. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6/(19), s.107–108. Chan, K., & McNeal, J.U. (2002). Children’s perceptions of television advertising in urban china. International Journal of Advertising & Marketing to Children, 3(3), 69-79. Crain, W. (2000). Theories of Development: Concepts and applications. (4th Ed.) Prentice Hall, Inc.: New Jersey. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Çınar,M.(2012). Nefret Söylemi mi, İfade Özgürlüğü mü?. 10 Mayıs 2016 tarihinde alındı. http://www.nefretsoylemi.org/detay.asp?id=605&bolum=makale, Çoban, Keneş, H. (2015). Punky ve Afacan Toto isimli çizgi filmlerde “öteki”nin temsili, İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(49), 31–50. http://doi.org/10.17064/i Daunt, T. (2015). Norman lear vows to fight Donald Trump's anti-muslim rhetoric. Hollywood Reporter, p.5. alındı: 14.12.2015. 620

Dickter, C. L. (2012). Confronting hate: Heterosexuals' responses to anti-gay comments. Journal of Homosexuality, 59(8), 1113-1130. Eick, K. (1998). Gender stereotypes in children’s television cartoons. 5 mayıs 2016 alındı. http://www.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/495/paper1.html England, D. E., Descartes, L., & Collier-Meek, M. A. (2011). Gender role portrayal and the disney princesses. Sex Roles, 64(7-8), 555–567. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-0119930-7 Friedrich, K. L.,& Stein, A. H. (1973). Aggressive and prosocial television programs and the natural behavior of preschool children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 38,1−110 Gelber, K. & McNamara, L. (2015). Evidencing the harms of hate speech. Social Identities, 1-18. Gökçearslan, A. (2010). The effect of cartoon movies on children’s gender development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.846 Güranlıoğlu, N. (2016). Nefret söylemi ve nefret suçunun Türkiye üzerinden örneklerle incelenmesi. Alındı: 19.04.2016 https://www.academia.edu/9694839/Nefret_S%C3%B6ylemi_ve_Nefret_Su%C3%A7un un_T%C3%BCrkiye_%C3%9Czerinden_%C3%96rneklerle_%C4%B0ncelenmesi Hamarat, D. , Işıtan , S., Özcan, A. Karaşahin, H. (2016). Okul öncesi dönem çocuklarının izledikleri çizgi filmler üzerine bir inceleme: Caıllou ve Sünger Bob örneği üzerine bir model önerisi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 18 (33), 75–93. Hapkiewicz,W. G., & Roden, A. H. (1971). The effect of aggressive cartoons on children's interpersonal play. Child Development, 42, 1583−1585 Klein, H., & Shiffman, K. S. (2006). Messages about physical attractiveness in animated cartoons. Body Image, 3(4), 353–363. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.08.001 Klein, H., & Shiffman, K. S. (2008). What animated cartoons tell viewers about assault. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 16(2), 181–201. http://doi.org/10.1080/ 10926770801921568 Klein, H., & Shiffman, K. S. (2012). Verbal aggression in animated cartoons, Int J Child Adolesc Health, 5(1), 7–19. Kirsh, S. J. (2006). Cartoon violence and aggression in youth. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11(6), 547–557. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2005.10.002 Lillian, D. L. (2007). A thorn by any other name: sexist discourse as hate speech. Discourse & Society, 18(6), 719–740. http://doi.org/10.1177/0957926507082193 Li-vollmer, M., & Lapointe, M. E. (2003). Gender transgression and villainy in animated film. Popular Communıcatıon, 1(2), 89–109. http://doi.org/10.1207/S15405710PC0102 Mantilla, K. (2013). Gendertrolling: misogyny adapts to new media. Feminist Studies, 39(2), 563-570. Matias, C. E. (2015). “Why do you make me hate myself?”: Re-teaching whiteness, abuse, and love in urban teacher education. Teaching Education, 27:2, 194-211, DOI: 10.1080/10476210.2015.1068749 Matsuda, M. (1993). Public response to racist speech: Considering the victim’s story. In M. Matsuda, C. Lawrence, R. Delgado, & K. Crenshaw (Eds.), Words that wound: Critical race theory: Assaultive speech, and the first amendment (pp. 17–52). Boulder, Co: Westview Press. Oruç, C., Tecim, E.& Özyürek, H. (2011). Okul öncesi dönem çocuğunun kişilik gelişiminde rol modellik ve çizgi filmler. Ekev Akademi Dergisi, (15(48)), 281–297. Sakallı Uğurlu, N. (2003). Cinsiyetçilik: kadınlara ve erkeklere ilişkin tutumlar ve çelişik duygulu cinsiyetçilik kuramı. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 6(11-12), 1-20. 621

Sanson, A.,& DiMuccio, C. D. (1993). The influence of aggressive and neutral cartoons and toys on the behaviour of preschool children. Australian Psychologist, 28,93−99. Siegel, A. E. (1956). Film mediated fantasy aggression and strength of aggressive drive. Child Development, 27, 442−447. Singh, J. (2015). India’s Right Turn. World Policy Journal, 32(2), 93-103. Şensever, L. (2012). Nefret Suçları ve Nefret Söylemi İzleme Rehberi, İstanbul: Sosyal Değişim Derneği Walsh, A. (2015). Effect of hate speech by lorne costelloe. 09.05.2016 alındı. http://www.nohatespeech.ie/effects-hate-speech-lorna-costelloe adresinden erişildi. Thompson, T. L., & Zerbinos, E. (1995). Gender roles in animated cartoons: Has the picture changed in 20 years? Sex Roles, 32(9-10), 651–673. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544217 Towbin, M. A., Haddock, S. a., Zimmerman, T. S., Lund, L. K., & Tanner, L. R. (2003). Images of Gender, Race, Age, and Sexual Orientation in Disney Feature-Length Animated Films. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 15(4), 19–44. http://doi.org/10. 1300/J086v15n04_02 Yaman, U. (2012) Nefretin adı: Söylem. Alındı 15 Nisan 2016. http://www.nefretsoylemi. org/detay.asp?id=651&bolum=makale. Yaşar, M. ve Paksoy, İ. (2011). Çizgi filmlerdeki saldırgan içerikli görüntülerin, çocukların serbest oyunları sırasındaki saldırganlık düzeylerine etkisi. Ç.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 20 (2), 279-298. Weber, A. (2009). Manual on Hate Speech, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg. http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/hrpolicy/Publications/Hate_Speech_EN.pdf, (14.05.2016 tarihinde alınmıştır.) Williams, T. M. (1981). How and what do children learn from television? Human Communication Research, 7,180–192. doi:1.1111/j.1468-2958.1981.tb00568.x. Wodak, R. (2009). Discourse analysis: history, agenda, theory, and methodology. Methods for Critical Discourse Analysis, 1-33

622

Chapter 48 Applied Vocational Education, Creativity and Innovation Rıza SAM INTRODUCTION Advanced developed industrial countries owe their comparative advantage against other countries to creativity in educational practices and innovation. By putting plays into place, even the most difficult and boring topics have been made enjoyable. Accordingly, in developed countries the curriculum is arranged with this understanding and schools became enjoyable places where the students learn by doing and experiencing. In this context, the Huizingesqe rhetoric indicates that civilization, culture and values are learnt and taught through plays. Hence, achievements in vocational education in Finland, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Korea and the United States are based upon individual creativity and innovation as the reflection of individual creativity in practice. In this context, we may argue that every country which wishes to become a decisive and strategic player in the international league of power balance needs more individuals having the ability to use that comparative advantage. Undoubtedly, satisfying such a need is dependent on giving place to creativity and innovation in applied vocational education. As a natural result of that training model, graduates gain their place in social life as entrepreneurs. In this sense, we may argue that there is a strong connection between development and entrepreneurship. Hence, there is a wellorganized, never-lasting and learn-to-learn type of studentship in countries which acknowledge the value of that connection. Not only students but also teachers participate in this process. In other words, as every individual wishing to be a member of social learning process, teachers are also students as learners. It is that kind of understanding which can be defined as the measure of development and the secret of taking comparative advantage against other countries. Those countries having such an understanding “can drive a windmill with a pair of bellows” since they’ve achieved to build a system which transforms “the clever” into “the intelligent” and has a perpetual developing effect. So the developed countries always invest in education generally and in applied vocational education specifically, in order to retain and to get up their position in global arena. Accordingly the developed countries retain their comparative advantage against potential rivals by setting new standards perpetually. In the study the theoretic knowledge is minded, however what the more concentrated on is the reflections of the knowledge in practice. It is especially emphasized that the teaching and learning strategies and methods should be functionalized to constantly develop individual creativity and innovation as its practical 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Uludağ University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Sociology, [email protected]

reflection. In this context, distinction between creativity and innovation, significance of play in creativity and innovation, possibility of creativity and innovation in vocational education practices, and problems faced during vocational education practices are discussed respectively. 1. DISTINCTION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION There is a rich concept repertoire about creativity and innovation in literature. However these two terms are interchangeably misused sometimes. There is little distinction between them. So, it should be expressed explicitly what meant by creativity and innovation while using them in order to disambiguate the meaning. Teresa Amabile’s explanations give us an idea about the distinction between the terms. Teresa Amabile argues that creativity has three main components. Those are domain expertise, skills in creative thinking and motivation. According to Amabile, domain expertise as the first component of creativity is composed of technical, procedural and intellectual knowledge which express openness of individual to all creative efforts and understandings. Skills in creative thinking as the second important component is related with approaches reflecting persons’ flexibility and creativity to overcome problems. Motivation, the third component of creativity is generally accepted as the key element of a creative process of production. In this component, the intrinsic motivators are perceived as more important than extrinsic motivators (Adams, 2006: 4– 5). Hereunder, speaking about creativity means to speak about fluency, flexibility and originality in fact. Fluency demonstrates the number of different ideas generated in response to a question about different uses of an object. Flexibility, on the other hand, is the skill of an individual to shift between different approaches. In this sense, it can be argued that one who generates ideas in only one category is less flexible than the other who generates ideas based on multiple resources. Originality defines not to be dependent on known or usual ideas, and freshness of the generated ideas (Bateson & Martin, 2014: 75). Different from creativity, innovation is a new style of production, business or service which supplies competitive advantage to an organization (Mentor, 2009: 15). In other words, innovation is creativity bringing competitive advantage and money (Kırım, 2008: 130). It refers to the results of creative efforts of imagining and adopting the unimagined products, services and business models. Innovation is the novelty which fetches good money or creativity which makes different, in short (Kırım, 2006a: 6). Accordingly, all the inventions bringing commercial improvement can be accepted as innovation due to accompanying novelty, profitability and growth (Kırım, 2006b: 6–7). In this regard, innovation can be defined as the process of transformation of new ideas to value creating outcomes (Kılıç, 2016: 15). However a proper process can come true only by “variety of different ideas” (Bateson & Martin, 2014: 88). That is why there is a strong tie and connection between creativity and innovation. Under the lights of these explanations, creativity supplies a crucial input to generate alternatives and to obtain an outcome in the process of innovation (Ford, 1996: 1113). By this way, creativity means an endless resource for innovation. In return to this, innovation is perceived as the transformation of creativity into practice. Shortly, innovation can be seen as a practice of creativity (Ferrari & Cachia & Punie, 2009: 1416). So, innovation cannot be put into practice without creativity. Moreover, while creativity generally refers to generation of a new idea, innovation is related with a 624

change in way of making something. In this context, creativity refers to a situation in which an individual generates a new course of action or idea without thinking the practical comprehension or following applications. On the other hand, innovation refers to actualizing a new course of action or idea in order to obtain a practical benefit which can be used by others in future (Bateson & Martin, 2014: 14–15). So, it can be argued that creativity depends upon individuality while innovation is based on efforts of team work. Besides, we can say that, creativity has a crucial role and effect in generating original ideas and surmounting obstacles to generate ideas for innovation (Özmusul, 2012: 733). As a consequence, although the terms of creativity and innovation have different meanings they constitute integrity by complementing each other. Hence, the most of the developed countries focus on this integrity in our day. This is because, the complementary integrity of creativity and innovation not only contributes to economic growth and development of countries due to transformation they achieve in technology and social life, it also provides a large room for exercising political liberties more intensely. In such a situation, the ones who wish to develop their systems and capacities permanently should both surmount obstacles to creativity, and learn and teach the necessary innovation (Barber & Donnelly & Rizvi, 2012: 54–62). “Vocational education practices” is the shortest and the most secure way for such a transformation. Hence, studies reveal mounting evidences of relation between development thrusts and creativity and innovation oriented vocational education practices (Aghion & Boustan & Hoxby & Vandenbussche, 2009: 3). However the problems here are mostly faced in learning and teaching processes. While in some countries learning and teaching processes are made more enjoyable with the help of plays, these processes are still posing problems for teachers and learners in some other countries. Yet the problem may be overcome through the way of play. 2. IMPORTANCE OF PLAY IN CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION The stage of play has a special space in regard to development of social identity of the child in Symbolic Interaction Theory. Thus, play provides an appropriate basis for the child to recognize itself and others as an object (Ritzer, 2013: 364–365). Besides, play is functionalized in generating differentiated strategies to overcome problems. So, it can be argued that play is an important step to make creativity and innovation oriented skills motivational. This is because, play contributes to creativity and innovation oriented skills which lead individuals not to get stuck in a fixed mentality, to breakdown rigid judgements, to generate new perspectives, to analyze events in various levels, to simplify complicated issues, to shrink away prejudices, to be open to new alternatives, and to generate productive ideas (Eren & Gündüz, 2002: 68). The contribution of play is expressed by A. F. Philips in his speech in Rotterdam Trade High School as follows: “Starting from my entry into the company till the last day, there was a contest between the technical and commercial departments in order to stab each other. Each department gained a victory in due course. Me and my brother, considered our job as a sport rather than a duty, in which our workmates would accompany us” (Huizinga, 2006: 250–251). Nobel winner scientist Richard Feynman is another example in this regard. Richard Feynman told his feelings when he got bored of physics in the first years of his career as: “nowadays I get so bored of physics, whereas I used to enjoy it before. This is because I 625

used to play with it (Bateson & Martin, 2014: 78). Both of the examples reveal that those persons consider the play as the core element of an artistic creativity and performance (Huizinga, 2006: 251). In this context, when the education became boring and the job turned out to be trouble, it is possible to “break taboos and enjoy” through paving the way for creativity and innovation by playful play. In short, play and playful play are effective mechanisms to encourage creativity and to expedite innovation (Bateson & Martin, 2014: 62–76). By this way, experiences of children may create their own stories. It is of vital importance for poor children (Bateson & Martin, 2014: 123). So, a real culture or civilization cannot realize itself without a playful content. In this sense, being a spoilsport means to spoil the culture and civilization (Huizinga, 2006: 263). In order not to be labelled as a spoilsport, it is important to play the game seriously as a duty by its rules. 3. ARE CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION POSSIBLE IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION PRACTICES? One of the most important indicators of development is surmounting obstacles to creativity of individuals and successful application of innovation in education generally, and in vocational education practices specifically. Yet, although there are very clever kids in underdeveloped and developing countries, they can’t perform properly in those countries’ system of education and accordingly they are unable to become intelligent individuals. So, they are deprived of comparative advantage which would help them to overcome their ill fate. Such an advantage can be obtained by exploiting creativity and innovation in applied vocational education, which requires appropriate methods and change in paradigm. As known, education is related with process of informing and developing skills and abilities in general (Nemli, 2004: 39). For a proper process, some steps should be taken. In his study called “How to Develop Student Creativity” (1996) Sternbergs argued that creativity could be supported inside the classrooms. According to Sternbergs, following steps should be taken for supporting creativity: a- The prerequisites should be prepared for modeling creativity and building selfefficacy. b- Basic techniques should be applied for questioning assumptions, defining and redefining problems, encouraging idea generation and cross-fertilizing ideas. c- It should be instructed necessary allowing time for both obtaining tips for teaching and learning of creative thinking, and for assessing and rewarding creative ideas and products. d- Sensible risks should be encouraged, ambiguity should be eliminated, mistakes can be allowed, and measures should be taken to identify and surmount obstacles. e- A number of complex techniques should be added to the study in order to teach self-responsibility, promote self-regulation, and delay gratification. f- Profiles of creative people should be used as role models in order to encourage creative collaboration and imagine other viewpoints. g- Individuals should seek, explore and recognize environmental stimulators and find excitement in order to play to strength.. h- By growing their creativity, individuals should proselytize for creativity. For this, they should develop a long-term perspective (Adams, 2006: 16–17). 626

In this classification, it is seen that creativity and innovation have strong ties and connection with learning and teaching of knowledge. Thus, creative learning requires innovational teaching. Innovational teaching, on the other hand, is the creative practice of innovation and teaching as well (Ferrari & Cachia & Punie, 2009: iii-iv). By this way, acquired skills become to be “an educated practice” from the point of learner and teacher (Sennett, 2013: 73). This is “the basis of internalizing a skill” (Sennett, 2013: 385). At this point, being educated in schools provides an appropriate basis for realizing oneself as an individual who has the ability to realize something. In other words, schools by organizing performance as a fictional element prompt a student to do what is necessary for realize himself/herself (Bourdieu, 2014: 93). Under these circumstances, we should expect schools serving as learning centers of the society to contribute in the development of public sphere. This is because society itself is located in the school and maintains its life as a learner (Mayo, 2012: 238). The most important benefit of this fundamental skill is that “every experience changes the experiencer” (Dewey, 2013: 42). By this way, creativity and innovation can be used to surmount any obstacle. So, being or staying underdeveloped, hindered, developing or outdated cannot be a fate. Hence, good examples can be seen as reasons of our hope and they demonstrate that we can overcome learned helplessness. So, the problem is about structure and mentality rather. So, the problem is about structure and mentality rather. 4. PROBLEMS FACED ABOUT CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION PRACTICES Ivan Illich argues that, skills can only be learnt and taught by sustaining the conditions for using those skills (Illich, 2002: 31). In some countries, the structural features of education environment pose obstacles to creativity and innovation. “Destabilized structure of institutions, negative attitudes towards novelty, unfairly distribution of wealth by political powers, and lack of effort-reward mechanism in the society” prevent the spread of novelties in the society (Dunphy & Herbig, 1994: 52). So, structural problems deriving from the environment feed future concerns and fears. Individuals living under such conditions can and will not be independent from others. Even the language they use don’t belong themselves. Education and teaching strategies should be re-built with a purpose to make us independent from others. The language used is the language of experts which leads dementing of dependent people who fall from the gaps of the language. Yet, being competent and improving yourself competently teaches how to by-pass those gaps (Phillips, 2014: 22). Accordingly, dependent people are unable to manipulate the situation when required. That is why we should “teach to fish” first. New education and training strategies should provide an ability to write a story with an original language for the individual. “Banking education model” is another obstacle to creativity and innovation in vocational education practices. In this model, students are such an “empty cup or container” in the eyes of teachers. In this model, teachers are considered as investors, and students are considered as the objects of investment. This stems from the position of instructor in the model. The knowledge, in this model, is seen as an award given to students who are considered as totally “ignorant” by teachers who perceive themselves as “all-knowing”. In fact, considering others as “totally ignorant” is the denial of research process orientation of education and knowledge. Consequently, the teacher who regards the ignorance of students as a fixed variable may only realize 627

himself/herself. For those students who are loaded with unnecessary and uncreative information and deprived of critical thinking it is impossible to make a transformative impact on world (Freire, 2016: 58–60). Remember that a dialogue requiring critical thinking has also the potential of creating critical thinking. Both the communication without dialogue and the education without communication are impossible (Freire, 2016: 83). In this context, when we begin to learn to learn and “learn to define learning independent from teaching, the number of those person who can demonstrate their abilities will increase” (Illich, 2002: 111). Another problem is the reflection of our education to the professions from which we make our living. In other words, our profession or job reflects the cultural codes of our education. Those codes give an idea about us. For example, asking someone about her/job is in fact asking her/him who s/he is. Attributing a lot of meaning to the profession or job is very understandable. This is because, when our profession or job is meaningless in the eyes of others or us, it will also be meaningless to think about who we are. So, as we want to gain acceptance constantly about who we are, the cultural codes of our education should provide it in the same manner. If cultural codes of education give someone an entrepreneurial spirit, this may supply her/him opportunities to surmount difficulties. Since, the ones who gained an entrepreneurial spirit through the cultural codes of their education may become the most fiery identity seekers. That is the person who doesn’t need someone to tell her/him who s/he is. On the contrary, s/he doesn’t avoid risks for being the person s/he believes (Rapaille, 2011: 120–123). As a consequence, it will be easier to make mental contact with creativity and innovation when we internalize and approach the problems with the sense of entrepreneurial spirit acquired through education generally and vocational education specifically. By this way we will break down standardizing mechanisms and the things we make will return to be the things we know, not the others’. Accordingly, we will need no one to fish for us. This is an important gap in vocational education practices and should be filled immediately. In order to achieve it, in regard to creativity and innovation teachers and students should learn to learn, take risks, and the cultural codes should be functionalized to help them being role models for each other. Such an achievement will indicate the creation of self-sustained ideal types to whom we can consign the cultural heritage in the future with an inner peace. CONCLUSION Famous philosopher Durkheim, proposes that vocational education is a very important tool to save people from the state of depression and to avoid the suicides turning into a pathological state in his seminal monograph 'Suicide'. On this subject, Prince Sabahattin also argued that citizens who would fulfill the wills of an individualist and enterprising social structure should be educated with perception of decentralization and applied vocational education in Turkey. Otherwise, education system would only serve the purpose of educating state officers. However, the problem experienced is not an educational but a social structural problem (Prens Sabahattin, 1965: 39-41) 39–41). That problem could reach a solution through vocational education practices. Therefore, firstly the path for individual creativity should be smoothed in vocational education practices. The way to maintain this issue is to use new schooling and education methods that will secure to get a change of paradigm in education. Primarily, applied learning should be taken as a principal learning rather than a 628

theoretical one. In this context, the theory should be taken out from practice, in other words, from real life experience. Otherwise, “banking education model” will always create an individual type who is dependent to others. Such an individual will never become an adult because he will always build his life dependent to others. In consequence, this type of individual is not someone that we can consign the cultural heritage in the future. But one of the goals of education is to educate an ideal type to consign the cultural heritage in the future. Therefore, the educated type should be a type of individual who is compatible with the necessities of the time, shows flexibility on evolutions and innovations, and has creative reactions in consequence. In the past, “Village Institutes” have provided a positive and creative example about education system. “Something is created from nothing” in these schools. Selfsustained students were graduated from these schools and they have hit the road to educate people who want to be self-sustained. In brief, knowledge that has been acquired from real life also built the theory of knowledge and also that was gained as an input for economic, social and cultural life. Today another example can be given on mechatronics education in vocational education. Nowadays, intermediate staff of which many countries need in industry are being employed with this education practices. For instance, a center in Leipzig, Germany is in an interaction with many countries on the basis of functional productivity. This is applied in some universities of Turkey also. In conclusion, we should pay regard to vocational education practices which will be an important crowbar for getting comparative advantages. REFERENCES Adams, K. (2006). The Sources of Innovation and Creativity: A Paper Commissioned by the National Center on Education and the Economy for the New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce. September 2005, Washington: National Center on Education and the Economy, p. 1–59. Aghion, P. & Boustan, L. & Hoxby, C. & Vandenbussche, J. (2009). The Causal Impact of Education on Economic Growth: Evidence From the United States. In: David Romer & Justin Wolfers (Eds), Brooking Papers on Economic Activity, Conference Draft, spring 2009, p. 1–73. Barber, M. & Donnelly, K. & Rizvi, S. (2012). Oceans of Innovation: The Atlantic, The Pasific, Global Leadership and the Future of Education. London: Institute for Public Policy Research, p. 1–72. Bateson, P. & Martin, P. (2014). Oyun, Oyunbazlık, Yaratıcılık ve İnovasyon. (Çev. Songül Kırgezen), Ayrıntı Yayınları, İstanbul. Bourdieu, P. & Passeron, J. C. (2014). Vârisler: Öğrenciler ve Kültür. (Çev. Levent Ünsaldı & Aslı Sümer), Heretik Yayınları, Ankara. Dewey, J. (2013). Deneyim ve Eğitim. (Çev. Sinan Akıllı), 3. Basım, ODTÜ Yayınları, Ankara. Dunphy, S. M. & Herbig, P. (1994). Comparison of Innovative Capabilities Among The Anglo-American Countries: The Case for Structural Influences on Innovation. Management Decision, 32 (8), 50–56. Eren, E. & Gündüz, H. (2002). İş Çevresinin Yaratıcılık Üzerindeki Etkileri ve Bir Araştırma. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 5, 65–84. Ferrari, A. & Cachia, R. & Punie, Y. (2009). Innovation and Creativity in Education and Training in the EU Member States: Fostering Creative Learning and Supporting Innovative Teaching. European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for 629

Prospective Technological Studies, Luxemburg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, p. 1–54. Ford, C. M. (1996). A Theory of Individual Creative Action in Multiple Social Domains. Academy of Management Review, 21 (4), 1112–1142. Freire, P. (2016). Ezilenlerin Pedagojisi. (Çev. Dilek Hattatoğlu & Erol Özbek), 12. Basım, Ayrıntı Yayınları, İstanbul. Huizinga, J. (2006). Homo Ludens: Oyunun Toplumsal İşlevi Üzerine Bir Deneme. (Çev. Mehmet Ali Kılıçbay), 2. Basım, Ayrıntı Yayınları, İstanbul. Illich, I. (2002). Okulsuz Toplum. (Çev. Mehmet Özay), Benseno Yayınları, İstanbul. Kılıç, S. (2016). İnovasyon ve İnovasyon Yönetimi. 2. Basım, Seçkin Yayınları, Ankara. Kırım, A. (2006a). Deneyim İnnovasyonu: Farklılaşmanın En Etkin Yolu. Sistem Yayınları, İstanbul. Kırım, A. (2006b). İnnovasyon: Kârlı Büyümenin Reçetesi. Sistem Yayınları, İstanbul. Kırım, A. (2008). Arman Kırım’dan İnnovasyon Dersleri. Om Yayınları, İstanbul. Mayo, P. (2012). Özgürleştiren Praksis: Paulo Freire’nin Radikal Eğitim ve Politika Mirası. (Çev. Hasan Hüseyin Aksoy & Naciye Aksoy), Dipnot Yayınları, Ankara. Mentor, P. (2009). İnovasyon Yapmak: Her Gün Karşılaştığınız Sorunlara Uzman Çözümler. (Çev. Melis İnan), Optimist Yayınları, İstanbul. Nemli, E. (2004). Rekabet Edebilirlikte İnsan Kaynakları Eğitiminin Rolü. E- Öğrenme: İnsan Kaynakları Eğitiminde Stratejik Dönüşüm, (Ed. Selim Yazıcı), s. 37–56, Alfa Yayınları, İstanbul. Phillips, A. (2014), Dehşetler ve Uzmanlar. (Çev. Tuna Erdem), 2. Basım, Metis Yayınları, İstanbul. Prens Sabahattin (1965). Türkiye Nasıl Kurtarılabilir? (Türkçesi: Muzaffer Sencer), Elif Yayınları, İstanbul. Rapaille, C. (2011). Kültür Kodu: İnsanların Alışveriş ve Yaşam Tarzlarını Anlayabilmek İçin Ustaca Bir Yol. (Çev. Duygu Dölek), 3. Basım, FGP Yayınları, İstanbul. Ritzer, G. (2013). Sosyoloji Kuramları. (Çev. Himmet Hülür), De ki Yayınları, Ankara. Sennett, Richard (2013). Zanaatkâr. (Çev. Melih Pekdemir), 2. Basım, Ayrıntı Yayınları, İstanbul.

630

Chapter 49 Mobile Preschool Practises Osman BASİT, Esra ÖMEROĞLU** Education has been declared as a right that every child is endowed with by Universal Declaration of Human Rights and it must be provided to all children because it has been accepted as an effective way for an equal start to life. From 1948 to today, this right has been assured with various contracts signed by international communities. A quality early childhood education is known to have affected individuals’ life qualities and rise their wealth level. In addition to this, it is a good start to improve qualified human resources. The aim of the early childhood education and other support services is to prevent social inequalities and ensure the individuals equal chances and rights. Individual developments of children provides a basis for development of community (Unicef, 2013). Education for All is UNESCO’s one of the most important programmes in the field of education. The program has been started at Education for All Conference in 1990. Education for All is a global program which aims for children, the young and adults’ taking advantage of primary education. Program’s primary concerns are primary education, adult literacy, gender equality (to be honest gender inequality) and the problem of quality in education (UNESCO,2014). Together with Turkey,164 countries have approved the aims of Education for All and disadvantaged groups, being in the first place in the Action Plan, it is emphasized that it is necessary to improve and generalize early childhood education and care. (Haktanır, Akgün, Karaman, Duman, 2013). Some children can not take advantage of their right to be educated which is partaking in the international documents because of first and foremost poverty and then environmental conditions. To reach the aims of Education for All, it is clear that governments must take the necessary steps and especially reach disadvantaged regions. To realise by 2015, Unesco have set goals as to improve and generalise farreaching preschool education oppourtinities especially for financially limited and disadvantaged children and provide free, compulsory and quality education opportunities especially for girls and children of ensembles (UNESCO,2014). Although the number of students, teachers, classrooms and schools have increased in terms of preschool education in Turkey in recent years, preschool schooling rate still trails OECD countries (Aktan and Akkutay, 2014). Although preschool education includes 0-6 age group in Turkey, schooling rate is still between %33-39 even in 3-5 age group (Ministry of National Education,2016). On the other hand, schooling rate in 

 Res. Assist., Gazi University Faculty of Education Division of Elementary School Department of Preschool Education.   Prof. Dr., Gazi University Faculty of Education Division of Elementary School Department of Preschool Education.    

3-6 age group is between %90-100 in all EU countries. European countries which have completed schooling rates in 3-6 age group, notably Austria, Italy and Spain, have started to arrange projects and programmes for increasing the schooling rate in 0-3 age group. (Atlı, 2013; ERG and AÇEV, 2016). Children all over the world can not benefit from preschool education opportunities due to various reasons and the primary one is poverty. Limited increase in the numbers of school, classrooms and teachers, optional education season, unawareness of large masses about preschool education can be regarded as the obstacles for preschool education. In addition to these obstacles, people living in poor economic and social conditions think the cost of existing organizational model is high (Unicef, 2013). Researchs and practises in the field of modern education have revealed that if we want to bring up qualified, healthy and owner of the intended behaviours generations, the education must be started at early ages. Scientifically, it has emerged that early ages are cruical for cognitive, personal and social improvement of children and the negative effects of negligence at these ages affect the next periods. (Hong, 2004; Yavuzer, 2003; Özbek, 2003; Emir, 2011). Socio-economic class of the child and differences of experiences at early ages form a basis for developmental contrasts in the next years. As well as the school age, the important contribute of preschool education institutions shows itself up when the child starts elementary school to provide physcial, social, cognitive and emotional improvement (Demir, 2010). Researches emphasize the importance of providing the experience oppourtinities which support the growth and improvement of children exactly when the improvement is critical. When they start elementary school, it is clearly seen that there are big differences in terms of cognitive and social improvements between children who live in disadvantaged conditions and the children living in better conditions (Karaoğlu, 2002; Çoban and Nacar, 2006). Besides, the evaluation results of PISA 2012 indicates that the performance of children about comprehension, Maths and science is related whether they have had preschool education or not. In Turkey and in the general of OECD countries, students marks show differences according to their preschool education levels (ERG, 2015). On the other hand, socio-economic level of students’ families is determinant about getting the necessary preschool education which is crucial both for student’s academic achievement and his social, emotional and cognitive improvement. All over the world, children of low-income families are at a disadvantaged situation regarding children of high-income families (Unesco, 2015; ERG and AÇEV, 2016). To abolish this handicap, early childhood education services must be generalized and all children must take advantage of preschool education before starting elementary school. Services, given in Turkey, are generally institution based. This services are generally centered in city centres and developed regions. Especially, services given for 0-3 age group achieve their goal less. It is seen that many different models are used for different needs of different regions in the countries which have reached the rate of %100 in early childhood education services (Kartal, 2005). Early childhood education model which is generally preferred by official corporations in Turkey is an institution based model aiming for 5-6 age group. This narrow-defined and monotype early childhood edcuation model can not reach all children who are in preschool education age (Bekman and Gürlesel, 2005). This model can not respond the needs of different masses in general. So, different models are 632

needed to extend early childhood education services in a fast and appropriate way for different groups’ needs (Bekman, 2003; Unicef, 2013). As a part of Strengthening the Preschool Education Project, a report was prepared in 2012: ‘Community-Based Preschool Education: Rewiew of the Present Conditions and Chosen Models in Turkey. This report defines community-based early childhood models as supportive to present institution based model, having required flexibilty for being shaped in accordance with different divisional needs, appropriate for costeffective strategies in the case of awakening domestic finance resources and suitable models for multisectorial cooperations. In other words, community-based services expresses formation at domestic level, suitability for domestic needs and characteristics, domestical owning and local participatory (ERG, 2015). Practises which particularly aim for disadvantaged children who have no access or having difficulty in accessing preschool education (handicapped, poor, roman, living in the countryside or highlands) and having the flexibilty of being shaped (full time, part time, 2-3 days in a week, game buses, parent-child programmes) in accordance with different needs of parents and children are very important for all children to take advantage of preschool education (ERG and AÇEV, 2016). Community-based early childhood education models like mobile preschools, playrooms, community service volunteers centres, early childhood edcuation centres, doll houses, centers for maternal and infant centres, sport centres, family libraries, family centres, toy factories and toy libraries work up for disadvantaged childrens’ gaining the habits of basic knowledge and skills before starting primary school and so they are strongly advised (Unicef, 2013). These models which were improved as an alternative to institution-based early childhood education model are carried out with the cooperation of Ministry of National Education, Faculties of Education Division of Elementary School Departments of Preschool Education, Departments of Child Development and Education, Municipalities, Public Education Centres, Non-governmental Organizations and Private Enterprises. Neighbourhoods and villages whose socio-economic levels are low leads the regions which are deprived of preschool education because institution-based preschool education programmes are generally charged and concentrated in city centres. The schooling rate of preschool education in developed countries is about %90. (Sungurtekin, Taner Derman, Sadioğlu and Koç, 2010). Mobile preschool is an alternative education programme to institution based preschool education models. It aims to popularize and improve preschool education and it is for the children of low-income families who can not send their children to preschools in a regular way. Mobile preschool’s purpose is to give education to the children who can not benefit from preschool education service until this service becomes permanent. It is established in the regions where children who are not taking advantage of preschool education are predominant and the education is given by mobile preschool teacher (Nutton, Bell, Fraser, Elliott, Andrews, Louden and Carapetis, 2011). Mobile preschools provides progressive opportunity for disadvantaged children who can not get corporate service especially when it is designed properly for the interests and developmental needs of children. Children make developmental progresses by playing with their peers in a specially designated environment for them. Mobile preschools can be used for introducing preschool education and servicing more children 633

by giving short term preschool education programmes like 2 or 3 days in a week (Nutton and others, 2011). Children who receive mobile preschool education and benefit from provided stimulis gets the chance of compensating the deprivation of stimuli of houses. One of the first similar implementations of mobile preschool is Playbus Project which was started in 1969 in England. Bringing service to where people were living was aimed and it’s target was to integrate ethnic groups with society. Playbus was designed in a way that can submit secure playgrounds and give their mothers consultancy about nutrition and child development and education. After started in England, mobile preschools were started to be used in different countries of the world and it is still used in many countries (Atay and Thomas, 1997). The purpose of Mobile Preschool;  Preparing substructures of permanent preschool education institutions in underpopulated, dispersed, mountainous places and countryside where there is no preschool education institutions.  Raising awareness of the parents about the importance of preschool education and giving parental education to the parents whose children are going to mobile preschool by benefiting from opportunities of the school which has the mobile preschool in it’s garden.  Creating a common educational environment for children who live in places where there is no preschool education institution and can not benefit from it.  Cooperating with universities, local authorities, voluntary agencies, benevolent citizens and making the children benefit from preschool education who can not.  Making medical screening in order to provide the developments of children who benefit from mobile preschool (Ministry of National Education, 2009). MOBILE PRESCHOOL PRACTISES Mobile preschool model is used in many countries of the world. In addition to this, it is practised in different forms in different countries and regions. It generally gives service to the children of groups which are in underdeveloped and disadvantages regions and don’t have preschool education opportunity. Mobile Preschool Practises in Sweden Mobile preschools in Sweden give service depending upon a preschool in a certain district. Starting point of mobile preschool is because children spend most of their time indoors. Especially, the children living in the metropolitans spend too little time in open areas which are in touch with nature. Because of this situation in Sweden, the children of new generation are defined as ‘backseat generation’as they spend nearly all their times indoors. The purpose of mobile preschool in Sweden is to realise exterritorial education activities. Started to be used after 2006, mobile preschool was initially criticised by parents and school managements for the reason of traffic safety but it attracts more attention day by day (Gustafson and Burgt, 2015). Mobile preschool provides children to do physical activities like running, jumping and balance by spending time in naturel environments which is much better than indoors of houses and schools. In addition to this,children get the chance of going out of their virtual play environments and indoors and so they get more on-site information about environment.Mobile preschool enables children to get out of their daily routine 634

activities and experience different activities in a new and interesting learning environment. Mobile preschool gets off with 20 children who are ranging in age from 4 to 5 and arrive the place where they will make a part-time camp half an hour later. Children play games with their friends, nature and animals instead of virtual and digital games between the hours of 9:00-15:00. The mobile preschool model used in Sweden is more cost-effective and more flexible for outdoor activities when compared to institution-based preschools and it offers active learning experience by differentitation of learning environments. Mobile Preschool Practises in Australia Mobile preschool application was first practised as a pilot scheme in the Northland of Australia between the years of 2000-2005 and then it has been integrated into their education systems. The purpose of the mobile preschool model in Australia was to increase the number of children who couldn’t get education in the places where the schooling-rate was low and then reduce the rate of un-solicited situations like involving in a crime, poverty, unemployment, homelessness, sexual abuse and violence. So, it was also a kind of early intervention programme. By using mobile preschool, Australia both aims to reach all of the children who can not get education and try to fulfill the need for education by determining the places where there is no school in the process of building classes (Nutton et al. 2011). As the schooling rate in the northland of Australia is low, children who haven’t got preschool education has taken low marks from the tests related to literacy and they haven’t been able to speak Australian English at a sufficient level. So, this situation has required to apply mobile preschool project (Nutton et al.2011). Mobile Preschool Practises in Turkey Mobile bus application has started to be applied in Turkey as a pilot study to bring mobile preschools model into force. After evaluating the results which are to be obtained from this study, it has been planned to generalize mobile preschool model. Mobile preschool project is an alternative model which is examined to provide more children to get preschool education.For this purpose,interior of a small bus which was donated by private sector was designed as a unit of preschool education especially for children who are from low-income families living in the countryside (Atay and Thomas, 1997; Evirgen, 2003). Mobile preschool application was first examined in cooperation with Ministry of National Education, Küçükçekmece Preschool Education Center, Küçükçekmece Municipality, Marmara University Atatürk Faculty of Education Department of Preschool Education and UNICEF. Teachers for mobile preschool were appointed by Ministry of National Education. Training materials were donated by Küçükçekmece Occasional Preschool Education Center. Employment of bus drivers, vehicle maintenance and fuel oil of the busses were also donated by Küçükçekmece Municipality. Activities which support cognitive, psychomotor, social, emotional and linguistic improvement of children have been planned and practiced in mobile preschools even if it was a limited period. It was the most attractive side of the project that villagers have encountered the first time with the term of preschool education (Evirgen, 2003; Kartal, 2005; Sungurtekin, et al. 2010). 635

It has been observed that children of countryside can not use their native language in an effective way. Therefore, activites related with native language have been very important. Children have participated in art activities overzelaously. (Evirgen, 2003; Kartal, 2005; Sungurtekin, et al. 2010). The countryside where mobile preschool bus would go was determined by Küçükçekmece District National Education Directorate. This region had no preschool education institution and 70 low-income families were living in here. Mobile preschool bus parked in the garden of Kayabaşı Elementary School which is in Kayabaşı Village. In the education bus, 2 hours from morning to noon and 2 hours from noon to evening different students were educated as two halves (Evirgen, 2003). After creating the demand for preschool education in Kayabaşı Village, a permanent preschool education unit (nursery class) was established by transforming an idle public-housing into a nursery class in cooperation with Non-governmental Organizations. The cooperation with Kayabaşı Elementary Nursery Class continued with Sister School Project. While the extent of the cooperations were being expanded to popularize mobile preschool project, on the other hand, 2 hours of free education programs were started to be applied for children of low-income families in the centre. When this application started to be heavily demanded, physical conditions of the school were reviewed and playgroup application which mothers were coming to school together with their children and lasting for 1 hour was started. Within the context of this practises which were being carried out in the centre, disadvantaged students were enrolled in the school (Evirgen, 2003; Kartal, 2005; Sungurtekin, et al.2010). Reasons like good relationships which were built with parents, social activities which were often done for strengthening the parent-teacher cooperation, parental education, participation of the families, the opportunities for cost-effective education, different education options (all day, part time or education for 1-2 hours) have increased the demand for school and preschool education. 300 students were given the opportunity of education in a school with 100 students capacity by using alternative practises. Many students who couldn’t be enrolled school because of the marginal capacity were directed to different schools (Evirgen, 2003). Mobile preschool project has been applied in many cities of Turkey like İstanbul, Bursa, Van, Gümüşhane, Konya, Malatya, Ankara, Denizli, Balıkesir, Adana. The places where mobile preschool gave service have generally been the villages or the slums of metropolitans. The purposes of mobile preschool in Turkey have been determined as increasing the schooling rate of preschool education, popularizing the preschool education and especially raising the awareness of the families living in disadvantaged regions about preschool education. Mobile preschool application in Turkey differs according to the needs and expectations of the target group. As a result of the protocols signed with them, municipalities have generally put money for allocation of the bus, assignment of the driver, vehicle maintenance and fueloil. In addition to this, appointment of the teacher and preparation of the education program have generally been made by Ministry of National Education ( Ministry of National Education, 2009). When the neighbourhoods in the city centre are close to each other, mobile preschools give service to 2 neighbourhoods in a day and so it gives service to 10 636

neighbourhoods in a week. In accordance with the demand coming from parents, education service can be given for 2 days in a neighbourhood. If the place where the education will be given is far from the city centre, then the bus waits steadyingly for 2 months and education is given for 5 days in a week. As a different practise, in the places where temporary agricultural workers are predominant, mobile preschool give service depending upon a school and so it contributes to increase the capacity of that school for a certain time. As a different practise, mobile preschool has been applied in the places where temporary agricultural workers are predominant. The sample of this practise is seen in Ceyhan and Karataş districts of Adana province where seasonal agricultural workers are predominant. These districts are migration-receiving in certain seasons and the capacity of existing schools fail to satisfy the need. Mobile preschool practise has been seen as a solution to increase the capacity of schools and these preschools have provided education in the gardens of the schools. It is known that children who have taken preschool education are more succesfull in the fields of cognitive, social and language development in comparison with their peers who haven’t. Preschool education affect the childrens’ success and participation in the next education stages in a positive way. Womens’ participation in the business life more and more and the changing habits of communities have increased the attention and participation to preschool education. Providing equal opportunities to children is one of the fundamental duties of states. In order to provide quality education oportunity which has been guaranteed with international contracts and conventions to all individuals some other steps must be taken in addition to institution-based education method. Mobile preschool has been organized properly for the interests and developmental needs of children and it provides developmental opportunities to disadvantaged children who can not benefit from corporate service. Children join in the education activities with their peers in an environment that has been specially designated for them and they make developmental progresses. REFERENCES Aktan, O. ve Akkutay, Ü. (2014). OECD Ülkelerinde ve Türkiye’de Okul öncesi Eğitim. Asya Öğretim Dergisi 2 (1) 64-79. Aral, N. Kandır, A, Yasar, M.C. (2000). Okulöncesi Eğitim ve Anasınıfı Programları. Ya-Pa Yayınları, İstanbul. Axelrod, P., Swartz, P.M., Weinstein, A. and Buch, E. (1982). Mobile Training for Directors of Day Care. Young Children, 37(3) 19-24. Atay, M. ve Thomas, C. (1997). Türkiye İçin Oyun Otobüsü Projesi I. Ulusal Çocuk Gelişimi ve Eğitimi Kongresi. MEB, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Unicef, Ankara. Atlı, S. (2013). Türkiye’de ve Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde Uygulanan Okul Öncesi Eğitim Programları. Eğitimde Politika Analizi Dergisi. Avila, R. M. and Baldwin J. (2007). Getting Ready to Learn Program: An Early Intervention in Development and Learning. The 135th APHA Annual Meeting & Exposition (November 3-7, 2007) of APHA Washington, DC. Barnett W. S. (2008). Preschool education and its lasting effects: Research and policy implications, Education and Public Interest Center & Education Policy Research Unit, Boulder, CO. Bekman, S. ve Gürlesel, C.F. “Doğru Başlangıç: Türkiye’de Okulöncesi Eğitim” Özet 637

Bulgular”, Tüsiad Basın Bülteni, TS/BAS-BÜL/05-38, 2005. Blau D. M. and Currie, J. (2005). Preschool, day care, and afterschool care: Who's minding the kids?. In: F. Welch and E.A. Hanushek, Editors, The handbook of economics of education, 1163–1267, North Holland, Amsterdam. Çoban, B, Nacar, E. (2006). Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Eğitsel Oyunlar. Nobel Basımevi, Ankara. Demir S. Okul öncesi eğitim kurumuna giden 36-60 aylık çocukların bilişsel gelişim özellikleri açısından karşılaştırılması (Kütahya İli Örneği). 2010, Marmara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Dirim, A. (2004). Okul Öncesi Eğitimi. İstanbul: Esin Yayınevi. Emir ÖM. Çocuk programlarının 60-72 aylık çocuk davranışlarına etkileri. 2011, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Afyonkarahisar, Erden, E. (2010). Problems That Preschool Teachers Face in the Curriculum Implementation (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. ERG. (2015) Eğitim Reformu Girişimi Eğitim İzleme Raporu 2014-2015. İstanbul. ERG ve AÇEV (2016). Türkiye’de erken çocukluk eğitiminin durumu ve öneriler. İstanbul. Evirgen, Ş. (2003). “Gezici Eğitim Modeli”, Erken Çocukluk Eğitimi Politikaları: Yaygınlaşma, Yönetişim ve Yapılar Toplantısı Raporu, Ankara: AÇEV; UNICEF, Eğitim Reformu Girişimi, 74-81. Gustafson, K. Burgt, D. (2015). Being on the move: Time-spatial organisation and mobility in a mobile preschool, Journal of Transport Geography. 46 201–209. Güçhan Özgül, S. (2011). Okul Öncesi Eğitim Ortamlarının Kalite Değişkenleri Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. (Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Balıkesir. Haktanır, G. Akgün, E. Karaman, G. ve Duman G. (2013). Topluma Hizmet Uygulamaları Dersi ve Meb Mobil Anaokulu Projesi’nin Birlikte Yürütülmesi İle Çocukların Gelişimlerinin Desteklenmesi: Peçenek Köyü Örneği, Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi. 21(1), 69-82 Heckman, J. J. and D.V. Masterov (2007). The productivity argument for investing in young children, National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Massachusetts. Hong, Y. (2004). Culturel Meaning of Group Discussions on Problematic Moral Stuations in Korean Kindergarten Classrooms. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 18(3), 149. Kachmar, S. (2008). Early Cihildhood Calssroom Quality and Preschool Learning Behaviors. (Unpublished Doctoral‟s Thesis). Duquesne University, United States. Karaoğlu, M. (2002). “Okulöncesi Eğitim Kurumlarında İstenmeyen Davranışlar ve Yönetimi”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Denizli. Kartal, H. (2005). “Erken çocukluk eğitimi programlarından Anne-Çocuk Eğitim Programı’nın altı yaş grubundaki çocukların bilişsel gelişimlerine etkisi. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Uludağ Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Bursa. Kavak, Y. ve Ergen, H. (2007). Türkiye’de İlköğretime Katılım ve Okula Gidemeyen Çocuklar, Milli Eğitim, 173, 8-26. MEB. (2009). Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Okul Öncesi Eğitim Kurumları Gezici Sınıflar Yönergesi. MEB. (2016). Milli Eğitim İstatistikleri Örgün Eğitim. Ankara. Nutton, G, Bell, J, Fraser, J, Elliott, A, Andrews, R, Louden, W & Carapetis, J 2011, ' Extreme preschool: mobile preschool in Australia’s Northern Territory', paper presented 638

to the 24th International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement, 4-7 January 2011, Limassol, Cyprus, http://www.icsei.net/icsei2011/index Oğuzkan, Ş. ve Oral, G. (1993). Okul Öncesi Eğitim, Milli Eğitim Basımevi. İstanbul. Özbek, A. (2003). Okul Öncesi Eğitim Kurumlarına Devam Eden ve Etmeyen Çocukların İlköğretim Birinci Sınıfta Sosyal Gelişim Açısından Öğretmen Görüşüne Dayalı Olarak Karşılaştırılması. Eskişehir Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir. Poyraz, H. ve Dere, H. (2003). Okul Öncesi Eğitimin İlke ve Yöntemleri. Anı Yayınları. Ankara. Reynolds, A. J. (1992). Mediated Effects of Preschool Intervention Early Education & Development, 3 (2), 139 – 164 . Reynolds, A. J., Mehana, M., &Temple, J. A. (1995). Does preschool intervention affect children's perceived competence? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology16 (2), 211-230. Sungurtekin, Ş. Taner Derman, M. Sadioğlu, Ö., Koç, N. (2010). Gezici Anaokulu Projesi (Mobil Anaokulu). Başal, H. A. (ed.) Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Uygulanan Farklı Modeller içinde, 183-198. Bursa: Dora. UNESCO (2015). EFA global monitoring report 2015: Education for all 2000-2015 Achievements and challenges. Paris: UNESCO UNESCO. (2014). Herkes İçin Eğitim 2015 Hedefleri. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/ education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/educationfor-all/efa-goals/ Unicef Türkiye Ofisi. (2013). Yerel Yönetimler, Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları, Kamu Kuruluşları ve İşveren Kuruluşları için Toplum Temelli Erken Çocukluk Hizmetleri Sunumu Kılavuzu Ankara. Yavuzer, H. (2003). Çocuk Eğitimi El Kitabı. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi.

639

Chapter 50 The Way of Bringing Up Future Scientists: Inquiry-Based Science Education Approach Eylem BAYIR 1. INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION APPROACH People feel a sense of wonder for natural phenomena and asks relevant questions from early ages. These questions posed by words or gestures reveal the desire to know and find that begins with sense of wonder. This sense of wonder, a basic feature of mankind drives people towards a questioning process. Sense of wonder that triggers the questioning process becomes apparent during childhood. Various questions of children attempting to understand nature show that they have a curious structure. However, children may lose their interest due to negligent responses of adults. Encouraging children to sustain this sense of wonder and using it within our school curriculum rather than blinding it will help students grow as questioning and self-confident individuals who think and make decision scientifically. Thus, children must be given opportunities to experience these natural phenomena, ask and answer problems, test, gather and assess evidence and think life scientists do in order to acquire these skills (Bayır, 2008). Students may be given these opportunities by including scientific experiences in science lessons through content and methodology that reflect occurrence of scientific knowledge (NRC, 1996). Inquiry-based approach is the one that allows scientific content to reflect occurrence of scientific knowledge and has been considered as one of the corner stones of all science curriculum in recent years. In general, inquiry-based study is the set of behaviors required for the attempt to bring reasonable explanations to unknown phenomena that evoke a sense of wonder in mankind (Novak, 1964). Thus, it is an active search for knowledge and understanding to satisfy the sense of wonder (Haury, 1993). From a detailed point of view, inquiry is both a way of exploring how the world functions and a teaching-learning method. Thus, it is defined in two ways (Hinrichsen & Jarrett, 1999, Anderson, 2002): Scientific Inquiry Scientific inquiry means that scientists employ various study methods on natural world and put forward explanations based on evidence from studies (Martin-Hansen, 2002; NRC, 1996). Inquiry as Teaching-Learning Method Inquiry-based study reveals the studies that students establish a scientific understanding and knowledge and make sense of scientific studies by scientists on natural world. Inquiry is a multiple activity that includes observation, posing questions, 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Trakya University, Faculty of Education, Department of Science Education, [email protected]

reviewing books and other sources for previously known data, planning and realizing research, using a broad range of tools to gather, analyze and interpret results, reviewing what was previously known through empirical evidence, suggesting answers, explanations and predictions and sharing results with others (Martin-Hansen, 2002; NRC, 1996). ın other words, it is learning science by doing. In a closer look at the definition of inquiry as a teaching-learning method, we can see that it is a reflection of what scientists do into student activities. Therefore, inquirybased teaching drives students into inquisitive nature of science and in an inquiry-based classroom students use scientists’ methods to configure new knowledge (Roth, 1992). Inquiry-based science study transforms the learning process from watching and listening activities to practicing activities (Hinrichsen & Jarret, 1999). Inquiry-based study in classrooms has five basic attempts (NRC, 2000): 1Students are engaged with scientific questions. 2- Students prioritize evidence that help explanations and assessment on scientific questions. 3- Students formulate explanations from evidence to find answers to scientific questions. 4- Students assess their own explanations according to alternative explanations that reflect scientific understanding. 5- Students share and argue their explanations. Inquiry-based process begins when there is a situation that attracts students’ attention or leaves a question mark on their minds. This mental imbalance signals that learning is eminent, something is meaningless for the learner and something has to be done to make it meaningful (Foreman, 1998; NRC, 1996). In this case, an observationbased problem occurs, a process which is the heart of inquiry-based study. The next step for the student is observing, asking questions, making predictions, testing hypothesis, developing theories and conceptual models. This process is rarely longitudinal for the student, it is rather a series of back, forth or circular events. Throughout the process, the student collects and saves the data, presents results and conclusions and uses sources such as books, videos as well as experiences of other people. To make sense of his experience, the student must reflect on, speak, compare his findings with others, interpret data and observations and practice new concepts in various situations. This helps student to form a mental framework for the natural world (Hinrichsen, 1999). Purpose of scientific-based study is not to find the answer. It is rather seeking solutions for questions and issues. It is apparent that nobody may be expected to fully learn and remember the whole ever expanding data base of scientific disciplines. However, it may be concluded anyone can develop questioning skills required for accessing, producing and reviewing knowledge and maintain this inquisitive attitude throughout his life. Inquiry-based study gives students the chance to experience a process that they can develop this attitude and skill. It is emphasized that there are five reasons to use inquiry-based teaching in classrooms (Chippetta & Adams, 2004); to develop an understanding of basic facts, concepts, principles, laws and theories, improving skills to enhance understanding of natural phenomena, strengthening motivation to find answers to questions and question the accuracy of statements about the natural world, establish a positive attitude toward science, develop an understanding about the nature of science. Given the reasons above, it is easy to understand why many science educators regards inquiry-based approach as a central method for teaching-learning science (Lazarowitz, 1973) and it has been an indispensable basic concept for years to express a 641

good science teaching and learning (Anderson, 2002). Inquiry-based education is seen as a key for science teaching reforms all around the world, particularly in the 21st century. De Boer’s (1991) following statement shows how much importance has been attached to inquiry in science teaching for years: “If we need to choose a single word to define objectives of science educators for the 30 years after late-1950s, it must be inquiry-based study”. Studies on effects of inquiry-based science teaching on scientific processes of students, attitudes towards science and scientific achievements have yielded significant results supporting this approach, revealing its importance in science education (Chang & Mao, 1999; Songer, Lee & Kam, 2002; Gibson & Chase, 2002). 2. INQUIRY-BASED STUDY AS A MEANS OF TEACHING THE NATURE OF SCIENCE Reviewing the definition of inquiry as learning-teaching method shows us that this method drives students into the inquisitive nature of science and students configuring knowledge use the same processes that scientists resort to while forming concepts and theories in order to explain the natural world. Inquiry in science classes is a good mixture of learning and doing science as students led by counselors are engaged in scientific processes in order to develop a reasonable understanding of scientific concepts, theories and laws. Inquiry-based teaching requires students do scientific reasoning and critical thinking while combining scientific knowledge and processes in order to gain a scientific understanding (Bianchini & Colburn, 2000). Schwab reveals that having students employ inquiry-based study methods is a way to enhance understanding of science’s nature, defined as the combination of scientific processes, results and comments. Therefore, it is suggested that science must be defined as inquiry-based at schools (DeBoer, 1991). Acccording to Duschl (1990), inquiry as a means of forming new information may help individuals to understand the developmental nature of science (scientific knowledge can never be proved absolutely, scientific ideas may change in time), reformulation of scientific ideas and new scientific claims. When individuals reformulate their ideas by means of inquiry, they need to understand the nature of scientific knowledge, roles of experiment and observation (science is based on experiment and requires evidence), nature of theory (theories are inventions of scientists that define, explain and estimate scientific phenomena) and the relationship between evidence and theory (if evidence and theory are conflicting; either the evidence is ignored or theory is modified) (Driver, Leach, Miller & Scott, 1996). 3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING AND COSTRUCTIVISM As mentioned earlier, inquiry is the student-centered learning process where the students actively construct their own knowledge by means of materials and peerinteractions (Anderson, 2002). In this teaching methodology, students collect and analyze data to achieve a result and construct knowledge. Therefore, inquiry-based study is seen as a way of thinking and constructing knowledge over previous knowledge and experiences (Damnjanovic, 1999). Students may construct knowledge in a number of ways; however active physical participation principle of inquiry-based study (hands642

on) helps them to make meaningful construction on their current schemes of knowledge (Driver, 1995; Wheatley, 1991). Given the basic principle of constructivist learning philosophy that “knowledge is constructed by means of active experiences and different thinking ways and patterns), it is understood that inquiry-based teaching mirrors constructivism, is in close relationship with constructivism and even a form of constructivism. Inquiry-based teaching is actually what is implied by constructivist teaching philosophy (Flick, Lederman & Enchs, 1996) and constructivism supports inquiry-based learning. Teachers have the same role in constructivism and inquiry-based learning as guide and facilitator. Orlich et al. (1998) lists what constructivism and inquiry-based learning have in common: they are student-centered, course of the lesson is flexible, students are encouraged to do research to make deductions, students are encouraged to make multiple deductions, students have to argue for their solutions, neither constructivism nor inquiry-based learning regards itself as the single learning model; both claim that nature provides the objects and peole categorize them. 4. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING Inquiry is not a new concept although it has taken a place in science programs of schools for less than a hundred years (Bybee & DeBoer, 1993). It dates back to 5th century B.E., Athens. Marketplace Agora where freedom-loving Greeks used to discuss contemporary events became the cradle of intellectual inquiry, led by Socrates the most famous teacher of history. Socrates, a relentless inquirer encouraged the youth to reflect on their own, question the wisdom of the old and inquire about the unsolved mysteries of the word. That was a very early example of periods when development increases with inquiry (NSF, 2000). Both Socrates and Aritotle supported inductive approach in their learning concepts. Aristotle developed guidelines, which is today a key concept for collecting and analyzing data (Rakow, 1986). Dating back very earlier times, theoretical foundations of inquiry-based approach are based on opinions of cognitive theorists such as John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner. John Dewey Dewey suggested that teaching must be an active process that involves solving problems that attract student attention. According to Dewey, thinking process begins when people face problems. Dewey’s exploratory approach emphasizes logical reasoning process of acquiring new knowledge rather than the learned knowledge. In his book “How We Think?”, Dewey (1933) revealed “reflective process” as a way of solving problems by thinking. He also suggested that school experiences must help students to learn how to inquire and learn by doing, adding that inquiry-based approach and problem-solving are vital for human intelligence. More recent theorists such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner added scientific research to Piaget’s philosophical propositions. Jean Piaget Swiss scientist Jean Piaget focused his studies on cognitive structures that help a 643

child in problem-solving. Piaget believes that children use their own experience to build cognitive structures named as schemes. Children use these schemes to assimilate new ideas while dealing with new knowledge. Piaget (1971) claims that children construct their understanding through environmental objects, interactions with peers and adults, their own research. Piaget’s theory is relevant to teachers, particularly science teachers. Providing children with concrete experiences and then introducing the terms helps them assimilate scientific understanding. Piaget considers the child as a scientist who inquires and tests the conditions of his own environment. Jerome Bruner Bruner considers learning as an active process, suggesting learning-teaching activities that include student participation. According to Bruner, learning requires inquiring, collecting, evaluating and interpreting data and exploration is the only way of learning because it is based on reflection, trial and finding. It is also a teaching approach that encourages students to make judgments based on their own experiences and observations (Açıkgöz, 2006; Ayas, Çepni, Johnson & Turgut, 1997). Bruner who said “Knowing is not a product but a process” claimed that teacher’s role is to guide the learner to discover knowledge by preparing the conditions instead of offering ready knowledge to the learner (Senemoğlu, 2004). 5. VARIANCES (LEVELS) OF INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING A review of studies on inquiry-based learning shows us that it has several variances depending on the focus of classroom (teacher or learner). Various types of inquiry-based teaching were first defined by Schwab (1962). Those who have recently described various levels (types) are Tafoya (1976), Colburn (2000), Martin-Hansen (2002), Eick, Meadows, Balkcom (2005). Open (Full) Inquiry Open or “full” inquiry can be defined as a student-centered approach that begins with a student’s question, followed by the student (or groups of students) designing and conducting an investigation or experiment and communicating results (National Research Council, 1996; Colburn, 2000). This approach most closely mirrors scientists’ actual work. Open inquiry requires higher-order thinking and usually has students working directly with the concept and materials, equipment, and so forth. Having students ask the questions that guide their own investigations is the key to open inquiry (Martin-Hansen, 2002; Colburn, 2000; NRC, 1996; Tafoya, 1976). Guided Inquiry The teacher chooses the question for investigation. Students decide themselves how to proceed with the investigation. When students must learn about more complex phenomena that cannot be investigated directly in a classroom, a teacher (or students) can provide applicable scientific data from a variety of sources to use in the investigation. Guided inquiry is a natural lead-in to open inquiry (Colburn, 2000; Martin-Hansen, 2002; Tafoya, 1976). Coupled Inquiry Coupled inquiry combines a guided-inquiry investigation with an open-inquiry 644

investigation. By beginning with an invitation to inquiry along with the guided inquiry, the teacher chooses the first question to investigate, specifically targeting a particular standard or benchmark. After the guided inquiry, a more student-centered approach is taken by implementing an open-inquiry investigation. This approach of guided inquiry followed by open inquiry results in student-generated questions that are closely related to the acquisition of the first investigation (Dunkhase, 2000; Martin, 2001; MartinHansen, 2002). The coupled-inquiry cycle is as follows: 1) an invitation to inquiry, 2) teacherinitiated “guided inquiry,” 3) student-initiated “open inquiry,” 4) inquiry resolution, and 5) assessment. This cycle can then lead back to more student-initiated open inquiry (Dunkhase, 2000; Martin, 2001). Structured Inquiry Structured inquiry, sometimes referred to as directed inquiry, is a guided inquiry mainly directed by the teacher and it is sometimes not considered as a real inquiry experience. Teacher presents the problem but does not offer information on expected results. The procedure is also determined by teacher. Activities and materials are structured in order to help students to make generalizations from collected data and discover relationships (Colburn, 2000; Martin-Hansen, 2002; Tafoya, 1976). Simply following directions in a cookbook manner does not actively engage students’ minds (Martin-Hansen, 2002). Therefore, one could argue that structured inquiry does not include much true inquiry. More students thinking takes place when the teacher allows students to make choices and decisions in classroom investigations. Confirmation Inquiry Concept or principle is introduced to the student who works in order to confirm it. Students know what is going to happen and procedure is carefully arranged for them to follow (Tafoya, 1976). Some studies recognize confirmation inquiry as a variation of inquiry (Tafoya, 1976) while others do not (NRC, 2000; Colburn, 2000; Martin-Hansen, 2002). In science, several variations of inquiry are used in view of the situation and needs. Teachers must know which inquiry variation their activities belong to. It is also important for teachers to understand that development status of students must be suitable for the inquiry variation. Teachers must support their students in each variation. As students’ skills develop, support may be lessened. The goal of students is to realize their task without support. These are factors that teachers must take into account while designing an inquiry-based course. 6. MODELS THAT SUPPORT INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING Learning cycle, 5E and 7E models are the methods that may be used within inquiry-based teaching. Learning Cycle Learning cycle is one of the most familiar and effective models for science teaching. It was first developed by Robert Karplus in late 1950s and early 1960s as a teaching procedure fitting the inquisitive nature of science. Learning cycle is theoretically based on Jean Piaget’s mental development model (Karplus and Their, 1967; Renner and Marek, 1988). Learning cycle involves three 645

phases inspired by assimilation, adaptation and organization terms of Piaget’s mental development model (Renner and Marek, 1988; Sunal, 2003). Exploration Concept Development Concept Application In the first phase named as exploration or research, students are expected to manipulate materials, pose questions that they cannot answer with their current knowledge, explore regularities and opinions. It is a student-centered phase of learning cycle. This stage involves the assimilation and imbalance described by Piaget. Mental imbalance of the student continues till the second phase. In concept development stage, students discuss and organize the data from the first phase. Teacher introduces, explains and labels unexplored relationships and concepts with classroom discussion. Here the teacher is more active. This phase works like Piaget’s adaptation principle to eliminate imbalance. In concept application stage, students are encouraged to apply the new concepts to new contexts and make generalizations. As new concepts are extended to other contexts, this phase functions like Piaget’s organization principle. 5E Model 5E model was developed by BSCS (Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, 1989) led by Roger Bybee and is the extended version of learning cycle (Carin, Bass & Contant, 2001; Llewellyn, 2002). 5E was actually developed in order to meet several criteria of inquiry-based teaching approach implied in constructivist education philosophy. The model includes five phases: engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration and evaluation. 5E models are defined as below (Lawson, 1995; Carin, Bass & Contant, 2001; Llewellyn, 2002; Bybee, 1997). Engagement This is the stage where students are motivated and engaged with the activity, a sense of wonder is aroused and mental imbalance is experienced. Therefore, activities must surprise and attract students’ attention. At this stage, students’ past knowledge is activated. Thus, they are encouraged to be aware of their pre-understanding. Exploration As in learning cycle, goal of exploration phase in 5E model is to provide students with experiences through concrete objects and observable events. Throughout this phase, students observe, collect data, test their predictions, refine their hypothesis and work in groups without direct teacher instruction. Data they collect help them to begin answering questions they posed in engagement phase. In this phase, students are provided with concrete physical experiences required for constructing concepts, generalizations and explanations is the next phase. As a result of their participation in mental and physical activities, students will be able to observe phenomena and examples, determine variables and inquire about phenomena. Here, teacher is responsible for facilitating guided or open inquiry involved in this phase. Explanation Students are expected to explain their experiences, findings and opinions to others 646

in oral or written form. Students defend their opinions against peers using evidence from their experiences. Student explanation must come before scientific explanations of teacher. Elaboration Elaboration phase enables students to relate their new knowledge and skills to other contexts, real life situations and extent them. As students are encouraged to determine similarities in different contexts, this phase is important for building a wider perspective on phenomena. Evaluation Evaluation is the stage that students’ understanding is more formally evaluated. Teacher may use tests, performance evaluation activities, problem-based learning products, rubrics, checklists, portfolios and interviews as evaluation tools. 7E Model 7E model is the more elaborated and extended version of 5E. Two objectives in the first step of 5E defined as “accessing prior knowledge” and “generating student interest” are dealt with as two separate steps in 7E model in order to make sure that teachers do not neglect these two components in their practice. Therefore, teachers are recommended to choose activities that access prior knowledge and then generate student interest. Elaboration and evaluation phases of 5E model are dealt with in three phases; elaboration, evaluation and extension. Learning transfer in elaboration phase of 5E is now replaced by knowledge transfer in elaboration and extension phases of 7E. This elaboration aims to show teachers the goal, importance and implementation of learning transfer more clearly. 7. TEACHER AND STUDENT ROLES IN INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING PROCESS Teacher’s role in inquiry-based classes is quite different from traditional classes. Teachers transfer knowledge in traditional classes, however they assume the motivator, counselor, innovator, experimenter, researcher, model, director, collaborator and student roles in inquiry-based classes (Crawford, 2000). Teachers have to carry out a broad range of tasks while assuming these roles. In order to create a inquiry-based learning environment and help construct knowledge in inquiry-based environment, teachers have to carry out the following tasks (Lewwellyn, 2002; NSF, 2000): encouraging students to ask scientific questions, helping them to construct their own research, building a rich physical environment where students may use various materials, develops a social context where students may collaborate in larger or smaller groups, helping students to move on to the next learning phase by providing prompts and motivating students, encouraging students to observe and think through open-ended questions, asking “why?”, “how?” and “what is the evidence?” questions, encouraging students to answer their own questions by explaining and restating the questions rather than answering questions directly, using appropriate evaluation forms and helping students for self-evaluation. Student tasks in this process are: displaying their curiosity and observing, poses questions for research, designing the research by answering questions, making 647

deductions or generalizations from specific observations, choosing and using materials, collaborating with friends, expressing their opinions through reports, drawings, charts and tables, making explanations based on both previous experiences and knowledge obtained from current study, sharing their opinions with teachers and peers. 8.MYTHS ABOUT BELIEFS ON INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING Studies on reasons that prevent teachers from using inquiry-based teaching method in their classes show that they have a number of myths about the nature of inquirybased learning (Costenson & Lawson, 1986; Trownbridge & Bybee, 1996). Myths that threaten inquiry-based practice are: having students do “hands-on” science means inquiry, using inquiry is equivalent to using steps of “scientific method”, inquiry causes chaos in the classroom and what to do is not clear, inquiry means asking questions to students all the time, teacher has to be ready for every question from the students during inquiry, inquiry is only appropriate for primary school students, it is not possible to evaluate inquiry-based learning, inquiry is nothing more than a fancy for science teaching, inquiry is doing light science and it is not related to scientific content, inquiry is appropriate for successful students rather than those with learning difficulties, all science subjects must be taught through inquiry, real inquiry occurs when students pose and attempt to answer their own questions, inquiry-based teaching is easy to practice by using materials in experiment sets, inquiry may be used for any subject. 9. BASIS OF INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING: SCIENTIFIC PROCESS SKILLS It is known tat inquiry-based science teaching focuses on science both as a product and process. Goal of inquiry-based approach is to teach students science products by having them use a number of scientific processes (science-making methodology) used by scientists including observation, measurement, data collection and hypothesizing. This shows that scientific process skills constitute one aspect of inquiry-based approach. Scientific process skills are the mental and physical skills used for collecting data, organizing it in various forms, explaining phenomena and solving problems (Carin, Bass & Cotant, 2001). Each of these is also a life skill. One of the main objectives of science teaching is the acquisition of scientific process skills by everyone because they are necessary not only for scientist and to-be scientists but also for anyone who wishes to be science literate (Huppert, Lomask, & Lazarowitx, 2002; Harlen, 1999). Harlen (1999) suggests that these skills enhance science literacy by helping students to specify problems and come to conclusions in order ro make decisions about the natural world. According to Harlen, posing questions, predicting, collecting data and testing predictions are all learning science. Students cannot build relationships and understand the surrounding environment without these skills. Therefore, understanding and learning science requires using scientific process skills (Harlen, 1999). Being extremely helpful for children to develop scientific ideas, scientific process skills are not only a means of learning scientific content but also a product on its own. Scientific process skills are effective in making students learn scientific content and develop an understanding of science’s nature (Scharmann, 1989). Studies on science teaching have revealed that inquiry is one of the effective 648

methods of developing students’ scientific process skilss as is gives students opportunities to pose scientific problems, plan and carry out research in order to solve problems (Başağa, Geban & Tekkaya, 1994; Mattheis & Nakayama, 1998; Chiapetta, 1997; Tein & Stacy, 1998). A literature review on scientific process skills shows that skills in each category varies, however they may be collected under two categories; “basic scientific process skills” (observation, prediction, measurement, classification, deduction, communication) and “advanced” process skills (hypothesizing, designing research, specifying variables, finding out relationships between variables, defining variables operationally, experimenting, obtaining and processing data, making data charts, graphs, analyzing research) (Carin, Bass & Contant, 2001; Gabel, 1993; Rezba et al., 1995). Basic scientific process skills are basic activities of scientific problem-solving and prerequisite of advanced process skills. REFERENCES Açıkgöz Ün, K. (2006). Aktif öğrenme. Sekizinci Baskı, Biliş Yayınevi, İzmir. Anderson, R. D. (2002). Reforming science teaching: What research says about inquiry. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 13; 1-12. Ayas, A., Çepni, S., Johnson, D. ve Turgut, M.F. (1997), Kimya öğretimi, Öğretmen eğitimi dizisi, YÖK/Dünya Bankası Milli Eğitimi Geliştirme Projesi Yayınları, ANKARA. Başağa, H., Geban Ö. & Tekkaya C. (1994). The Effect of the inquiry teaching method on biochemistry and process skill achievements. Biochemical Education, 22(1), 29-32. Bianchini, J. A. & Colburn, A. (2000). Teaching the nature of science through inquiry to prospective elementary teachers: A tale of two researchers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 177–209. Bayır, E. (2008). Fen müfredatlarındaki yeni yönelimler ışığında öğretmen eğitimi: sorgulayıcı-araştırma odaklı kimya öğretimi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Bybee, R. (1997). Achieving scientific literacy: From purposes to practices. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Bybee, R. W. & DeBoer, G. (1993). Goals for the science curriculum. In Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning. Washington DC: National Science Teachers Association. Carin, A. A., Bass, J. E., Contant, T. L. (2001). Teaching science as inquiry, Merill Prentice Hall, 9th Edition, USA. Chang, C. Y. and Mao, S. L. (1999) Comparison of Taiwan science students’ outcomes with inquiry-group versus traditional instruction. The Journal of Educational Research, 92, 340-346. Chiappetta, E., L. & Adams, A., D. (2004). Inquiry-based Instruction. The Science Teacher, 71, (2); 46–50 Chiapetta, E.E. (1997). Inquiry-based science. The Science Teacher, 39(7), 22-27. Colburn, A. (2000). An Inquiry Primer. Science Scope, 23, (6); 42-44. Costenson, K., and Lawson, A. E. (1986). Why isn’t inquiry used in more classrooms? American Biology Teacher 48: 150–158. Crawford, B. A. (2000). Embracing the essence of inquiry: New roles for science teachers. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 37, (9); 916-937. Damnjanovic, A. (1999). Attitudes toward inquiry-based teaching: Differences between preservice and in-service teachers. School Science and Mathematics, 99, (2); 71-76. DeBoer, G. E. (1991). History of ideas in science education: Implications for practice. NY: 649

Teachers College, Columbia University. Dewey, J. (1938) Logic: The theory of inquiry. Henry Holt-New York. Driver, R., Leach, J., Miller, R. & Scott, P. (1996). Young people's images of science. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Driver, R. (1995). Constructivist approaches to science teaching. In Steffe & Gale (Eds.), Constructivism in Education. 385-400. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Dunkhase, J. (2000). Coupled inquiry: An effective strategy for student investigations. Paper presented at the Iowa Science Teachers Section Conference, October, Des Moines, Iowa. Duschl, R.A. (1990). Restructuring science education. New York: Teachers College Press. Eick, C., Meadows, L. & Balkcom, R. (2005). Breaking into Inquiry. The Science Teacher, 72(79), 49-53. Eisenkraft, A. (2003). Expanding the 5E Model. The Science Teacher, 70 (6), 56-59. Flick, L. B., Lederman, N.G. & Enochs, L.G. (1996). Relationship between teacher and student perspectives on inquiry-oriented teaching practice and the nature og science. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, St Louis, MO. Foreman, L.C. (1998). What’s the big idea? (NCSM and NCTM 1998 Annual Meetings Washington DC). Portland, OR: The Math Learning Center, Portland State University. Gabel, D.L. (1993). Introductory science skills, Waveland Press, USA. Gibson, H.L & Chase, C. (2002). Longitudinal impact of an inquiry-based science program on middle school students’ attitudes toward science. Science Education, 86, 693-705. Harlen, W. (1999). Purposes and procedures for assessing science process skills. Assessment in Education, 6, (1); 129-144. Haury, D.L. (1993). Teaching science through inquiry. ERIC CSMEE Digest. (ERIC Document No. ED 359048). Hinrichsen, J., & Jarrett, D. (1999). Science inquiry for the classroom: A literature review. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory Huppert, J., Lomask, S. M., & Lazarowitz, R. (2002). Computer simulations in the high school: students’ cognitive stages, science process skills and academic achievement in microbiology. International Journal of Science Education, 24, 803-821. Karplus, R., & Thier, H.D. (1967). A new look at elementary scool science. Chicago: Rand McNally. Lawson, A. E. (1995). Science teaching and the development of thinking. Wadworth Publishing Company-Belmont, CA. Lazarowitz, R. (1973). The development and use of a technique for determining the inquiry teaching attitudes of secondary school science teachers. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Austin, Texas: The University of Texas at Austin. Llewellyn, D. (2002). Inquire within implementing inquiry-based science standards, Corwin Press, USA. Martin-Hansen, L. (2002). Defining inquiry. The Science Teacher, 69, (2); 34–37. Martin, L. (2001). Coupled-inquiry diagram. The changes in open inquiry understandings and teaching among preservice secondary science teachers during their preservice school practica and student teaching. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Iowa City, The University of Iowa. Mattheis, F.E. & Nakayama, G. (1998). Effect of a laboratory-centered inquiry program on laboratory skillsi science process skills and understanding of science knowledge in middle grades students. ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No:ED307148. McComas, W.F. (ed.): (1998). The nature of science in science education, Rationales and Strategies, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London. 650

National Research Council (NRC). (1996). National science educational standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. National Research Council (NRC). (2000). Inquiry and national science educational standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. National Science Foundation. (2000). Foundations: Inquiry: Thoughts, views, and strategies fort he K-5 classroom (http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2000/nsf999148.htm.) Novak, A. (1964). Scientific inquiry. Bioscience, 14, 25-28. Orlich, C.D., Harder, R.J., Callahan, R.C. & Gibson, H.W. (1998). Teaching strategies: A guide to better instruction. Fifth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston-NewYork. Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and knowledge. The University of Chicago Pres-Chicago. Rakow, S. J. (1986). Teaching science as inquiry. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 275 506. Renner, J.W., & Marek, E.A. (1988). The learning cycle and elementary school science teaching. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational. Rezba, R. J., Sprague, C., Fiel, R.L., Funk, H.J. (1995). Learning and assessing science process skills, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, USA. Roth, K. J. (1992). Science education: It’s not enough to ‘do’ or ‘relate’. In Pearsall, M. K. (Ed.), Scope, Sequence, and Coordination of Secondary School Science Volume II Relevant Research (pp. 151-164). Washington, D.C: National Science Teachers’ Association. Scharmann, L.C. (1989). Development influences of science process skill instruction. Journal of Research Science Teaching, 26(8), 715-726. Schwab, J.J. (1962). The teaching of science as inquiry. In J.J. Schwab & P.F.Brandwein, The teaching of science. Harvard University Pres-Cambridge. Senemoğlu, N. (2004). Gelişim öğrenme ve öğretim: Kuramdan uygulamaya, Gazi Kitabevi-Ankara. Songer N.B., Lee, H.S. & Kam, R. (2002). Technology-rich inquiry science in urban classrooms: What are the barriers to inquiry pedagogy? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(2), 128-150. Sunal, D. W. The learning cycle: A comparison of models of strategies for conceptual reconstruction: A review of the literature. http://www.bamaed.ua.edu/sciteach/ Science InElem&MiddleSchool/565LearningCycle.html Erişim Tarihi: 18 Haziran 2003. Tafoya, E. (1976). Assessing inquiry potential: A tool for curriculum decision makers. Journal of School Science and Mathematics, 80: 43-48. Tien, L. T. & Stacy, A. M. (1998). Promoting sicentific inquiry through the MORE laboratory. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA, April 13-17. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 420 521). Trowbridge, L. W., & Bybee, R. W. (1996). Teaching secondary school science: Strategies for developing scientific literacy(6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Wheatley, G.H. (1991). Constructivism perspective in science and math learning. Scienece Education, 75(1), 9-21.

651

Chapter 51 Oweview of the Experimentation Procedures and Reflections on Science Education N. Remziye ERGÜL INTRODUCTION Experimentation has both popular and philosophical meanings and is an indispensible part of science lessons (Lehrer, Schauble, Petrosino, 2001). Many researchers such as Kuhn et al. (1995) define the act of experimentation firstly as a psychological event covering connections between theories defined as a system of earthly information and conceptual structures or mental representations. In the act of experimentation, the underlying problem, as pointed out by many philosophers, is the theory-based structure of all observations (Millar, 1991). Hart et al. (2000) state that students can be expected to see these theories, but they cannot grasp the theoretical framework in the future starting from experimental evidence and they reduce laboratory works to a game where the correct answer is found or a process of what must be. Experimentation should not only be regarded as efforts to concretize the content of a subject or a concept, but, at the same time, it should help students understand the process called the nature of science. Perhaps its most important function should be this. For, in science education, “understanding the nature of science” is accepted as an absolute need. Hence, it is considered that it will help students to live in a society having absorbed scientific and technological developments, make more conscious decisions about socio-scientific matters which they will face in their daily lives and, most importantly, become more interested in scientific data (Cited by Doğan et al., 2011). According to Çakıcı, 2009, in order to help students understand the nature of science and love science more, necessary time should be allocated for observation and experimentation processes in science lessons and opportunities should be given to share their thoughts, test their hypotheses, compare obtained results with their observations and experiences and other students’ thoughts and discuss differences during this process. At the same time, understanding the nature of science is the critical and basic element of science literacy. Achieving scientific literacy teaching includes more than teaching and learning physical sciences as a whole of information; additionally, the development of scientific literacy requires a wider viewpoint related to the scientific approach (Lederman, N.G, 2004). Some documents such as AAAS, 1993; NRC, 1996 and some researchers such as Krajcik, J., Blumenfeld, P., Marx, R., and Soloway, E., 2000; Metz, 2000; White and Frederiksen, 1998 emphasized the importance of students’ understanding scientific research acts and drawing their interests in these acts. National Research Council (1996) specified the conditions of being a scientifically literate person 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Uludağ University, Education Faculty, Elementary Education

as understanding scientific research, asking related questions, questioning, using necessary tools and applying required methods to collect data, establishing reasonable and appropriate relationships related to evidence and explanations, making alternative explanations and presenting scientific arguments. (T.C. MEB, Ministry of National Education, 2006) used the concept of Science and technology literacy and described a scientifically and technologically literate person as the one who understands the nature of science and scientific information and the basic concepts, principles, laws and theories of science and uses them appropriately, and also uses scientific process skills while solving problems and making decisions. T.C. MEB (2013) explained that it aimed to train all individuals as scientifically literate people and a teaching approach based on searching and questioning was adopted in the physical sciences course program. In this respect, we cannot only expect experiments performed by students will attract their interest. More importantly, students should be made to understand the logic of designing and carrying out scientific experiments within the framework of this interest. Designing and performing scientific experiments is an act contributing to the development of scientific thinking as well. Moreover, it means an encouraging key in realizing the aims of science education such as having laboratory experience, understanding scientific concepts, feeling interest and motivation, problem solving skills, scientific habits of mind and understanding the nature of science (Hofstein and Lunetta, 2004). According to (Bülbül, 2013), in laboratory works, besides psychomotor skills, skills of questioning are gaining importance as well and such basic skills as collecting data, performing an experiment and setting an experiment and data presentation, hypothesis testing, interpretation and evaluation will lay the groundwork for advanced level skills. At our schools, various activities are performed more often under the name of the act of experimentation or only one or a few steps of the scientific method are applied and, most of the time, they aim to consolidate a taught subject; for this reason, the logic and the skill of designing and performing an experiment cannot be given. According to Clough (2002), laboratory activities, in its frequently used form, do not engage students mentally. Laboratory activity includes more than performing a predetermined activity. They should be real activities rather than the ones suppressing students' thinking skills determined in the form of a cookbook. Although students perform given procedural steps in the form of sufficient number of recipes experiments called close-ended or watch activities performed in the form of show, they cannot reach desired success in lessons or exams, especially the ones belonging to international research studies such as TIMSS and PISA (Koca and Şen, 2002; Ersoy, 2007; Şişman, Acat, Aypay and Karadağ, 2011; Atar and Atar, 2012; Yücel, Karadağ and Turan, 2013, Aydın, Sarıer, Uysal, 2014) and design and perform an experiment with the aim of solving a given scientific problem. Moreover, students participating in these studies are made to pass through the period of preparation for future exams (Karamustafaoğlu and Sontay, 2012). Here, the aim is again to focus on an exam success and apply a preparation program to increase success. Such questions as "At what level is the educational content acquisition after the exam, “what will be practiced after that?” are ignored. However, exam success is not the primary goal, but students should obtain expected acquisitions within the educational process and show necessary success in these exams naturally. These international studies with extensive sampling, in which Turkey participates, 653

too, provide an opportunity to make analyses in relation to teaching practices within the scope of rich data content. For example, it was found that experimental setup and analysis are “sometimes” performed in science lessons, in which experiments are made by teachers in front of students most of the time (Yıldırım, 2011). Again, according to Yıldırım 2011, this indicates that experiments and tests where laboratory use is low are usually performed in the classroom. When the fact that no substructure is available for experiments in the classroom is considered, it is very difficult to call an activity referred as “experiment” really an experiment and say that experiments are performed according to their aims”. Moreover, in lessons and exams, the frequency of developing hypotheses and designing scientfic research studies is very low (Bayraktar, 2010). Hence, our students do not have sufficient knowledge and skills for designing, performing experiments. For example, in a study carried out in Slovenia, it was observed that the frequency of doing eperiments and success were negatively related (Pavesic, 2008). For what matters is not the frequency of doing experiments, but what matters more are students' knowing about the nature of doing experiments and also contents and aims of experiments etc. and, as it was mentioned above, their inability to understand the nature of science (Demir and Akarsu, 2013; Uluçınar, Sağır and Kılıç, 2013) and having scientific problems. Some studies made in Turkey indicate this. For example, when studies carried out on scientific process skills were examined, it was determined that Turkish primary school students' scientific process skills were at low level (Tan and Temiz, 2003; Hazır and Türkmen, 2008; Ergül et al., 2011; Saraçoğlu, Böyük, Tanık, 2012; Durmaz and Mutlu, 2012). If we look in the act of experimentation from the point of scientific literacy, we observe that scientific literacy is composed of three basic components: Scientific knowledge, scientific method and nature of science (Sterling et al., 2010). These three basic steps are in relation with each other and the act of doing experiments has a structure covering and integrating all the steps of scientific method. That is to say, the act of experimentation is a whole. Understanding of scentific method is achieved through the acquisition of these skills defined as scientific process skills (Harlen, 1999) in hierarchical structure. At the same time, these skills contribute to the develoment of scientific knowledge also by including scientific questioning and critical thinking skills (Lederman, N.G., Lederman, J.S., and Antink, A. 2013). The basic aim of laboratory works including different methods is to help students to make sense of abstract science concepts by concretizing them, recognize the essence of science and develop problem solving and scientific process skills (Pekbay and Kaptan, 2014). Domin (1999, 2007) defined four different types of laboratory works. These are: expository, discovery, inquiry and problem based works. The expository approach includes types of activities, whose results are known beforehand, where setting up related designs and steps of activities to be performed are given readily to students (open-ended), requiring data analysis at the least level and generally aiming to consolidate knowledge. Here, another acquisition is to contribute to the development of students' skills of using basic measuement tools, too. This type of approach is generally used in the first years of science courses and classes. The discovery oriented laboratory activities are suitable for elementary second stage or secondary education level. Here the aim is to have students set up experiments and make interpretations based on obtained results. In more advanced classes, students should be directed to inquiry and 654

problem-based approaches requiring designing more open-ended and complicated experiments. In this aproach, students should be able to design activity steps aiming to solve a problem encountered before with the least supervision possible. At this stage, students should be encouraged to ask questions and shown limitatons related to a problem which they try to solve. When these activities from this level are performed carefully, students develop more effective meanings about concepts, principles and theories. When attention is paid, it is observed that practices in Turkey are mostly limited to the expository type of practices. In the study, a "flow diagram of the act of doing experiments" was designed in relation to the teaching of the act of performing experiments and given in Figure -1. By following the steps given within the scope of this flow diagram in accordance with class levels, students should be made to acquire necessary substructure. For example, the skills in cycle 1 are the basic skills and they should absolutely be taught at the first stage of the elementary education. Students having acquired and absorbed these skills should pass to cycle 2. Likewise, teacher candidates should test themselves within this framework as well. If we make an evaluation in relation to the act of doing experiments from the point of TIMMS and PISA examinations, let's take two question examples asked in these exams: For example, an example question asked in TIMMS 2007 is like this (T.C. MEB, Yegitek): "Pelin took two small containers, which were the same, and filled these with the same amount of water. After dissolving a soupspoonful of salt in the water in one of the containers, she put these two containers in a freezer. Then, Pelin observed these containers every five minutes until the water in one of the containers freezed. What kind of a result will Pelin obtain from this experiement?" This question is a practice which is in line with Domin's (1999, 2007) discovery approach and what is targeted here, according to Lederman (2004), is the use of all the steps of the scientific method or scientific process skills, one of the three basic components of the scientific literacy. Students should have mastery over all the steps in the flow diagram given in Figure -1, start with observation and perform all of the acts of data collection, classification, making inferences, determining variables, setting up hypostheses, doing experiments and making conclusions in a systematic way. Moreover, a question asked in PISA 2009 is like this (T.C. MEB, Yegitek): “Jale and Osman wondered which sun protection products would achieve best protection for their skins. For the sun protection products, a Sun Protection Factor (SPF) was defined to indicate the degree to which each product absorbed ultraviolet lights in the sunlight. A sun protection product with high SPF protects skin for longer period of time compared to a product with low level SPF. Jale thought for a while to compare some sun protection products. Jale and Osman collected the following materials: • two clean plastic sheets not absorbing (transmitting) sunlight; • a piece of light-sensitive paper; • a cream including mineral oil (M) and zinc oxide (ZnO) • four different protection products which they named as S1, S2, S3 and S4.

655

Student 2

1

To teach the concepts of variable and variable types affect an event

Teaching observation skills

To teach the knowledge of establish a scientific hypothesis

Recognition and using of the basic measurement tools and teaching measurement and data collection skills

Teaching knowledge and skills of controling and changing

To gain the knowledge and skills of Classification, data organization, to create tables and charts

To gain knowledge of interpretation of data, making decision, and presentation

Yes Have the students this skills and knowledge ?

2

Students gained the experimentation skills

No

Yes

Have the students this skills and knowledge ?

1 No 2

Figure 1. Flow diagram of the act of doing experiments

656

Jale and Osman wondered which sunscreen product provides the best protection for their skin. Sunscreen products have a Sun Protection Factor (SPF) that shows how well each product absorbs the ultraviolet radiation component of sunlight. A high SPF sunscreen protects skin for longer than a low SPF sunscreen. Jale thought of a way to compare some different sunscreen products. She and Osman collected the following: s two sheets of clear plastic that do not absorb sunlight; s one sheet of light-sensitive paper; s mineral oil (M) and a cream containing zinc oxide (ZnO); and s four different sunscreens that they called S1, S2, S3, and S4. Jale and Osman included mineral oil because it lets most of the sunlight through, and zinc oxide because it almost completely blocks sunlight. Osman placed a drop of each substance inside a circle marked on one sheet of plastic, then put the second plastic sheet over the top. He placed a large book on top of both sheets and pressed down. Jale then put the plastic sheets on top of the sheet of light-sensitive paper. Lightsensitive paper changes from dark grey to white (or very light grey), depending on how long it is exposed to sunlight. Finally, Osman placed the sheets in a sunny place. Qestion1 Which one of these statements is a scientific description of the role of the mineral oil and the zinc oxide in comparing the effectiveness of the sunscreens? A. Mineral oil and zinc oxide are both factors being tested. B. Mineral oil is a factor being tested and zinc oxide is a reference substance. C. Mineral oil is a reference substance and zinc oxide is a factor being tested. D. Mineral oil and zinc oxide are both reference substances. Qestion 2 Which one of these questions were Jale and Osman trying to answer? A. How does the protection for each sunscreen compare with the others? B. How do sunscreens protect your skin from ultraviolet radiation? C. Is there any sunscreen that gives less protection than mineral oil? D. Is there any sunscreen that gives more protection than zinc oxide? Qestion 3 Why was the second sheet of plastic pressed down? A. To stop the drops from drying out. B. To spread the drops out as far as possible. C. To keep the drops inside the marked circles. D. To make the drops the same thickness. Qestion 4 The light-sensitive paper is a dark grey and fades to a lighter grey when it is exposed to some sunlight, and to white when exposed to a lot of sunlight. Which one of these diagrams shows a pattern that might occur? Explain why you chose it.

Answer: Explanation:” This question is a practice which is in line with Domin’s (1999, 2007) problembased laboratory approach. In this question, a current problem encountered in daily life was given together with scientific steps applied in relation to the solution steps of this 657

problem and students were asked to recognize and interpret these steps. Again, students should have mastery over all the steps in the flow diagram given in Figure -1. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION When we look at the above-mentioned question contents, we observe that the expected act of doing experiments does not overlap the habitual concept of doing experiments at our schools. It was mentioned that providing scientific literacy includes more than teaching and learning physical sciences as a whole of knowledge and, additionally, developing scientific literacy requires a broader perspective to scientific approach. When we take it from this perspective, we can state that it is important to give teachers and teacher candidates the knowledge and logic of doing experiments and also programs should be developed and applied effectively to convey this information within the teaching process. For contents and practicing ways of teaching programs affect students’ success levels (Ersoy, 2007) For years, science programs have emphasized the teaching of scientific facts to students instead of developing their understanding. Such a science education has generally encouraged students to memorize scientific concepts and principles rather than having students acquire the understanding of the nature of science (Çakıcı, 2009). Today, although there are efforts to train scientifically literate individuals having the understanding of the nature of science in program development, some deficiencies are observed in exhibited practices. For example, as it was mentioned above, in the science and technology program developed by T.C. MEB in 2006, it was emphasized that all students should be trained as scientifically literate individuals and scientific process skills (SPS) were specified as one of the dimensions of scientific literacy. The vision of the Physical Sciences Course Program developed by the T.C. MEB in 2013 was emphasized in the way that "all students should be trained as scientifically literate individuals and in the "Skill" learning domain included in the Physical Sciences Course Program and the specified Scientific Process Skills, namely making observations, measurement, classification, recording the data, hypothesizing, using the data and establishing a model, changing and controlling variables and doing experiments, cover the skills used by science people in their studies. However, Yıldırım (2011) reached the result that in the second stage science and technology lessons, teaching practices tending to make the teacher active and the student passive are more frequently performed; the teaching strategies projected in the science and technology teaching program have not become widespread yet and when the program and the practice are taken into consideration, important differences are observed; rather than developing teachers' scientific research skills, they attach importance to the comprehension of what is learned in the classroom. However, Demirbaş (2008) reached the result that although student-centered teaching is aimed in the Science and Technology course programs (2000, 2006), teacher-centered teaching is more frequently observed in the practice. Moreover, Pekbay and Kaptan (2014) reached the result in a study carried out with the teacher candidates having taken physics, chemistry and biology laboratories that the teacher candidates thought that they reached precise knowledge thanks to the laboratory method; some of the teacher candidates defined the laboratory method as a process in which laboratory rules are obeyed. This result indicates that laboratory practices are at the simplest level. Ateş (2005) reached the finding in a study made with the classroom teacher candidates that a great majority of the teacher candidates could not define the 658

concepts of variable, dependent variable, independent variable and controlled variable. The results of the study made by Aydoğdu et al. (2012) with the science teacher candidates indicated that the science teacher candidates had low level skills of determining hypotheses, dependent and independent variables. Bağcı-Kılıç, Yardımcı, Metin (2009) found in a study with classroom teacher candidates that nearly all of the classroom teacher candidates could not determine the controlled variable and wrote dependent variable in place of controlled variable. Kandemir and Yılmaz (2012) found in a study with classroom techers that 428 classroom teachers' advanced level scientific process skills were at moderate level. Moreover, Çelik and Özbek (2013) reached the result that the teacher candidates had insufficient level of skills of setting up hypotheses. Laçin- Şimşek (2010) determined in a study with 20 teacher candidates that they had difficulty in "determining variables” and identifying some of the experimental process skills such as those of setting up hypotheses, controlling variables, using the data and establishing a model. Karslı and Ayas (2013) expressed that although teacher candidates take these courses in the current system, they are not much aware of the scientific process skills overemphasized in the teaching programs. Celep and Bacanak (2013) reached the result that student acquire scientific process skills in laboratory skills; most of the time the laboratory method and the experimentation technique are used while having students acquire these skills; people have easier lives and solve their problems more effectively when they have acquired these skills. Moreover, Anagün (2011) concluded that if importance was attached to scientific process skills in science lessons, the students' scientific literacy levels increased. All these study results reveal that the concept, skill and act of doing experiments are not understood sufficiently both by teacher candidates and students. It can be stated that one of the reasons of insufficient interest in sicence lessons and low success is this mentioned situation. Although our students generally perform close-ended experiments fondly, they become unsuccessful when they are supposed to design experiments in relation to solving a given scientific problem, develop a negative attitude and, as a result, move away from lessons. The fact that we rank among the last five countries in examinations like TIMSS and PISA held in 50 countries together with Turkey is the most basic indication of our inability to have our students get involved in the scientific process in physical sciences sufficiently and our students' not learning the concepts through these processes (Bağcı Kılıç, 2003) and, in this context, the serious differences especially in Science scores indicate the necessity of giving place to methods in which activities and experiments are attached more importance than to existing methods about this matter and students will construct knowledge (Korur et al., 2014). According to Çakıcı (2009), the problem in science education results from the difference between the study methods of science people and the science education at schools and "if science is regarded as a practice in which students create thoughts and test them in order to make sense of observed realities, thoughts as a result of observations in the scientific activity process are accepted skeptically always with a possiblity of rejection and tested with experiments. Hence, on the one hand, students can understand the nature of scientific process better and, on the other hand, students' scientific thinking, creativity and imagination power are developed and the foundations of information society can be laid”. That the nature of scientific process and the concept of experiment have not been understood should be regarded as one of the fundamental problems. It is important that teachers and teacher candiadates should be aware of this problem. Seeing that teachers 659

teach scientific knowledge in science lessons, how teachers perceive scientific knowledge and scientific activity affects their way of teaching. For this reason, revealing how teachers perceive scientific knowledge and having them acquire the valid scientific understanding and point of view with today's thought is very important in terms of effective science education ( Çakıcı, 2009). In this context, at both faculties training teachers and schools at every level, in addition to science courses, there should also be courses in which students are made to acquire the knowledge and skill of experimentation and this should be overemphasized. For, in science education, in order to develop concepts which students possess, there is a need for directly teaching students the nature of science independently from science subject areas and it is important to have them acquire the experimentation skills within the scope of this course in which they can solve an existing scientific problem or exhibit the solution steps of a scintific problem which they will create (Demir and Akarsu, 2013). Moreover, giving students a research subject related to science courses or their daily lives helps them learn how to approach and solve a problem situation and design related experiments (Hug and Krajcik, 2002). Today, creativity and analytical thinking, an important concept in science education, was overemphasized in the vision of the 2013 Physical Sciences Course Program as well. Aktamış and Ergin (2007) stated that scientific process steps and creativity steps overlap and indicated in their study that these steps were exactly the same. In conclusion, today, no matter what modern teaching approach towards science lessons is used, it can be observed that the precondition of success is to possess knowledge and skills of experimentation. REFERENCES Aktamış, H. & Ergin, Ö. (2007). Bilimsel Süreç Becerileri İle Bilimsel Yaratıcılık Arasındaki İlişkinin Belirlenmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H. U. Journal of Education), 33: 11-23. Anagün, Ş.S. (2011). PISA 2006 sonuçlarına göre Öğretme-öğrenme değişkenlerinin öğrencilerin fen okuryazarlıklarına etkisi. Eğitim ve Bilim, cilt,36, sayı: 162, 84-102. Atar, H.Y & Atar, B. (2012). Türk Eğitim Reformunun Öğrencilerin TIMSS 2007 Fen Başarılarına Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri (Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice), 12(4) , 2621-2636. Ateş, S. (2005). Öğretmen Adaylarının Değişkenleri Belirleme ve Kontrol Etme Yeteneklerinin Geliştirilmesi. G.Ü, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 25, Sayı 1, 21-39. Aydın,A., Sarıer,Y. & Uysal,Ş. 2014. Evaluation of Students’ Academic Achievement in terms of PISA Results. İlköğretim Online, 13(3), 1065-1074, [Online]: http://ilkogretimonline.org.tr American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Aydoğdu, B., Tatar, N., Yıldız, E & Buldur, S. (2012). İlköğretim Öğrencilerine Yönelik Bilimsel Süreç Becerileri Ölçeğinin Geliştirilmesi. Kuramsal Eğitimbilim Dergisi, 5(3), 292-311. Bağcı-Kılıç, G. (2003). Üçüncü uluslararası matematik ve fen araştırması (TIMSS): fen öğretimi, bilimsel araştırma ve bilimin doğası. İlköğretim-Online, 2(1), 42-51. Bağcı-Kılıç, Yardımcı & Metin, D. (2009). How would variables be named in science education? Journal of Abant İzzet Baysal University, 9(2), 13-26. 660

Bayraktar, Ş. (2010). Uluslararası Fen ve Matematik Çalışması (TIMSS 2007) Sonuçlarına Göre Türkiye’de Fen Eğitiminin Durumu. Selçuk Üniversitesi Ahmet Keleşoğlu Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Sayı 30, 249-270. Bülbül, M. Ş. (2013). A Description of a Blind Student‘s Science Process Skills through Health Physics. European Journal of Physics Education, 4(2), 6-13. Çakıcı, Y. (2009). Fen eğitiminde bir önkoşul: bilimin doğasını anlama. M.Ü. Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, Sayı: 29, 57-74. Celep, A. & Bacanak, A. (2013). Yüksek Lisans Yapan Öğretmenlerin Bilimsel Süreç Becerileri ve Kazandırılması Hakkındaki Görüşleri, Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi. Yıl 10 , Sayı 1,56-78. Çelik, H. & Özbek, G. (2013). 7E Öğretim modelinin hipotez kurma ve değişken belirleme becerileri üzerine etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Endüstriyel Sanatlar Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Sayı: 31, 13-23. Clough, M. P. (2002). Using the laboratory to enhance student learning. In R.W. Bybee (Ed.), Learning science and the science of learning . NSTA press. National Science Teachers Association, Washington, D.C, pp. 85-94. Demir, N. & Akarsu, B. 2013. Ortaokul Öğrencilerinin Bilimin Doğası hakkında Algıları. JEE ISSN 2146-2674 Volume 3 Issue1, 8-15. Demirbaş, M. (2008). Altıncı sınıf fen bilgisi ve fen ve Teknoloji öğretim programlarının karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmesi: öğretim öncesi görüşler. Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 21(2), 313–338. Doğan, N., Çakıroğlu, J., Çavuş, S., Bilican, K. & Arslan, O. (2011). Developing science teachers’ nature of science views: the effect of in-service teacher education program, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H. U. Journal of Education) 40: 127139. Domin, D. (1999). A review of laboratory instruction styles. Journal of Chemical Education, 76: 543–547. Domin, D. S. (2007). Students’ perceptions of when conceptual development occurs during laboratory instruction. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 8(2): 140–152. Durmaz, H. & Mutlu, S. (2012). Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi (EFMED) Cilt 6, Sayı 1, sayfa 124-150. Ergül, R., Şimşekli,Y., Çalış, S., Özdilek, Z., Göçmençelebi, Ş., Şanlı, M. (2011). The effects of inquiry-based science teaching on elementary school students’ science process skills and science attitudes. Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education Policy (BJSEP), Volume 5, Number 1,pp.48-68. Ersoy, Y. (2007). TIMSS 2007: Uluslararası Matematik ve Fen araştırması I-: Öğrencilerin Başarısıyla İlgili Bazı Göstergeler. Erişim tarihi: 21 Aralık 2014: http://www.f2e2ogretmen. com/dagarcigimiz/f2e2-522.pdf Harlen, W. (1999). Purposes and procedures for assessing science process skills. Assessment in Education, 6(1), 129-144. Hart, C., Mulhall,P., Berry, A., Loughran, J. & Gunstone, R. (2000). What is the Purpose of this Experiment? Or Can Students Learn Something from Doing Experiments? Journal of research in scıence teaching, vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 655 -675. Hazır, A., & Türkmen, L. (2008). İlköğretim 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin bilimsel süreç beceri düzeyleri. Selçuk Üniversitesi Ahmet Keleşoğlu Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 26, 81-96. Hofstein A. & Lunetta V.N., 2004, The laboratory in science education: foundation for the 21stcentury, Science Education, 88, 28-54. Hug, B. & Krajcik, J. S. (2002). Students’ scientific practices using a scaffolded inquiry sequence. In P. Bell, R. Stevens and T. Satwicz (Eds.), International Conference of the 661

Learning Sciences (ICLS) Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Kandemir, E.M & Yılmaz, H. (2012). Öğretmenlerin üst düzey bilimsel süreç becerilerini anlama düzeylerinin belirlenmesi. Western Anatolia, Journal of Educational Science, Cilt: 3, Sayı: 5, 1-28. Karamustafaoğlu, O. & Sontay,G. 2012. Bir TIMMS sınavının ardından: TIMMS 2011’e katılan öğrenci ve uygulayıcı öğretmenlerin görüşleri. X.Ulusal Fen bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi, Niğde. Karslı, F. & Ayas, , A. (2013). Fen ve Teknoloji Dersi Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilimsel Süreç Becerilerinin Ölçülmesine İlişkin Bir Test Geliştirme Çalışması, Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi, Yıl: 10, Sayı 2, 66-84. Koca, A. & Şen, İ. (2002). Evaluation of The Results of Third International Mathematics and Science Study for Turkey, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 23.145154. Korur, F., Taşkın, G., İldemir, G., Acar, B., Üstündağ,T., Tıraş M., Yıldırım,Z. (2014). Fen Becerilerim Ölçeğinin Uyarlanarak Pratik Etkinlikler Sonrası Öğrencilerin Becerilerine Yönelik Algılarının Tespit Edilmesi. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 30, 95 - 117 Krajcik, J., Blumenfeld, B., Marx, R., & Soloway. E. (2000). Instructional, curricular, and technological supports for inquiry in science classrooms. In J. Minstell, and E. van Zee (Eds.), Inquiry into inquiry: Science learning and teaching. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science Press. Kuhn, D., Garcia-Mila, M., Zohar, A., & Andersen, C. (1995). Strategies of knowledge acquisition. Society for Research in Child Development Monographs, 60 (4), Serial no. 245. Laçin- Şimşek, C. 2010. Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Fen ve Teknoloji Ders Kitaplarındaki Deneyleri Bilimsel Süreç Becerileri Açısından Analiz Edebilme Yeterlilikleri. İlköğretim Online, 9(2), 433-445. Lederman, N.G., Lederman, J.S., &Antink, A. (2013). Nature of science and scientific inquiry as contexts for the learning of science and achievement of scientific literacy. International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 1(3), 138147. Lederman, N. G. (2004). Syntax of nature of science within inquiry and science instruction. In L. B. Flick & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Science & technology education library: Vol. 25. Scientific inquiry and nature of science (pp. 301–317). Dordrecht: Springer. Lehrer, R., Schauble, L., &Petrosino, A. J. (2001). Reconsidering the Role of Experimentation in Science Education. In Crowley, K., Schunn, C. D. & Okada, T. (Eds.) Designing for Science: Implications from Everyday, Classroom, and Professional Settings. (pp.251-277.) Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Millar, R. (1991). A means to an end: The role of processes in science education. In B. Woolnough, (Ed.). Practical science. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press. Metz, K. E. (2000). Young children's inquiry in biology. Building the knowledge bases to empower independent inquiry. In J. Minstrell & E. H. van Zee (Eds.),Inquiring into inquiry learning and teaching in science Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. pp. 3-13. National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Pavesic, B. J. (2008). Science achievement, gender differences, and experimental work in classes in Slovenia as evident in TIMSS studies. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 34, 94-104. 662

Pekbay, C. & Kaptan, F. (2014). Fen Eğitiminde Laboratuvar Yönteminin Etkililiği ile ilgili Fen Bilgisi Öğretmen Adaylarının Farkındalıklarının Artırılması: Nitel Bir Çalışma. Karaelmas journal and educational science, 2, 1-11. Saraçoğlu, S., Böyük, U. ve Tanık, N. (2012). Birleştirilmiş ve Bağımsız Sınıflarda Öğrenim Gören İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Bilimsel Süreç Beceri Düzeyleri. Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi. Yıl 9, Sayı 1, 83-100. Sterling, D. R., Aitken, K., Schools, F. C. P., Berube, C., Calhoun, J., Schools, P. W. C. P., . . . Hagan, D. B. (2010). Teaching about scientific inquiry and the nature of science: toward a more complete view of science. Virginia Mathematics and Science Coalition Scientific Inquiry and the Nature of Science Task Force Report.5-25. Şişman, M., Acat, M. B., Aypay, A. & Karadağ, E. (2011). TIMSS 2007 Ulusal fen raporu: 8. sınıflar. Ankara: EARGED Yayınları. Tan, M., & Temiz, B. K. (2003). Fen öğretiminde bilimsel süreç becerilerinin yeri ve önemi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(13), 89–101. T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı,Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı, İlköğretim fen ve teknoloji dersi (6,7ve 8.Sınıflar) öğretim programı, Ankara 2006. T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı, Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı, İlköğretim kurumları (ilkokullar ve ortaokullar), Fen bilimleri dersi (3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ve 8. sınıflar) öğretim programı , Ankara, 2013. T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı, Erişim: 07 Ocak 2015, http://yegitek.meb.gov.tr/dosyalar/timss/ timss2007_8.sinif_fen_soru.pdf T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı, Erişim: 07 Ocak 2015, http://yegitek.meb.gov.tr/dosyalar/dokumanlar/uluslararasi/ pisa_2006_ulusal_on_raporu.pdf Uluçınar-Sağır, Ş. & Kılıç, Z. 2013. İlköğretım öğrencilerinin bilimin doğasını anlama düzeylerine bilimsel tartışma odaklı öğretimin etkisi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 44: 308-318. Yıldırım, K. (2011). Uluslararası Araştırma Verilerine Göre Türkiye’de ilköğretim Fen ve Teknoloji Derslerindeki Öğretim Uygulamaları. Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi , 8(1), 159-174 Yücel, C., Karadağ, E., & Turan, S. (2013). TIMSS 2011 ulusal ön değerlendirme raporu. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitimde Politika Analizi Raporlar Serisi I, Eskişehir. White, B., & Frederiksen, J. (1998). Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science Accessible to All Students. Cognition and Instruction, 16(1), 3-118.

663

Chapter 52 The Relationship between Generic Competencies of Teaching Profession and Critical Thinking Tendencies of Pedagogical Formation Training Certificate Program Students1 Sadık Yüksel SIVACI, Yasemin KUZU INTRODUCTION The 21st century is a period in which passing to information age accelerates as well as the rapid development in science and technology. At this point, the important thing is the information and the dissemination of information. The keystone of information is its availability. A Cherokee proverb says that the knowledge which is not used means that it is misused. In Latin, the notion of information comes from the root “informato”, and it has the meanings of “formation”, “formalization” and “annunciation”. In the general sense, information is the products reached by reasoning, judgment, reading, observation and experimentation. Information means an element that occurs as meaningful and refined after a certain process and that is thought it has a significant place in some administrative decisions or that has a real value (Öğüt, 2003). Informational century or information age is a period that shows the main source of generation is information, information generation and making it widespread have increased, there are mostly employees in generation and distribution of information, development and alteration in the desired way occur by means of organization with the help of continuous learning and enlightenment (Öğüt, 2003). And this is an indicator that the importance of education and educated people increases. The effect of individual and society on education is increasing and gaining importance day by day. At the present time, increase of the importance of education and educated people is a truth. About the notion of education, a large variety and also quite different definitions have been made from time immemorial. While Descartes defines education as learning to use mind accurately, Aristo states that it is a means for individuals in gaining ethical behaviors. Sönmez (2008) defines education as a process of creating desired biochemical changes in brain as a result of physical stimulants. In addition to this, “Education is also defined as science that tries to find law and principles of change and development of individuals’ behaviors in a planned way according to certain purposes and to improve some techniques with this purpose” (Fidan & Erden, 1993). To Collins and O’Brien, education is “a process of supporting individuals during the cognitive, psychological, emotional, social and ethical growth and development in the setting of group or individually” (cited in Öğüt, 2003: 116). 1

Part of this study was presented orally at the INTE 2014.  Assist. Prof. Dr., Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of.Educational Sciences   Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of Educationel Sciences 

Varış (1978) defines education as a process including a controlled environment and activities done at school for the sake of individuals’ social abilities and individual developments. Despite these different definitions, education is generally defined as an elapsed time that makes people bring to maturity and makes them virtuous and flawless (Şişman, 2006). In this regard, to deal with various concepts related to education, they are teacher, student, pedagogy, etc. According to Turkish Language Society, pedagogy is defined as an educational science. Pedagogy is that activities related to education are investigated, examined and applied to reach some certain purposes (ethical, philosophical, etc.) of the society (Albay, 2007). As for the actualization of these educational activities, teachers are needed. Teachers are the keystone of the education system. Alkan (1998) defines teacher as an incumbent who is aware of social, scientific, cultural and technological developments related to the educational area and who directs and shapes behaviors of individuals as a specialist in their field. To Sönmez (2003: 3), teacher is a person supporting individuals professionally to make them gain terminal behaviors in educational areas. The teacher is one of the most important keystones in education system. It is necessary to increase good features to make individuals (that are one of the elements contributing to the system) be effective, creative, productive and equipped. Well-trained teachers, modern teaching methods and techniques, sufficient classroom environments, successful managers and decisive students are needed in order that the education system operates effectively. Each element of the system affects the process and the result; the emerging deficiencies decreases performance. The studies done for the development of the education system can be evaluated in every aspect. Especially in the studies for increasing the teacher quality towards teaching profession, it should be provided that the belief is higher (İlhan, 2004). In this respect, competencies of people having teaching profession occur. Generic competencies belonging to teaching profession are stated as “general knowledge, ability and attitudes that should be had to carry out teaching profession effectively and productively” (MEB, 2006). Competency areas include performances of any individuals that they show for doing tasks in their own positions (Bursalıoğlu, 1981: 5). In this case, teachers are expected to play active role in students’ reaching their goals, in teaching and in determining skill attitudes during the learning process. Generally expected things from teachers are stated as taking individuals’ needs and personal differences into consideration during the education period, providing them to develop their human relations and communication abilities, leading students to work in groups and making them to be effective in the group, giving a direction about free-time activities, guiding away from learning social life, knowing that the student should be in the center, supporting individuals being thought that they need a special education, teaching in a planned way, using various methods and techniques appropriate for teaching, evaluating cognitive, affective and kinetic behaviors of students by using appropriate methods and tools, making teaching materials available, leading students to proper behaviors, establishing a connection between scientific fields, conveying what they learn to individuals, bringing students in methods and techniques that will be used in reaching the information, knowing the styles of teaching and learning, giving countenance to students during the preparation process, developing their thinking ability about making analysis and criticizing, having reflective thinking system, being efficient 665

and successful in field information and teaching (Erden, 1998; Çeliköz, 2000; Aksu, 2005; Onural, 2005). Competency and critical thinking that are one of the norms of teacher training are the important findings occurring at this point. Critical thinking is a kind of situation expected to be in every person and it is the most affective one among thinking types. Critical thinking means objective and scrutinized thinking that is far from fixed ideas. Critical thinking enables us to distinguish qualified from unqualified and truth from fault. With critical thinking, we become in a system that can get to the root of the problem, investigate them from different viewpoints, try to comprehend, and argue when it is necessary; not in an uncontrolled activity. The thing that makes individual love critical thinking is not just the sense of freedom that it gives but the discovery and determination will that it brings (İpşiroğlu, 2002). According to Norris (1985), critical thinking is that the individuals apply all the information that they have about something and change their behaviors in this way by weighing their own skills with these applications. Critical thinking can be described as an effective, functional and active period that is formed to improve the ability of comprehension of both individual’s own ideas and other people’s ideas and the ability of presenting these ideas (Chaffe, 1994; cited in Kökdemir, 2003). As is seen, critical thinking meets on a common ground and serves at the same purposes despite all these various descriptions. So, how dominant are we on this subject in education science at the present time? Do teachers and students provide necessary competency? Hence, it is asserted that critical thinking occurs systematically in an educational institution. One the most important topics of modern-day education system is the development of critical thinking ability of individuals and the problem of their teacher competencies. Because of this, “teacher competency fields” are the leading topics studied by MEB in recent years to determine the quality of occupational performances of teachers. On the other hand, the thing that is expected from teachers is that they can have a grasp of changes and developments, search for them to learn, and criticize themselves about their own competencies. In addition to this, teachers who know the things that should be done about in what way if the critical thinking is improved, teaching of lesson can change positively and the things that should be applied to students (Narin, 2009). In the light of this information, it is aimed to examine the relationship between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate program students in this research. In line with this purpose, answers of the following sub-problems are searched: 1. What are the levels of generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate? 2. Is there any difference between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate according to their genders? 3. Is there any difference between their generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies according to their branches that they graduated? 4. Is there a relationship between their generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies?

666

MATERIALS AND METHODS Research Model: In this research, it is aimed to determine the relationship between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate program students. In the study, it is tried to reveal the existing situation as is. From this aspect, the research has the characteristics of relational screening model. In relational screening, it is aimed to determine the existence and the degree of simultaneous change between more than one variable (Karasar, 2009). Study Group: The study group of the research includes 179 students studying in the Pedagogical Formation Training Certificate Program at Kırşehir Ahi Evran University in 2013-2014 academic years and from the departments of Math, Turkish Language and Literature, Geography, Physics, Chemistry and History. Distributions related to the genders and branches of participants are seen in Table 1. Table 1: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Pedagogical Formation Training Certificate Program Students Related to their Demographic Features Features Gender

Branch

Categories Female

F

%

103

57,5

Male Math

76

42,5

49

27,4

Chemistry

14

7,8

Geography

13 24 25 54 179

7,3 13,4 14,0 30,2 100,0

Physics History Turkish Language and Literature

Total

When we look at the distribution by gender of students in study group in Table-1, there are 103 (%57,5) female prospective teachers and 76 (%42,5) male prospective teachers. When the distribution by branch is taken into consideration, it is seen that there are 49 (%27,4) prospective teachers graduated from Math, 14 (%7,8) from Chemistry, 13 (%7,3) from Geography, 24 (%13,4) from Physics, 25 (%14,0) from History and 54 (%30,2) from Turkish Language and Literature. Data Collection Tools Generic Competency of Teaching Profession Scale The scale has been developed by researchers by paying regard to generic competencies determined by MEB (2008) with the expert opinions. There are 31 items that measure generic competency of teaching profession in the scale. Cronbach Alpha coefficient of the items in the scale has been found as .96. California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale occurred as a result of Delphi project organized by American Philosophy Organization in 1990. The scale has 7 sub-scales determined theoretically and tested psychometrically; however, point scoring system consisting of the sum total of these scales is used in order to determine the critical 667

thinking tendency.While internal consistency coefficients (alpha) of sub-scales of California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale change between .60 and .78, internal consistency coefficient of all the items is .90 (Kökdemir, 2003). Turkish adaptation of this scale has been done on 913 students by Kökdemir (2003). As a result of the total score correlation and principal components analysis, the scale has been decreased from 75 items to 51 items, and from 7 factors to 6 factors. While the internal consistency coefficients (alpha) of the new scale change between .61 and .78, the internal consistency coefficient of the scale is .88. Total variance explained by the scale is determined as %36.13. Data Analysis The data collected as being suitable for the purpose of the research have been processed into SPSS-21 program. Frequency and percentage values related to the demographic features of pedagogical formation training certificate program students have been examined. To search for the level of generic competencies and critical thinking tendencies of students, descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum value) have been utilized. One-Way Anova analysis has been used to see how the generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of students change according to branch variable and Independent-Sample ttest has been used to see how they change according to gender variable. To determine the relationship between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of students, Pearson correlation analysis has been examined. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION First Sub-Problem What is the level of generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate program students? Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for the Distributions of Points Obtained from the Scales Scales N Minimum Maximum Mean S Generic Competencies of 179 38,00 186,00 140,65 26,64 Teaching Profession Critical Thinking Tendencies 179 59,00 296,00 207,14 38,93

When we look at Table 2, it is seen that the minimum point level of generic competencies of teaching profession of pedagogical formation training certificate program students is 38 and the maximum point is 186. It is also seen that the competency means are X=140,65 (S=26,64). Besides, the skewness value of generic competencies of teaching profession is -,96; that is to say, competency senses of students show an above-mean distribution. It is seen that the minimum point level of critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate program students is 59 and the maximum point is 296. It is also seen that the critical thinking tendency means are X=207,14 (S=38,93). Additionally, that the skewness value of critical thinking tendency is -,57 means that they show distribution that is a little above mean. Second Sub-Problem Is there any difference between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate program 668

students according to their genders? Table 3: Independent-Sample T-Test Results of the Difference between the Mean Points Obtained from the Scales according to Students’ Gender Gender Female Male Female Male

Generic Competencies of Teaching Profession Critical Thinking Tendencies

N 103 76 103 76

X 141,95 138,88 201,42 214,90

S 22,72 31,26 35,46 42,19

t

df

p

,76

177

,448

2,32

177

,022

When we look at Table 3, it is seen that there is no significant difference between female students’ generic competencies of teaching profession ( X =141,95) and male students’ generic competencies of teaching profession ( X =138,88) according to t(177)=,76, p=,448>,05. As Table 3 shows, there is a significant difference between critical thinking tendencies of female students ( X =201,42) and critical thinking tendencies of male students ( X =214,90) according to t(177)=2,32, p=,022<,05. This significant difference is because of that critical thinking tendencies of male students are more positive than critical thinking tendencies of female students.

Critical Thinking Tendencies

21281,44

4256,29

14

157,07

16,04

105041,39

607,18

13

124,77

30,47

126322,83

4

24

142,00

25,05

5

25

151,80

16,33

6

54

146,78

20,80

1

49

201,16

44,76

12272,66

2454,53

2

14

229,36

58,80

257428,85

1488,03

3

13

203,46

37,97

269701,51

4

24

217,42

36,37

5

25

207,28

38,91

6

54

203,06

24,66

1

N 49

2 3

X

F (173/5)

p

7,01

,000

1,65

,149

Post Hoc (Tukey)

Mean of Squares

Generic Competenci es of Teaching Profession

127,06

S 31,22

Branch

Scales

Sum of Squares

Table 4: One-Way Anova Results of the Difference between Mean Points Observed from the Scales according to the Branches that They Graduated

1<2, 1<5,1<6 3<2, 3<5,4<6

Categories: 1=Math; 2=Chemistry; 3=Geography; 4=Physics; 5=History; 6=Turkish Language and Literature

Third Sub-Problem Is there any difference between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation teaching certificate program 669

students according to their branches? When we look at Table-4, to F(173/5)=7,01, p=,000<,05, there is a significant difference between generic competencies of teaching profession according to the branches that pedagogical formation training certificate program students graduated. This significant difference results from that generic competencies of teaching profession of students graduated from Math and Geography ( X m=127,06; X c=124,77)are less than generic competencies of teaching profession of students graduated from Chemistry, History and Turkish Language and Literature ( X k=157,07;

X t=151,80; X tde=146,78). It is seen that there is no significant difference between critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate program students to F(173/5)=1,65, p=,149>,05 when their branches are taken into consideration. Fourth Sub-Problem Is there any relationship between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate program students? Table 5: Pearson Correlation Results of the Relationship between Students’ Senses towards the Scales Critical Thinking Tendencies Generic Competencies of Pearson Correlation (r) ,35 Teaching Profession P ,000 N 179

When we look at Table-5, it is seen that there is an mean-level positive significant relationship between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of pedagogical formation training certificate program students to r(179)=,35, p=,000<,05. The senses of students about the competency of teaching profession can explain %12 (r2=,12) of their critical thinking tendencies. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 1. It is concluded that generic competencies of teaching profession of pedagogical formation training certificate program students are high; that is, they show a distribution above the mean. In the master thesis of Taşkın (2010), it is precipitated that views of class teachers and prospective class teachers related to the generic competencies of teaching profession are positive and they find these competency items important for teaching profession. It is also concluded that critical thinking tendencies of students are positive even a little and high. In Özelçi’s doctoral thesis (2012), it is seen that prospective class teachers have critical thinking attitude above the mean. 2. It is concluded that there is no significant difference between female and male students on the basis of their generic competencies of teaching profession according to their genders; namely, their formation training does not make any difference in relation to their competencies of the teaching profession. It is precipitated that critical thinking tendencies differ significantly according to students’ genders; that is to say, critical thinking tendencies of male students are higher than critical thinking tendencies of 670

female students. 3. When we look at the difference between generic competencies of teaching profession according to branches that students graduated from, it is concluded that students graduated from Geography have lower sense than the students graduated from Chemistry, History and Turkish Language and Literature as part of their professional competencies; it means that they find themselves less qualified. Another conclusion is that there is no significant difference between critical thinking tendencies according to branches that students graduated from and they have close level of critical thinking tendencies. In a study done by Gelen (2002), it is stated that branch does not make any difference on critical thinking skills. 4. When the relationship between generic competencies of teaching profession and critical thinking tendencies of students are taken into consideration, it is seen that there is a mean-level positive significant relationship between their professional competency senses and critical thinking tendencies and professional competency sense can explain as low as %12 of critical thinking tendency. SUGGESTIONS That the instructors who give formation lesson to students do necessary plannings and undertake an enterprise to let generic competencies of teaching profession be on a higher level can contribute to training teachers having professional knowledge, skill and sense. Studies can be done to determine the levels of gaining performance indicators and reflecting them to practice in relation to the generic competencies of teaching profession of formation training students. Studies can be done related to the innovation of “Generic Competencies of Teaching Profession” constituting the items of scale used in the research and performance indicators by taking them into consideration on the basis of developments in educational field. An opportunity can be provided to improve “Generic Competencies of Teaching Profession” by reiterating similar researches on different sample groups. Additionally, the contents of educational activities can be reorganized to make prospective teachers gain these behaviors, and the Ministry of National Education and the Council of Higher Education can be in cooperation to improve scientific studies serving effective teacher training and to support them. REFERENCES Aksu, M. (2005). Eğitim Fakültelerinin Değişen Rolleri ve Avrupa Boyutu, Eğitim Fakültelerinde Yeniden Yapılandırmanın Sonuçları ve Öğretmen Yetiştirme Sempozyumu, 2224 Eylül 2005, Bildiriler Kitabı, p. 25-42, Ankara. Albay, B. (2007). Androgoji / Pedagoji Kavramları ve Aralarındaki Farklar. Başkent Üniversitesi Raporu. Available at: http://mail.baskent.edu.tr/~20393092/kisisel_site odev/yetiskin_egitimi.pdf (accessed: 10 August 2015). Alkan, C. (1998). Öğretmenlik Mesleğinde İstihdam. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi (241): 12-18. Bursalıoğlu, Z. (1981). Eğitim Yöneticisinin Yeterlikleri, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Yayınları: Ankara. Çeliköz, N. (2000). Bir Meslek Olarak Öğretmenlik ve Etiği. In M. Çağatay Özdemir (Ed.) Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş. p. 331-388. Asil: Ankara. Erden, M. (1998). Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş, Alkım Yayınları: Ankara. 671

Fidan, N. & Erden M., (1998). Eğitime Giriş. Alkım Yayınları: İstanbul. Gelen, İ. (2002). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde Düşünme Becerilerini Kazandırma Yeterliklerinin Değerlendirilmesi. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi (10) 10. İpşiroğlu, Z. (2002). Eleştirel Düşünme Öğretilebilir mi? Available at: http://www. felsefeekibi.com (accessed: 08 August 2015). İlhan, A. Ç. (2004). 21.yüzyılda öğretmen yeterlilikleri. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim Dergisi (58) 5. Available at: http://mebyonetici.com/21-yuzyilda-ogretmenyeterlilikleri. html. (accessed: 25 June 2010). Karasar N. (2009). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım: Ankara. Kökdemir, D. (2003). Belirsizlik Durumlarında Karar Verme ve Problem Çözme. Doktora Tezi. Ankara. MEB. (2006). Öğretmenlik mesleği genel yeterlikleri. Öğretmen Yetiştirme ve Eğitimi Genel Müdürlüğü: Ankara. MEB. (2008). Öğretmen Yeterlikleri. Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü: Ankara. Narin, N. (2009). İlköğretim İkinci Kademe Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmenlerinin Eleştirel Düşünme Becerilerinin İncelenmesi. Master Thesis. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü: Adana. Norris, P.S. (1985). Synthesis of Research on Critical Thinking. Educational Leadership (42) 8. 40-45. Onural, H. (2005). Öğretmen adaylarının ideal öğretmen niteliklerine ilişkin görüşleri. XIV. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, 28-30 September 2005, p. 452-455, Denizli. Öğüt, A. (2003). Bilgi Çağında Yönetim. Nobel Yayıncılık: Ankara. Özelçi, Y. S. (2012). Eleştirel düşünme tutumunu etkileyen faktörler: Sınıf öğretmeni adaylarını üzerine bir çalışma. Published Phd Thesis. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Aydın. Sönmez, V. (2003). Eğitimin Tarihsel Temelleri. In Veysel Sönmez (Ed.) Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş. Anı Yayıncılık: Ankara. Sönmez, V. (2008). Program geliştirmede öğretmen el kitabı. Öğretmen Yayınları: Ankara. Şişman M. (2006). Eğitim bilimine giriş. Pegem A Yayıncılık: Ankara. Taşkın, A. (2010). Öğretmenlik mesleği genel yeterliklerinin sınıf öğretmenleri ve sınıf öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi. Published Master Thesis. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü. Ankara.

672

Chapter 53 Environmental Education in Children Figen GÜRSOY, Burçin AYSU INTRODUCTION Until the seventies there were two different conceptions of environment: firstly, the geographical (spatial) environment that consisted of different spaces such as the residence, district, and city of the individual, and secondly, the social (human) environment composed of human beings such as friends, relatives, neighbors, family members, and peers. In general, the “environment” used to be defined as the exterior milieu, where human beings resided and conducted their activities. Nevertheless, as from the eighties this definition has started to be questioned and the environment concept has been both extended, and reached to complex dimensions. In the last quarter of the Twentieth Century, the cultural, political, economic, ecological, social, and psychological dimensions of the environment have started to be discussed in addition to its natural (physical) dimension, and it has been asserted louder that the environment concept is comprised of a chain of multidimensional and complex relations and interactions (Atasoy 2006). In general, the environment is considered a sum of the physical, chemical, biological, and social factors at a certain point of time that might directly or indirectly have an impact on the human activities and living creatures in the short- or the longterm (Keleş & Hamamcı, 2009). The environment is the overall mutual interactions between the living and nonliving creatures considering all the physical, chemical, biological, and social factors that have or may have an impact on human beings as well as all the living and non-living creatures, and the activities of the living creatures (Keleş & Hamamcı, 2009). The common element in these definitions is that they refer to a unity formed by various creatures and things that come together (Gülay & Önder, 2011). Based on the point of emphasis, the environment may be approached physically or socially in line with its character, and in the local, regional, and international contexts within its spatial dimensions (Keleş & Hamamcı, 2009). Another classification as regards the environment is the physical, biological, and social environment. The physical environment includes the atmosphere, water resources, and pollution, where the biological environment is consisted of the plants, animals, and humans, and the social environment is comprised of the culture, customs – traditions, and the educational system (Gülay & Önder, 2011). If we were to consider the environment our home in the narrowest sense and the world in the widest sense, we may classify the same as natural and cultural environment. The natural environment covers all the living and non-living creatures, where the cultural environment covers the domains that have been generated by the   

 Prof. Dr., Child Development Department, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey 

differentiation of the natural milieu by human activities (Uludağ, 2009). Human being is the only living creature capable of adapting the environment to his ends (Dinç & Aslan, 2009). This means that the human being is the only living creature capable of affecting and even changing the environment he owns and at the same time he lives in it. While all the other living creatures have to adapt themselves to the nature, the human beings tried to change the nature to meet his demands and contrarily adapt the nature to his ends (Aktepe, 2005). In other words, human beings have processed, taken advantage of, and tried to dominate over the nature from the moment they existed on the world. This endeavor for domination disrupted the existing harmony between the human beings and the environment they live in it. Environmental problems have not emerged suddenly yet reached to dangerous dimensions especially through the impact of the rapid technological developments in the 20th Century on nature. Towards the end of that century, the human beings started to realize that they faced to a number of problems attributable to the relationship of human beings with their environment. The damage to the environment as incurred by the human activities could not have been realized at the beginning due to the renewability of nature, and it was even considered that the environment would eliminate the pollution in time. Nevertheless the gradual increase in the damage to environments surpassed the renewability of environment and thus the environment started to be a rapidly destroyed. Today the ever increasing world population, rapid industrialization and unhealthy urbanization, nuclear tests, and chemical substances such as pesticides, artificial fertilizers, and detergents started to pollute the environment and consequently the air, water, and soil pollution reached to an extent that would be hazardous for the living creatures (Özenoğlu Kiremit, 2011). The globalization of environmental problems and the fact that the same reached to an extent to threaten the life on the planet, forced human beings to re-question their relationship with the nature and their attitudes and behaviors towards the environment, revise the duties and responsibilities assumed by the individuals as regards the nature, and re-define environmental ethics, ecological culture, and environmental awareness. While the necessity, significance, function, and impact of the environmental education was questioned, many countries discussed the ‘enviromentalization’ of education and the fact that the children’s environmental awareness could not have been raised adequately at school. It has been advocated that education plays an important role in raising and establishment of environmental awareness in children and love of nature and environmental protectionism translates into permanent attitudes and a life style (Atasoy & Ertürk, 2008). In order to raise environmental awareness, the educators have to provide children with information on environment, help them with adopting the environment, provide adequate materials on environment, develop incentive actions, and provide feedback on environmental values and judgments by concretizing the practical results. The main point of departure in developing the environmental awareness should be introduction of plants and animals, increasing interest in them, and eliminating the aggressiveness or phobia against the animals (Erten 2005). In general, environmental education is the education aimed to raise awareness as to the environment, which the human beings are a part and from which they can never be isolated from the birth till death, the future of the environment, and how to protect the environment (Dikmen 1993). Environmental education aims to raise awareness in all the sections of the society, bring forth environment-sensitive permanent and positive 674

changes in behaviors, protect the natural, cultural, historical, and sociological values, ensure active participation, and assume roles in solving the problems (Öznacar et al., 2010). In the 21st Century, the environmental education has become a multi-disciplinary holistic construct that relates to a number of educational curriculums. The environmental education in force covers formal and informal learning and aims to bring forth citizenship behaviors, responsibility for behaviors, social justice, and global world perspective. This multi-disciplinary education approach was generated, when the antienvironmental acts started by adopting the divided education (Scott 2007). The environmental education is an indispensible tool in order to eliminate the problems that may bring the world to an end. Through this education it is aimed to introduce individuals with environmental awareness. Based on the said aspects, the environmental education is different from ecology or other education with ecological content. The environmental education on the one hand introduces the ecological information and on the other hand ensures that the individuals develop attitudes towards the environment and that the said attitudes are translated into behaviors. The environmental education addresses to the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor areas of learning in the students (Erten 2006). The environmental education helps individuals with conceiving their ecological environment and their place in it, and at the same time developing views as regards how the human societies may live in harmony with the planet, and acquiring the skills necessary for active and responsible participation. The roots of the environmental education rely on the education on protecting nature and natural resources. The environmental education is focused on protecting and improving the entire environment so as to include the biosphere, biomes, and ecosystems in addition to the development and protection of such natural resources as soil, water, and forest. In time the environmental education extended its scope from merely informing the world citizens as regards the environmental education to adopting the aim of making them willful and skillful participants in environmental management as well (Aydoğdu & Gezer 2006). The environmental education is the process of developing attitudes, value judgments, knowledge and skills, demonstrating environment-friendly behaviors toward protection of environment, and seeing the results thereof. It is important the environmental education is introduced in the early ages of the individual. This is because of the fact that interests and attitudes formed in the preschool and school ages are the bases for the behaviors intended for individuals. Value judgments and attitudes developed especially in the childhood and youth are important for the development of empathy and love of nature during interaction with the nature during early ages (Erten 2006). If it is remembered that the aim of the education is to prepare the students for life and equip them with competencies to overcome the problems they would meet in the life, in that context it will be very important for the effectiveness of the environmental education to incorporate the environment and environmental problems into the educational programs in compliance with todays requirements (Sever & Samancı 2002). CONCLUSION Everything happens occurs in the universe. It is the human beings the guests of the universe that disrupt this order and severely risk the environment. In fact human factor 675

is almost entirely parallel to the environment concept. Human beings did not engage with such issues in the past; however, such developments as the fact that the living and non-living life encounter many threats, that many species are about to extinct, and that many living spaces are endangered, helped human beings with understanding the fact that they were responsible for the destruction of their world and forced them to act for restoring its health. Only by an effective and systematic education with strong foundations it is possible to have environmentally aware future generations and to sensitively address ecological problems, and thus, to live in a livable world with a hopeful future. Environmental education should be provided to individuals from each age, educational level, and occupation in the scope of a certain program. Environmental education should be provided at each step of life and for each layer of the society within a continuous, participatory, and balanced development system. Environmental education should be spread to adult masses at the non-formal education level and the contribution of people in the protection of environment should absolutely be ensured. An educational system should be developed so as to ensure active participation in environment-related issues and to generate reaction against the unfavorable conduct. The educators involved in the non-formal education should be those who live in the relevant location, who are closely known to, trusted, and appreciated by people, who provide better services to people, who know the values of the society well and use the same in a constructive way. Due to the fact that environmental education starts at the family, such education should definitely involve in the parents as well. Family is not only where the environmental awareness, environmental ethics, and sensitivity for the nature are shaped, but it is also the venue, where the rules and methods of ecological culture and nature-human relationships are first learned or taken as an example. Positive environmental activities inside or outside the family and the positive attitudes and behaviors of the parents will eventually reflect to the children. Therefore it should be reminded that parents are the first adults that are taken as a model or example by the children. In environmental education the school-society and school-family communication should be improved and student success and participations should be ensured by teacher-parent interaction. It should not be forgotten that the family is the starting point of education. REFERENCES Aktepe, S. (2005). İlköğretim Okullarında Çevre Eğitimi (Eko-Okulların ve Diğer Okulların Karşılaştırılması. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniv. Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Atasoy, E. (2006). Çevre için Eğitim - Çocuk-Doğa Etkileşimi. Bursa: Ezgi Kitabevi Atasoy, E. ve Ertürk, H. (2008). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin çevresel tutum ve çevre bilgisi üzerine bir alan araştırması. Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 10(1): 105-122. Aydoğdu, M. ve Gezer, K. (2006). Çevre Bilimi, Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık Atasoy, E. ve Ertürk, H. (2008). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin çevresel tutum ve çevre bilgisi üzerine bir alan araştırması. Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 10,1: 105-122. Dikmen, S. (1993). İlköğretim kurumlarında çevre için eğitim, çevre eğitimi. Ankara.: Türkiye Çevre Vakfı Yayınları Dinç, M., Aslan,O. (2009). Çevre Bilimi. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Erten, S. (2005). Okul öncesi öğretmen adaylarında çevre dostu davranışların araştırılması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 28(28): 91-100 Erten, S. (2006). Çevre eğitimi ve çevre bilinci nedir, çevre eğitimi nasıl olmalıdır? Çevre 676

ve İnsan Dergisi, Ankara.: Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı Yayın Organı.65. 2006/2. Gülay, H., Önder, A. (2011). Okulöncesi Dönemde Çevre Eğitimi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın. Keleş, R., Hamamcı, C. (2009). Çevre politikası. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi. Özenoğlu Kiremit, H. (2011). Çevre sorunları. Çocuk ve Çevre. S: 96-128. Ankara: Vize yayıncılık Öznacar, M.D., Turan Güllaç, E., Gülay, H. (2010). Güncel Çevre Sorunlarıyla İlgili Eğitsel Etkinlikler. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık Sever, R. ve Samancı, O. (2002). İlköğretim Çevre Eğitimi, Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, s:7. Scott, S. A. (2007). Children’s Environmental Knowing: A Case Study of Children’s Experiences During an Environmental Education Programme. PhD thesis, The University of British Columbia, Canada. Uludağ, M. (2009). Çevre eğitimi. Erken Çocukluk Gelişimi ve Eğitimi. S: 341-367 İstanbul: Kriter Yayınları

677

Chapter 54 Landscape Design Process of Primary School Gardens Elif Ebru ŞİŞMAN, Pınar GÜLTÜRK** INTRODUCTION Increasing population, cultural shift, immigration, and natural disasters bring up the need for housing and the issue of residential areas. In today’s changing urban areas, the schools are affected by dense housing and traffic. The schools in these areas, where air pollution affects human health most, should have green areas at high standards. Therefore, while planning schools, the entire school and its location within the green area system of the city must be observed and high standards must be established at schools which are located in dense housing areas (Akdoğan, 1972). 5-14 year old children make nearly 16% of our population (Anonymous, 2015). The children in this age group are active, energetic, and budding. For this reason, the outdoor spaces of schools, which meet the playing needs of the students, should be designed (Yılmaz, 1995). However, it is clearly seen that the studies regarding school gardens mainly focus on disciplines such as medicine, sports, and health sciences and the design is usually disregarded (Özdemir & Yılmaz 2009). As a social environment, the socialization function of school and the child’s compliance to curricular and extracurricular activities are more important compared to its informative function (Yavuzer, 2001). The studies have shown that the students integrate mathematics, science, grammar, and other skills with their inner circles and five senses; thus, they learn better (Lieberman & Hoody, 1998). Another research has shown that outdoor games are strongly related with social abilities, and that they increase creativity (Miller, Tichotaand & White, 2009). Outdoor activities are effective when they are a complementary part of the education program (Learning Through Landscapes, 2008). First of all, it must be admitted that education naturally includes both indoor and outdoor. For most of the students, school gardens are for playing and physical activities. Therefore, these places must be handled soon as an important factor in regard to the obesity and sedentary lifestyle observed in school-age children (Özdemir & Yılmaz, 2008). Green consciousness must be raised by utilizing natural components and natural spaces in children’s environment. In the current situation, as the idea of providing nature education at school does not include application, it is insufficient (Çukur & Özgüner, 2008). According to the studies made regarding the importance of breaks and the surrounding of schools, the needs of children and their usage privileges in spare times must be considered while designing the school activities (Blatchford, 1998; 

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture  ** Res. Assist., Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture 

Pellegrini, 1995; 2005). It is important that the students, educators, the members of parent-teacher association, decision maker, and the experts contribute the process of designing primary school gardens (Algan & Uslu, 2009). When the resources about the size of the school gardens are examined; Ersoy (1994) emphasized that the construction area in the primary school gardens should be 10% of the total garden area, and Bakan and Konuk (1987) emphasized that 5 m2 space should be allocated per student. Saving outdoor space is not enough to solve the issue in school garden planning. The outdoor spaces must be planned in regard to several criteria such as its attributes, education level, plan, function, surrounding social environment, and recreation opportunities (Akdoğan, 1972). Children find playing in a natural environment more interesting and attractive. Natural spaces make a positive contribution to children’s learning and cognitive development (Fjørtoft & Sageie, 2000). In respect to this, the sections of an ideal school garden should include: siege, ceremony area, sports area, botanic and zoology gardens, hobby garden, outdoor classroom or amphitheater, parking lot, and special gardens (Akdoğan, 1972; Tanrıverdi, 1987; Uzun, 1990; Erdönmez, 2007). Moreover, the equipment to utilize these spaces must exist in the school gardens. The plants used in school gardens are another important aspect of design and among its aesthetical and technical principles, its dendrological specifications should also be known. Beside their help for children in learning the nature, plants may be considered as game components.

Figure 1: Study Area

In Turkey, many studies have been conducted about primary school gardens (Yılmaz 1995, Kelkit & Özel, 2003; Özdemir & Yılmaz, 2009; Aksu & Demirel, 2011; Şişman & Gültürk, 2011; Arslan Muhacir & Yavuz Özalp, 2011; Karatekin & Çetinkaya, 2013). Most of these researches focus on the deficiency of school gardens in terms of space and equipment. The common finding of nearly all of them is that the school gardens are insufficient in terms of space and utilities. As a result of this study, the school garden landscape design project requested by Tekirdağ Şehit Piyade Er Ercan Ay Primary School directorate in 2012 is prepared, within the scope of “Okullar Hayat Olsun” joint project of Ministry of Education, 679

Ministry of Forest and Water Affairs, and Turkish Association of Municipalities. The project aims turning the school gardens into “secure live places”. MATERIAL AND METHOD Material The research is conducted in Şehit Piyade Er Ercan Ay Primary School in the province of Tekirdağ (Figure 1). The layout plans of the area, topographical map, implementary development plans with 1/1000 scale, photographs, and the interviews made with people concerned are used as subsidiary material. The school, which is the subject of this research, has approximately 1552 m2 indoor and 8437 m2 open areas. The school, construction of which was started by TOKI (Provision of Social Housing in Turkey) in 2006, was assigned for the use of Tekirdağ Namık Kemal Anatolian High School until the end of the first semester in 2009-2010 academic year. As of 2012, it was turned into Şehit Piyade Er Ercan Ay Primary School. Currently, nursery and primary school students are receiving education at this school. Method The research method of this study consists of the landscape design process. The study also consists of 5 stages, in the light of the studies made on the application of landscape design process (Yılmaz & Yılmaz, 1999;Şişman, Korkut&Etli, 2008; Çelikyay, 2011; Turgut, 2011; Sağlık&Kelkit, 2014):  Area selection and defining objectives and problems  Data collection to identify the current situation (Survey and literature studies)  Analyzing the area and the surrounding and preparing the function diagram  Conceptual diagram (Field structure diagram)  Preliminary project AutoCAD and Photoshop software are used in project drawing. RESEARCH FINDINGS In the preparation of the project, the landscape design stages mentioned in “Method” are considered with the following sequence: Defining the objective and problems At this stage, first of all, meetings are conducted with the people concerned and the field is examined in order to determine the aim of the project and the issues requiringredesign. The aim of this project is to actualize a sample school garden design in Tekirdağ within the scope of “Okullar Hayat Olsun” joint project prepared by the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Forest and Water Affairs, and Turkish Association of Municipalities. In line with this purpose, the issues determined are listed below: 1. The ground of the school garden is mostly firm (Figure 2). 2. There are no areas including activities for the physical and cognitive development of the children. In the school garden, there is only one basketball court and one playground (slide and swing) (Figure 3). 3. The floor covering is in bad condition and creates hazard for the children (Fig. 4). 4. There are both the pre-school and primary school students. However there is no arrangement especially according to the pre-school students.

680

Figure 2: Firm ground in front of the school

Figure 3: Basketball court and playground

5. There is no outdoor area for the teachers, which they can use for controlling students and for recreation. 6. There is a fountain which does not serve a purpose (Figure 5). 7. The equipment in the garden is insufficient. (Benches, waste bins, flower pots, lighting etc.) 8. Planting is made randomly (Figure 6). Needle-leaved plants are used in the area. The used plants are: Pinus pinea, Cedrus libani, Robinia pseudoacaccia, Cupressus sempervirens, Cupressocyparis Leylandii, Acer negundo.

Figure 4: Unsuitable ground in the school garden

Figure 5: Neglected fountain

While determining the objective and problems, possible uses to be utilized in the school garden are determined and the “rough program outline” is prepared. Data Collection to Identify the Current Situation (Survey and Literature Studies) While making the literature reviews of this stage it is aimed to deliver the current status of the area with every aspect, including the surrounding. Observations and measurements are performed in the area, photographs are taken, and people concerned are consulted. The existing plantation and structural components of the area are determined and brief project notes are taken.

681

Environmental Analysis, Program Analysis, Function Diagram At this stage, the influence of environmental factors on the use of areas and the interaction between current and potential uses are analyzed, and thus, solutions for the problems indicated at the first stage are sought for. Consequently, a “requirements program” of the area is prepared showing which of the pre-defined functions will be included. The components (usages) of the requirements program are listed below:      

Entrance, Security, Parking lot, Ceremony area, Existing conserved plants, Educational and recreational area,  Playground,  Painting wall,  Playhouse,  Allotment garden,  Buffer plantation,  Basketball court and tribune, Figure 6: The view of plants in the garden  Recreation areas, Green areas. A “program analysis” is created by grouping the components according to their functions and the “function diagram” is prepared in line with this analysis (Fig. 7). Conceptual Diagram (Field Structure Diagram) The program components in the function diagram are placed in the area as a sketch not scaled, in respect to their relationships and proportions. The existing ceremony area is downsized and kept at the same place. The droning concrete floor covering is enlivened by granite cube stone and pattern applications. The conceptual plan showing the dispersion of other components within the area is given in Figure 8. Preliminary Project A template, or in other words a preliminary project, is prepared by transferring and formatting the scaled utilities shown as marks in the sketch plan. The preliminary project of the area is given in Figure 9. Figure 7: Function Diagram

682

Figure 8: Conceptual Diagram

Utilities included in the project offer:  Entrance-Security-Parking Lot: The entrance, which connects the school garden to the main road, includes a controlled door and a security unit. The existing 20 car parking lot on the left side of the entrance is maintained. The floor covering of the parking lot is renewed and the area is organized.  Ceremony Area: The existing concrete ceremony area is reduced and turned into greenery. Three different granite cube stone is applied in order to bring in dynamism and routing.  Existing Conserved Plants: Mainly coniferous plants (Cupressus sempervirens, Cupressocyparis Leylandii) are used for bordering and buffering.  Educational Recreation Area: Several play arrangements are made on the surface for the sensual and cognitive development of children.  Playground: The existing playground is maintained and additional components are entrained and the floor covering is renewed.  Drawing wall: A drawing wall is designed on the east side of the project area, 683

parallel to the boundary elements. The height of the drawing wall is planned to be approximately 80-120 cm.

Figure 9: Preliminary Project

 Playhouse: A playground and playhouse is designed by using sand, wood, and turf especially for the nursery classes.  Fountain: The fountain is maintained in order to keep the children’s relation with water and a pattern design is applied on the front pavement.  Allotment Garden: Parcels are created for children to let them grow fruits and vegetables and make phonological observation.  Buffer Plants and Grass hillocks: Buffer planting is used locally in order to separate the indoor and outdoor areas of the garden. The grass hillock is used not only to provide children a natural climbing area but also to bring dynamism the topography.  Basketball Court and Tribune: The existing basketball court is kept in place and its floor covering is renewed. The tribune on the left side is enhanced. This area may also be used as open-air classroom.  Recreation Areas: Indoor and outdoor recreation areas are designed within the garden for the teachers and students related to pedestrian circulation system.  Green Areas: The excessively stiff surface area is reduced by the planting project 684

and the green areas are expanded. According to the landscape design project 4167 m2 space is used as green area and 4270 m2 used as firm ground. Trees and bushes used in the project are: Acer campestre, Acer platanoides, Chamacyparis lawsoniana westermanii, Cupressocyparis leylandii, Juniperus chinensis ‘pfitzerianaaurea’, Juniperus communis Compressa, Photinia fraserii, Pittosporium tobira Nana, Platanus orientalis, Spirea vanhouttei, Syringa vulgaris, and Viburnum tinus and the ground cover plants are: Alyssum saxatile, Armeria maritima, Erica carnea heatwood, and Lavandula angustifolia. CONCLUSION The school gardens in the province of Tekirdağ, Süleymanpaşa district are mainly subject to dense housing because of unplanned urbanization. In recent years, as the city center started to move to a new settlement, many of the schools also moved. However, the study of Şişman and Gültürk (2011) has previously delivered that these school gardens are ruled out in terms of surface area and landscape design rules. School gardens should be designed as areas creating environmental awareness and the opportunity to learn the nature and its components in primary school children. Therefore, Tekirdağ Şehit Piyade Er Ercan Ay Primary School garden is designed as a sample according to landscape design rules in order to approve this argument, to guide filling the deficiencies as a result of the studies performed in Tekirdağ, and in the direction of “Okullar Hayat Olsun” joint project of Ministry of Education, Ministry of Forest and Water Affairs, and Turkish Association of Municipality. In this project, it is aimed to design places which fulfill the needs of 5-14 year old children enabling them spend their energy. These places should also have an educational characteristic. By this way, the school gardens are turned into places which are not only used during school hours but also at weekends. REFERENCES Akdoğan, G. (1972). Beş Büyük Şehirde Çocuk Oyun Alanlarının Yeterlikleri ve Planlama Prensipleri Üzerinde Bir Araştırma, Ankara Üniv. Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, Ankara. Aksu Volkan, Ö. & Demirel, Ö. (2011). Trabzon Kenti İlköğretim Okul Bahçelerinde Tasarım ve Alan Kullanımları. SDÜ Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 12: 40-46. Algan H. & Uslu, C. (2009). İlköğretim Okul Bahçelerinin Tasarlanmasına Paydaş Katılımı: Adana örneği, Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 22(2), 129 -140. Anonim (2015). TUİK Adrese Dayalı Nüfus Verileri. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. Arslan Muhacir E. S. & Yavuz Özalp A. (2011). Artvin Kenti İlköğretim Okul Bahçelerinin Nitelik ve Niceliksel Durumunun Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Kullanılarak Belirlenmesi. Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 12 (2):172-184. Bakan, K. & Konuk, G. (1987). Türkiye'de Kentsel Dış Mekanların Düzenlenmesi. Tübitak Yapı Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayın No: US. Blatchford, P. (1998). Social Life in School: Pupils’ Experience of Breaktime and Recess From 7 to 16 Years. London; Bristol, PA: Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis Group. Erişim tarihi: 27.06.2011. Çelikyay, S. (2011). Bartın Üniversitesi Yerleşkesi’nde Rektör Konutu Tasarım Süreci ve Mimari Projesi. İnönü Üniversitesi, Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi 1(1), 11-22. Çukur, D. & Özgüner H. (2008). Kentsel Alanda Çocuklara Doğa Bilinci Kazandırmada Oyun Mekânı Tasarımının Rolü. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi Dergisi A(2), 177-187. 685

Erdönmez, M. (2007). İlköğretim Okul Bahçelerinde Peyzaj Normları. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 57(1), 107-122. Ersoy, M. (1994). Kentsel Alan Kullanım Normları. O.D.T.Ü. Mimarlık Fakültesi Yayın No: 94.02, ISBN 975-429-061-X, Ankara. Fjørtoft, I. & Sageie, J. (2000). The Natural Environment as a Playground for Children Landscape Description and Analyses of a Natural Playscape. Landscape and Urban Planning 48:83-97. Karatekin, K. & Çetinkaya, G., (2013). Okul Bahçelerinin Çevre Eğitimi Açısından Değerlendirilmesi Manisa İli Örneği. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi 6(27), 307-315. Kelkit, A. & Özel, E. (2003). A Research on the Determination of Physical Planning of School Gardens in Canakkale City. Pakistan Journal of Applied Science 3(4): 240-246. Learning through Landscapes, (2008). Learning Outside the Classroom. Winchester, Hampshire, UK. Lieberman, G.A. & Hoody, L. (1998). Closing the Achievement Gap: Using the Environment as an Integrating Context for Learning. San Diego, Calif.:State Education and Environment Roundtable. Miller, D.; Tichotaand, K. & White, J. (2009). Young Children Learn Through Authentic Play in a Nature Explore Classroom. Lincoln, Neb. Dimensions Foundation. Ozdemir, A. & Yilmaz, O. (2008). Assessment of Outdoor School Environments and Physical Activity in Ankara’s Primary Schools. Journal of Environmental Psychology 28(3), 287–300. Özdemir, A. & Yılmaz, O. (2009). İlköğretim Okulları Bahçelerinin Çocuk Gelişimi ve Sağlıklı Yaşam Üzerine Etkilerinin İncelenmesi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 181,121-130. Pellegrini, A. D. (1995). School Recess and Playground Behavior: Educational and Developmental Roles. Albany: State University of New York Press. 187 s. Pellegrini, A. D. (2005). Recess: Its Role in Education and Development. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. Sağlık, A. & Kelkit A. (2014). Çanakkale Orman İşletme Müdürlüğü Asmatepe C Tipi Mesire Yeri Mutluluk Ormanı Peyzaj Projesi. İnönü Üniversitesi, Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi 4(10) 13-30. Şişman, E. E.; Korkut A. & Etli, B. (2008). Tekirdağ Valiliği Tören ve Park Alanı Peyzaj Tasarım Süreci. Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 5(2), 119-129. Şişman, E.E. & Gültürk P. (2011). İlköğretim Okul Bahçelerinin Peyzaj Planlama ve Tasarım İlkeleri Açısından İncelenmesi: Tekirdağ Örneği. Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 8(3), 53-60. Tanrıverdi, F. (1987). Bahçe Sanatının Temel İlkeleri ve Uygulama Metodları, Atatürk Üniversitesi Yayınları, No:643 667 s Erzurum. Turgut, H. (2011). Erzurum Büyükşehir Belediye Binası Ön Bahçe Peyzaj Tasarım Çalışmasının Tasarım İlkeleri Bağlamında Değerlendirilmesi. Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 12(2), 185-198. Uzun, G. (1990). Kentsel Rekreasyon Alan Planlaması. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fak. Peyzaj Mimarlığı Böl. Ders Kitabı No:48, Adana, 100 s. Yavuzer, H. (2001). Okul Çağı Çocuğu. Remzi Kitabevi, 7. Basım, 256s, İstanbul. Yılmaz, H. (1995). Erzurum Kenti Okul Bahçelerinin Peyzaj Mimarlığı İlkeleri Yönünden İncelenmesi. Atatürk Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 26(4), 537-547. Yılmaz, H. & Yılmaz, S. (2000). Peyzaj Mimarlığında Tasarım Süreci ve Proje Örnekleri. Atatürk Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Yayınları No: 218, 106 s. Erzurum.

686

Chapter 55 Place of Tales in Child Development and Education Aslı AKDENİZ KUDUBEŞ, İsmet Emir KUDUBEŞ, Murat BEKTAŞ INTRODUCTION Child learns the age and society he lives in and what kind of a place he will have in that society through education. The first knowledge that a child obtains is effective in his personality development. Children’s literature has a particular significance at this point. Being highly effective and permanent in terms of perception and visuality, works of literature combine diverting, amusing and instructive characteristics together and enable children to know their close and distant environments. One of those works is tales. Tale is a significant work of literature that has effects on child development and education (Erdal, 2009). Being defined as “Literary genre that is generally created by society, based on imagination, living in oral tradition and narrating extraordinary occurrences that happen to people and animals and creatures such as witch, genie, giant and fairy etc.” by Turkish Language Society, tale originates from Arabic word “mesel” (Türk Dil Kurumu, 2016). In other words, tale is an oral narrative genre that has characters such as animals and supernatural creatures, takes place in dreamlands and can convince the audience although it is fiction (Sakaoğlu, 1999). Tales consist of three parts; introduction part called prelude, the main part where the tale is told and which is called body or development and conclusion part ending with a nursery rhyme. A tale generally starts with a long nursery rhyme. It forms the preparation stage for the tale with supernatural similes and elements. This section helps to collect their interest on the tale by exciting the audience. The part where a chain of events is narrated constitutes the actual tale. After nursery rhyme, this part starts with an abstract depiction of time such as “Once upon a time”, “Once”, “On one fine day”. The good and the evil always face each other throughout the tale. Finally, the hero representing the good displays superiority and is rewarded; those who oppose the good are always defeated, eliminated or punished. In the conclusion, which is the third part of the tale, the problem is solved, the incidents that are given dispersedly are pieced together and the audience feels sigh of relief in this section (Karatay, 2007). Tale is a genre of children’s literature that is most frequently used in the first years of life. Tales are an imaginary trip for a child who likes to dream in adolescence. In this imaginary trip, our children unwittingly include new words to their vocabulary (Şirin, 2007). As an instrument of education that excitedly fictionalizes the argument with what is necessary to happen, tales support personality, morality and social development and are significant instruments that almost automatically educate children with social 

Lecturer, Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Nursing, Pediatric Nursing Specialist, Dokuz Eylul University, Institute of Social Sciences, Faculty of Economics,  Assoc. Prof. Dr., Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Nursing, Pediatric Nursing  

values. Furthermore, tales also have a role to create some values expected by society, personality traits and a healthy mental state (Arıcı & Bayındır, 2015). TALES AND CHILD Tales are like a magical word that knows no boundary for imagination. Therefore, children love reading, listening and especially having someone narrate tales. Witches, evil stepmothers, wild animals, huge palaces are inseparable parts of many children tales. In spite of scary elements in them, tales are essential for children (Yaldiz, 2006). The place that tales take in children’s life is quite large. They cover many areas including education, sociocultural life, mother tongue development of child and child philosophy. The most significant activity of Mathew Lipmann, who is one of the founders of systematic child philosophy, in his institution he founded was; to not just philosophize verbally with children but to show children that it is possible to philosophize with various literary genres (tale, theatre etc.) (Karakaya, 2006). Tale is the first gift on behalf of literature to child who opens his eyes to an unknown world and starts to learn his “firsts” step by step. A child who meets tales in early ages discovers that literature is a combination of sensitiveness that enables individual to meet his inner world, distinguishes others and directs to wonder about their traits, shows ways of interpersonal communication, flexes perception and synthesis skill and develops aesthetic emotions, instead of defining literature as a type of class he will get rid of once he completes education (Dilidüzgün, 2003). Tales are considerably significant in child literature in order to help development of children’s skills to distinguish concepts such as good-bad, pretty-ugly, fair-unfair etc. Before they become accessible/readable on paper, tales constitute a substantially significant bridge between parents and children in enabling emotional communication on vocality level. With the help of proper examples, humane traits and educational messages that should be obtained in early ages can be brought in inside traditional naturality. It is possible to make highly constructive contributions in mother tongue skill. Tales make it easier for children to obtain positive world appearance (Öztürk, 2008). Besides enabling children to spend cheerful and beneficial time, the works prepared for children (Akın, 1998) also carry significance in terms of linguistic, cognitive, social and personality development (Kuzu, 2002). There are numerous purposes and qualities of tales that are effective of child development. PURPOSE, SIGNIFICANCE AND QUALITY OF TALES Among purposes of tales, there are; informing, satisfying, introducing the life to child, developing sense of self-confidence, raising the desire to succeed, delivering the awareness to be sensitive towards the human and environment, socializing the child and developing a positive attitude against learning. Furthermore, there are also other purposes such as raising attention towards different areas and concepts, meeting affective needs such as beauty and aesthetics, contributing in linguistic and mental development of child, developing imagination and creative thinking skill and making positive contributions in personality development. Tales make one love the book and makes one notice that book is an essential instrument for entertainment, learning and obtaining information (Karatay, 2007).

688

CHARACTERISTICS OF TALES Tales are literary genres that are at the suitable qualification for child’s cognitive and affective level and encourage children of different age groups to research and study in the areas they are interested in. Tales should prepare a foundation for development of emotions and perceptions of child, process the joy of life and positivity but also reflect the truths of today. Moreover, they should inform the child about the culture and knowledge of the society, where she is born and grows in, and let the child benefit from mental and emotional experiences of adults (Karatay, 2007). Some of the characteristics of tales are as such; tales are fiction, there are persons, occurrences and other elements and there might be supernatural creatures such as genie, witch, angel and giant etc., their writers are not known, they are narrated from mouth to mouth, they start with introduction parts such as nursery rhymes, they are didactic and the good always wins at the end (Asutay, 2013). Characteristics of tales can be gathered under three main topics: Tales are Anonymous: It is not known when, where and by whom tales were first told. The fact that tales do not display an identity of any location and specific people shows that this genre is anonymous (Asutay, 2013). Tales are Fantastical: An intense imagination and supernatural situations dominate tales. Even in tales that we sometimes witness occurrences that are logical, the determinant element is fantastic occurrences alongside objective occurrences. Almost every tale has elements that are not possible to occur in our world (Asutay, 2013). Tales are Didactic: Tales generally openly display a didactic lesson to be learnt. It provides lessons that the reader or listener should take in line with the values of cultural environment where the tale is told. These lessons generally arise from relations of contrasts such as good-bad, beautiful-ugly, powerful-week and rich-poor. By identifying readers and listeners with beautiful, powerful and kind-hearted ones, tales try to deliver the lesson which is desired to be taught (Yaldız, 2006). Possessing numerous characteristics, tales have various types. TYPES OF TALES Although there are different definitions, majority of the literature divides tales into two main groups as “public tales” and “literary tales”. Public Tales: These are works of literature that inform about histories, heroic stories, superstitions, custom and traditions of nature. Having been created by public and spread from mouth to mouth and changed in time, these tales came until 19th century and were mostly included in written literature in this century. After they had become written and reproduced, they were spread across all countries. A good public tale should carry integrity of interest. Different occurrences and characters distract reader. The number of occurrences is generally three. Themes of public tales are strong and open. There are bad against good and ugly against beautiful. The main type of tale which is called traditional tale is named as public tale in sources of Turkish researchers and compilers (Asutay, 2013). Literary Tales: These are tales that are referred as authentic or fictional and were written by authors who based on their own imagination. Characters of such tales are mostly fairies. Subjects are generally supernatural; occurrences generally take place in fictional places or locations. Characters always face supernatural situations. Supernatural and mystic powers such as charm, fortune-telling and prophecy have a 689

great share in climax and denouement of occurrences. Its distinguishing feature from tales in general is its writers are not anonymous or folkloric but are known people. They are also referred as fictional tales (Asutay, 2013). CONTRIBUTION OF TALES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Tales are considered as one of the main elements educating the society. The mankind told his own life truths, solution skills, expectations by loading them on occurrences and characters in tales and for centuries, he tried to warn and train next generations and equip them against difficulties of life with this way (Yavuz, 2002). It is stated that in spite of the developments in today’s technology, literature is an essential source; and every qualified literary work that is provided to children has the significance and function that will contribute to cognitive, affective and psychomotor developments of children (Özçelik, 2007). Tales support concept development, develop sense perceptions, deliver awareness of language, improve listening/ speaking/ reading/writing and dreaming skills and helps the child to know himself. Furthermore, tales introduce the society to child, enable the child to become aware of the behaviors that are approved and unapproved in society, identify with heroes and help the child to obtain positive emotions, introduce the environment out of family which the child can form a relationship and provide possible future problems to child and the information with regard to solution of these problems. They help the child to understand that the people and the characters in tales have different emotions and opinions and to learn characteristics of different cultures (Sever, 2008). Contribution of Tales in Cognitive Development: Cognitive development is a process that enables interaction with environment, helps to perceive external world by supporting obtaining and use of information and means storing/interpreting/rearranging/evaluating and using information (Kandır, 2007). In order for the child to express himself, tales enable him to meet books, see and know the things that he learnt hearing and learn the words by seeing that he did not hear before. The child who starts to form a relation between what is heard and seen starts to learn to think (Ersoy, Avcı, & Turla, 2007). It is stated that the effects of books on cognitive development of child are; improving memory, teaching concepts, helping perception of shapes and stating opinions about them, increasing imagination and creativity, raising period of attention and listening and forming a relation between painting and writing (Çakmak & Geçgel, 2006; Ersoy et al., 2007). With tale which is a literary genre that draws the attention of children, skills of language and concept can be developed faster. While children perform activities by means of listening tales before starting to read and write, they can perform activities of understanding what they read after they started to read. Furthermore, after activities of reading tales with children, it is possible to carry out summarizing works and questionanswer exercises regarding tales and the concepts, which are aimed to teach, can be delivered with the help of tales (Onuk, 2013). It is stated that obtaining of language is especially faster between ages of 2-6 (Özbay, 2010). Therefore, audio tale books for 2 year olds give positive results and rhyming expressions and riddles might be interesting for 3-4 year olds. In this respect, nursery rhymes in the introduction part of tales are essential for children. Tale books are irreplaceable products that address children’s areas of skills. By 690

telling tales suitable to children’s vocabulary in preschool period, it is possible to improve children’s language skills and creative characteristics. It is possible to include rhythm and imitations in tales told to children especially in this period. Therefore, children’s emotional worlds can develop and in parallel with this, their psychomotor skills can also be improved (Güleryüz, 2006). While improving their imaginations, nursery rhymes and rhyming expressions in the introduction of tales, idioms in tales, reduplications and contradicting concepts (good-bad concepts…) teach new words by entertaining them. Children cannot form logical relations between truths like adults. There is a running process in their mental world and imagination carries a great importance in this period. The fact that fantastic dimension of tales includes both real and supernatural elements highly draws interest of child of this period. Imagination of children between ages of 4-8 carries utmost importance in their lives. At this point, the logic of tale is close to the logic of child (Bakan, 2006). Contribution of Tales to Emotional and Social Development: Emotional development is child’s being aware of his own feelings and knowing himself, knowing his competencies and inadequacies and balancing between his experiences in his inner world and expectations of the environment (Kandır, 2007). Effects of books in children’s social and emotional development are; identifying with heroes, strengthening communication with the adult, enabling understanding of social relationships, enabling adaptation with social life, earning value judgements of society and understanding the importance of human relations (Ersoy et al., 2007). Children meet heroes in literary works who are similar or dissimilar to them. Children who identify with positive characters might emulate improving a positive personality. Therefore, the child obtains the chance to know others and himself (Çakmak & Geçgel, 2006). Developing imagination of child, carrying him to “abstract” thinking and helping emotional education, the tale also assumes a significant role in mother tongue education (Bilkan, 2009). It is stated that effects of the book in child’s language development are; improving learning and imitation skills, increasing vocabulary, learning mother tongue, learning how to use adjectives and pronouns correctly and developing skills to form a sentence (Çakmak & Geçgel, 2006; Ersoy et al., 2007). Reading or telling tale to child might contribute in child’s process of learning language. When a child grows up in a constant and regular speaking environment, his process of learning language becomes faster. Children who do not get attention and special effort to make them speak both start to speak late and have less vocabulary. In this period, even if the child does not understand the tale, language learning accelerates with repetition of words (Çakmak & Geçgel, 2006; Ersoy et al., 2007). While serving for child’s learning of mother tongue and development, tale is also an instrument of art that delivers various benefits. Tales help children to comprehend words of their mother tongue and how to use them easily and make them feel respect and love for who is telling the tale. Therefore, tale becomes an instrument that brings the child and adult closer and familiarize with each other. Functions of tales are considerably great in whole education without differentiating between school period or post-school period and especially significance of these functions in terms of language teaching, use, development and conscious of language are substantial (Pilancı, 2008). 691

Contribution of Tales in Cultural Development Tales tell about the land they were written, homeland and people of that homeland. They are distilled from history, custom, language and depth of emotion of that country. Therefore, they have a national essence and constitute a cultural identity (Feyzioğlu, 2007). Tale has a significant place in this formation. Moreover, tale itself is a cultural element. Tales make positive contributions in cultural development of child. Children who listen to tale also listen to the elements of the area where the tale takes place and learn social and cultural characteristics of the area in question. The process to teach culture and educate the child starts with the intention to entertain and have a nice time in close and natural environment such as family and street and continues in school desks systematically and in a planned way. In this process, tales have a significance place in conveying the tale and national, universal and humane values and making the children adopt them, improving imagination of the children and developing language using skills and talents to perceive abstract concept (Karatay, 2007). MESSAGES GIVEN TO CHILDREN WITH TALES Messages given with tales contribute in development of child and enable the child to create various value judgements. 1. Being hardworking, Making Favor, Cooperating: Characters should have the characteristics that the role expected from the child requires. Heroes in tales are equipped with characteristics that are necessary to actualize ideal world (Ural, 2006). Children generally do not want to wake up early and go to school. It is difficult for children to wake up in the morning who want to stay up late in the night. In child tales, the heroes who have problems in this subject at first solve the problem by going to bed early later. These heroes become more successful when they wake up early and go to school voluntarily. By telling situations about being industrious, making favor and cooperation in tales, it is ensured to create positive attitudes in children (Erdal, 2009). 2. To not imitate others, Being Content with What is Possessed: It is substantially important for a person to be aware of his skills and beauties in terms of his selfconfidence. It is highly difficult for an individual to be happy who does not like himself and imagines being like someone else. Not being content with one’s situation might bring failure in work. Child tales generally tell about characters who generally are not content with themselves at first but then become aware of their superiorities. The hero of the book notices this as a result of a negative experience (Erdal, 2009). 3. Listening to Advice: Since they do not have a voice always in decisions about themselves, children might have to listen to advice of elders. In child tales, it is generally mothers who give advice to their children or warn them against dangers. By telling experiences of children who do not take the advice, tales emphasize the importance of taking advice (Erdal, 2009). 4. Hygiene: Being highly emphasized especially in preschool books, cleanliness is dealt with its various dimensions in child books. Personal hygiene, cleanliness of home, school and environment, brushing teeth, taking bath, washing hands and rules of general hygiene are the subjects that are emphasized the most in books. Child books draw attention to the fact that people irresponsibly pollute the environment they live in (Erdal, 2009). 5. Not being Arrogant: Being arrogant is self-admiration, considering oneself 692

superior to others and becoming haughty. The opposite of this is to be modest. Arrogant people are not approved in society and do not have many friends. Being arrogant might sometimes give a feeling of over-confidence and individual might make a mistake consequently. Arrogant heroes in tales generally fail in subjects they claim they are superior. Therefore, the modest one is elevated. Books that emphasize the wrongdoing of arrogance end with arrogant character’s being in a tough spot. Therefore, it is taught the children through tales that not being arrogant is a positive way of behavior (Erdal, 2009). 6. Loving Animals: Generally, weak, ill, baby or stray animals are chosen as heroes in tales. Therefore, by means of books, it is given a message for the child to have affection towards animals and to help who is in a difficult situation (Erdal, 2009). PLACE OF TALES IN EDUCATION OF CHILD Almost every element of child literature makes certain contributions in education of child. Outstanding characteristic of tales is that they are fictionalized simply, told with short and explicit sentences therefore they enable children to collect their attention and to be interested in the tale. Interacting with qualified books which are suitable for their levels as of early period, children obtain experiences regarding social relations and are introduced with beauty and power of visual and verbal expression. This process helps to educate children’s senses and improving their powers of thinking. Furthermore, qualified child books, which have literary and didactic elements, place responsibility to children’s memory and heart and consequently feed their efforts to understand the life and the world with aesthetic messages (Çocuk ve Gençlik Edebiyatı Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi, 2015). By means of education, the child is enabled to obtain skills of listeningunderstanding, speaking-telling and to improve vocabulary so that the child perceives the environment and expresses himself in preschool period. When the child is in school age, he naturally learns to see the book with love and to approach it; obtains the habit and pleasure to read-understand. A habit and desire to describe his own emotions, thoughts, dreams and what is happening in the environment in written arise in child (Karatay, 2007). Tales, where the conflict between the good and bad is narrated and generally the good is victorious, help shaping concepts of the good and the right in minds of children and enable processing the idea in their conscious that kindness and just will always be victorious in the conflict between the good and bad. Tale character will reach victory and success in the end if he is straightforward and right. Tales teach that what is important is not strength but to work with patience and honesty. Therefore, tales deliver positive thinking in every situation, habit and belief to improve situation in children. The hero receives help of each and everybody throughout the tale which consequently teaches the child to not see anyone worthless and meaningless. Tales help children to identify with inhuman creatures (animals, plants) non-living things in the environment they live and improve animal love and the feeling to value other beings (Karatay, 2007). One of the purposes of today’s education is to enable the child to find the meaning of life. The child should find consistent answers to complex questions such as “Where did I come from, what is birth, what is death?” in time. The child makes sense of such questions in his own world at first, comments on them in his opinion or sees the problem in a more general frame and do not think about it much. However, it is an 693

obligation to find answers to questions pertaining to life and meaning of life for development of a healthy individual. It is impossible to learn such information from books or adults as a ready and packed knowledge. In this process which is also called obtaining of values, qualified tales will make a great contribution in child. While the subjects dealt in tale make a reference to internal problems and tensions of child in a sense, they enter into child’s world indirectly (Dilidüzgün, 2003). When educations that child receive before, during and after school are considered, the concept of child philosophy comes to light. The concept of “child philosophy” was first used by Karl Jaspers in 1953 for the first time in literature of philosophy and tales were among significant elements in creating and applying child philosophy. Child philosophy is related to both order of raising human and development of individual skills and talents. In this respect, it is seen that child philosophy has a direct relation with child education. This relation frame bases on two main functions. These are; teaching ways of thinking so that individuals can use their minds to their best advantage and use them as an instrument to improve individual talents and skills (Karakaya, 2006). With all of its aspects, tale is a significant genre of literature which can be used in education and development of child starting from the period where he cannot speak yet and is directly effective. This effect continues from babyhood to adulthood. Therefore, contribution of tale in development and education of individual is greater than it seems. REFERENCES Akın, N. (1998). Okul Öncesi Kurum Öğretmenlerinin Çocuk Kitaplarına Karşı Tutum ve Davranışları. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara. Arıcı, A.F., & Bayındır, N. (2015). Masalların Öğretim Aracı Olarak Kullanılması Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Journal of Language and Literature 15, 106-119. Asutay, H. (2013). Çocuk Yazınının Fantastik Dünyası: Masallar. Electronic Turkish Studies 8(13), 265-278. Bakan S. (2006). Kelile ve Dimne’de Yer Alan Masalların Dinî ve Ahlâkî Eğitime Katkıları. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erzurum. Bilkan, F. (2009). Masal Estetiği, Timaş Yayınları, s.9, İstanbul. Çakmak, G.H., Geçgel, H. (2006). Çocuk edebiyatı, Kök Yayıncılık, Ankara. Dilidüzgün, S. (2002). Çocuk Edebiyatı, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, s. 35, Eskişehir. Erdal, K. (2009). Eğitim Değerleri Açısından Çocuk Kitapları. Akademik Bakış 17, 1-18. Ersoy, Ö., Avcı, N., & Turla, A. (2007). Çocuklar İçin Erken Uyarıcı Çevre, Morpa Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul. Feyzioğlu, Y. (2007). Masallar Çocuklar İçin Neden Gereklidir? II. Ulusal Çocuk ve Gençlik Edebiyatı Sempozyum Bildiri Kitabı Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, s. 831–843, Ankara. Güleryüz, H. (2002). Yaratıcı Çocuk Edebiyatı. Pegem A Yayıncılık, Ankara. Kandır, A. (2007). Gelişimde 3-6 Yaş. Morpa Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul. Karakaya, Z. (2006). Çocuk Felsefesi ve Çocuk Eğitimi. Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi 6(4), 23-37. Karatay, H. (2007). Dil Edinimi ve Değer Öğretimi Sürecinde Masalın Önemi ve İşlevi. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi 5(3), 463-477. Kuzu, T.S. (2002). Öykünün Çocuğun Bilişsel ve Duyuşsal Gelişimine Katkısı Bağlamında Öykü Seçimi. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi 9, 95-105. 694

Onuk E.Ö. (2013). İlkokul Çağı Çocuklarının Söz Varlığının Gelişiminde Masallar. Sakarya University Journal of Education 3(1), 21-31. Özbay, M. (2010). Türkçe Öğretimi Yazıları, Öncü Kitap, Ankara. Özçelik, E. (2007). Türkiye’de Çocuk Yazını Ürünlerinde Eğitbilimsel Göstergeler. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Samsun. Öztürk, A.O. (2008). Masalları Uyutmak. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi 1(3), 494-499. Pilancı, H. (1998). Çağdaş Eğitimde Halk Edebiyatının Kullanılması. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları. Sakaoğlu, S. (1999). Masal Araştırmaları. Akçağ Yayınları, Ankara. Sever, S. (2008). Çocuk ve Edebiyat. Tudem Yayıncılık, Ankara. Şirin, M. R. (2007). Çocuk Edebiyatına Eleştirel Bir Bakış, Kök Yayıncılık, Ankara. Ural, S. (2006). Çocuk Edebiyatı Yapıtlarındaki Yaşam Gerçekliği. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayınları, s.897-900, Ankara. Yaldız, H.,T. (2006) Masalların Çocuk Eğitimi Açısından İncelenmesi (Sarayönü Örneği). Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanamamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Konya. Yavuz M.H. (2002). Masallar ve Eğitimsel İşlevleri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, s. 4, Ankara. URL: T.C. Başbakanlık Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu (TDK) (2016). http://www.tdk.gov.tr/index.php?option=com_gts&arama=gts&guid=TDK.GTS.57459c 0d224549.51551116 URL: Ankara Üniversitesi Çocuk ve Gençlik Edebiyatı Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi (ÇOGEM) Dünya Çocuk Kitapları Haftası Bildirisi (2015). http://213.232.8.91/TR/ pdf/cogemdunyacocukkitaplarihaftasibildirisi.pdf

695

Chapter 56 A Neglected Group for Early Intervention: Gifted and Talented Young Children Adile Gülşah SARANLI Early childhood years are perhaps among the most valuable ones in a person’s life, corresponding to a period where most important developmental changes take place. These early years in a child’s life, wherein important foundations are laid for subsequent periods of adolescence and adulthood, are very important in being able to reach children of all types, and to maximize their inherent developmental potential. Moreover, this early period also provides important opportunities to eliminate risks that threaten their development, possibly making substantial positive differences in their lives. Interestingly, when gifted children are considered, their unique traits and attributes may make it seem like they would not benefit from early intervention, that they somehow would not need additional support in their early childhood years. However, it is increasingly becoming evident that such children and their families also need and would greatly benefit from early intervention efforts. There are a number of critical issues that immediately come to mind when the necessity of early intervention is considered for gifted children. First and foremost, it is generally the case that both the speed of learning and the areas of interest for gifted children are different and beyond their peers. This necessitates educational early intervention for these children. Similarly, this special group of children often exhibit specific attributes and over-sensitivities that help us identify their giftedness, while also requiring early intervention to handle associated issues. Another important set of differences motivating early intervention for these children is the presence of asynchronous development. Motivated by these needs, this chapter focuses on the concept of early intervention from the perspective of gifted children, clarifying topics and areas for which these children need early intervention and reviewing methods that might be developed to implement early intervention for gifted and talented young children as well as potentially gifted children during their preschool years. Developmental Differences of Gifted Children Developmental differences of gifted children exhibit themselves in many different areas, including their cognitive, social-emotional and language skills. Table 1. lists some of these differences and attributes that are observed in most gifted children. Giftedness, particularly in preschool years, manifests itself as the child being ahead of its peers in one or more developmental areas and/or different areas of talent. In general, gifted children in this age group, considering that their development is still ongoing and that labeling them at this early age should be avoided, attend the same 

Assist. Prof. Dr., TED University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of Elementary Education, Early Childhood Education Program 

educational programs as all of their peers exhibiting normal developmental patterns and participate in the same activities that are designed for normal children. In cases where such children have the opportunity to attend educational institutions together with other gifted children like themselves, it becomes possible to design educational programs that are better suited for their different and more advanced skills. If such a suitable environment is provided, interventions developed for early years may substantially decrease social-emotional problems and problems related to academic performance that could otherwise be observed in the future. Table 1. Developmental differences commonly observed in gifted children

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Starting to smile earlier than normal, Early discovery of the difference between the mother or the primary caretaker and others, Unusual alertness and curiosity, Starting to walk earlier than normal, Starting to talk earlier than normal, Early and faster development of receptive language, Early interest towards books and reading, Early adoption and use of symbol systems for language and mathematics, Early grasp of abstract concepts such as death, justice and morality, Early progression through cognitive stages of development, Early and exceptional development of storage and recall (memory), In some cases, early acquisition of fine motor skills (Koopmans- Dayton and Feldhusen, 1987; Louis and Lewis, 1992; Silverman, 1986).

The Purpose of Providing Early Intervention Services to Gifted Children The primary purpose of early intervention is to maximize the chances of children exhibiting different developmental properties in reaching normal developmental milestones, while also positively guiding their families to ensure a healthy developmental environment for their children (DeCoster, 2009; Keilty, 2010). Every parent helps their children learn regardless of whether the child exhibits normal patterns of development or not. Parents expect to provide this help as part of the normal parenting process. They think about how to interact with their child and which games to play. In addition to teaching academic skills such as colors and numbers, they also try to teach daily skills such as dressing and eating (Keilty, 2010). However, this should not lead to the conclusion that parents of children exhibiting developmental differences will be incapable of using the same methods to provide this help. On the contrary, parents of these children can and should also provide such an environment for their children. Nevertheless, parents who observe that their children exhibit skills that are developmentally ahead of their peers may need external help to better understand and formulate best ways in which they can provide this support. At this point, the true meaning of early intervention becomes more evident, taking the form of a cooperative support program connecting parents with area experts. Through this cooperation, parents can meet their previously desired and anticipated goals for providing adequate and high quality support for the development and learning of their children (Keilty, 2010). Moreover, many applications of early intervention also strive to guide parents on 697

how to cope with daily struggles and difficulties both at home and outside (Majnamer, 1998). At the same time, early intervention programs should also be designed to increase the awareness of parents for the limitations, strengths and needs of their children, developing their support skills in the process (Kaur, Chavan, Lata, Kaur, Tinku, Arora and Ratnam, 2006). The periods of infancy, babyhood and early childhood are among the most important in a child’s life. For a variety of reasons, these early years are particularly critical for handicapped children. First of all, the earlier developmental delays of impairments are detected for handicapped children, the higher their chances will be to benefit from early intervention strategies to meet their needs (Bruder, 2010). This point of view can be interpreted in a similar way for gifted children as well. Gifted children also need early intervention in order to prevent the deterioration and fading of their high potential in specific skill areas. Second, early intervention also allows parents to benefit from additional support during this period (Bruder, 2010). This positive aspect of early intervention can also be transferred to gifted children and their parents. As a result of the often limited amount of resources and support available to parents of gifted children, particularly in regions where sufficient attention is not given to giftedness, they may have difficulty finding answers to their questions, increasing their need for additional external support. Finally, children participating in early intervention programs will be much better prepared by the time they reach their schooling ages, decreasing additional cost to schools and the society by minimizing associated problems (Bruder, 2010). A similar benefit can be observed for early intervention applied to gifted children, preventing possible academic under-achievement problems that often result from the children losing their motivation to learn due to incorrect and misguided educational methods and parental behavior. This will enable the child to better realize their true potential, helping them contribute much more productively to the society and towards their own fulfillment. Areas of Early Intervention Services Applicable to Gifted Children Babyhood and early childhood are periods where growth and change are extensive and dynamic (Gerber, Wilks and Erdie-Lalena, 2010). In these early periods, a shortage of resources to support developmental milestones are known to play a negative role, hindering progress in motor, cognitive and social-emotional maturity (Abubakar, Holding, Van de Vijver, Newton, and Van Baar, 2010). The presence of these problems in particularly the first three years in a child’s life often results in their falling behind their peers. As a result of this negative impact on the developmental process, children may experience either developmental delays, or risks for such delays (Sola and Diken, 2008). The very same issue also creates a substantial risk for gifted and talented children, possibly resulting in their inability to fulfill their true potential. Normally, the progress of neural and physical development takes a natural and predictable course. Skills progress from the head to the toe, from the internal towards the external. Through careful observation, these developmental stages experienced by children also present an excellent opportunity to track their developmental progress (Gerber, Wilks and Erdie-Lalena, 2010). As we noted before, early intervention generally encompasses the earliest possible use of necessary actions and interventions in any stage of children’s education to support both children and their parents (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2005). The validity 698

and importance of this definition is also applicable to gifted children. The benefits of early intervention are maximized when it is applied properly and in a timely manner (Atkinson, Wilkin, Stott, Doherty and Kinder, 2002). Early Intervention Programs and Gifted Children Early intervention programs are developed for babies and young children who are either exhibiting developmental delays and impairments or showing risks for such problems, as well as parents of such children. The definition of the term “developmental delay and impairment” is in fact specific to each culture and country. Early intervention is intended for children exhibiting developmental progress that is slower than what is expected for their own age group, together with their parents. Moreover, early intervention can also be extended to cover infants and young children, together with their parents, exhibiting certain properties that are considered as risky in terms of developmental differences (Keilty, 2010). Consequently, early intervention requires the provision of early intervention programs and various related services to meet the needs of parents of infants and young children with developmental impairments, increasing their capacity of to better support their children (Epley, Summers and Turnbull, 2011). Similarly, if the developmental differences and properties of gifted children, and the resulting needs of their parents, are not discovered as early as possible and supported through early intervention programs, this might eventually lead to various cognitive, social-emotional and social problems. Foundational Concepts of Early Intervention and Their Relation to Gifted Children There are six concepts that form the foundations of early intervention, while guiding its application (Keilty, 2010). These concepts, listed below with brief explanations, all include aspects that can naturally be applied in the context of gifted children as well. 1. Early intervention is only a beginning. Even though support is provided at the present, all related studies centrally take the future of the child into consideration 2. Parents and the society provide many learning opportunities for children. Early intervention intends to support not the intermediaries, but parents and the society. 3. Children are an integral part of the family. The goals, values and needs of the family are also those of the children. 4. Children learn through different means of interaction with other people, or with objects that they must explore. 5. There are many resources for parents but access to, and maintenance of these resources requires careful coordination. 6. Children learn and develop by using their curiosity, active need to explore and inner motivation and drive within daily experiences they observe within their own family and the society. All of the concepts listed above can be applied to gifted children who also get affected, both in the short term and in the long term, by their families and other people surrounding them including their teachers, relatives and neighbors. It is commonly observed that some of the most challenging difficulties for gifted children are associated with the effects of voluntary or involuntary behaviors of people they interact with, in 699

addition to their different developmental properties they possess since birth. Assumptions Underlying Different Approaches to Early Intervention There are three basic assumptions underlying different approaches to early intervention as shown in Figure 1. These are (1) Deficits, (2) Infusion/Prevention, (3) Environmental changes. The “deficit” assumption states that experiences during critical developmental periods are very effective. According to this assumption, when there is a shortage of sufficient experiences to support learning, developmental deficits will surface. The “Infusion/Prevention” assumption forms the basis of many early intervention methods. In the literature, this assumption is often considered together with the “snowball effect”, which observes that intense experiences throughout children’s lives create a continuous and cumulative effect. Finally, the third assumption, “environmental change”, claims that it is not possible to create persistent effects and change through interventions that are focused only on the child. This point of view, which received substantial attention recently, observes that a restructuring of the society and the family is necessary to achieve meaningful change in the lives of children. The importance of family participation and societal support is particularly emphasized within this assumption.

Deficiency

Prevention

Environmental  Changes

Figure 1.Basic assumptions underlying different approaches to early intervention

Effective early intervention programs are characterized by their cooperative, family-centered properties, seeking to meet the priorities and needs of both the children and their parents (Basu, Salisbury and Thorkildsen, 2010). Moreover, ensuring the effectiveness of these programs requires that the development of children are supported both directly and indirectly through a synthesis of efforts towards providing education, therapy and family support, as well as the cultural compatibility of chosen methods (McBride and Peterson,1997). The Theoretical Framework for Early Intervention Methods When considering early intervention, it is very important to have a well-defined point of view, based on a carefully determined approach or theory to form the basis of particular methods to be used. Successful applications of early intervention are always guided by a theoretical model that links specific strategies to be used to desired outcomes (Ackah and Appiah, 2011). At this point, the studies and theories of both Dunst (2010) and Bronfenbrenner (2001) are considered to be appropriate to guide early intervention services for gifted children. The ecological model of Bronfenbrenner, which links human development and the parental environment, considers the developmental process within a larger, ecological context. The child/individual within this context is affected by factors associated with separately defined systems within micro-, mezo-, exo- and macrolevels. As important as these levels are for handicapped children and their families, they 700

also describe conditions which effect the development of gifted children and their families. Dunst’s (2010) social support model designed for handicapped children and their families also promises to be informative and useful when the needs of gifted children and their families are considered. Information, suggestions, guidance and material support provided by social networks that include individuals, groups and institutions that contact families to provide early intervention services form the basis of Dunst’s theory. This model describes relations between family-centered applications, opportunities for children’s learning, parental support and societal support. A sustained and warm family support environment, providing highest levels of learning opportunities is critically important in ensuring healthy development of gifted children. The Place of Gifted Children Among Children in Risk Groups Considered for Early Intervention Tjossem (1976) categorizes babies and young children under risk of developmental deficiencies in three groups (as cited in Ackah and Appiah, 2011): Children in existing risk groups, children in biological risk groups and children in environmental risk groups (Majnemer, 1998).

Children in Existing Risk Groups

Children in Biological Risk Groups

Children in Environmental Risk Groups Children in Existing Risk Groups: Children in this group are those who have been diagnosed with medical disorders with known etymology, expected to experience physical and developmental impairments. Children diagnosed with Down syndrome, for example, are considered to be within this group. Children in Biological Risk Groups: Children in this group are those that possess markers or indicators towards potential biological impairments, possibly associated with specific events before or after birth that might be problematic. These events, either by themselves or considered together, increase the chances of learning impairments or abnormal developmental progress in later life even though, at the beginning, there may not be any perceivable abnormalities. Examples of such situations include complications during pregnancy (injuries, illnesses or infections), diabetes, or complications during delivery as well as ingestion of toxic substances. Children in Environmental Risk Groups: Children in this group are born normally both biologically and genetically, but their early life experiences and environmental conditions introduce risks in their physical and developmental wellbeing. Possible sources of problems include the quality of the mother’s care and the presence of a healthy psychological environment for the child, as well as available stimulation, the quality of the diet, medical care, the quality of social, educational and sensory stimulants (Majnemer, 1998). Gifted children can be considered to be in this environmental risk group. Lack of awareness in parents, teachers and other individuals 701

with respect to the gifted child’s specific attributes and developmental differences increases various developmental risks, depriving the child of necessary support and stimulation. In the absence of an environment with enriched sources of stimulations that would allow them to develop their exceptional talents, there is an increased risk for gifted children to fall dramatically short of their potential, suggesting a distinct need for early intervention. Why Consider Early Intervention for Gifted Children? Findings from recent research indicate that the developing brain is uniquely receptive to environmental stimuli. Environmental stimuli experienced after birth, and possibly even earlier, form the basis of all information and skills acquired in later years of a child’s life. In light of this observation, gifted children also have every right to benefit from early exposure to increased stimuli, support and a chance to develop their different and special talents. Nevertheless, there are also groups against early identification of giftedness and the provision of special early intervention services to gifted children. Their arguments can generally be grouped into three main categories: a) Doing so would artificially and forcefully accelerate the development of young children, harming them in the process, b) Standardized tests for intelligence and giftedness, particularly those measuring group intelligence and talent, have questionable validity for these age groups, c) Attempting to implement such early intervention programs runs the risk of mislabeling children who, rather than truly being gifted, simply progressed through developmental milestones quicker than others (Kitano and Kirby, 1986). On the other hand, avoidance of early intervention for gifted children based on these arguments often results in substantial delays in the identification of gifted children, preventing them from receiving educational services appropriate for their interests and talents until 2nd, 3rd and even the 4th year of primary school. As a result, young gifted children become a group that perhaps receives the least amount of attention, to the point of being ignored, losing any chances they might have had to explore additional supportive educational opportunities (Gallagher, 1988). Despite all these arguments against early intervention for gifted children, many educational experts in the area with years of experience in their fields increasingly recognize the potential benefits of providing early intervention services to this group of children (Freeman, 2006; Renzulli and Reis, 2009; Silverman, 2003; Stile, Kitano, Kelley, and LeCrone). It is hence becoming increasingly evident that encouraging the development of gifted children toward their true potential requires constructing a roadmap to this end as early as possible. It has become necessary to consider gifted children for early intervention to eliminate the following potential sources of problems:  The risk of educational programs not meeting their needs,  Incorrect attitudes of their parents and educators,  The risk of them suffering from academic underachievement problems in later years,  The risk of developing social-emotional problems at varying levels,  Most importantly, the possibility of children trying to hide their talent, or missing the opportunity to adequately develop in their areas of talent. Early identification is among possible early intervention methods for gifted children, and can help both parents and experts get an early start working on the 702

development of the children (Karnes, Shwedel and Linnemeyer, 1981). Moreover, early identification and timely discovery of children’s talents can be considered among important precautions to protect their psychological well-being (Karnes and Johnson, 1991). Enriched preschool programs can offer opportunities for young children to exhibit their gifted potential, develop their talents and enable teachers to provide children with support in these areas (Kitano, 1990). It has also been observed in early childhood programs that early intervention provides the best possible policy initiative for disadvantaged children (Vantassel-Baska, Paiton and Prillaman, 1989). Early identification of gifted children, together with placement into an appropriate preschool program can prevent later occurrence of academic underachievement issues in a timely manner (Kitano and Kirby, 1986). Early Intervention Services Applicable to Gifted Children In general, early intervention services are planned to meet the developmental needs of the children that will benefit from these services, as well as the needs of parents in relation to their ability to support and strengthen the development of their children (Family’s Guide to Early Intervention Services in Washington State, 2013). Classical early intervention services are generally provided to identify and meet developmental needs in the five basic areas of cognitive, physical, communicative, social-emotional and compliance development (DeCoster, 2009). Generally, services encompassed by early intervention include financial support services that will enable children and their families to benefit from technological support devices and services, audiology (hearing) services and devices, early diagnosis, scanning and evaluation services, family education, counseling and home visit services, health services, medical services for monitoring and evaluation, care services, dietary services, ergotherapy, physical therapy, psychological services, coordination and social services, special education, speech and language therapy and transportation (Family’s Guide to Early Intervention Services in Washington State, 2013). From within this most recent list of early intervention services, those that can be appropriate for gifted children can be identified as follows: early identification, scanning and evaluation services, family education, counseling and psychological services, special education, transportation and financial support provided to the children and their parents to help them benefit from early intervention services. It is recommended that all these services, encompassed by the concept of early intervention are provided to the children and their parents in a trans-disciplinary manner. Also, Kitano and Kirby described 9 different ways to intervene early to gifted children as shown in Figure 2. Early Intervention from the Perspective of General Educational Programs Designing educational programs for gifted preschool children based on careful consideration of their interests and talents will ensure their increased participation in the program and its activities. For example, using different methods such as critical thinking, creativity and problem solving while working on larger themes such as social problems in the world or the principles of ecological systems can be considered to be a form of early intervention (Kitano and Kirby, 1986).

703

Teacher

General  Education  Programs

Individualized  Education  Programs

Learning  Environments

Evaluation

Enriched  Content,  Process, End  Product

Parent

Learning  Environments

Transfer  between the  schools and  systems

Learning  Environments

Figure 2. Early intervention ways to gifted children

Early Intervention from the Perspective of Individualized Educational Programs The preparation of “individualized educational programs” for gifted children should also be considered as a form of early intervention. Such programs for curriculum differentiation are in general not considered until primary school, but they could, and should be applied starting from the preschool period (Kitano and Kirby, 1986). Early Intervention from the Perspective of Learning Environments Another way in which early intervention can be realized for young gifted children is through the provision of a learning environment designed not only for the calendar age of children, but also according to their developmental age, providing opportunities to fully use their imagination, with as much diversity and availability of material as possible (Kitano and Kirby, 1986). Early Intervention from the Perspective of Enriched Content, Process and End-Product Early intervention can also be implemented for gifted children by exposing them to stimuli appealing to their interests and potential talents through early enrichment methods, using enriched activities, toys and materials in appropriate settings (Kitano and Kirby, 1986). There are a number of studies in the literature observing that the enrichment of the educational curriculum for gifted preschool children can be 704

considered as an instance of early intervention (Guilbault, 2012; Henderson and Ebner, 2011; Luna, 2002; Mooij, 1999; Silverman, 1992). Early Intervention from the Perspective of Evaluation Considering programs designed for gifted preschool children, processes for evaluation should have the following components:  The evaluation should be inter-disciplinary.  Multiple dimensions should be considered during the evaluation.  Children should be observed in their natural environments.  Family interviews should be performed.  Evaluation should incorporate individual intelligence and talent tests with established validity and reliability properties. These evaluations should not only be done for admission to the program, but also used continuously throughout the program as well as at the end (Kitano and Kirby, 1986). Early Intervention from the Perspective of the Teacher Teachers who are expected to be involved in the education of gifted children should be knowledgeable in developing curriculum specific to these children, as well as developing and using related educational methods and materials (Kitano and Kirby, 1986). Early Intervention from the Perspective of Transfer between Schools or Systems The transfer is the process of transitioning between different schools and/or services. Educations can attempt to make these transitions as smooth and problem-free as possible both for the school and the family. To this end, possible approaches include,  Organizing field trips within preschool program for children and their families,  Developing plans for transfer,  Communicating previous evaluations performed on the children to the new institution they are being transferred to. Early Intervention from the Perspective of Parent Participation Family members of gifted children are both active members and partners of the programs in which their children participate. These individuals are the best sources of information regarding how appropriate various program options are for their own children. Consequently, these families can also support the preparation of “individualized educational programs” for their children. Other possible contributions from families might include field trips, using the home environment to support concepts learned in the school, mentoring, helping with classroom activities as well as finding and bringing educational materials. In conclusion, when we consider the philosophy of early intervention, it becomes evident that gifted children are one of the groups that need these services the most. Lack of early intervention for these children significantly increases the risk of permanent loss of potential talent. Gifted children, who are likely to be individuals shaping our future when they grow up, should be recognized and supported to help them achieve as much of their potential as possible.

705

REFERENCES Abubakar, A., Holding, P., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Newton, C. and Van Baar, A. (2010). Children at Risk for Developmental Delay Can be Recognised by Stunting, Being Underweight, İll Health, Little Maternal Schooling or High Gravidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(6), 652–659. Ackah, F. R and Appiah, J. (2011). Early Intervention as a Catalyst for Effective Early Childhood Education in Ghana- How Can This Work? IFE PsychologIA, 19(1), 226-239. Atkinson, M., Wilkin, A., Stott, A., Doherty, P. and Kinder, K. (2002). Multi-Agency Working: A Detailed Study [Elektronik Sürüm]. Slough, UK: Published by National Foundation for Educational Research. Erişim: 25.06.2013, http://www.nfer.ac.uk/ nfer/publications/css02/css02.pdf Basu, S., Salisbury, C. L. and Thorkildsen, T. A. (2010). Measuring Collaborative Consultation Practices in Natural Environments. Journal of Early Intervention, 32(2), 127-150. Bronfenbrenner, U. 2001. The Bioecological Theory of Human Development. In N. J. Smelser and P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopaedia of the social and behavioural sciences. 6963– 6970. Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Bruder, M. B. (2010). Early Childhood Intervention: Promise to Children and Families for Their Future. Exceptional Children, 76(3), 339-355. DeCoster, D. (2009). Early Intervention in the Home for Childre Under the Age of Three with Developmental Delays: An In-Depth Examination of the Interactions Between Service Providers and Family Members. Degree Masters of Arts in Education. University of California, Santa Barbara. Dunst, C. J. (2010). Early Intervention for Infants and Toddlers with Developmental Disabilities. S. L. Odom, R. H. Horner, M. E. Snell, J. Blacher (Ed.). Handbook of Developmental Disabilities (s. 161-180). New York: Guilford Press. Epley, P. H., Summers, J. A. and Turnbull, A. P. (2011). Family Outcomes of Early Intervention: Families’ Perceptions of Need, Services, and Outcomes. Journal of Early Intervention, 33(3), 201-219. European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2005). “Early Childhood Intervention Analysis of Situations in Europe Key Aspects and Recommendations”. Summary. Acces: 25.12.2010,http://www.european-agency.org/publications/ ereports/ early-childhood-intervention/eci_en.pdf/view, Family’s Guide to Early Intervention Services in Washington State (t.y.). Reached at: 25.03.2013, http://www.del.wa.gov/publications/esit/docs/FamilyGuide_English.pdf Gallagher, J. J. (1988). National agenda for educating gifted students: Statement of policies. Exceptional Children . 5_5_, 107-114. Gerber, R. J., Wilks, T. and Erdie-Lalena (2010). Developmental Milestones: Motor Development. Pediatrics in Review, 2010(31), 267-277. Erişim: 25.12.2011 Guilbault, K. (2012). Early enrichment for young gifted children. http://mcgate.org/earlyenrichment-for-young-gifted-children/ adresinden 3 Kasım 2014 tarihinde alınmıştır. Henderson, M and Ebner, F. F. (2011). The biological basis for early intervention with gifted children. Peabody Journal of Education.72 (3-4), 59-80 Karnes, M. B., and Johnson, L. J. (1991). The preschool/primary gifted child. Journal for the Education of the Gifted . U(3), 267-283 Karnes, M. B., Shwedel, A. M., and Linnemeyer, S. A. (1981). Survey of programs for the gifted . Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois. Kaur, P., Chavan, B. S., Lata, S., Kaur, A. , Tinku, S., Arora Y. and Ratnam, V. (2006). 706

Early Intervention in Developmental Delay. Indian Journal of Pediatrics May, 2006, 73 (5), 405-408. Keilty, B. (2010). The Early Intervention Guidebook for Families and Professionals: Partnering for Success. New York: Teachers College Press. Kitano, M. K, and Kirby, D. F. (1986). Gifted education: A comprehensive view . Boston: Little, Brown. Koopmans-Dayton, J., and Feldhusen, J. F. (1987, November-December). A resource guide for parents of gifted preschoolers. Gifted Child Today, 2-7. Louis, B., and Lewis, M. (1992). Parental beliefs about giftedness in young children and their relation to actual ability level. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36,27-31. Luna, T. (2002). Gifted and Talented Primary-age Students: Recommendations for Identification and Service. Idaho State Department of Education Booklet. McBride, S. L. and Peterson, C. (1997). Home-Based Early Intervention with Families of Children with Disabilities: Who is Doing What?. Topics in Early Childhood Special Educaiton, 17(2), 209-233. Majnemer, A. (1998). Benefits of Early Intervention for Children with Developmental Disabilities. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology, 5(1), 62-69. Mooij, T. (1999). Integrating Gifted Children into Kindergarten by Improving Educational Processes. Gifted Child Quarterly, 43(2), 63-74. Reis, S. M., and Renzulli, J. S. 2003. “Research related to the schoolwide enrichment triad model”. Gifted Education International, 18(1), 15-39. Renzulli, J. and Reis, S. 1997. The Schoolwide Enrichment Model: A how to guide for educational Excellence. Creative Learning Press. Silverman, L. K. (1992). The importance of early identification of gifted. Highly Gifted Children, 5-16. Silverman, L. K. (1986). Parenting young gifted children. In J. R. Whitmore (Ed.), Intellectual gifiedness in young children: Recognition and development (pp. 73-87). New York: Haworth. Stile, S. and Hudson, B. (1993). Early Intervention with children who are gifted: DEC reccomended practices: Indicators of Quality in Programs for Infants and Young Children with Special Needs and Their Families Stile, S. W., Kitano, M., Kelley, P., and LeCrone, J. (in press). Early intervention with gifted children: A national survey. Journal of Early Intervention . ERIC VanTassel-Baska, L, Patton, L, and Prillaman, D. (1989), Disadvantaged gifted learners atrisk for education attention. Focus on Exceptional Children , 22(3), 1-15

707

Chapter 57 The Improvement of Visual Perception of Selectivity Fundamental Skills in Coordination and Impaired Judoka with Educational Games Şengül DEMİRAL

INTRODUCTION Sport is an instrument that enables physical, mental, emotional and social development of people and enhances their knowledge, talents and leadership skills. It is known that appropriate educational programs at sensitive age periods accelerate child development (Krstulovic et al., 2005). Disability is impairing physical integrity of a human being which results difficult communication between a person with disability’s environment and a person with disability. Recently, the effect on a positive formation of consciousness of the population without disabilities is increasing and in such way is affecting the attitude towards people with disabilities (Babic, 2011). Sport is also developing the promotion of social structure and social status of individuals in countries as vertical and horizontal forms of social movements involved in the development (Cubizolles, 2015). Judo is one of the sports that enable cognitive, sensorial and motor development of children. It is a great fighting sport requiring significant mental and physical skills. Literal meaning of Judo is the combination of JU which means softness, flexibility, kindness, agility and DO which means path, principle, idea and discipline. Thus, judo practice contributes not only to physical development but also to psychological maturity. Due to its philosophy, judo is effective in reducing aggression, disappointment and supporting social adaptation (Brosse & Matsumoto, 1999; Mestrado, 2007). Judo is a great branch of combat sport and requires great mental & physical skill. As a literal meaning of word; Ju; softness, flexibility, gentility, agility, DO; method, principle and thinking (Demiral, 2011). Studies in the field of child development not only provide information about the child's development situation and also the contribution to the child's development, such as how to teach what gives scientific data. Children love to move. Children from birth move are a part of life when children feel joy and happiness movement. Therefore, there are many reasons to support children's movement opportunities. The main learning and is said to occur during movement of the grow (Huı-Tzu, 2003). Whatever the environmental conditions of the movement of the child, especially physical activity is known to take pleasure in the content game. In addition, many studies on child development scientists in play and child development indicate that exercise has a positive effect (Demiral, 2010). One form of movement education in which the child is in sports. Sports individuals 

Assist. Prof. Dr., Adıyaman University, School of Physical Education and Sports

for their physical, mental, emotional and social aspects of allowing the development of knowledge, is a tool that improves their skills and leadership abilities. The main purpose in making sport of the child; they increase in cardiovascular endurance, nervemuscle coordination, strength, flexibility should improve. These features are under way children play in preschool and primary school period is gained by the practice followed by the pedagogical approach (Mengütay, 2006). When examining these definitions may be the most effective way of improving the development process and the development of appropriate age period in terms of engine performance development is important while ensuring that the study of the most entertaining forms of game. It should be noted that; children up to the race-winning, excited, to be together, have fun and be willing to learn new skills for sports. Planned physical activities according to children's development process in the transition to high-skill sports model was developed by systematizing the basic movement skills. These models are included in the literature as Long-Term Athlete Development Model. In this model, the 0-6 age group active in lifelong physical activity with the start of a long process which describes activities by up to (Higss et al., 2015). The first step of this model is fundamental motor skills (boys ages: 0-12 & Girls: 0-11). Fundamental sport skills active start (age girls & boys: 0-6), Fundamentals (girls age 6-8 / boys: 6-9), Learning to train (ibid girls: 8-11 / boys: 9-12) consists of phases. (Higss et al., 2015).

METHOD Children's cognitive, emotional and motor development of one of the sports that provide the "Judo" is a sport. Judo; it requires a lot of mental and physical dexterity and great struggle is a tremendous sport. The meaning of the word in judo; JI: softness, flexibility, kindness, courtesy and agility, DO: Road, principles, thoughts, come to mean the discipline (Demiral 2007, 2010; Brousse and Matsumoto., 1996). Judo is a sport that requires a high level of skill. In the ever-changing conditions and competition in the development of the analyzer function is to act quickly detect and attribute certain characteristics in athletes who play the sport are expected. In addition, the decisions they make in the event of a complex game of the athletes, their perception of external stimuli depend on the nature. Quick thinking and interpreting levels, making successful in preventing a tactical opponent behavior or movements are the factors that help his team succeed (Bompa, 2007). The types of basic skills for every child in the building complex of the judo sports agility, balance and training is stated by scientists that create coordination (Higgs et al., 2015). There are 22 fundamental movement skills that they are divided into three categories. 1. Body management; Balance, climb, forward roll, line walk. 2. Locomotor; continous leap, dodge, gallop, hop, jump for distance, jump for height, side gallop, skip, sprint run. 3. Object control; catch, chest pass, foot dribble, hand dribble, kick, overarm throw, underarm throw, punt, two-handed strike (FMS, 2004). This study is important for the judo sport coordination, agility and balance (static and dynamic), including on physical activating judo will examine a sample of educational games. 709

This applied in judo visually impaired judoka educational games aimed at improving coordination and perception of selectivity. Because of obstacles in developing sense of vision of visually impaired individuals of perception of these individuals. The main objective in this game is to improve the competition environment of selective perception. Visually impaired judo competition rules required during the individual competition according to the instructions of the coach from outside competition are making the management strategy of enhancing competition. Therefore, the perception of selectivity and also the simultaneous management coordination is of great importance. Competition in the development of tactical skills is important. These skills can be transferred to the judo competition (Gonzagaet et al., 2014). Many times the gain these skills require regular and systematic practices (Savelsbergh et al., 2002; Ericsson et al., 1993; Balyi, 2001). Table 1. The step framework for judo games Space / Task / Equipment / People STEP How can I change .....! stands for Body management, locomotor, manipulative skill, selective perception, judo games coordination. Where the activity is happening S Space The judo games is play on Tatmi What is happening! Athletes are divided into 2 groups. Other athletes served as slalom bar. Competitors athletes eyes as band plays the game by listening to the T Task instructions of the coach. Coach makes slalom ball rolling by with instructions and tried to cross the starting line of the opponents before the group of athletes. As soon as the complete set of contest wins the game. E What is being used! Equipment Pilates ball, eye patch, tatami, slalom bar. Who is involved! P People B1, B2 ve B3 Visually impaired judoka judoka they and their partners are. Referance:(Thomson 2003) Table 2: Activity Session Plan Purpose: Coordination and selective perception Learning outcomes: video analysis and each other talking about games, photograph Learning Experiences Equipment Tuning in: Tatami 2 Group: Visual disabled judokas Activites: Pilates ball Plates rolling the ball slalom Eye patch Twies and competition grub Performans Task: voice directive As soon as you complete the competition group. The aim of this game is to develop these two skills and ability to improve the efficient use simultaneously. All planned development of basic skills training and practical application of Kaizen principles of total quality management principles are 710

maintained. Coordination: It is the skillful and balanced movement of the body and its parts at the same time. Coordinatıon involves individuals; moving on their own (running), moving on their own (jumping), moving with others (to include some receiving), moving with something (to include sending) (SCEW UK). Table 3: Play Stations Plan Beginning Skill development activities Skill development activities (initial focus criterion) (initial focus criterion)  Partner harmony  Partner harmony  coordination  coordination  selection perception selection perception Developing Skill development activities Application activities (involving (fine tunıng components) a challenge)  Partner harmony  Locomotor  Coordination  Body management  selection perception  Object control Consolidating Challenge Application (with variations)  selection perception Music  Object control Audio  Body management Command In the game players are divided into 2 groups each group has a leader. Each group two match itself. They line up in a row outside the Games athletes to do with my slolo 2m intervals. Start and end points of the same line. Athletes with disabilities and obstacles without seeing shutting athletes eye tape. The game ball used health. Athletes plates in order to give the ball to his wife waiting by my team at the end point slolo under the guidance of group leaders with friends. Race couples in the group winning the game when it finished as soon as possible and before the opposing team. Athletes and other games outside can support racing team mates. Racing athletes had to finish the slalom course before making its competitors and in this environment you have to insert the voice command of both group leaders. Athletes 2 skills that are very important for athletes with disabilities, including visual perception of selectivity and coordination is going on with this game that has caught the amused development opportunities. This game can be monitored visually from the address below (URL 1).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Researches on games and especially educational games have increased in the recent years. In addition, an increasing interest is observed in the researches on children’s roles in games and improvements. Games form an important part of a child’s life. Through games, a child’s physical, cognitive, emotional and social status improves. In most of the researches on children and games, the fact that the psychological and physical improvement of children is parallel is emphasized. One of the most important factors contributing to the child’s physical and psychological improvement is sports (Ataman, 2004).

711

Figure 1a: Judo games for blind judokas about coordination and selective perception

Figure 1b: Judo games for blind judokas about coordination and selective perception

Figure 1c: Judo games for blind judokas about coordination and selective perception

Sport is a means of improving individuals physically, mentally, emotionally and socially. The fact that suitable training programs during sensitive ages speeds up the improvement of judo athletes is known. In that respect, it is aimed to examine the effect of judo instructional games of judo athletes taking basic judo training on the improvement of fundamental skill judo sport blınd judo athletes in this research. Here it is aimed to turn the training into an enjoyable and improvement triggering factor for 712

fundamental skill judo sport blind judo athletes improvement by using the functional attributes of games (Demiral, 2013). Sport for blınd athletes reported that regular physical activity is important to the development of a positive self-concept and social competency. This event is considered as a case study for basic skills development. These studies, and sample analysis will be evaluated as the arrangement and implement the education of my sight impaired judoka and judo integration. This is taken up various equipment and educational games to be developed can be used as case studies of different skills. When organizing, as the basis for the development of personal skills in all games  Multiple intelligences theory; Multiple intelligence approach is developed which have a theory on the thesis that the traditional understanding of everyone to be successful. Multiple Intelligence Theory, seven attracting interest all over the world with intelligence and defending being studied for use in education (Talu, 1999).  Kaizen principles; Kai; Changeable, Zen; Good and Kaizen; Continuous improvement  Sport in total quality management; Total quality management is a management approach that will not with many new elements, create a strategy, the indispensability of institutions and organizations with continuous improvement is a management philosophy applied in order to survive; Is continuous improvement and development. The integration of a total quality approach with respect to sporting values shown to the athletes, the glorification of the athletes is taken as the basis of performance quality, and promotes happiness. Quality management is democracy. Coaches and athletes should be able to tell their suggestions and ideas clearly and implementation of training and be able to participate in all decisions in a way.  10 year or 10,000 hour principle; Understanding and highlighting issues related to the quantity and quality of practice is required to reach the elite level of performance. The researchers decided that a minimum of 10,000 hours of practice required to specialize in areas where you have selected an individual. These findings; sport and experts in other fields such as mathematics, science, etc.. The work of experts emerged last are the most powerful evidence. For 10 years; about 3 hours of practice a day is equal to 10,000 hours. This calculation is known as the rule of 10,000 hours or 10 years (Balyi, 2001)  In the evaluation phase conducted studies using SWOT analysis. Consequently vision impaired judoka in supporting the development of technical skills of judo training exercises and educational games; toward the goal should be well structured, it should be positive and fun, agility, coordination, speed ... should cover basic motor skills that are important for athletes in judo, etc., and these should be directed to the development. This study will contribute to other judo coach and resources are expected to generate. REFERENCES Balyi, I. (2001). Sport System Building and Long-term Athlete Development in British Columbia, Canada: sportsMed BC Ataman, A. (2004). Gelişim ve Öğrenme Gündüz Eğitim ve Yayıncılık, 3.Baskı, Ankara. Bompa, TO. (2007). Antrenman Kuramı ve Yöntemi ‘Dönemleme’, Spor Yayınevi, 2007, Ankara. 713

Borgers, J., Thibaut, E., Vandermeerschen, H., Vanreusel, B., Vos, S., Scheerder, J. (2015). Sports participation styles revisited: A time-trend study in Belgium from the 1970s to the 2000s, International Review for the Sociology of Sport 2015, Vol. 50(1), pp. 45–63. Brosse, M., Matsumoto, D. (1999). Judo A Sport and A Way of Life, International Judo Federation. Cubizolles, S. (2015). Sport and social cohesion in a provincial town in South Africa: The case of a tourism project for aid and social development through football, International Review for the Sociology of Sport 2015, Vol. 50(1), pp. 22–44. Demiral, Ş. (2007). Bayan Judocularda Yetenek Seçimi, M.Ü. Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul, Yüksek Lisan Tezi, (Danışman:Demir. A.). 
 Demiral, Ş. (2007). Bayan Judocularda Yetenek Seçimi, M.Ü. Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisan Tezi, İstanbul, (Danışman: Yrd. Doç. Dr. A. Demir). Demiral, Ş. (2010). Judo Çalışan 7–12 Yaş Grubu Çocuklarda (Bay-Bayan) Judo Eğitsel Oyunlarının Motor Becerilerin Gelişimine Etkisinin İncelenmesi, M.Ü. Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisan Tezi, İstanbul, (Danışman: Yrd. Doç. Dr. A Demir). Demiral, S., Demir. A., Uysal. F. (2013). Analysis of the Contribution of Instructional Games in Judo to the Improvement of Claw Strength. Global Journal of Human Social Science (A) Volume XIII Issue V Version I, pp.22,23. Demiral, Ş., Erdemir, İ., Kizilyaprak. A. (2007). Bayan Judocularda Yetenek Seçimi.. MÜ Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisan Tezi, İstanbul,(Danışman: Yrd. Doç. Dr. A Demir) (2007): 14-15. Demiral. S., (2011). The Study of the Effects of Educational Judo Practices on Motor Abilities of 7-12 Years Aged Judo Performing Children. Asian Social Science, Vol. 7, No. 9;pp. 2-3 Ericcsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T. and Tesch-Römeri, C. (1993). The Role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review. 100, 363-406. FMS Teacher Resource, 2004. Education Departmen, Western Australia, pp:2-12. Gonzaga, A., Albuquerque. M.D., Diniz. L.M.D., Greco. P.J., Costa. I.T. (2014). Affective Decision-Making and Tactical Behavior of under -15 Soccer Players. Plos, volume 9, ıssue 6, pp 1-5) Higgs, C., Balyi. I., Way. R., Cardinal. C., Norris. S., Bluechardt. M. (2015). Canadian Sport for Life: Developing Physical Literarcy (A guide for parents of children ages 0 to 12), pp:6,20 Huı-Tzu, W. (2003). The Effects of a Creative Movement Program on Motor Creativity and Gross Motor Skills of Preschool Children, Doctor of Education, the University of South Dakota, UMI Number: 3085448, USA Mengütay, S. (2006). Çocuklarda Hareket Gelişimi ve Spor, Morpa Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul. Savelsbergh, G.J.P., Williams, M., Kamp, J.V., Ward, P. (2002). Visual search, anticipation and expertise in soccer goalkeepers. Journal of sports sciences, volume 20, pp: 279-287. Sport Coach UK Coaching Essentials workshop: An intrroduction to the Fundamentals of Movement. Talu. N. (1999). Çoklu Zeka Kuramı ve Eğitime Yansımaları, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi /5 : /64 - /72 [/999J. Thomson, A. (2003). Developing fundamental movement skills: Teacher’s Guide (Foundation stage:Physical development). pp:10 WPO (2016). https://www.facebook.com/edirnejudo22/videos/1659493907623212/?theater URL 1. https://www.facebook.com/edirnejudo22/videos/1659493907623212/?theater

714

Chapter 58 Usability Possibilities of the Photo Art in the Basic Design Education Özgür YERLİ* INTRODUCTION Design is used by the designers as a tool of establishing relationship between locations. Therefore, it is said that basic design is a doctrine that allows the branches of sciences and professional disciplines related to all the arts to comply with each other. The works which serve the community are considered design in case they bring creativity. In other expression, design should serve a particular aim, must be a product of thinking and should include creativity (Uzun, 1998). Basic design is a discipline that aims to teach the principles of specific arts by considering the relationship between various art forms and the related common laws, rules and methods. This discipline was implemented for the first time in 1919 in Weimar in the Bauhaus school which was founded by Walter Gropius (Hasol, 1998). The people coming from the Bauhaus culture define the design phenomenon as “every work which are the products of a creative idea serving a purpose” (Atalayer & Üstün, 2000). In the Basic Art Education curse of the Bauhaus School the making of tutorial works was ensured by using elements creating the composition such as material, touch, and colour. In this way the main aim was to teach the basic principles of the design which form the basis of all visual arts, to recognize an opportunity to improve the creative qualities of each student and to develop the understanding towards the physical structure of the materials (Bulat, Bulat & Aydın, 2014). The basic design education enters many art branches whose basis was formed by the design disciplines such as architecture, interior architecture, landscape architecture, city and regional planning, painting, sculpture, crafts, photography, cinema. Photography is the technique which transforms the visual images of all tangible assets on a surface such as light- sensitive film, paper or sensor with the help of optic, mechanic, chemical or electronic means (Ministry of National Education, 2007). The art of photography which mediates the realization of this action is the art to create visually pleasing layout or composition (Ministry of National Education, 2006). Photograph has been considered as one of the most important instruments of art by the scientists since its emergence (Bellone, 2010). The art of photography is used by many science and art researchers such as astronomy, medicine, architecture, physics, cinema, and printing. Many variables such as where and how the object should be set up, the intensity, colour, and direction of light, the characteristics of the background, the height, distance and direction of view should be decided in other words a composition should be established on the photograph. A product will emerge after making all these decisions. *

Assist. Prof. Dr., Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture

In fact taking a photograph is to reveal a design by editing all these mentioned parameters. Therefore, the share of information, idea and experiences is inevitable between many arts, science branches and the art of photography because they share a common theme. In order to teach the concept of design to the students attending the 1st grade at the Department of Architecture “perhaps every followed way is not appropriate” but “there is not one golden path either” (Tümer, 2000). The aim of the basic design course should be the continuous improvement of ways and methods that can reveal and develop this creativity (Arıdağ, Erengezgin & Vural, 2000). The conscious implementation of the basic art education is seen to increase the quality of art education. This situation provides information about the relationship and interaction between the basic art education and the art of photography (Yılmaz, 2000). Within the scope of the basic design education it is intended to examine the basic design elements and principles, to interpret various examples and to gain the capability to implement the related arts and sciences. The aim of this study is to investigate the possibilities to benefit from the art of photography in the education of the following subjects; line, texture, colour, shape (form) and point from the basic design elements and the compliance/contrast, ratio/proportion, repetition, hierarchy, rhythm, emphasis and balance from the basic design principles. The main aims of the study was to identify that which design element and principle could be expressed more effectively compared to the others with the use of the art of photography in the basic design education, to identify the differences in this sense between the design elements and principle and to reveal the common view of the representatives of the following professions landscape architecture, architecture, town planning which are all based on the basic design disciplines. The importance of this study is to allow the education program to gain the catchy visual samples which will contribute to the transport of the basic design education in a more active way. In this way the expression of the used design elements and principles will be provided with concrete examples and the efficiency regarding the education will be increased. In addition to these, design education contents can be created on the basis of the opinions of three different professional disciplines by using the art of photography for each profession. These are the hypotheses intended to be proven with this study: H1) The art of photography can be used in the basic design education because in the photographs the basic design principles and elements vary within themselves in terms their level of representation. H2) There is a common language in terms of the usability of the art of photography in the basic design education in terms of the landscape architecture, architecture and urban planning. H3) The photographs which include more than one basic design elements and /or principles are more effective in the basic design education. MATERIAL AND METHODS The materials of the study consist of the photographs hosting the basic design elements and principles, the experts assessing photographs and questionnaires which assess the photographs. 15 photographs were selected by two landscape architects, two architects and two urban planner according to the above mentioned criteria out of the 80 photographs hosting the subjects of line, texture, colour, shape (form), point, 716

compliance/contrast, ratio/proportion, repetition, hierarchy, rhythm, emphasis and balance. The selected photograph were presented to 24 landscape architects, 30 architects and 36 urban planners who were experts in their own field and these experts were asked to score that in what extend these photographs hosted the basic design elements an principles. The 5point Likert scale was used and the evaluation was carried out according to the following criteria 1 includes nothing, 2 very little, 3 medium, 4 good, 5 very good. The reason why the questionnaire was implemented to the mentioned professional disciplines was that the fundamental aim of these three professional disciplines was to create local organization and liveable places. Due to the questionnaire which was the basis for revealing this study, the accuracy of the hypothesis was investigated and the results of the questionnaire were evaluated statistically towards this purpose. The one-way variance and the multiple regression analyses were used in the statistical calculation of the scores given to the criteria in order to understand the availability of the photography art in the basic design elements and principles and to understand whether this relation did differ or not on the basis of the professions. The Tukey test was applied for the detailed explanation of the detected relationships. The results obtained by the statistical analysis whose significance value was less than 0,05 were considered as statistically significant. RESULTS Assessments made according to the total and average scores received by the photographs The highest score which can be obtained by a photograph was 60 while the lowest was 12 since the numbers of criteria was 12 and the highest score was 5. When analysing Table 1 it can be seen that the difference between the average, minimum and maximum score values of the photographs were significant. Table 1. The scores achieved by the photos and the variance analysis Sum of Squares

Sig.

9565,499 55766,756 65332,255

,000

Between Groups Within Groups Total Photo No 2,00 7,00 9,00 11,00 14,00 Total

N

Mean

Min.

Max.

90 90 90 90 90 1350

38,6222 44,5778 47,7778 44,1333 39,8444 42,7896

25,00 29,00 37,00 33,00 24,00 24,00

53,00 60,00 58,00 60,00 58,00 60,00

According to the Table the photos No11 and No7 reached a total of 60 points by receiving full points from all criteria by at least one person. When examining these photographs it can be seen that they contained geometric forms, they were dominated by symmetry, they reflected wide viewing angle and carried the elements of repetition, line and form. The photograph No14 received the lowest score with 24 points. The 717

reason for it is based on the fact that this image drew the attention only with linear feature. While examining the average scores it can be observed that the highest average score of 47,77 was achieved by the photo No.9 while the lowest average score of 38,62 was achieved by photo No.2. The photo No.9 contained geometric forms and hierarchy items, reflected wide viewing angle, carried repetition, line, texture, rhythm and form elements while it was observed that photo No2 only contained lines and repetition items. According to these results rating values of the images were directly proportional to the representing amount of the basic design criteria (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Photos of number 2-7-9-11 and 14 (URL1, 2015; URL2, 2015).

Assessments made according to the total and average scores received by the criteria When examining the total scores obtained by all criteria, among the basic design principles line received the highest score with 5298 while the point received the lowest score with 2990. While among the basic design element the criteria of repetition were seen to obtain the highest score with 5556 and the criteria of hierarchy received the lowest score with 4352. The reason while point and hierarchy obtained the least scores was that these criteria are used less than the others in the everyday life therefore they were thought to be less capable to establish a relationship with the visual arts. When the photographs were compared in terms of the scores received by the basic design principles and elements they contain, the difference between the scores was significant and could be explained statistically as shown in Table 2. Considering the significant relationship between the basic design principles the most significant difference was observed in the criteria of colour with 144 matches while the least significant difference was seen in the criteria of points with 70 matches. Based on this result, the criteria of colour became one of the important determinants beside the criteria of lines. All the differences between the scores received by the photo No 4 in the criteria of colour and the scores received by the photo No7 in the criteria of lines and the scores received by the other photographs were found to be significant. Point is the criterion which was observed with least significant difference among the basic design principles. In the criteria of point the difference was significant between the scores obtained by the photo No8 and the scores obtained by only two other photos. In other words the least determining difference between the basis design principles 718

occurred in the criteria of point. In Table 3, for the colour criteria the score relationship between the photo No 4 with the other photos and for the point criteria the score relationship between photo No8 and the other photos were given. Table 2. The scores obtained by the criteria and the variance analysis Criteria texture

color

form

point

line

Criteria compliance and contrast ratio proportion repetition hierarchy rhythm emphasis balance

Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups

Total

Sum of Square

Sig.

322,086 1695,467 2017,553 773,973 1468,800 2242,773 242,210 1268,356 1510,566 258,015 2113,689 2371,704 707,360 1470,933 2178,293 Sum of Square

,000

87,793

,000

1613,244 1701,037 251,093 1468,267 1719,360 428,551 1273,422 1701,973 310,708 2051,733 2362,441 298,121 1519,289 1817,410 408,071 1627,022 2035,093 165,641 1657,689

1823,330

719

,000

,000

,000

,000

Sig.

,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000

Table 3. The score relations between the basic design principles Dependent Var.

(I) Photo

(J) Photo

no

no

Mean Difference (I-J)

color

4,00

1,00

-1,26667(*)

,000

1,00

,13333

1,000

2,00

-1,64444(*)

,000

2,00

,11111

1,000

3,00

-,53333(*)

,048

3,00

-,28889

,970

5,00

-2,17778(*)

,000

4,00

-1,08889(*)

,000

6,00

-,84444(*)

,000

5,00

-,08889

1,000

7,00

-2,28889(*)

,000

6,00

,62222

,064

8,00

-2,26667(*)

,000

7,00

-,66667(*)

,030

Depen dent Var.

Sig.

point

(I) Photo

(J) Photo

no

no

8,00

Mean Difference (I-J)

Sig.

9,00

-2,26667(*)

,000

9,00

,28889

,970

10,00

-1,62222(*)

,000

10,00

,37778

,790

11,00

-2,44444(*)

,000

11,00

-,53333

,225

12,00

-2,53333(*)

,000

12,00

,15556

1,000

13,00

-1,11111(*)

,000

13,00

-,46667

,450

14,00

-,82222(*)

,000

14,00

,20000

,999

15,00

-1,91111(*)

,000

15,00

-,31111

,945

Table 4. The score relations between the basic design elements Dependent Var. Rhythm

(I) Photo

(J) Photo

no

no

3,00

1,00

Mean Difference (I-J) -1,08889(*)

Sig.

Dependent Var.

,000

Compliance

(I) Photo

(J) Photo

no

no

6,00

Mean Difference (I-J)

Sig.

1,00

,17778

,999

Contrasts 2,00

-,77778(*)

,000

2,00

,46667

,223

4,00

-,73333(*)

,000

3,00

,37778

,587

5,00

-1,40000(*)

,000

4,00

,57778(*)

,033

6,00

-1,55556(*)

,000

5,00

-,08889

1,000

7,00

-,75556(*)

,000

7,00

,22222

,991

8,00

-1,48889(*)

,000

8,00

,02222

1,000

9,00

-1,75556(*)

,000

9,00

-,17778

,999

10,00

-1,68889(*)

,000

10,00

-,08889

1,000

11,00

-,57778(*)

,023

11,00

,17778

,999

12,00

-1,11111(*)

,000

12,00

-,06667

1,000

13,00

-1,11111(*)

,000

13,00

-,37778

,587

14,00

-,60000(*)

,014

14,00

,40000

,485

15,00

-,84444(*)

,000

15,00

,15556

1,000

Likewise, when considering the significant relationship between the basic design elements the most significant difference was observed in the criteria of repetition with 125 matches while the least significant difference was seen in the criteria of compliance and contrast with 26 matches. In the criteria of rhythm all the differences between the scores obtained by the photo No3 and the scores obtained by the other photographs were observed significant. Based on this result, the most decisive difference between the basic design elements occurred in the criteria of rhythm beside the element of repetition. Compliance /contrast was the criterion which was observed with least 720

significant difference among the basic design elements. Only one significant difference was observed in the compliance/ contrast criterion in the matches of a total of 6 photos. Therefore the least decisive difference occurred in the criterion of compliance / contrast among the basic design elements. In Table 4, the score relationship between the photo No 3 with the other photos were given for the rhythm criterion and the score relationship between photo No 6 and the other photos for the point criteria. The relationship between the professions and the basic design principles The obtained data showed that conducted comparisons were significant for all principles and they could be explained statistically. According to the data of Table 5 line had the highest average among the basic design principle while point had the lowest average in terms of the average scores given by the profession groups. The highest average points of all three profession were given to the principle of line. Additionally the architects also gave the highest score to the criterion of form. The least average score was given to the principle of point by all three professions. While for all profession the elements of line and form were the most notable criteria, the principle which attracted the least attention was the point. Table 5. The relationship between the professions and the basic design principles (variances and means) Criteria line

texture

colour

form

point

Criteria line

texture

colour

Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Profession Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc.

N 450 360 540 1350 450 360 540 1350 450 360

721

Sum of Square 21,987 2156,306 2178,293 14,036 2003,517 2017,553 19,859 2222,915 2242,773 7,982 1502,584 1510,566 279,068 2092,636 2371,704 Mean 3,7600 3,9278 4,0593 3,9244 3,2933 3,3667 3,5259 3,4059 3,2667 3,3056

Min 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

Sig. ,001

,009

,003

,028

,000

Max 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00

form

point

Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total

540 1350 450 360 540 1350 450 360 540 1350

3,5296 3,3822 3,7733 3,8000 3,9407 3,8474 1,5733 2,4889 2,5667 2,2148

1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00

Tukey test was performed in order to explain in more details the scores given by the profession in terms of the basic design principles. According to this test, the line, texture and form principles were found to be significant in one match while the colour and point principles were found to be significant in 2 matches. With this analysis, colour and point principles were found to be distinctive according to the professions. The principle of colour was around 0,25 percent more important for the urban planners according to the architects and landscape architects, while the principle of point was 1percent less important (Table 6). Table 6. The relationship between the professions and the basic design principles (tukey). Dependent Var. line

(I) profession Arc. Urban Plan.

(J) profession Urban Plan. Arc.

Mean Diff. (I-J) -,29926(*) ,29926(*)

Sig. ,001 ,001

texture

Arc.

Urban Plan.

-,23259(*)

,008

Urban Plan.

Arc.

,23259(*)

,008

Arc.

Urban Plan.

Land. Arc. Urban Plan.

Urban Plan. Arc.

-,26296(*) -,22407(*) ,26296(*)

,004 ,028 ,004

colour

Land. Arc. form

Arc. Urban Plan.

Urban Plan. Arc.

,22407(*) -,16741(*) ,16741(*)

,028 ,035 ,035

point

Arc.

Land. Arc.

-,91556(*)

,000

Urban Plan.

-,99333(*) ,91556(*) ,99333(*)

,000 ,000 ,000

Land. Arc. Urban Plan.

Arc. Arc.

The Relationship between the Professions and the Basic Design Elements The obtained data showed that the comparisons were significant and five out of the seven basic design elements could be explained statistically. Only between the scores of the criteria of ratio/proportion and balance which they obtained in terms of the professions were not statistically significant. According to the data given in Table 7, in terms of the average scores given by the professions the basic design element with the highest average was repetition while the basic design element with the lowest average was hierarchy. All three professions gave the highest average score to the repletion elements while the lowest average score was given hierarchy. In other words while the repletion element attracted the attention of all three professions, hierarchy was found to be the element which attracted the least attention. 722

Table 7. Relationship between the professions and the basic design elements (variance and averages) Criteria compliance and contrast

ratio proportion

repetition

hierarchy

rhythm

emphasis

balance

Criteria comp and contr

ratio proportion

repetition

hierarchy

rhythm

emphasis

Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total

Profession Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan

N 450 360 540 1350 450 360 540 1350 450 360 540 1350 450 360 540 1350 450 360 540 1350 450 360 540

723

Sum of Square 9,944 1691,093 1701,037 6,176 1713,184 1719,360 30,523 1671,450 1701,973 16,182 2346,259 2362,441 45,571 1771,839 1817,410 11,414 2023,679 2035,093 1,341 1821,989 1823,330 Mean 3,8667 3,7611 3,9741 3,8815 3,4933 3,6111 3,6481 3,5867 3,9067 4,1778 4,2481 4,1156 3,2667 3,0444 3,3074 3,2237 4,0400 3,5944 3,7074 3,7881 3,8533 3,6389 3,8407

Sig. ,019

,089

,000

,010

,000

,023

,609

Min 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

Max 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00

balance

Total Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan Total

1350 450 360 540 1350

3,7911 3,6000 3,6056 3,6667 3,6281

1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00

Tukey test was performed in order to explain in more details the scores given by the profession in terms of the basic design elements. According to this test, the criteria of ration/ proportion and balance were found significant in 0 match, the criterion of compliance /harmony was found significant in 1 match, while the criteria of repetition, hierarchy, rhythm and intonation were found to be significant in 2 matches. According to this analysis, the criteria of ratio/ proportion and balance were not found to be distinctive according to the professions whereas the criteria of repetition, hierarchy, rhythm and intonation were found to be distinctive according to the professions. According to the urban planners repetition and hierarchy were found to be more important than the other while according to the architects these more important criteria were rhythm and intonation (Table 8). Table 8. The relationship between the professions and the basic design elements (tukey) Dependent Var. compliance and contrast repetition

hierarchy

rhythm

emphasis

(I) proffesion Land. Arc.

(J) proffesion Urban Plan.

Urban Plan. Arc.

Land. Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan. Arc. Arc. Land. Arc. Arc. Urban Plan. Land. Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan. Arc. Arc. Land. Arc. Arc. Urban Plan. Land. Arc.

Land. Arc. Urban Plan. Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan. Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan. Arc. Land. Arc. Urban Plan.

Mean Diff. (I-J)

Sig.

-,21296(*)

,015

,21296(*) -,27111(*) -,34148(*) ,27111(*) ,34148(*) ,22222(*) -,22222(*) -,26296(*) ,26296(*) ,44556(*) ,33259(*) -,44556(*) -,33259(*) ,21444(*) -,21444(*) -,20185(*) ,20185(*)

,015 ,002 ,000 ,002 ,000 ,046 ,046 ,010 ,010 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,036 ,036 ,041 ,041

The Coexistence of more than one Principle Multiple regression analysis was applied in order to understand that in what extend the level of representation was in case the basic design elements or principles are represented by more than one criteria in the same photograph. According to this, the relationship between all of the basic design principles and elements and the level of representation was found to be significant. When examining the relationship between the level of representation and all the principles and elements, according to the data given in this table, this model had an important coefficient in explaining the level of representation (R²= % 67,8) (R²= % 84,2). In this photograph the model which contains the combination of all criteria can explain the change in the representation level of the 724

design elements and principles considerably. 67,8% of this change is explained by the independent variables of line, texture, colour, form and point; while 84,2% of it is explained by the independent variable of compliance/contrast, ratio/proportion, repetition, hierarchy, rhythm, emphasis and balance (Table 9). Table 9. Multiple regression analysis Model R Adj. R2 Sig. 1 ,823(a) ,676 ,000 a Predictors: (Constant), point, line, colour, form, texture Sig. Model R Adj. R2 1 ,918(a) ,842 ,000 a Predictors: (Constant), balance, hierarchy, repetition, compliance and contrast, emphasis, rhythm, ratio proportion

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The usage area of the art of photography along with the development of technology and the digital period we entered fast has become accessible by large audiences and sectors. The aim of this study was to reveal the common views of the professions whose roots are based on the design concept while investigating the availability of the photograph art in the basic design education. When considering the results obtained from the conducted questionnaires the representation levels of the basic design principles and elements were found to be different in the photographs. Each photograph was scored according to the basic design elements and principles which were contained or not contained by it. Starting from this, it can be said that that there was similarity between the criteria used in the basic design education and the criteria which set up the composition in the art of photography. In other words, the criteria used in the art of photography were found to be determinant also in the basic design education. Therefore, it was detected that the art of photography could be used in the basic design education so the H1 hypothesis was proved. If we look at the results related to this hypothesis;  Line, repetition, colour and rhythm were the most noticeable and sought criteria in the photographs  Points, hierarchy and compliance / contrast were the less noticeable and less sought criteria. In other words the criteria of line, repetition, colour and rhythm are important factors which increase the availability of the photography art in the basic design education. On the other hand the criteria of point, hierarchy and compliance/contrast reflected the least of the photograph art’s availability in the basic design education. When looking from the window of the profession of architecture, landscape architecture and urban planning based on the design disciplines similar expectations were observed towards the availability of the photography art in the basic design education. Similarities were observed in all three professions in terms of outstanding and less outstanding criteria. The results are the followings:  The most effective results will be achieved if the use of the art of photography is done together with the samples containing the criteria of line, form and repetition in the basic design education made for the architects, landscape architects and urban planners. 725

 The samples evaluating the criteria of point and hierarchy will be studies achieving the least efficiency. When investigating the binary comparisons between the professions it is seen that score changes between the significant differences were very little. The emerged table showed that the evaluation criteria of all three professions were similar. These results showed that all three professions used a common language in the approach to the basic design education therefore the H2 hypothesis was confirmed. When considering the tables included within the multiple regression analysis it was observed that the criteria increased the representation level of the cases where the criteria were together. Thus the availability of the photographs would also increase in the basic design education. In the evaluation on the total scores obtained by the photographs, the photographs which received the highest scores contained the most the basic design criteria. The photographs containing many criteria were more appreciated than the photographs with a few criteria. According to this result the H3 hypothesis was also confirmed. The fact of design does not require significant rules but it requires obeying significant criteria while performing it. That is why it is accepted as an art thematic discipline. As for the art of photograph, it is thought that it figures out from visuality however it is also a discipline which requires particular rules while performing it. The design discipline does not depend on certain rules so its education is not easy. Within this study the study fields of a science and an art school were synthesized. In terms of presentation of visual and rough samples in basic design education, it is important to use principles and elements of basic design during progressing the art of photograph. There is no doubt that this integration will arise the quality of basic design education. REFERENCES Arıdağ, L.; Erengezgin, A. & Vural, T. (2000). Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık. Mimarlık Dergisi Dosya: Temel Tasarım Eğitimi, sayı: 293. Atalayer, F. & Üstün, B. (2000). Temel Tasarım Eğitim ve Öğretimi. Mimarlık Dergisi, Dosya: Temel Tasarım Eğitimi, sayı: 293 Bellone, R. (2010). Fotoğraf. Kültür Kitaplığı, yayın no: 96. Bulat, S.; Bulat, M. & Aydın, B. (2014). Bauhause Tasarım Okulu. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi (18)1: 105-220. Hasol, D. (1998). Ansiklopedik Mimarlık Sözlüğü. Yapı Endüstrisi Merkezi Yay, İst. T.C. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı. (2006). Fotoğrafta Işık ve Kompozisyon. Mesleki Eğitim ve Öğretim Sisteminin Güçlendirilmesi Projesi, Ankara, s. 57. T.C. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı. (2007). Fotoğraf Makineleri. Mesleki Eğitim ve Öğretim Sisteminin Güçlendirilmesi Projesi, Ankara, s. 74. Tümer, G. (2000). Birinci Sınıfta Tasarım Eğitimi Üzerine, Bilimsel Olmayan Bir Yazı. Mimarlık Dergisi Dosya: Temel Tasarım Eğitimi, sayı: 293. Uzun, G. (1998). Temel Tasarım. Çukurova Üniversitesi Yayınları No: 201, Adana. URL 1: Arena Gdansk (2015). https://www.flickr.com/photos/5y12u3k/6019135114 URL 2: Dickinson, B. (2015). Jamer River Railroad Bridge. https://www.flickr.com/ photos/skynoir/13273986584/sizes/h/ Yılmaz, N. (2000). Temel Sanat Eğitiminde Fotoğraf İlişkisi. Gazi Üniv. Eğitim Bilimleri Enst., Güzel Sanatlar Anabilim Dalı, Resim-İş Öğret. Bilim Dalı, Basılmamış YL. Tezi.

726

Chapter 59 Investigating Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Levels in Terms of Different Variables Hakan KOÇ, Hakan ÖNAL 1. INTRODUCTION A map is a form of transferring events, concepts and characteristics that range in the earth or in a specific part of the earth on a plane by using bird’s eye view and by scaling them in a specific ratio. Maps are communication tools that allow communication between cartographer and map readers. It is possible to code on maps the statements that can be expressed with hundreds of words or that can cover pages. Cartographers code the cartographic data on the plane by using different symbols and map readers obtain the acquired visual information by utilizing the data coded in the symbols by the cartographers (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Cartographic Communication Process (MacEachren, 2004; Koç, 2010:147) 

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Education, Secondary Education Department, Social Fields Geography Teaching Division, Sivas.   Asst. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Department, Social Sciences Teaching Division/Balıkesir, [email protected] 

It is possible to use maps- communication tools- in military, economy and in all fields of social life. “People often use maps in identifying the expansion fields of underground and aboveground sources which have economic value, in preparing development plans to operate these valuable sources, in ensuring the defense and security of homeland, in solving border disputes, in identifying routes (land, railway and petrol, natural gas pipelines etc) and in land use studies, in short in many activities related to space and in describing location and direction” (Koç ve Bulut,2014:3). “In general, maps are used to position a location or to determine the location of a place, to display the route to follow, to determine how to provide transportation between two points, to present geographical information in an area or to store specific information and to solve problems by interpreting the obtained knowledge ”(Demiralp, 2009: 957).

Figure 2: City of London, Cholera case in Soho District (Fouberg, Murphy and Blij, 2012)

Maps can play effective roles in solving the problems that occur in military, social and economic life. It is believed that presenting three striking examples of how crucial it is to use maps effectively and extensively will be instrumental in comprehending the issue. The first example is from UK in 1850s. “In 1850s, cholera epidemic was common in London. About 500 people died from cholera (Fouberg, Murphy and Blij 2012). The bacteria called vibrio cholerae causes cholera. Cholera progresses with severe diarrhea based on intestinal infections. The sickness spread to wide areas as a result of drinking the city water contaminated with vibrio choleae bacteria or using this contaminated water to wash vegetables and a large number of people died. Dr. Snow believed that the reason why many people died in London in the 1850s

728

was the contamination of city water with vibrio cholerae microbe. In order to test this idea, Dr. Snow used the locations of the dead persons’ homes on the map (Figure 1). Dr. Snow realized that the cases of deaths from cholera were extensive around Broad Street and its vicinity (Figure 1). Dr. Snow understood that water pump in Broad Street was contaminated and ensured that it closed down. Therefore, he prevented new cholera cases and the increase in the number of dead people who died from this outbreak by effectively using maps. The second example is from Haiti from the Caribbean Islands in 2010. In 2010, cholera caused many people to die and affected many individuals. According to Haiti Ministry of Public Health and Population report, 6.631 individuals lost their lives in 2010 due to cholera. The reason why the number of deaths from cholera was so high in 2000s was related to the immense earthquake of 7.0 in 2010 and the consequent contamination of clean and hygienic water sources. In addition to this main factor, another important factor was the extensive non-zoned settlements in close proximity to fresh water sources. Careful examination of Figure 2 shows that cholera cases were more concentrated on Centre and Artibonite administrative regions. The bacteria that caused cholera contaminated Artibonite river (Figure 2).

Figure 3: Haiti Cholera Case 2010 (URL 1) In treating the cholera problem in Haiti, the same method of marking the location of deaths on a map was used just like in UK in 1850s. It was determined that rapid spread of cholera throughput the country was related to the contamination of Artibonite river with the bacteria that caused the outbreak. Haiti Ministry of Public Health and Population authorities took the necessary hygienic measures about Artibonite river and created clean and hygienic water sources for people to use in order to treat the problem throughout the country. 729

The third example is from the last periods of the Ottoman Empire. The allies who understood that only maritime operations would not be successful in the War of Çanakkale started land operations in the morning of April 25. They decided to occupy Gelibolu in order to cross Çanakkale Strait comfortably. The steep, rugged land around Çanakkale Strait covered by heaths was a geographical element that complicated allies’ land operation. It was rather hard to climb the shores that had sea cliffs. The beaches with low degree of sloping were crucial to carry the allies’ land operation into effect. “After the allied powers completed the required refueling, they invaded the area in the morning of 25 April 1915. The invasion included the real targets of Seddülbahir and Kabatepe in addition to Saroz Gulf, Kumkale and Beşige used as diversions. 29th British division that came to Seddülbahir Region in the morning of April 25 invaded the five locations that were determined before: Hisarlık, Ertuğrulkoyu, Tekekoyu, İkizkoyu and Sığındere beaches. The troops targeted to occupy Kilitbahir ”(Oglander; Altıntaş,1997). (Figure 3). Great leader M. Kemal Atatürk controlled the Ertuğrulkoyu, Tekekoyu, İkizkoyu, Sığındere beaches by taking Alçı Hill under control and in short achieved success in Kirte Battle. And again, Great leader M. Kemal Atatürk prevented Kilitbahir’s occupation via land operations by ensuring that Kaba Hill was the dominant hill (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Relief Map of Gelibolu and North of Biga peninsulas

Geographical elements affect the course of wars. Great leader Atatürk made use of maps in military interventions. Commander-in-chief Atatürk’s foresight that the allies would land in Ertuğrulkoyu, Tekekoyu, İkizkoyu, Sığındere, Arıburnu beaches, his tactic of depriving the soldiers of the allies of fresh water by controlling fresh water 730

sources and his move of not locating Turkish soldiers at the shore and therefore reducing the number of lost lives, also his ability to repulse the attacks of the allies who were superior to Turkish forces in terms of number and technological war tools by utilizing the slopes and controlling key locations in the region such as Kaba Hill and Alçı Hill are proofs that he used geographical elements and maps effectively in war strategies, aren’t they? (Koç and Çiftçi,2016:12). As can be glimpsed from the three examples presented above in relation to effective use of maps, mapping is the first and foremost stage of understanding and solving problems that include spatial distribution. Hence, individuals need to have good map literacy in order to use maps effectively and productively “What does map literacy mean? How can we identify map literacy levels? It is difficult to answer these questions” (Clarke, 2003:713). “Although the origin of the concept of literacy is mainly related to reading and writing skills, the use of this concept has broadened after the industrial revolution. Since the industrial revolution, this concept has been used in the sense of having been well educated in a specific field or having extensive experience in relation to a specific field”(McBride, 2011:23). Buckley, Muehrcke and Muehrcke (1978) describe map literacy as using maps and they classify map use in three categories: map reading, map analysis and map interpretation. Olson (1976) organizes map reading levels in three progressively difficult levels Level 1: Includes the comparison of symbol properties one by one Level 2: Includes identification of the properties of symbol groups as a whole Level 3: Includes the use of maps as tools to structure knowledge and make decisions by interpreting the information based on symbols “Map literacy is the skill of using maps in daily life and understanding them. Map literacy consists of the following steps: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation” (Clarke,2003:717). Weeden (1997:169) lists map skills as using, drawing, reading and interpreting maps. Although various researchers (Buckley, Muehrcke & Muehrcke, 2011; Clarke, 2003; Carswell 1971; Catling 1998; Gerber and Wilson, 1989; Gilmartin and Patton 1984; Ünlü, Üçışık and Özey 2002, Demiralp 2009, Kızılçaoğlu 2007, Golledge, Marsh, and Battersby, 2008; Liben and Downs, 1989; MacEachren, 2004; McClure, 1992; Richard B. Schultz , Joseph J. Kerski and Todd C. Patterson, 2008; Weeden, 1997; White, 1995; Wiegand, 2006; Wood, 1992, Koç 2008, Koç 2010, Koç and Bulut 2014) categorize map literacy and map skills based on different criteria, literature review shows that valid and reliable scales that can be used to determine individuals’ map literacy levels are limited. Jongwon and Bednarz (2012) and Koç and Demir (2014) have studies on scales that can determine individuals’map literacy levels. Current study utilized Developing Valid and Reliable Map Literacy Scale” developed by Koç and Demir (2014). This scale includes the following sub scales: carrying out procedures in maps, reading and interpreting maps, sketching maps and using maps. The first comprehensive field in which individuals meet map knowledge and skills is geography. Therefore, the answers to the following questions are crucial: “Do geography teacher candidates who will provide secondary school students with map knowledge and skills have the required competences?”, “Which variables affect 731

geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels?” Current study set out to identify geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels and to present the effect of different variables on the sub scales of map literacy (map knowledge and skill, carrying out procedures in maps, sketching maps, reading and interpreting maps and using maps) Table 1. Participants’ Demographic Information Gender

f

%

University

Female

192

46

Balıkesir University

130

31,2

Karabük University

230

55,2

Çanakkale 18 Mart Uni.

57

13,7

4417

1100

Male

225

54

Total

417

100

Total

f

%

2. METHOD 2.1. Research Model Survey model was used in this study. Survey studies aim to collect data to determine specific characteristics of a group (Büyüköztürk et al.,, 2009: 16). According to Karasar (1999: 77) survey models are research approaches that seek to describe a past or present situation as is. 2.2. Study group The study group was composed of 417 geography teacher candidates studying in the geography departments of Faculty of Literature and Faculty of Arts and Sciences and taking formation courses in the spring semester of 2015-2016 academic year. Table 1 presents participants’ demographic information. 192 (46%) of the participating geography teacher candidates were females and 225 (54%) were males. 31,2% (130 teacher candidates) attended Balıkesir University, 55,2% (230 teacher candidates) attended Karabük University and 13,7% (57 teacher candidates) attended Çanakkale 18 Mart University geography departments. 2.3. Data Collection Tool Map Literacy Scale developed by Koç and Demir (2014) was used in the study to identify geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels. Map Literacy Scale consists of a total of five sub scales: map knowledge and skill, carrying out procedures in maps, sketching maps reading and interpreting maps and using maps. KR20 reliability coefficient for the map knowledge test that consisted of 23 items was calculated to be 0.76 and Cronbach Alpha coefficient for carrying out procedures in maps dimension structured in a 5 Likert point type scale with 4 items was found to be 0.834. Cronbach Alpha coefficient for reading and interpreting maps dimension consisting of 9 (nine) items was calculated to be 0.885; Cronbach Alpha coefficient for sketching maps dimension consisting of 3 (three) items was calculated to be 0.807 and Cronbach Alpha coefficient for using maps dimension with 8 (eight) items was calculated to be 0.850. 2.4. Data Analysis Statistical analyses in the study were conducted by using SPSS 22 (Statistical 732

Package for Social Science for Personal Computers) program. Descriptive statics were used in the distributions related to teacher candidates’ purposes for map use and the types of maps they used. t-test for independent samples and one way analysis of variance for independent samples (ANOVA) were used to determine the relationship between the sub scales of map literacy and independent variables Competence Scale for Map Applications that consists of map knowledge and skill, carrying out procedures in maps, sketching maps, reading and interpreting maps and using maps was used to determine geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels. First of all, the means of total scores obtained by teacher candidates in all five sub scales were calculated to determine their levels. Later, a standardized maximum score (60) was identified for all sub scales. Then, the multipliers were established in order to calculate the minimum and maximum scores that can be obtained from each dimension based on the standardized score. The multiplier values that were used in the identification of geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels are presented in Table 2: Table 2. Multiplier Values Used in Determining Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Levels and Minimum and Maximum Scores that Can Be Obtained from Each Dimension Map Literacy Sub scales Knowledge and Skill Carrying out Procedures in Maps Reading and Interpreting Maps Sketching Maps Using Maps Map Literacy Score

Number of Questions

Score interval

Multiplier

Minimum score that can be obtained

Maximum score that can be obtained

23

0-23

2.608

0

60

4

4-20

3

12

60

9

9-45

1.333

12

60

3

3-15

4

12

60

8

8-40

1,5

12

60

47

24-143

48

300

As Table 2 shows, in order to ensure that the highest score that can be obtained from each dimension of map literacy is “60”, the multiplier value for Knowledge and Skill dimension is “2.608”, the multiplier value for Carrying out Procedures in Maps dimension is “3”, the multiplier value for Reading and Interpreting Maps dimension is “1.333”, the multiplier value for Sketching Maps dimension is “4” and the multiplier value for Using Maps dimension is “1.5”. According to standardized score, the maximum map literacy level is calculated to be 300 and the minimum map literacy level is 48. Later, map literacy level is divided into three categories as low-mediumhigh. Based on this category, scores between 48-132 point to low level of map literacy, scores between 133-216 point to medium level of map literacy and scores between 217300 point to high level of map literacy.

733

3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Findings and Interpretation Regarding Geography Teacher Candidates’ map Literacy Levels Geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels were evaluated in three categories: low-medium-high. Table 3 presents geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels based on this model. According to the data presented in Table 3, the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 0-20 in map knowledge and skill sub scale of map literacy scale was 7,4% (31), the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 21-40 was 82,5% (344) and the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 41-60 was 10,1% (42). Mean total score obtained by geography teacher candidates in map knowledge and skill test was calculated to be (  = 31,93). Based on these findings, it can be argued that geography teacher candidates had medium level map knowledge and skills According to the study carried out by Koç and Çifçi (2016) classroom teachers’ map knowledge and skill levels are low (  = 20,46). Based on the study by Koç and Karatekin (2015) social sciences teachers’ map knowledge and skill levels are also low (  = 23,72). Geography teacher candidates’ teachers’ map knowledge and skill levels are higher than those of both classroom teachers and social sciences teachers. The main reason for this discrepancy is related to the fact that geography teacher candidates take one or two semester courses on map knowledge solely whereas classroom or social sciences teacher candidates learn map knowledge in a few weeks as a part of general geography or general physical geography courses. This difference is believed to have been related to more detailed and comprehensive courses on maps. The ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 12-28 in Carrying out Procedures in Maps sub scale was 99,5% (415), the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 29-44 was 0,5% (2) and the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 45-60 score was 0%. Mean total score obtained by geography teacher candidates in Carrying out Procedures in Maps dimension was calculated to be (  = 14,87). According to findings, it can be argued that candidates had low level skills in Carrying out Procedures in Maps. The ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 12-28 in Reading and Interpreting Maps sub scale 14,4% (60), the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 29-44 was 80,8% (337) and the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 45-60 was 4,8% (20). Mean total score obtained by geography teacher candidates in Reading and Interpreting Maps was calculated to be (  = 35,39). According to this finding, it can be argued that candidates had medium level skills in reading and interpreting maps. The ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 12-28 in Sketching Maps sub scale was 99,8% (416), the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 29-44 was 0,2% (1) and the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 45-60 was 0% (0). Mean total score obtained by geography teacher candidates in Sketching Maps was calculated to be (  = 10,25). Based on this finding, it can be said that teacher candidates had low level skills in sketching maps.

734

Table 3. Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Levels Map Literacy Sub scales Knowledge and Skill Carrying out Procedures in Maps Reading and Interpreting Maps

Sketching Maps

Using Maps

Map Literacy

Interval f % Interval f % Interval f % Interval f % Interval f % Interval f %

Low

Medium

High

0-20 31 7,4 12-28 415 99,5 12-28 60 14,4 12-28 416 99,8 12-28 195 46,8 48-132 415 99,5

21-40 344 82,5 29-44 2 ,5 29-44 337 80,8 29-44 1 ,2 29-44 221 53 133-216 2 ,5

41-60 42 10,1 45-60 45-60 20 4,8 45-60 45-60 1 ,2 217-300 -



S

31,93

7,35

14,87

4,42

35,39

6,63

10,25

3,65

28,44

7,21

99,57

17,94

The ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 12-28 in Using Maps sub scale was 46,8% (195), the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 29-44 was 53% (221) and the ratio of teacher candidates in the score interval of 45-60 was 0,2% (1). Mean total score obtained by geography teacher candidates in Using Maps was calculated to be (  = 28,44). Based on this finding, it can be claimed that teacher candidates had low level skills in using maps. Based on the standardized map literacy scores, scores between 48-132 are low, scores between 133-216 are medium and scores between 217-300 are high map literacy levels. Accordingly, the ratio of teacher candidates in 48-132 score interval was 99,5% (415), the ratio of teacher candidates in133-216 score interval was 0,5% (2) and the ratio of teacher candidates in 217-300 score interval was 0% (0). Mean total score obtained by geography teacher candidates from the five different map literacy sub scales were calculated to be (  = 99,57). According to findings, it can be argued that geography teacher candidates had low level map literacy. 3.2. Findings and Interpretation Regarding Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Scores Based on Gender t-test for independent samples was used to determine whether geography teacher candidates’ map literacy scores significantly differ according to gender. Results of analysis are provided in Table 4. According to findings presented in Table 4, a significant difference was observed in favor of male teachers in Carrying out Procedures in Maps sub scale of map literacy [t(416) = -3,221; p<0,05] in terms of gender.

735

Table 4. t-test Results for Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Scores Based on Gender Variable  Sub scales Knowledge and Skill Carrying out Procedures in Maps Reading and Interpreting Maps Sketching Maps Using Maps Map Literacy

Gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male



N 190 222 192 225 190 225 192 225 192 225 189 221

31,20 32,56 14,13 15,51 34,74 35,95 9,90 10,54 27,84 28,96 96,69 102,04

S 7,42 7,24 3,42 5,04 6,85 6,40 3,42 3,81 7,17 7,21 18,85 16,78

sd 416 416 416 416 416 416

t 1,888 3,221 1,855 1,791 1,578 1,579

p ,060 ,001 ,064 ,074 ,115 ,003

Based on these findings, it can be argued that compared to female geography teacher candidates, male geography teacher candidates had higher level skills in terms of Carrying out Procedures in Maps. No significant differences were observed between male and female geography teacher candidates in the other sub scales. Based on gender variable, geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels generally presented significant differences in favor of male teachers [t(416) = -1,579; p<0,05]. Based on this finding, it can be claimed that compared to female geography teacher candidates, male geography teacher candidates had higher map literacy levels. 3.3. Findings and Interpretation Regarding Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Scores Based on Frequency of Map Use One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether geography teacher candidates’ map literacy scores significantly differed in relation to frequency of map use. Table 5 presents the results of analysis. Map knowledge and skill sub scale presented significant differences in relation to frequency of map use [F(3-413)= 14,943; p<0,05]. Results of the Scheffe test conducted to determine the source of this difference showed significant differences between teacher candidates who never used maps or used them very little and teacher candidates who used maps with medium frequency and used them a lot. The difference was found to be in favor of teacher candidates who used maps at medium frequency. According to these findings, it can be argued that teacher candidates’ map reading and interpretation skills improve when frequency of map use increases. Geography teacher candidates’ sub scale scores in Carrying out Procedures in Maps presented significant differences based on frequency of map use variable [F(3-413)= 2.832; p<0,05] and there were significant differences in the other subscales based on frequency of map use variable as well: Reading and Interpreting Maps [F(3-413)= 9,772; p<0,05], Sketching Maps [F(3-413)= 4.680; p<0,05] and Using Maps [F(3-413)= 16.620; p<0,05].

736

Table 5. ANOVA Results for Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Scores Based on Frequency of Use Sub scales

Groups

N

X

S

Never

26

27,4615

6,95259

Very Little

124

29,5000

7,26670

Medium Level 204

32,9902

6,77069

A lot

58

35,4483

7,25518

Total

412

31,9369

7,35085

Never

26

14,8846

9,05683

125 Carrying out Very Little Procedures in Medium Level 208 Maps A lot 58

14,0000

3,61449

15,1346

3,01705

15,8448

6,53144

Total

417

14,8777

4,42642

Never

26

32,0385

7,52319

124 Reading and Very Little Interpreting Medium Level 207 Maps A lot 58

33,6371

6,55599

36,1111

5,95796

38,1207

7,24769

Total

415

35,3976

6,63423

Never

26

8,5385

3,40859

Very Little

125

Knowledge and Skill

9,7280

3,33209

Medium Level 208

10,5000

3,86362

A lot

58

11,2586

3,25285

Total

417

10,2518

3,65013

Never

26

24,6538

8,25563

Very Little

125

26,0160

7,08131

Using Maps Medium Level 208

29,4712

6,53856

A lot

58

31,7069

7,14759

Total

417

28,4460

7,21094

Never

26

89,1538

21,59202

Very Little

122

93,8689

16,90516

Map Literacy Medium Level 204

101,7990

16,32834

A lot

58

108,4483

18,24124

Total

410

99,5780

17,94422

Sketching Maps

F

p

14,943 ,000

Difference Scheffe 1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4

2,832 ,038 2-4

9,772 ,000

1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4

4,680 ,003 1-4

13,620 ,000

14,031 ,000

1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4

1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4

According to Scheffe test results, a significant difference was observed between teacher candidates who never used maps or used them very little and teacher candidates who used maps with medium frequency and used them a lot. The difference was found 737

to be in favor of teacher candidates who used maps at medium frequency. According to these findings, it can be argued that teacher candidates’ map reading and interpretation skills improve when frequency of map use increases. Geography teacher candidates’ map literacy scores presented significant differences based on frequency of map use [F(3-413)= 14.031; p<0,05]. According to Scheffe test results, a significant difference was observed between teacher candidates who never used maps or used them very little and teacher candidates who used maps with medium frequency and used them a lot. The difference was found to be in favor of teacher candidates who used maps at medium frequency. Based on this finding, it can be argued that teacher candidates’ map literacy levels improve when the frequency of their map use increases. 3.4. Findings and Interpretation Regarding Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Scores Based on Their Interest in Geography One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether geography teacher candidates’ map literacy scores significantly differed in relation to their interest in geography. Table 6 presents the results of analysis. Table 6. ANOVA Results for Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Scores Based on Their Interest in Geography Dimension

Carrying out Procedures in Maps

S

11 13,3636 4,24906

Very Little

23 13,1739 4,17408

F

p

Medium Level

157 13,9745 3,19444 6,972 ,000

A lot

226 15,7522 4,98982

Total

417 14,8777 4,42642

Very Little

Map Literacy

X

Never

Never Sketching Maps

N

11

8,5455 4,10764

23

8,8696 3,44178

Medium Level

157 10,0892 4,07679 2,678 ,047

A lot

226 10,5885 3,27599

Total

417 10,2518 3,65013

Never

10 97,6000 24,77544

Very Little

22 85,4091 18,63345

Medium Level

155 94,5097 17,93037 16,141 ,000

A lot

223 104,5874 15,78802

Total

410 99,5780 17,94422

Difference Scheffe

3-4

-

1-4 2-4

Geography teacher candidates’ scores in Carrying out Procedures in Maps sub scale presented significant differences based on their interest in geography [F(3-413) = 6.972; p<0,05]. Results of the Scheffe test conducted to determine the source of this difference showed significant differences between teacher candidates who had high level interest in geography and teacher candidates who had medium level interest in 738

geography in favor of teacher candidates who had high level interest in geography. According to this finding, it can be argued that teacher candidates’ with high level of interest in geography have high level skills in Carrying out Procedures in Maps. No significant differences were detected between geography teacher candidates’ scores in Sketching Maps sub scale and their interest in geography [F(3-413) = 2.678; p>0,05]. In other words, teacher candidates with varying levels of interest in geography had similar map sketching skills. Significant differences were detected between geography teacher candidates’ map literacy scores and their interest in geography [F(3-413) = 16.141; p<0,05]. Results of the Scheffe test conducted to determine the source of this difference showed significant differences between teacher candidates with high interest in geography and teacher candidates with little interest in geography in favor of teacher candidates with high interest in geography. According to this finding it can be claimed that teacher candidates’ map literacy skills improve when their interest in geography increases Table 7 presents significant differences in geography teacher candidates’ map knowledge and skill sub scale scores [X2(3) = 35.553; p<0,05] based on their interest in geography. Table 7. Kruskal Wallis Test Results for Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Scores Based on Their Interest in Geography Dimension

Interest

N

mean rank

11

169,55

Very Little

22

134,73

Medium Level

154

174,28

A Lot

225

237,38

Never

11

207,68

23

144,96

157

176,18

A Lot

224

236,79

Never

11

185,77

Very Little

23

153,28

Medium Level

157

178,48

A Lot

226

237,00

Never Knowledge and Skill

Very Little Reading and Interpreting Maps Medium Level

Using Maps

X2

p

Difference U

35.533 .000 2-4

2-3 2-4 30.387 .000

27.654 .000

2-3 2-4

When Mann Whitney U test was used to compare interest levels in geography, significant differences were observed between teacher candidates with high interest in geography and teacher candidates with little interest in geography in favor of teacher candidates with high interest in geography. According to this finding it can be claimed that teacher candidates’ map literacy skills improve when their interest in geography increases. Geography teacher candidates’ Reading and Interpreting Maps sub scale scores [X2(3) = 30.387; p<0,05] presented significant differences based on their interest in 739

geography. When Mann Whitney U test was used to compare interest levels in geography, significant differences were observed between teacher candidates with high or medium interest in geography and teacher candidates with little interest in geography in favor of teacher candidates with high or medium interest in geography. According to this finding it can be claimed that teacher candidates’ map literacy skills improve when their interest in geography discipline increases. Geography teacher candidates’ Using Maps sub scale scores [X2(3) = 27.654; p<0,05] presented significant differences based on their interest in geography. When Mann Whitney U test was used to compare interest levels in geography, significant differences were observed between teacher candidates with high or medium interest in geography and teacher candidates with little interest in geography in favor of teacher candidates with high or medium interest in geography. According to this finding it can be claimed that teacher candidates’ map literacy skills improve when their interest in geography discipline increases. 3.5. Findings and Interpretations Regarding Geography Teacher Candidates’ Purpose in Map Use Descriptive data regarding geography teacher candidates’ purpose in map use are presented in Table 8. Table 8. Descriptive data regarding geography teacher candidates’ purpose in map use Purposes of Map Use In touristic travels In identifying position and location In academic studies In studying lessons Total

N 20 81 52 264 417

% 4,8 19,4 12,5 63,3 100.0

Based on the findings presented in Table 8, participating geography teacher candidates used maps the most while studying ( 63,3%) and used maps the least in touristic travels (4,8%). These findings can be interpreted to show that geography teacher candidates did not often use maps in touristic travels or academic studies 3.6. Findings and Interpretations Regarding the Types of Maps Used by Geography Teacher Candidates Descriptive data regarding the types of maps used by geography teacher candidates are presented in Table 9. Table 9. Descriptive Data related to Map Types Used by Geography Teacher Candidates MapTypes

N

%

Road maps City zoning plans Physical maps Political maps Tourism maps Digital Map Applications Other Total

45 13 250 41 4 27 37 417

10,8 3,1 60,0 9,8 1,0 6,5 8,9 100.0

740

Based on the findings presented in Table 9, it can be stated that the types of maps mostly used by participating geography teacher candidates were physical maps 60% (250), road maps 10,8% (45) and political maps 9,8% (41). It was observed that geography teacher candidates used the other types of maps (city zoning plans, tourism maps and digital map applications) less. It is believed that this finding is related to geography teacher candidates’ use of physical and political maps in studies and road maps in travels. 4. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Geography is the first lesson in which individuals acquire comprehensive knowledge and skills regarding maps. Therefore, it is crucial that geography teacher candidates, who will teach this class, are good map readers. The first of the most important results of this study is related to the mean total scores obtained by participating geography teacher candidates in map knowledge and skill test (  = 31,93) the mean total scores obtained by participating geography teacher candidates in reading and interpreting maps (  = 35,39). These values are indicators that point to the fact that geography teacher candidates had medium level map knowledge and skills and medium level skills in reading and interpreting maps. It is desired to have teacher candidates with high level knowledge and skills to ensure that they are able to teach individuals comprehensive map knowledge and skills. However, the fact that geography teacher candidates have medium level map knowledge and skills is thought provoking and it needs to be studied further. It would be beneficial to study the reasons why geography teacher candidates have medium level map knowledge and skills with the help of qualitative research methods (focus group interviews, observations, interviews etc.). Mean scores obtained by geography teacher candidates in Carrying out Procedures in Maps sub scale was calculated to be (  = 14,87). This average corresponds to low levels. When the responses provided by geography teacher candidates to the items (“I can calculate the distance between two locations in kilometers of meters”, I can calculate the actual area of a place with the help of a map”, “I can calculate the slope in a specific section of a road with the help of topography map”, “I can determine the local time difference between two locations with the help of maps”) included in Carrying out Procedures in Maps sub scale were evaluated, lack of self confidence was observed in teacher candidates. We believe that geography teacher candidates do not have sufficient practice in maps such as topography, physical maps etc. We are of the opinion that organizing map studies in the context of field work by the instructors who teach about maps at universities will increase the man scores which teacher candidates obtained from the Carrying out Procedures in Maps sub scale. Geography teacher candidates’ means obtained from map literacy scale with five sub scales was found to be (  = 99,57). This is a low score. Geography teacher candidates’ general map literacy levels presented significant differences in terms of gender in favor of male teacher candidates [t(416) = -1,579; p<0,05]. The second most important results of this study is related to the finding that increases in the frequency of map use improve geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels. This is an important finding. Educational environments should be created to allow geography teacher candidates to utilize maps and activities that involve 741

map applications should be increased. Educational environments such as “map corridors” or “map classrooms” can be created to facilitate geography teacher candidates’ learning with the help of maps outside the class. Map corridors and classrooms composed of relief maps of different scales allow students to learn about topographic figures appropriately and accurately (Figure 5).

Figure 5: A view of students using the relief maps in the map corridor

The ratio of geography teacher candidates who accurately responded to Question 13 (Which of the following does the green tone in Turkey Physical Map represent?) in the knowledge test in the framework of this study was rather low (31,41%). 131 of the 417 participating geography teacher candidates accurately answered this question whereas 286 gave the incorrect answer. One of the effective ways to prevent geography teacher candidates to make these types of mistakes is to have them study with three dimensional relief maps. The third most important results of this study is the finding that geography teacher candidates’ map literacy scores significantly differed based on their interest in geography. According to this finding, geography teacher candidates’ map literacy levels improve when their interest levels towards the discipline of geography increase. Increasing the interest towards geography depends on teaching it without completely shutting it inside the four walls of the classroom, without memorization and without smothering the students with encyclopedic knowledge. We believe that supporting especially the field study part of geography with maps and teaching it through inquiry will increase interest towards the subject. The findings that 63.3% of the 417 participating geography teacher candidates used maps for studying and 4,8% needed maps in touristic travels are important indicators that show map use culture and habit are not sufficiently developed in these participants. When these teacher candidates graduate from their undergraduate programs in the future and when they do not have to study anymore, they will probably have no need to look at maps and examine them ether. It was found that the types of maps most frequently used by the participating geography teacher candidates were physical maps 60% (250), road maps 10,8% (45) and political maps 9,8% (41). It was observed that geography teacher candidates used the other types of maps (city zoning plans, tourism maps and digital map applications) less. We believe that this finding is related to geography teacher candidates’ use of physical and political maps in their studies and road maps for travel purposes.

742

REFERENCES Altıntaş, A. (1997). Çanakkale War with documents. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Atatürk and Gallipoli Campaing Research Centre, Çanakkale. Buckley, A. R., Muehrcke, P. C., & Muehrcke, J. O. (2011). Map Use: Reading, Analysis and Interpretation. Redlands, CA: Esri Pres Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, K.E, Akgül, E.Ö., Karadeniz, Ş ve Demirel, F. (2009). Research Methods, Ankara: Pegem Academy. Carswell, R. J. B. (1971). The Role of the User in the Map Communication Process Children’s Abilities in Topographic Map Reading. Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization, 8 (2): 40–45. Catling, S. J. (1998). Geographical Work in Primary and Middle Schools, Sheffield: Geographical Association. Clarke, D. (2003). Are You Functionally Map Literate?, Proceedings of the 21st International Cartographic Conference (ICC) Durban, South Africa, 10 - 16 August, 713719. Demiralp, N. (2009). Learning through maps, Journal of Turkish Educational Sciences, Autumn 2009, 7(4), 955-973. Fouberg, H.E, Murphy, A.B & Blij, H.J. (2012). Human Geography, Wiley Plus Uniteted States of America. Gerber, R. & Wilson, P. (1989). Using Maps Well in the Geography Classroom. in J. Fien, R. Gerber and P. Wilson (Ed.) The Geography Teacher’s Guide to the Classroom, Melbourne: Macmillan. Gilmartin, P. P., and J. C. Patton. (1984). Comparing the Sexes on Spatial Abilities: MapUse Skills, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 74 (4): 605–619. Golledge, R. G., M. Marsh., and S. Battersby. (2008). Matching Geospatial Concepts with Geographic Educational Needs. Geographical Research 46 (1): 85–98. Head, C. G. (1984). The Map as Natural Language: A Paradigm for Understanding, Cartographica, 21 (1), 1-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/E816-M074-8791-4506 Jongwon, L. and Bednarz, R. (2012). Components of Spatial Thinking: Evidence from a Spatial Thinking Ability Test, Journal of Geography,111(1):15-26). Karasar, N. (1999). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi, Ankara: Nobel Publications Kızılçaoğlu, A. (2007) A pedagogical perspective on map skills, Selçuk University the Journal of Institute of Social Science, Volume: 18. Krygier, J. & Wood, D. (2005). Making Maps, New York: The Guilford Press. Koç, H. (2008). The effect of gains in Geography curriculum on students' map skill level, unpublished PhD thesis. Gazi University Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara. Koç, H. (2010). Perception and use of maps in Geography Education, Journal of National Education, 187:146-158. Koç, H., Bulut, İ. (2014). An Investigation into the Impacts of Gestalt Theory on Learners’ Map Literacy Skills, Marmara Geographical Review, V:30 (1):1-19. Koç, H., Demir S.B. (2014). Developing Valid and Reliable Map Literacy Scale, Review of International Geographical Education, 4 (2):120-36. Koç, H., Karatekin, K. (2015). Investigation of different Variables Map Literacy Level of Social Studies Teachers, IV. International Symposium on Social Studies Education (2325 Nisan 2015), Bolu. Koç, H., Çifçi, T. (2016). Investigation of different Variables Map Literacy Level of Primary School Teachers, Marmara Geographical Review, V:34, p:9-20. Liben, L. & Downs, R. (1989), Understanding Maps As Symbols: the Development of Map Concepts in Children, New York: Academic Pres. 743

MacEachren, A. M. (2004). How Maps Work, New York: The Guilford Pres. Mcbride, B. (2011). Essential elements of ecological literacy and the pathways to achieve it: perspectives of ecologists, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Montana, Missoula. McClure, R. W. (1992). A conceptual model for map skills curriculum development based upon a cognitive field theory philosophy, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma. Olson, J. M. (1976). A Coordinated Approach to Map Communication Improvement, The American Cartographer, 3(2), 151-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1559/152304076784080177 Richard, B. Schultz , Joseph J. Kerski & Todd C. Patterson. (2008). The Use of Virtual Globes as a Spatial Teaching Tool with Suggestions for Metadata Standards, Journal of Geography, 107:1, 27-34. URL 1: http://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/haiti_cholera.htm Weeden, P. (1997). Learning through maps, in Daniella Tilbury and Michael Williams (ed) Teaching and Learning Geography, 168-179, London: Routledge. White, S. H. (1995). An examination of the effects of mixed-age grouping on learning mapreading skills, Unpublished Dissertation, A&M University, Texas. Wiegand, P. (2006). Learning and Teaching with Maps. New York: Routledge. Wiegand, P.(1993). Children and Primary Geography. London: Cassell. Wood, D. (1992). The Power of Maps. New York: The Guilford.

744 View publication stats