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Sabtu, 14 Juni 2014
Kumpulan Resume Method of Teaching Method of Teaching 1. Oral Approach or Situasional Language Teaching The Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching is based on a structural view of language. Speech, structure and a focus on a set of basic vocabulary are seen as the basis of language teaching.
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Vocabulary and grammar control · Focus on vocabulary and reading is one of the most salient traits of SLT. In fact, mastery of a set of high frequency
vocabulary items is believed to lead to good reading skills. · An analysis of English and a classification of its prominent grammatical structures into sentence patterns, also called situational tables, is believed to help learners internalize grammatical rules.
Behavioristic background
Juli (1)
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3. The use of the knowledge or material in actual practice until it becomes a personal skill.
SLT objectives The objectives of Situational Language Teaching involve accurate use of vocabulary items and grammar rules in order to achieve a practical mastery of the four basic skills. Learners must be able to produce accurate pronunciation and use of grammar
The syllabus, techniques and activities Situational Language Teaching syllabus is designed upon a word list and structural activities. Grammar teaching involves situational presentation of new sentence patterns and drills to practice the patterns. the teacher moves from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading and writing. Typical lesson According to Situational Language Teaching, a lesson starts with stress and intonation practice followed by a revision and a presentation of new material (mainly structures or vocabulary). The teacher then proceeds to oral practice and drilling of the elements presented. Finally, the lesson ends with reading activity or written exercises.
Advantages Situational Language Teaching is still attractive to many teachers who still believe in structural practice of language. Its practicality in the teaching of grammar patterns has contributed to the survival of the approach until recently. Besides, its emphasis on oral practice still attracts support among language teachers.
Disadvantages Many premises underlying the approach have been criticized. For example Chomsky (1957) showed that the structural and the behavioristic approaches to language are simply incorrect as they do not explain the fundamental feature of language learning: the ability to create novel and unique sentences. Children do not acquire their mother tongue through repetition and habit formation. There must be, however, an innate predisposition that lead them to a certain kind of linguistic competence.
2. The Grammar-Translation Method The Grammar-Translation Method, Instant was used by language teachers for many years. It is expected to help students read and appreciate foreign language literature. By studying the grammar of the language targets, students would Become more familiar with the grammar of their native language and that this familiarity would help them speak and write the native language better. The principles of the Grammar-Translation Method 1) The goals of learning a foreign language is to be Able to read literature in the target language, learn grammar rules and vocabulary, and develop mental acuity. 2) Teacher has authority, while students follow instructions to learn what the teacher knows. 3) Students learn by translating from one language to the other, translating Often the reading passages in the target language to the native language. Grammar is learned deductively on the basis of grammar, then apply them to other examples. 4) Most interaction is teacher-to-students, students-initiated interaction, and student-student interaction is minimal. 5) Literary language seen as superior to spoken language; culture equated with literature and fine arts. 6) Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized; reading and writing are the primary skills; pronunciation and other speaking / listening skills not emphasized. 7) Native language provides the key to meanings in the target language; native language is used freely in class. 8) Tests require translation from the native to the target language and the native language to the target, applying grammar rules, and answering questions about foreign culture. 9) Heavy emphasis placed on correct answer and teacher supplies correct answers when students can not.
The Techniques Used in the Grammar-Translation Method 1) Translation of a literary passage, that is, students translate a reading passage from the target of language into their native language. 2) Reading comprehension questions, that is, students answer the questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage. 3) Antonyms / synonyms, that is, students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms / synonyms ion the reading passage. 4) Cognates, that is, students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that Correspond between the languages. 5) Deductive application of the rule, that is, students are given a series of sentences with words missing and they fill the blanks. 6) Memorization, that is, students are given lists of the target language vocabularies and their native language equivalents and are asked to memorize them. 7) Use words in sentence, that is, students are asked to make up sentences in roomates they use the new words. 8) Composition, that is, students are asked to write the composition in the target language based on the topic give.
3. Natural Approach Definition of The Natural approach is one of the communicative approaches to language teaching of the present time. It is based on the work of Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen who published their book The Natural Approach in 1983. Characteristics
Theory as well as the design and procedures in The Natural Approach are based on Krashen's language acquisition theory. The basic principles of Krashen's theory are outlined in his Monitor Model (1982), a model of second language acquisition consisting of five hypotheses: 1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis makes a distinction between acquisition and learning. Krashen defines acquisition as, "unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication 2. According to the monitor hypothesis, "the acquired system initiates a speaker's utterances and is responsible for spontaneous language use." 3. The natural order hypothesis says that, "the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order." (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 182) This natural order can be found in first language acquisition as well as in second language acquisition. 4. According to the input hypothesis, "acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and that contains i+1." (Lightbown & Spada 2006: 375 LEARNER AND TEACHER ROLES The learner’s role changes and develops during a natural approach course because there are various stages the learner has to go through. The first stage is the pre-production stage where the learner is not forced to respond orally and is allowed to decide on his/her own when to start to speak 4. Direct Method Pengertian DIRECT METHOD atau pemahaman dari Direct Method yaitu berasal dari kata Direct yang artinya langsung. Direct method atau model langsung yaitu suatu cara mengajikan materi pelajaran bahasa asing di mana guru langsung menggunakan bahasa asing tersebut sebagai bahasa pengantar, dan tanpa menggunakan bahasa anak didik sedikit pun dalam mengajar Ciri-ciri metode ini adalah : 1. Materi pelajaran pertama-tama diberikan kata demi kata, kemudian struktur kalimat 2. Gramatika diajarkan hanya bersifat sambil lalu, dan siswa tidak dituntut menghafal rumus-rumus gramatika, tapi yang utam adalah siswa mampu mengucapkan bahasa secara baik 3. Dalam proses pengajaran senantiasa menggunakan alat bantu (alat peraga) baik berupa alat peraga langsung, tidak langsung (bnda tiruan) maupun peragaan melalui simbol-simbol atau gerakan-gerakan tertentu 4. Setelah masuk kelas, siswa atau anak didik benar-benar dikondisikan untuk menerima dan bercakap-cakap dalam bahasa asing, dan dilarang menggunakan bahasa lain. Kebaikan metode langsung (Direct) Metode langsung (direct) dilihat dari segi efektivitasnya memiliki keunggulan antara lain : 1. Siswa termotivasi untuk dapat menyebutkan dan mengerti kata-kata kalimat dalam bahasa asing yang diajarkan oleh gurunya, apalagi guru menggunakan alat peraga dan macam-macam media yang menyenangkan 2. Karena metode ini biasanya guru mula-mula mengajarkan kata-kata dan kalimat-kalimat sederhana yang dapat dimengerti dan diketahui oleh siswa dalam bahasa sehari-hari misalnya (pena, pensil, bangku, meja, dan lain-lain), maka siswa dapat dengan mudah menangkap simbol-simbol bahasa asing yang diajarkan oleh gurunya. 3. Metode ini relatif banyak menggunakan berbagai macam alat peraga : apakah video, film, radio kaset, tape recorder, dan berbagaimedia/alat peraga yang dibuat sendiri, maka metode ini menarik minat siswa, karena sudah merasa senang/tertarik, maka pelajaran terasa tidak sulit 4. Siswa memperoleh pengalaman langsung danpraktis, sekalipun mula-mula kalimat yang diucapkan itu belum dimengerti dan dipahami sepenuhnya 5. Alat ucap / lidah siswa/anak didik menjadi terlatih dan jika menerima ucapan-ucapan yang semula sering terdengar dan terucapkan Kekurangan-kekurangan metode langsung (Direct) 1. Pengajaran dapat menjadi pasif, jika guru tidakdapat memotivasi siswa, bahkan mungkin sekali siswa merasa jenuh dan merasa dfongkol karena kata-kata dan kalimat yang dituturkan gurunya itu tidak pernah dapat dimengerti, karena memang guru hanya menggunakan bahasa asing tanpa diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa anak. 2. Pada tingkat-tingkat permulaan kelihatannya metode ini terasa sulit diterapkan, karena siswa belum memiliki bahan (perbendaharaan kata) yang sudah dimengerti 3. Meskipun pada dasarnya metode ini guru tidak boleh menggunakan bahasa sehari-hari dalam menyampaikan bahan pelajaran bahasa asing tapi pada kenyataannya tidak selalu konsisten demikian, guru terpaksa misalnya menterjemahkan kata-kata sulit bahasa asing itu ke dalam bahasa anak didik. 6. Suggestoppedia Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of how the human brain works and how we learn most effectively. It was developed by the Bulgarian doctor and psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov (see right). The term 'Suggestopedia', derived from suggestion and pedagogy, is often used loosely to refer to similar accelerated learning approaches. However, Lozanov reserves the title strictly for his own method, and he has his own training and certification facilities. Suggestopedia was originally applied mainly in foreign language teaching, and it is often claimed that it can teach languages approximately three times as quickly as conventional methods. It is now applied in several other fields, and its central ideas inspired the development of my own Brain way workshops. Another revolutionary language teacher who developed his own distinctive methods was the late Michel Thomas, his numerous famous clients including: Woody Allen, Bob Dylan and Eddie Izzard. Key Elements of Suggestopedia Some of the key elements of suggestopedia include a rich sensory learning environment (pictures, color, music, etc.), a positive expectation of success and the use of a varied range of methods: dramatised texts, music, active participation in songs and games, etc. Suggestopedia adopts a carefully structured approach, using four main stages as follows: Presentation A preparatory stage in which students are helped to relax and move into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and fun. First Concert - "Active Concert" This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For example, in a foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text, accompanied by classical music. Second Concert - "Passive Review" The students are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to bring the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material. Practice The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.
7. Silent Way The Silent Way is a language a teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It is not usually considered a mainstream method in language education. The method emphasises the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's role is to monitor the students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in learning the language. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study with pronunciation, and much time is spent practising it each lesson The teacher uses silence for multiple purposes in the Silent Way. It is used to focus students' attention, to elicit student responses, and to encourage them to correct their own errors. Even though teachers are often silent, they are still active; they will commonly use techniques such as mouthing words and using hand gestures to help the students with their pronunciation. Teachers will also encourage students to help their peers. Silent Way teachers use specialized teaching materials. One of the hallmarks of the method is the use of Cuisenaire rods, which can be used for anything from introducing simple commands to representing abstract objects such as clocks and floor plans.
8. The Audio Lingual Method and Drilling Audio lingual method is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case human. could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback. Drills and pattern practice are typical of the Audio lingual method. Repetition: where the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it Inflection: Where one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated Replacement: Where one word is replaced by another Restatement: The student re-phrases an utterance Inflection: Teacher : I ate the sandwich. Student : I ate the sandwiches. Replacement: Teacher : He bought the car for half-price. Student : He bought it for half-price. Re-statement: Teacher: Tell me not to smoke so often. Student : Don't smoke so often! The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session “Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeat Students: There's a cup on the table Teacher: Spoon Students: There's a spoon on the table Teacher: Book Students: There's a book on the table Teacher: On the chair Students: There's a book on the chair 9. Community Language Learning The Community Language Learning is the method which are use by the teachers to consider their students as ‘whole persons’. Whole person means that teachers consider not only their students intellect, but also have some understanding of the relationship among students feelings, physical reactions, instinctive protective reactions, and desire to learn. The teachers who use this method want their students to learn how to use the target language communicatively. They focuces not only on the language but also on the being supportive of learners in their learning process. In the class, the teachers become counselor. It is doesn’t mean the teachers trained their students in psychology. In this method, the teachers use tape-recorded, transcription, reflection on experience, reflective listening, human computer, and small group tasks to see our ‘whole persons’. With use tape-recorded, they can learn about conversation easily. The teacher give them some ‘chunks’ on the transcript, they must repeat it with her. In this method, the teachers use small groups to help the students can get more practice with the target language and allow them to get to know each other better 9. Communicative Language Teaching Communicative language teaching rose to prominence in the 1970s and early 1980s as a result of many disparate developments in both Europe and the United States. First, there was an increased demand for language learning, particularly in Europe. The advent of the European Common Market led to widespread European migration, and consequently there was a large population of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or for personal reasons. At the same time, children were increasingly able to learn foreign languages in school. The number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide in the 1960s and 1970s as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, and foreign-language study ceased to be confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensive schools meant that almost all children had the opportunity to study foreign languages. This increased demand put pressure on educators to change their teaching methods. Traditional methods such as grammar translation assumed that students were aiming for mastery of the target language, and that students were willing to study for years before expecting to use the language in real life. However, these assumptions were challenged by adult learners who were busy with work, and by schoolchildren who were less academically able. Educators realized that to motivate these students an approach with a more immediate payoff was necessary. The trend of progressivism in education provided a further pressure for educators to change their methods. Progressivism holds that active learning is more effective than passive learning, and as this idea gained traction in schools there was a general shift towards using techniques where students were more actively involved, such as group work. Foreign-language education was no exception to this trend, and teachers sought to find new methods that could better embody this shift in thinking. . 10. Total Phsycal Respone and Story Telling Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. Developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California, it draws on several traditions, including developmental psychology, learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy, as well as on language teaching procedures proposed by Harold and Dorothy Palmer in 1925. Let us briefly consider these precedents to Total Physical Response. Asher's emphasis on developing comprehension skills before the learner is taught to speak links him to a movement in foreign language teaching sometimes referred to as the Comprehension Approach (Winitz 1981). This refers to several different comprehension-based language teaching proposals, which share the belief that: (a) Comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a language; (b) The teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established; (c) Skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills; (d) Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form; and (e) Teaching should minimize learner stress. The emphasis on comprehension and the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level has a long tradition in language teaching.
12. . The Lexical Approach In creating the pedagogical materials for Français interactif, the developers decided to move away from the traditional grammatical syllabus and adopt features of the Lexical Approach instead. Types of Lexical Units Lewis also suggests that Native speakers have a large inventory of lexical chunks that are vital for fluent production. Chunks include collocations and fixed and semi-fixed expressions and idioms. Taxonomy of Lexical Items (Lewis, 1997) Lexical Item
Examples
Words
book, pen
Polywords
by the way, upside down
Collocations
prices fell, rancid butter
institutionalized utterances
I'll get it; That'll do
sentence frames and heads
That is not as [adjective] as you think; The danger was...
text frames
In this paper we will explore...; Firstly...
Lexis in Language Teaching and Learning intensive and extensive listening and reading in the target language first and second language comparisons and translation repetition and recycling of activities to keep words and expressions that have been learned active guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context noticing and recording language patterns and collocations working with dictionaries and other reference tools working with language corpuses to research word partnerships, preposition usage, style, and so on
13. Cooperative Learning Teaching Cooperative learning adalah strategi pembelajaran yang cukup berhasil pada kelompok-kelompok kecil, di mana pada tiap kelompok tersebut terdiri dari siswa-siswa dari berbagai tingkat kemampuan, melakukan berbagai kegiatan belajar untuk meningkatkan pemahaman mereka tentang materi pelajaran yang sedang dipelajari. Setiap anggota kelompok bertanggung jawab untuk tidak hanya belajar apa yang diajarkan tetapi juga untuk membantu rekan rekan belajar, sehingga bersama-sama mencapai keberhasilan. Semua Siswa berusaha sampai semua anggota kelompok berhasil memahami dan melengkapinya. Semua anggota kelompok berusaha untuk saling menguntungkan sehingga semua anggota kelompok bisa: 1. Merasakan keuntungan dari setiap usaha teman lainnya. (Kesuksesan Anda bermanfaat bagi saya dan keberhasilan saya bermanfaat untuk Anda.) 2. Menyadari bahwa semua anggota kelompok mempunyai nasib yang sama. (Tenggelam atau mengapung kita bersama). 3. Tahu bahwa prestasi seseorang ditentukan oleh orang lain dalam satu kelompok. (Kami tidak dapat melakukannya tanpa Anda.) 4. Merasa bangga dan merayakan bersama ketika salah satu anggota kelompok mendapatkan keberhasilan (Kami semua merasa sukses atas kesuksesan anda. Bagaimana keunggulan Cooperative Learning? Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa model cooperative learning: • meningkatkan aktivitas belajar siswa dan prestasi akademiknya. • meningkatkan daya ingatan siswa • meningkatkan kepuasan siswa dengan pengalaman belajar • membantu siswa dalam mengembangkan keterampilan berkomunikasi secara lisan • mengembangkan keterampilan social siswa • meningkatkan rasa percaya diri siswa • membantu meningkatkan hubungan positif antar siswa. 14. Competency-Based Language Teaching CBLT is an application of the principles of Competency-based Education (CBE) to language teaching. CBE is an educational movement that focuses on outcomes or outputs of learning in the development of language programs. The Approaches in CBLT There are several principals in CBLT: 1. Language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning (functional view) 2. Language is a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relation and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. (interactional view) 3. CBLT is built around the notion of communicative competence and seeks to develop functional communication skills in learners. 4. CBLT shares with behaviorist views of learning, the notion that language form can be inferred from language function; that is, certain life encounters call for certain kinds of language. . The Implementation of CBLT Auerbach in Richards and Rodgers (2001:145) provides a useful review of factors involved in the implementation of CBE programs in ESL, and indentifies eight key features: 1. A focus on successful functioning in society 2. A focus on life skills 3. Task -or performance- centered orientation 4. Modularized instructions 5. Outcomes that are made explicit a priory 6. Continuous and ongoing assessment 7. Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives 8. Individualized, student-centered instruction Types of Content Based Instruction · The Sheltered Model · Sheltered and adjunct CBI usually occurs at universities in English L1 contexts. The goal of teachers using sheltered and adjunct CBI is to enable their ESL students to study the same content material as regular English L1 students · The Adjunct Model · Adjunct classes are usually taught by ESL teachers. The aim of these classes is to prepare students for "mainstream" classes where they will join English L1 learners before regular college classes begin, while others run concurrently with regular lessons. · The Theme Based Model · Theme based CBI is usually found in EFL contexts. Theme based CBI can be taught by an EFL teacher or team taught with a content specialist. The teacher(s) can create a course of study designed to unlock and build on their own students' interests and the content can be chosen from an enormous number of diverse topics. · How Does Theme Based CBI Differ from Sheltered and Adjunct Models? · Theme based CBI is taught to students with TEFL scores usually in the range 350 to 500. These scores are lower than the TEFL 500 score which is often the minimum requirement for students who want to study at universities in English L1 contexts
16. Task Based Instruction and Text Book Assignment Task -based learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn’t pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it. The lesson follows certain stages. Analysis The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the recording for the students to analysis. They may ask students to notice interesting features within this text. The teacher can also highlight the language that the students used during the report phase for analysis. Practice the students are free of language control. In all three stages they must use all their language resources rather than just practising one pre-selected item. The students will have a much more varied exposure to language with TBL. They will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases, collocations and patterns as well as language forms. The language explored arises from the students’ needs. This need dictates what will be covered in the lesson rather than a decision made by the teacher or the course book. It is a strong communicative approach where students spend a lot of time communicating. It is enjoyable and motivating.
17. Participatory Approachhes and Gaming and Simulation Participatory approach started being widely discussed in the language teaching literature. In some ways the participatory approach is similar to the content based approach in that it begins with content that is meaningful to the students and any forms that are worked upon emerge from that content. The Principles of Participatory Approach : What happens in the classroom should be connected with what happens outside that has relevance to the students. The curriculum is not a predetermined product, but the result of an ongoing context specific problem posing process. Education is most effective when it is experience centered, when it relates to students’ real needs. Student learn to see themselves as social and political beings. Language skills are taught in service of action for change, rather than isolati A goal of the participatory approach is for students to be evaluating their own learning and to increasingly direct it themselves.
18. Learning Strategy Training and Classroom Management Learning strategies are used by students to help them understand information and solve problems. A learning strategy is a person's approach to learning and using information. Students who do not know or use good learning strategies often learn passively and ultimately fail in school. Learning strategy instruction focuses on making the students more active learners by teaching them how to learn and how to use what they have learned to solve problems and be successful. The Learning Strategies Curriculum has the necessary breadth and depth to provide a well-designed scope and sequence of strategy instruction. The curriculum is divided into strands, or categories of skills. One strand addresses how students acquire information. It includes strategies for learning how to paraphrase critical information, picture information to promote understanding and remembering, ask questions and make predictions about text information, and identify unknown words in text. A second strand helps students study information once they acquire it. It includes strategies for developing mnemonics and other devices to aid memorization of facts as well as strategies for learning new vocabulary. These strategies help prepare students for tests. A third strand helps students express themselves. It includes strategies to help students write sentences and paragraphs, monitor their work for errors, and confidently approach and take tests. No single strategy is a panacea. For example, we have reading strategies that help students figure out what a word is, comprehend what they're reading, acquire vocabulary, and understand the structure of text. All of these strategies are essential for a well-integrated, balanced reading program. Likewise, an array of strategies in other areas is necessary for student success.
19. Multiple Intelligence Apakah Kecerdasan Itu ? Kecerdasan bukanlah sesuatu yang bersifat tetap Ia bagaikan kumpulan kemampuan atau ketrampilan yang dapat ditumbuhkan dan dikembangkan Kecerdasan adalah kemampuan untuk memecahkan suatu masalah; kemampuan untuk menciptakan masalah baru untuk dipecahkan; kemampuan untuk menciptakan sesuatu atau menawarkan suatu pelayanan yang berharga dalam suatu kebudayaan masyarakat (Howard Gardner) Multiple Intelligences Melalui pengenalan akan Multiple Intelligences, kita dapat mempelajari kekuatan / kelemahan anak dan memberikan mereka peluang untuk belajar melalui kelebihan-kelebihannya. Tujuan: anak memiliki kesempatan untuk mengeksplorasi dunia, bekerja dengan ketrampilan sendiri dan mengembangkan kemampuannya sendiri. 1. Kecerdasan Linguistik Mampu membaca, mengerti apa yang dibaca. Mampu mendengar dengan baik dan memberikan respons dalam suatu komunikasi verbal. Mampu menirukan suara, mempelajari bahasa asing, mampu membaca karya orang lain. Mampu menulis dan berbicara secara efektif. Tertarik pada karya jurnalism, berdebat, pandai menyampaikan cerita atau melakukan perbaikan pada karya tulis. Mampu belajar melalui pendengaran, bahan bacaan, tulisan dan melalui diskusi, ataupun debat. Peka terhadap arti kata, urutan, ritme dan intonasi kata yang diucapkan. Memiliki perbendaharaan kata yang luas, suka puisi, dan permainan kata.
2. Kecerdasan Logika – Matematika Mengenal dan mengerti konsep jumlah, waktu dan prinsip sebab-akibat. Mampu mengamati objek dan mengerti fungsi dari objek tersebut. Pandai dalam pemecahan masalah yang menuntut pemikiran logis. Menikmati pekerjaan yang berhubungan dengan kalkulus, pemograman komputer, metode riset. Berpikir secara matematis dengan mengumpulkan bukti-bukti, membuat hipotesis, merumuskan dan membangun argumentasi kuat. Tertarik dengan karir di bidang teknologi, mesin, teknik, akuntansi, dan hukum. Menggunakan simbol-simbol abstrak untuk menjelaskan konsep dan objek yang konkret. 3. Kecerdasan Intrapersonal Mengenal emosi diri sendiri dan orang lain, serta mampu menyalurkan pikiran dan perasaan. Termotivasi dalam mengejar tujuan hidup. Mampu bekerja mandiri, mengembangkan kemampuan belajar yang berkelanjutan dan mau meningkatkan diri. Mengembangkan konsep diri dengan baik. Tertarik sebagai konselor, pelatih, filsuf, psikolog atau di jalur spiritual. Tertarik pada arti hidup, tujuan hidup dan relevansinya dengan keadaaan saat ini. Mampu menyelami / mengerti kerumitan dan kondisi manusia. Profesi: ahli psikologi, ulama, ahli terapi, konselor, ahli teknologi, perencana program, pengusaha, dan sebagainya. 4. Kecerdasan Interpersonal Memiliki interaksi yang baik dengan orang lain, pandai menjalin hubungan sosial. Mampu merasakan perasaan, pikiran, tingkah laku, dan harapan orang lain. Memiliki kemampuan untuk memahami orang lain dan berkomunikasi dengan efektif, baik secara verbal maupun non-verbal. Mampu menyesuaikan diri dengan lingkungan dan kelompok yang berbeda, mampu menerima umpan balik yang disampaikan orang lain, dan mampu bekerja sama dengan orang lain. Mampu berempati dan mau mengerti orang lain. Mau melihat sudut pandang orang lain. Menciptakan dan mempertahankan sinergi.
5. Kecerdasan Musikal Menyukai banyak jenis alat musik dan selalu tertarik untuk memainkan alat musik. Mudah mengingat lirik lagu dan peka terhadap suara-suara. Mengerti nuansa dan emosi yang terkandung dalam sebuah lagu. Senang mengumpulkan lagu, baik CD, kaset, atau lirik lagu. Mampu menciptakan komposisi musik. Senang improvisasi dan bermain dengan suara. Menyukai dan mampu bernyanyi. Tertarik untuk terjun dan menekuni musik, baik sebagai penyanyi atau pemusik. Mampu menganalisis / mengkritik suatu musik. Profesi: DJ, musikus, pembuat instrumen, tukang stem piano, ahli terapi musik, penulis lagu, insinyur studio musik, dirigen orkestra, penyanyi, guru musik, penulis lirik lagu, dan sebagainya.
6. Kecerdasan Visual – Spasial Senang mencoret-coret, menggambar, melukis dan membuat patung. Senang belajar dengan grafik, peta, diagram, atau alat bantu visual lainnya. Kaya akan khayalan, imaginasi dan kreatif. Menyukai poster, gambar, film dan presentasi visual lainnya. Pandai main puzzle, mazes dan tugas-lugas lain yang berkaitan dengan manipulasi. Belajar dengan mengamati, melihat, mengenali wajah, objek, bentuk, dan warna. Menggunakan bantuan gambar untuk membantu proses mengingat. . 7. Kecerdasan Kinestetik – Jasmani Merupakan kecerdasan yang berhubungan dengan kemampuan dalam menggunakan tubuh kita secara trampil untuk mengungkapkan ide, pemikiran, perasaan, dan mampu bekerja dengan baik dalam menangani objek. Memiliki kontrol pada gerakan keseimbangan, ketangkasan, dan keanggunan dalam bergerak. Menyukai pengalaman belajar yang nyata seperti field trip, role play, permainan yang menggunakan fisik. Senang menari, olahraga dan mengerti hidup sehat. Suka menyentuh, memegang atau bermain dengan apa yang sedang dipelajari. Suka belajar dengan terlibat secara langsung, ingatannya kuat terhadap apa yang dialami atau dilihat. 8. Kecerdasan Naturalis Suka mengamati, mengenali, berinteraksi, dan peduli dengan objek alam, tanaman atau hewan. Antusias akan lingkungan alam dan lingkungan manusia. Mampu mengenali pola di antara spesies. Senang berkarir di bidang biologi, ekologi, kimia, atau botani. Senang memelihara tanaman, hewan. Suka menggunakan teleskop, komputer, binocular, mikroskop untuk mempelajari suatu organisme. Senang mempelajari siklus kehidupan flora dan fauna. Senang melakukan aktivitas outdoor, seperti: mendaki gunung, scuba diving (menyelam).
20. Neurolinguistic Programming Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is an approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy created by Richard Bandler and Jhon Grinderin, USA in the 1970s. Its creators claim a connection between the neurological processes ("neuro"), language ("linguistic") and behavioral patterns learned through experience ("programming") and that these can be changed to achieve specific goals in life Each seminar that Dr. Blander teaches is different. Once someone has attended one practitioner course it does not mean that the practitioner material has been learned and that person should therefore go to a different course. You have to remember that the names and certificates are only names and certificates not the material nor the knowledge! Neuro-Linguistic Programming was specifically created in order to allow us to do magic by creating new ways of understanding how verbal and non-verbal communication affect the human brain. As such it presents us all with the opportunity to not only communicate better with others, but also learn how to gain more control over what we considered to be automatic functions of our own neurology.
21. Whole Language WHOLE LANGUAGE (PENDEKATAN HOLISTIK ) Whole language adalah suatu pendekatan pembelajaran bahasa yang didasari oleh paham constructivism. Dalam whole language bahasa diajarkan secara utuh, tidak terpisah-pisah; menyimak, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis diajarkan secara terpadu (integrated) sehingga siswa dapat melihat bahasa sebagai suatu kesatuan. Jika guru berniat menerapkan whole language guru harus memahami dulu komponen-komponen whole language agar pembelajaran dapat dilakukan secara maksimal. Komponen whole language adalah reading aloud, jurnal writing, sustain silent reading, shared reading, guided reading, guided writing, independent reading, dan independent writing. Kelas yang menerapkan whole language merupakan kelas yang kaya dengan barang cetak, seperti buku, majalah, koran, dan buku petunjuk. Di samping itu, kelas whole language dibagi-bagi dalam sudutsudut yang memungkinkan siswa melakukan kegiatan secara individual di sudut-sudut tersebut. Selanjutnya, kelas whole language menerapkan penilaian yang menggunakan portofolio dan penilaian informal 1. Whole language adalah sebuah pandangan positif tentang pembelajar Konsep whole language beranjak dari pernyataan Dewey tentang hakekat pembelajar. Para penganut whole language berpendapat bahwa pembelajar memilki kekuatan, kesanggupan, dan keinginan untuk belajar 2. Whole language memberikan penegasan tentang peran guru dalam proses pembelajarn. Para guru penganut whole language menerima pandangan bahawa guru sebagai mediator yang menyediakan fasilitas kepada pembelajar dalam melaksanakan transaksi dengan duni luar. Guru adalah tenaga profesioanal yang memahami kondisi pembelajar, teori belajar, dan kegiatan belajar mengajar 3. Whole language memandang bahasa sebagai pusat pembelajaran Keberadaan bahasa disebabkan oleh dua alasan. Pertama, karena manusia sanggup berpikir secara simbolik, mereka mempresentasikan sesuatu dengan sesuatu yang lain, mereka mampu menciptakan sistem-sistem semiotic 4. Whole language menerapakan kurikulum ganda Halliday (1984) menyimpulkan bahwa sebenarnya kita belajar melalui bahasa sementara kita belajar bahasa. Kesimpulan inilah yang mendasari penyusunan kurikulum whole language, yaitu kurikulum ganda, setiap aktivitas, pengalaman, atau unit memiliki kesepakatan dalam pengembangan linguistik dan sekaligus kognitif. Bahasa dan pikiran berkembang, namun pada saat yang bersamaan pengetahuan dan konsep dikembangkan sementara skema dibangun. Para guru penganut whole language menggunakan unit tematik untuk menerapakan penggunaan kurikulum ganda1. Pencelupan (immersion) Guru menciptakan lingkungan yang memungkinkan pembelajar melaksanakan program celup dalam kegiatan pembelajaran mereka sehari-hari dengan menggunakan: bahasa guru, bahasa teman sebaya, bahasa yang terdapat dalam buku-buku, percakapan informal, bahasa di kelas formal, bahasa yang terdapat dalam lagu-lagu dan berbagai cerita. 2. Demonstrasi/peragaan Guru secara aktif terlibat dalam peragaan pemakaian bahasa, sebagai sumber pengayaan dan data bagi pembelajar dalam memformulasikan bunyi-bunyi, struktur kalimat, mengembangkan makna, dan memperoleh berbagai konvensi sosial pemakaian bahasa di masyarkat (pragmatic). Membaca nyaring adalah salah satu aktivitas yang dapat dilakukan oleh guru. Materi bacaan diambildari buku-buku sastra yang bagus dengan struktur bahasa yang sederhana dan dekat dengan bahasa pembelajar, buku-buku cerita dengan struktur yang kompleks pun perlu di pilih. Dengan menyimak bahasa yang terdapat dalam cerita, pembelajar mencoba memproduksi bahasa mereka sendiri dan akhirnya kelak mereka dapat memahani struktur bahasa yang mereka gunakan. Demikian juga ilustrasi dan peristiwa-peristiwa yang dilukiskan dalam buku cerita, meskipun menggunakan struktur bahasa yang kompleks namun semua berada dalam suatu konteks, sehingga memungkinkan pembelajar menangkap maknanya. Strikcklan (1973) membuktikan bahwa program membaca nyaring yang dilaksanakan di taman kanak-kanak mampu meningkatkan kemampuan anak-anak Afrika-Amerika dalam menggunakan bahasa Inggris standar. Buku-buku alphabet dan buku-buku gambar tanpa kata, buku-buku nonfiksi, lagu-lagu,dan buku-buku yang selaras dengan pengalaman pembelajar, buku-buku dengan berbagai gambar yang indah dan menarik dapat dijadikan bahan untuk kegiatan membaca nyaring di kelas-kelas awal. Buku-buku tersebut juga dapat dijadikan saran untuk melibatkan siswa dalam kegiatan percakapan di antara mereka. 3. Keterlibatan Pembelajar harus dilibatkan secara aktif dalam kegiatan pembelajaran. Cambourne menemukan bahwa pembelajar akan senang terlibat dalam kegiatan pembelajaran apabila: a) mereka merasa yakin pada kemampuan mereka sendiri, b) mereka percaya bahwa apa yang dilakukan akan berguna untuk kehidupannya kelas, c) mereka yakin bahwa aktivitas yang dilakukan menyenangkan, dan d) mereka merasa aman, tidak merasa takut jika berbuat kesalahan Perasaan “aman sangat penting dalam pembelajarn bahasa. Pembelajar yang berbuat kesalahan kemudian ditertawakan atau diejek oleh teman-temannya, atau ditegur, disalahkan oleh guru di hadapan teman-tamannya akan menjadikan ia enggan untuk berpartisipasi dalam kegiatan pembelajaran karena malu dan takut selalu menghantuinya. Di kelas-kelas whole language diharapkan perasaan aman dalam diri pembelajar ini harus dijaga agar pembelajar berani mencoba hal-hal baru yang menantang. 4. Harapan Dalam program whole language, guru seharusnya memiliki harapan yan tinggi bahwa pembelajar akan dapat melaksanakan kegiatan pembelajaran selaras dengan pola atau frase perkembangan mereka. Guru harus mengkomunikasikan kepada pembelajar bahwa mereka percaya para pembelajar mampu melaksanakan semua aktivitas pembeljaran. Harapan yang tinggi ini perlu selalu dicanangkan. Namun perlu diingat bahwa harapanharapan tersebut harus bersifat realistk dan selaras dengan fase perkembangan belajar. 5. Tanggung jawab Keterlibatan pembelajar dalam kegiatan pembelajaran akan semakin meningkat jika tanggung jawab, aproksimasi, dan respon juga hadir alam kegiatan pembelajaran. Pembelajar harus diberi kesempatan untuk menentukan apa yang mereka pelajari. Tidak seorang pun dapat secara pasti apa yang seharusnya dipelajari kemudian karena lingkungan dan bakat pembelajar menjadi kendalanya. Pembelajar dan lingkungan yang berbeda kemungkinan memiliki kecenderungan belajar yang berbeda. Tanggung jawab adalah tentang kapan dan bagaimana mereka harus belajar. 6. Pemakaian Belajar bahasa diawali dengan memahami bahasa tersebut, mencoba menggunakannya dan pembelajar juga mempelajari bahasa tersebut pada saat bahasa tersebut digunakan. Ketiga aktivitas tersebut terjadi secara serentak. Ide inilah yang dipraktekkan di kelas whole language. Di kelas-kelas whole language, praktek penggunaan bahasa biasanya dilaksanakan secara terpisah dan ditekankan pada ketepatan respon. Sebaliknya, di kelas whole language praktek penggunaan bahasa dalam konteks yang bermakna lebih ditekankan. Guru melibatkan pembelajar dalam akitivitas pemakaian bahasa. Kesempatan untuk berbicara di depan kelas merupakan kondisi yang harus selalu diciptakan karena manfaat bagi pembelajar untuk mempelajari aspek-aspek pragmatik dan aspek-aspek lainnya dalam kaitannya dengan penggunaan bahasa. Untuk mengembangkan kemampuan menggunakan bahasa ini pembelajar memerlukan konteks yang bermakana, misalnya berbicara dengan guru dan kelompok, bermain peran, bercerita, membawa sesuatu dari rumah dan menceritakannya di kelas. 7. Aproksimasi Aproksimasi sangat penting dalam belajar berbicara. Orang tua biasanya menikmati dan senang mendengarkan ucapan-ucapan seorang anak yang berbicara dengan tata bahasa dan ucapan yang kurang tepat. Orang tua tahu bahwa itu adalah suatu kekeliruan yang merupakan pertanda bahwa ia sedang dalam proses belajar atau pertanda bahwa anak sedang bereksperimen untuk menggunakan bahasa yang jauh lebih kompleks. Konsep belajar bahasa seperti itulah yang diterapkan di kelas-kelas whole language. Para guru yakin bahwa kekeliruan merupakan hal yang wajar dalam proses belajar bahasa. Kekeliruan yang dibuat oleh pembelajar merupakan pertanda bahwa pembelajar sedang dalam proses belajar, 8. Respon dan umpan balik Respon dan umpan balik yang diberikan oleh guru memiliki peranan penting dalam proses aproksimasi. Hal ini karena pembelajar yang mencoba menggunakan bahasa dengan menggunakan cara-cara mereka sendiri untuk menemukan makna tidak akan takut berbuat salah. Dalam pelaksanaannya, pembelajaran holistik (whole language) mempunyai ciri-ciri tertentu yang antara lain: 1. murid lebih banyak menggauli sastra 2. murid merasa semakin senang dalam belajar dan menunjukkan tingkat keterlibatan yang semakin tinggi 3. guru berhubungan dengan murid sebagai pembaca dan penulis
22. Contextual Teaching and Learning Sekilas tentang Metode Kontekstual CTL (Contextual Teaching and Learning) cms-formulasi Penerapan pembelajaran kontekstual (Contextual Teaching and Learning) di Amerika Serikat bermula dari pandangam ahli pendidikan klasik John Dewey yang pada tahun 1916 mengajukan teori kurikulum dan metodologi pengajaran yang berhubungan dengan pengalaman dan minat siswa. 1. Siswa belajar dengan baik apabila mereka secara aktif dapat mengkonstruksi sendiri. 2. Siswa harus bebas agar dapat berkembang wajar. 3. Penumbuhan minat melalui pengalaman langsung untuk merangsang belajar. 4. Guru sebagai pembimbing dan peneliti. 5. Harus ada kerja sama antara sekolah dan masyarakat. 6. Sekolah progresif harus merupakan laboratorium untuk melakukan eksperimen. Beberapa proposisi yang dapat dikemukakan sebagai implikasi dari teori kontruktivistik dalam praktek pembeljaran di sekolah-sekolah kita sekarang adalah sebagai berikut: 1. Belajar adalah proses pemaknaan informasi baru 2. Kebebasan merupakan unsur esensial dalam lingkungan belajar. 3. Strategi belajar yang digunakan menentukan proses dan hasil belajar. 4. Belajar pada hakikatnya memiliki aspeksosial dan budaya. 5. Kerja kelompok dianggap sangat berharga. 23. PBL (PROBLEM BASED LEARNING) Problem Based Learning adalah proses pembelajaran yang titik awal pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah dalam kehidupan nyata dan lalu dari masalah ini siswa dirangsang untuk mempelajari masalah ini berdasarkan pengetahuan dan pengalaman yang telah mereka punyai sebelumnya (prior knowledge) sehingga dari prior knowledge ini akan terbentuk pengetahuan dan pengalaman baru. Diskusi dengan menggunakan kelompok kecil merupakan poin utama dalam penerapan PBL. Fitur PBL : - Guru berperan sebagai fasilitator - Kerja kelompok - Learning by doing - Soal terbuka (open ended) - Tujuan tidak ditetapkan Karakteristik kelompok : - Dibagi secara acak - Terdiri dari 5-8 orang - Heterogen Fase PBL : Fase 1 : apa yang diketahui ? Fase 2 : Apa yang tidak diketahui ? Fase 3 : Apa yang harus dilakukan ?
1. asesmen kerja, asesmen autentik dan portofolio. Penilaian proses bertujuan agar guru dapat melihat bagaimana siswa merencanakan pemecahan masalah, melihat bagaimana siswa menunjukkan pengetahuan dan ketrampilannya Berdasarkan pemikiran tersebut maka pembelajaran Pekerjaan Dasar Konstruksi Bangunan perlu diawali dengan mengangkat permasalahan yang sesuai dengan lingkungannya (permasalahan kontekstual). Menurut Arends (dalam Abbas, 2000:13), pertanyaan dan masalah yang diajukan haruslah memenuhi kriteria sebagai berikut. a. Autentik, yaitu masalah harus lebih berakar pada kehidupan dunia nyata siswa dari pada berakar pada prinsipprinsip disiplin ilmu tertentu. b. Jelas, yaitu masalah dirumuskan dengan jelas, dalam arti tidak menimbulkan masalah baru bagi siswa yang pada akhirnya menimbulkan masalah baru bagi siswa yang pada akhirnya menyulitkan penyelesaian siswa. c. Mudah dipahami, yaitu masalah yang diberikan hendaknya mudah dipahami siswa. Selain itu masalah disusun dan dibuat sesuai dengan tingkat perkembangan siswa. 8 d. Luas dan sesuai dengan tujuan pembelajaran, yaitu masalah yang disusun dan dirumuskan hendaknya bersifat luas, artinya masalah tersebut mencakup seluruh materi pelajaran yang akan diajarkan sesuai dengan waktu, ruang dan sumber yang tersedia. Selain itu, masalah yang telah disusun tersebut harus didasarkan pada tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditetapkan. e. Bermanfaat, yaitu masalah yang telah disusun dan dirumuskan haruslah bermanfaat, baik siswa sebagai pemecah masalah maupun guru sebagai pembuat masalah. Masalah yang bermanfaat adalah masalah yang dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berfikir memecahkan masalah siswa, serta membangkitkan motivasi belajar siswa. Menurut Lepinski (2005) tahap-tahap pemecahan masalah sebagai berikut ini, yaitu: 1) penyampaian ide (ideas), 2) penyajian fakta yang diketahui (known facts), 3) mempelajari masalah (learning issues), 4) menyusun rencana tindakan, (action plan) dan 5) evaluasi (evaluation).
Tahap 1: Penyampaian Ide (Ideas) Pada tahap ini dilakukan secara curah pendapat (brainstorming). Pebelajar merekam semua daftar masalah (gagasan,ide) yang akan dipecahkan. Mereka kemudian diajak untuk melakukan penelaahan terhadap ide-ide yang dikemukakan atau mengkaji pentingnya relevansi ide berkenaan dengan masalah yang akan dipecahkan (masalah actual, atau masalah yang relevan dengan 9 kurikulum), dan menentukan validitas masalah untuk melakukan proses kerja melalui masalah. Tahap 2: Penyajian Fakta yang Diketahui (Known Facts) Pada tahap ini, mereka diajak mendata sejumlah fakta pendukung sesuai dengan masalah yang telah diajukan. Tahap ini membantu mengklarifikasi kesulitan yang diangkat dalam masalah. Tahap ini mungkin juga mencakup pengetahuan yang telah dimiliki oleh mereka berkenaan dengan isu-isu khusus, misalnya pelanggaran kode etik, teknik pemecahan konflik, dan sebagainya. Tahap 3: Mempelajari Masalah ( Learning Issues) Pebelajar diajak menjawab pertanyaan tentang, “Apa yang perlu kita ketahui untuk memecahkan masalah yang kita hadapi?” Setelah melakukan diskusi dan konsultasi, mereka melakukan penelaahan atau penelitian dan mengumpulkan informasi. Pebelajar melihat kembali ide-ide awal untuk menentukan mana yang masih dapat dipakai. Seringkali, pada saat para pebelajar menyampaikan masalah-masalah, mereka menemukan cara-cara baru untuk memecahkan masalah. Dengan demikian, hal ini dapat menjadi sebuah proses atau tindakan untuk mengeliminasi ide-ide yang tidak dapat dipecahkan atau sebaliknya ide-ide yang dapat dipakai untuk memecahkan masalah. Tahap 4: Menyusun Rencana Tindakan (Action Plan) Pada tahap ini, pebelajar diajak mengembangkan sebuah rencana tindakan yang didasarkan atas hasil temuan mereka. Rencana tindakan ini berupa sesuatu (rencana) apa yang mereka akan lakukan atau berupa suatu rekomendasi saransaran untuk memecahkan masalah. Tahap 5: Evaluasi Tahap evaluasi ini terdiri atas tiga hal: 1) bagaimana pebelajar dan evaluator menilai produk (hasil akhir) proses, 2) bagai-mana mereka menerapkan tahapan PBM untuk bekerja melalui masalah, dan 3) bagaimana pebelajar akan menyampaikan pengetahuan hasil pemecahakan masalah atau sebagai bentuk pertanggung jawaban mereka. 24. Project Based Learning Project-based learning is considered an alternative to paper-based, rote memorization, teacher-led classrooms. Proponents of project-based learning cite numerous benefits to the implementation of these strategies in the classroom including a greater depth of understanding of concepts, broader knowledge base, improved communication and interpersonal/social skills, enhanced leadership skills, increased creativity, and improved writing skills. Project-based learning has been associated with the "situated learning" perspective of James G. Greeno (2006) and on the constructivist theories of Jean Piaget. A more precise description of the processes of PBL given by Blumenfeld et al. says that, "Project-based learning is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engaging students in investigation. Within this framework, students pursue solutions to nontrivial problems by asking and refining questions, debating ideas, making predictions, designing plans and/or experiments, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, communicating their ideas and findings to others, asking new questions, and creating artifacts." ( Blumenfeld, et al., 1991) The basis of PBL lies in the authenticity or real-life application of the research. Students working as a team are given a "driving question" to respond to or answer, then directed to create an artifact (or artifacts) to present their gained knowledge. Artifacts may include a variety of media such as writings, art, drawings, three-dimensional representations, videos, photography, or technology-based presentations. Project-based learning is not without its opponents, however; in Peer Evaluation in Blended Team ProjectBased Learning: What Do Students Find Important? Hye-Jung & Cheolil (2012) describe social loafing as a negative aspect of collaborative learning. Social loafing may include insufficient performances by some team members as well as a lowering of expected standards of performance by the group as a whole to maintain congeniality amongst members. These authors said that because teachers tend to grade the finished product only, the social dynamics of the assignment may escape the teacher's notice.
25.Collaborative Learning Collaborative is: - to work jointly with others or together especially in an intellectual endeavor - to cooperate with or willingly assist an enemy of one's country and especially an occupying force - to cooperate with an agency or instrumentality with which one is not immediately connected Collaboration is working with each other to do a task. It is a recursive. process where two or more people or organizations work together to realize shared goals, (this is more than the intersection of common goals seen in co-operative ventures, but a deep, collective, determination to reach an identical objective. for example, an endeavor that is creative in nature by sharing knowledge, learning and building Since the Second World War the term "Collaboration" acquired a very negative meaning as referring to persons and groups which help a foreign occupier of their country—due to actual use by people in European countries who worked with and for the Nazi German occupiers. Linguistically, "collaboration" implies more or less equal partners who work together—which is obviously not the case when one party is an army of occupation and the other are people of the occupied country living under the power of this army. In order to make a distinction, the more specific term Collaborationism is often used for this phenomenon of collaboration with an occupying army. However, there is no water-tight distinction; "Collaboration" and "Collaborator", as well as "Collaborationism" and "Collaborationist", are often used in this pejorative sense—and even more so, the equivalent terms in French and other languages spoken in countries which experienced direct Nazi occupation.
26. Blended Learning and Role Play A blended learning approach combines face to face classroom methods with computer-mediated activities to form an integrated instructional approach. In the past, digital materials have served in a supplementary role, helping to support face to face instruction. For example, a blended approach to a traditional, face to face course might mean that the class meets once per week instead of the usual three-session format. Learning activities that otherwise would have taken place during classroom time can be moved online. In addition to flexibility and convenience for students, according to research shared at the ALN Conference Workshop on Blended Learning & Higher Education November 17, 2005, there is early evidence that a blended instructional approach can result in learning outcome gains and increased enrollment retention. How to Blend? There are no rules in place to prescribe what the ideal blend might be (Bonk reference). The term “blended” encompasses a broad continuum, and can include any integration of face to face and online instructional content. The blend of face to face and online materials will vary depending on the content, the needs of the students, and the preferences of the instructor. See the section of this site titled Instructional Strategies for information on selecting an ideal blend and designing a blended course. Considerations Creating high-quality blended instruction can present considerable challenges. Foremost is the need for resources to create the online materials to be used in the courses. Materials development is a time and labor intensive process, just as it is in any instructional medium.
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