ADIUVANTIBUS
I. KERTÉSZ, T. KIRÁLY, I. KOVÁCS, К. KULCSÁR, E. LONTAI, F. M Á D L , V. PESCHKA
T O M U S XXXII
REDIGIT
FASCICULI
GY. EÖRSI
12
-1828-
A K A D É M I A I KIADÓ, BUDAPEST 1990
ACTA JURIDICA A QUARTERLY O F THE HUNGARIAN ACADEMY O F SCIENCES
Acta Juridica publishes papers on j u r i s p r u d e n c e by H u n g a r i a n a u t h o r s in English, French, G e r m a n and Russian. Ada
Juridica is published in yearly v o l u m e s of four issues by AKADÉMIAI KIADÓ Publishing H o u s e of the Hungarian A c a d e m y of Sciences H-1117 Budapest, Prielle K . u. 19-35.
M a n u s c r i p t s and editorial correspondence should be addressed to Ada Juridica H - 1 2 5 0 Budapest, P. O. Box 25 Subscription
information
O r d e r s should be addressed to K U L T U R A Foreign T r a d i n g C o m p a n y H-1389 Budapest. P. O. Box 149 o r t o its representatives a b r o a d
Ada
Juridica publie des t r a v a u x dans le d o m a i n e de la jurisprudence en français, anglais, allemand et russe.
Acta Juridica est public sous forme de q u a t r e fascicules qui f o r m e n t un volume p a r an et est édité par AKADÉMIAI KIADÓ Maison d'édition d e l'Académie des Sciences de Hongrie H-1117 B u d a p e s t , Prielle K . u. 19-35. A d r e s s e de la Rédaction. Ada Juridica H-1250 Budapest, P. O. Box 25 Abonnement s'adresser à l'Entreprise d u Commerce E x t é r i e u r K U L T U R A H-1389 Budapest P. O. Box 149 ou c h e z les représentants à l'étranger
I WD EX
PUSZTAI, L.: Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten/ПУСТАИ, JI.s Заключение эксперта и свободная оценка доказательств/....
3
MATÉ, G.: Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg /1944-1949/ /МАТЭ, Г.: Уполномочие и управление государством путем постановлений/
RÁCZ, L.: State structure and government
27
in
18-th century feudal absolutism /РАД, Л.: Государственная структура и форма правления в условиях феодального абсолютизма/
45
FERENCZY, Е.: Le contrôle financier-économique /ФЕРЕНЦИ, Э.: контроль/
Финансово-хозяйственный
KECSKÉS, L.: State immunity and
61
liability
for damages /КЕЧКЕШ, Л.: Государственный и ответственность за вред/
иммунитет 31
INFORMATIONES DEZS3, M.s The new electoral system of the Hungarian Republic /ДЕЖЕ, Ь.: Новая избирательная система Венгерской Республики/
129
RECENSIONES Die Menschenrechte in Ungarn.
Jahrestag
der Allgemeinen Erklärung der Menschenrechte.
/Ed.Katonáné-
Soltész, M./ /Horváth, Р./ /Права человека в В е н г р и и . В честь 40-й годовщины Всеобщей Декларации прав человека, под. ред. Катона-Шолтес, М./ /Хорват, П./
133
VARIA MAVI, V . : Social and economic rights of refugees /МАВИ, В.: Социальные и экономические права беженцев/
VARGA, Cs» « Judicial reproduction of
137
the
law in an autopoietical system /ВАРГА, Ч.: Судейская репродукция права в автопоетической системе/
INTERNATIONALE Book r e v i e w s -
Рецензии
153
ВIBLIOGRAP HIA VEREDY, K.: Hungarian
legal
bibliography
193Э l S t part /ВЕРЕДИ, К.: Венгерская дическая библиография, часть 1/
PRINTED IN HUNGARY Akadémiai Kiadó és Nyomda Vállalat, Budapest
юри171
Acta
Juridica
Academiae
FREIE B E W E I S W Ü R D I G U N G
UND
Scientiarum Hungaricae, 3 2 ( 1 - 2 ) pp. 3 - 2 6 . ( 1 9 9 0 )
DAS
L. P U S Z T A I Ref e r a t s l e i t e r S t a a t l i c h e s I n s t i t u t für K r i m i n o l o g i e
GUTACHTEN
und
Kriminalistik
Budapest
D i e m o d e r n e R e c h t s p f l e g e ist o h n e M i t w i r k u n g von S a c h v e r s t ä n d i g e n u n v o r s t e l l b a r . T a t e r f a s s u n g e n b e w e i s e n , d a s s auch in U n g a r n b e i S t r a f s a c h e n in i m m e r z u n e h m e n d e r e n A n z a h l jene H i l fe b e a n s p r u c h t w i r d , die die V e r t r e t e r der v e r s c h i e d e n e n W i s s e n s c h a f t e n und der e i n z e l n e n F a c h z w e i g e bei d e r F e s t s t e l l u n g d e s T a t b e s t a n d e s o d e r bei der B e w e i s f ü h r u n g , m i t t e l s A n w e n d u n g i h r e r s p e z i e l l e n Fachkentnisse., d e n v e r f a h r e n d e n B e h ö r d e n zu r e i c h e n fähig sind. D i e s t e i g e n d e I n a n s p r u c h n a h m e ist durch d i e m e h r f a c h e W i r k u n g der w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h - t e c h n i s c h e n R e v o l u t i o n auf die f a c h m ä n n i s c h e E x p e r t e n t ä t i g k e i t zu e r k l ä r e n . T e i l s wird d u r c h die r a s c h e m Tempo z u n e h m e n d e n K e n n t n i s s e , die n e u e n U n t e r s u c h u n g s m e t h o d e n und die h o c h e m p f i n d l i c h e n G e r ä t e die V e r f e r t i g u n g v o n immer z u v e r s i c h t l i c h e r e G u t a c h t e n e r m ö g l i c h t . A n d e r e n t e i l s e r s c h e i n e n , i n f o l g e der S p e z i a l i s a t i o n , V e r t r e t e r v e r s c h i e d e n e r F a c h g e b i e t e u n t e r d e n G e r i c h t s e x p e r t e n , die in F r a g e n , d i e früher ü b e r h a u p t n i c h t a u f t a u c h e n k o n n t e n , den v o r g e h e n d e n B e h ö r d e n zur V e r f ü g u n g s t e h e n . Die e x p l o s i o n a r t i g e E r w e i t e r u n g des K e n n t n i s m a t e r i a l s b e d e u t e t wieder a u f der S e i t e der R e c h t a n t w e n d u n g s o r g a n e , d a s s sie immer h ä u f i g e r auf d i e M i t w i r k u n g der E x p e r t e n a n g e w i e s e n sind. E s g i b t i m m e r w e n i g e r A n g e l e g e n h e i t e n , b e i d e n e n a u c h d i e a l l g e m e i n e B i l d u n g zur F e s t s t e l l u n g des w a h r h e i t s g e t r e u e n T a t b e s t a n d e s h i n r e i c h e n d ist.
Die Aufwertung weise d e s
steigende
nacheinander
Interesse
die d i e
ziehungsweise behandelnden
der R o l l e d e s E x p e r t e n
aus dem
erweckte
der Fachliteratur.
Fragen der Beweisführung Gesichtspunkte
Abhandlungen.
Neben
Es
umfassend,
der e i n z e l n e n
zahlreichen
notwendigerschienen
in
be-
Sachgebiete
beruhigender
"'"Die R e i h e der sich mit dem E x p e r t e n b e w e i s b e f a s s e n d e n n e u e s t e n B e a r b e i t u n g e n w u r d e v o n S Z É K E L Y , 3. e r ö f f n e t S z a k é r t ő k az i g a z s á g s z o l g á l t a t á s b a n ( E x p e r t e n in der R e c h t s p f l e g e ) K ö z -
Acta
Juridica
Academiae
S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 32, 1 9 9 0 . Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
L. Pusztai
4
Art gelösten t h e o r e t i s c h e n und praktischen P r o b l e m e n gibt
es
aber noch zu b e a n t w o r t e n d e Fragen. Unter diese gehört eine der viel umstrittenen F r a g e n des m o d e r n e n u)ie kommt
das Prinzip
Strafverfahrensrechts:
der freien B e w e i s w ü r d i g u n g
die F a c h b e g u t a c h t u n g e n
zur Geltung. Das Problem
in Bezug ergibt
daraus, d a s s Experten
i n Anspruch
genommen werden müssen,
zur Feststellung
Beurteilung
der zu b e w e i s e n d e n
Kenntnisse
oder
notwendig
s i n d , über die der Richter
wenn zur Feststellung sind, über stellung
oder Beurteilung
die er nicht
d e s Experten
kann durch
verfügt, und
deklariert
Ergründung
führung von der C a r o l i n a
mittelt
Fachkenntnisse
diese T a t s a c h e
der T h e o r i e
notwendig
durch
BeweisÜberblick-
im Zuge der Beweisführung
er-
D i e mit der W e r t u n g des S a c h v e r s t ä n d i g e n g u t a c h t e n s
zu-
werden.
1.
sammenhängenden
Grundprobleme
stammen aus dem W i d e r s p r u c h
wichtiger Thesen der m o d e r n e n S t r a f v e r f a h r e n s r e c h t e . Die ist die W a h r h e i t s f e s t s t e l l u n g s p f l i c h t das Prinzip In dem dass er den
der freien
des R i c h t e r s ,
den Richter dazu
zur G r u n d l a g e der U r t e i l u n g wahrheitsgetreu
verpflichtet,
dienenden
geschichtli-
feststellt, stellt
fachlichen К enntni s se, nicht immer d a s Recht
es ihn vor
lung des T a t b e s t a n d e s
mitwirkung
- i n gewissen Fällen schreibt
es ihm
ge-
sogar
Feststel-
bedient, das heisst, er soll einen Expereinbeziehen. D i e Gestattung
gründet also
auf der zwangmässigen
standes, d a s s der R i c h t e r Kenntnisse
seine
zu lösen v e r m a g . Deshalb
d a s s er sich d e r Fachkenntnis anderer bei der
ten in das Verfahren
erste
die andere
eine A u f g a b e , die er, gestützt auf eigenes W i s s e n , auf
währt ihm
zwei
Beweiswürdigung.
das Verfahrensrecht
chen Tatbestand
vor -
Be-
Antwort
der
bis zum heutigen Tag, durch
ung der R o l l e der E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e
verfügt.
würdigen,
w u r d e . Die r i c h t i g e
der Entwicklung
wenn
Tatsachen
nicht
Wie kann nachher der R i c h t e r die F a c h b e g u t a c h t u n g
auf
sich
der Gegenwart
nicht
verfügen k a n n , die die Erfüllung
der
Experten-
Einsicht des U m über all jene
seiner
gesell-
gazdasági é s Bogi K ö n y v k i a d ó , Budapest 1967.. D i e letzte umfassende Monografie v e r f a s s t e ERDEI, A. Tány és jag a szakvéleményben (Tatfrage und Rechtfrage im G u t a c h t e n / közgazdasági és Bogi K ö n y v k i a d ó , Budapest, 1987 deren a u s f ü h r l i c h e Literaturverzeichnis fast die volle in ungarischer S p r a c h e veröffentlichte Literatur u m f a s s t
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten schaftlichen F u n k t i o n von ihm
5
fordert.
Das W e s e n des P r i n z i p s der freien Beweiswürdigung aber, dass im Verfahren
- die W o r t e unseres in K r a f t
den S t r a f v e r f a h r e n s g e s e t z e s
anwendend
-
"haben die
tel keine im V o r h i n e i n bestimmte B e w e i s k r a f t " . D i e Behörde
stellt entsprechend
ihrer
ist stehen-
Beweismitvorgehende
i n n e r e n Überzeugung die Be-
weiskraft der durch die einzelnen B e w e i s m i t t e l Tatsachen fest. Um diesem E r f o r d e r n i s
vermittelten
nachkommen
zu
können,
muss sie dazu jedes einzelne B e w e i s m i t t e l erwägen und zu werten wi ssen. Der W i d e r s p r u c h
ist also gegeben:
in dem der Richter
Experten bestellt, hat er es a n e r k a n n t ,
dass es zur
lung der zu beweisenden Tatsache oder Beurteilung Fachkenntnisse
bedarf,
dann das Gutachten
solcher
über die er nicht verfügt. A l s er aber
erhält, muss er es im Sinne des Gesetzes
Beweismittel werten, obwohl er durch die Tatsache lung des Experten
signaliesiert
nisse nicht verfügt,
aufgrund
er selbst fähig
festzustellen oder
zu finden, wie kann von ihm
der Frage Stellung oder fehlerhaft
gewesen
zu
beurteilen.
2.
seine Aufgabe
gelöst hat und dementsprechend
werden können, oder
Fachliteratur u n a u f l ö s b a r , dass er die fachmännische
die im
als B e w e i s in Betracht
ist nach
der R i c h t e r
sei dazu
Stellungnahme
ebenso
nunmehr
ungeeignet, beurteilt,
wie
- erklären
seiner
Fachkennt-
über das Resultat
infor-
nichts weiter ist, als das nicht
des "wissenschaftlichen
nis zu nehmen. Die Theorie
der
da doch der E x p e r t e
wurde, dass er aufgrund
löst und den Richter
Richters"
zur K e n n t -
"Experte-wissenschaftlicher
steckt hinter all jenen P u b l i k a t i o n e n die Notwendigkeit
Gutach-
einigen Ansichten
dieses Standpunktes -
eben deshalb bestellt
anfechtbare U r t e i l
in
richtig
gezogen
die sonstigen Beweise. Das sei aber gar nicht nötig weiter die Vertreter
miert, dessen Rolle
Fragen
nicht.
Dieser W i d e r s p r u c h
nis das Problem
wä-
erwartet w e r d e n , dass er
nimmt, ob der E x p e r t e
ten niedergelegten T a t s a c h e n
als
Bestel-
h a t t e , dass er über die Kennt-
deren
re, die zu beweisende Tatsache
der
Wenn er aber nicht fähig ist, sich in den aufgetauchten zurecht
den
Feststel-
der Wertung
des
akzeptieren, dessen Möglichkeit
Richter"
der Fachliteratur,
die
Sachverständigengutachtens
aus dem Gesichtspunkt
der
Ge-
L. Pusztai
6 samtheit
des B e m e i s m a t e r i a l s b e h a u p t e n ,
jedoch
sen e r a c h t e n , dass d i e Behörde d i e Wertung f a c h l i c h e n Gesichtspunkten d u r c h f ü h r e n Ein
grösserer T e i l der F a c h l e u t e
scheinbaren Widerspruch stellt,
darin,
ausgeschlosverstandenen
kann. erblickt
aber bloss
dass die Behörde Experten
weil sie zur Beurteilung
des Fachproblems
hinreichende Fachkenntnis verfügt, des E x p e r t e n doch überprüft. D i e
des
Standpunktes
T e i l der inneren
ist und
fähig das
seien auch
Rechtspflege
I.
der
verfahrensgesetzes
vorhinein bestimmte
es nichts anderes, als die
dessen, dass das S t r a f v e r f a h r e n
der f o r m a l e n Beweise
befolgt. D a s s
Bemei se zum Grundprinzip
auf Eindrücke
gründenden
die die A n w e n d u n g
Überzeugung
gesetzliche
murde,
heisst:
der
bedeutet
gesetzlichen "Die
freie
nicht gleich mit der
begründungsunnötigen, 2 inneren Uberzeugung" ,
des S y s t e m s der gesetzlichen
regeln verbietende Bestimmung rationale
heisst:
Bemeis-
nicht die T h e o r i e
d e s Systems der
B e m e i s r e g e l n . Wie es in der F a c h l i t e r a t u r B e m e i s f ü h r u n g . . . ist
Straf-
aber die freie Ermägung
des S t r a f v e r f a h r e n s
mehr, a l s einfach die Verwerfung
"sondern
der
gesondert, in sich untersuchen, шо es
dann bedeutet
eventuell
Sachverständigengut-
die den Ansprüchen
d e s § 61 Abs. / з / unseres
"die B e w e i s m i t t e l h a b e n keinen im kraft",
Uberzeugung
freien Bemei smürdiqunq
Wenn mir den Wortlaut
Festhaltung
er-
entspricht.
D a s Prinzip 3.
zu b e u r t e i l e n ,
heimi-
Sachverständigen-
g u t a c h t e n s ein unausschaltbarer die Behörden
be-
keine
d i e s e s in der
geltenden
einstimmig, d a s s die B e u r t e i l u n g
achten i n einer W e i s e
über
einen
nachher aber die T ä t i g k e i t
Vertreter
schen Literatur als vorherrschend klären
für
aus eng
g e m ä h r t Möglichkeit
Bemeis-
zu einer
h e r a u s f o r m e n d e n Beurteilung"'. Wie es
die aus
2 V Â M B É R Y , R.: A bűnvádi p e r r e n d t a r t á s tankönyve buch des Strafprozes sre'chts) Grill, К . Budapest , 1916. p. 131.
(Lehr-
' n A G Y , L . : A b ü n t e t ő eljárás magyarázata (Darlegung des ungarischen S t r a f v e r f a h r e n s / K ö z g a z d a s á g i és Bogi K ö n y v k i a d ó , Budaoest, 1982. p. 193.
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten den beiden Z i t a t e n hervergeht, weiswürdigung
in sich nicht
kann das Prinzip der
hens nachgehen, die Ä n d e r u n g e n seines I n h a l t s
seiner verschiedenen
im S t r a f v e r f a h r e n
und deren Änderungen, werden entwicklung
seines
auf jene K n o t e n p u n k t e
richtig
geltenden A n s c h a u u n g e n
betreffend
war aber
Strafverfahrensrecht
u n s aufgedrungen
keine
k a n n beobachtet
Sonderwege
über-
Strafverfahrensrecht,
(Siebenbürgen und F i u m e ) bis
gewesen
4.
sich im Laufe d e r Rechtsgeschichte
ist. herausgebilde-
werden in den Lehrbüchern in drei Gruppen
t e i l t . Diese sind: das g e s e t z l i c h e
(oder
formelle),
das
(oder
f o r m e l l e n ) Beweissystem
der p r o z e s s u a l e n Beweise im Gesetz im
wird Voraus
b e s t i m m t . Der Richter war n i c h t dazu befugt, die B e w e i s e zu erwägen;
seine A u f g a b e bestand
vorgelegten Tatsachen
Beweis
a n z u w e n d e n und d a r a u s die e b e n f a l l s
setzlich vorgeschriebenen
K o n s e q u e n z e n zu
nach
d a r i n , das
im Gesetz im Vorhinein b e s t i m m t e Mass bei den ihm a l s
ge-
ziehen.
Die gesetzliche B e w e i s t h e o r i e hatte drei klar bare Formen:
ge-
freie
System.4
Im gesetzlichen
eigenem E r m e s s e n
bei
dieses
freiwillig
geltend
die Beweiskraft
europäischen
ist die P r a x i s C r i m i n a l i s vom
III, oder das ö s t e r r i c h i s c h e
und das gemischte
für
dafür
kontinentalen
werden, d a s s
wurde, f a l l s wir ihn nicht
ten B e w e i s s y s t e m e
skiz-
nicht immer freiwillig. G e r a d e
d a s in einzelnen Teilen U n g a r n s
5.
Rechts-
geführt haben. Der Grund
das Schicksal des
nehmen wollten. Beispiel d a f ü r
Die
-
hinweisen, die zu den h e u t e
R e c h t s , als ein Teil d e s s e l b e n . Die Befolgung der
190Q
d a s Wesen
- der Beweissysteme
ist, dass die ungarische R e c h t s e n t w i c k l u n g b e g a n g e n hat, sondern teilte
Ferdinand
Auslegungen
wir nicht die ungarische
zenhaft
dem
In-
Entste-
i n s Auge fassen, sondern wir werden ä u s s e r s t
Rechtsentwicklung
Be-
beachten.
Zur D e m o n s t r a t i o n der V o r s t e l l u n g e n der Beweisführung
freien
erklärt werden; der w i r k l i c h e
halt wird nur d a n n klar, wenn wir die U m s t ä n d e
und
7
separier-
а / die zur Z e i t des frühen Feudalismus
in ganz
4 Cf.. z . B . FINKEY, F.: A magyar büntető eljárás tankönyve (Lehrbuch des ungarischen S t r a f v e r f a h r e n s ) . Politzer K i a d ö , B u d a p e s t , 1908. p. 241.
L. Pusztai
8 Europa verbreitete
rein formelle,
tive B e w e i s t h e o r i e
und
nende negative ad а/
äusserst nicht
с/ die zeitmässig
Über
die älteste Form des S y s t e m s der kein e i n z i g e s Element
der Beweisführung
strengen
auf die E r k e n n u n g
der Wahrheit
d a z u . Planck
ihre Behauptung
beeinflussen
be-
der vom
Gesetz zu diesem
... Der
Gegenstand
liegenden
Durch
V o r a u s bestimmt,
zu Grunde
das derselbe, n a c h
verurteilen,
von der Schuldigkeit
erhätte ihn nicht
dem heutigen Recht nicht
m u t e t e n Tatsache
völlig
rechtliche K o n s e q u e n z
zu
und
ist
unanfechtder
die daraus
verTat-
folgende
ziehen. wurde das erste mal
in s e i n e r Gänze in dem durch
K a i s e r Karl V. h e r a u s g e g e b e n e n Criminalis Carolina
Beweise
des B e w e i s e n s
nichts anderes tun, als die vermutete
Die positive B e w e i s t h e o r i e
ein vollwertiges
gewesen,
kann der R i c h t e r bei der Wahrnehmung auch
davon,
Indizien
überzeugt
fremd: bei den
der
nicht.
können, bis die formellen
sache kraft des g e s e t z e s f e s t z u s t e l l e n
Schwarzberg
war, oder
der triftigen
w o r d e n waren. Diese Struktur
baren Vermutungen
gesetz-
völlig unabhängig
des Angeklagten
verurteilen
wurde im Gesetz im
standen, musste
schuldig
umgekehrt, d e r Richter wäre anhand
Fassung,
soll: falls die
zur Verfügung
seinem E r m e s s e n ,
Zweck
Bewei-
Tatsachen."''
w a s als W a h r h e i t gelten
lich v o r g e s c h r i e b e n e n Beweise
des
juristischen
die positive B e w e i s t h e o r i e
R i c h t e r den B e s c h u l d i g t e n
sich
gegen
in ihrer
auch
gestatteten
D u e l l ) eigneten
Form beseitigt
die d e r s e l b e n
erbracht
an
nämlich
den G e g n e r i s c h e n W i d e r s p r u c h
nicht
nicht
Der
war
bemerkt r i c h t i g : "Das Beweisen
sens ist die P a r t e i b e h a u p t u n g
umsonst
würde.
durch Erfüllung
vorgeschriebenen
Und
gesetzlichen
gerichtet, die
(Eid, G o t t e s g e r i c h t ,
steht darin, d a s s die Partei
ad b/
erschei-
erhalten, d a s das heu-
Formen gebundene Beweisführung
M i t t e l des B e w e i s e s auch gar nicht
als letzte
posi-
Beweistheorie.
Beweisregeln b l i e b tige Gesicht
b/ die darauf folgende
den
Strafkodex,
abgefasst. Die C a r o l i n a
Beweismittel
seitens
römischdeutschen
in der
Constitutio
betrachtete
für
- auf w e l c h e s ein U r t e i l
ge-
PLAMCK, D . W . : Das deutsche Gerichtsverfahren im Mittelalter. C.A. S c h w e t s c h k e und Sohn. Braunschweig,1879. Band II pp. 2 - 3 .
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten gründet
werden kann -
9
nur das Geständnis des B e s c h u l d i g t e n
die durch zwei oder drei g l a u b w ü r d i g e n , guten Z e u g e n Carolina
den in der F a c h l i t e r a t u r
"klassisch" tigte
bezeichneten Begriff
seither mit der
(wie
und
die
Bezeichnung
der Zeugen f o r m u l i e r t ) g e t ä -
Beweisunq. Zwar
wurde die C a r o l i n a , mit
ihren strengen
vorher
schon J a h r h u n d e r t e
überholt,
lebt das G e s t ä n d n i s und die überzeugende Kraft
übereinstimmenden Z e u g e n a u s s a g e Zeugen heute noch hartnäckig
durch die
Beweisgebun-
denheiten
von zwei
Rechtsentwicklung
im Bewusstsein der
Gut erkennbar ist d a s in der zu Sprichwort
Formel
dass die
der K o n z e p t i o n s p r o z e s s e gerechtfertigt
Gesellschaft.
gewordenen
"ein Z e u g e ist kein Zeuge", oder die Tatsache, enden U n g e r e c h t i g k e i t e n
einer
vertrauenswürdigen
schrei-
durch das
werden
"Ge-
ständnis"
der B e s c h u l d i g t e n
wäre aber
scheinheilig, wenn wir behaupten w o l l t e n dass die
sollte.
R e c h t s p f l e g e unserer Tage von d i e s e n , im ö f f e n t l i c h e n sein eingebürgerten wollig unabhängig
Prinzipien
der gesetzlichen
w ä r e . Aus dem
Gesichtspunkt
Es
Bewusst-
Beweistheorie
der
Beweisung
wird auch heute noch das G e s t ä n d n i s als führend
betrachtet
auch die Zeugenaussage
übrigen
ist im Verhältnis zu den
m i t t e l n in einer p r ä f e r i e r t e n D i e Carolina b e u r t e i l t e , hinaus,
Lage. über die v o l l w ä r t i g e n
Beweise
sämtliche A n g a b e n oder Tatsachen, die auf die
oder die Person des T ä t e r s h i n w i e s , im Bereich Die N o r m e n der p r o z e s s u a l e n Anwendung Kodifizierung
und
Beweis-
jener L e b e n s e r f a h r u n g e n ,
der
VerÜbung
Indizien.
der I n d i z i e n kamen empirischer
durch
Feststel-
lungen zustande, die hunderte von Richtern in tausenden
von
Prozessen
gelten-
im Z u s a m m e n h a n g mit den einzelnen
den Beweismitteln
im Laufe der Zeit erwarben. Die
spielten teils bei der E i n l e i t u n g der "kriminellen
für möglich
Vernehmung",
Indizien
des V e r f a h r e n s , teils
der Verordnung
bei
der Folter,
eine
Rolle. Der grosse F e h l e r des Beweissystems der Möglichkeit der E r z w i n g u n g
Carolina
war
die
des Geständnisses. Das ist der
er-
6 Cf. SZABÖNÉ NAGY, T.: A büntető i g a z s á g s z o l g á l t a t á s hatékonysága (Die W i r k s a m k e i t der Strafrechtspflege). Közgazdasági és Jogi K ö n y v k i a d ó , Budapest, 1985. pp. 128 et seq.
L. Pusztai
10 ste Grund
für die allgemeinbekannte
Tatsache,
d a s s Kodexe
mit
n i c h t zu dem
ge-
7
positiv
gebundenen B e w e i s s y s t e m e n
worden s i n d , wofür sie
praktisch
gemeint w a r e n ,
nämlich
zu
verhindernden
Faktoren von e i g e n m ä c h t i g e n R i c h t e r s p r ü c h e n , J e d o c h mit den völlig irrationalen B e w e i s e n g r ü n d e n d e n V e r f a h r e n Mittelalters verglichen, weistheorie Beweisung der
doch ein F o r t s c h r i t t ,
wahrheitsforschenden Fehler war
ad с/
richtete sich
doch hier die
das Urteil ist das Ergebnis
strenge S c h r a n k e n gezwungenen Q T ä t i g k e i t des Richters. T r o t z all seine der erste Schritt zur
Herausformung
Beweisungstheorie. Die n e g a t i v e
doch unter Wirkung der
Beweistheorie
kam
- transmissiv
I d e e n der A u f k l ä r u n g -
auf
Gebiet z u s t a n d e , wo der Ausfall der b ü r g e r l i c h e n
Gebiet d e s R e c h t s b l o s s eine l a n g s a m e
ermöglichte.
In D e u t s c h l a n d
positive B e w e i s t h e o r i e kamen von der
vor
deutschem
Evolution
ging z u e r s t die A b s c h w ä c h u n g sich. D u r c h A b s c h a f f u n g
der
der Tortur
zweiten H ä l f t e des X V I I I . J a h r h u n d e r t s die Rich-
ter in eine Situation,
d i e die V e r r i c h t u n g
tisch beinahe unmöglich die darauf
ihrer
machte. Die Carolina
Aufgaben
aufgrund
der klassischen Zeugen
notwendigerweise
nichtgeständigen Beschuldigten
von Indizien, w a s in
lichkeit m e h r , ihn der F o l t e r zwecks Erzwingung
fühlbare L ü c k e , worüber
gestatteten Ermangelung
zur F r e i s p r e c h u n g
führte, gab es d o c h
nisses zu u n t e r w e r f e n . D a s verursachte
des
im S t r a f r e c h t
2 2 der C a r o l i n a , teils .dadurch hinwegkommen w o l l t e , oder die ihr praktisch
des
keine MögGeständeine wohl
t e i l s durch M i s s i n t e r p r ä t a t i o n
'Verdachtsstrafe'
prak-
( A r t . 2 2 ) bezie-
folgenden p a r t i k u l ä r e n G e s e t z e
nicht die Verurteilung
man eine
zwar,
Revolution
auch auf dem
hungsweise
Be-
zwischen
dieses S y s t e m
der modernen
frühen
war diese Form der gesetzlichen
schon auf d a s Delikt und
- durch das G e s e t z
des
auf
des A r t .
"... dass
nicht
viel
7 Bezüglich der G e r i c h t s p r a x i s in Ungarn für d i e Periode 1770-1795 s. HAJDU, L.s B ű n t e t t és b ü n t e t é s Magyarországon а XVIII. század utolsó h a r m a d á b a n (.Straftat und S t r a f e in Ungarn im letzten D r i t t e l des X V I I I . Jahrhunderts). M a g v e t ő Kiadó, Budapest, 1985. pp. 4 5 - 1 1 0 . a HEI\IKEL, H.: S t r a f v e r f a h r e n s r e c h t (Ein L e h r b u c h ) . W . Kohlhammer Verlag, S t u t t g a r t etc. Г968. p. 43.
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten nachstehende
'Entbindung
Lossprechung
mit der Möglichkeit g
Verfahrens erkannte." Indizium-Beweisung die Josefina -
jederzeitiger
Lösung brachte
vorläufige Fortsetzung
Es gab G e b i e t e , шо der Gesetzgeber
auch zur Verurteilung
die Fland des R i c h t e r s
Regeln bezüglich
Überzeugung
von der I n s t a n z ' , d.h
der W ü r d i g u n g der
gestattete
werden
z.B.
Eine
musste. wurde jene
bei der U r t e i l f ä l l u n g
lange Zeit persönliche
unnötig, ja
gar
ist, und sie hatte immer mehr die O b e r h a n d . Die
sicht dessen wurde richtunggebend, jektiven C h a r a k t e r s eine
d a s s sämtliche Normen
subjektive Wertung in
Demnach konnte also der Richter a u f g r u n d verurteilen,
falls er selber von dem Verschulden - im Gegensatz
war, er war aber
Beweistheorie
-
auch aufgrund
vollwertiger
aber bedurfte
es dem Richter zur Verurteilung
nicht mehr verpflichtet Beweise
Die Bedeutung
Andererseits - über die
Über-
eines
im
Beweisquantums.
einer
längeren
anerkannt
kann also
Überlegungen
darin
evolutionären
wird, h i n w e i s e n d
dass die R o l l e der die Ü b e r z e u g u n g Beweise auch
positiven
dazu, d . h . er k o n n t e
die Rolle der r i c h t e r l i c h e n Ü b e r z e u g u n g bei der der Wahrheit
Beweise
des A n g e k l a g -
zur
lossprechen.
der negativen Beweistheorie
verfahrensrechtlichen
werden, dass anhand
Ein-
ob-
bergen.
Schuldigkeit des Angeklagten h i n a u s -
Gesetz festgelegten
die heutigen
sich
vollwertiger
ten überzeugt
zeugung von der
von
richterlichen
hindurch g e l t e n d e Anschauung d u r c h b r o c h e n , dass die
nachteilig
die
- wie
Indizien bindend."^
Durch die negative B e w e i s t h e o r i e
richterliche Überzeugung
des
freilich m i t Unmengen
schliesslich, dass d i e Rolle der
anerkannt
11
erfasst
Entwicklung Feststellung
gleichzeitig
auslösenden
für
darauf,
prozessuellen
nicht als secundär betrachtet w e r d e n kann. D i e
tonung d i e s e s letzteren
Gedanken
ist deshalb w i c h t i g , weil
die Rolle der r i c h t e r l i c h e n Ü b e r z e u g u n g
in radikaler
Bedie
Weise
g K R A U S E , D-W.: Zum U r k u n d e n b e w e i s im Strafprozess. sichen G i l d e n v e r l a g , H a m b u r g , 1 9 6 6 . p. 13. 10
Han-
K A T 0 N A , G.: Bizonyítási e s z k ö z ö k a X V I I I - X I X . s z á z a d b a n . A K r i m i n a l i s z t i k a magyarországi előzményei {.Beweismittel in den J a h r h u n d e r t e n XVIII-XIX. Die V o r l ä u f e r der Kriminalistik in U n g a r n ) . K ö z g a z d a s á g i és Jogi K ö n y v k i a d d , Budapest,1977. p . 3 8 5 .
L. Pusztai
12 deklarierende zugunsten 6.
französische r e v o l u t i o n ä r e Gesetzgebung
der " c o n v i c t i o n intime" D i e Theorie d e r
der i n n e r e n
zu vernachlässigen
freien В e w e i s w ü r d i q u n q
denselben schien.
gründete
Überzeugung, der " c o n v i c t i o n intime":
auf
der R i c h t e r
wiegt den Wert des in der S t r a f s a c h e untersuchten Beweise seinem
in
e i g e n e n Gewissen und e n t s c h e i d e t , ob d i e s e zur F e s t -
stellung
der Schuldigkeit
Laufe d e r e n tion auch
genügen oder nicht. J e n e Debatten,
die Konstituierende V e r s a m m l u n g
in Frankreich
in Geltung
d a s vor der
im
Revolu-
gewesene, auf die T h e o r i e
der f o r m a l e n Beweise
beruhendes i n q u i s i t o r i e l l e
Strafverfahren
verwarf und
d e s s e n das auf
Überzeugung
gründende
anstelle
freie Beweissystem
fahrensform
ü b e r n a h m , und für
nämlich das Schwurgericht
Debatten
anhand des W e r k e s von F.
wählte, ist
nicht s ä m t l i c h e
tails d i e s e r Debatte. gende A r g u m e n t
l'instruc-
- ü b r i g e n s sehr lehrreiche -
der
zur r i c h t e r l i c h e n E i g e n m ä c h t i g k e i t
gesetzlichen zur
der freien
z u s t a n d e , der d a n n
tikel 342 d e s Code d ' i n s t r u c t i o n
criminelle
et Companie,
De-
grundle-
Beweistheorie
Unkontrollierbarkeit,
führen kann.
d i e Fürsprecher
jener Gesetzestext
diese
brechen,
Ich habe b l o s s hervor, d a s s das
der Verteidiger
" " A d o l p h e Wahlen
de
Diese T r a d i t i o n
war, dass die freie B e w e i s w ü r d i g u n g
siegten schliesslich
Anklage-
es Sitte,
H e l i e "Traité
tion criminelle"'""'" zu beschreiben.
und es kam
dessen Ver-
das die wesentlichen Z ü g e des e n g l i s c h e n
systems,
zitiere i c h
der inneren
In der D e b a t t e Beweiswürdigung später im
erschien.
Bruxelles,
Ar-
12
1 8 4 5.
12 "La loi ne d e m a n d e pas c o m p t e au jurés d e s moyens par lesquels i l s se sont convaincus; e l l e ne leur prescrit p o i n t de règles desquelles i l s doivent f a i r e particulièrement d é p e n d r e la plénitude et la suffisance d'une preuve; e l l e leur p r e s c r i t de s'interroger e u x - m ê m e s dans le silence et le receuillement, et de c h e r c h e r , dans la sincérité sur leur conscience, q u e l l e impression on faite sur leur raison les preuves rapportées c o n t r e l'accusé, et les m o y e n s de sa d é f e n c e . La loi ne leur dit p o i n t : 'Vous t i e n d r e z pour v r a i tout fait attesté par tel ou tel n o m b r e de témoins'; elle ne leur dit pas n o n plus: 'Vous ne regarderez pas comme suffisamment établie t o u t e preuve qui ne sera pas formée de t e l procès-verbal, de teilles pièces, de tant de t é m o i n s ou de tant d'indices'; elle ne leur fait que c e t t e seule q u e s tion, qui referme toute la mesure de leurs devoirs: 'Avez-vous une intime conviction?'"
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten D i e Gegner der text die Aufhebung
freien B e w e i s f ü h r u n g der
die U n r e g u l i e r b a r k e i t C o n v e n t s vertretener
formellen
Erwägung
-
erblickten im
Gebundenheit
des
treu
f o r d e r n d e Anweisung
ebenfalls
gründende
an die G e s c h w o r e n e n " ,
Gewissenentscheidung".
dem positiven Kern der
von
ih-
der
gesetz-
zur "conviction raisonnée", d . h . zur For-
der r a t i o n a l e n r i c h t e r l i c h e n Überzeugung. "Wenn
Überzeugung
"als
Im Zuge der mit
die deutsche Dogmatik
lichen B e w e i s t h e o r i e ,
Über-
Beweise
mindestens a b e r
"conviction
intime", diese mit
freie
als "orakelhafte m o r a l i s c h e verständige Prüfung der
nen geführten D e b a t t e gelangte
derung
die
- a l s A p o l o g e t e n der n e g a t i v e n Be-
z e u g u n g " , "als u n k l a r e , keine
urkontrollierbare
des
folgend b e s c h r e i b e n
die auf der i n n e r e n Überzeugung
der Beweise
Gesetzes-
Verfahrens,
der B e w e i s f ü h r u n g . Der in der D e b a t t e Argumentierung
d a m a l i g e n deutschen Autoren weistheorie
13
mehr ist, als 'dunkles, instinctartiges
nämlich Ergebnis rationaler
Forschung
und
logischer
aber
Gefühl', Schluss-
f o l g e r u n g e n , wenn anders die B e w e i s r e g e l n mehr sind a l s
ledig-
lich positive R e c h t s n o r m e n ,
'logi-
schen Gesetzen', von
nämlich das Aussprechen
'sich von
'Grundsätzen der Erfahrung', lich
so feindlich
von
selbst Verstehendem',
dann haben
gegenüberstehenden
liche und die freie, a n g e n ä h e r t ,
von
sich die b e i d e n
Beweistheorien,
gegenseitig
die
befruchtet
ursprünggesetzund der
14 S y n t h e s e der 7.
'conviction r a i s e n n é e '
Das P r i n z i p
nicht mehr in krassem Beweise,
sondern
wodurch
trachtet
Gegensatz mit der Theorie der
derartig
formalen
das g e m i s c h t e
als abgeschlossen
des g e m i s c h t e n
S y s t e m s bindet z w a r
nicht an eine für sämtliche Fälle geltende,
steife, abstrakte
gesetzliche Regelung
des B e w e i s m a t e r i a l s ,
KÄSSER:
Sybe-
er ist
op.
cit. p.
aber an die Gesetze der
40.
den
gebundene,
in Bezug auf d i e Wertung Überlegung
13 K Ä S S E R , W . : Wahrheitsforschunq im S t r a f p r o z e s s . 3. Schweitzer V e r l a g , B e r l i n , 1974. p. 38. 14
der-
konnte.
Das B e w e i s r e c h t Richter
beiden entstand
diese Linie der Entwicklung
werden
steht
es ist eine Art organische Fortsetzung
s e l b e n . Aus der Synthese der stem,
aufgehoben".
der f r e i e n Beweiswürdigung
L. Pusztai
14 und
an die T a t s a c h e n der Erfahrung
der im Prozess zur Entscheidung Erfahrung in B e t r a c h t nenlernen. F r ü h e r
g e b u n d e n . Dazu a b e r ,
dass
berufene Richter die Thesen der
ziehen kann, muss er diese irgend
war das im System
der
gesetzlichen
wie ken-
Beweisre-
geln kein P r o b l e m , kam doch die Indiciumlehre des G e s e t z e s eben dadurch zustande, kodifiziert
dass die E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e
w u r d e n . Das heisst
Rechtspflege
für
wesentlich
und deren
die aus dem
Beweiswert
Gesichtspunkt
erachteten T h e s e n wurden
der
Bestand-
teile des R e c h t s und die K e n n t n i s d e r s e l b e n wurde von einem lehrten Richter
erwartet
(jura
novit
Die gesetzliche Beweistheorie und m i t Indiciumlehre
verschwand und
rungssätze wurden
zur Verfügung
ihr die
gesetzliche
die überwiegende Menge der
ausserrechtlich. Dazu kam
dass sich die e x p l o s i o n s a r t i g e
Ausbreitung
stehenden K e n n t n i s v e r m ö g e n s
noch der des der
der
Kultivatoren
Kenntnisse machte
derselben,
es unmöglich,
Gesamtheit der E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e nunmehr
Menschheit
grösstenteils in die-
selten
stellte
einen auch
angewandten
in den Vordergrund,
und
die Aufhäufung
auch das Gesetz
gewährte
Probleme k e i n e Direktiven. früher schon
Funktionär
gekannten,
des P r o z e s s e s
nämlich den Experten,
stellte d a n n
notwendigerweise
der die L ü c k e n
ständigen auch in
die Fragen der Beweisführung der Theorie
sich das in den A n f a n g rechtlichen Natur lieferten B e w e i s e s
8.
durch
der seiner
Sachver-
in den V o r d e r g r u n d . W o h l
spiegelt
des X I X . J a h r h u n d e r t s bezüglich
der
des Experten und des s e i t e n s desselben
ge-
entstandene Debatte, d e r e n Nachleben
in der
Handhabung des E x p e r t e n als faktischer R i c h t e r auch heute noch
Diese
jedoch nur
K e n n t n i s s e des R i c h t e r s ausfüllen konnte. Die Aufwertung Rolle
Spe-
der
dass der Richter im Besitze der sei, und
für die a u f t a u c h e n d e n
Situation
Erfah-
Umstand,
ser Periode a b s p i e l t e . Die T r e n n u n g der W i s s e n s c h a f t e n zialisierung
ge-
curia).
(judex
facit)
aufscheinen."'"'
Hinsichtlich
seines B e w e i s f ü h r u n g s s y s t e m s
ser .in Kraft s t e h e n d e s Recht
- ähnlich
den
befolgt
un-
sozialistischen
""'Darlegung: POPPEN, E.: D i e Geschichte des Sachverständiqenbeweises im Strafprozess d e s deutschsprachigen R a u m e s . Musterschmidt V e r l a g , Göttingen, 1984. pp. 233 et seq.
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten Strafverfahrenskodexen ist d i e Freiheit
-
d a s gemischte System.
der Beweisführung
15 Dementsprechend
sowie die freie
gung als wichtigste Charakteristiken
d e s freien
in A b s . / 3 / des § 5, bzw. A b s . /3/ d e s § 61 des
Beweiswürdi-
Beweissystems Strafverfahren-
g e s e t z e s festgehalten. Und
A b s . /1/ d e s § 61 enthält
log der im B e w e i s v e r f a h r e n
gestattete
weise
Beweismittel,
schreibt d a s Gesstz zur Entscheidung
Inanspruchnahme
bestimmter B e w e i s m i t t e l
den Katabeziehungs-
einzelner
Fragen
pflichtartig
vor
die
(z.B.
eben in dem uns berührenden T h e m a , wo es in Abs / 2 / d e s § 68 heisst:
"Die Zuziehung e i n e s
die zu entscheidende Frage stand,
Sachverständigen ist z w i n g e n d , а / einen p a t h o l o g i s c h e n
b/ die Notwendigkeit
einer Zwangsbehandlung aber a u s dem System
einer Z w a n g s h e i l b e h a n d l u n g
von A l k o h o l i k e r n
der g e s e t z l i c h e n Beweisregeln
Dadurch, d a s s das G e s e t z die S a c h v e r s t ä n d i g e n m i t w i r k u n g aber
d a s Prinzip
zur Entscheidung
der freien Erwägung
eine T a t s a c h e a u c h in dem F a l l im K o m m e n t a r
- schreibt
weismitteln
s t a m m e n , deren Anwendung
geschrieben
ist."^
freie Erwägung Meinung
der Beweise
weise
gewisser
Frau S z a b ó ,
ein von der
ist
Therese
bedeuten
Gesetze der
stehenden
men die Normen der Logik, der W i s s e n s c h a f t e n , die d u r c h s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e P r a x i s b e s t ä t i g t e n E r f a h r u n g e n zur keine
vor-
dass die
d a s s "in der W e r t u n g
insofern
oder
subjektiven
durch die
sowie durch die in der Sache zur Verfügung
h a b e n die B e h ö r d e n
er-
wenn d i e s e aus Be-
im Gesetz als Pflicht
keinesfalls
gebunden. Es ist L e h r b u c h t h e s e ,
kann
Angabe
der R i c h t e r a b h ä n g i g e Verfahren, ihre W i l l k ü r
der W e r t u n g
Fragen
keinen Abbruch
betont m i t Nachdruck,
kann. Die für f tei geltende Würdigung Logik,
Normen
stammen).
ist also e i n e
des g e l t e n d e n Gesetzes - ,
Unsere Kommentarliteratur
oder
welche
pflichtmässig v o r s c h r e i b t ,
der freien B e w e i s w ü r d i g u n g
l e i d e n . Gegenstand
Nagy
betrifft",
wenn
Geisteszu-
Bekom-
die ge-
Geltung. Bei
unbeschränkte
F r e i h e i t , als sie soch an die erwähnten Regeln h a l t e n
müssen".
17
16 A büntető eljárás m a g y a r á z a t a . (Darlegung d e s ungarischen S t r a f v e r f a h r e n s ) . K ö z g a z d a s á g i és Jogi Könyvkiadó, B u d a p e s t , 1982. p. 37.
17 Magyar b ü n t e t ő e l j á r á s i jog (Ungarisches r e c h t ) T a n k ö n y v k i a d ó , B u d a p e s t , 1982. p. 256.
Strafverfahrens-
L. Pusztai
16
Von einer Er w ä g u n g s-, W e r t u n g s f r e i h e i t sprechen, wo echte
Alternativen
können wir nur
existieren,
wo
ist. D o r t , wo zum B e i s p i e l , u n t e r Einhaltung gik nur
eine F o l g e r u n g
möglich
i s t , ist die
grifflich
a u s g e s c h l o s s e n , da ja
Erkennung
der N o t w e n d i g k e i t ,
Es ist
freilich
"frei"
erwägend, i r r t .
der Grundlage und
II.
9.
Die E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e
Inhalts, bens,
bedie
jede
andere A Iter native ist
zu
In diesen
Erfahrungssätze
auch
entdecken
Fall aber
sind
Erscheinungsform
teile
sind. K o n k r e t e
nach D e f i n i t i o n e n
individuelle
der Beobachtungen
durch
B e o b a c h t u n g , dass
sich
tische Ergebnis
den künftigen, b i s h e r
steht
der
sich
Le-
hypotätische aus der
Ur-
Vielzahl
Sie gründen auf der
Art
einstellt.
bestätigt,
wahrgenommenen
iden-
dass in
identischen
wir also die
verallgemeinert
abfassen,
Vor-
ent-
Erfahrungssatz. können o f f e n s i c h t l i c h
breiteren K r e i s bekannt
sein, wenn
sind, b e z i e h u n g s w e i s e ,
jedermann
leicht
überzeugen
aber auch m ö g l i c h , dass sie einen b e s t i m m t e n voraussetzen. Die zur
gehörenden Erfahrungssätze Rechtsanwendung
zweiten
oder
sein werden. W e n n
Ergebnisse
oder B e s c h ä f t i g u n g s k r e i s
fahren
allgemeinen
sich f a s s e n , und
Fälle k o m m e n
in identischer
noch nicht
über deren R i c h t i g k e i t
es ist
sich.
der Fachkenntnis
in
wird die V o r a u s s e t z u n g
Die E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e in einem
nach
d e s alltäglichen
Induktion zustande.
die Fo gen i d e n t i s c h
b e d i n g u n g e n und die
sich
unter i d e n t i s c h e n B e d i n g u n g e n des
( F o l g e ) immer
diese Erfahrung
Fällen
glaubt und
Bildung, b e z i e h u n g s w e i s e
ihrer
falsch. solchen
entbehrt das U r t e i l
der u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h s t e n W i s s e n s c h a f t s z w e i g e
Durch
in einem
Feststellungen
die B e o b a c h t u n g e n und Erfahrungen
der allgemeinen
Lo-
freie Erwägung
d a s zieht s ä m t l i c h e R e c h t s f o l g e n
Die
möglich
der Regeln der
nur eine W a h l möglich ist:
d e n k b a r , dass der Richter
Fall e i n e reale W a h lmög liehkeit
eine W a h l
dort
sind
die aus dem
keiner s p e z i e l l e n Beweisung Gruppe b e s c h r i e b e n e n
g e m ä s s des
den Inhalt der von d e n Experten Fachkenntnisse"
bilden.
bedürfen,
wenn kann,
Bildungs-
ersten
Gruppe
Gesichtspunkt
allgemein bekannte Tatsachen,
die im
diese
der
Strafver-
während die in der
Strafverfahrensgesetzes
zu erwartenden
"speziellen
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten Im Interesse der Erleichterung weisführung sten
17
ihrer Anwendung
wurde versucht die unzähligen, auf den
in der Beverschieden-
Gebieten des L e b e n s existierenden E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e
verfahrensrechtlichen
in der
nach den v e r s c h i e d e n s t e n Ge18 sichtspunkten zu gruppieren. KASPER unterscheidet die folgen-
den drei а/ stisch zwar
Literatur
Gruppen: Die e i n f a c h e n Erfahrunqssätze.
eine bestimmte Warscheinlichkeit
wegs Allgemeingültigkeit abgefassten Regeln
thesen
charakteri-
Lebenserfahrungen
e n t h a l t e n , aber
beanspruchen k ö n n e n .
gibt es immer
eine solche zumindest
keines-
Von der
in ihnen
eine reale Ausnahme, oder ist
vorstellbar. Die M e h r h e i t der
gehört u n t e r die einfachen. Ihre gemeinsame
ist die mangelnde V e r l ä s s l i c h k e i t sowie
für die es
ist, dass sie gemäss der allgemeinen
ErfahrungsEigenschaft
und P r ä z i s i o n in Einzellfall
die nur u n g e n a u e , u n s c h a r f e und a l l g e m e i n e Fassung Ihre Formel ist "wenn - dann oft oder
Voraussetzungen.
aber keineswegs i m m e r " . Ebendeshalb fahrungsthesen b/
verfügen die einfachen Er-
in sich über verhältnismässig
geringe
Die a b s o l u t e n oder allgemeingültigen
v e r k ö r p e r n das h ö c h s t e Grad der überhaupt heit und nach menschlichem n a h m e n . Hierher
Ermessen gibt
Beweiskraft.
Erfahrunqssätze
erreichbaren
ermittelten,
derspruchslos niedergelegten k ö n n e n auch von den
Sicher-
es von ihnen keine Aus-
gehören vor allem die Naturgesetze und
methodischen Forschungen
die durch
exakt begründeten und wi-
wissenschaftlichen
E r g e b n i s s e . Sie
allgemeinen Lebenserfahrungen
abstammen. Ein
s o l c h e s ist zum B e i s p i e l das Beispiel der A l i b i - B e w e i s e , die Tatsache, d a s s jeder Mensch lang
an den
manchmal,
sterblich
oder
ist. Von diesen
ge-
es noch nie eine Ausnahme zu finden und eine solche Aus-
nahme ist auch u n v o r s t e l l b a r . Ohne dem Verfasser wider sprechen zu wollen, m ö c h t e ich bloss darauf h i n w e i s e n , dass mir B e i s p i e l e deshalb immer
nicht überzeugend
präzis d e f i n i e r t e Naturgesetze
stehen und ich
k ö n n t e für die "allgemeine Lebenserfahrung" s p i e l vorbringen,
seine
a n m u t e n , weil hinter
die durch die W i s s e n s c h a f t
denen
meinerseits
überhaupt
kein Bei-
nicht erklärt
wor-
18 KASPER, S.G.: Freie BeweisWürdigung und m o d e r n e technik . Kriminalistik Verlag,'Hamburg, 1975 pp. 39 et
Kriminalseq.
18
L. Pusztai
den шаге. Aufgrund d i e allgemeinen
23
dessen darf es vorausgesetzt
Lebenserfahrungen
alltäglichen Abfassungen Die Hauptkennzeichen
dass
nichts anders s i n d , als die
v a n wissenschaftlichen
Thesen.
d e r absoluten E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e
z u f o l g e KASPER, dass sie k e i n e Ausnahme
sind
erleiden, d e s h a l b
sie auf der gegebenen w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e n praktisch
werden,
Ebene der
sind
Gesellschaft
unüberschreitbar.
Die Grenze also zwischen den einfachen und den gültigen Erfahrungssätze
ist
der U m s t a n d ,
allgemein-
ob gemäss d e s
gegen-
w ä r t i g e n Niveaus des m e n s c h l i c h e n W i s s e n s Ausnahmen
existieren,
oder
sie:
solche nicht
existieren.
Bejahendenfalls
sind
ein
f a c h e , im verneinenden Fall:
allgemeingültige. A n g e s i c h t s
sen jedoch, dass die Grenzen
bei weitem
g e z o g e n werden
können, e r s c h e i n t
in eine Sondergruppe с/
nach, den absoluten E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e n derselben
sämtlichen
(ausnahmslose
Gattungen der
geht
es auch hier um die "Abstrahierung
wenn
auch nicht
Grenzfälle
oder
"Erfahund
terschieden 10.
sie
nie er-
Erfahrungssätze,
identisch
der r e a l e n Möglichkeit
die,
verläuft.
k ö n n e n von den einfachen durch
K e n n z e i c h e n der r e g e l m ä s s i g e n W i e d e r h o l u n g , und von den m e i n g ü l t i g e n aufgrund
ihrer
nahe, o b z w a r Geltung),
des Vorganges",
immer, aber im allgemeinen
Die Erfahrungsgrundsätze
des-
einfach
ist:
Diese s t e h e n , ihrer Vorbedingungen
den Sicherheitsgrad r e i c h e n . Wie bei
so
es zweckmässig, die
e i n z u o r d n e n . Diese
die b e s o n d e r s sicheren Erfahrunqssätze
runqsqrundsätze". Wirkung
nicht immer
das allge-
der A u s n a h m e un-
werden.
Aus dem
Gesichtspunkt
w e r d e n die Erfahrungstsätze
einer erfolgreichen
d e r Kriminalistik
deren
die der K r i m i n a l t e c h n i k
dafür
ist, dass d a s wissenschaftlich
für wichtig
Rechtspflege
innerhalb
erachtetet. Der
begründete und s t r e n g
j e k t i v e Kenntnismaterial der Kriminaltechnik t r a g e n hatte, d a s s die W e r t u n g
und
der Beweise
viel dazu
aus der
Grund ob-
beige-
Dunkelheit
der Subjektivität
herausgehoben
werden, und
dass die
Feststel-*
lung
in immer grösserem Umfang
objektiv
kontrol-
der Wahrheit
lierbar
wurde.
Der objektive Beweis g e l a n g t meistens durch die der K r i m i n a l t e c h n i k durch
Anwendung
in das V e r f a h r e n , ihre U n t e r s u c h u n g
die entsprechend
adaptierten phisikalisehen,
geht
chemischen
19
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten und m a t h e m a t i s c h e n
u s w . , das heisst
thoden vor sich. D i e Untersuchung Durchführung träglich
als auch in der E n d f o l g e r u n g
kontrolliert
Objektivierung Erwägung
sowohl in
jederzeit auch
nach-
des V e r f a h r e n s g e e i g n e t , da durch ihn die
zur
freie
w i r d , so dass letzterer im
d e s Tatbestandes die durch die
gelieferten Ergebnisse
auf die durchgehende
Kontrollierung des naturwissenschaftlichen
Zu-
Kriminal-
etwa übersetzt. Durch die
nalistischen Methoden wird, durch ihre immer breitere die richterliche E r w ä g u n g
krimi-
Anwendung,
Beachtung
und
Denkprozesses
be-
schränkt. Mit anderen Worten: die Freiheit der Beurteilung Beweise
Me-
ihrer
werden. Der objektive B e w e i s ist also
des R i c h t e r s beschränkt
ge der Feststellung technik
naturwissenschaftlichen
kann derweise
nimmt in dem Mass ab, als die B e w e i s m i t t e l
der
objektiviert
werden. Die Objektivierung
der B e w e i s m i t t e l geht freilich
nicht
bloss durch die Anwendung der K r i m i n a l t e c h n i k ,
durch die in
Vordergrundstellung
sich. Der
der objektiven Beweise vor
zierte Vorgang der Fällung bau e i n e s geschlossenen gik, durch
einer Entscheidung
und
und
Entscheidungsfäldie
Operationsforschung,
beitragen. Derweise werden die A u s s a -
gen der Zeugen und der Verdächtigten der E n t w i c k l u n g
durch naturwissenschaftlich Grundlage der Entscheidung 11.
die
AusLo-
zahlreiche weitere Elemente und die K e n n t n i s
der m o d e r n e n W i s s e n s c h a f t
die T e n d e n z
der
optimal gestaltet werden. Dazu kann
Entscheidungs- und S y s t e m e n t h e o r i e , die Kibernetik
erfordert den
Systems der Gesetzmässigkeiten
welches die einzelnen Schritte der
lung objektiviert
die
kompli-
immer mehr
ist, dass solche Aussagen verifizierbaren M e t h o d e n 19 bilden sollen.
Die R e s u l t a t e der W i s s e n s c h a f t
auf zwei Arten im Strafverfahren vorgehenden Behörden
angewandt
werden
im
bloss kontrolliert
Wesentlichen
nutzhaft. Sie können durch
w e r d e n . In d i e s e n Fällen
nen die w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e n T a t s a c h e n gemeine Thesen irgend
kontrollierbar,
im Beweisverfahren
einer O p e r a t i o n . Diese T h e s e n
gar nicht bewiesen zu werden, sie erlangen von
als
all-
brauchen
selbst
Beweis-
19 HEROLD, H.: Erwartungen Kriminaltechnik. Kriminalistik
die
erschei-
von Polizei und Justiz in der 1/1979.
L. Pusztai
20 kraft. D e s s e n
- legt T i b o r K I R Ä L Y 2 0
Grund i s t ,
wissenschaftlichen T h e s e n se bereits bestätigt
sind un so a l l g e m e i n akzeptiert
Eine andere Art d e r Nutzung ist die Mitwirkung
-
von Experten. D i e
wissenschaftlichen
Ergeb-
erscheinen
- als Teile
e i n g e b a u t in das
organe im B e w e i s v e r f a h r e n
Sachverständigengutachten
selbst a n w e n d e n :
i s t eine der Grundlagen
te wissenschaftlicher
(D iese offensichtliche
R i c h t e r i s t ) . E s bezieht
kann
Beweisung
diesen g r ü n d e t . Aus dem M i s s v e r s t ä n d n i s oder
Fundiertheit
der
der Frage d e r Erwägung
auch unsere F a c h l i t e r a t u r
gel-
w e i l sie auf
der W e r wie,
fachlichen
nehmen. Fundiertheit
des
Gutachtens
Rechtsanwendungs-
d e s Gutachtens befasst
in reichem
ja
Nichtverstehen
als B e w e i s m i t t e l ist e i n Teil der E r w ä g u n g der organe. M i t
auf
als Beweis
bezüglich der
fachlichen
Exper-
bedürfen,
s e i t e n s der R e c h t s a n w e n d u n g s o r g a n e :
des G u t a c h t e n s Stellung
Die Beurteilung
Ähn-
auch
das meist umstrittene P r o b l e m
Basis soll die Behörde
meist
Feststellungen
eben deshalb
ten (als l o g i s c h e s A r g u m e n t im B e w e i s p r o z e s ) ,
dieses U m s t a n d e s stammt
sich
darstellenden
d a s s sie k e i n e r
die S a c h v e r s t ä n d i g e n f o l g e r u n g
wie
Rechtsanwendungs-
sie erscheinen
der Theorie, wonach der
der Fachkenntnisse
und E r f a h r u n g s t h e s e n ,
der Fol-
(die e i g e n t l i c h e M e i n u n g ) ist,
als höhere These des S y l l o g i s m u s .
tung der G u t a c h t e n s
"spezieller
I h r e Rolle bei der Herausformung
die der w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e n W a h r h e i t e n , die die
auf welcher
werden. Thesen
gerung d e s S a c h v e r s t ä n d i g e n
die den I n h a l t
Bewei
wiasenschaftlichen
im Beweisverfahren.
lichkeit
d a s s die
der
nisse, E r f a h r u n g s s ä t z e Fachkentnisse"
fest -
durch w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h - l o g i s c h e
Ausmass. D i e
sich
sich mit
dem
21 Problem b e f a s s e n d e n A u t o r e n scher und
synthetischer
unterscheiden zwischen
Erwägung,
u n t e r analytische
analytiErwägung
^ K I R Á L Y , T.: B ü n t e t ő í t é l e t a jog határán (Strafurteil an der G r e n z e des R e c h t s ). K ö z g a z d a s á g i és Jogi K ö n y v k i a d é , Dudapest, 1972. p. 88. 2 ""SZÉKELY; gp. cit. p. 407. V A S S , K.: A szakértői bizonyítás néhány kérdéséről (Über einige F r a g e n des S a c h v e r s t ä n d i g e n beweisesj. Ügyészségi É r t e s í t ő . l/l978., KISS, L.: Az igazságügyi kézirásvizsqálat a l a p j a i (Die G r u n d l a g e n der forensischen Schriftuntersuchung). Közgazdasági és Jogi K ö n y v kiadé, B u d a p e s t , 1977. p. 383.
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten die analytische U n t e r s u c h u n g , Sachverständigengutachtens t h e t i s c h e Erwägung
21
selbstständige Beurteilung
verstanden, während der A u s d r u c k
jener logischen O p e r a t i o n vorbehalten
im Z u g e deren die R e c h t s a n w e n d u n g s o r g a n e
Auseinanderhaltung
d i e s e n zwei Arten der B e u r t e i l u n g des Gutachtens s t i m m t 22
tischen
, fügt aber h i n z u , dass er innerhalb
Beurteilung
die A u s e r n a n d e r h a l t u n g
G u t a c h t e n s aus "fachlichem" sichtspunkten
auch
der
analy-
der B e u r t e i l u n g
des
und aus sonstigen
Ge-
strukturelle
Gesichts-
erachtet.
Die Separierung deshalb
Gesichtspunkt
(z,B. logische, etnische,
p u n k t e ) für nötig
der "fachlichen" Beurteilung
hält
ERDEI
für nötig, weil er es bezweifelt, dass die B e h ö r d e
hig wäre, diesen in allen F ä l l e n durchzuführen, g e g e n ü b e r lichen
sonstigen, im Bereich
der analythischen und
B e u r t e i l u n g b e s c h r i e b e n e n F ä l l e n , bezüglich d e r a r t i g e n V o r b e h a l t e hat. A u s dem Umstand sich auf die Beurteilung
der
h e n d e n , in der F a c h l i t e r a t u r lungen
welcher
am wenigsten
g e r u n g , dass er mit
ausgearbeitet
fachlichen Beurteilung
fähig
sind,
glauben
Sinn
dessen
nicht so
Methodenlehreanleitung
der
auf
d e s s e n hin, " . . . dass ein in
unkundige P e r s o n eine Fachleistung aus s o n s t i g e n
234.
fachsich
ausführlichsten
und VASS der
nur wenig Platz widmen, leuchtet
o p . c i t . p.
nehmen
Beurteilungsgesichts-
a b f a s s e n d e n SZÉKELY
zwangsmässige Anerkennung
be-
richtig
ausgearbeitet und h ä t t e n
von sonstigen
p u n k t e n begnügt. Darin a l s o , dass auch die den
ERDEIs
er die Fol-
eigene Behauptung ernst
gründlicher
nicht mit der Detailierung
22
fachlichen
verstandenen
w ü r d e n , hätten sie wahrscheinlich auch die Methodik
l i c h e n , als eher
bezie-
Methodenlehreempfeh-
sind, zieht
zu der in engem
d a r a n . Wenn sie nämlich i h r e
lichen Beurteilung
keine
seinen Bedenken nicht allein d a s t e h t . Auch
h a u p t e n , dass die Behörden
lichen Beurteilung
sämt-
aber, d a s s in den,
d i e j e n i g e n , die die N o t w e n d i g k e i t und Möglichkeit
Fach
er
Sachverständigengutachten erscheinenden
fä-
synthetischen
gerade die G e s i c h t s p u n k t e der selbstständigen
Beurteilungen
syn-
ist,
das Gutachten mit der
Gesamtheit des B e w e i s m a t e r i a l s abstimmen. Die
Árpád ERDEI zu
des
nicht so sehr
Gesichtspunkten
einer
fachdie einem
aus fachKritik
22
L. Pusztai
unterwerfen
kann."
23
Mir will es scheinen, dass ERDEI an offenen T o r e n D a s nämlich zu e n t s c h e i d e n ,
ob eine M e i n u n g
ist oder nicht, k a n n offensichtlich.nur K e n n t n i s s e g e s c h e h e n . Auch Methodenlehreanleitung
der von K á l m á n VASS
setzt
ausgearbeitete
folgendes
Die s e i t e n s des Experten angewandten
sen . Es muss die fachliche der
begründet
fachlicher
eine g r ü n d l i c h e K e n n t n i s des be-
t r e f f e n d e n Fachs voraus, diesbezüglich "8.
fachlich
aufgrund
klopft.
(wissenschaftliche)
seitens des S a c h v e r s t ä n d i g e n
angewandten
steht:
fachlichen TheStichhaltigkeit
Erfahrungssätze
g e w e r t e t werden. Hier muss in Betracht g e z o g e n werden, wie weit diese Thesen als akzeptiert
gelten, b e z i e h u n g s w e i s e
B e z i e h u n g e n diese unter D e b a t t e Grundlage
sie debattiert
a r g u m e n t e , oder b l o s s "nur eventuell deshalb, Entwicklung
ferner auf
so", "wissenschaftlich
g e r ä t , die neuesten
des inhaltlichen R e i c h t u m s der A r g u m e n t i e r u n g
brachten
fachlichen
Quellen
welcher
tuerisch",
wissenschaftligibt die
Analyse
des E x p e r t e n , so-
der seitens d e s Experten 24 die Grundlage."
vorge-
Wenn wir ein beliebiges Element d i e s e s Leitfadens g r e i f e n und a n a l y s i e r e n
w o l l e n , wird es sich
sofort
heraus-
feststellen
lassen, dass das ohne K e n n t n i s das b e t r e f f e n d e n F a c h e s gar
nicht einmal b l o s s oberflächliche,
- in der Praxis u n d u r c h f ü h r b a r
fachlichen T h e s e n akzeptiert
s t e h e n , wenn er die Literatur lich
sind oder
Andererseits
steht auch
T e i l der Fälle -
ERDEI:
24
V A S S : op.
op.
angewand-
zitierten Werk
cit. p. 2 3 4 . cit.
Debatte
hinsicht-
kennt.
- m i n d e s t e n s im
grösseren
und um es zu beweisen weist auch J á n o s
in seinen mehrfach
23
fest,
nicht
Kenntnis Richter
ob sie unter
des F a c h p r o b l e m s , auch
der neuen R e s u l t a t e tagfertig
- und
sondern tiefere
ist. Wie kann sich der
z.B. darüber ü b e r z e u g e n , ob die seitens d e s Experten ten
Gegen-
wissenschaftlichen
nicht kennt. Zur Beurteilung
wie die V e r t r a u e n s w ü r d i g k e i t
welchen
durch w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e
weil der Debatter in der
in R ü c k s t a n d
chen Ergebnisse
stehen,
werden:
in
SZÉKELY
an verschiedenen S t e l l e n
hin,
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten d a s s der R e c h t s a n w e n d u n g s o r g a n , und dungsorgan mit
durchschnittlicher
zwar auch ein
V o r b i l d u n g , die
in dem Fachproblem zu e r w ä g e n selbst —
23
weil die analytische Wertung
fähig
RechtsanwenStellungnahme
ist,
des Gutachtens
- wenn
Anspruch auf die selbstständige E r w ä g u n g der f a c h l i c h e n auftaucht -
Thesen
durch die Elemente der synthetischen Wertung
woben sind, die Wahrscheinlichkeit
b i e t e n können,
ein
durch-
dass die
sei-
tens des E x p e r t e n a n g e w a n d t e n Thesen richtig s i n d , weil seine Feststellungen —
mit den a n d e r e n Beweisen
sche und n a t u r w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e F r a g e oft verhelfen —
übereinstimmen;
weil die juristische, logische, allgemeine Bildung
zur Entscheidung
d e s völligen M i s s t r a u e n s
sich auf den
Standpunkt
zu stellen und ohne i r g e n d e i n e n
nünftigen Z w e i f e l die fachliche Fundiertheit
—
der
kann;
weil es tatsächlich Unsinn wäre
Z w e i f e l zu
mathemati-
ver-
des Gutachtens
in
ziehen;
weil bei der Verfertigung
d e s Gutachtens im
allgemeinen
nicht der k o m p l i z i e r t e s t e , mit bestrittenen theoretischen straktionen
belastete T e i l des betreffenden F a c h e s
Ab-
angewandt
wird. Es kann aber mit R e c h t was geschehen soll, wenn dieser Fälle
auch die Frage gestellt
sich der R i c h t e r mit der
gegenübergestellt
werden,
Kehrseite
sieht. Er muss auch
lung nehmen, wenn das Gutachten ein kompliziertes
dann
Stel-
und be-
strittenes fachliches P r o b l e m beinhaltet, wenn es sich um
einen
seltenen Grenzfall h a n d e l t , wo die allgemeine m a t h e m a t i s c h e naturwissenschaftliche
K e n n t n i s nicht zur Hilfe gezogen
kann. In d i e s e s Fällen ist der
nur eine Lösung möglich:
zur Wertung
fachlichen Thesen m u s s eine entsprechende K e n n t n i s
werden. Das Rechtsanwendungsorgan Kenntnisse
verfügt entweder
(weil er sich im konkreten Fall auf dem
er zur Lösung
- falls er
über diese
des P r o b l e m s aus eigenen Stücken nicht
Richter
wäre
dieser
durch-
fähig ist -
stützen.
natürlich, wenn die
über entsprechende Kenntnisse
scheidung
des
sich ü b e r z e u g t hat, dass
m u s s er sich auf die F a c h k e n n t n i s a n d e r e r Die i d e a l e Lösung
erworben
Gebiet
p r o b l e m a t i s c h e n F a c h g e b i e t s verbreitet, die L i t e r a t u r studiert hat usw.), o d e r ,
und
werden
vorgehenden
verfügen w ü r d e n zur Ent-
fachlichen Probleme. Dieser A n s p r u c h
muss
L. Pusztai
24 eigentlich
für natürlich gelten, wenn das in einheimischen
lationen auch nicht immer als natürlich
Als über eine selbstverständliche Sache HELFENSTEIN
darüber,
schreibt
M.
dass "Die praktische Durchführbarkeit
ner solchen unmittelbaren Überprüfung des Inhalts einer tiese
Re-
erscheint.
ei-
Exper-
setzt aber voraus, dass sich der Richter auf die Gut-
achterfrage vorbereitet und sich über Gegenstand, Methodik
und
Theoriegrundlage des Gutachtens unterrichtet. Dies gilt vor allem für Fragen, welche im Strafprozess häufig
wiederkehren,
wie Fragen der Daktiloskopie, Blutgruppen- und stimmung, Schriftvergleichung
psychiatrische F r a g e n . Nur so kann vermieden Richter zur kritiklosen Hinnahme perten gezwungen und
Blutalkoholbe-
sowie medizinische,
schrittweise
insbesondere
werden, dass der
der Feststellungen des Exentmachtet
wird, indem
die
Entscheidungsverantwortung auf den Sachverständigen verlagert • ^ ..25 wird. " Mit seinem Standpunkt erkläre ich mich völlig einig, obzwar ich weiss, dass das eher die Welt des "soll" als die des "sein"
darstellt.
ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ ЭКСПЕРТА И СВОБОДНАЯ ОЦЕНКА ДОКАЗАТЕЛЬСТВ Л. Пустаи
Современное правосудие немыслимо без у ч а с т и я экспер тов. Обследования фактов свидетельствуют о том, что и в Венгрии возрастает ч и с л о тех уголовных дел, при рассмотрении которых используется п о м о щ ь представителей различных дисциплин и профессий, предоставляющих свои специальные знания в распоряжение ведущих дела органов власти при установлении состава преступления и доказывания виновности. Усиливающееся обращение к экспертам объясняется разносторонним влиянием НТР на судебнух экспертизу. С одной стороны, бурно растущие знания, новые способы экспертизы и высокочувствительные приборы обеспечивают возможность д л я составления еще
25 HELFENSTEIN, M.: Der Sachverständiqenbeweis im schweizerischen Strafprozess. Schulthess Poligraphischer Verlag, Zürich,
Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten
25
более достоверных заключений и в традиционных сферах экспертизы. С другой стороны, в результате специализации, среди судебных экспертов появляются представители новых самостоятельных областей, которые представляют себя в распоряжение ведущих д е ла органов власти по таким вопросам, которые раньше не подлежали постановке. Со стороны же правоприменителей бурный рост знаний означает то, что они все чаще нуждаются в участии экспертов, что постоянно сокращается число таких дел, в которых и общее образование достаточно для правдивого установления состава. Повышение роли эксперта, в силу необходимости, влечет за собой и повышающий интерес специальной литературы. Один за д р у гим появились труды по вопросам доказывания с помощью экспертов, изучающие данную тему комплексно или только с точек зрения конкретных отраслей науки. Однако рядом с теоретическими и практическими вопросами, получившими успокоительное решение, есть еще и нерешенные вопросы. К ним относится и один из весьма спорных вопросов современного уголовно-процессуального права: как осуществляется принцип свободной оценки доказательств в отношении заключения эксперта? Проблема вытекает из того, что обращение к эксперту необходимо в случае, если для определения или оценки подлежащего доказыванию факта требуются такие специальные знания, которыми судья не располагает. А назначив эксперта судья признает, что данная профессиональная проблема превышает его знания. После этого как он способен оценивать заключение эксперта? Путь к правильному ответу ведет через изучение развития теории доказывания от "каролины" до наших дней, рассмотрение роли эмпирических положений в доказывании.
THE EXE3RT OPINION AND T H E FREE EVALUATION OF EVIDENCE L. Pusztai
The modern jurisdiction is incomprehensible without the contribution of experts. Case evaluation proves that in Hungary in more and more cases they are supported by the aid given by the representatives of various sciences and skills by making available their special abilities at proving criminal for the competent authorities. This increasing need can be explained by the multiple effect of the scientific-technological revolution on the activity of experts of forensic sciences. On one hand the rapidly increasing knowledge, the new methods of investigation and the high-sensitivity equipments make possible the more and more dependable opinions in the traditional fields of expertise, on the other hand through the specialization representatives of new and independent fields appear among the experts. They are available for the competent authorities in such questions which could not even be raised earlier. On the side of law application the explosion-like increase of knowledge means that they are more and more dependent on the contribution of the experts,
26
L. Pusztai
the number of such cases is less and less where the general knowledge is appropriate to establish the re-listic matter of facts. The increasing value of the role of expert brings along the increasing interest of the literature as well. One after the other comprehensive volume and special field volumes appeared which deal with the problems of expert evidence-gathering. Beside the several already settled theoretical and practical problems, however, there are open questions to be answered, among them a much-debated question of the modern procedure law: how the principle of free evaluation of evidence prevails concerning the expert opinions. The problem emerges from the fact that expert is needed whenever such skills are required to establish or evaluate facts to be proved which are not possessed by the judge. How can the judge evaluate the expert opinion, if by summoning the expert he declared that the given special problem goes beyond his own knowledge. The way to the proper answer goes through the study of the theory of evidence since Carolina till these days and the survey of the role of experienced facts in the proof gathering.
Acta Juridica Academiae S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 3 2 ( 1 - 2 ) pp. 2 7 - 4 4 . ( 1 9 9 0 )
ERMÄCHTIGUNG UND REGIERUNG IM (1944-1949)
Hochschule
VERORDNUNGSWEG
G. МАТНЁ Professor für S t a a t s v e r w a l t u n g ,
Budapest
"Die Regierung ist für das Land da, über sie kann also die Nation zu jeder Zeit verfügen." M. T á n c s i c s
Im Regierungssystem der Epoche der Volksdemokratie wurden die Garantien der Rechtssetzung im Verordnungswege durch die Gesetzgebung mit besonderer Aufmerksamkeit festgelegt. D i e Ermächtigungsgesetze galten mit Begrenzungen nach Gegenständen, bzw. zur ungehinderter Führung des Staatshaushaltes - I n d e m n i t ä t s e r m ä c h t i g u n g . D i e Verpflichtung zur V o r l a g e der Verordnungen z w e c k s nachträglicher Bestätigung wurde der K o a l i t i o n s r e g i e r u n g auferlegt. Ab 1947 wurde das Recht zur Überprüfung der V e r o r d n u n gen der Politischen Kommission des P a r l a m e m t s eingeräumt. D i e Abhandlung stellt die Entwicklung des Rechtsinstituts zwischen 1945-1949 auf Grund Archivdokumente dar.
Nationalversammlung
- Politische
Kommission
"Die Provisorische Nationalversammlung dass sie die E r l e d i g u n g b l i e b e n e n Landes
der A n g e l e g e n h e i t e n
übernimmt,
tion und Besitzer
als Ausdruck
der ungarischen
erklärt
des herrenlos
d e s Willens der
staatlichen
hat die Nationalversammlung
Rolle
eine ihr ungeteiltes
1 B E Í R , J. - CSIZMADIA, A.: Történelmünk a jogalkotás rében (Unsere Geschichte im Spiegel der R e c h t s c h a f f u n g ) . Budapest, 1966. p. 564.
Acta Juridica
Academiae
geNa-
Souveränität..."
A u s der Ü b e r n a h m e dieser öffentlich-rechtlichen folgend
feierlich,
Ver-
tük-
Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadd, Budapest
28
G. Máthé
trauen g e n i e s s e n d e und der Nation verantwortliche
engere
Körper-
schaft, die Politische K o m m i s s i o n ins Leben gerufen. Die
Politi-
sche K o m m i s s i o n Regierung
ist u r s p r ü n g l i c h
zur Vorbereitung
geschaffen w o r d e n . Auf ihren Vorschlag
Nationalversammlung
der Wahl der hin hat die
ihr V e r t r a u e n der gebildeten Regierung
genüber ausgesprochen und
ihr die Ermächtigung
des W a f f e n s t i l l s t a n d e s und
zur Führung
der
zum
ge-
Absczluss
Landesangelegenhei-
2 ten
erteilt. Die A u f g a b e der P o l i t i s c h e n K o m m i s s i o n wurde b i s zur er-
neuten E i n b e r u f u n g abweichend
beträchtlich
vertretenden K o m p e t e n z b e r e i c h der ungarischen Regierung und
staatlichen
zur Billigung
Im
1945) stell-
Vertreters
kontrollierte
sie die
spezifische Weise an der
mit. Ihre Beschlüsse
klärt und d i e s e
erweitert.
des ausschliesslichen
Souveränität
wirkte auf e i n e
rungstätigkeit
(б. S e p t e m b e r
der N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
v o n der geplanten
Regie-
w u r d e n für unanfechtbar
der N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
er-
unterbrei-
tet. Mit dem versammlung
Ablauf des A u f t r a g e s der Provisorischen anerkannte die
artikels VIII versammlung
aufgrund
der P o l i t i s c h e n Kommission wichtiger
in dem Kompetenzbereich
w i e s und w e i t e r h i n mit der Versehung trauen wollte, ren
durch
ermächtigenden
durch den Gesetzesartikel Parlament m o d i f i z i e r t . Und
Entver-
zufolge ü b e r t r a g e n
wa-
1945).
G e s e t z e eine
die N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
aus. Der
Nationalin der
sonstiger A u f g a b e n be-
Gesetzesartikel XXII
zur Ver-
nachträgliche
vorschrieben,
den weiteren W a h l e n bereits die P o l i t i s c h e Kommission Kompetenzbereich
Gesetzes-
politischer
nach den ersten Wahlen die die Regierung
ordnungsgesetzgebung Billigung
XI von
National-
dieser Körperschaft
die ihr den R e c h t s r e g e l n
(Gesetzesartikel Während
im Sinne d e s
von 1945 a b g e h a l t e n e n W a h l e n gebildete
die Tätigkeit
W e i s e , dass sie die V o r b e r e i t u n g scheidungen
der
übte nach diesen
VIII von 1 9 4 5
von 1947 über die W a h l e n
danach wurde vom
wurde zum
Gesetzesartikel
2 G E R G E L Y , E.: Az I d e i g l e n e s Nemzetgyűlés P o l i t i k a i Bizottsága (Die P o l i t i s c h e K o m m i s s i o n der Provisorischen Nationalversammlung). Jogtörténeti Tanulmányok Bd. III, Budapest, 1974. p p . B9-91.
Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg XXVI des J a h r e s 1947, der über die Bevollmächtigung
wiederholte
i s t , ihre e r l a s s e n e
halb von fünfzehn T a g e n
-
dass die
Verordnungen
nach der A n n a h m e durch
der P o l i t i s c h e n K o m m i s s i o n des P a r l a m e n t s cher B i l l i g u n g
Verlängerung
der Regierung v e r f ü g t e , fixiert,
gierung verpflichtet
29
den
inner-
Ministerrat
- zwecks
v o r z u l a g e n . Da b e i d e W a h l g e s e t z e
lichen als Rechtsregel
nachträgliim
wesent-
für je e i n e n Fall e n t s t a n d e n waren,
vom Gesichtspunkt u n s e r e s Themas a u s das e b e n f a l l s als duell betrachtete G e s e t z IX. von 1949 bezüglich rung der gesetzlichen
Bestimmungen
über die
nicht u n w e s e n t l i c h . E s ist nämlich Landesnationalkommission örtlichen Organen -
gesorgt
dritten
w e r d e n , dass d i e durch G e s e t z e
ergebnisvoll
von dem O r g a n , das im
1949 a u s g e s p r o c h e n
in ihren
tionalkommissionen
und
die Aufgabenbereiche
der U n g a r i s c h e n Nationalen
ten P e r i o d e Dezember
die letzte
1949)v
lichen T h e m a s bekräftigte
welche
(l947) enthaltenen
Bestimmungen
Adresse
schloss
untersuch-
1949 - b i s
31.
Rechtsregel
wiederholte.
ähnEs
der Politischen K o m m i s s i o n d e s
der aufgrund
der A u s n a h m e e r m ä c h t i g u n g
Parer-
Parlament?
sich mit v e r f a s s u n g s r e c h t l i c h e n
Rat des V e r w a l t u n g s g e r i c h t e s w a n d t e artikels
Na-
Regierungsverordnungen.
Regieren o h n e Der
XVII v o n
vorangehenden
als
Unabhängigen
zwar in u n s e r e r
(Gesetzesartikel die in der
die Berechtigung
laments zur Billigung lassenen
an, und
Unab-
der
Front ü b e r n o m m e n hatte.'' Auch an d i e s e s Wahlrechtsgesetz sich eine Ermächtigungsnorm
hat. dafür
Kompetenzbe-
der U n g a r i s c h e n
versehen w e r d e n können,
allgemeinen
die
ihren
w a h l r e c h t l i c h e n Regelung
reich verwiesenen A u f g a b e n vom L a n d e s r a t hängigen Volksfront
Modifizie-
Parlamentswahlen
- z u s a m m e n mit
für den 1. F e b r u a r
Deshalb m u s s t e in d i e s e r
der
ist
indivi-
allgemein b e k a n n t , dass
ihre A u f l ö s u n g
der Re-
beschäftigende
sich b e z ü g l i c h
I von 1946 über die S t a a t s f o r m an die N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g . ^
Fragen
des
der R e p u b l i k in
Er schlug
eine
Gesetzeseiner
derartige
^Ministerielle Begründung zum Gesetzesentwurf. T ö r v é n y e k és t ö r v é n y e r e j ű r e n d e l e t e k (Gesetze und V e r o r d n u n g e n mit Ges e t z e s k r a f t j L 1949, 5. !30-32. 4 U j Magyar K ö z p o n t i Levéltár T ö r v é n y e l ő k é s z í t ő Osztály ( K o d i f i k a t i o n e s a b t e i l u n g im N e u e n U n g a r i s c h e n Z e n t r a l a r c h i v ) XIX-E 1 c. (im w e i t e r e n : U M K L - T O ) 2094/1946.
30
G. Máthé
Ergänzung
des G e s e t z e s zur Überlegung
vor, w e l c h e den P r ä s i d e n -
ten der Republik das Recht zur A u f l ö s u n g und Einberufung tionalversammlung
ü b e r t r ä g t end z u g l e i c h b e s t i m m t ,
welcher Zeit die neue Nationalversammlung sung oder
der
Na-
innerhalb
im F a l l e der A u f l ö -
des A b l a u f e s ihres M a n d a t e s einberufen
werden m u s s .
D a s berufene G e s e t z hat dem Präsidenten der Republik - u n ter b e s t i m m t e n S c h r a n k e n für einen Fall das R e c h t Auflösung gierung
während
einer Sitzungsperiode
zur V e r t r a g u n g
der Nationalversammlung
und weiterhin auch
gewährt, wenn das
der Nationalversammlung
Gesetz schweigt über d i e Regelung tionalversammlung,
die A b h a l t u n g
der W a h l e n
der R e g i e r u n g
erklärt
der neuen
wird, so dass
erforderlich macht, innerhalb von
Nades
s o l c h e n Weise,
zur N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
dass
zur Pflicht
"der neue Präsident der
publik gerechnet vom Eintreten des U m s t a n d e s ,
(§
Das
es hat nur für den Fall des Freiwerdens
Präsidentenamtes v e r f ü g t ; und zwar i n einer
soll"
Fünf-
beantragen.
der Einberufung
die
die Re-
zur Vorlage b r i n g t oder w e n n dies z u m i n d e s t zwei
tel der A b g e o r d n e t e n
und
Re-
welcher die W a h l
sechzig Tagen
wählbar
sein
15).
Aus der D e k l a r i e r u n g gleichzeitig
rationell,
auf das abgeschaffte
der S t a a t s f o r m
der R e p u b l i k
folgte
dass sämtliche R e c h t s r e g e l n , die
Königstum und
die
Institution
sich
des R e i c h s -
verwesers bezogen h a b e n , ihre G ü l t i g k e i t verloren hatten. So hinsichtlich
des K o m p e t e n z b e r e i c h e s
Pflicht, in der über d i e Auflösung
d e s Reichsverwesers verfügender
nerhalb von drei M o n a t e n um die Einberufung versammlung
bzw. das Parlament zu
die B e s t i m m u n g
der
neuen
königlichen
derzufolge
verlor
von 1848 be-
Macht ihre Geltung,
auch die im X. Gesetzesartikel von 1 8 6 7 enthaltene beschränkung,
das P a r l a m e n t
zu einem
in-
National-
sorgen. Gleichzeitig
des 5. § des IV. G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l s
treffs der Ausübung
die
Verordnung
der
ist
sowie
Verfassungs-
solchen
Zeit-
punkt e i n b e r u f e n werden musste, d a s s die D i s k u s s i o n des Haushaltes des folgenden J a h r e s gewährleistet bestritten
werden, d a s s
die m a n g e l h a f t e Formulierung
petenzbereiches des S t a a t s o b e r h a u p t e s gierens o h n e Parlament" durchaus vorstellbar,
sei.Es kann also
des Kom-
eine M ö g l i c h k e i t des
möglich g e m a c h t
d a s s der P r ä s i d e n t
kaum
"Re-
hätte. E s ist
nämlich
der R e p u b l i k
bereits
in der e r s t e n Zeit s e i n e s Mandates d a s Recht zur Auflösung
des
Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg P a r l a m e n t s in Anspruch
n i m m t , und nachdem
Präsidenten
der Republik,
Einberufung
der neuen N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
die
Ausschreibung
31
das Gesetz weder dem
noch der Regierung die P f l i c h t auferlegt
- mit Ausnahme des F alles des
der W a h l e n
F r e i w e r d e n s d e s P r ä s i d e n t e n a m t e s v o r g e s e h e n hat, möglich g e w e s e n aufgrund
der wörtlichen
s e t z e s über Jahre hinweg vom Parlament Das Verwaltungsgericht in deren Begründung Auflösung,
in seiner Vorlage
durch Einberufung
- um einen
folgender Vorschlag
der Republik
das Gesetz über den Haushalt
in der VerFor-
ex-lex-Zustand
unterbreitet: die
solchen Zeit a u f l ö s t , vertagt
Verteilung
bzw.
neben der
v e r f ü g t e . Zur genaueren
des G e s e t z e s t e x t e s wurde
"Wenn der Präsident zu einer
Interpretation des Ge-
sowie das Vorschreiben von drei Monaten
zu vermeiden -
wäre es
abzusehen.
initiierte
die Ergänzung
ordnung, welche über die Auflösung mulierung
zur
hat bzw.
Nationalversammlung
oder u n t e r b r i c h t ,
wenn
des f o l g e n d e n Jahres oder über
der ö f f e n t l i c h e n Lasten und
die Deckung
der
die
staat-
lichen A u s g a b e n für das nächste Jahr oder für e i n e n Teil des J a h r e s von der Nationalversammlung
noch
nicht g e s c h a f f e n
den ist oder aber die N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g des G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l s
aufgrund
des 9. §
I von 1946 in der Angelegenheit
solchen zurückgewiesenen
Gesetzes noch
wor-
eines
keinen n e u e r e n
der P r ä s i d e n t
tionalversammlung
solchen Zeitpunkt ein, d a s s das Haus-
haltsgesetz
zu einem
noch vor V e r s t r e i c h e n d e s Jahres bzw. d a s
über die Verteilung
der ö f f e n t l i c h e n
der staatlichen Ausgaben halts- oder
der R e p u b l i k
Beschluss
getroffen hat, dann beruft
Lasten und die
Deckung
sonstigen F i n a n z e r m ä c h t i g u n g
behandelt
gangenen J a h r e s von der N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g behandelt
Zur rechtlichen L ö s u n g
5
des ver-
noch vor
Verstrei-
kann."'
e r g e b e n . Über die
ha-
vorgeschlagene
d e s Gesetzes h i n a u s stellte die E r w e i t e r u n g
der N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g ,
Ebd.
kann.
werden,
des I n h a l t e s dieser Begründung
ben sich mehrere M ö g l i c h k e i t e n
ordnung
werden
Haus-
werden
angewandt
um zu g e w ä h r l e i s t e n , d a s s die S t a a t s s c h l u s s r e c h n u n g
Ergänzung
Gesetz
noch vor Ablauf der v o r h a n d e n e n
Diese B e s t i m m u n g e n müssen auch entsprechend
chen des K a l e n d e r j a h r e s
die Na-
der
b z w . die Modifizierung
Haus-
des
Ge-
G. Máthé
32 setzesartikels VIII
d e s Jahres 1 9 4 5 oder aber die
eines neuen W a h l r e c h t s g e s e t z e s tenbericht
e i n e Alternative
der K o d i f i k a t i o n e s h a u p t a b t e i l u n g
riums bevorzugte- die
des
Schaffung
dar. Der
letzteren Varianten. U n t e r Einschätzung
verfassungsrechtlichen
Lage wurde
davon ausgegangen, dass
Quelle d e s g r u n d l e g e n d e n P r o b l è m e s der Gesetzesartikel Wahlrecht
darstellt,
da dieser ein "für einen
tendes Gesetz" ist u n d - mangels
sammlung
rechtsgesetzes unter
im Falle der Auflösung
der
k e i n e Wahlen abgehalten
weil sich d a s geltende
auch auf dem Verordnungswege werden
nicht den Vor-
Richtung
auch
seines Amtes unfähig
neuen M i n i s t e r p r ä s i d e n t e n der R e p u b l i k anzuhören.
der Vorlage
dadurch
verhindert
des
Kommission
lich die Aufnahme
einer
litische Kommission tion bis zur Bildung
schlag
endgültige
der Verdes
der
Politische 1946
nach
der Nationalversammlung
er-
wurde ein Vorschlag
solchen B e s t i m m u n g ,
zwar
nachträg-
derzufolge die
a u c h in diesen bestimmten Fällen ihre
PoFunk-
d e s neuen P a r l a m e n t s b z w . bis zur W a h l
1945 m o d i f i z i e r t e . A u f
Vor-
w u r d e vom G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l den Gesetzesartikel VIII
dem Wege der
der
kann.
A n t w o r t auf d i e s e n oben skizzierten
1947 g e g e b e n , welcher
An-
und
die Minister
u n t e r b r e i t e t , und
des Verwaltungsgerichtes
des J a h r e s
wurde, dass
vom Staatsoberhaupt
neuen Politischen K o m m i s s i o n f o r t s e t z e n Die
Auf-
in
Gesetzesartikels I von
dies zu vermeiden,
der Hausordnung
unmög-
die Ernennung
h a t t e , die
des Ministerpräsidenten
(dispensiert). U m
weiterhin
z u r ü c k g e t r e t e n oder zur
keine Gelegenheit Aufgrund
hören der P o l i t i s c h e n
nannt
so
Zwangslage
für dem F a l l , dass bei
g e w o r d e n wäre und
wurde nämlich der M i n i s t e r p r ä s i d e n t
zur Ergänzung
von
erstreckte und
b z w . bei deren Aufhebung
Zeit danach der M i n i s t e r p r ä s i d e n t
aufgrund
Natur
kein Ausweg aus dieser
lösung der Nationalversammlung
Kommission
der Republik
Ermächtigungsge-
des Grundgesetzes wurde
lich in die exekutive
Präsident
Wahl-
konnte.
D i e Durchführung
sehung
lau-
Nationalver-
VI von 1 9 4 6 ) nicht auf die Schaffung
setz ( G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l
das
werden könnten. Und
könnte d i e Regierung
Rechtsregeln mit ö f f e n t l i c h - r e c h t l i c h e r
gefunden
über
gültigen
schriften des G r u n d g e s e t z e s über die Staatsform (13. § ) ,
der
die
einzigen Fall
eines auch für die Zukunft
solchen U m s t ä n d e n
entsprechen
Exper-
Justizministe-
neuen
XXII von
Wahlrechtsregelung
Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg wurde der K o m p e t e n z b e r e i c h
der Nationalversammlung
K a m m e r b e s t e h e n d e n Parlament
die Pflicht
dem
aus einer
übertragen. Und als Ergänzung
Gesetzes von 1946 wurde der Kompetenzbereich hauptes durch
33
zur Einberufung
P a r l a m e n t s ergänzt. Die Beschlüsse
des
des
Staatsober-
und Auflösung
erschienen als
des
Präsidial-
entscheidungen.
Ermächtigung
zum Erlass von
Verordnungen
Die genaue Beschreibung
der zur Führung der
genheiten erteilte früheren vollen Ermächtigung erfolgte im Gesetzesartikel
funktionierte Ministerium. - aufgrund
die Regierung
gleich
des Gesetzesartikels III von 1848 -
zum Kompetenzbereich
A n g e l e g e n h e i t e n . Die Ermächtigung Gewährleistung tungsordnung
entschied die
Nationalver-
1945 in Kraft getretene
welchen privatrechtlichen,
anderen,
Exekutiv-
verantworliches
der Minister
zur Erlassung
Gesetz
strafrechtlichen,
Verwaltungsgehörenden
erfolgte im I n t e r e s s e
der wirtschaftlichen,
er-
von V e r o r d n u n g e n in
der Gesetzgebung
finanziellen und
der
Verwal-
d e s Staates.
Die Schranken der Ermächtigung
sind in dieser
Rechtsregel
fixiert. Auch in den späteren Ermächtigungsgesetzen
ist als
ständiges Element verblieben, dass diese Verordnungen der Nationalversammlung
geschaffenen
chen können, dagegen konnten sprechende Bestimmungen lichen der Grund dingung
provi-
Nationalversammlung
auch w e i t e r h i n als
sammlung. D a s am 16. D e z e m b e r
und
der Staatsmacht. A l s
neu gebildeten
Über die Verantwortung
mächtigte d a s Ministerium
Regierung
XI des J a h r e s 1945 über die
sorische R e g e l u n g der A u s ü b u n g organ der durch die W a h l e n
Landesangeleder
Gesetzen nicht
den von
widerspre-
sie den - früheren G e s e t z e n
enthalten, denn dies war ja im
wider-
wesent-
für ihre Schaffung. Die andere k o n s t a n t e
Be-
s c h l o s s sich an die Zeitdauer, bzw. an die vor deren Ao-
lauf eingetretene R e g i e r u n g s v e r ä n d e r u n g Die unbeständige K o n d i t i o n e n , an die Kommissionen
(Ausschüsse)
terhin das Verbot der Veränderung sten Gewalt
der Staatsstruktur
- mit A u s n a h m e
an.
die Vorlegung
zur
Billigung
der Nationalversammlung, der Organisation,
bedeuteten
der
gleichzeitig
wei-
oberauch
der Bestimmungen zur W i e d e r h e r s t e l l u n g
des
Gleich-
gewichtes des Staatshaushaltes und zur Gewährleistung
der
öffent-
34
G. Máthé
lichen V e r s o r g u n g
-
men sine
lege und
n u l l a poena
die D u r c h s e t z u n g
Der
erwähnte
Gesetzesartikel
die U n v e r ä n d e r l i c h k e i t gewalt
des P r i n z i p s nullum
XI von 1 9 4 5 fixierte
der O r g a n i s a t i o n
ge der
ist v e r s t ä n d l i c h ,
Staatsform
gründet
der o b e r s t e n
da d i e s durch
ausgebrochenen
beachtungswert,
zum Ausdruck
brachte,
den
letzterem
die am
währleistung
der B e d ü r f n i s s e Gang
ist die
9. Januar
seine zur
Tätigkeit mit
a u s ü b t . 8 D a s engere K a b i n e t t
diesbezügliche Aufgabe
unter a n d e r e m
erfüllt. Zur Bestimmung
der in W i r t s c h a f t s a n g e l e g e n h e i t e n eine
neuere Regierungsverordnung
tisch die
ist
sich
- unter auf den
Verordnungen Die
Beachtung
wiederholte
ersten R e g i e r u n g Gesetzesartikel
des G l e i c h g e w i c h t e s
Die
zu
seine
E r l a s s von
Ver-
Verordnungen Ähnlich
zu
wurde
problema-
auch
erlassenden
- nach dem A m t s a n t r i t t Republik
-
erfolgte mit
in I n t e r e s s e der
der dem
Schaffung
d i e Erlassung
Charakters
verpflichtet, g
von
ermöglichte. Die
die V e r o r d n u n g e n
der
VerRe-
Natio-
unterbreiten.
an die Z e i t d a u e r
das von der V o r l a g e seinsberechtigung
Schutz der
des Staatshaushaltes,
war w e i t e r h i n
nalversammlung
erlassenen
1946, w e l c h e r
ordnungen öffentlich-rechtlichen gierung
Ober-
hat
Regierungsermächtigung.
ungarischen
von
trat Ge-
Regelungsmöglichkeiten
erlassen.7
Ermächtigung
der VI
be-
dessen
der Z e i t der E r m ä c h t i g u n g
strafrechtlichen
beziehende
mit dem
des
und
Hilfe des
sten W i r t s c h a f t s t r a t e s
ordnungen
BeFra-
Regierungs-
1946 in K r a f t
des Wirtschaftslebens
erforderliche
dieser
sich in der
dass d a s M i n i s t e r i u m
ordentlichem
allein
Staats-
p o l i t i s c h e n Kampf e i n d e u t i g
wurde. In V e r b i n d u n g m i t
verordnung
cri-
lege.
als b e s c h r ä n k e n d e B e d i n g u n g . Die H e r v o r h e b u n g
schränkung
und
sine
gebundenen Ermächtigungen
der M i n i s t e r r a t e s betont
nicht
verloren.Ihr
hatten,
w i r d , ihre
Charakterisitikum
wie
Dabestand
6 S i e h e V e r o r d n u n g Nr. 1 2 . 0 9 0 / 1 9 4 5 ME. K é t év h a t á l y o s jogs z a b á l y a i (Geltende R e c h t s r e g e l n von zwei J a h r e n ) 1 9 4 5 - 1 9 4 6 . Budapest, 1947. pp. 1 4 8 - 1 5 1 .
y
MATHÉ, G.: A g a z d a s á g i r á n y í t á s á n a k k o r m á n y z a t i s z e r v e (Das R e g i e r u n g s o r g a n für die W i r t s c h a f t s l e i t u n g ) . Acta F ас. P o l - J u r . U n i v . S e i . T o m . XVIII. Budapest, 1 9 7 6 . pp. 3 6 3 - 3 7 6 . 8
UMKL-T0
521/1946
35
Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg jedoch
in einer B e s c h r ä n k u n g
z e s a r t i k e l XVI ber
freie und
v o n 1946
1946 v e r l ä n g e r t ) ,
in I n t e r e s s e e i n e r len W i r t s c h a f t s -
geordneten
erklärt. W ä h r e n d
getroffen
sammlung
geschaffenem
dert,
wurden,
G e s e t z a b w e i c h t oder
festlegt
entscheidend
ordnungsrechten.
nicht m e h r
Frist
Mit
zur
a n . E s wurden zwei
mit
a r t i k e l XVI von 1 9 4 6
Ebd.
2880/1946
der
31.
Wiederder
aus,
dass
halben
Dezember
so b e d e u t e t
wurde die R e g i e r u n g
die
Fixie-
des
Ver-
wiederholt
Verlängerung
der
Kodifikationshauptab-
wandte eine a l l e i n s t e h e n d e vorbereitet:
die
Formulierungsänderungen XVI von
Ver-
anzu-
"philologischen"
nur für d i e A u s ü b u n g
wiederholten
dem Text des G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l s
dia V a r i a n t e В / " e i n f a c h
9
die b i s zum
Gesetzesentwürfe
А / " s t i m m t e von g e r i n g e r e n
eines
XVI von 1 9 4 6 in einem
k o n f r o n t i e r t . Die
des J u s t i z m i n i s t e r i u m s
verän-
Strafe
Gesichtspunkt
vorkommt,nur
dem P r o b l e m
der E r m ä c h t i g u n g
teilung
öffentlich-rechtli-
nur G e g e n s t a n d
eine S c h r a n k e
im L a u f e der K o d i f i k a t i o n
keine
Nationalver-
oder h i n s i c h t l i c h
von dem
des Gesetzesartikels
entstanden,
die
ex-
das
" . . . es k a n n
der G e w ä h r l e i s t u n g
von E r m ä c h t i g u n g s g e s e t z e n ,
der Z e i t d a u e r
bisher
des S t a a t s h a u s h a l t e s und
sich ist n i c h t
1949
Gesetzes-
Gesetz
als im Gesetz v o r g e s e h e n e
des G l e i c h g e w i c h t e s 9 öffentlichen Versorgung."
rung
Bedingungen
Staats-
Vorrang.
welche d i e V e r w a l t u n g s o r g a n i s a t i o n
herstellung
der W o r t l a u t
absoluten
wird im l e t z t e r e n
w e n d e n v o r s c h r e i b t , mit A u s n a h m e
Dutzend
katastropha-
zweitdeutige
formuliert:
sowie
g e n o s s der
d i e von einem d u r c h
ein neues V e r b r e c h e n
an
Versorgung
die b e s c h r ä n k e n d e n
b r e c h e n s eine s c h w e r e r e
D a s Zitat
A u s der
der u n ü b l i c h e und
werden,
hat,
I n t e r e s s e s s . Es ist
OktoSinn
Wirtschaftslebens
sich e r g e b e n d
folgendermassen
Regelung
Charakter
des
Verwaltung.
die ö f f e n t l i c h e
p r e s s i s verbis b e s t i m m t
cher
der Ordnung
in diesem
G l e i c h g e w i c h t s des S t a a t s h a u s h a l t e s ,
wird v i e l l e i c h t
Verfügungsrecht
Geset-
w u r d e bis 31.
der R e g i e r u n g
und F i n a n z l a g e
h a u s h a l t und auch Dadurch
Gegenständen. Der
(die E r m ä c h t i g u n g
sicherte
Hand zur G e w ä h r l e i s t u n g
des u n g e s t ö r t e n
text
nach den
Variante
abgesehen
1946 ü b e r e i n " ,
über d i e V e r l ä n g e r u n g
enthaltener Ermächtigung
Lösung
der im
während
Gesetzes-
verfügte".
Die
G. Máthé
36 Textkorrektur des
der Variante А / weist r e s t l o s die
rechtlichen Verbotes n a c h : "... aufgrund
Ermächtigung
k ö n n e n keine V e r o r d n u n g e n
den von der N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
die V e r w a l t u n g s o r g a n i s a t i o n Verbrechen festgelegt c h e n s kann k e i n e
schwerere,
enthaltenen
Gesetzen
abweichen,
Charakter haben, ebenso
nicht verändert
werden,
der
erlassen w e r d e n , die von
geschaffenen
Verfügungen ö f f e n t l i c h - r e c h t l i c h e r
Eindeutigkeit
werden, kein
oder hinsichtlich
eines
a l s im Gesetz v o r g e s e h e n e
Strafe
der
leistung des G l e i c h g e w i c h t e s
odee
Ordnung
der ö f f e n t l i c h e n
Versorgung."""
Gesetzesvorschlages"
setzesartikel XXVIII die
Variante des
"alterna-
der a u s s c h l i e s s e n d e n
zur Vorlage eines G e s e t z e s e n t w u r f e s
kann die
Verpflich-
in einem f r ü h e r e n
setz
durch w i e d e r h o l t e V e r l ä n g e r u n g
der Frist bewertet
erfolgte
mit der Verstaatlichung
nämlich in V e r b i n d u n g
Kohlnebergbaus,
G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l XIII von 1946. D i e s e
schrieb als Gegenlei stung
schädigung
vor und
des V o r l a g e t e r m i n e s
an die N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
zeitweiligen Ermächtigung zugleich
d e r Regierung
ablief, verschmolz
wurf und zur V e r o r d n u n g
die Ermächtigung
D i e s e r Zwang zur u n g e w o h n t e n Anpaarung r i e l l e n Begründung erklärt. D i e
M a s s n a h m e davon dafür
10
Ebd.
von
1946. ministe-
Gesetzgebung
liess sich bei T r e f f e n
leiten, d a s s es die Zeit
umständdieser
geeignet
durch Schaffung
aufgrund
der
einer
Einträglichkeit
übergehenden Vermögen
zwischenzeitlich
3721/1946
noch nicht
dem Wert und der
der
-
Gesetzesent-
wurde von der
hielt, die Frage der E n t s c h ä d i g u n g
kann. O b w o h l
zum
XXVIII
über die V e r s t a a t l i c h u n g
der in staatliches Eigentum den
die Frist
zum G e s e t z
G e s e t z e s zu k l ä r e n , in dem m i t
Frist
- zufälligerweise
im G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l
des
in einem
die
und
werden.
eine Ent-
dafür m u s s t e der I n d u s t r i e m i n i s t e r sorgen. Da
Ge-
Rechtsre-
für die V e r s t a a t l i c h u n g
s p ä t e r einzureichenden G e s e t z e s e n t w u r f
lich
so
Bedin-
Dies
gel
(Ge-
1 9 4 7 ) blieb
offen.
Als spezifische Form d e r Ermächtigung tung
der
В / durch die N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
von 1 9 4 6 - bis 28. Februar
Frage der R e c h t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
gungen
Gewähr-
8
Mit der A n n a h m e der v e r e i n f a c h t e n tiven
neues
Verbre-
festgelegt w e r d e n , es sei d e n n , dass im Interesse des Staatshaushaltes
kann
gerechnet
wer-
erforderlichen
Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg
A n g a b e n die V o r b e r e i t u n g s a r b e i t e n beendet
waren, beanspruchte
gültigen E n t w u r f e s
des
dennoch
EntschÖdigungsgesetzes
die Ausfertigung
noch weitere I n f o r m a t i o n e n . Die
konnte infolge der Verschleppung
37
des
Gesetzgebung
der internationalen
Verhand-
lungen die sich a u s dem Friedensvertrag
auf Ungarn
Lasten nicht genau
sie nicht rasch
kennen. D e s h a l b
lung, beim Mass der Entschädigung
nahm
end-
ergebenden
wurde der allgemeine
StelGlaub-
würdigkeit des L a n d e s vor A u g e n gehalten und
die A b w e i c h u n g
"von den festen Grundlagen der W i r k l i c h k e i t "
hätte dem
haushalt
erlegt werden
Zu einer wesentlichen V e r ä n d e r u n g
der
Ermächtigungsge-
des Erlasses von Verordnungen ist e s
einmal g e k o m m e n . Die Geltung
des G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l s
nur VIII
von 1947 (bis 31. M a i 1947) erlosch mit dem Amtsantritt 12 Dinnyés-Regierung. setzesartikel XVI
Die diese v e r l ä n g e r n d e von 1947 -
Regierungswechsels
kam es zum Gesetzesartikel
der Ermächtigungen
te. Für
seine V o r b e r e i t u n g s a r b e i t e n
entsprechend
bis
sie w e g e n
des Beschlusses
XXVI
ist
des dieser
von 1947, der
zum Ende dieser Epoche
- Ge-
Septem-
am 24. S e p t e m b e r ihre G e l t u n g . I n
Ordnung
der
Ermächtigung
lautete zwar bis zum 30.
ber, doch infolge der Wahlen im August verlor
Situation
auf-
konnten.
setze hinsichtlich noch
Staats-
solche Lasten auferlegt, deren Tragung ihm n i c h t
die
bestimm-
charakteristisch,
der interparteilichen
dass
Konferenz
von der K o d i f i k a t i o n s a b t e i l u n g wesentliche V e r ä n d e r u n g e n am 14 Entwurf durchgeführt wurden. Im V e r g l e i c h zur b i s h e r i g e n Struktur
ist a n s t e l l e der im allgemeinen
F r i s t e n die Systematisierung ü b e r s c h r e i t e n , getreten. E i n e
vierteljährlichen
von Terminen, qualitative
die weitere P r a x i s der P a r l a m e n t s b i l l i g u n g
die ein h a l b e n Veränderung
Jahr
bedeutete
des R e g i e r e n s
auf
^ B e z ü g l i c h der Modifizierung des U n t e r b r e i t u n g s t e r m i n s des Gesetz E n t w u r f e s zur E n t s c h ä d i g u n g siehe die G e s e t z e s a r tikel XV und XVI von 1947. G e l t e n d e Rechtsregeln von 1 9 4 7 , (ung.), Budapest, 1918. 12
UMKL-T0
13
Ebd.
2083/1947
14
Ebd.
3620/1947
241/1947
G. Máthé
38 dem
V e r o r d n u n g s w e g e . ^ Wir
haben e r w ä h n t , dass die
auf der ersten
Sitzung
nalversammlung
zur Billigung
durch
die W a h l e n
sprach
vorgelegt
neuentstandene
sich a b e r
die Kontrolle
dieses R e c h t
werden m u s s t e n . Die
nicht m e h r
nachträglicher
(Parlament)
zu, sondern
war
überliess
se noch v/or der
Vorlegung
die Regierung
Billigung
schaft v o r z u l e g e n , was sie natürlich
das P a r l a m e n t Schliesslich
zu
eigentümlichen
die
der sich
spezielle
die P f l i c h t ,
auf die
Bestimmung
des
(24. S e p t e m b e r ) u n d
lament das Stat.uierungsrecht
die
(25. N o v e m b e r ) in der
nicht a l s o die
nung swege zu m o d i f i z i e r e n
Tatsache
setzesartikel
schliesslich
Verord-
waren.
die Führung
Staatshaushaltes des S t a a t s h a u s h a l t e s
beziehenden
ein s p e z i f i s c h e s Verbindung ssystem
und I n d e m n i t ä t . Bis zu Annahme der
w u r d e n drei Flaushaltsgesetze
geschaffen.
X I V ) über das B u d g e t
setzesartikel XIX
Zwi-
des Par-
dazu im F a l l e des B e s t e h e n s der Er-
zur Führung d e s
bedeuteten
die
Verordnungen
mächtigung ur.d i n derem R a h m e n auch w e i t e r h i n auf dem
von A p p r o p r i a t i o n
wollte
Veröffentlichung
der R e g i e r u n g , also die
Verordnungen,
selbst, welche im Vergleich
Die sich auf
Gesetzes-
ex-lex-Zustanri ü b e r b r ü c k e n , der durch
schenzeit e i n g e t r e t e n war. Für diese P e r i o d e billigte
Ermächtigungen
dar-
Ermächtigungen
(§ 3) zu erwähnen. D i e s e
d e s neueren E r m ä c h t i g u n g s g e s e t z e s
d e s Erlasses v o n
die-
Kommis-
berichten.
d e s Jahres 1947
Regierungsveränderung
ge-
Körper-
nicht daran hinderte,
zu verkünden. Die Politische
ist als Novum
beziehenden R e c h t s e t z u n g a r t i k e l s XXVI
zwar
dieser e n g e r e n
sion hatte in ihrem K o n t r o l l - K o m p e t e n z b e r e i c h
Ermächtigung
Natio-
der Normen der P o l i t i s c h e n Kommission. Die im M i -
zwungen, zwe-ks
den
der
Nationalversammlung
nisterrat a n g e n o m m e n e n V e r o r d n u n g e n
über
Verordnungen
nach Ablauf der Ermächtigung
(Ge-
1 9 4 6 / 4 7 , das zweite der Ge-
von 1948 für das Jahr
d a s Gesetz V von
Verfassung
D a s erste 1947
1949 über
1947/48 und
das
dritte
den Staatshaushalt
betreffenden J a h r e s . L e t z t e r e s i d e n t i f i z i e r t e wieder
nach
des einer
15 E b d . 1 2 7 7 / 1 9 4 8 ; 5155/1948 (siehe G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l XXIV von 1 9 4 8 ) w e i t e r h i n 2266/1949 (siehe G e s e t z XVII von 1 9 4 9 )
Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg jahrzehntelangen
Veränderung
d s Kalenderjahr mit dem
haltsjahr. Zu den vorangehenden
kamen nocn weitere
G e s e t z e . So wurde d a s erste bald Dreijahrplan g e f o l g t , während "proportionierte"
Indemnität
39
bedeutende
vom Gesetzesartikel
d a s Gesetz von ergänzt
1948
Haus-
über den
durch
Die mit der Erfüllung der s aatlichen Ausgaben und ihrer Deckung d i e n e n d e n E i n n a h m e n zusammenhängenden gungen schlössen
an, richteten
der zu
Ermächti-
sich eng an die Ermächtigungsgesetze
gierung im V e r o r d n u n g s w a g e
eine
wurde.
zur Re-
sich nach d e r e n
Inter-
vallen - mit A u s n a h m e der ersten Hälfte vor. 1947. Für das Jahr 1945 wurde die Regierung
befreit von der Un-
terbreitung des H a u s h a l t e s vor die Gesetzgebung. Die rungsmassnahmen
Regie-
der provisorischen Nationalversammlung
cher, der ö f f e n t l i c h e n Lasten und Ausgaben warer, durch
in Saden Ge-
setzesartikel X von 1945 legitimiert. Z u g l e i c h wurde der gierung das V e r t r a u e n ausgesprochen, durch Führung d e s haushaltes, Aufrechterhaltung chen Betriebe,
sowie die sich bei
stillstandsabkommens und
und Instandsetzung der der Durchführung
Re-
Staats-
staatlid e s Waffen-
ergebenden Ausgaben weiterhin zu
erfüllen,
die Ausgaben aufgrund der Einnahmen a u s den gegenwärtig
stehenden, eventuell zu modifizierenden
oder
neu zu
R o c h t s r e g e l n zu decken. In S a c h e n solcher Ausgaben, d i e die Einnahmen nicht minister
gerecht werden können, konnte der
- auf dem Wege von Krediten -
Über die Rechnungslegung 1944 massgebend
war -
Massnehmen
durch
Finanz-
treffen.
- bei der das Staatsbudget
verlangte der Gesetzgeber
be-
schaffenden
des
Jahres
lediglich
eine
Information. Die Verzögerung 1947
der A r b e i t e n zum Staatshaushalt
- die z w i s c h e n z e i t l i c h e
die Überschreitung
Modifizierung
Der
Gesetzesartikel
-
des Preisniveaus,
II von 1947 folgte d e s h a l b dem
3767/1946
die
Verziehung Indemnität. Gesetzes-
- obwohl der Finanzminister am
10. Dezember das Budget der N a t i o n a l v e r s a m m l u n g
Ebd.
die
führten zu einer wiederholten
a r t i k e l XXVII von 194б""°, weil
16
1946/
der Ausgaben der einzelnen Ministerien,
V e r ä n d e r u n g e n der W i e d e r g u t m a c h u n g s f o r d e r u n g e n , d e s Personalabbaus
von
unterbreitete -
G. Máthé
40 zu deren Behandlung
aber w e g e n der " r e i c h e n Geschäftsordnung" 17 reelle C h a n c e bestand. Und wie sehr begrün-
d e s Plenums k e i n e
det diese Sorge war, wird
d u r c h ein w e i t e r e s Gesetz
sen, welches ü b e r eine Verlängerung fügte
(Gesetzesartikel IX v o n
Die
die Ausgaben
Appropriation
von noch einem M o n a t
(l. August
1946 - 31. Juli
noch um zehn Prozent die
wurde wahrscheinlich
der Modifizierung
der bisherigen
1947)
Einnahmen.
"unter E i n h a l t u n g
b i s h e r i g e n G e s e t z e und V e r o r d n u n g e n b e z i e h u n g s w e i s e tung
ver-
1947).18
1947, b i s 31. März
Im ersten S t a a t s h a u s h a l t überschritten
nachgewie-
Gesetze und
der
der Einhal-
Verordnungen"
gegeben. Die folgende t u n g e n betrifft,
jährliche
Budget wurde,
nicht in der Weise wie
n o m m e n . Damals шаг die R e g i e r u n g bilisierung,
jetzt hinsichtlich
gezwungen, um die E r m ä c h t i g u n g
was seine
Vorberei-
seine V o r g ä n g e r
in Zusammenhang m i t der A n n a h m e des
zu
Dreijahrusplanos
ersuchen.
Die K o r r e l a t i o n der d i e Planwirtschaft ins L e b e n und
die R e g i e r u n g s e r m ä c h t i g u n g s z y k l e n
ein
eigentümliches
XVII
gewährenden
Bild a u f . Das Plangesetz
von 1947) wurde am
Gesetz
verkündet.
e r s c h i e n die Verordnung N r . d u s t r i e bezüglich
(Gesetzesartikel
In der Zwischenzeit
des E n t w e r f e n des
weiter
17
Ebd.
4464/1946
1S
Ebd.
715/1947
von
1947)
- am 8. Juni für In-
des D r e i j a h r e s p l a n e s herausgegeben
sind die Verordnungen
über
stellung des A m t e s für P r e i s - und M a t e r i a l w i r t s c h a f t ,
19
(Ge-
wegen des
Industrieproduktionsplanes,
B e r u f u n g auf f r ü h e r e R e g i e r u n g s v e r o r d n u n g e n 19 Beachtenswert
XVI
19600/1947 d e s Ministers
w e l c h e im I n t e r e s s e der Durchführung
de.
Gesetz
31. Mai, a u c h
seine Gültigkeit. D a s die P e r m a n e n z der Er-
mächtigung deklarierende am 19. J u n i
(Gesetzesartikel
ermächtigende
setzesartikel V I I I von 1 9 4 7 ) verlor am
wurde
rufenden
N o r m e n weist
11. Juli 1947 verkündet. D a s für die
E x e k u t i v e zum E r l a s s von V e r o r d n u n g e n
Regierungswechsels,
ange-
der Sta-
unter wur-
die Aufsowie
/ Magyar K ö z l ö n y R e n d e l e t e k Tára (Ungaricches Amtsblatt, A b t . V e r o r d n u n g e n ) vom 8. J u n i 1947. S i e h e : V e r o r d n u n g e n Nr. 12.400/1945 ME und 5740/1946 ME.
Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg über die industrielle
41
Materialwirtschaft und Preiscegelung,
als Aufgabe des Amtes auch diu Vorbereitung 20 v o r g e s e h e n war.
der
da
industriellen
Planwirtschaft
Die in dem P l a n w i r t s c h a f t s g e s e t z enthaltene Regierungsermächtigung bunden und
der
Nationalversammlung
konkurrierte,
sachlich beschränkt, m i t "parallel
zeitlich
lebenden"
geErmäch-
21 tigungsgesetzen.
W a s die strafrechtliche R e p r e s s i o n
anbelangt,
hat sich d a s Verordnungsrecht u n g e w ö h n l i c h ausgabreitet die Statuierung
von Verbrechen, d i e Ermessung
lichen Verantwortung Sanktionensystems
und die Inanspruchnahme 22 (z.B. T o d e s s t r a f e ) . '
der
durch
strafrecht-
der des ganzen
Nach dem U m w e g , der das a l l g e m e i n e und d a s besondere hältnis der E r m ä c h t i g u n g e n d a r s t e l l e n
sollte, verfolgen
nun die sich auf die Führung des S t a a t s h a u s h a l t e s Indemnität
Ver-
wir
beziehende
weiter.
Der durch dem Staatlichen P l a n a m t veröffentlichte
Plan
kann im Grunde genommen als ein für mehrere J a h r e staatliches
Investitionsprogramm
seiner Funktion ergab
geltendes 23 bewertet w e r d e n . Aus d i e s e r
sich, dass die bereits zum Teil ausge-
20 D a s Amt für P r e i s und M a t e r i a l w i r t s c h a f t gelangte u n t e r Aufsicht d e s M i n i s t e r s für I n d u s t r i e . Die allgemeinen P r i n z i pien der i n d u s t r i e l l e n Materialwirtschaft w u r d e n entsprechend den Beschlüssen d e s Oberster W i r t s c h a f t r a t e s vnm Leiter d i e s e s Ministerium festgelegt. Siehe: Verordnung Nr. 5740/1946 M E , Veröffentlichung am 2 8 . Mai 1947. Geltende Rechtsregeln v o n zwei J a h r e n 1945-1946 (urig.), Budapest, 1947. p p . 56-59. '""'"Vgl. Regierungsverordnung N r . 8530/1947 bezüglich d e r Aufstellung des P l a n w i r t s c h a f t s r a t e s und des Staatlichen P l a n amtes; aufgrund der von dieser Verordnung e r t e i l t e n E r m ä c h t i gung die Verordnung Nr. 10520/1947 ME über d i e P l a n b e a u f t r a g t e n . Geltende H e c h t s r e g e l n von 1947 ( u n g . ) , Budapest, 1940. pp. 2 4 2 , 246. 22 " R e g i e r u n g s v e r o r d n u n g Nr. 14200/1947 ü b e r den strafrechtlichen Schutz bei der D u r c h f ü h r u n g des Wirtschaftsdrei jahrplanes. E b d . pp. 247-249. 23 Р Е Т П , I. - S Z A K Á C S , S.: A hazai gazdaség négy é v t i z e d ő "i3к története 1945-1948 (Geschichte von vier Jahrzehnten d e r u n g a r i s c h e n W i r t s c h a f t , Teil I: E p o c h e des W i r t s c h a f t s a u f b a u s und der Leitung durch P l a n a n w e i s u n g e n ) . Budapest, 1985. p. 8 6 89.
42
G. Máthé
stalteten Planzahlen zeitlich
endgültig
der
einzelnen
Ministerien m i t den zwischen-
gewordenen Planaufgaben abgestimmt
mussten, w a s wiederum
m i t m e h r f a c h e r Ermächtigung
werden
geschah.
,
dem Gesetzesartikel
von 1947 (1. August bis 31. O k t o b e r ) -
XX
sind für d e n Gesetzesartikel XXVI
von
1947 (bis 31.
1948) die H a u s h a l t k e n n z a h l e n in e i n z e l n e n Fragen scheidend,
doch wegen
der Höhe der
Auf Auswirkung unter R ü c k s i c h t
Januar
endgültig
Ausgaben, s o w i e
rener S a c h - und Ü b e r g a n g s ausgaben lassende Entscheidung .. , 25 lieh.
d e r politischen
auf d i e
insgesamt
Ereignisse,
s e c h s Wochen
und Parlamentsdiskussion
ent-
verschie-
war eine die Rahmen
d e s obersten W i r t s c h a f t s r a t e s
Haushaltskommissions-
Nach .94
offen-
erforder-
sowie
weiterhin
beanspruchende des
unterbrei-
teten H a u s h a l t s v o r s c h l a g e s wurde e i n e für die Z e i t
bis zum
3 1 . März 1948
Vorlage d e s M i n i s t e r r a t e s 26 eingebracht. Es ist a l l -
gemein b e k a n n t , dass in diesen M o n a t e n unter U m g e h u n g
der K o -
alitionsverhandlungen
u n d mit A u s a r b e i t u n g der K o n z e p t i o n
Industriezweiglenkung
sich bei den Industrieunternehmen
erfolgreiche von Staat
Verstaatlichung
und
a b s p i e l t e , welche im
seinen U n t e r n e h m e n
eine
der
eine
Verhältnis
entscheidend
neue Lage
schuf. Gleichzeitig mit dem systems der
Ausbau d e s
Industrielenkung
begann
zentralen
Organisations-
die Vorbereitung
halts für d a s K a l e n d e r j a h r . Der M i n i s t e r r a t nahm
auf E r f a h r u n g s - und Z w e c k m ä s s i g k e i t s g e s i c h t s p u n k t e so z.B. d i e stitionen,
günstigere Wirkung der sowie unter
Berufung
"Atmosphäre"
auf
setzesvorschlag um Indemnität Es ist minister
initiiert
zwecks der
nicht uninteressant
24
UMKL-T0
23
Ebd.
3728/1947
26
Ebd.
143/1948
2362/1947
Stellung, Inve-
Steuer-
der so v e r b l e i b e n d e n
von 1949 b e t o n t und ein Veränderungen,
für fünf M o n a t e des laufenden
Ge-
weiterhin
Jahres
zu erwähnen, d a s s der
d e s ersten v e r a n t w o r t l i c h e n
Berufung
für die
d i e Vorteile d e s
jahres. E s wurde die g ü n s t i g e W i r k u n g Zeit für d i e Planung d e s Haushaltes
des H a u s -
unter
Ministeriums
Finanz-
für die Zeit
43
Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg bis zum
31. Dezember
1848 die e r s t e n Haushaltkennzahlen
des
g a r i s c h e n S t a a t s h a u s h a l t e s a u f s t e l l t e . Nach dem Ausgleich die B u d g e t s ebenfalls
für das Kalenderjahr
haushalt brachte
bekräftigt. Hinsichtlich der Gesetzesartikel
d e m z u f o l g e das Haushaltsjahr bis zum 1940
XXVI
wurde
1 8 9 7 über d e n
des Beginns d e s
Staats-
Haushaltsjahrs
des Jahres 1 9 1 3 eine V e r ä n d e r u n g ,
vom Juli 1914 a n
- in jedem
Jahr -
30. Juni d e s folgenden J a h r e s dauerte. Mit dem 1.
Januar
(Gesetzesartikel
lender jahrsystem
VII von 1 9 3 9 ) bürgerte
ein, dann r i c h t e t e n
n a t ü r l i c h e Folge der S t a b i l i s i e r u n g 27 an d i e s e n Zeitpunkt.
sich wieder
h a u s h a l t e s gegebenen E r m ä c h t i g u n g e n vorschlag
die H a u s h a l t e nach dem
1949 - 28. F e b r u a r ) und
sprechend, Vorschlag
Führung
abschliessende
die M o n a t e vor dem Haushaltsgesetz
des
als Krieg
Staats-
Indemnitäts-
v o n 1949
er war auch inhaltlich
A p p r o p r i a t i o n hat nämlich nicht dem
d a s Ka-
sich ab 1 . August 1 9 4 6
Schliesslich b e t r a f der die Reihe der zur
(Januar
erneuert.
Die
abgelaufenen Haushalt
ent-
sondern g e m ä s s dem dem Parlament u n t e r b r e i t e t e n
neuen
zur W i r t s c h a f t b e r e c h t i g t . Es sei b e m e r k t , d a s s wir in
der Geschichte u n s e r e s Haushaltsrechtes b e r e i t s einer Lösung
wurden
gefertigt. Dies
auch durch den G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l XX des Jahres
un-
begegnet sind
( G e s e t z e s a r t i k e l XVII v o n
z e s a r t i k e l XXXII von 1923). Zu der neuen Struktur
ähnlichen
1922 und
dieser Veränderung
Geset-
ist es
d e s Budgets von 1949 - R e f o r m h a u s h a l t
wegen genannt)
gekommen sowie w e g e n der "natürlichen" Modifizierung der A u s . 28 gaben. Der das h i e r a r c h i s c h e I n s t i t u t i o n e n s y s t e m der W i r t s c h a f t s lenkung
bestimmende Plan hat später
sche Zielsetzungen
realisiert,
nicht nur
sondern funktionierte a u c h
ein M i t t e l , welches d e t a i l l i e r t e Anweisungen P r o z e s s konnte den v e r m i t t e l n d e n dem politischen
System
27
Ebd.
2519/1948
28
Ebd.
5489/1948
wirtschaftspolitials
trug. In d i e s e m
Ermächtigungsnormen
zwischen
und der Regierung k e i n e Rolle m e h r
zu-
44 kommen. D i e
G. Máthé lediglich
zum Dienst der politischen
gen reduzierte rechtliche
Entscheidun-
Norm als m i t t e l konnte aber nicht
mehr den Z i e l e n entsprechen, zu deren Erreichung 29 herein nicht geeignet ш а г .
sie von vorn-
УПОЛНОМОЧИЕ И УПРАВЛЕНИЕ ГОСУДАРСТВОМ П У Т Е М ПОСТАНОВЛЕНИЙ Г. Матэ
В п р а в и т е л ь с т в е н н о й системе эпохи народной демократии гарантии нормотворчества с особым вниманием были установлены законодательством. З а к о н ы уполномочия с предчетным ограничением относились к нормотворчеству, а т а к ж е к обеспечению бесперебойного функционирования государственной казни /индемнитет/. Обязанность представления постановлений на последующее подтверждение возложилась на коалиционное правительство, а с 1947 года п р а в о пересмотра постановлений было п о р у ч е н о политической комиссии Государственного С о б р а н и я . На основе архивных документов автор показывает развитие данного п р а в о г о института в период 1945-1949 годов.
AUTHORIZATION
A N D STATUTORY
GOVERNMENT
G. Máthé
In t h e governmental system of people's democratic age the guarantees of statutory legislature are shaped by the legislation with special care. The statutory l a w s with conteptual limitation aimed the creation of regulations a n d the security of troublefree operation of the state affairs /indemnity/. The obligation t o submit the statutes for subsequent approval has burdened the coalition government. F r o m 1947 the Political Committee of t h e Parliament has acquired right to supervise the statutes. Based upon the documents in the archives t h e paper presents the development of t h e legal institution b e t w e e n 1945 and 1949.
К.: A jogfeilődás sajátosságai: a jog mint eszköz (Die Eigentümlichkeiten der Rechtsentujicklung: das Recht als M i t t e l ) . Budapest, 1933. pp. 22-23.
Acta Juridica A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 3 2 ( 1 - 2 ) pp. 45-60.(1990)
STATE STRUCTURE AND G O V E R N M E N T IN FEUDAL ABSOLUTISM
18th-CENTURY
L. R á c z Senior Research Officer, Institute for Legal and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Sciences of the Hungarian Academy of S c i e n c e s
"All armed p r o p h e t s have c o n q u e r e d , and the unarmed ones have b e e n distroyed" Machiavelli
The paper seeks the answer to the question what kind of s u b s tantial changes took place in the government of the s t a t e s during the last period of feudalism. On one hand it seems t h a t the person of the monarch prevailed with m o r e emphasis and his ability to govern b e c a m e more and more i m p o r t a n t . All t h e s e brought about the conscious preparation of the future king to govern. On the other hand an important feature of thia- age that the importance of central government has g a i n e d , in the s a m e time its concentrated and uniform character has increased. This uniformisation p r o c e s s can be traced particularly in t h r e e areas: the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of military affairs, the financial administration and the uniformisation of the administration of justice. Meanwhile this new governmental m e t h o d effectively leans on the special skills, this way it r e n d e r s obsolete the traditional corporative institutions of the former feudal government. Their elimination shows changing f o r m s in time and space. Finally we m e n t i o n the fact that the monolitic power of feudal absolutism — which became its pole — sooner or l a t e r requires some kind of institutional control of government, albeit with some limitations. Especially such kind of experiments can be seen where the feudal absolutist governmental form h a s remained for too long time due to some reasons.
I.
The last .phase of feudalism w a s the period
ture, i.e. the b o u r g e o i s state, the b o u r g e o i s r e p u b l i c .
throughout E u r o p e
dal state structure Juridica
the classic
It is also
that these bourgeois states w e r e
Acta
followed
of b o u r g e o i s revolutions creating
form of which
a generally
accepted
by
strucwas
view
built on the ruins of the
crushed by the bourgeois Academiae
a new state
revolutions.
feuExam-
Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
46
L. Rácz
mining,however,
not only
the process of
i.e. the b o u r g e o i s revolution
and the
transformation
following
but also the period before, one can find titutions and
solutions
nitely r e s u l t i n g
t h a t have been
from b o u r g e o i s state
se of f e u d a l i s m . In c o n t r a s t ing to which
ins-
regarded so far as defias early as the last pha-
with the traditional
views
the economic
and
ideological
sphere of
is that it is worth while seeking such
also in the state organization of feudal
accord-
to appreciate
first in the
feudalism,
of warfare
French R e v o l u t i o n : "The interesting
Hungarian
to the de -
attention
the new m e t h o d
de-
preconditions
absolutism.
military h i s t o r i a n s have recently c a l l e d gree one has
decades,
traces of views,
the preconditions of b o u r g e o i s transformation
velop within our opinion
few
itself,
applied
thing here is
(and at the s a m e time i m p o r t a n t from the point of view of military science
and military
ent in the revolutionary and urged for
history) that
by the w r i t e r s
however, a p i o u s wish and when the very
monarchy
republic f o l l o w i n g ism justified.
ry to that of
.
This
into
is defined
at that time.
lengthy period
ministration, by
of
not only
is further
of the 19
Europe, the absolutistic
but also that
this the preconditions of
Euro-
century
of form
state life,
attempts,
of govad-
creating
bourgeois nation
state.
At the same t i m e , the absolutist r e g i m e s of East and
Central
•"•PERJÉS,
26.
CL AUSEWITZ, G. : Magvető, B u d a p e s t , 1983. p.
are
history
process of central
of the w h o l e the unified
centu-
coloured
Western and Eastern
is but a matter
the unifying
absolutopinio^
16th
by absolutism or c e r t a i n absolutist
Europe absolutism
In Western
ernment l a u n c h e d
the period
feudal bourgeois
by the communis
and R u s s i a n monarchies
both characterized while in W e s t e r n
remained, point,
between the
from the middle of the
by the s i g n i f i c a n t differences between pe. The A u s t r i a n
known
war changed."'''
research
as lasting
the 1 9
century. They
the similarities
it m a k e
th
of the 1 8
th
preceding absolutism and the
This concept
of historiography
an elem-
pure theory quite up to the
society w a g i n g
The d i f f e r e n c e s and representative
there was not
warfare that had not been well
State structure of feudal absolutism Europe created
the unified
47
central s t a t e control w i t h i n
framework of the state, but
they could
do this only
rity or ruling nation. So the bourgeois era found cally multi-national Another the mechanism
acted
via a majo-
them as typi-
states.
significant
feature of f e u d a l
of government
the feudal representative cipated
the
became a single-pole
monarchies
in the process of
was that
one.
While
the feudal e s t a t e s
government
beside the ruler
as an "official" opposition, f e u d a l
allow such an opposition
absolutism
to exist. The
absolutism
in
partiand
also
did not
ruler of a feudal
te state relied
solely on himself and
the personality
of the ruler came to be more emphasized
absolu-
h i s own establishment.
So
than in
2 the earlier centuries, as
revealed
a l s o by earlier
It is no w o n d e r , and we m u s t also take that with the ever higher
it into
technicalness
number of qualified persons working
consideration
of administration
there
prepared
for
from early c h i l d h o o d . Consequently, the
chances of the existence of more outstanding historical alities among
the
also i n c r e a s e d , and
the rulers of the age were ever more consciously their future activity
research.
person-
the rulers g r e w , too.
This coming
into prominence of the personality
of the ru,.
lers moved s o m e scholars to render the period of absolutism the personality or 16
of the absolute ruler
absolute and seek
late absolute rulers before and a f t e r th
to
19
early
period
(the
th
cc.). A good rick
the given
and
example of t h e s e extremities
II in the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily
in the
is Frede-
1200's whose
rule seems for certain s c h o l a r s to be an early appearance of absolute way of g o v e r n m e n t . ve to deny the significance age of absolutism
3
These r e m a r k s do not naturally of outstanding
like L o u i s XIV. F r e d e r i c k
II or Maria Theresa and Joseph rian point of
2
II, so
personalities the G r e a t ,
important from
the ser-
in the
Catherine
the Hunga-
view.
H0LDSW0RTH,W.S: d o n , 1926. p. 4.
A history
3 T h e New Encyclopedia 1974. p. 700.
of E n g l i s h
Britannica.
law. V o l .
Macropaedia.
IX. LonVol. 15.
L. Rácz
48 The predominance
of the r u l e r s ' personality
did not
come
about abruptly, but w a s the result of a long process. At any se, it came to the fore practically which can be accounted
taken
of
single-
The first s t e p s towards
in Europe as early as the
the formation of the centralized
15^
this
century
feudal monarchies. The
is also a s i g n , such as
famous Hungarian r u l e r
Matthias
by the historians
for
the repeated
Corvinus,
strengthening
rights, for the deft manoeuvring in the political the feudal narchy
states, and
and a unified
in the Danube region.
kingdom besides
nand of Aragon. It is interesting influences also the political mous lé"''
century
the century-old
another
among
to know that
ruler
not at all
these
rule part Ferdi-
efforts
times. The
famodell-
on the basis
of
and e t h i c a l principles.
feature was a rationality
terize only the m e r c h a n t s in o l d e r
mo-
a stronger
f a m o u s ruler,
s c i e n c e of t h o s e
Christian political
important
ruler's
struggle
notary of F l o r e n c e Niccolo Machiavelli
ed his image of the talented
ruler's
of the
Similar e f f o r t s can be seen on the
of the French kings of the day and
1
the
remembered
for his efforts to c r e a t e a strong
Hungarian
with
appea-
rence of great historical figures of the day
that used to
times, and
ca-
absolutism,
for just with the above-mentioned
-pole nature of p o l i t i c a l power. were actually
in the age
he held the
His
characreason
of the state above all other m a t t e r s . Machiavelli's a d v i c e s
of
government did not originate only
his
age from where he took past also motivated ernment
from the direct events
his e x a m p l e s . The e v e n t s of the
of
recent
them. For e x a m p l e , when speaking of the
of a conquered
tory differs from the
country
he says: if the conquered
parent country
in its language,
gov-
terri-
customs
and laws, it is the safest for the king to m o v e there and
gov-
4
ern his newly conquered if the learned author Corvinus
land from
had studied
its own capital. the fights
It s e e m s as
of our M a t t h i a s
against the Austrian provinces. A f t e r
conquering
Vien-
MACHIAVELLI : A fejedelem (The Prince) In.: Machiavelli és Nagy Frigyes a fejedelemről ("Machiavelli and Frederick the Great on the prince). Trnas. J u h á s z Vilmos. Gfficina, Budapest, 1944.
p.
22.
State structure of feudal absolutism na, he namely moved his seat did
not refer
to
o t h e r s in those
there
of the renaissance
with the
and of humanism
new intellectual
(their
formerly
secular and
lay persons.
of politisuch as the
At the same t i m e , ever mo-
All this contributed
c h a n g e of the early-Middle-Age
trend
humanitari-
more works
t a b o o subjects
and the good way of government.
image of
greatly to the
the mystic
of the image of the k i n g
ruler and
as a consciously
act-
ing organizer, the leader of a community.
A good e x a m p l e for
this
Thomas M o o r e
is besides Machiavelli
Horologium
early
of
of these contributions
Kings' Mirrors (Királytükrök),
n e w , rational with
the Utopia
Principium of Antonio G u e v a r a , the tutor
V. Although s o m e
when it w a s
the rulers
of
look like the
their
way of t h i n k i n g . The peak
absolutism
in
as e x a m p l e s .
cal science w e r e written on
the development
to quite
thought f a m o u s appear
of the w o r l d ) that more and
re authors were
Machiavelli
King M a t t h i a s , for it was customary
It is evidently connected
ruler
immediately.
days, but the rulers he
his work frequently
an conception
49
content
or the Charles so-called
reflects a
of this p r o c e s s came themselves w h o
began to
write on government. Let us mention Frederick the G r e a t or the well-known
figure of the House of H a b s b u r g , Joseph
The ferment tury
of the teachings on government
was certainly
caused
also by the
ancient
idea of the origins of the s t a t e
theories of state seeking
h u m a n demands this concept
for association became known
formula. Later
revived
the origins or unity.
individual
in
two kinds of contracts
another one
representatives
These i d e a s were t h u s
m o u s French declaration
of
of Rights. The
idea itself
of renaissance
political
The
contemporain the form of
contract
w e r e distinguished,
the state and
against the
that time
The modernized
It is a very-very significant element
put down c l e a r l y .
cen-
matter.
of state life
contract c o n c e p t s that this was the f i r s t the
a public
in the renaissance as the
that of the foundation of the citizens.
in the
fact that from
on the government of a s t a t e was considered
ry
II.
namely
submitting of
these
time the rights of of state
power were
forrunners of the fa-
the bourgeois era, the must have b e e n
thinking. R e c e n t
Declaration
a well-founded research
part
holds it pro-
L. Rácz
50 bable
that Werbőczi
István, author
of our f a m o u s
of laws called Tripartitum considered sistendi
in the G o l d e n
Bull securing
medieval
the c l a u s e called
book ius re-
the prerogatives of
the
nobles the right to resist all unlawful m e a s u r e s on the p a r t of the r u l e r . 3
The r o o t s of this r i g h t of resistance go back
to the concept of state contract. Huns, the forefathers
the communitas
rights of legislation, transfer
their king
(Attila), w h i l e
of the Huns
jurisdiction
temporary
political
French
thinking in
13
century
in the contract
could be understood interpreted
the This
According
to
the rulers stood for of the community
this contraversial
of
without
nothing
remained
history. It
the
representatives
state of a f f a i r s was the case of our employed
therefore
of power by contract
rights. At the
planning
to modernize
by its choice of k i n g .
was
for the first one. A good example
government of the country and w a s
chancellary
with the c o m m u n i t y
the development of absolutism
II. Naturally, he consciously
view that the trasfer
It followed
G E G R É , A . : Az ellenállási (The history of ius resistendi
be
the other v i e w , the t r a n s f e r of
the last v a r i e t y , while
stood
con-
There w a s , how-
theory, s i n c e the c o n t r a c t
as seen in English legal
but natural that in the course
completely
theory in the
all the rights to the ruler and
with the subjects —
con-
Europe,
in two d i f f e r e n t ways. First it could
so that certain r i g h t s remained
individual.
power shifted
6
control.
Christian
lawbook of Beaumanoir as w e l l . 6
ever, a weak point
3
ear-
that exercised
and m i l i t a r y
for one can find parallels of t h i s Hungarian
Joseph
did
of power based on c o n t r a c t was an organic part of
temporary
or the
also of the
in his Gesta U n g a r o r u m . He, n a m e l y ,
that the Huns elected
lier it had been
himself wrote
of the M a g y a r s just l i k e Kézai S i m o n
in the late 13^'"' century mentioned
Werbőczi
for king
absolutism
in
the
the follower
of
the
left the c o m m u n i t y
same time,
the
Hungary m a d e Kézai's and
Hungarian
its opinion Werbőczi's
clear views
jog története Magyarországon in Hungary) JK, 6/1980.
S Z Ű C S , J.: Társadalomelm é l e t , politikai teória és történelemszemlélet Kézai Gesta Ungarorumában (Social theory, political theory and h i s t o r i c a l thinking in Kézai's Gesta U n g a r o r u m ) , Gondolat, Budapest, 1974. pp. 413-557.
State structure of feudal absolutism
by stating gether
that the king must govern
not alone, but
S o m e scholars consider the
existence or
a distinctive feature
liquidation
of absolutism
absolutism
of
in a country.
They think namely
that
are incompatible.
It seems, h o w e v e r , that this extreme view
and active parliamentary
not quite correct, since for example is
considered
absolutism by the
though parliament The nearly and Rákóczi with their one-chamber of their
the reign
existed with shorter or longer
György
I in the 1 7
parliament
th
parliament
by special princely
as necessary
tion of the counties,
towns and
and s e c u r e the majority
vote for
law,
Gábor
to cooperate
invited to
their
invitation as many
to counterbalance the
opposi-
so-called
districts
"székek" or
their own b i l l s . As it
these e x a m p l e s , the absolutistic
and the activity
is
interruptions.
century m a n a g e d
in a peculiar way: they
life
of the S t u a r t s
British h i s t o r i a n s of
absolutistic princes of Transylvania, Bethlen
followers
clear from
to-
Parliament.7
with the
parliament
Hungary
51
way
of the representative organs
becomes
of government
are not at
all
incompatible. T h e r e was a g r e a t of olden
variety
in this subject
times. In Spain the feudal
the individual p r o v i n c e s had a l m o s t ground
by the age of
in the
Europe
representative bodies been p u s h e d
to the
Philip II, but a row of separate
of
backcouncils
for the provinces existed parallel with the activity of the g 1er, probably as a compensation. views of opposition,
They were suitable to
though necessarily
a bit
the o t h e r side, these councils w e r e granted reme jurisdiction ed
national
assembly
of
the Revolution, but ces w e r e
It is a well-known
the right of further
still active
On
sup-
strengthen-
fact that the French
the Estates was not convened the assembly
express
biased ones.
in the given province, which
local right.
ru-
of the E s t a t e s
from 1614 to
in the
provin-
for some time. At the time of absolutism
7 H A J D Ú , L.: II. József igazgatási reformjai Magyarországon (The administrative reforms of Joseph II in Hungary), Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1 9 8 2 . pp. 119-121. 8 K O E N I G S B E R G E R , H . : The government of Sicily under Philip II of S p a i n , Staples, London-New York, 1951. pp. 73-116. 149-160 .
L. Rácz
52 it was the huge adcisory taxes, etc. interests.
bodies of the king entitled
that were capable to give It was only the
totally
draw the conclusion can be taken necessarily
omitted that
local
territories
Russia, where the n a t i o n a l
for longer periods. One can
parliathus
though the existence of a parliament
into account a critérium.
must be sought
voice to c e r t a i n
East-Central-European
of the H a b s b u r g s and Tsarist ments were
to levy
when talking
of absolutism,
The distinguishing marks of
it is not absolutism
elsewhere.
II.
The predominance
of the person
trait in the states of the oned that power
broke
the ruler w a s
absolute e r a .
left the medieval crust
its new characteristics. abruptly
of
This, however,
I have already behind and
menti-
revealed
did not m e a n
that they
off the m e d i e v a l p r o c e d u r e s of the transfer of
power. Just on the contrary. just of the peculiarities inting with holy
Louis X I V ,
of the c o r o n a t i o n ceremony
of his earthly
all subjected
to anybody
by the m o r a l s
ly, the followers of Louis XIV a century they
thought
of faith.
Interesting-
later tried of the
as a ru-
to apply
well-being
of the infinite power of the
te ruler stands firm also according Hobbes, the famous state
and activity
infinite in behalf
The idea
(the anothat the
power was God. So he w a s not at
in his behaviour
ler and was guided solely
of their people.
for example, made use
oil brought by a n g e l s ) to represent
only antipole
this power
a general
absolu-
to experts of s t a t e
theoretician
theory.
of the day deduced
the 9
unrestricted
nature of royal power just
The guarantee of the unlimited was the army.Royal racter
power
started
from the
contracts.
character of r o y a l
to take
a really
power
absolute
in some of the European courts w h e n the r u l e r s
organ —
9
HOBBES, T. : Válogatott szemelvények Leviathan vagy az egyházi és a polgári állani anyaga, f o r m á j a és hatalma In: Morus, B a c o n , Hobbes, Locke. Ed. C.I.Gulian és I. Bodor András, Művelt Nép, B u d a p e s t , 1 9 8 2 . P- 131.
cha-
Banu.
State structure of feudal absolutism ized a relatively military nally days
53
serious s t a n d i n g army. W h e n a king can
force to enforce his will, his
unambiguous. The army of the outbreak
could secure
of the
majority
political
the king reached
its decisive phase when
vote
P a r l i a m e n t , s° they served
the troops
the interests of the
recruited
the king to negotiate by
e v e r y w h e r e , for
the standing
Parliament
this armed
The militarization of power resulted
out by the
Parliament
In the b e g i n n i n g , the m e m b e r s of the
to force
force.
significant
armies needed
wars became permanent all o v e r . Recruiting
standing
organized,
districts
to secure the
tion
and their
replacement
of the s o l d i e r s in p e a c e
in times of w a r .
These d i s t r i c t s did not ones, but took
d e r a t i o n . Parallel with the or even sometimes earlier also fairs
established.
strategic
formation
districts of
ry to implement
interests
absolute r u l e
representative
territorial
stopped
characteristics of the
f o r m s . The d e g r e e of independence of the conglomerate
of states b r o u g h t
about in
sometimes
This — together
of the representative
to exist or survived only
one of
administra-
independent
that the essential
mo-
administer-
also
resulted
af-
necessa-
or through
of the c o u n t i e s or p r o v i n c e s that could operate from the ruler's wish.
were
feudal
government
tion
of the provinces
districts
and financial
in most countries was
the pushing to the background
consi-
financial c o n t r o l
administration
t h e m , and not through the traditional
supply
into
the military
that the unified c e n t r a l
ed vie these two branches of
accomoda-
and
at all c o i n c i d e with
The importance of m i l i t a r y
from the age of the centralized
n a r c h i e s resulted
of
changes
job and
had to be
as well as permanent military
the traditional
in the
struggle b e t w e e n the Parliament and
by order of the king came to be led by officers sent
hoped
is fi-
English b o u r g e o i s revolution, too.
N a m e l y , the long
henceforth.'8
apply
absolute p o w e r
with
organs independence as mere
various p a r t s of a big feudal times
depended
' 8 F o r the early realization of the importance of the army see MACHIAVELLI: 1944. p. 211. "All armed prophets have c o n q u e r e d , and the unarmed ones have b e e n destroyed." And HOBBES: pp. 122-126, 1 2 9 . "Without sword the c o n t r a c t s are but mere words."
54
L. Rácz
also on the ways of jurisdiction, for the continuity former organs of jurisdiction ed the independence
like separate courts
of
the
strengthen-
of the p r o v i n c e , too. The absolutist
ru-
lers of the day realized this soon and b r o u g h t about m a j o r forms of jurisdiction solutism
throughout
establish
alongside
Europe. The
a unified
the stabilization of feudal abaim of t h e s e reforms w a s
system of jurisdiction
ty of the state itself. This w a s the case Prussia
feature of the above-mentioned
the modernization
of central
jurisdiction
to
to promote the in the 1 8 t h
uni-
century
and in the Danubian e m p i r e of the Habsburgs, as
An interesting
re-
reform
well.
was
that
usually involved
formation of new juridical d i s t r i c t s that generally
did
the
not
coincide with the old administrative districts. There w e r e new points of view in their marking graphic
as traffic and
geo-
three i m p o r t a n t spheres where affairs
were
considerations."
So there were mostly
out, such
not controlled
in the framework of
ve districts any m o r e : there w e r e ters and jurisdiction. reflecting
an ever
This concentration
lows from this that
feudal
irrational.
activity It a l s o
fol-
if the absolutist establishment m a n a g e d
its own state mechanism
institutions by force. Sooner
in the above—mentioned
or
later they
lost their meaning. They
the further
independence
le for
this is Sicily
ter the Turks, when
Two things follow
from the
into the traditional
one h a n d , the modern
stopped
function-
survived only
in
accountexamp-
or Transylvania
af-
to the Habsburgs. "intervention" of feudal
administrative
division
three
of the p r o v i n c e . A good
of the Spanish crown
it belonged
to
representative
some remote p r o v i n c e s , where strategic p o i n t s of view ed for
lutism
mat-
absolutism
made the
s p h e r e s , it did not have to annihilate the old
ing anyway, having
administrati-
the financial
of
growing c e n t r a l control
of the feudal o r g a n s of representation
operate
the old
the army,
according
to
districts. the three
On
absothe
branches
" T h e French districts of jurisdiction see The New Encyclopaedia Britannica vo. 7. p. 412. For the Hungarian parallel in Joseph II's t i m e s see: H A J D Ú , L . : op.cit.p.105. The author states that Joseph II dres the new districts of a military map.
State structure of feudal absolutism of administration offers basis for the
future b o u r g e o i s
for a new, rational and uniform d i v i s i o n tory. This is clearly partements.
reflected
On the second
the development
of which
help in breaking
down
state. It is a matter of
studies why not all
conglomerates
Eastern E u r o p e , these big
disintegrated fall beyond
feudal state
nation s t a t e s by the b o u r g e o i s
in Central and
of countries
dé-
traditional
and was at the s a m e time a g r e a t step in
tended to b e c o m e unified Especially
terri-
in the case of the French
of the m o d e r n nation
further thorough
state
of the s t a t e ' s
hand, the neglect of the
feudal territorial division was a g r e a t feudal particularism
55
into small
our present
era.
old
groups
nation s t a t e s , the causés
study.
Ill. Public
administration
deserve further
attention
and the c o n t r o l of the state in the s t a t e
life of feudal
tism. The decline of the former territorial d i v i s i o n s involved
the decline of their traditional
ty, as well. state that work
It was, h o w e v e r , not only
from the early Middle
framework
of traditional to break
members to the industry. municipal
to loosen
life. Especially
the old
up owing to the migration
exercised
by the old communities hungry
pidly
and social
in the wake of the great economic
and the so-called poor relief appreared some epidemics sooner
pe. Public health care had form owing
to the increased
their settlement majority
around
also to be
whole
rural of
commu-
their
several
increased
as a task
ra-
changes, urgently
or later all over organized
funcun-
to
Euro-
in a unified
inflow of workers to the towns and
the big industrial plants.
of these problems got solved
tion. Hungarian
the capi-
the
remained
attended. So the number of the poor and
be solved after
frame-
Similar c h a n g e s took p l a c e also in
life. All this led to a s i t u a t i o n , when
tions formerly
activi-
the old feudal
A g e s , but also
talist tendencies of the age that b e g a n
nities started
naturally
of
the intervention of the
brought about changes w i t h i n
inherited
forms
itself
absolu-
Earlier
without c e n t r a l
landlords of the 17"""1 century, for
not forget to mention in their last w i l l
the
interven-
example,
did
the p r o v i s i o n of the
L. Rácz
56 hospital
and the poor
State Church
estates.
created
new tasks in the realm of
and in e d u c a t i o n , too. The
tical property ed system
of e c c l e s i a s -
and the state control of
education. of
exercised
patronage over
in the Indies as t h e i r
empire
to exercise control
in
highest p a t r o n via his
forma-
administrative
a 12^
lecting
the Holy See
reached
an independence England
was his power over even
worse owing president no Pope
as supreme
at all. U n d e r
judge in the
the Churches
to this broad
Similarly,
vants.
of the p r i e s t s
during
a special
Owing
Gallicanism
part in the quick
for this
were civil
affairs
also by the
12
fact that the absolute
K0ENIGSBERGER:
op. cit. pp.
^"3The New Encyclopaedia
frameworks
of
the ser-
in-
its standing
145-148. vol.
all
were
state had to
to maintain
Britannica
is
necessarily
this was left now to the state to do. The difficulties enhanced
the
purpose.
to the loosening of the traditional
crease also its i n c o m e s to be able
and
seculariza-
Revolution and
by the s t a t e as if they
administration
And
stated: "There
The state c o n t r o l of ecclesiastical
involved
kingdom.
of royal rights,
the French
in
great
R o m e got worse
the militant
played a significant
he
by Henry VIII
in his Spanish
interpretation
Si-
neg-
this C a t h o l i c disguise paralleled
council confidently
tion of Church property payment
in Sicily
more: when his r e l a t i o n s with
in Spain."
Louis X i v ' "
bull
ap-
which meant
under Protestant flags. Similarly
of the r o y a l 12 3
Si-
century papal
peals of the ecclesiastical c o u r t s of Sicily,
what is
of
h i m s e l f the l e g a t e of the P o p e as King of
cily. On this basis he even acted
contemporary
A good
over the C h u r c h e s
lay official, the leader of the colony. In the Kingdom cily he even went further by reviving
was
the
the Church.
for this is the case of the Spanish
tion. Philip II m a n a g e d
and considereing
It
Catholicism
r u l e r s - just like their colleagues in
Middle Ages —
the
a need for a u n i f i -
even of the strongest countries
that the absolute
example
secularization
at a number of p l a c e s meant
of schools
characteristic
early
on their
intervention
7. p. 639.
ar-
State structure of feudal absolutism my
and
fulfil its bigger administrative
was unable to solve everything tervene
intensively
57
duties. As the
by bigger
into economic life as well, not
granting monopolies, but also by a direct economic c e r t a i n fields. and
It even tried
to organize
and communication
involved
on state
One cannot but wonder managed
to fulfil
a relatively
only by
activity
intermediate
they
of organizing
how the absolutist state immense tasks
trade
The rulers themselves had
within
also a lot
the Great and the silkworm
their
propagated
by
They
were assisted
already mentioned, E u r o p e witnessed
Joseph
by a seriously organized
with the strengthening councillors
grow. Even Machiavelli
in his famous w o r k , and o t h e r
by
As I various
various
and other
of absolutism, appointed
emphasized
state theoreticians
financial
work.
of
their
the
role
also did so.
and military
councils to decide in matters influencing
feudal
by the ru]ir
for this phenomenon was France, where
important branches, i.e. the
World,
Frederick
apparatus.
the spread
b o d i e s . As the role of the old representative
significance of confidential
by
II.
c o u n c i l s after Philip II's reign, i.e. government
o r g a n s diminished
to ad-
from the New
in this huge
have
clerks
industrious-
sugar beet introduced
The rulers were of c o u r s e not alone
easy:
as the supreme
products coming
as the potatoe and the
A good example
apparatus
this, these rulers even had time
vertise novel agricultural
to
traffic
that emerged
The contemporaries noticed
ness, t o o . B e s i d e s
started
life
Their everyday work was far from being
had to handle dozens of cases a day
of the country.
such
the task
in
level.
all these
short period.
of things to do.
te
to in-
secure the profit for itself. To organize economic
p r o p e r l y , necessarily
had
state
taxes, it had
the most affairs
the whole of sta-
life.15
14 GLADDEN,E.N.: A history 2. London. 1972. p. 165. 15 I b i d . pp. 142-158.
of public
administration,
vol.
L. Rácz
58 The old royal councils Ages remained
intact, but owing
were gradually
used merely
The above—mentioned most
inherited
from
to their
the early
Middle
large numbers
they
jurisdiction.'' 6
in
new councils stood
at the head
of the
important branches of state administration, at the top of
their hierarchy.
They had to be highly technical, and
m e m b e r s had to be qualified.
They were thus the basic forms of
modern public administration. solutism was brought system
The public administration
about all over Europe
of organizations centrally
form of control
is in itself
in certain
arily slipped ge as compared
have a sense.'
representati-
It was not only
to the feudal b o d i e s , but many too, which was quite natural,
disadvanta-
This m i g h t ha/e
kept, h o w e v e r , proving parliamentary
Joseph II who felt an of his absolutist
for according
to nobody
was not an outstanding personality
head
aversion
colleagues,
to their
views
of
dangers.
administration
or was hindered
in his
acti-
or two omnipotent ministers or the
professional
of administration, the chancellor played
a very great
le in state affairs. Let us m e n t i o n for example Mazarin, chelieu every
do
but God.
the ruler at the top of the hierarchy
vity, one
or Metternich.
inner control
The absolutist regimes rerained
and wished
tion, so they established publishing
in
against
sessions
The lack of control was naturally not without any When
them necess-
II's neglect of the parliament
The Chancellery
they were responsible
to their
administrators.
that well-prepared 7
This
by them. Should some of
from their h a n d s , owing
been the cause of Joseph
his conception
from above.
states, the control of the new network
to the qualified
his new system.
of ab-
as a h i e r a r c h y , a
controlled
alien to the feudal
ve bodies and cannot be exercised survive
their
to hinder all
censorship
forms of
ro-
Ri-
from opposi-
over the press and
the
of books.
' 6 E M B E R , Gy.: Az újkori magyar közigazgatás története Mohácstól a török kiűzéséig (The history of modern Hungarian public administration from the Battle of Mohács up to the expulsion of the Turks) Budapest, 1946. pp. 48-60. 17
HAJDL),L.: op. cit.
120-121.
State structure of feudal absolutism
59
It was thus natural that one of the most important
demands
of the bourgeois regimes following absolutism was a government responsible to parliament and the abolition of censorship. is, however, interesting that in the states where the ist form of government survived
for a long time, the supreme
body of administration tried to establish like in the system of prosecution dish
inner control
itself,
in Tsarist Russia. The Swe-
ombudsman may also be ranked here, but let us not go
detail at this
It
absolut"
into
occasion.
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ СТРУКТУРА И ФОРМА ПРАВЛЕНИЯ В УСЛОВИЯХ ФЕОДАЛЬНОГО АБСОЛЮТИЗМА Л. Рац
В статье изучаются вопросы о том, что какие существенные изменения произошли в управлении государствами, находившимися в последний период феодализма. Кажется, что с одной стороны лицо короля еще более выдвинулось на передний план и все большее значение придавалось его способности править государством. Все это повлекло за собой сознательную подготовку будущего монарха к правлению государством. С другой стороны, существенным изменением данного п е р и о да явились повышение значения центрального управления, его сконцентрированность и унифицирование. Процесс унификации особенно ярко проявляется в трех таких областях, как управление военными делами, финансовая администрация и юстиция. Тем самым новый метод управления, основанный на специальных знаниях, лишает основы существования традиционных институтов прежнего сословного управления страной. Формы их упразднение во времени и пространстве являются разными. В заключение рассматривается вопрос о том, что однополюсная, монолитная власть феодального абсолютизма, рано или поздно, выдвигает требование к контролю управления, хотя бы в ограниченной мере. Такие попытки наблюдаются в первую очередь там, где по какой-то причине долго сохранилась феодально-абсолютическая ф о р м а правления государства.
STRUCTURE DE L'ETAT ET GOUVERNEMENT DANS L'ABSOLUTISME FEODAL DU X V I I I e SIECLE L. Rácz
L'étude cherche la réponse à la question de savoir quels changements essentiels se sont produits dans le gouvernement
60
L. Rácz
des Etats dans la dernière période du féodalisme. D'une part, il semble que la personne du souverain est passée encore plus vigoureusement au premier plan et ses capacités de gouverner ont acquis de plus en plus d'importance. Tout cela implique la préparation consciente du futur souverain à l'art de gouverner . D'autre part, le changement essentiel de cette période consiste dans le fait que l'importance du gouvernement central, et en même temps son caractère concentré et uniformisé se renforcent. Ce processus d'uniformisation peut être remarqué dans trois domaines: dans la direction des affaires militaires, dans la gestion des finances et dans l'unification de la juridiction. En même temps, cette méthode de gouverner s'appuyant d'une façon efficace sur la compétence professionnelle, rend superflues les institutions traditionnelles du gouvernement corporatiste féodal d'autrefois. Leur suppression revêt des formes variées dans le temps et dans l'espace. Finalement, l'étude traite la question suivante: la puissance monolitique de l'absolutisme féodal exige tôt ou tard le contrôle institutionnalisé du gouvernement, quand bien même d'une façon limitée. Ces expérimentations peuvent être observées surtout là où la forme absolutiste féodale de gouverner subsiste pendant longtemps en raison d'une cause quelconque.
Acta Juridica A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 32(1-2) pp .61-128. ( 1 9 9 0 )
LE CONTRÔLE
FINANCIER-ECONOMIQUE
E.Ferenczy maître de recherches Institut des Sciences J u r i d i q u e s et Politiques de l'Académie des Sciences de Hongrie
L ' a u t e u r examine les questions du contrôle financier e x e r cé par l'Etat; Il démontre qu'il faut faire une nette d i s t i n c tion entre son contrôle d'aspect fiscal, le contrôle de la comptae t son bilité contrôle exercé en tant que propriétaire. Il analyse d ' u n e façon détaillés les manifestations du contrôle ayant' le caractère de contrôle du propriétaire (investissement des capitaux dans une enterprise, retrait des capitaux) et en arrive à la conclusion qu'il est du devoir élémentaire des sujets du d r o i t de propriété (et p a r m i eux celui de l'Etat) de contrôler le rendement de leurs biens. Outre le contrôle fiscal exercé par l'Etat (ce qui équivaut au contrôle des recettes du budget) l'auteur attache beaucoup d'importance aux problèmes relatifs au contrôle des dépenses dites publiques et soutient l'idée selon laquelle même le c o n t r ô l e le plus rigoureux des dépenses publiques ne peut remplacer la réconsidération de la théorie du contrôle du propriétaire.
1. En connaissance des recherches théoriques relatives à l'organisme de contrôle financier-économiaue
et à la sphère
d'activité de cet a p p a r e i l 1
il faut poser catégoriquement la 2 question de savoir si — du point de vue du droit positif' ainsi que du p o i n t de vue théorique une interprétation
juste est d o n -
née à la notion du contrôle financier-économique, et si les 3 exigences, que la politique économique et le gouvernement formulent à l'égard de la buraucratie chargée des fonctions de 4 contrôle, sont réelles. Selon la littérature de cette q u e s t i o n ainsi que
selon le droit positif
cier économique est de déterminer
"l'objectif du contrôle
finan-
si les aspects financiers
des
buts de la politique économique et les tâches économiques fixées par les décisions centrales et par les normes juridiques réalisés.
Il a (en outre) pour m i s s i o n d'examiner
sont
si les d i s p o -
sitions prises au cours de la direction financière, ainsi
que
les d e v o i r s qui découlent des a u t r e s prescriptions des a u t o r i tés ayant un vigueur général sont executés conformément Acta
Juridica Academiae
aux
Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
E. Ferenczy
62 prescriptions."
5
En résumant l'objectif et le domain du contrô-
le financier-économique on peut dire que la contrôle financier-économique des divers organes de gestion et de ceux qui sont soumis au régime de gestion budgétaire suit le fonctionnement du système dit régulateur. Cependant en examinant en détail le système régulateur, on découvre que dans cadre de 1'économie ce n'est pas un seul et unique système régulateur de revenu
(selon
le jargon professionnel: système financier)*' qui existe, mais il y en a plusieurs; par conséquent autant de genres de systèmes régulateurs de revenu, autant de genres de contrôle financier-économique . On simplifie — selon notre avis —
la question
de ces divers systèmes de contrôle existant en parlant suelement du contrôle financier-économique des organes soumis au régime de gestion budgétaire et du contrôle des entreprises et des coopératives. Cet approche est superficielle et inexacte 2/
sous plusieurs aspects. 7 D'une part parce qu'anjourd'hui les revenus et les salaires dans les établissements financiers sont une matière particulière de la régulation et d'autre part car l'activité économique peut être menée non suelement par des entreprises et des coopératives, m a i s également dans le cadre d'autres formes reconnues par le droit. Cette catégorisation (c'est-à-dire d'un par le contrôle des entreprises et des coopératives, d'autre part le contrôle financier-économique du budget est inexacte, parce qu'outre ces formes il existe encore des contrôles d'autres types, ayant un contenu nettement finan9 cier: ainsi le contrôle exercé par la banque d'émission et l'inspection des banques 1
exercés sur
les banques commercia-
les et les coopératives d'épargne ou l'inspection de l'assurance d'Etat exercés sur les sociétés anonymes exerçant une activité d'assurance, sur leurs sociétés annexes, les coopératives d'assurance et les associations d'assurance. Outre les systèmes de contrôle énumérés il existe encore d'autres
(contrôle des prix,
des devises, de douane, contrôle du versement des impôts sur les revenus des citoyens) qui ne peuvent pas être classés de force dans une ou deux
catégories.
Il ne suffit pas de faire la critique d'une certaine approche théorique, mais il faut présenter — en tant qu'antipode — un nouveau paradigme, un modèle apte à mettre en lumière la
Contrôle financier-économique
63
réalité qui a changé. Nous pensons que nous ne sommes pas dans l'erreur si nous affirmons qu'au fond et effectivement il y a quatre sortes de contrôle financier-économique exercé par l'Etat: — premièrement le contrôle financier-économique des orga-
.
nismes qui fonctionnent selon le régime de gestion budgétaire; — deuxièmement le contrôle des entreprises et des entrepreneurs
(c'est-à-dire le contrôle de ceux dont la sphère d'ac-
tivité doit être déterminée sur la base de la Liste des produits industriels ou de la Liste des services — troisièmement le contrôle de la déclaration des revenus des citoyens
(dans ce cas c'est l'impôt général sur les revenus
qui est l'objet du contrple et pas l'obligation du paiement de 13 l'impôt prélevé sur l'activité des intrepreneurs) et — finalement le contrôle financier-économique relatif à la sécurité sociale, qui porte sur la sécurité sociale en tant que fonds financier. L'Etat droit ici contrôler, si les obligations du versement prescrites par les normes ont été observées dans les délais fixés et dans la mesure requise, si les ressources 14 accumulées gardent leur valeur et si les paiements sont effectués par les caisses y autorisées et dans une façon conforme aux règles. La conception examinée ci-dessus a la défaut que la classification du contrôle financier-économique est basée sur les organismes chargés de fonctions de contrôle, c'est-à-dire elle prend comme point de départ le fait que ce sont deux organes qui jouent un rôle dominant dans le domaine du contrôle des finances publiques: la Direction générale de contrôle du Ministère des F i n a n c e s 1 3 et la Division de contrôle du Ministère des Finances. Cette solution reflète la fait réalisé par le ème XVIII
siècle que le contrôle financier des producteurs de
marchandises, des fournisseurs de services et celui des citoyens doivent être séparé également du point de vue organisationnel du contrôle financier des organismes qui utilisent les ressources publiques. 1
Cette division du travail s'est répendue et
s'est renforcée dans le système des organes chargés du contrôle des finances publiques
(pas seulement chez nous) 1
, surtout
E. Ferenczy
64
parce que si on contrôle des organismes financés par le budget, il faut contrôler
surtout les dépenses, tandis qu'au cours du
c o n t r ô l e des producteurs de marchandises et des citoyens
l'ac-
cent est mis sur le contrôle d e s revenus. Selon notre avis le changement important qui résulte du décret-loi No 22 de
l'an
1984 modifiant la loi No VI de l'an 1977 a échappé à l'attention de la théorie de contrôle hongroise, changement qui a modifié l'ensemble d u système de la gestion étatique des
entre-
prises d'Etat. Par
suite de c e t t e norme juridique ce qui a été 18 auparavant évident, — c'est-à-dire que l'appareil de l'Etat exerce
le contrôle
sur la base du fait qu'il est qualifié d ' exer-
cer d a n s ce domaine l'ensemble des droits d u propriétaire, est d e v e n u théoriquement fortement contestable. entre parenthèses q u e le c o n t r ô l e exercé p a r
—
(Nous remarquons
l'Etat en tant que
propriétaire a été remis en question non seulement par la réforme organisationnelle des entreprises effectuée en 1984 et déjà mentionnée, m a i s également par l'apparition de la catégo19 rie "des biens p r o p r e s de l'entreprise".) A l'appui de notre affirmation sur les différents
systèmes du contrôle
financier
il faut exposer le problème avec plus de d é t a i l s : n o t a m m e n t il faut préciser: quel est le c o n t e n u du contrôle
financier-écono-
mique . 2. Comme nous l'avons d é j à démontré ci-dessus, financier-économique — analysé
le contrôle
sur la base de son contenu — est
le c o n t r ô l e du propriétaire, notamment le contrôle de l'Etat en tant q u e propriétaire. La q u e s t i o n qui exige une réponse
est
é v i d e m m e n t la suivante: quelle est la différence entre le contrôle exercé par l'Etat sous l'aspect financier en tant que propriétaire et son contrôle exercé en tant que pouvoir Avant de répondre en détail à cette question
public.
il semble néces-
saire de faire o b s e r v e r tout d'abord que les normes
juridiques
relatives au nouveau mécanisme économique escamotent ce problênïe (c'est-à-dire la différence entre le contrôle exercé en tant que propriétaire et entre celui exercé en tant que pouvoir
pub-
lic) , ou — parlant d'un ton p l u s fin — ne traitent pas ce problème conformément
à son importance. Nous s o m m e s
d'utiliser une formulation
encouragés
si affirmative p a r c e que cette
ques-
Contrôle financier-économique
65
tion a été laissée dans l'ombre et par le droit de la gestion économique et par la loi No I de l'an 1972 modifiant la loi No XX de l'an 1949 ainsi que par la loi No II de l'an 1979. La lution qui est muette
so-
sur le contenu du contrôle du proprié-
taire, mais charge pourtant d'abord la Direction général des recettes et puis la Direction générale du contrôle de contrôler au cours de ses inspections l'application des normes juridiques économiques et financières relatives à la réglementation du revenu, des salaires, des prix, à l'établissement des fonds ne constitue pas une expérience réussie.
(Cette affirmation peut
être prouvée d'un part par des dispositions du droit positif
et
d'autre part par les publications sur les expériences acquises dans les derniers temps par les diverses sections de la Direc20 tion générale du contrôle du Ministère des Finances.) Les dispositions du droit positif pourraient donc donner l'impression de ce que l'appareil financier agissant au nom de l'Etat n'exerce un contrôle que sur les contributions.
Si la réalité
serait conforme aux apparences, il faudrait poser la question suivante: si les organes financiers de l'Etat n'exercent pas le contrôle qui résulte des droits du propriétaire, alors qui est-ce qui
l'exerce?
Par outre nous pensons — et comme il résulte de ce qui suit, nous croyons que notre opinion est bien fondée que renoncer au contrôle du propriétaire
(ou le faire disparaître) naj-
serait pas la meilleure méthode; nous savons que le point né ralgique des rapports de production socialistes est le fait que les droits du propriétaire
(dans l'économie) ne sont guère pré-
cisés ou en d'autres termes: il n'est pas claire quel est le 21 contenu du droit de propriété soicaliste. Dès lors il faut poser des questions complémentaires. Tout d'abord celle: qui sont les sujets du droit de propriété,
(qui sont ceux qui doi-
vent être soumis au contrôle); deuxièmement: quel est le contenu du droit du propriété
(pour savoir qu'est-ce qu'il faut con-
trôler) et finalement de quelle façon les propriétaires
contrô-
lent-ils la sauvegarde et le croissement de la valeur de la fortune créée par eux-mêmes.
(Cette dernière question revêt
une importance à cause du fait bien connu qu'il est typique des sociétés productrices de marchandises que la personne du
E. Ferenczy
66
propriétaire ne coincide pas avec celle de l'administrateur (des administrateurs) des biens) . En dirigent notre attention sur les sujets du d r o i t de propriété
(et en désapprouvant
la
théorie sur le droit de propriété dit sans sujet) il est frappant que ceux-ci
(c'est-à-dire les propriétaires qui exercent
leur activité dans d e s conditions de production
socialistes)
ne diffèrent en rien d e s propriétaires qui existent dans 1'autres formations produisant de marchandises. Ils sont ici comme là des personnes physiques ou des personnes morales. La différence réside dans le fait lequel des deux groupes
(c'est-à-dire
celui des personnes physiques ou bien celui d e s personnes morales) dispose de la majorité des objets de propriété et il est également vrai que d a n s les conditions de production
socialis-
tes l'Etat occupe une place éminente parmi les personnes m o r a les. Toutefois la raison pour laquelle il occupe cette place n'est pas celle qu'on lui ait accordé des attributions complémentaires par rapport au statut juridiques des autres propri-
22 etaires,
ce qui n'est pas le cas. Il occupe une place eminen-
te parmi les autres propriétaires
simplement car il a reçu à
l'occasion de la nationalisation un part décisif des biens nationaux;
il n'a pas obtenu plus de droit et on ne l'a pas char-
gé de m o i n s d'obligations quant à la gestion d e s objets de pro23 priété que les autres propriétaires. Il faut remarquer que dans la période de la transformation socialiste d'autres formations juridiques des personnes morales
(p.e. les
coopératives)
n'ont pas obtenu — et de loins — une proportion similaire des biens nationaux. En ce qui concerne la période écoulée depuis ce temps, il faut constater que la répartition des objets du bien national n'a pas subi un changement important, néanmoins il est certain qu'au "détriment" d e s personnes physiques des coopératives agricoles et industrielles sont devenus propriétaires d e s biens
(des moyens de production) d a n s une propor-
tion plus grande que d a n s la période précédente. Le lecteur a certainement remarqué que parmi les personnes morales nous n'avons p a s mentionné les entreprises d'Etat. Nous avons omis cette formation juridique de 1'énumération des formations qui disposent de droit de propriété sur des biens, car selon notre avis — et les faits de la réalité
sociologique
Contrôle financier-économique
67
ainsi que les dispositions du droit positif en sont la preuve — les entreprises d'Etat ne sont pas sujet droit de propriété socialiste
(mais ajoutons: les banques commerciales, les ins-
titutions d'assurance, les fermes d'Etat non plus). Au cas contraire il faudrait constaté qu'une propriété partagée se crée sur le même objet, propriété partagée entre l'Etat d'un part et les entreprises, banques commerciales, instituts d'assurance de l'autre. Cependant si nous refusons également la théorie de la propriété partagée — comme nous l'avons fait dans le cas de la théorie de propriété sans sujet — la thèse selon laquelle les organes de gestion en possession de l'Etat seraient les propriétaires des biens gérés par eux, ne peut pas être soutenue non plus. Cette thèse ne peut pas être défendue avec succès — bien que la littérature sur la réforme nelle des entreprises
organisation-
(1084), par l'introduction de la notion
des droits dits stratégiques ou tactiques inspire
l'adoption
de cette thèse, — parce que le droit de propriété examiné
sous
l'aspect sociologique et juridique a un certain contenu objectif
(notamment les attributions du propriétaire) et un organis-
me, une personne ou un groupe de personnes ne disposant pas de ces attributions ne peut affirmer d'être propriétaire.
(Sur la
base de la théorie bourgeoise classique de propriété on peut déduire que les entreprises d'Etat détiennent et utilisent
la
propriété d'Etat et en disposent de manière comme si elles étaient les propriétaires des biens gérés par eux.) Par conséquent comme nous l'avons déjà signalé, il y a une contradiction entre l'intention de la politique économique
(notamment l'aug-
mentation de l'esprit d'entreprise des entreprises) et la situation juridique; la raison en est que la théorie bourgeoise classique de la propriété ainsi que la théorie socialiste classique — s'agissant de la propriété collective et pas de la propriété personnelle ou privée — ne disent que très peu du contenu du droit de propriété et — ajoutons-1"
—
du contrôle du
propriétaire. LG premier problême c'est que le contenu des attributions du propriétaire ne peut pas être déterminé de la même façon au cas où les "propriétaires" ou les quasi — propriétaires consistent de plusieurs personnes
(p.e. conseil d'entreprise) et au
E. Ferenczy
68
cas où le propriétaire est une seule personne ou l'Etat);
(personne privée
sans parler du fait que la dissimilitude des objets
de propriété nécessite la prise en considération de réflexions complémentaires. En effet si la gestion concerne différents objets, différents services et s'il s'agit en m ê m e temps d'une propriété collective c'est-à-dire sociale, on ne peut plus opérer avec les trois notions possession, utilisation et gestion, mais il faut introduire de nouvelles notions, comme la possibilité du propriétaire d'acquérir du capital, et le contraire: de retirer son capital, sa liberté en ce qui concerne la détermination du prix de ses produits, de ses services,
etc.
La question se pose: pourquoi est-ce nécessaire? Voici la réponse
(formulée avec un léger timbre philosophique):
l'exis-
tence dans une entreprise diffère d'une façon essentielle de celle dans un ménage privé, étant donné que dans ce dernier le comportement du propriétaire n'est pas motivé par l'ambition d'en tirer des bénéfices, mais simplement par la volonté de satisfaire ses besoins et ceux des personnes à sa charge, déterminées par la loi sur le droit de famille. Par contre en gérant une entreprise les propriétaires ne s'acquittent pas d'une certaine obligation alimentaire et s'ils produisent certains objets, ils ne produisent pas des objets ayant une valeur affective, mais des objets qui ont outre une valeur d'utilité une valeur
(un prix) , par conséquent les propriétaires contrôlent
ici autre chose que celle contrôlée en leur autre qualité, notamment ils contrôlent
la rentabilité du capital investi. Au
cours de leur activité la situation de leur main-d'oeuvre ne revêt pas pour eux une importance primordiale
(pas si primor-
diale que pour les pères de famille), et ils n'attachent
pas
une si grande importance au fait que le produit fabriqué ou le service fourni soient d'utilité d'un point de vue noble du point de vue de la survie de la civilisation). neur (la propriétaire)
(p.e.
L'entrepre-
examine une seule chose; quel est le
rendement du même capital s'il est investi ici ou là. Il est évident qu'en investissant le capital "ici" dans le sous-secteur
"x"), quand "là-bas"
(c'est-à-dire p.e.
(dans le sous-secteur
"y") le rendement d'une unité du capital est plus élevé — en supposant une proportion constante — il doit subir chaque année
69
Contrôle financier-économique
une perte de y-x de gain. Ainsi l'intérêt du propriétaire exige avant tout de contrôler si, sur la base de l'unité du capital investi, les gestionnaires de ses biens lui assurent un rendement égal à celui assuré aux autres propriétaires
(qui
disposent des biens semblables). Il ressort de ce raisonnement que ce n'est pas seulement le droit, mais l'obligation élémentaire des propriétaires de contrôler le rendement de leurs biens, s'ils ne veulent pas s'apprauvrir par rapport aux autres propriétaires qui sont leurs concurrents; cet appauvrissement se produit si les ressources qui peuvent être mises à la disposition des recherches et du développement, de l'accroissement du capital-mobilier sont en régression. 3. La question se pose inévitablement: à l'égard de qui les sujets de la propriété des biens publics sont-ils responsables concernant cette obligation de contrôle. Pour pouvoir répondre à cette question, nous devons jeter un coup d'oeil derrière le paravent juridique et sociologique, où — au moins dans les conditions de production socialistes — nous allons apercevoir les travailleurs qui, selon l'affirmation concordante du droit et de l'idéologie, détiennent tout pouvoir. S'il en est ainsi, alors on ne peut que se placer difficilement au point de vue théorique que les travailleurs ont renoncé à la garantie principale de la détention du pouvoir et la question se pose de savoir en faveur de qui ils y auraient renoncé. On peut affirmer que dans les conditions socialistes la propriété des organismes est dominante, mais on ne peut guère dire que les dirigeants des différents organismes sont devenus des propriétaires par leur élection au poste de direction. Par conséquent — et c'est l'essentiel — théoriquement le cercle des propriétaires ne s'est pas modifié et ce cercle comprend dès la naissance du socialisme d'une part la population ouvrière, d'autre part la paysannerie en ce qui concerne les moyens de production les plus importantes et leurs formes juridiques
(c'est-à-
dire en premier lieu les entreprises d'Etat et les coopératives de production). Une autre question qui doit être posée séparément : qui est-ce qui gère les formes juridiques des moyens de production.
(Signalé déjà plus haut, nous répétons que la sé-
paration de la personne du propriétaire de celle des gestion-
70
E. Ferenczy
naires de la production est un trait fort caractéristique
des
sociétés modernes qui produisent des marchandises. Cette thèse bien connue ne fait que rendre plus clair que les rapports de production ne rendent pas toujours nettement visible les sujets du droit de propriété, mais cette observation
sociologique
n'implique nullement qu'on pourrait refuser au propriétaire
(et
est-il raisonnable de le faire?) la possibilité de s'acquitter de son obligation fondamentale qui consiste dans le contrôle de la capacité de ses biens de produire du bénéfice.) En arrivant à cette conclusion de logique il faut répondre à la question de savoir quelles sont les attributions du propriétaire. Parmi ces attributions la fondation des entreprises
occupe
la première place, en effet un organisme, une personne,
etc.
devient propriétaire par le fait que c'est lui qui utilise son capital et pas un autre.
(P.e. si son capital est placé dans
une banque, c'est la banque qui l'utilise.) Il faut mentionner deuxièmement l'attribution du propriétaire concernant son droit, sa possibilité légale et juridiquement reglée d'assurer le concours d'autres capitaux dans son entreprise.
(Il est bien connu
que sans cela les entreprises ne sont pas à même d'atteindre leur dimension optimale.) La troisième attribution
inaliénable
du propriétaire est son droit à prendre de son propre chef la décision de faire cesser son entreprise.
(P.e. parce que ses
biens n'ont pas rendu le gain attendu.) Le motif d'une telle décision peut être le fait que la demande s'est diminuée à cause de la détérioration de la qualité du produit ou qu'il ne vaut pas la peine de continuer la production car le prix qui peut être atteint au marché est trop bas. Il est à noter que la liquidation de l'entreprise par le propriétaire peut avoit des motifs contraires: l'entreprise a déjà produit le bénéfice prévu par le propriétaire. Dans ce cas il est possible que l'autre motif de la décision consiste dans le fait que la continuation du fonctionnement de l'entreprise exige des formes juridiques nouvelles et des connaissances professionnelles étranges aux ">4 gestionnaires des biens.''
Quatrièmement: les attributions du
propriétaire comprennent la fixation du prix de la marchandise (du service); la fixation du prix de la main-d'oeuvre /en tion des négociations menées
fonc-
avec les syndicats/, la détermi-
Contrôle financier-économique
71
nation de la proportion des sommes à consacrer au développement aux recherches et à 1'amortisation. Cinquièmement: il est évident que le contenu des attributions du propriétaire serait appauvri si le propriétaire ne pourrait pas disposer de la fusion, de la stratégie,
(de la production, c'est-à-dire de
l'avenir) et de l'organisation intérieure de l'entreprise. Il va de soi que si ces attributions ne sont que formelles (c'est une autre question de savoir lesquels de ces droits sont transmis aux gestionnaires de la production et pour combien de temps), alors on ne peut pas parler des biens de l'entreprise existant et fonctionnant véritablement comme leurs propres biens
(c'est-à-dire on ne peut pas parler d'une propriété de
groupe), bien que la règle de droit, comme nous l'avons déjà mentionné, connaisse cette notion. C'est la première contradiction du droit du nouveau mécanisme économique, qui d'une part cherche à atteindre que les organismes de gestion soient libérés de l'administration publique concernant leurs finances et d'autres questions connexes à leur fonctionnement
(direction du développement technique, in-
vestissements, embauche et licenciement du main-d'oeuvre, tion du prix, la mise au point des formes
fixa-
organisationnelles
"extérieures" et intérieures de la gestion, les modalités et les moyens de la gestion des entreprises, les instances de direction, etc.); et qui donne d'autre par aux ministères et aux organes de compétence nationale une très large autorisation à réglementer ces mêmes questions, ce qui ne permet pas la progression dans cette voie.
(En même temps la structure
juridique
de l'économie est tout à fait légale et se fonde à travers les 25 délégations du pouvoir sur la constitution.) En examinant le droit du nouveau mécanisme économique, la deuxième contradiction se manifeste par le fait que les règles actuelles du contrôle qui reflètent une vision macrocosmique — en mettant l'accent sur l'observation des dispositions ragraphes) et en insistant sur ce que l'appareil de
(des pa-
l'admini-
stration publique reçoit autant d'informations que possible sur le fonctionnement du système régulateur de la gestion économique — revêtent un autre aspect que celui exigé par la contrôle du propriétaire
(de l'entrepreneur) ayant une vision microcos-
72
E. Ferenczy
mique, vision qui consiste notamment et surtout dans le fait que le contrôle soit suivi immédiatement d'une intervention de 1'entrepreneur. L'essential du contrôle du propriétaire,
c'est-
-à-dire l'examen du rendement d u capital se perd au cours du contrôle qui est concentré sur d e s points de vue de la macrogestion. D'ailleurs, en exagérant un peu, on peut dire que dans la pratique chaque phase du contrôle du propriétaire
(de l'en-
trepreneur) de caractère macrocosmique s'attache à l'amélioration du rendement d u capital
(p.e. la surveillance et par in-
tervalle la rationalisation des frais d'exploitation,
le con-
trôle préalable et postérieur du choix des buts de l'investissement, l'examen du volume des dettes, de la composition des avoirs et des passifs, l'analyse de la cadence du remboursement des emprunts
(des crédits), à contracter, la prise en considéra-
tion des faveurs fiscales. Mais il serait erronné et prématuré d'arriver de ces observations à la conclusion selon laquelle le contrôle du bénéfice et du rendement des biens involve des 26 décisions ayant un contenu financier-économique similaire. La stratégie financière-économique qui cherche uniquement des bénéfices implique généralement une surexploitation de prise parce que la diminution continue des biens
l'entre-
(du capital)
implique la diminution du rendement, ce qui entraîne souvant de grands problèmes d a n s les relations bancaires de l'entreprise, car le créditeur examine naturellement avant tout l'existence de la couverture du crédit octroyé à l'entreprise. La troisième contradiction qui se manifeste dans le droit du nouveau mécanisme économique concernant la gestion et le contrôle économique résulte selon notre avis du fait que
l'ap-
pareil qui contrôle les processus économiques-financiérs a été chargé — d'après les publications sur les résultats de ses contrôles, publications déjà mentionnées — d'un contrôle trop poussé. Un tel contrôle invite forcément à une gestion de caractère interventionniste qui sépare les contrôleurs
(bien qu'à cause de la "distance" des organes de gestion cette
inter-
vention ne soit pas analogue aux processus qui s'opèrent au sein de l'entreprise) qui se manifeste dans l'instabilité du régulateur, instabilité souvent
système
critiquée.
Pour conclure l'analyse faite ci-dessus: la gestion étati-
Contrôle financier-économique
73
que des entreprises, des coopératives et des institutions bancaires et le mécanisme de leur contrôle sont asynchrones — outre la problématique qui résulte de l'absence de la solution du contrôle du propriétaire — parce que
le- contrôle étatique ne
porte pas justement sur le système d'organisme qui prend des décisions concernant les attributions du propriétaire
(c'est-
-à-dire des décisions décisives du point de vue économique) ou formulé dans une façon plus nuancée et plus objective: les institutions juridiques du contrôle ne portent pas assez d'effet sur ce système d'organisme. Le contrôle exercé du point de vue du propriétaire sur l'activité de ces organismes de direction ne peut pas être suppléé par le contrôle de caractère budgétaire — existant — exercé sur l'activité des organes ministériels. 4. Revenant au problème de savoir comment ou peut rendre plus efficace le contrôle du propriétaire, on ne peut pas arriver qu'à la conclusion suivante: plusieurs mille d'entreprises d'Etat ne peuvent pas être dirigées à partir de 8 à 10 centres et un système économique sérieux ne peut pas être basé sur ce qu'un appareil de contrôle financier-économique va ces entreprises en tant que délégué du propriétaire
contrôler (de l'Etat).
Mous sommes d'avis que les attributions qui constituent le contenu du droit de propriété devront être transférées aux entreprises de petite, moyenne ou grande taille, et l'appareil de contrôle financier-économique de l'Etat ne devrait
pas être
chargé que de la supervision, c'est-à-dire du contrôle qui n'entre pas dans les détails. Selon notre avis une énergie considérable devient ainsi disponible qui peut être utilisée
(out-
re l'examen du rendement d e s biens, tâche principale) à ce que l'appareil de contrôle financier-économique de l'Etat concentre ses forces à l'analyse du paiement des impôts et de
l'utilisa-
tion fructueuse des subventions d'Etat. Il ressort de ce qui précède qu'il est totalement superflu que l'activité de l'appareil central de contrôle financier-économique embrasse les questions de la gestion des frais et des fonds, la constitution de divers fonds et leur utilisation, la calculation d'autres dépenses, des frais de production, de la rentabilité. En même temps il est incontestable que l'Etat
socialiste
de la démocratie populaire s'est chargé par l'expropriation d e s
74
E. Ferenczy
moyens de production d'une responsabilité particulière:
notam-
ment de q^Xle de gérer efficacement les biens devenus capital national./Mais il ne s'en suit pas que l'Etat se charge également d'exécuter à la place des producteurs de marchandises (acheteurs et vendeurs, fournisseurs de services et clients) leur activité; et par "activité" on ne peut pas entendre la production prise
uniquement au sens étroit du mot. Jusqu'à ce
qu'une décision ne soit prise au sein du système des institutions politiques, selon laquelle l'Etat doit restreindre d'une façon décisive sa responsabilité
concernant les processus fi-
nanciers-économiques qui s'opèrent à micro-échelon, l'Etat doit satisfaire à ses obligations qui découlent de ses attributions en tant que propriétaire./Même dans cette période de gestion et du contrôle économique exercé par l'Etat — période qui peut être considérée théoriquement comme transitoire — l'Etat ne doit pas négliger ses tâches visant la transformation de la structure du bien national, c'est-à-dire les processus
financiers-éco-
nomiques ne doivent pas être évalués et contrôlés uniquement du point de vue de l'accroissement du revenu national. Le propriétaire
(c'est-à-dire l'Etat) doit dès maintenant chercher 29 les institutions juridico-économiques, qui indiquent les ef-
fets des événements financiers-économiques du point de vue de la production, du marché, du rendement du capital, par des indices
(des indicateurs) meilleurs et plus exacts que ceux uti'
lisés jusqu'ici. Les méthodes de contrôle introduites en relation avec les affaires bancaires et d'assurance
montrent que l'Etat est ca-
pable de s'acquitter de sa mission de contrôle par des moyens beaucoup plus modernes et plus efficaces que ceux soumis plus haut à la critique, 8 1 mission de contrôle exigée par l'existence des entreprises d a n s une société qui produit des marchandises. Comme nous l'avons déjà dit, l'Inspection des banques et l'Inspection de l'assurance n'exercent pas une surveillance de propriétaire, mais u n e surveillance professionnelle sur ceux qui mènent une activité bancaire ou d'assurance, néanmoins ces organes peuvent garantir ce que la protection de la société exige. Nous arrivons à la problématique du contrôle des prix, qui
Contrôle financier-économique
75
ne peut pas être séparé de la question du contrôle financier-économique; la même remarque vaut — selon notre avis —
égale-
ment à la surveillance du marché. Il y a lieu de remarquer que la fixation du prix appartient aux entreprises,
contrairement
au contrôle des contributions, de la douane et des taxes, au contrôle de l'utilisation des prévisions budgétaires, où
les
diverses catégories d'impôt, les tarifs douaniers, les différentes taxes et les titres sur la base desquels des paiements peuvent être effectués à la charge du budget, sont déterminés par l'Etat. Par cela nous ne voulons pas dire que dans un cercle restreint l'Etat ne peut pas exercer une influence sur les prix en offrant une compensation appropriée aux producteurs. Mais théoriquement nous mettons en doute que
l'administration
publique a une meilleure connaissance que l'entrepreneur des facteurs
(des frais) qui doivent se traduire dans les prix.
Nous ne voulons pas affirmer par cela que l'entreprise ne peut, ne pourrait pas faire abus de son droit à fixer le prix. C'est en pareil cas que l'Etat doit intervenir, en faisant entrer en 32 action l'institution établie pour combattre le prix déloyal. Par conséquant l'Etat doit concentrer ses efforts sur le contrôle des prix et pas sur leur orientation. Cela revient
âdire
que le contrôle financier-économique de l'Etat doit empêcher le développement de situations qui engendrent des prix déloyaux ou doit faciliter le redressement de telles situations. N o u s pensons que les conditions qui entraînent l'apparition des prix déloyaux
(position monopolisée, activités qui ne sont p a s exer-
cées par des entreprises) sont bien connues. Il est donc quelles mesures l'Etat doit prendre.
évident
(Tout d'abord la création
du marché, c'est-à-dire la création des entreprises,
l'encou-
ragement de leur fondation, l'élimination — par une législation antimonopoliste — des organismes ayant une position monopolisée, l'attrait des capitaux des entrepreneurs aux domaines n o n approvisionnés. ) Selon les apprences la responsabilité matérielle d e s dirigeants des entreprises soumises à direction unique et la responsabilité matérielle de la direction collective de ces organismes ne rentre pas dans la sphère de ce thème, néanmoins nous sommes d'avis que san une nouvelle réglementation de cette ins-
E. Ferenczy
76
titution le contrôle du propriétaire exercé à l'égard des gestionnaires des biens ainsi que le contrôle ayant un caractère de pouvoir public exercé par l'Etat à l'égard des propriétaires restent inefficaces. En effet, les propriétaires ont des obligations qui sont indépendantes de la forme de la propriété (étatique, coopérative, privés). Par exemple celle en vertu de laquelle les biens ne peuvent pas être retirés au hasard de l'entreprise
(étant donné que la part productive du bien natio-
nal serait ainsi réduite) ; les sommes accumulées en vue de l'amortissement ne peuvent pas être versées au propriétaires, c'est-à-dire jusqu'à ce que l'entreprise ne cesse pas son fonctionnement, il faut assurer le renouvellement des biens de production.
(Le droit américain poursuit par des moyens du droit
pénal ceux qui violent cette disposition, le droit hongrois 33 supprime l'exonération fiscale.) Dans cette sphère du contrôle rentre également la punition du comportement de
l'entrepre-
neur qui essays de sauvegarder des moyens matériels
(la capi-
tal) d'une entreprise par leur transfer dans une autre entreprise en spéculant au détriment des créanciers de l'entrepri34 se. La présentation des problèmes théoriques du contrôle financier-économique serait incomplète si nous ne parlions pas des règles et des opinions concernant le contrôle des devises. Il est bien connu que parallèlement à la nationalisation des banques la conception selon laquelle les créances et les dettes en devises doivent être centralisées s'est renforcée. Cependant l'idée inspiratrice elle-même n'est pas une conclusion tirée de la réalité des rapports de production socialistes
(le
système
de la politique des devises dirigée s'est développé dans le capitalisme) ; ainsi rien ne justifie que la gestion du bien national soit basée dans un régime socialiste sur ce système. Outre le fait que le point de départ m a n q u e de fondement théorique, le système est injuste, parce qu le classement des citoyens en groupe a et en groupe b porte atteinte au principe de l'égalité en droit
(les premiers peuvent avoir des comptes
en devises, les derniers pas). Pareillement la manière de voir selon laquelle parmi les dizaines de milliers d'entreprises seulement quelques entreprises ont le droit d'ouvrir un compte
Contrôle financier-économique en devises, est injustifiable.
77
Ajourd'hui il n'y a guère
d'expert qui est d'avis qu'aucune contrôle bancaire des entreprises n'est nécessaires; c'est pourquoi il est
indiscutable
qu'une des activités importantes des banques est la concentration des actifs en devises et 1'enreigstrement des dettes passive en devises. En même temps la conception qui confie le contraction d'un crédit ou l'octroi de prêts en devises à l'administration publique
(notamment à l'appareil commercial) est en
opposition avec les pensées exposées ci-dessus ainsi qu'avec les règles de l'économie et le système de responsabilité. est plus opportun
Il
(il en résulte un financement de la produc-
tion plus souple et plus efficace) si les institutions financières elles-mêmes décident — il est vrai qu'elles décident selon leurs points de vue spécifiques — pour quelles transactions contractées en devises elles donnent u n e garantie bancaire, que si une ou deux banques disposent de l'ensemble des réserves et des actifs en devises de l'économie nationale. Nous ne voulons pas faire l'impression d'être hostile à ce qu l'Etat se charge du contrôle des transactions effectuées en devises, bien au contraire, nous voulons démontrer que le contrôle de ce type et l'organe étatique approprié sont inexistants dans notre système juridique. N o u s n'ignorons pas que le maintien de la solvabilité extérieure du pays — en tant qu'objectif — ne serait pas facilité par la suppression du monopole d e devises. Le succès des efforts dépend de la coopération des entrepreneurs et du gouvernement. M a i s ces efforts ne seront pas couronnés de succès si — sans appareil de contrôle autonome, sans institution de contrôle — nous cherchons à forcer les acteurs du travail gouvernemental et les entreprises, en obligeant les premiers à diminuer les dépenses en devises et les derniers à favoriser la transformation de la structure de la production. En conclusion des problèmes connexes au contrôle
financier-écono-
miques des entreprises, nous faisons la constatation
suivante:
il faut réduire et limiter les tâches de contrôle et la responsabilité presque totale de l'appareil de contrôle
financier-
-économique et la majorité des tâches de contrôle doit être transmise aux entrepreneurs et à leurs organismes professionnels.
E. Ferenczy
78
5. Le contrôle de l'utilisation des revenus de l'Etat implique la question suivante: est-ce qu'il vaut le peine de fai1с re contrôler la régularité des dépenses, si cette dépense a été déjà autorisée par le parlement
sous forme d e la loi budgé-
taire? Le bien-fondé d e cette question n'est guère
contestable:
il faut accepter le fait qu'aucun pays ne permet la mise en débat de la question de savoir si les prévisions fixées dans les chapitres du budget et dans les prévisions récapitulatives 37 peuvent être dépensées. Dans le cadre de cette question on peut examiner à la rigueur le problème également très sensible du point du vue politique: le gouvernement a-t-il le droit de dépenser les sommes fixées par la budget de dépenses si l'appareil du gouvernement chargé de la perception des impôts, des taxes et de la douane n'est pas à même de réaliser le budget des recettes. La réponse à cette question est la même que celle donnée à la précédente: les lois de finances et le budget ne contiennent pas de telle
prescription.
Nous avons exposé ces questions — bien que les réponses soient négatives — pour montrer: la dépense des recettes publiques prévues par le budget est permise, c'est-à-dire en général
(globalement) l'activité de financement du
ne peut pas être mise en débat.
gouvernement
(Cela n'exclut pas le contrôle
préalable de cette activité; le corps législatif peut faire valoir ces points de v u e lors de débat du projet de loi.) Par contre il n'est pas si évident si le degré de liberté d'action du gouvernement est aussi élevé qu'il peut assumer de nouvelles obligations intérieures ou extérieures, qui surpassent les prévisions des dépenses. Les lois de finances des pays socialistes règlent la li38 berté d'action du gouvernement de plusieurs manières. Le problème se pose dans la façon suivante: si les règles de compétence donnent au gouvernement une autorisation sans aucune restriction financière,
les organes ayant la qualité de légi-
féré lui ont donné par ce fait le droit de contracter des obligations, et ce faisant ils se sont privés eux-mêmes, ils ont privé peurs membres et leur services auxiliaires
(c'est-à-dire
les contrôleurs) de la possibilité de contester du point de vue de la légalité le bien-fondé des dépenses. En ce cas à
Contrôle financier-économique
79
l'occasion du débat sur l'exécution du budget les députés à la rigueur peuvent poser la question de savoir pourquoi le gouvernement n'a exécuté que le projet des dépenses ou pourquoi il l'a surpassé et pourquoi il n'a pas réalisé le projet des recettes. Dans le cadre de ce système de réglementation les dépenses déterminées par le gouvernement — en ce qui concerne les cas cités — ne peuvent pas être qualifiées d'illégales. En connexion avec le thème du contrôle
économique-finan-
cier il faut rappeler la manière de voir généralement connue et adoptée par la constitution de chacun des pays
socialistes,
selon laquelle le gouvernement n'est pas irresponsable. La conséquence logique en est qu'au cas où le contrôle des activités financières du gouvernement ne s'opère pas selon des principes bien élaborés, selon des règles de compétence et le contrôle est exercé sans le concours d'un appareil spécialisé dans ce domaine
(organe auxiliaire du parlement), alors le gouvernement
devient irresponsable. Nous sommes d'avis qu'on peut affirmer à juste titre: notre système de contrôle
financier-économique
ne dispose pas d'un organisme de contrôle externe situé au dehors de l'administration publique, et d'autre part qu'il faut développer l'ensemble des règles de droit concernant le contrôle de l'activité financière
(budgétaire) du gouvernement. Ce
développement devrait se fonder sur l'idée qu'il faut établir des institutions juridiques de contrôle non formel, mais substantiel et les mettre à la disposition du parlement, des commissions du parlement et des députés, institutions dont les devoirs et obligations concernant le contrôle du budget sont clairement définis. Au cours de la gestion du budget de nombreuses relations se créent
(p.e. contrat d'achat et de vente, contrat, de tran-
sport, bail, contrat de recherches) qui sont courantes dans la sphère des entreprises. Le contrôle de ces relations est l'un des points le plus sensible du contrôle des institutions financiées par le budget
(finalement c'est à ce point que les
deniers publics échappent des mains de l'Etat), en effet, l'Etat n'est pas seulement le plus grand propriétaire de revenus, mais également le plus grand consommateur. La vérification des factures acceptées par l'administration publique, le con-
80
E. Ferenczy
trôle budgétaire de l'exécution de la commande
(c'est-à-dire
le contrôle des marchandises, d e s services des fournisseurs, y compris le contrôle des prix et de la qualité) constituent essentiel du contrôle dit budgétaire. Il est donc évident que la mission la plus importante du contrôle étatique du budget
est
la vérification de la légitimité des paiements effectués par des institutions financées par des deniers publics. I,a légalité signifie ici que le paiement donné
(paiement des salaires,
liquidation des comptes, les paiements en espèce) se fonde sur un titre légal. En analysant ce problème, il faut donner
une
réponse sans équivoque à la question de savoir si la mission de l'institution financée par le budget a rendu nécessaire la dépense. Il faut donc surtout examiner si la dépense se laisse ramener à une règle de droit qui
(en général) ou d'une
façon
concrète) prescrit que la dépense soit porter au débit du budget. En outre la dépense doit s'attacher à la mission, aux attributions et à la compétence d e l'institution. Une autre question qui entre en ligne de compte avec la même importance est la question de savoir si au cours de l'ordonnancement la
solu-
tion la plus économique a été choisie. Jadis l'institution des contrats dits de fourniture publique, aujourd'hui les normes 39 qui prescrivent la mise en adjudication servent le choix d'une telle solution. Le contrôle
du type budgétaire, comme décrit ci-dessus,
"cherche" en premier lieu la corrélation entre les tâches et les dépenses, et deuxièmement est l'examen
de la couverture
de la dépense, étant donné que le principe de base est q u e l'organe de gestion ne peut pas contracter envers ses fournisseurs des engagements qui n'ont pas de couverture financière. Outre ces points de vue gestionnaires l'activité de contrôle porte également sur les prescriptions de la comptabilité
(de
la tenue des livres). Cependant ce type de contrôle doit
être
séparé du contrôle de l'activité de
l'ordonnancement.
Le grand problème du contrôle budgétaire (d'ailleurs de tout contrôle de type financier) est l'établissement de la re40 sponsabilité.
Le droit budgétaire hongrois dispose de ce
point de vue de trois caractéristiques. Premièrement il reporte la responsabilité pour l'exécution de la dépense à la personne
Contrôle financier-économique
81
habilités à ordonnancer. Deuxièmement il n'existe pas de l'autorité disctincte spéciale en vue d'établir la
responsabilité
de la personne qui contresigne la dépense du point de vue pro41 fessionnel.
Le troisième trait caractéristique découle du
fait que le parlement ne dispose pas d'une organe
spécialisé
au contrôle des mesures budgétaires
(organe qui devrait donner 42 un rapport annuel sur les expériences du contrôle). Ainsi les organes corporatifs
(commissions gouvernementales,
commissions
interministérielles) échappent au champ visuel du contrôle.
Il
s'ensuit que le système de contrôle du budget hongrois concentre son attention aux ordonnateurs,et
il n'existe pas de régime
distinct de contrôle juridique à l'égard des ordonnateurs,
des
contrasignateurs et des organes qui prennent des décisions
col-
lectives, ni un forum qui examine leur responsabilité. 6. Pour conclure le sujet du contrôle
financier-économi-
que, les expériences du fonctionnement du système de contrôle prouvent qu'on n'a pas encore vraiment réussi à trouver les formes de contrôle adaptées aux rapports de production
socia-
listes. Nous pensons que cela s'explique surtout par la manière de voir de la théorie, qui au cours de l'établissement du tème de contrôle a mis en vedette l'élément
sys-
organisationnel
(bureaucratique). Mais l'approche du contrôle du point de v u e organisationnel ne facilite pas la compréhension de la question de savoir quel sont les éléments qui ne peuvent être contrôlés efficacement qu'uniquement par d e s organes de contrôle financier de l'Etat, et quels aspects spéciaux l'Etat doit avoir en vue au cours de sont contrôle, prenant en considération le fait que d'autres organismes ayant un autre caractère exercent
éga-
lement un contrôle. Il s'agit essentiellement du fait qu'il faut d'abord préciser quel sont les activités
financiéres-éco-
nomiques qui peuvent être accomplies d'une façon au sein d e l'Etat respectivement quelles sont celles à accomplir hors de l'Etat. Deuxièmement quelles sont parmi ces activités celles ayant un caractère similaire à celui d'une entreprise et q u e l les sont celles qui ne valent pas d'être incluses dans cette sphère. Par une telle approche d e s activités menées dans d e s conditions socialistes de production, le sujet du contrôle
fi-
nancier-économique peut être examiné sur le base d'une m a n i è r e
E. Ferenczy
82 de voir nouvelle.
Dans ce modèle le système du contrôle ne dépendrait pas d'une façon décisive du fait lequel des propriétaires de revenu accomplit une certaine activité
(l'Etat, les entreprises ou le
citoyen), mais la question décisive sera de savoir si l'origine du revenu ou l'utilisation du revenu doit être contrôlés. A v a n t de présenter quelles tâches devraient être soumises au contrôle de l'Etat au cours de l'examen des finances et d e
l'activité
économique, nous voulons souligner en tant que condition
très
importante du renouvellement qu'il faut supprimer la position monopolisée de l'Etat dans le domaine du contrôle
financier-
-économique. C'est-à-dire il faut traiter sur un pied d'égalité l'activité de contrôle exercée par d e s propriétaires de revenu et le contrôle exercé par l'Etat m ê m e dans les domaines ou l'Etat est le propriétaire
(notamment le ministère ou le con-
seil qui créent des organismes de gestion) . La conception de l'égalité est selon notre avis en harmonie avec l'autonomie
des
entreprises et des institutions financières, autonomie fixée d'ailleurs comme objectif. Faire accepter le contrôle des propriétaires de revenu, contrôle n'ayant pas un caractère de pouvoir public, n'est pas avant tout un problème législatif
(la
littérature des sciences politiques et juridiques serait vraisemblablement prête à englober cette conception dans une règle juridique), c'est plutôt le système des arguments
théoriques-
-idéologiques qui n'est pas assez convaincant, c'est-à-dire
il
est problématique secle temps du changement du paradigme est arrivé. Il s'agit de la question importante de savoir comment on peut transformer la propriété sociale qui revêt la forme d e la propriété d'Etat en une propriété dont le contrôle du propriétaire n'est pas exercé par l'administration publique. N o u s pensons, il serait en harmonie avec un marge de manouevre plus grand — m a r g e nécessaire et de plus en plus reconnu — si les travailleurs des entreprises étaient investis des pouvoirs indispensables en vue de la gestion d e s processus micro-économiques. Par conséquent les principales obligations de contrôle qui découlent des attributions du propriétaire leur seront également transmises
(par exemple l'augmentation de la fortune,
l'alimentation des fonds d'amortissement, etc.). Ce modèle de
Contrôle financier-économique
83
gestion et de contrôle n'est pas en contradiction avec l'idée de la propriété sociale; il énonce seulement que dans l'économie nationale — près d'autres formes de propriété — il existe également la forme de propriété des entreprises et celle des coopératives, où les attributions du propriétaire sont ni capitalisées ni nationalisées. C'est-à-dire le contrôle de l'utilisation de la propriété sociale
(du capital national) reste la
mission de l'Etat. De nombreuses institutions peuvent garantir l'accomplissement de cette mission: les attributions de contrôle du parlement, contrôle exercé sur l'exécution de la loi portant sur l'économie nationale et l'exécution de la loi d e finances; les pouvoirs du gouvernement concernant la surveillance de la concurrence et du marché, les droits de contrôle d e s tribunaux et du ministère public sur la fondation et la cessation des entreprises ainsi que la surveillance de la légalité. Un autre problême à résoudre est le siuvant: la création de quels organes de contrôle doit être prescrite par l'Etat, organes, qui, établis par les divers organes de représentation d'intérêts économiques auront la mission — outre leur activité menée en tant que représentation des intérêts — d'exercer un contrôle professionnel pour vérifier si l'activité de leurs membres ne viole pas les intérêts économiques et financiers — protégés par la loi — d'autres acteurs de l'économie.
Indépen-
damment de ces instances de contrôle l'Etat pourrait prescrire l'établissement des organes
(des sociétés) chargés de l'évalua-
tion des biens, en vue de l'examen continu du rendement d e s entreprises. Il serait nécessaire de faire fonctionner d'une façon séparée des organes mentionnés ci-dessus l'appareil qui protège l'inviolabilité de la position de l'Etat concernant les recettes et qui assure que les sources de la consommation commune de la société, les impôts, les taxes et les taxes douanières couvrent les dépenses jugées nécessaires. On devrait organiser de le même façon le contrôle des biens budgétaires. Etant donné que les biens budgétaires sont gérés selon d'autres points de vue que les biens des entreprises et les organes budgétaires participent pourtant au contrôle de ces derniers, il faudrait donner la possibilité également réciproquement. Nous pensons
84
E. Ferenczy
que notre position est d'autant plus motivée qu'il faut contrôler également que l'Etat ne dépense p a s des sommes anormalement exagérées en retirant d'une façon néfaste trop de revenu de la sphère des
entrepreneurs.
Tous ces problèmes justifient que la réforme du système des institutions politiques et celle d e s institutions économiques
(soulignant que la transformation du système de contrôle
y est comprise) ne peuvent pas être séparées qu'artificiellement l'une de l'autre. L'examen des processus économiques et leur contrôle y occupent une place prioritaire.
ФИНАНСОВО-ХОЗЯЙСТВЕННЫЙ
КОНТРОЛЬ
Э. Ференци В статье рассматриваются вопросы финансового контроля, осуществляемого государством. Автор устанавливает, что необходимо делать резкое различие между налоговым контролем государства, его контролем и бухалтерском отношении и контролем, осуществляемым им в качестве собственника. В статье дается подробный анализ форм проявления контроля, осуществляемого государством в качестве собственника /ввод капитала в какую-нибудь организацию, вывод капитала/ и автор приходит к выводу, что элементарной объязанностью субъектов права собственности /в том числе и государства/ является контроль за выручкой своего имущества. Наряду с государственным налоговым контролем /а это означает контроль за доходными статьями бюджета/ автор уделяет большое внимание проблемам, связанным с контролем над государственными и коммунальными расходами и делает заключение, что ни самый ригористический контроль государственных и коммунальных расходов не может заменить новый подход к теории о контроле, осуществляемом собственником.
THE FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC
SUPERVISION
E. Ferenczy The author discusses on the problems of financial control practiced by the state. He ascertains that sharp distinction should be made between the fiscal control, book-keeping control and owner-type supervision of the state. He analyses the aspects of the owner-type control /capital transfer into some organisation, withdrawal of capital/ and draws the consequence that the subjects of ownership rights /therefore the state too/ has an elementary duty to control the income of their property. Beside the tax control of the state /which is actually the control of the income side of budget/ the author emphasizes the problems related to the supervision of the so-called public expenditures and takes the stand that the most rigorous control of public expenditures cannot substitute the rethinking of the theory of ownership control.
Contrôle financier-économique
85
N O T E S 1. Badacsonyi, Gy. - Kamarás, J. - Kovács, L.: A vállalatok és költségvetési szervezetek ellenőrzese. (Le contrôle des entreprises et des organes budgéraires. ) KJK, Budapest, 1979. p. 49-63; Meznerics, I.: Pénzügyi jog a szocialista gazdálkodás uj rendszerében. (Le droit financier dans le nouveau système de gestion socialiste.) KJK, Budapest, 1969. p. 111-118 et 378-394; Török, L. : Az állami ellenőrzés szocialista rendszere. (Le contrôle de l'Etat dans le système socialiste.) KJK, Budapest, 1Э71. p. 51 et 57. 2. La Loi No II de l'an 1979 sur les finances de l'Etat modifiée par les décrets-lois N 0 26 de l'an 1983, No 25 de l'an 1984, No 28 de l'an 1986 et par les lois N o III de l'an 1985 et No IX de l'an 1987. 3. Les thèses du comité de travail établi par le Comité central su le rôle dirigeant du parti dans notre société et sur le développement du système des institutions politiques. Section de propagande du PSOH, N o 1/1988, p. 15. 4. Les règles de droit établies par le gouvernement comportant des dispositions concernant le contrôle financier-économique: décret No 50/1977. /XII.21./ MT sur le contrôle de l'Etat (surtout les paragraphes 80 à 104) modifiée par les décrets No 21/1983. /VI.15./, 14/1985. /111.20/ et 85/1987. /XII. 28./ MT; le décret No 23/1979. /VI.28./ MT modifiée par le décret-loi No 25 de l'an 1981 et les décrets Nos 46/1981. /Х.8./, 7/1983. /IV.13./, 50/1983 /XII.28./, 36/1984. /Х.31./, 24/1985. /V.6./, 55/1985. /XII.27./ et 53/1986. /XII.10/ MT, ainsi que le décret 19/1980. /IX.27./ PM modifié par les décrets Nos 3/1984. /Х1.6./ОТ-РМ,. 55/1985. /XII.28./ et 54/1986. /XI.26./ OM, mais d'autres ministères ont également émis des décrets qui touchent le contrôle financier (p.s. le décret No L7/198. /XII.24./Eüm) et finalement le décret No 50/1987. /Х.14./МТ sur la procéduré administrative concernant les impôts, ainsi que le décret No 68/1987. /Х11.14./РМ. 5. Bokor, P.; Altalános ellenőrzési ismeretek. (Connaissances générales de contrôle) In: Ellenőrzési eljárások, módszerek, szervezetek. (Procédures méthodes, organismes de conPublication de la Direction génétrôle. Réd. : Nyikosc, L. rale de contrôle du Îlinistère des Finances, PM Szervezési és Ügyvitelgépesitési Vállalat, Budapest, 1985. p. 41. 6. Pour comprendre cette constatation, il faut prendre en considération qu'une réglementation de revenu différente a été en vigueur dans la sphère industrielle, agricole et dans celle des institutions financières (c'est-à-dire pratiquement en ce qui concerne les entreprises d'Etat, les coopératives de production, les banques et les institutions d'assurance). Cf. décret No 40/1984 sur la réglementation des revenus dans les entreprises modifié par le décret No 46/1986. /Х.31./МТ; le décret No. 45/1984. /Х1.6./МТ sur la réglementation du revenu dans le secteur agraire et dans le secteur de la production de vivres. La situation spéciale de la sphère des services financiers s'est manifestée jusqu'à 1987 par le fait qu'il n'existait pas de régies réglementant le revenu dans le secteur bancaire et d'institutions d'assurances. 7. Kamarás, J.: Az ellenőrzés szervezése és általános mód-
86
E. Ferenczy
szertana.(L'organisation et la méthodologie générale du contrôle.) PM. Joginform, Budapest, 1987, p. 34-44. 8. Cf.: Décret No 63/1986. /Х11.30./РМ sur le réglementation des revenus et des traitements bancaires et sur le système de l'intéressement matêrial d e s travailleurs des banques occupant un poste de direction éleve modifié par le décret No 41/1987. /VIII.24./РМ, ainsi que le décret No 15/1987. /IV.13./ PM sur la réglementation des revenus et des traitements dans les institutions d'assurances et sur l'intéressement matérial des travailleurs des institutions d'accusances occupant une poste de direction élevé. 9. Décret No 1/1987/VII.28./MNB sur la surveillance exercée par l'institut d'émission. 10. Décret No 55/1986. /Х11.10./МТ sur l'Inspection des banques et décret No 43/1987. /1Х.8./РМ sur certaines questions de l'inspection des banques. 11. Décret N o 56/1986. /Х11.10./МТ sur l'Inspection de l'assurance et décret No 14/1987. /IV.13./OM sur certaines questions de l'inspection de l'assurance. 12. Cf.: A v i s 9017/1987. /SK.10/KSH sur la modification de la classification sectorielle unique des activités. 13; Etant donné que les dispositions du décret-loi sur l'impôt des entreprises ainsi que certaines règles plus favorables concernant le déduction des frais y sont applicables. 14. Notre système de droit ne connaît pas cette forme de contrôle. Il est à remarquer que les organes de représentation des intérêts (par exemple le Conseil national des Syndicats) ont réalisé l'importance de ce contrôle. 15. Son successeur est l'Office de contrôle des impôts et des finances, (АРЕН). Cf. décret No 14/1987. /V.13./MT sur l'Office du contrôle des impôts et des finances. 16. Sur ce thème l'étude de Kovács, I.: Az emberi jogok az alkotmányokban. (Les droits de l'homme dans les constitutions) contient une analyse remarquable dans un contexte plus large. In: Az emberi jogok dokumentumokban (Les droits de l'homme en documents), KJK. Budapest, 1976. p. 17-113.; L'article de Ferenczy, E. : Az állampolgár és a pénzügyi igazgatás közötti kapcsolatokról. (Sur les relations entre le citoyen et 2/1981; l'administration financière). Állam- és Jogtudomány, 387 - 891. traite le rapport entre les droits politiques et les finances dans son contexte proprement dit. 17. L'appareil qui contrôle l'utilisation des sommes budgétaires s'est associée relativement tard (on peut dire à l'époque de la naissance des Etats nationaux) aux bureaux des contributions créées assez tôt. 18. Dès le début cet appareil consiste des organes suivants: a) l'appareil des contrôleurs de l'Office central des impôts (décret gouvernemental No 4186/1949. /VIII. 6 ./Korm.; b) la Direction générale des recettes du Ministère des Finances, (décret gouvernemental No 16/1967. /VI.18./Korm.; c) Direction générale du contrôle du Ministère des Finances , (décret N o 46/1981. /X. 8./Korm. ; d) Office du contrôle des impôts et des finances, (décret No 14/1987. /V.13./MT. 19. Sur la notion et le contenu des fonds propres de l'entreprise voir l'annexe 3. du décret No 32/1984. /Х1.5./РМ.
Contrôle financier-économique
87
20. Communiqué sur les expériences de l'activité de contrôle financier-économique acquises dans l'année 1985 par la Direction générale de contrôle du Ministère des Finances et par l'appareil sous sa direction. Section agraire et d'alimentation de la Direction générale de contrôle du Ministère des Finances, Budapest, 1986, 119 p.; Communiqué sur les constatations du contrôle financier-économique exercé dans l'année 1982 par les section industrielles de l'organe de contrôle sur l'activité des organes de gestion industrielle. Direction générale de contrôle du Ministère des Finances, Budapest, avril 1983, 70 p.; Communiqué sur les constatations du contrôle financier-êconomique exercé dans l'année 1982 par les sections commerciales et de services des directions départementales (de la capitale) soumises à la direction de la Direction générale de contrôle du Ministère des Finances. Section commerciale et de services de la Direction générale de contrôle du Ministère des Finances, Budapest, mars 1983. 67 p. 21. Selon notre avis la position selon laquelle le contenu du droit de propriété socialiste est sa pratique conforme à sa destination ne saisit pas 1'essential de la notion. Cf. Csanádi, Gy.: Polgári jog. (Droit civil) Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest, 1979, p. 125. L'oeuvre de Sárándi, I.: Polgári jog III. (Droit civil. III.) Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest, 1982. ne traite en détail que le contenu du droit de propriété des marchandises. Dans ses notices de conférence /А tulajdonjog alapkérdései/ (Les questions fondamentales du droit de propriété, Miskolc, manuscript, 1987) mises à notre disposition, Novotni, Z. analyse les formes du droit de propriété; cependant II ne parle pas du contenu du droit de propriété, mais "des traits du pouvoir de la propriété" et des manifestations du pouvoir inhérent à la propriété sociale. 22. C'est surtout le droit capitaliste qui connaît une telle attribution supplémentaire et qui autorise l'Etat — à 1'opposite des autres sujets du marché — à modifier unilatéralement le rapport juridique. Cf. Harmathy, A. Szerződés, közigazgatás, gazdaságirányítás. (Contrat, administration publique, gestion de l'economie.) Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1983. p. 115-220. 23. Nous avons utilisé les notions "reçu" et "imposé", car la nationalisation a été une décision politique qui selon notre avis a donné un choc se faisant sentir aujourd'hui encore au sein de l'appareil de l'Etat. Cet appareil a manqué d'expériences et de pratique et surtout des connaissances nécessaires pour gérer une si grande masse de biens et pour être apte à embaucher plusieurs millions de travailleurs. 24. Ce processus se déroule au cas de l'investissement du venture capital (capital de risques). Cf. Venture capitalin Europe, 19*86, EVCA Yearbook, Hague, 1986, p. 198. 25. A cause de cela sont remarquable les recherches qui sont en cours dans ce cadre au Centre de Recherches en Droit Public de l'Académie des Sciences de Hongrie. 26. Le volume Vagyonérdekeltség - reform. (Réforme de l'intéressement matériel) rédigé par Szabó, К. (KJK, Budapest, 1987. p. 241.) contient un sérieux matériel prouvant cette thèse. 27. Cf.: les études sur le Trust de commerce de bétail et
88
E. Ferenczy
de charcuterie (OVK, manuscript, 1987) et sur le Chantier naval hongrois (PKI, 1984). 28. Voir la description détaillée dans le volume déjà cité (note 5) intitulé Procédures, méthodes, organismes de contrôle, p. 159-284. 29. Le contrôle exercé par l'administration publique n'est que l'une des méthodes de contrôle des processus financiers-économiques. La littérature professionelle évoque de plus en plus souvent l'idée de la bourse des valeurs qui exerce un contrôle d'un type analoque sur le rendement des entreprises, ainsi que la proposition concernant l'établissement des institutions destinées à évaluer les biens. 30. Concernant le nouveau contrôle (normatif) appliqué relatif aux services financiers voir p.e. les alinéa 1-3 du par. 4. du décret No 14/1987. /IV.13./PM et l'alinéa 1 du décret NO 4361987. /IX.8./PM. 31. Cf.: note No 28. 32. Décret No 31/1934. /Х.31./РМ sur le prix déloyal. 33. Selon l'alinéa 1/c du par 4. du décret No 38/1987. /Х.12./МТ les fonds investis dans l'entreprise ne sont pas qualifiés de revenu à l'occasion de leur retrait de 1'enterprise ; et le gain des fonds investis, gain tiré selon l'alinéa 2 du par. 10 du décret portant sur l'exécution de la loi sur l'impôt sur les revenus des personnes physiques est déductible du bénéfice imposable, en tant que frais. (Les participants de l'entreprise peuvent déduire — en tant que rendement des fonds investis dans leur propre entreprise — une somme conforme au plus haut taux d'intérêt payé sur les comptes d'épargne, mais ls totale de cette somme ne peut pas dépasser les 20% des bénéfices de l'entreprise.) 34. C'est le cas de la faillite dite frauduleuse. Cf. dans la littérature: Török, G.: Csôdjog, felszámolási eljárás, állami szanálás. (Droit de la faillite, procédure de liquidation, redressement par l'Etat) ELTE, JTI, 1986, p. 114. 35. Les règles les plus importantes concernant le contrôle des devises: le décret-loi No 1 de l'an 1974 modifié par le décret-loi No 1 de l'an 1979 sur la gestion planifiée des devises, ainsi que le décret No 6/1982. /11.17./РМ sur la procédure de l'autorité des devises. Dans la littérature voir Fekete, J.: A devizagazdálkodás szerepe az uj gazdaságirányitási rendszerben. (Le rôle de la gestion des devises dans le système nozveau de la gestion économique.) Pénzügyi Szemle, 1986, No. 8-9. p. 598-603. 36. Pour préciser notre conception nous tenons à remarquer que les utilisateurs directs des deniers publics sont les organes du pouvoir public, de l'administration publique, les organes judiciaires et le Parquet. Les entreprises (les producteurs et les fournisseurs de services) en recevant une subvention de l'Etat ou en bénéficiant des faveurs fiscales ne sont que les utilisateurs indirects des deniers publics. Dès lors il est nécessaire de contrôler ceux qui ordonnancent ainsi que les utilisateurs. 37. P.e. la loi sur les droits budgétaires de l'Union soviétique et des républiques fédérales (Vedomosti Verhovnogo Sovieta, 1959. No 44.); la loi polonaise sur le droit budgétaire (Dzeinnik Ustaw, 1970. No 19.): la loi sur les finances publi-
Contrôle financier-économique
89
ques de la République démocratique allemande (Gesetzblatt der DDR, 1968, Teil I. Но 23.); 38. P.e. la loi soviétique déjà mentionnée ainsi que la loi yougoslave "Le financement de la fédération" adoptée en 1972. 39. Le décret-loi No 19 de l'an 1978 sur l'adjudication administrative. 40. Szentiványi, I.; A felelSsségrendszer és a pénzügyi jogi felelosseg. (Le système de la responsabilité et la responsabilité dans le droit des finances) KJK, Budapest, 1983. p. 303. 41. Voir l'article 17 du règlement financier de la C o m m u nauté économique européenne du 21 décemtre 1977, applicable au budget général des Communautés européennes, Journal Officiel des C.E. 2 0 e année No L 356. qui stipule que l'exécution du budget est fondée sur le principe de la séparation des ordonnateurs et des contrôleurs (comptables). 42. La soumission du rapport sur l'exécution du budget peut être réglementée de façon que ce rapport soit présenté au parlement ensemble avec le rapport du gouvernement, mais il est également de pratique courante que l'organe de contrôle financier présente son rapport indépendamment de celui du gouvernement .
Acta J u r i d i c a A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 3 2 ( 1 - 2 ) pp .91-128. ( 1 9 9 0 ) STATE IMMUNITY AND
LIABILITY
FOR DAMAGES
L. Kecskés Assistant Janus Pannonius
Professor University,
Pécs
Laymen used to see in law, as a rule, a system with a not differentiated structure that brings about an effect mostly in a single way. The highest expectation they raise against law is to determine the responsible person and to delimitate the scope of responsibility. The reply offered by the facts reveals, however, that it has been the very field of responsibility in which the general public has been suffering a deception most frequently, recognizing that the highest social expectations against law have been appearing just in relation to responsibility. Legal theory seems to have adapted itself to the institutional crisis of responsibility and the intensive appearance of tendencies of immunity that arise among the symptoms of the said crisis. In fact, the classical way in which bourgeois lawyers put the question on the subjective or objective nature of responsibility could be formulated even adversely in our time. Accordingly, it is no more an unreasonable approach to deal with the problem whether the omission of calling to responsibility can be attributed more to subjective or objective factors in the given cases. In a broader sense, the subjective and objective-motivated cases of the failure of calling to responsibility can be equally regarded as the enforcement of immunity. The actual, and narrower, subject-matter of the present study, i.e. state immunity, represents, however, a symptom of irresponsibility which used to be objectivated in the law. From the theoretical point of view of jurisprudence, the motivation of the present study is, on the one hand, to prove that, in spite of the heterogenity and the diversificated problems of state immunity, i.e. being partly a legal institution and partly a disfunctional phenomenon, with its problems that may be equally found in the fields of contractual law, delictual law, private international law, and administrative law, the problems of state immunity and state /liability/ may be treated on the basis of a uniform approach and a complex method. In other words, the sections of problems pertaining to different fields of the la,w can be brought to a common basis. On the other hand, a method of jurisprudence, broadly practised for the time being, should be corrected here, with an approach of principle. Upon the effect of the said method, the problems of state /liability/ and immunity used to be treated in the relevant literature separated from the matters of the state's capacity of subject at civil law state's.
Acta
Juridica
Academiae Scientiarum H u n g a r i c a e , 32, 1 9 9 0 . Akadémiai Kiadó, B u d a p e s t
92
L. Kecskés In his famous work
"On the spirit of the law", Montes-
quieu mentioned a feeling of conflict experienced by Theophilos, a Byzantine emperor who lived in the 9th century A.D. Theophilos ordered to burn the vessel that delivered commodities for empress Theodora, his wife. "I am the emperor, and you wished me become a freighter. How could earn their living the poor if we took over their craftsmanship?" "Who would
Indeed, he could have added:
force us to comply with our obligations?"
The reac-
tion of the by-gone monarch who seemed to be obsessed by philanthropy was a bit anachronistic even as Montesquieu recalled
his
figure. In fact, the system of government completely reserved toward economy and trade was more or less obsolete already in that time. True, the state approach so alien to the economy was revitalized to some extent casually due to physiocratic
ten-
dencies even in Montesquieu's time but not to the degree which was perceptible from the said source. Hence, it can be supposed that the "good emperor" appeared as a model for Montesquieu more from
an
ethycal than an economic aspect. Furthermore, there
is no need at all to prove that the state approach as represented by Theophilos was spectacularly
far from the "spirit of the
law" as living at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. At the same time, the doubts of the monarch concerning his responsibility has been an actual matter up to the present time. In fact, the mechanismus put under the heading and
"responsibility"
being at the disposal of the society together with its
lawyers and
judges are still not efficient enough if being faced
the
of
state
modern times. Thus, we still cannot claim that
responsibility has a considerable role among the legal phenomena following
the acts of the state. On the contrary, it has
been a characteristic situation frequently that, in fact, the state cannot be called to responsibility for damages it caused, i.e. it has been enjoying immunity. As the direct participation of the state in economic
life
became a tipical issue since the decline of liberal capitalism, and the state appeared as the subject of civil law relations more and m o r e frequently, it became imperative also for legal thinking to perceive t h a t something was out of normal order about the justness of legal relations of this kind. Indeed, the
93
State immunity and liability
state proved to be unwilling to adapt itself to the substance of the receiving structure of civil law, based on
co-ordination
and the equality of rights in principle. Adversely, it makes efforts to secure privileged positions and immunity. The p r o b lems arise, accordingly, from the inclination of the state to behave as such even in civil law relations, being anxious to transfer its public authority to autonomous relations. With
its
entry into the structure of civil law, it ought to take care to leave its sovereignty and public authority beyond this State immunity as a legal institution was an
frame.
indisputable
fact over centuries. It was considered, indeed, to be a highly important legal institution with far-reaching effects, part of the universal legal culture, transplanted to historical conditions and exerting influence in distinct fields in which its existence and functioning could not be explained
from economic,
social, and political points of v i e w when seen from outside. All this was due to its "internal" force, causing a surprise to the comparative jurisprudence of our time. Since the end of the last century onward state immunity as a legal
institution
got paled, however, considerably within the context of universal legal development. In fact, its character as a legal institution survived to our time, essentially, only in the field
re-
lated to international economic relations but its form got modified
and took a milder shape even here. As to the internal
/domestic/ law of the states, it w a s ousted gradually as a legal institution,
to
be
replaced by state liability. All what
took place in the individual countries below the level of a formal legal institution was, however, not in conformity
with
the said process. In fact, it could be observed that state munity as a phenomenon continued to exist or w a s reshaped
imbut
this tendency left already a narrower margin to the law. Rather, this phenomenon was induced by the disfunctions of state a c t i vity and mainly informal elements. Immunity means some kind of a counterpoint to responsibility,
i.e.
"irresponsibility". More precisely, immunity is a
category comprising cases of the omission of calling to responsibility. Accordingly,
immunity is a situation in which a given
subject at law cannot be called to responsibility for some
L. Kecskés
94
reason although, as far as the state of facts is concerned, the required conditions exist. First of all, immunity is connected with the "outer" appearance of a subject at law, and
the
quality of status of the subject at law concerned will decide whether or not calling to responsibility will be omitted. For this reason, the general problem of the state's capacity at civil law
has
to
be recalled when the matter of state immunity
and the liability of the state for damages is examined. Accordingly, this should be the starting point, and the
relationship
between the specific elements of the liability of the state for damages and the state's capacity of subject at civil law state's have to be taken into consideration throughout the analyses of detail
problems.
In connection with the concurrence of the views on immunity and responsibility,
a process of changes being
protracted
for a longer time is taking place in this field. For the majority
of the legal systems, responsibility gained the upper hand
over immunity formally, nevertheless, the intensive counter-attack of immunity affected state responsibility
so heavily
that its functioning has been hardly over zero point. The present
study should give a summary of the essence of this diver-
sificated and complicated process, not yet terminated to the present day, with the analysis of the fate of the main rule as principal purpose. Looking at the various phases of development of the law, the fundamental problem concerns whether or not
the
state can be called to liability under given circumstances. When classifying the legal solutions related to the state liability for damages, egories
the methodological and systematic cat-
and achievements of legal comparison cannot be utilized
directly, as the problem has been elaborated in the distinct legal systems in the respective legal branches with casual differences. Accordingly,
there are legal systems in which the
state liability for damages is regulated not, or not only, within the frame of civil law but in public law or also in this branch. Indeed, the comparative categorization of legal systems from the point of view of civil and public law does not coincide necessarily. Thus, legal problems concerning the structure gain the upper hand principally
facing those making a com-
State immunity and liability
95
parison, and the fundamental problems are so frequently concealed. On account of these methodological concerns, mentioned in the foregoing, it is convenient to be careful w h e n making a comparison. It is partly the consequence of this constellation that the specific features of development of the solutions given by
the
investigated legal systems are not presented in this
study in the form of "condensed" formule. With this in view, a general tendency has been adopted refusing to give polished
excessively
conclusions.
The proscepted comparison has several ways to be considered.
Having in mind them, it is easy to see the significance of
comparing the concepts of the bourgeois and the socialist models of
law
on
state responsibility,
for the view claiming that
"legal comparison is not only photography but architecture as 2 well, applicable also to the East-West relationship" appears as raising a requirement also for the present work. Clearly, a constructive work of major size dealing with the problem of state responsibility would be necessary in the future within the socialist model of law, i.e. in the law of socialist economic integration and the internal /domestic/ law of the individual states, more and more inclined to reforms in economic management. It is hardly needed to justify the necessary ation
consider-
of the Soviet and Hungarian legal systems. As to the
group of bourgeois legal models, on the other, hand,
analysis
and comparison will be concentrated to the solutions as offered by the British, German, and French law for these legal systems have represented a particularly individually-shaped within the universal legal
style
thinking.
The concept of state immunity is rooted in the ideology of sovereignty. Unfolding the concept of sovereignty,
state immu-
nity in law and jurisprudence will appear as a "partial product", related to both the internal and external side of
sovereignty.
Thus, problems affecting the internal immunity of the state may be found, among other points, in relation to the consequences of the acts of authorities, the material responsibility of the employees of state administration, in the matter of
contracts
concluded by state organs, but the assessment of the activity of organs charged with economic management from the point of
L. Kecskés
96
view of liability for damages is also part of this context. 8 The problems of the external immunity of the state concern the field of public international law and private
international
lsw. The concept of state immunity became disintegrated
in the
legal theory and literature, so the effects of the changes of state immunity, affecting various fields of the law, have been dealt with by the relevant authors from the viewpoint of a partial approach. Hence, the process of formation of the concept of immunity has been reflected at a level conforming to the requirement of actual literary values only in partial processes, coupled to the respective special fields of the law. In fact, there have been remarkable historical parallelisms between the individual partial processes; the more, the partial processes used to support each other in their underlying views. Thus, a statement of facts from the field of private international law gave an impulse to a change in domestic /internal/ law concerning the disfavouring of state immunity and the support the rise of state responsibility, in some cases, or an instance of the law of contracts had a positive effect upon the delictual development of the matter or inversely. Nevertheless,
jurispru-
dence failed to approach positively to these effects and
inter-
actions so far. True, problems of some marginal fields of immunity
have been dealt with, quite rarely, but it happened more
incidentally that the relevant details were summed up in a literary
work. As a matter of fact, political problems were rais-
ed when the state aspect of the phenomenon was examined
from
the side of the law. This is a specific element that presented itself equally sensibly at both the historical and the actual approach to the institution of immunity. As a rule, a direct relationship exists between the nature of state policy being enforced in the respective periods and the actual substance of legal phenomena pertaining to the complex of state immunity and state responsibility
for damages. The parallelism between the
trends of the history of law and politics appears in the subject-matter treated here in a spectacular w a y . So, state-directetj
tendencies promote immunity while liberalism favours ideas
concentrating to
responsibility.
The political ideology protecting state immunity used to
State immunity and liability
97
appear in respect of the assessment of statements of facts from the field of private international law in a stronger and more intensive way than in cases of civil law, from the field of the law of contracts and delictual law. This circumstance can be explained, as the state is less bound to ideologize immunity in respect of its own citizens or corporations than foreign subjects at law, figuring in statements of facts within the field of private international law and being beyond the range of subordination of the state in question. The connection that took shape in the juridical evaluation of state sovereignty and state immunity in a historical process facilitated to be informed in face of the collected data. As much as a researcher of the subject-matter of this study finds assistance from the guiding line of sovereignty when
arranging
the relevant elements of the history of law, a lawyer obsessed with politics finds troubles, however, in the practical conversions of lessons of principle within the context of immunity, resulting from the respect of the idea of sovereignty,
leading
to conservation. Just for this reason, it is difficult to make a practival approach to the problem of state immunity, dissolving its absolute concept, as immunity and sovereignty a
complex
of
constitute
question with multiple ties.
As regards the processes acting against absolute immunity, the bourgeois legal systems had to face the challenges of their own history while the socialist legal systems had to fight against distortions of approach resulting from the excessive and extremity-bound ideology of their initial period,
following
their revolutions as well as the practice of state management 4 suffering from the same misperceptions. The concept of absolute immunity got into a confrontation mainly with the idea of the rule of law and the welfare state in the bourgeois in the socialist states the confrontation presented
states;
itself with
the substance of socialism and the requirement of the
socialist
rule of law. As regards the delictual settlement of problems of the state liability for damages, the socialist law seems to have priority, while the bourgeois law is more perfect in
settlements
under private international law. As for the contractual law regulation
V
of the state liability for damages, it is almost un-
L. Kecskés
98
reasonable to compare tne two regal moaers on account or tne differences of the starting positions. With the decreasing trend of the direct responsibility of state employees and the subsequent appearance of the organizational responsibility of the state ofr its employees, the underlying problem arises now within the context of the legal institution of the civil liability of damages of the employers. In a dogmatical approach, the state liability for damages continues to be belonging in civil law thinking, essentially, to the domain of the liability for damages of the employer, i.e. a legal entity, although this structure suffered substantial changes by the recent facts of development. The specific features of the state's capacity of subject at civil law as well as the particular sociological background of damages caused by the state and the enforcement of claims for damages against the state reflect the substantial loosening of the dogmatical ties between the liability for damages of the employer, i.e. a legal entity and state liability
for damages. In our view, the complex of
the state liability for damages got already separated from the legal institution of the liability for damages of the employer i.e. a legal entity. The material of state liability ofr damages under positive law is characterized by the tendency of increasing
strictness.
For the time being, the legal systems analyzed here have a common speciality, i.e. state liability is established upon an objective basis. Together with the enforcement of the aspects of legal policy aimed at the protection of the injured party, the said solution came into the foreground also on account of the circumstance that a culpability of "antropomorphe" nature could be abbplied to the state liability for damages, of an organizational character, with great difficulty and by means of
forced
motivations. The development of state liability in general and that in the field of the law of contracts in particular was more continous and proceeding in faster steps in the legal systems in which the institution of administrative contract took shape. It can be stated, at the same time, that responsibility
under
the law of contracts has been just the domain in which the in-
State immunity and liability
99
stitution of state liability has been m o s t exposed stituting tendency of immunity with its
» to the re-
legal, and m o r e
infor-
mal, means. It is a common achievement of the development of the bourgeois and socialist models of law that the obligation of comDensation of states covers not to pay for damages caused by
sta-
te organs in the course of a lawful a c t i o n . Although this is a point beyond the subject-matter of t h i s study from a closer view, one may perceive, however, keeping an eye on the development of the solutions in distinct legal systems concerning state liability
the
for damages, that the said responsibility and
indemnity for damages by the state h a v e heen on similar bases of legal policy. The more, a connection may be found
between
the two legal institutions casually e v e n at the level of legal techniques,
in the German development
in
particular.
For the course of development of the relationship
between
state immunity and state liability for damages the image of the state that took shape in the various legal systems at the beginning proved to have a fundamental significance. Besides,
the
fact that different methods of the m a k i n g use of p o w e r were practised in the distinct states during
the intensive
of legal development had an outstanding
role in the varying solu-
tions
of the legal systems
periods
concerned.
The basic concept of common law reflects a state with a very high esteem of sovereignty. Several elements from the h i s tory of law had an impact toward the absolute
interpretation
and strong nature of state immunity in the common law.
Special
emphasis has to be laid on the point that feudalism got stabilized in Britain as a result of foreign rule, with the tion of defence not only in the military
organiza-
field. Furthermore,
in
early mercantilism that influenced a l r e a d y the development of common law, a strong royal power played an important role already in principle, applying the method of the infiltration of the state into the economy through its centre. A l t h o u g h were made during
efforts
the bourgeois revolution to overthrow royal
and state sovereignty together with immunity coupled to it, a "revolutionary"
compromise of classes, established
soon between
the ascending bourgeoisie and the feudal aristocracy,
facilita-
L. Kecskés
100
ted the incorporation of state immunity, together with other precapitalist institutions, into the legal system assuming more and more capitalistic features following the revolution.
State
immunity was then not broken even by phisiocratism, appeared in the foreground of British economic policy in the 18th century. In fact, a loud emphasis on the idea of sovereignty was already required at that time by the cohesion of the British Empire that took shape in the meantime, and the authoritarian
external
appearances of royal power, together with immunity, were
also
needed to this end. The German law presented a contradictory image of
state
for the course of development of the state liability for damaages.Considering
the particular atmosphere that was persisting
until the coming into existence of German unity, it was much easier to grasp by civil law the central power, with its generally low degree of organization, and the disintegrated
prin-
cipalities as "state factors", than the state organized by the Prussian model, having taken shape in the unified German empire set up in 1871, with which a permanent etatist concept w a s introduced
into German legal thinking. Prior to the realization
of German unity, the course of German history of law was
shaped
so that the concept of the state liability for damages made its way ahead by applying the fiscal category to this end. This was understood to comprise that sector of state activity w h i c h was reserved for civil law application by the state. According to the essence of this fiscal theory, the state could be called to responsiblity in a way that its sovereignty was left untouched. State liability for damages took shape, essentially, in the German law already in its phase of development preceding subsequently a backward step could be observed, however,
1871; 8
ward absolute immunity, upon the effect of changes in the
to"ex-
ternal" appearances of politics. Contrary to eraly British mercantilism, mercantilism
in
France as shaped by Colbert did not create an immune status for the state radiated through sovereignty. In fact, territorial and bureaucratic methods were characteristic
for Colbert's ac-
tivity in organizing economy; accordingly, the entry of
the
state into the sphere of economy took place in France not
State immunity and liability through its centre but through local territorial
101 administration.
have been more difficult, indeed, to raise the myth of the state's economic sovereignty and immunity from a bureucratic level closer to actual production than by making use of the body of central administration. Anyway, the birth of French bourgeois law started from physiocratic bases of principle.In fact, the fundamental course of development of French law was determined by the Great Revolution and Napoleon's rule. These two determining forces, near to each other in time but different in their political nature, showed a one-sided and parallel law-forming effect in several fields of French law. The historical approach with the headline "revolution and Napoleon" proved to be, however, not utilizable in connection with state liability for damages. In fact, the two series of events produced controversial concepts concerning the subject-matter dealt with here. The group of ideas originating from the French bourgeois revolution formed, essentially, the frame for approaching the problem of state responsibility. Accordingly, the ideology of the state responsibility was fully developed in France by the end of the 18th century but it got frozen for almost a century by the course of history. In fact, the idea of the imperial and metaphysical substance of the state was conceptualized by Napoleon's rule and the Bourbon restoration, w i t h a simultaneous strengthening of the executive power to an extent that the ideas of responsibility that took shape during the revolution remained inapplicable in front of the state for a long time. 7 The Hungarian bourgeois law had no characteristic image of state of its own. Besides, it is rather difficult to trace precisely the factors that had an influence on the tendencies of the development of Hungarian bourgeois law. Actually, the formally existing institutions of capitalism had no positive roots in Hungary. Indeed, an "outside" mechanism determining in principle the course of legal development was not operational in the Hungarian development of the 19th century. The more, its structure that could be supposed, besides, only broke at two
theoretically,
vels. Thus, there was no consistency within the
Hungarian economy between the seemingly capitalistic
institut-
L. Kecskés
102 ions
and the even less capitalistic facts of reality, and an
active relation adaptation between economy and
law was equally
non-existent either. Contrary to the contemporary course of development of other legal systems, the initial line of development of Hungarian bourgeois civil law was determined during
the
last decades of the 19th century not by the increase of state power and the growing number of direct state interference but the forced reception of Austiran,
i.e. a foreign law with the
lasting solidification of its ideas. Hence, the initial characteristic feature of the Hungarian development was not the denial of calling to responsibility the state w i t h the simultaneous acknowledgement of the individual responsibility of a civil
ser-
vant but the fact that its basis was formed by the contemporary Austrian law which failed to regulate both the
responsibility
of civil servants and that of the state. Looking at the historical
course of the development of civil servant and state
lia-
bility the Hungarian bourgeois law did not produce as big differences as it has b e e n alleged by the relevant legal literature.
8 Two methods were
formed in the universal development of g law for constituting a foundation to state liability. One of them is based on a distinction among state activities according to their nature, and the decisions judging state activities whether they are liable or enjoy immunity are taken by applying the categories iure imperii — iure gestionis. This approach has been the basis of the functional-relative concept of immunity, that gained broad ground in the legal development during the 2oth century. The formation of this concept m a y be considered, in fact, as one of the last successful functions of the private law — public law structure with a liberal-capitalistic
founda-
tion. Contrary to this, the other method lied on a substantially organization-based. view, starting from the opinion that responsibility was applicable in connection w i t h the activity of distinct state organs while calling to responsibility was out of question for toher state organs. The bourgeois legal development
has been dominated, indeed, by a concentrated qualifi-
cation of the nature of state activities. With the decline of the fiscal preponderance in theory, the latter method lost much
State immunity and liability
103
from its intensity by the end of the 19th century, but it regained importance in the socialist legal type with a modified nature as the bearing element of new questions. The process of the gradual weakening of state immunity and the formation of state liability experienced different
rhythms
in the distinct legal systems within the adaptation frames of the bourgeois law type. The importance of the
internal aspects
of the law increased during the phase of development from the second part of the 19th century onward. This circumstance resulted in an increased differentiation of development among the various legal systems. Besides, it was also the effect of this differentiation that the assessment of the subject-matter dealt with in the present study and its aspects in the field of the law of contracts, delictual law and private international
law
in particular could not be assured on parallel lines even within the individual legal systems. It was common law in which the strongest obstacles arose, within the bourgeois law type against building up state liability
for damages. The problem of state immunity got under way
in common law first in the field of private international
law,
at the end of the 19th century. One century later, i.e. in 1978 it was just the same field of law in which, as latest in the sequence, functional immunity was attained. Within the long-lasting struggle of judicial practice in English private international law it was also a point in relevance that the theory was particularly bound to absolute immunity. This fact was connected to the historical circumstance of the theory that the formation of English thinking in the field of private international law was determined by the Dutch school for which, as it has been well-known, the accentuated protection of the concept of state sovereignty was a principal characteristic
feature.
Absolute immunity was preserved also in English civil law for a long time. With the Petition of Rights Act from 1860, absolute immunity was even granted a procedural guarantee. It was laid down in the said act that, in order to take legal proceedings against the state, a special petition had to be filed, and if it was rejected by the attorney-general, he was not even obliged to justify it. Subsequently to the said provision, the ex-
104
L. Kecskés
ceptionally narrow margin of enforcement of the state
liability
was assured in the judicial practice of the law of contracts by the procedural institution of the petition of right. As to the law of extra-contractual
liability, i.e. the law of torts, the
situation was still worse. Even a petition of right was not a viable measure to secure an exception from state i m m u n i t y . 1 0 This system was in force till 1948, i.e. the coming into force of the Crown Proceedings Act from 1947. It happened only with this act that the old and immovable barriers of English civil law were demolished to make free the way to build up the state liability Nevertheless, English private international law continued to be subjected to absolute immunity for three
subse-
quent decades. Absolute immunity could be overthrown in English law by shaping the viewpoints of differentiation according to the nature of state activities,
i.e. a pair of the categories iure
imperii — iure gestionis, even if this was attained with more difficulty than in other legal systems. The fundamental idea of this qualification got familiarized in common law not easily for the absence of a support of approach by the structural model
of public law — civil law. It happened as late as in 1921
that a judgement with an immunity relevance, passed in the so called Amphitrite case, with its statement of facts from the field of private international law, effected the separation of principle of trade-based contracts of the central administration from
those
concerned w i t h public authority. 1 1 The
basis of the judgement passed in the Amphitrite case
judicial secured
the public law - civil law structure, missing in common law, for the institutionalization of the state liability for damages, thus creating a conceptual basis in English legal thinking for the distinction of state activities from the iure imperii iure gestionis aspects. This idea was used in the law of contracts but it was not applied in the law of torts, respective1
12 The other way of developing the state liability, concep-
tualized in principle and supported by organizational has been based upon the fiscus theory presuming also
aspects, institu-
tional and theoretical elements of Roman law to some extent,
State immunity and liability
105
and it did not appear in common law as Roman law as this latter was taken into account in it, anyway, only to a limited extent, and the separation between the private property of the monarch and public property took place with some delay i.e. from the 19th century onward. 1 8 Thus English legal thinking could consider
only the administrative aspect of the fiscus category and
could not use it from the approach of responsibility and the prorpietor. The problems of state immunity and state liability for damages
remained within the field of civil law regulation in the
development of common law throughout the times. Accordingly, practice was hardly affected by the viewpoints of legal policy, which were enforced principally only in the domain of the law of contracts. As regards, however, the law of torts and private international
law in particular, it is striking to see the es-
sential distance of "policy" elements from the course of development. The apolitical English approach favoured
previously
became, besides, inadmissible in respect of private law
with
international
Britain's entry into the Common Market.
Turning to German legal thinking concerning
the clarifica-
tion of problems affecting state immunity and state
liability,
the starting point was not a classification of state activities according to their nature. Instead, a fictive organizational concept was taken for basis, claiming for the treasury to be the subject of specific state activities, and the sovereign state with
its public authority ought to be considered as subject
for other activities. With a distinction between the terms "Regierungssache"
/government affair/ and "Justizsache"
/matter of
the judiciary/, the fiscus theory created order in the law of the German principalities that seemed to be practical. Through the application of this theory, some institutions of civil law got penetrated
into public law. This became apparent mainly in
the extension of the scope of application of contracts. Accordingly, qualifications of civil law started to appear in r e l a tions between
the principalities and their subjects also in
fields which belonged earlier exclusively to the domain of public authority. The fiscus as a civil law institution was pushed into the
L. Kecskés
106
background in German law at the end of the 19th century by the strong state image of the unified German Empire and constitutional or administrative jurisdiction in particular which w a s set up just at that time. As a rule, a claim for compensation against the
state
colud
be enforced at an ordinary court only
if
the claim was judged previously by a constitutional or administrative court. With the introduction of constitutional or administrative jurisdiction the tendency coupled to the fiscus and supporting the concept to extend the competence of the ordinary courts in administrative cases was broken. The effect of the fiscus theory furthering the civil law approach was limited subsequently to the domain of contracts, being manifested
in
the circumstance that contracts concluded between an administrative organ and a citizen continued to be actionable at ordinary courts according to the rules of civil law. At the same time, the fiscus theory suffered a loss in the fields of delictual law and private international law by the turn of the century. True, the civil courts retained their competence in cases affecting state liability for damages in the fields of delictual law and private international
law, but public law aspects
came increasingly into the foreground at the judicial assessment of the statements of facts. Indeed, it w a s unclear whether or not the state liability could be regarded as having a civil law character, and this view is still valid in delictual
law
and was contested in private international law till the end of the 1950-ies. 1 5 A deviation from the qualification practice affecting
or-
ganization and based upon the view granting the fiscus the
sta-
tus of an independent subject at law was observed in German
le-
gal thinking only following the coming into force of the Civil Law Code
/BGB/. The purpose and nature of state activities be-
came the fundamental element of judgement concerning
liability
as late as from 1910 onward. It was, in fact, at that time that Amtshaftung /office responsibility/, as a new form of organized state liability, started to compete with fiscus liability
that
passed already its zenith. Nevertheless, the aspects of the qualification of state activities are still uncertain even 1
the contemporary West German juridical practice. ®
in
State immunity and liability
107
The fiscus theory was never operating in German private international law. As a result of administrative measures taken by jurisdictional government instances, the absolute immunity, protected also by the principalities with their high self-esteem in the field of foreign affairs, could resist to the
fis-
cus theory and the responsibility of the treasury, in spite of the efforts made through judicial conscience, with a view to transplant them also to legal relations in the field of private international law. As a result, absolute immunity stiffened
con-
siderably in the judicial practice of German private international law. Apart from the theoretical way of assessment of the problem, with its emphasis on sovereignty and civil law a p p roach, the said course was related also to the circumstance
that
absolute immunity complied with the interests of German foreign policy, obsessed by expansive trends in the Wilhelmine era, provoking two world w a r s . 1 7 When absolute immunity was dethroned in the 1950-ies and 1960-ies, the German courts made use of the qualification viewpoints of functional activity, already
in 18 wide-spread use in private international law at that time. The development of the state liability for damages took place in France in successive steps. The first signs of state responsibility in the law of contracts appeared as early as at the end of the 18th century. The assessment of the matter
from
the point of view of private international law received its basic impulses from Napoleonic foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century, while other elements from the field of delictual law gained significance from the mid-19th century onward. As regards its historical rhythm, the development of the state liability enjoyed a relatively regular course, i.e. less deviations presented themselves in the main line of development
than
in other legal systems. Indeed, the principal problem was,
es-
sentially, not if the state were anxious to return to absolute immunity; rather, it was inclined frequently to apply only milder
degrees of responsibility against itself. State activities were qualified in respect of immunity and
responsibility according to the nature of the activities
con-
cerned. Up to the end of the 19th century, the idea of sovereignty formed the basis. In respect of the judgement of cases
L. Kecskés
108
with statements of delictual facts, the Conseil d'Etat formulated its stand, during the lapse of only some decades from the 1850-ies onward, influencing the development of the law of contracts and administrative law, and stating that the
judgement
of claims against the central administration was subjected to particular rules within the competence of the administrative courts, except in cases in which the public office concerned resigned explicitly of qualifying the respective activity as having public authority.
It is for this reason that administra-
tive law has had a predominance in France when problems of the state liability had to be settled. The sovereignty aspect got faded in the 20th century when state activities were assessed, and the basis of classification was then whether or not the activity concerned was within the scope of public service, i. e. aimed at the organization of a public utility. Making reference
to the service to public interests, the state assured al19 ready a "special judgement" for itself. The concept of public service took shape within the field of administrative contracts; subsequently, it appeared in the domain of delictual law at the beginning of the 20th century; the more, its elements can be traced, casually, also in French private international law in the second part of the 20th century. The first impulses for judging state liability for damages on the basis of public service came from the field of contractual law. The practice of delictual law received more only support from the domain of the law of contracts at that time. Following World War I, bringing a restrictive tendency in the domain of public service, and a gradual increase of the role of state responsibility
for damages in the application of the
law, statements of delictual facts appeared more and more frequently in judgements reflecting this new tendency. Looking at the process of developing the civil law responsibility of the state in France, the fiscus category did not receive a function similar to that of the German treasury as a result of French legal thinking, with its approach to conflict situations in civil law, affecting the state, emphasizing the viewpoints of the citizens concerned. In fact, the
State immunity and liability
109
starting element of French theory w a s the free and
independent
individual, being not a subject as expressed by the German term "Untertan" but a citizen who, on the basis of a social contract, joined other citizens to form a state. Accordingly, the ideologies underlying the enforcement of claims against public administration have been based upon the natural right of individuals instead of a "gesture" of the state as it has been the case in German
law.
As to Hungarian bourgeois civil law, the principle of state liability for damages was operating, essentially, from the end of the 19th century onward. On the other hand, the private international law aspect of the subject-matter dealt with here retained its character of absolute immunity throughout the bourgeois development of the law. Essentially, laying the b a s i s of the material of state responsibility in the Hungarian b o u r geois law and its successive development was equal to keeping increasing distance from the legal concept as practised in Austria. It is worth mentioning in this respect that reform-minded Hungarian lawyers looked at the French law,
regulating
the relevant complex of problems from a liberal concept, with a high esteem and anxious of adopting it, while they were d e 21 finetely reserved in face of German legal solutions. As regards jurisdiction concerning the state
responsibil-
ity for damages, the distinction of state activities according to their nature was taken as basis in the judicial practice. Nevertheless,
this group of problems was less emphasized and
elaborated within the Hungarian development as it could be o b served in the majority of the bourgeois legal systems of W e s t ern Europe. The difference resulted from the delay of state interference with the Hungarian economy as compared with the development of the Western European countries. A s a consequence of this, state activities in the field of the economy, definitely differing from authority-inspired,
sovereignty-based
sta-
te actions, appeared in this country only at a time when q u a l ifying solutions and structures, to be adopted by the Hungarian judicial conscience from the preceding development of other legal systems, the French law in particular, were already a v a ilable for perception. For their actual reception, it was a
110
L. Kecskés
possibility at hand, i.e. the community of Hungarian lawyers was concerned with the problem of the state liability for almost two decades. It was in line with this that the preference given to the Austrian-shaped model of immunity was overcome in the judicial practice and, at about the 1890-ies, also in the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Accordingly, with the actual beginning of the judicial practice of state responsibility
in
Hungary at the end of the 19th century, the judgement system declaring that state activities in the field of the management of corporations and plants, and
enterprising, administrative
caretaking ought to be judged according to the rules of private law, was applied at once. As a result, the state had to accept responsibility
for the eventual consequences of damages
according to the rules of civil law. Thus, it must have followed from the causes of the history of economy and law, referred to above, that elements of the law of contracts became less portant in the Hungarian course of development
im-
for the overall
transformation of the state liability for damages. Hungarian courts proceeded to lay the foundations of
the
state liability by making use of the rules and principles of civil law. Hence, the starting w a s the state's
responsibility
for its employees in terms of the general rules of civil
law,
just as this was applicable to an individual for his or her agent or employee. Subsequently, a change took place in the application of the problem of state responsibility within
the
judicial practice in the 1920-ies. Actually, a decrease of tensity of the civil law character of the matter could be
inthen
observed in the judgement of courts and tribunals, and the principle of state responsibility was maintained in the judicial practice
separated
from the rules of civil law. In accord-
ance with this trend, the institution of state was not incorporated
responsibility
into the draft Code of Hungarian civil
law of 1928, thus strengthening the trend mentioned above. A re-orientation to the civil law aspect of state
responsibility
presented itself only with the resolution of principle No.
976.
of the Supreme Court from 1933. With the stagnation of the problem in the 19 20-ies and the subsequent approach to it with the said resolution of principle No. 976 from 1933 from a ci-
111
State immunity and liability vil law aspect in view, it was easy for the représentants of Hungarian jurisprudence of the successive period to form the impression as if the institution of state liability
appeared
in the Hungarian bourgeois civil law in a general sense as late as in 1933, and this date ought to be the beginning of its ex22 istence. As one of the principal problems the bourgeois legal thinking has to face concerned the classification of state activities of various characters, the clear sight of the lawyer was made more difficult also by unsettled
socialist
organizational
and legal problems connected with the state's capacity of subject at civil law. The idea of state sovereignty acquired a particularly
high
significance during the early history of the Soviet Union that was characterized by external and internal fights for the very existence of the state. Thus, it was a natural and
logical c o n -
sequence of the political impulses that came from the bourgeois world that the state was elevated to a high pedestal of sovereignty
1
and public power by the Soviet law and, accordinly, it
was vested with the ideology of absolute immunity. The successes if the Great Patriotic War and the achievemenets of reconstruction, consistently targeted even in the atmosphere of the coldwar, influenced understandably the formation of principles, beyond the actual events, and have had a significatnt effect also upon contemporary legal thinking. As regards the subject-matter dealt with here, this meant a strong embedding of immunity elements being in contract with ideological spheres and, as a result of this, the establishment of the state
liability
for damages could take place only with delays. The rhythm of this process was slower in Soveit private international law than in the internal law liability. The idea of the supervision of state activities arose at the beginning of the existence of socialist-modeled
states w i t h
an approach from the side of public law. Accordingly, the concept of administrative jurisdiction was in the foreground of the efforts that were aimed at organizing the control of state activities but, ultimately, these failed to get realized. Afterwards, it became apparent by 1922 that the settlement of legal
112
L. Kecskés
disputes connected with state administration was left within the competence of the ordinary courts. With this course, est
inter-
started to rise also in civil law solutions. The civil
law method could not get unfolded earlier for, in a general sense, the very existence of civil law was in doubt for some time, on the one hand, and a civil law-based approach was out of question actually, on the other hand, because of the monolithic nature of the socialist state model, concentrating important public power, not, differentiated 23 a civil law viewpoint.
an
satisfactorily
for
The remnants of the institutions of pre-revolutionary Russian law concerning responsibility for damages were not
ta-
ken into consideration in the Soviet civil law. Accordingly, the continued applicability of the outlines of earlier rules of the law was excluded from the very outset on account of the incompatibility of revolutionary changes and legal continuity on which a high emphasis was laid
from political point of view.
Only some dogmatical motives of the institution of the treasury survived
in the
socialist legal thinking, so that the term
treasury was understood to mean the
economic-organizational
centre of the state. This denomination was of importance for the levels of economic management and actual economic activity were never clearly delimitated in Soviet economic history as the systems of institutions was in an almost permanent change. Apart from the treasury, one could not find, in fact, any category with a historically standard content concerning economic-organizational
the
centre of the state. Thus the institu-
tion of the treasury was placed within Soviet law first and foremost into the positive and theoretical description of the state's capacity of subject at law. From a methodological
as-
pect, the institution of the treasury influenced the formulation of the state's capacity of subject at law but it was not relevant ofr the institutionalization of the civil law liability of the state. The fiscus theory, known from development of German law, was not adopted by Soviet law. The treasury appeared here in the organizational
field of the law, disregard-
ing the area of responsibility. The classification criteria of state activities according
State immunity and liability
113
to their nature appeared in the Soviet legal practice from the mid-1920-ies. From that time on, the provisions of the Russian Civil Law Code from 1922 concerning the apparent
responsibility
of the state but with an immunity-favouring character was applied more to the damage-involving consequences of state activities with public authority. As to state activities without public authority, a preference was given, however, to the general rules of liability
for damages. As to the classification of ac-
tivities without public authority, the economic character became the genus proximum. In respect to the state, delictual
re-
sponsibility appeared more and more frequently within the scope of economic activities. Later on, the emphasis to the economic
factor became the basis of loose extensive
interpretations,
and the method of differentiation between state activities proved to be inappropriate to create an actual order. Then an other method took shape, first at the judgement of statements of facts in which classification was more difficult, and
sub-
sequently with a more general approach, so that the courts examined first not directly the activity that involved damages but, instead, the character of the underlying organ or organization. Accordingly, the determination of the functional character of the state organ or organization concerned became the principal point, implicating the almost automatic adoption to 24 it when the behaviour causing damages had to be judged. Turning to the Soviet private international law, the aspects related to the character, historical situation, and
for-
eign relations of the Soviet state were relevant for the formation of the theory as far as state immunity was concerned. It was the unequivocal consequence of this approach that the principles of state immunity had to be formulated on a defendant-orientated basis in the Soviet private international Accordingly, some kind of a self-protecting
law.
function was radi-
ating from the basic model of the Soviet foreign trading, manifested in that, in the rare cases of establishing
foreign
trading relations, the Soviet state was always careful to secure that the spheres of the internal economy should remain unaffected by the possible disadvantageous consequences of these relations. Understandably, this approach continued to be
114
L. Kecskés
preserved in the field of Soviet foreign trading like a reminiscence when the conditions of foreign trading relations got normalized as compared to previous priorities. The
self-protect-
ing function of the Soviet state and economy was then realized in the field of foreign economic relations by the
institutional
system of the state monopoly; in line with this, this concept had a leading role and w a s considered to be a bastion of the absolute leading role of state immunity in the Soviet private international
law. Taking into consideration the changes and
challenges of the world economy, the state monopoly in foreign trading is considered in the Soviet theory recently from a comprehensive approach, equally assessing the protective aspects, applicable preferably to the bourgeois partners, and the organizational functions, characteristic
for socialist
relations.
In spite of the organizational restructuration of the state m o nopoly in the field of foreign trading, the functionalization of state immunity did not get realized, however, in Soviet private international law so far. It seems thus as if the issue of state immunity were coupled to the state monopoly in foreign trading m o r e in the course of the realization of
self-pro-
tecting functions. In fact, the extension of organizational functions within the state monopoly of foreign trading failed to give impulses to state immunity. The logic of the system ought to result in that, together with the strengthening of the phenomenon of immunity with the realization of the self-protecting
function in economics, the broadening of the orga-
nizational function ought to have as a consequence the fading , . .. 25 of immunity. The problems of socialist economic integration have been judged in the thinking of Soviet jurisprudence from the aspect of public international law. This theoretical approach, always revoking the sovereignty idea with a reflex-like hint, does not facilitate, relationships
in fact, the functional interaction of legal
in the fields of public and private
law. With an approach of judgement isolating legal
international relations
between interstate and economic organizations from each other, the issue of state liability is actually under the cover of public law aspects, on a theoretical support based upon a de-
State immunity and liability
115
finite sovereignty and immunity-related concept. The conceptual brakes, resulting from a public law-mindedness that is perceptible also in the course of setting up the economic responsibility of the state, have had a retarding effect on the legal unification process within the CMEA as well. Actually, it should not be forgotten that neither the theory nor the practice can get closer to the establishment of a legal security in economics within the socialist integration with the continued preference to the dichotomy of the view seeing public
in-
ternational law versus private international law, too closely linked to the delimitating line of the legal branches. The problems of responsibility within socialist economic tion must not remain isolated matters for public
integra-
international
law and private international law. In fact, the problems of state liability and immunity are phenomena placed to the "grey margin" between public international law and private
interna-
tional law, requiring a complex approach. The recently established forms of direct state action in the field of al
economic
internation-
relations reveal, however, the broadening of the
grey margin referred to above requiring, indeed, a complex approach. One has to admit here, however, that, as regards the integrated socialist external economy, and the shaping of complex methods in jurisprudence and actual practice, amalgamating public and civil law aspects, even the level could not be attained so far which, more or less, could be already realized in the socialist legal model in respect of the domestic econo26 my. The delictual problems of state responsibility have been covered in the Hungarian socialist law, principally but not completely, by the legal institution called liability for damages caused within the scope of state administrative law, placed in the area bordering administrative law and civil law. From the viewpoint of administrative law, the said
institution
has been considered as one of the legal guarantee of the legality of public administration, not being equal, however, to a guarantee of administrative law. As to the civil law approach, it used to be emphasizeed that liability for damages caused within the scope of administrative law constitutes a special
116
L. Kecskés
form of the responsibility of l e g a l entities
for damages caused 27 by their employees to the prejudice of third persons. This civil law approach to the problem dealt with here seems, ever, inadequate. Claiming for s t a t e liability specific kind of the liability of
how-
to represent
a
legal e n t i t i e s is, in o u r
view, incorrect. T a k i n g for starting point that state r e s p o n s i bility is an integral part of the
state's capacity of s u b j e c t
at law, w i t h an autonomous structure, a section of the state liability
system in the field of the law of property,
ing e q u a l l y civil law and private will lead much closer special
international
comparis-
law relevance,
to the s u b s t a n c e of the institution.
The
features w h i c h can be experienced w i t h i n the scope
state liability, occurring
in line with state activities,
of such
as rules granting privileges, i m m u n i t y elements, can be u n d e r stood m o r e easily f r o m bases of t h i s kind. It has been a characteristic ity, even
feature of the law of
from the viewpoint of t i s historical
liabil-
development,
that the subject-matters to be regulated in a novel way, approached
from a p a r t i a l aspect at the outset.
fragmented
legal b a s e s of compensation used to be
on,
after
having
influenced efficiently the
Initially, applied.Later
statements
facts of the phenomenon to be regulated, a generalizing is effected,
are
of
change
turning o v e r to a m o r e abstract m e t h o d , and
integ-
rating the special r u l e s of the l e g a l bases. S o m e kind of rhythm of the differentiation and be revealed liability
also from
for damages
integration o f regulation
in Hungarian
law. The special rules
the p r e v i o u s legal s y s t e m / c o n c e r n i n g sentially,
integrated
/of
state liability were,
es-
in para. 349. of the C i v i l Code c o d i f i e d
by 1959, b u t this m i g h t be a p r e m a t u r e measure. At the time the said
can
the institutional history of the state
of
integration o f the institutional fragments of the
liability of the state administration
for d a m a g e s or, simply,
state liability for damages, by p a r a .
349. of the Civil C o d e ,
referred
to above, the majority of the relevant
problems w a s
application
still unsettled. As to the details concerned,
institution could not
take a d e f i n i t e shape till the codifica-
tion of the Hungarian Civil Code. State activities were, in fact, too many-sided
the
and rather unexplored for the relevant
State immunity and liability
117
applicability of liability for damages to give a due basis to the settlement of the problem by means of a single
statutory
disposition. With this in view, it seems necessary
for the fu-
ture legal regulation of state liability, proposed also by us, to go back to the relevant details. The concept of
regulation
has to adapt itself to the typical groups of statements of facts concerning behaviours causing damages, occuring in the course of state activities. A return to a uniform,
integrated
state or state administration liability for damages as a legal basis will be only appropriate, together with charging this b a sis with the application of the law, if the experiences, indisensalble
for legal development, will take shape and get est-
ablished in the actual application of the law, using the routine ways and means taken from fragmented legal bases. Prior to this point, the stipulation of paragraph 349. of the Civil Code seems to be inappropriate to bear the entire political burden of state liability as well as the potential charges of the still informal legal practice. When incentives should be given to corporations to take risks, the enforcement of a solid system of values for the judgement of their activities is absolutely necessary within the environment of their economic activity. It is just the immunity of economic management that constitutes the most important vacuum
and insecurity in the national economy. It is difficult,
indeed, to set up stricter demands for the responsibility of corporations or their leaders, respectively, and not to tolerate underhand dealings in the conduct of corporations in their economic activity without the possibility to call to responsibility the economic management. It might occur, indeed, that the interests of the national economy did not disappear at the level of the corporations concerned;
instead, they suffered
injury, were violated or their consideration was neglected at higher levels. In fact, the entire system of responsibility will fail to operate normally as long as the headlights of law and responsibility, led by courageous volition, will not be d i rected even to these higher instances. The judgement of economic
processes for their responsibility can be imagined, actual-
ly, only in a system of the law of responsibility
conceptual-
L. Kecskés
118
ized so as to connect the conduct of all subjects and factors participating in the given decision-making process, assessing them in conformity with their causative relevance. A responsibility system of this kind can only take shape if all decision-making levels, participating in the economic processes with direct effect upon the achievements, can be integrated to it, the level of economic management
included.
The principle of the responsibility of economic management has not been realized so far in Hungarian legislation. Thus, the statutes concerned with the problem omit to mention the problem of responsibility, contain vague phrases or formulate institutions on resulting from ill-shaped concepts. The recognition of compensation claims for the fulfilment of instructions involving a material loss constitutes already a partial result 28 of the orientation referred to above. To sum up, a new and comprehensive regulation of the responsibility the field of economic management
for damages
in
seems to be justified, at a
legislative level is possible. It would be a good idea to meet this requirement within the frame of an act on economic m a n a g ement; the regulation of the responsibility of the economic management by means of an act on state liability would be also a viable solution. Anyhow, the possibility of corporate action against the economic management ought to be absolutely
formula-
ted as a subjective corporate right. As to the Communist party guidance in the economic management,
the problems of informality appear to be particularly
important. It seems inadequate maintaining the actual duplicity, i.e. an institutionalized, formal reality of party guidance for the political practice, and an almost complete informality for the positive law. Hence, the method of legal regulation affecting the Communist party ought to be changed.For the being,
the
time
approach of the law to the problems of party
guidance is excessively shy. Evidently, Communist party functionaries having a decisive role in decision-making in the field of the economic policy have also to share political and legal responsibility
for the relevant decisions. Besides,
the
idea of the organizational responsibility of the Communist party may be considered as well. The formulation of this concept
State immunity and liability
119
would hardly mean a much more difficult for legislation
than
to elaborate the organizational responsibility of the ministries . The concept of absolute state immunity was also an element of the preceding Hungarian system of private international law that survived the changes of liberation in 1945. In fact, no particular emphasis was laid on the matter for some 29 quent years.
subse-
With the establishment of more intensive
rela-
tions to the Soviet theory of private international law from the 19 50-ies onward, the absolute character of immunity was accentuated in Hungary conspicuously, with a growing emphasis to its central importance. Thus, the Soviet model of theory was placed close to the processual dogmatical argument of extraterritoriality
in Hungarian private international law; the
more, it was replaced by it substantially. Absolute immunity was based in this model upon a concept giving predominance to state sovereignty, and it showed characteristically
political
features. The Hungarian thinking on private international law was affected by the Soviet arguments of absolute immunity principally from theoretical and ideological aspects. The ening
strenght-
of the principle of absolute immunity had no actual
support in the Hungarian foreign trading, 3 0 as the contracts were not concluded by the state in Hungarian foreign
trading
as was the case with the Soviet state, through its foreign trading agencies. Instead, foreign trading companies w e r e the contracting parties which could not have been protected by state immunity. The theoretical guiding line of the Hungarian assessment of the concept of immunity started to take a trend 31 toward a functional-relative direction from the mid-70-ies. The change of preference in the ruling Hungarian concept has been connected with the transformation of the immunity theory that presented itself in the international arena. Essentially, the settlement of immunity is shaped by a
functional-relative
approach in the Hungarian Code of private international
law
from 1979, although it is difficult to reveal this concept. Nevertheless, the formulation of the Code remained far generalizing the principle of functional-relative
from
immunity.
The rules affecting immunity are laid down in three sectors
L. Kecskés
120
of the Code shaped so, however, that the institution proper can be hardly recognized, and the degree of integration is marginal With this in view, it is absolutely justified to continue to deal with the problem. ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ
ИММУНИТЕТ И ОТВЕТСТВЕННОСТИ ЗА ВРЕД Л. Кечкеш
Непрофессионалы считают право такой системой, которая име ет, как правило недифференцированную структуру и может оказать только однородное влияние. Их главное• требование к праву состо ит в установлении ответственного лица и самой ответственности. Между тем факты свидетельствуют о том, что хотя требования общества к праву являются самыми сильными в области ответственности, все-таки право разочаровывает публику чаще всего именно в этой сфере. Кажется, что юридическая теория также пытается приспособляться к сильному проявлению тенеденций иммунитета, причисляемых к ризису института ответственности и его симптомам. Классическая постановка юристами-цивилистами вопроса о субъективном или объективном характере ответственности в наши дни может оформляться и наоборот. Ныне уже не кажется бессмысленным и анализ вопроса о том, что отсутствие привлечения к ответственности в данном случае имеет субъективную или объективную детерминированность. В более широком смысле иммунитетом можно считать как объективные так и субъективные случае провала привлечения к ответственности. В Настоящей статье государственный иммунитет рассматривается как такого рода явление без ответственности, которое часто объективируется правом. Автор пытается доказать с теоретической точки зрения, что несмотря на гетерогенность государственного иммунитета /отчасти правовой институт, отчасти дисфункциональное явление/ и на разбросанность его проблем /т.е. их в однаковой мере можно най ти в области договорного права, деликтного права, международного частного права, административного права/ вопросы "государ ственный иммунитет — государственная ответственность" могут быть рассмотрены посредством единого подхода, комплексным методом, следовательно те проблемы, которые относятся к различным областям права, могут быть поставлены на общую базу. С дру гой стороны автор попытается осуществить коррекцию принципиаль ного характера распространенного в юридической науке метода, под влиянием которого вопросы государственной ответственности и иммунитета рассматриваются в специальной юридической науке в отрыве от проблем гражданскоправовой правосубъектности государ ства.
State immunity and liability
121
L'IMMUNITÉ DE L'ETAT ET LA RESPONSABILITE POUR DOMMAGES L.Kecskés En général ceux qui ne sont pas du métier voient d a n s le droit un système d'une structure non différenciée, qui, le plus souvent, n'est aptes à exercer une influence que d'une seule façon. Leur exigence principale formulée à l'égard du droit est qu'il détermine la personne responsable et sa responsabilité. Bien que les exigences de la société à l'égard du droit soient peut-être les plus fortes dans ce domaines, les faits prouvent que le droit trompe justement dans ce domaine l'espérance du public. La théorie du droit semble s'adapter à la crise de l'institution de la responsabilité et à son symptôme, la forte manifestation des tendances d'immunité. Aujourd'hui, la question classique des civilistes concernant le caractère subjectif ou objectif de la responsabilité peut être formulée même inversement. Dans nos jours, il ne semble pas être déraisonnable d'analyser la question de savoir si dans des cas donnés l'absence de la mise en cause est déterminée par des motifs subjectifs ou objectifs. Dans un sens plus large, les cas subjectifs et les cas objectifs de l'insuccès de la mise en cause peuvent être considérés comme équivalents de l'immunité. Par contre, le thème proprement dit de cette étude, l'immunité de l'Etat est un symptôme d'irresponsabilité souvent objectivé par le droit. L'étude cherche à prouver du point de vue théorique et de celui des sciences juridiques que malgré l'hétérogénéité de l'immunité de l'Etat (en partie institution juridique, en partie phénomène disfonctionnel) et le dispersement de ses problèmes (ils se trouvent dans le domaine du droit constractuel, du droit délictuel, du droit international privé, du droit administratif) l'examen sous un aspect unitaire d e la question de l'immunité de l'Etat - de la responsabilité de l'Etat est possible par une méthode complexe, c-est-à-dire i.1 est possible de réduire à une base commune les différents segments du problème qui appartiennent à différents domaines juridiques. D'autre part l'étude essaye de corriger du point de vue doctrinal la méthode des sciences juridiques, méthode très répandue actuellement, sous l'influence de laquelle la littérature traite les questions de la responsabilité et de l'immunité de l'Etat séparées des problèmes de l'Etat pris dans sa qualité de sujet de droit civil.
L. Kecskés
122
N O T E S
1/ See: MONTESQUIEU, Ch.: A törvények szelleméről des lois/. Budapest,
/De l'esprit
1962. Vol. II. p. 20.
2/ See: MÁDL, F.: összehasonlító nemzetközi magánjog - A nemzetközi gazdasági kapcsolatok joga
/Comparative private
international law - The law of international economic relations/. Budapest, 1978. p. 93. 3/ Cf. JENNINGS, E.G.: Tort liability of administrating officers. Minnesota Law Revies, 1937. p. 263. 4/ See: EÖRSI, Gy. : Private and Governmental Liability for the Torts of Employees and Organs. International
Encyclopedia
of Comparative Law. Vol. II. Chapter 4. 1975. p. 149. 5/ Cf. PLUCKNETT, Th.F.T.: A Concise History of the Common Law. 5th ed. Boston - London, 1956. pp. 30-31.; 48-49.; STREET, H. : Governmental Liability. Cambridge, 1953. pp. 1-6; HOLDSWORTH, W.S.: History of English Law. 5th ed. London, 1942. pp. 458-469.; PROSSER, W.L.: Handbook of the Law of Torts. 4th ed. St. Paul, 1971. pp.
970-971.
6/ Cf. CONRAD, H.: Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte. Karlsruhe, 1954. pp. 115-122.; ZYCHA, A.: Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte der Neuzeit. Marburg, 1949. 2. Aufl. p. 69.; LOENING, E.: Die Haftung des Staates aus rechtswidrigen seiner Beamten. Frankfurt/Main,
Handlungen
1879. pp. 23-25.; JELLI-
NEK, W.: Verwaltungsrecht. 2. Aufl. Berlin, 1929. p. 77.; SAVIGNY, F.K.: System des heutigen römischen Rechts. Berlin, 1840. Band 2. p. 245.; MAYER, 0.: Deutsches Verwaltungsrecht. 3. Aufl. München-Leipzig, 1924. p. 27.; FLEINER, F. :
Institutionen des deutschen Verwatltungs-
rechts. 8. Aufl. Tübingen, 1928. p. 33., 35.; WEBER, M. : Ceneral Economic History. New York, 1961. p. 208.; HARMATHY, A.: Szerződés, közigazgatás,
gazdaságirányítás
/Contracts, public administration, economic management/. Budapest, 1983. p. 22. 7/ See: FOUILLEE, A.: La Science Sociale Contemporaine. Paris, 1888. pp. 7., 32.; ATGER, F.: Essai sur l'histoire des doctrines du Contrat Social. Nîmes,
1906. pp.
316-357.;
State immunity and liability
123
DUGUIT, L.: Transformation de droit public.Paris,
1903.
p. 225.; DUGUIT, L.: Traité de droit constitutionnel. 3 e ed. Paris, 1927. Vol. I. p. 589.; VALLÖ, J.: A
service
public eszméje a mai francia közigazgatási jogban
/The
idea of public service in contemporary French administrative law/. Budapest, 1940. p.7. See: TOMCSÄNYI, M.: A vagyoni felelősség elve a közigazgatásban. Az állam /közhivatalnokok/ vagyoni rendszere
felelősségének
/The principle of financial liability in public
administration. The system of financial liability of state employees /civil servants/. Budapest, 1905. pp. 172-214.; SÂRFFY, A.: Az állam, a helyi közületek és a közhivatalnokok vagyoni felelőssége
/The financial
responsi-
bility of the state, local authorities and civil
servants/.
Budapest, 1934. p. 9.; DRÄGFFY, M. : Az állam vagyonjogi felelősségének gondolata a magyar és a francia
jogban
/The concept of the financial responsibility of the state in Hungarian and French law/. Pécs, 1930. p. 70.; MAGYARY,Z.: Magyar közigazgatás
/Hungarian public administra-
tion/. Budapest, 1942. p. 71.; SZABÓ, I.: A burzsoá államés jogbölcselet Magyarországon
/The bourgeois theory of
state and law in Hungary/. Budapest, 1955. pp. 73., 100., 169., 170-171., 191-192.; HARMATHY, A.: Szerződés, közigazgatás, gazdaságirányítás
/Contracts, public adminis-
tration, economic management/.
p. 40.; EÖRSI, Gy.: A pol-
gári jogi kártérítési felelősség kézikönyve
/Handbook of
the civil law liability for damages/. Budapest, 1966. pp. 330-331.; SZAMEL, L. : Az államigazgatási tevékenység körében okozott károkért való felelősség
/Liability for
damages caused within the frame of administrative activity/. Jogtudományi Közlöny, 1959/10-11, p. 559.;
EÖTVÖS,J.:
A XIX. század uralkodó eszméinek befolyása az államra /The influence of the predominant ideas of the 19th century upon the state/. Budapest, 19 81.
Vol. I. p. 207.;
LEOPOLD, L.: Elmélet nélkül /Missing a theory/. Gazdaságpolitikai tanulmányok
/Studies in economic politics/. Bu-
dapest, 1917. p. 97.; TAKÂTS, P.: Felelősség tási jogkörben okozott károkért
államigazga-
/Liability for damages
L. Kecskés
124
caused when exercising administrative authority/. Jogtudományi Közlöny, 1982/3. p. 171.; CONCHA, Gy.: Politika /Politics/. Budapest, 1895. Vol. II. pp. 74-75.; BEREND, T.I. — RÄNKI, Gy.: A magyar gazdaság száz éve
/Hundred
years of Hungarian economy/. Budapest, 1972. p. 73.; PESCHKA, V. : Jog és jogfilozófia law/. Budapest, 1980. pp.
/Law and philosophy of
417-425.
9/ See: KECSKÉS, L. : Az állam gazdasági tevékenysége és az immunitás. Az immunitás-problémák átfogóbb
szemléletéért
/Economic activity of the state and immunity. For a more comprehensive approach to immunity problems/. Gazdaságés Jogtudomány, Publications of the 9th Department of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1981/1-2. p. 182. 10/ See: GUEST, A.F.: /ed.-in-chief/ Chitty on Contracts. 24th ed. London, 1977. Vol. I. p. 288.; GARNER, J.F.: Administrative Law. 5th ed. London, 1979. p. 302. 11/ Redariaktiebolaget Amphitrite v. King
/1921/, 3.K.B.500
12/ See: STREET: Governmental Liability, pp. 98-99.; MITCHELL, J.D.B.: The Contracts of Public Authorities. London, 1954. pp. 2 9 . ,
53-56.
13/ See: MAITLAND, F.W.: The constitutional history of England. Cambridge, 1911. pp. 432-433.; HARMATHY, A.: Szerződés, közigazgatás, gazdaságirányítás,
/Contracts, public ad-
ministration, economic management/, p. 47. 14/ Cf. BULLINGER, M.: Vertrag und Verwaltungsakt - Zu den Handlungsformen und Handlungsprinzipien der öffentlichen Verwaltung nach deutschen und englischen Recht. Stuttgart, 1962. pp. 200., 204-236.; TURPIN, C.C.: Public Contracts. International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. 1982. Vol. VII. Chapter 4. p. 30. 15/ See: FORSTHOFF, E. : Lehrbuch des Verwaltungsrechts.
10.
Aufl. München, 1973. Ban I. pp. 112-113.; FLEISCHMAN, M.: Das Völkerrecht. Systematisch dargest. : Franz von Liszt. 12. neubearb. Auflage. Berlin, 1925. p. 94.; MAYER: Deutsches Verwaltungsrecht, pp. 15., 21-22., 114-121. 16/ See: ENNECCERUS, I,. - KIPP, T. - WOLF, M. - LEHMANN, N. : Lehrbuch des bürgerlichen Rechts. 14. Aufl. Tübingen, 1954. p. 970.; LARENZ, K.: Lehrbuch des
Schuldrechts.
State immunity and liability Band II. München-Berlin,
1964 . pp. 422.,
17/ See: LOENING, E.: Die Gerichtsbarkeit
125 425-426.
über fremde
Staaten
und Souveräne. Festgabe der Univ. Halle-Wittenberg.
Halle,
1903. pp. 161., 195.; SEUFFERT, J.A.: Gutachten zur
Sache
Hellfeld gegen den Kaiserlich Russischen Fiskus. schrift für Völkerrecht
und
Bundesstaatsrecht,
Zeit-
1910.
p.429.
18/ See: SUCHARITKUL, S.: Fourth Report on Jurisdictional
Im-
m u n i t i e s of States and their Property. Geneva, 1982. p. 49.; SINCLAIR,
I.I.s The European Convenction on
State
Immunity. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 1973. p. 264.; SEIDL-HOHENVELDERN, I.: State Immunity: Federal Republic of Germany.
In: Netherland's Y e a r b o o k of
International Law. Vol. X. Den Haag, 1979. pp. 59.,
61-
-65. 19/ See: HARMATHY, A.: Szerződés, közigazgatás, nyítás
gazdaságirá-
/Contracts, public administration, economic
manage-
m e n t / . p. 19.; JEZE, G.: Les principes généraux du administratif.
3 e ed. Paris,
161-167.; LANGROD, G.: Administrative Contracts. Journal of Comparative Law.
droit
1925-1930. Vol. III. pp.
1955. p.
American
346.
20/ See: DUGUT, L.: Les transformations du droit public. 3 e éd. Paris, 1925. Preface, p. XIX.; JEZE, G . : Contrats stratifs. Paris, 1934. pp.
admini-
182-183.; VEDEL, G.: Droit
ad-
e , ministratif.
4
ed. Paris,
1968. pp. 205. and
207.;
W A L I N E , M.: Droit administratif. 9 e éd. Paris, 1963. p. 565.; RIVERO, J.: Droit public et droit privé.
Paris,
1947. p. 69. 21/ See: MAGYARY, Z.: Magyar közigazgatás administration/. Budapest,
/Hungarian
1942. pp. 71-79.,
SZABÖ, I.: A burzsoá állam- és jogbölcselet gon
public
420-421.; Magyarorszá-
/Bourgeois theory of state and law in Hungary/.
pest, 1955. pp. 100., 170-171., 221 See: BÄRDI, S.: A VI. m a g y a r eredményei
323-324.
jogászgyülés
tárgyalásainak
/Results of the discussions of the 6th
nal meeting of Hungarian lawyers/. Jogtudományi 1.76/27, p.
Buda-
natio-
Közlöny,
261.
23/ See: ЛАЗАРЕВСКИ, H.: Ответственности должностными лицами. St. Petersburg,
за убитки 1905. pp.
причинение 17-177.,
L. Kecskés
126
242., 298.; ГУССАКОВСКИЙ, П.H.: Вознограждение за вред причинений недозволенными деляниями. Journal of the Ministry for Justice, 1912/9. pp. 27 ., 33-34.; БРАТУС, C.H.: Юридические лица в советской гражданском праве. Moscow, 1947. р.
162.
24/ See: БРАГИНСКИЙ, М.Й.: Участие советского государства в гражданских правоотношениях. Moscow, 1981. pp. 22., 29., 105.; МАГАЗИНЕР, Й.М.: Ответственность госучреждении за причинений вред. Вестник Советской Юстиции, 1926/23. pp. 901., 905-906.; ВАРШАВСКИЙ, К,М.: Обязательства
возникаю-
щие вследствия причинения другому вреду. Moscow, 1929. pp. 180-183., 191.; ПУШКИН,А.А.: Советское
государство
как субъект гражданского права. Charkov, 1965. pp. 20-21. 25/ See: ПЕРЕТЕРЬСКИЙ,Й.С. - К Р И Л О В , C.B.: Международное частное право.
Moscow, 1959. р. 197.; БОГУСЛАВСКИЙ, М.:
Иммунитет государства
/Boguslawski, M.: State immunity/.
Moscow, 1962. pp. 8-9., 134-137., 182-183.;
ПОЗДНЯКОВ,В.:
Государственная монополия внешней торговли в СССР. Moscow, 1969. pp. 20-21., 26-28., 61-64.;
ЛУНЦ, Л.А.: Международ-
ное частное право. Moscow, 1959. р.188.; ВЕНЕДИКТОВ, A.B.: Государственная социалистическая собственность. Moscow-Leningrad, 1948. pp.
321-322.
26/ See: ГРИНГОЛЬЦ, И.А.: О договорных формах специализации и кооперирования производства между странами-членами СЭВ. Moscow, 1972. р. 106. 27/ See: SZAMEL, L.: Az államigazgatási
felelősség
mái /Fundamental problems of administrative
alapproblé-
responsibili-
ty of the state/. Budapest, 1982. Ministry for Justice, pp. 126., 128., 148., 153., 178-179.; EÖRSI, Gy.: A polgári jogi kártéritési
felelősség kézikönyve
/Manual of
the responsibility for compensation in civil law/, pp. 62-64., 330., 332-333.; TAKÁTS: Felelősség si jogkörben okozott károkért
államigazgatá-
/Responsibility
for damages
caused when exercising administrative authority/, pp. 169., 172-175. 28/ See: Indent
/1/, para. 4. and indents /1-2/, para. 6. of
the Law-decree No. 23. of 1984. 29/ See: ARATÖ, I.: Joghatóság a külföldi állam magánjogi ügy-
State immunity and liability letei felett
127
/Jurisdiction in civil law transactions of
a foreign state/. Pécs, 1942. pp. 56., 57., 59. 30/ See: RÉCZEI, L.: Nemzetközi magánjog
/Private
international
law/. 2nd rev. ed. Budapest, 1959. pp. 136-141.; MÁDL, F.; összehasonlító nemzetközi magánjog. A nemzetközi gi kapcsolatok joga /Comparative private
gazdasá-
international
law. Law of international economic relations/, pp. 140-141. 31I MÂDL, F.: Állam a gazdaságban és az immunitás problémái, különös tekintettel a gazdasági integrációra
/The state
in economy and problems of immunity, with special respect to economic integration/. Jogtudományi Közlöny,
1974/6.
pp. 265-274.; MÂDL, F.: Újabb szakaszban egy korszerű magyar nemzetközi magánjogi kódexért
/А new phase on the
way for a modern Hungarian Code of private
international
law/. Jogtudományi Közlöny, 1978/11, pp. 650-653.; MÂDL, F.: Magyarország első nemzetközi magánjogi ről /On the first Hungarian Code of private
törvénykönyvéinternational
law/. Állam- és Jogtudomány, 2/1980. pp. 275-278.; MÂDL, F. — VÉKÁS, L.: Magyar nemzetközi magánjog
/Hungarian
private international law/. Budapest, 1981. pp. 48-49., 145-146.,
183-184.
A c t a Juridica Academiae Scientiarum H u n g a r i c a e , 3 2 ( 1 - 2 ) pp. 129-132- (1990) INFORMAT IONES
THE NEW E L E C T O R A L SYSTEM OF THE HUNGARIAN REPUBLIC
With Act No. XXXIV of 1989 on the election of the members of Parliament, a new electoral system h a s been established in Hungary. A p l u r a l i s t i c party system b e i n g emerged, the draft of the bill was laid down in the course of political n e g o t i a t i o n s , between the e x i s t i n g parties. As a r e s u l t , Parliament approved the proposal based on the compromise of existing the political parties and which had decisive influence. With a view to establish a p l u r a l i s t i c system of representation in legislation and government but taking into c o n s i d e r a t i o n , simultaneously, the conditions of political transition, the Draft Bill created for Hungary a particular electoral system containing not only e l e m e n t s of proportional representation but at the s a m e time, it allows, in addition to the concurrence of party l i s t s certain e l e m e n t s of the majority s y s t e m , and t h u s the concurrence of individual c a n d i d a t e s has been added. In this way a composite electoral system has been set up in which members of Parliament are e l e c t e d , a partly in individual c o n s t i t u e n c i e s while the major part of the seats is distributed proportionally from lists a m o n g the parties. In fact, m a n d a t e s can be obtained in three d i f f e r e n t ways. First , 176 representatives are elected in individual c o n s t i t u e n c i e s in a system of a b s o l u t e majority in two r o u n d s . Second, 152 representatives r e c e i v e their s e a t s from r e g i o n a l lists of the part i e s , in p r o p o r t i o n to the v o t e s cast. E a c h county and the capital form one c o n s t i t u e n c y , the p a r t i e s may run lists in 20 regional c o n s t i t u e n c i e s , apart from t h e i r candidates fighting in the individual c o n s t i t u e n c i e s . Third , 58 seats are reserved for the additional proportional d i s t r i b u t i o n , in a c c o r d a n c e with the number of fractional votes, t h a t is, those being inferior to required for a m a n d a t e or in e x c e s s of it, respectively. To have a share in the distribution of these mandates, parties set up national l i s t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , 210 seats in Parliament are distributed on the basis of the lists of the parties out of the total of 386. It is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c feature of the Hungarian system that each voter has two v o t e s , one for the candidate of an individual c o n s t i t u e n c y and one for a r e g i o n a l list of a party. Votes are not cast for the national l i s t s of the p a r t i e s which profit from fractional v o t e s . A threshold of 4 % of national votes of a party has been established to obtain m a n d a t e s on the regional or the national l i s t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , the party not having attained t h i s threshold, calculated on the basis of the total number of v o t e s cast for its all r e g i o n a l lists will not be entitled to h a v e a share from the r e g i o n a l and,of c o u r s e , na-
Acta J u r i d i c a A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 32, 1 9 9 0 . Akadémiai K i a d ó , Budapest
Informationes
130
tional lists. Nevertheless, the threshold does not a f f e c t the seats obtained by a party in an individual c o n s t i t u e n c y , i.e. the respective party (or m o r e properly, the candidate supported by the party) will retain t h e mandate obtained in that way. Nomination
of
candidates
Contrary to the p r e v i o u s system or compulsory nomination m e e t i n g s , c a n d i d a t u r e in an individual constituency b e c o m e s effective on the basis of the nomination o f voters. Any citizen having the right to vote may become a candidate if he or she c o l l e c t s 750 nomination s h e e t s from the electors of the constituency provided that he or s h e meets additional c o n d i t i o n s laid down in the l a w , accepts n o m i n a t i o n , and has no f u n c t i o n s incombatible with the mandate of a member of Parliament o r , performing such function, u n d e r t a k e s to r e s i g n of it in c a s e of his or her e l e c t i o n . C a n d i d a t e s in individual constituencies may run in the campaign of b e h a l f of a party or may be registered by the election c o m m i t t e e as independent candidates. No other condition is prescribed for the nomination, i.e. the e l e c t i o n comm i t t e e s are bound to register candidates complying with the conditions laid down in the l a w . Quantitative criteria are also fixed in the E l e c t i o n Act for the lists of parties, t h u s , a party is allowed to set up a regional list provided that it succeded in nominating a candidate in minimum 25 % of the i n d i v i d u a l constituencies of the regional c o n s t i t u e n c y , or at least in two constituencies. Under the law, regional constituencies are established in each county and in the capital. The lists are fixed and the candidates obtain a seat in the order defined of registration. The number of candidates of a list of each party may b e , at most, the double of the seats to be distributed in the r e s p e c t i v e regional constituency. The parties that succeded to register a list in at least seven regional c o n s t i t u e n c i e s that is satisfying the conditions mentioned above are entitled to register also a n a t i o n a l list. Having exceeded the national threshold of 4 %, they h a v e the right of a share from the s e a t s on the n a t i o n a l list, in proportion to the number of so-called fractional votes cast for them on the n a t i o n a l scale. Practically, none of the serious political groups .should face any difficulty in registering a national list, s i n c e , given the total n u m b e r of 176 individual c o n s t i t u e n c i e s , the required minimum of candidates of a party is as little as 14. A candidate may run simultaneously in one i n d i v i d u a l cons t i t u e n c y , on a regional l i s t , and the n a t i o n a l list t o o . In case of his or her election in an individual constituency, he or she will be replaced by the s u c c e s s i v e c a n d i d a t e on the regional list. S i m i l a r l y , if a candidate r u n s only on a regional l i s t , without candidature in an individual c o n s t i t u e n c y , in case of having obtained a seat on the respective regional list, he or she will accordingly be replaced by the next c a n d i d a t e on the n a t i o n a l list . Election
campaign
Contrary to the former electoral s y s t e m where political "filters" i.e. dispositions m a k i n g practically impossible of
Informationes
131
the nomination of candidates with r a d i c a l l y dissenting political v i e w s , n o m i n a t i o n became completely free in this s e n s e under t h e new Election Act. In accordance with the concept o f free democratic e l e c t i o n s , political d i f f e r e n c e s manifest themselves and compete and openly. T h u s , any H u n g a r i a n citizen having the right to vote as well as foreign eres having a r e s i d e n c e permit in Hungary are entitled to participate in the c a m p a i g n , collect nomination s h e e t s , popularize c a n d i d a t e s and p r o g r a m s , organise election m e e t i n g s , etc. No special p e r m i s s i o n is needed to a produce and distribute political p o s t e r s , leaflets, fly-bills, etc. Special measures h a v e been taken to ensure the equality of chances and to guarantee equal c o n d i t i o n s for the c o m m u n i c a t i o n of lectoral manifestos and political advertisement on TV and other mass m e d i a . In fact, publicity is essential in the entire electoral c a m p a i g n and p r o c e d u r e , t o g e t h e r with, o f course, t h e strictest s e c r e c y of v o t i n g . Thus, t h e activity of the election organs is p u b l i c and the accès of the press and t h e representatives of p a r t i e s is e n s u r e d . Moreover, the election organs h a v e been formed from the outset in such a way that,beside members elected by the local c o u n c i l s also d e l e g a t e s of t h e parties are full members of the election c o m m i t t e e . Voting p r o c e d u r e and s t a t e m e n t of the outcome of the ballot Every c i t i z e n having the right to vote received two b a l l o t papers: one destined for the individual c o n s t i t u e n c y , contains the names of the c a n d i d a t e s , in alphabetical order and the p a r ties nominating them, o r , in case of an independent candidate, this fact: the other ballot paper w h i c h serves for the regional list contains the parties in the o r d e r established by lot, followed by the names of the c a n d i d a t e s , in the o r d e r ot their nomination by the respective parties. In case of a joint list, this fact has to be i n d i c a t e d . The v o t e is valid i f , in case of the candidates of an individual c o n s t i t u e n c y , the voter gives a mark for one of the c a n d i d a t e s ; as to a ballot p a p e r for r e g i o n a l l i s t s , a mark "+" has to be put to o n e of the quadrangular s p a c e s indicating the names of the parties. D i f f e r e n t rules are governing t h e outcome of the election in the first and the second round in the individual c o n s t i t u e n c y . As to the f i r s t , the c a n d i d a t e will o b t a i n the seat if received more than 50 % of the valid votes p r o v i d e d that m o r e than 50 % of the c i t i z e n s having the right to v o t e went to the polls. T a k ing into c o n s i d e r a t i o n the high number of candidates (often 8 1 0 ) and the possibly important d i s t r i b u t i o n of v o t e s between the c a n d i d a t e s , a second turn has to be held in t h e great majority of the c o n s t i t u e n c i e s where n o n e of the c a n d i d a t e s s u c c e d ed in securing absolute majority. In the second round already a relative m a j o r i t y is sufficient to o b t a i n the s e a t , provided that more than 25 % of the citizens h a v i n g the right to vote participated in the vote. No second round is needed in v o t i n g for a r e g i o n a l list if more than 50 % of the voters p a r t i c i p a t e d in the ballot. On the other h a n d , voting is not valid, if the proportion of participants is inferior to the limit, and the voting for lists has to be repeated in this case. The candidates o f the parties
132
Informationes
in the regional l i s t s obtain s e a t s in proportion to the votes cast and in the order of succession indicated on the ballot papers, using the way of calculation set down in an annex to the Election Act. Candidates obtain mandates from the national list in proportion to the fractional votes counted at national level. Fractional votes come from two souces: in individual constitu en ces, fractional votes are these cast in the first valid round of voting, but insufficient to obtain the mandate; in case of regional lists, the votes insufficient for securing a mandate of exceeding the number of votes reguired for securing a seat are considered as fractional. The seats from the national lists are then distributed by applying the d*Hondt m e t h o d . Remedies Under the new electoral l a w , the possibility of judicial remedy is extended to all phases of the electoral process. No separate election courts have been set up, but a recourse to a court is given against any decision of the election organs when a complaint was rejected. Thus, an appeal can be addressed to county on local courts against decisions of the local and regional election committees; in case of a decision taken by the National Election Committee, a recourse can be submitted to the Supreme Court. The courts composed of three professional judges have to take a decision within three days. If the outcome of a ballot was influenced substantially by an infringement of the law, the courts will decide to repeat voting or part t h e r e o f , respectively. M. Dezső
Acta Juridica Academiae S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 3 2 ( 1 - 2 ) p p . 133-132- (1990) RECENSIONES
DIE MENSCHENRECHTE IN U N G A R N . E r s c h i e n e n zum 40. Jahrestag der Allgemeinen Erklärung der Menschenrechte (Hrsg. von M. Katonané S o l t é s z ) Budapest, 1988. 385 p.
Die bisher r e i c h h a l t i g s t e Sammlung von Studien u n g a r i scher Rechfjswissenschaftler zur Menschen recht s thematik erschien unter der Ägide d e s Instituts für Juristische Weiterbildung der Eötvös Loránd Universität (als Ergebnis der Arbeit einer Forschungsgruppe des Instituts) und mit Unterstützung der Ratriotischen Volksfront und der Soros-Stiftung . Auf den Themenreichtum verweist die einleitende Studie des inzwischen zum Justizminister gewählten Kálmán K u l c s á r , deren Titel bereits das Pensum des Autorenkollektivs ausdrückt: "Menschenrechte und Wirklichkeit" (Emberi jogok és v a l ó s á g ) . Die methodischen Untersuc h u n g e n , angestellt auf der Grundlage e i n e r kritischen Anschauung und W i r k l i c h k e i t s b e t r a c h t u n g , erstreckten sich auf fast alle Bereiche der R e c h t s w i s s e n s c h a f t ; die S c h l u s s f o l g e r u n g e n wurden sehr häufig auch de lege ferenda g e z o g e n . Das ist gewiss nicht deshalb so, weil dieses Thema bei u n s C"bzw. in unserer Zeit) eine Art "Evergreen" darstellt, - s o n d e r n vielmehr, weil sich aufgrund m o d e r n e r Abwägung von Vergangenheit und Gegenwart auch auf diesem Gebiet die Akzente auf d i e Rechtssicherheit (Siehe S. 15. des ans. Werkes) bzw. auf Garantien verlagert haben (Siehe S. 59 ff.). Entsprechend dem Gegenstand der b e t r e f f e n d e n Wissenschaftszweige stehen n a t ü r l i c h die R e c h t s g a r a n t i e n im Vordergrund der Untersuchungen (Takács). D a r a u s ergibt s i c h ganz gewiss, dass der Studienband fast ausnahmslos jene R e l e v a n z e n u n t e r s u c h t , in denen die Menschenrechte zum Ausdruck k o m m e n . Schwerpunkte bilden natürlich z.B. die v e r f a s s u n g s r e c h t l i c h e n Relevanzen (siehe die Studien von I. Szentpéteri, A. Adám, К. Fürész, I. Kukorelli und J. Sári) sowie die staatsverwaltungsrechtlichen (L. Szamel), bzw. die ziV il rech11ichen Relevanzen. Z u w e i l e n kann auch in bezug auf den k o n k r e t e n Gegenstand (z.B. Rechtsschutz der Persönlichkeit auf dem Gebiet des Zivilrechts, siehe S. 145 des ang. W e r k e s ) von einer communis o p i n i o gesprochen werden. Die zivilrechtlichen Aspekte unseres Themenkreises sind entsprechend den soeben genannten Schwerpunkten im vorliegenden Studienband präsent (siehe z . B . die Studien von K. T ö r ő , L. Vékás, Katonáné, M. Soltész b z w . E. Nitriny, V. Rosner).Mindestens ebenso schlägt aber zu Buche, dass Arbeiten aus dem strafrechtlichen Bereich fast völlig fehlen. Es ist eine Tatsache, dass die beispiellosen Verletzungen der Menschenrechte, die im nunmehr bald ein h a l b e s Jahrhundert zurückliegenden Weltkrieg und im Gefolge vieler anderer Anomalien des 20. Jahrhunderts geschahen, das p o l i t i s c h e , bzw. das rechtliche Denken aufrüttelten. So wurden auch Grundlagen für die Suche nach neuen Wegen gelegt. Bekanntlich vereinbarten die M ä c h t e , die s i c h um die Entfaltung des
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 3 2 , 1990. A k a d é m i a i Kiadó, Budapest
134
Recensiones
a n t i f a s c h i s t i s c h e n B ü n d n i s s y s t e m s b e m ü h t e n , bereits im August 1941 Atlantische Charta b z w . in der Deklaration der Vereinten Nationen (Januar 1942) s o w i e auch in den Abkommen von Jalta und P o t s d a m , die den Weltkrieg abschlössen, bestimmte grundlegende Prinzipien für die Beseitigung kollektiv oder i n d i v i d u e l l erlittenen U n r e c h t s . Auch die w e l t p o l i t i s c h e Lage d i k t i e r t e es a l s o , die "droits de l ' h o m m e " zur universellen Angelegenheit werden zu l a s s e n . Infolgedessen gelangten einige E l e m e n t e (Erf o r d e r n i s s e ) d i e s e s B e s t r e b e n s z.B. in die Waffenstillstandsund Friedensabkommen als b e s o n d e r e Garantien der Wiedergutmachung von M e n s c h e n r e c h t s v e r l e t z u n g e n . Aus unserer jüngsten Geschichte wissen wir, d a s s die Entw i c k l u n g der Menschenrechte zur universalen Angelegenheit unmittelbare Auswirkungen auf die Erneuerung des L a n d e s hatte. So verlangten z.B. die Rechte, die in der Präambel des Gesetzes 1946/1 über die neue S t a a t s f o r m formuliert wurden, e i n e n durchgreifenden Wandel im u n g a r i s c h e n Rechtsdenken. Die auf der dritten Vollversammlung der V e r e i n t e n Nationen (1948) angenommene Allgemeine Erklärung der M e n s c h e n r e c h t e wirkte sich unbestehenden e u r o p ä i s c h e n volksdemokratischen Verfassungen a u s . Allerd i n g s wissen wir sehr w o h l , dass diese Gesetzgebung d i e Akzente auf die ökonomisch-sozialen Rechte verlagerte. Diese Linie können wir auch in der Geschichte des ersten (existierenden) sozialistischen S t a a t e s zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen verfolgen. Dies geschah aus der E r k e n n t n i s , dass "... (auch) die Verwirklichung aller sonstigen m e n s c h l i c h e n (und) staatsbürgerlichen Rechte letzten Endes davon abhängt, ob die wirtschaftlichen, s o z i a l e n , und kulturellen R e c h t e zur Geltung kommen und ob dafür die V o r a u s s e t z u n g e n vorhanden sind." (I. Szabó). Die Bedeutung dessen wird nicht v e r k l e i n e r t , wenn wir hinzufügen, d a s s in der e r w ä h n t e n Allgemeinen E r k l ä r u n g der Menschenrechte und ursprünglich sogar in der Atlantischen Charta e i n e solche S c h w e r p u n k t v e r lagerung zum Ausdruck kam. Mit Recht k ö n n t e n wir also die grundlegendsten drei Komponenten aus der letzteren Quelle zitieren: "Recht auf ein Leben frei von Unterdrückung, Furcht und Entbehrung", "Recht auf Arbeit und menschenwürdigen Leben" bzw. "Recht auf freie Bildung." H i e r liegen die Quellen für die verstärkte Betonung der p o l i t i s c h e n , der ö k o n o m i s c h - s o z i a l e n bzw. sog. kulturellen Rechte. In unserer j ü n g s t e n Geschichte wirkte dies - auch im kontinentalen Massstab in Richtung einer Neuordnung der konkreten R e c h t s v e r h ä l t n i s s e . Für die wirklichkeitsgetreue Erschliessung unserer Verhältnisse liefern die Autoren des v o r l i e g e n d e n Bandes ein sehr reichhaltiges M a t e r i a l . Sehr häufig (und m e t h o d i s c h ) b e l e u c h t e n sie auch die V o r g e s c h i c h t e . Einige Teile des Studienbandes haben ausgesprochen historischen ( g r u n d l e g e n d e n ) Charakter (siehe z.B. K. Fürész - T. Révész: Die Gleichberechtigung der N a t i o n a l i t ä t e n , Dr. A. S i r k ó Ficzerené: Die Gleichberechtigung der Geschlechter usw.), Das gleiche Bestreben ist aber auch in d e n Arbeiten über bestimmte Bereiche des geltenden Rechts e r k e n n b a r , so z.B. in der A u s w e r t u n g von annähernd hundertjährigen g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n Erfahrungen bezüglich des Versicherungsrechts (siehe S. 279 ff. des a n g . Werkes). Mit diesem Bestreben ist in fast allen Fällen eine Stellungnahme g e p a a r t , die der Umgestaltung der Rechtsverhältnisse unserer Zeit dient. Zuweilen handelt es sich sogar noch um m e h r , nämlich d a n n , wenn die Analyse den L e s e r "zu den erwünschten Richtungen
Recensiones
135
der Regelung", zur Umreissung der künftigen Wege hinführt (siehe z.B. S. 97-98, 226-228, 309 ff.). Zusammenfassend kann gesagt werden, dass die ungarische Rechtswissenschaft dem 200. Jahrestag der Déclaration d e s droits de l'homme et du citoyen mit R e c h t grossen Erwartungen entgegensieht. Abgesehen von den aktualisierten politischen Aspekten sind auch unsere methodisch analysierenden Untersuchungen weit über die Grenzen d e s blossen Gedenkens h i n a u s g e g a n g e n . Dies resultiert daraus, d a s s die Erwartungen in Bezug auf die Ideenwelt der Menschenrechte heute schon fast alle Bereiche der theoretischen, historischen bzw. der positiven R e c h t s w i s s e n s c h a f t e n erfasst haben, da in den staatlich organisierten menschlichen Gesellschaften im Zeichen des erweiterten Begriffssystems der Déclaration des d r o i t s ein universeller ideologischer K a m p f geführt wird und s i c h davon g e r a d e die R e c h t s w i s s e n s c h a f t nicht unabhängig machen kann. Als gutes Beispiel kann dafür die im Studienband b e h a n d e l t e Lehгfгeiheit, b z w . die Freiheit der Wissenschaft (siehe L. Szamel auf S. 179-182 des ang. W e r k e s ) gelten, an deren g e w i s s e r m a s s e n historischer Erhellung wir auch einigen Anteil h a t t e n . Noch unlängst waren wir geneigt, d i e Menschenrechte zu klassifizieren (in einer Rangordnung zu gliedern), und obwohl wir nicht die Bedeutung der ökonomisch-s о z i a l en bzw. der kulturellen Rechte v e r k l e i n e r t e n , verstanden wir sie doch als später (nach den staatsbürger1 ich-politisehen bzw. sozialen Recht e n ) entstandenes Recht. Historische W a h r h e i t liegt darin insoweit, als vor a l l e m die sog. kulturellen Rechte in der Frühepoche der Herausbildung der modernen Gesellschaften - im ideengeschichtlichen Sinne - noch unausgegoren waren. Das heisst n i c h t , dass Hugo Grotius oder gar die V e r t r e t e r der französischen-italienischen Aufklärung die Bedeutung der Befreiung der Kultur (der W i s s e n s c h a f t ) n i c h t erkannt h ä t t e n . In den frühen und klassischen bürgerlichen Umwandlungsprozessen stand aber v e r s t ä n d l i c h e r w e i s e der Kampf um die p o l i t i s c h e n (bzw. die sog. s t a a t s b ü r g e r l i c h e n ) Rechte im Vordergrund (das "Verhältnis des Menschen zum S t a a t " ) , wie I. Szabő f e s t s t e l l t . Eine gewisse Ver- in logischer Folge einfachung wäre es jedoch, wollten wir b e h a u p t e n , dass d i e kulturellen sowie d i e ökonomisch-sozial en Rechte im Zuge verzögerter bürgerlicher Umwandlungen, bzw. der sozialistischen Revolutionen erschienen. In grossen Zügen war dies zwar die c h r o n o l o g i s c h e Folge der Herausbildung dieser Erscheinungen und der mit ihnen verknüpften institutionellen Formen, die Ursachen der Schwerpunktverlagerung sind aber damit noch nicht g e k l ä r t . Viel haben bei uns die theoretischen (in neuerer Zeit die s t a a t s w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h - p o l i t i s c h e n ) Wissenschaften dafür getan, den historischen Hintergrund vor allem der Problematik der staatsb ü r g e r l i c h - p o l i t i s c h e n Rechte, bzw. ö k o n o m i s c h - s o z i a l e n Rechte aufzudecken. Sporadisch sind aber bis h e u t e die analysierenden Untersuchungen g e b l i e b e n , die de historischen Rollenwechsel der s o g . kulturellen R e c h t e bzw. die d i e s b e z ü g l i c h e n gesellschaftlichen Erfahrungen e r h e l l e n . Zu solchen Erkenntnissen könnten wir jedoch gelangen, wenn wir die Irrwege des preu s sisch-deutsehen bzw.Österreich isch-unga г i sehen L e h r f r e i h e i t - S y s t e m s historisch aufdecken und die darin enthaltenen g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n Erfahrungen nutzen. Natürlich tun wir dies nicht im Sinne e i n e s l'art pour l'art, aus blossem G e d e n k e n an den grossen h i s t o r i s c h e n Jahrestag, son-
136
Recensiones
d e m um aus den Erfahrungen der Befreiung der Wissenschaft zu s c h ö p f e n . Aus der h i s t o r i s c h e n Betrachtung der "Lehrfreiheit" können nämlich all jene Völker Gewinn ziehen, die e i n s t der Region verspäteter bürgerlicher Umwandlungen zugerechnet wurden. Selbst für das p r e u s s i s c h - d e u t s c h e L e h r f r e i h e i t - S y s t e m , das Typenmerkmale a u f w i e s , gilt der Satz, dass an diesem d o c h weit " l e b e n s k r ä f t i g e r e n Baum" im bürgerlichen Zeitalter " k e i n e Früchte reifen k o n n t e n " (K. K u l c s á r ) . Jene konkreten institutionellen F o r m e n , jene f o r t s c h r i t t l i c h e n Ideen j e d o c h , die auch durch die g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n Erfahrungen aus einem bis anderthalb Jahrhunderten bestätigt wurden, k a n n die Gegenwart nicht v e r l e u g n e n . Unbedingt notwendig ist es d e s h a l b , dass wir die F r e i h e i t der W i s s e n s c h a f t , bzw. das mit ihr zusammenhängende institutionelle Gefüge endlich in voller R e a l i t ä t sichtbar machen. Warum wir dies so spät tun, mag der geehrte L e s e r fragen. Die h i s t o r i o g r a p h i s c h - k u l t u r h i s t o r i s c h e D e t a i l f o r s c h u n g macht dies freilich schon kontinuierlich seit mehr als einem Viertelj a h r h u n d e r t . Die neuerdings aufgetretenen Probleme b e i der Vollentfaltung der s o z i a l i s t i s c h e n Universität veranlassen zur methodischen Untersuchung der konkreten Vorbilder und institutionellen Formen, damit uns als Erbe nicht wieder nur " v i e l e leere F o r m a l i t ä t e n " bleiben. Darüber hinaus können wir nicht ausser Acht lassen, dass das Zustandekommen des österreichisch-ungarischen Leh г freiheit-Syst ems auch durch den Umstand motiviert w u r d e , dass auch unsere V o r f a h r e n die die fehlenden Bedingungen der damaligen ö k o n o m i s c h - p o l i t i s c h e n Erneuerung durch geistiges (gedankliches) Bauen ersetzen mussten. Reich sind wir auch heute n i c h t , doch indem wir die Antriebskraft der Wertvollsten (intell e k t u e l l e n ) Arbeit auf angemessenem Niveau halten, k ö n n e n wir uns eine gewisse Hoffnung auf die Zukunft bewahren. Deshalb halten wir für b e s o n d e r s b e d e u t s a m , dass der Studienband "Menschenrechte in Ungarn", über den t r a d i t i o n e l l e n Rahmen der kulturellen Rechte h i n a u s g e h e n d , die Aufmerksamkeit auch auf d i e universellen Interessen an der F r e i h e i t der Wissenschaft g e l e n k t hat. In diesem Sinne empfehlen wir den Studienband all j e n e n , die sich im weiteren Sinne für d a s öffentliche Leben (das Gemeind e n k e n ) und das Recht i n t e r e s s i e r e n , den Kennern der Staats- und R e c h t s w i s s e n s c h a f t e n sowie den Pädagogen, die grundlegensten s t a a t s b ü r g e r l i c h e n Kenntnisse vermitteln. Die darin implizit enthaltene Möglichkeit mehr z w e i f e l l o s das Ansehen der namhaften Autoren und des Instituts für Juristische W e i t e r b i l d u n g . P.
Horváth
Acta J u r i d i c a A c a d e m i a e Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(1-2) pp. 137-132- (1990)
VARIA
SOCIAL AND E C O N O M I C R I G H T S OF
REFUGEES
This study deals w i t h the social and economic rights of refugees at the level of international law, i.e. aims to h i g h light the provisions of those international legal instruments which relate directly or non-directly to the r e f u g e e ' s status. The status of so-called n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l refugees, that is d i s placed p e r s o n s , is not considered h e r e . The s t a t u s of these persons and the related legal problems fall o u t s i d e the traditionally-perceived institution of "refugees". F i n a l l y , when speaking about the status of refugees, including their social and economic rights, u n d e r the notion of "refugee" I mean those persons who have already received o f f i c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n as refugees. It is an important point, b e c a u s e the l i s t of rights specified in international instruments has to be applied first of all to these persons. The so-called a s y l u m - s e e k e r s (refugeeseekers), de facto r e f u g e e s , persons allowed to stay on humanitarian ground are not c o v e r e d by the provisions of international refugee instruments relating to substantive r i g h t s . As to the scope of rights of t h e s e persons there is no unanimous practice, each state has its own policy toward t h e s e persons, social and economic r i g h t s are provided in discretionary manner^. (See, for example, Lohrmann, n o t e 21) In o t h e r words, the recognition as a refugee is not simply a declaratory act, in relation to some rights (especially) those of s o c i a l and econpmic n a t u r e ) . It is a constitutive act, i.e. the listed r i g h t s will be provided only u p o n recognition of refugee status. Universal international legal instruments applicable to the determination of social and economic rights of refugees One can hardly claim that there is a great number of u n i versal legal instruments the provisions of which are applicable to the status of refugees. However, modern international law is not absolutly indifferent to those persons who h a v e been forced to leave their own c o u n t r y . It is possible to a r g u e that we h a v e already a catalogue of minimum rights for these p e r s o n s , including their social and e c o n o m i c rights. Among the universal instruments the most prominent place belongs to the 1951 C o n v e n t i o n (see, note 5). Concerning social and economic rights of refugees the Convention establishes basically three kinds of regimes. 1/ "National r e g i m e " (treatment): Article 14 on artistic rights and industrial p r o p e r t y , A r t i c l e 20 on r a t i o n i n g s y s t e m , Article 2 2 ( 1 ) on elementary education, Article 23 on public relief and assistance, A r t i c l e 24 on labor legislation and social security.
Acta Juridica A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 32, 1 9 9 0 . Akadémiai K i a d ó , Budapest
138
Varia
2/ Regime g e n e r a l l y accorded to aliens in the c o u n t r y of refuge: Article 18 on s e l f - e m p l o y m e n t , Article 19 on liberal p r o f e s s i o n s , Article 21 on h o u s i n g , Article 2 2 ( 2 ) on education other than elementary education. 3/ M o s t - f a v o r a b l e regime accorded to nationals of a foreign country in the same c i r c u m s t a n c e s : A r t i c l e 15 on p a r ticipation in trade u n i o n s , Article 17 on wage-earning e m p l o y ment . The provisions of the Convention on the substantial status of refugees have their merits and d e f i c i e n c i e s . Their major positive aspect is that they c o v e r a relatively wide range of rights. The Convention actually is one of t h o s e international instruments which s p e c i f i e s in detail the r e l e v a n t rights. But on the other hand by establishing different regimes in relation to the listed rights, it fails to take into account the dinstictive situation of r e f u g e e s , allows the s p e c i f i c state to discriminate t h e m , especially when it aquates a l i e n s with r e f u g e e s . It fails to provide p r o t e c t i o n for them on equal basis. One can only agree with Carvey's remark that "once a sovereign State has assumed the role of p l a c e of r e f u g e , e x c e r c i s i n g extended control over the refugee physically present w i t h i n its territorial j u r i s d i c t i o n , the r i g h t of equal protection m u s t pertain" (see, Carvey, note 16, p. 319-320.). Thus for e x a m p l e , Article 17 of the Convention which is one of the most i m p o r t a n t one (wageearning e m p l o y m e n t ) provides b a s i s for discrimination. The regulation of this very important issue is based on the "most favorable treatment accorded to nationals of a foreign c o n t r y " . This i m p l i e s a rather serious restriction. B e s i d e s , according to section 2 of A r t i c l e 17, r e f u g e e s might be restricted in employment on the g r o u n d of protecting n a t i o n a l labour m a r k e t . (Only those refugees are exampt from this restriction who were exarnpt from them at the date of entry into f o r c e of the Convention or fulfil some specific c o n d i t i o n s ) . The right to work was one of the most d i s p u t e d one d u r i n g the d r a f t i n g of the Convention (see, Weis, n o t e 25, p. 149-169.), and the majority of States refused to put refugees on a footing e q u a l to that of nationals. But one h a s to consider also the b a s i c changes in the field of human rights which has occured since the adoption of the C o n v e n t i o n . The r i g h t to work has been recognized by many international human r i g h t s instruments. Hence it is possible to argue that due to t h e s e instruments refugees should enjoy this right a l s o , basically for reasons that r e s i d e n t s and c i t i z e n s under m o d e r n human r i g h t s instruments should be treated as equals. On the i n t e r n a t i o n a l level there are o t h e r universal in-* struments also which contain p r o v i s i o n s r e l a t i n g to social and economic . гights of r e f u g e e s . Thus for example, the ILO C o n v e n tion 118 on Equality Treatment of Nationals and Non-nationals in Social Security of 1 9 6 2 (see, note 6.). Protocol No. 1. to the Universal C o p y r i g h t Convention (1952) adopted on 6 September 1972 can also be regarded as an instrument which aims at setting up universal standards. It is necessary to mention also the UN Convent on Economic Social and Cultural R i g h t s (see, note 12). N a t u r a l l y , there are a lot of c o n t r o v e r s i a l issues regarding this Convention. F i r s t , the Convention speaks about the o b l i g a t i o n o f Member States to realize the listed r i g h t s progressively (Art. 2. paragr. 1.).
Varia
139
Second, a great number of States, namely the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n tries, may decide freely as to what extent would guarantee the economic rights to non-nationals (Art. 2. para. 3.). Despite these escape clauses, "the rights guaranteed in the Convent should also apply to refugees" (see, note 24, p. 156-157.). And finally one can mention also the UN Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals w h o are not N a t i o n a l s of t h e Country in Which They Live (see, n o t e 8.). A r t i c l e 8 of the D e c l a r a t i o n , unfortunately not w i t h o u t an escape clause, establishes that aliens (who cover all kinds o f n o n - n a t i o n a l s ) lawfully residing in the territory of a State S h a l l enjoy, among other rights, the r i g h t , to safe and healthy w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , to fair wages and egual r e m u n e r a t i o n , the right to health p r o tection, medical care, social s e c u r i t y , social services, e d u c a tion . Provisions of regional national instruments
inter-
One of the most striking feature of r e g i o n a l international instruments is the a b s e n c e in them of detailed r u l e s concerning the status of refugees, including their social and economic rights. As we know, r e g i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s usually go further than universal ones, c o n t a i n more elaborated r u l e s and not just simply duplicate them. But this is not the c a s e in relation to refuges problems. Europe. One can actually find some c o n c r e t e regulatory instruments only in E u r o p e . Following the a d o p t i o n of the 1951 Convention the European States in 1953 adopted an Interim Agreement on Social Security Schemes Relating to Old Age and Invalidity which contained a protocol extending t h e application of the listed rights to refugees (On West-European social s e curity Schemes which c o v e r also r e f u g e e s see in more detail Holborn, note 20, p. 220-221.). The European Social Charter, which e s t a b l i s h e s a wide range of social and e c o n o m i c r i g h t s , has also an Annex concerning the application of the C h a r t e r to r e f u g e e s . However, the Annex does not e x t e n d the r i g h t s specified in the Charter to refugees, but simply confirms t h e commitment of Europen States to the provisions of the 1951 Convention. (The m e m b e r s of the Charter will g r a n t to r e f u g e e s "treatment as favorable as possible, and in any case not less favorable accepted u n d e r the C o n v e n t i o n " . ) One can also m e n t i o n the E u r o p e a n Convention on Social Security of 1972 (see n o t e 11). Its preamble s t a t e s the commitment of the m e m b e r s to the "principle of equality of treatment for nationals of the Contracting P a r t i e s , refugees and stateless persons", and its A r t i c l e 4 d e c l a r e s that "the provisions of this Convention shall be applicable to refugees" . America : In the American Convention on H u m a n Rights (see note 2j Tn Article 1 ( 2 ) there is a provision w h i c h confirms that "for the purpose of this C o n v e n t i o n "person" means e v e r y human b e i n g " (i.e. including r e f u g e e s ) . However, the Convention itself does not c o n t a i n a c a t a l o g u e of s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c rights. Article 26 m e n t i o n s these rights, but o n l y in general terms, as an obligation of States to develop t h e s e rights p r o g -
140
Varia
ressively. It has to be mentioned that the A m e r i c a n States in 1988 adopted the s o - c a l l e d Protocol of San S a l v a d o r (not yet in force) which c o n t a i n s a wide r a n g e of social and economic rights (see note 1) w h i c h according to the above-mentioned p r o vision of the Convention should c o v e r also r e f u g e e s . A f r i c a : The OAU Convention on refugees (see note 13) contains no provisions on social and economic r i g h t s of r e f u gees. In its preamble t h e r e is only a general stipulation t h a t "a human being shall e n j o y fundamental rights and freedoms w i t h out discrimination". Asia : As it is k n o w n , in the Asian region there is no binding regional i n s t r u m e n t concerning refugees. There is a non-binding instrument adopted by t h e Asian-African Legal C o n sultative Committee on t h e treatment of r e f u g e e s . Article VI (1) states the minimum standard of treatment principle: "A State shall accord to refugees t r e a t m e n t in no way less f a v o u r able than that generally accorded to aliens in similar c i r c u m stances" (see note 3). Systematic
Review
Under modern i n t e r n a t i o n a l law refugees h a v e been recognized as a special g r o u p of p e r s o n s who need protection n o t as nationals but as i n d i v i d u a l s . The d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s of this category o f persons from other group of aliens (guest w o r k e r s , migrants, travellers e t c . ) is evident from t h e s e international instruments which has b e e n drafted and adopted for the r e g u l a tion of refugee's s t a t u s per se. The philosophy of treating them as s i m p l e aliens or just simply as n o n - n a t i o n a l s has no valid foundation any m o r e . One of the basic q u e s t i o n s of c o u r s e is whether refugees d u e to their d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s should be treated equally with n a t i o n a l s or t h e r e is no foundation for such equal treatment. The answer is not a s i m p l e one. Some of the authors argue that they in g e n e r a l should e n j o y equal t r e a t ment (see especially C a r v e y and J o u n g , note 16 and 26). O t h e r s take a m o r e cautious s t a n c e and p o i n t out, that n o n - d i s c r i m i n a tion has a normative c h a r a c t e r only in racial m a t t e r s , but in other m a t t e r s distinction against a l i e n s and non-nation al s s t i l l exist (see, note 17, p. 85). This latter p o s i t i o n is more accurate o n e , since the practices o f States and the relevant i n t e r n a t i o n a l legal instruments clearly d e m o n s t r a t e that the prinfiple of equality of treatment of n a t i o n a l s and non-nationals h a s not become yet as an a b s o l u t e p r i n c i p l e . In support of this t h e s i s there are ample m a t e r i a l s . For e x a m p l e , the European C o m m i s s i o n of H u m a n Rights in its decision of 17 december 1976 (see note 10) s t a t e d that the petitioner " s t a t u s as an a l i e n would in itself p r o v i d e objective and reasonable justification for his being subject to different treatment ... to persons holding U n i t e d Kingdom c i tizenship". The UN D e c l a r a t i o n of 13 December 1 9 8 5 (see note 8) also demonstrates that States reserve for t h e m s e l v e s the r i g h t to treat non-nationals seperatly from nationals. Article 2 r e a d s : "Nothing in this D e c l a r a t i o n shall be interpreted as restricting the right of any State to promulgate laws and regulations c o n cerning e n t r y of aliens and the t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s of their stay or to establish d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n n a t i o n a l s and a l i e n s . "
Varia
141
The right of states t establish differences between nationals and n o n - n a t i o n a l s however does not mean that there should be no distinction between d i f f e r e n t categories of nonnationals, i.e. that the same treatment should be applied to all of them. The key failure of the 1951 Convention provisions on social and economic r i g h t s is that they do not focus on the special position of r e f u g e e s (being a b r o a d , lack of protection, danger of unjust p e r s e c u t i o n ) . The e q u a t i o n of r e f u g e e s with other aliens clearly e n t a i l s unfavourable consequences for the refugees. From this point of view the objections against the treatment of refugees on the basis of "aliens' r e g i m e " , "mostfavored refugee regime", and "most favored n a t i o n a l " regime seem to be v a l i d . In some fields (for example, s p e c i a l support measures with the aim to facilitate a s s i m i l a t i o n ) even some p o sitive discrimination is desirable in relation to refugees. This need has been acknowledged by the Council of Europa 1976 Recommendation (see note 7). Section 3 of the Recommendation emphasize that de facto refugees "need more favorable treatment than that accorded to a l i e n s " . However for the time being such approach is rather an exception than a rule. The minimum standard of treatment that a refugee may expect "is to be treated no less favourably than aliens g e n e r a l l y " (see n o t e 22, p. 4 3 4 ) . When speaking about refugees' s t a t u s , including their s o cial and e c o n o m i c rights, one cannot leave without attention the modern d e v e l o p m e n t s in human r i g h t s protection. The key feature of the new international i n s t r u m e n t s is that they treat human rights as rights which belong to every i n d i v i d u a l , which are not derived from n a t i o n a l status (see for e x a m p l e , Article 2 ( 2 ) of the Covenant on Economic, S o c i a l and C u l t u r a l Rights, Article 1 ( 2 . c . ) of the Employment Policy Convention of 1964). This fact has to have some consequences for r e f u g e e s also. Some of the authors have already pointed out this fact (see note 4 , p. 235, note 24, p. 152). But States actually b e h a v e as if n o t h ing has h a p p e n e d , they reserve themself the right (as it has been said s u p r a ) to treat non-nation al s differently than nationals. Hence one can hardly claim that these g e n e r a l human rights instruments improved the p o s i t i o n of r e f u g e e s to a c o n siderable e x t e n t . Conclusions One of the most challenging q u e s t i o n s is wheather it is possible to define a m i n i m u m set of social and e c o n o m i c rights for refugees. For the determination of this minimum set of rights is not sufficient to take into c o n s i d e r a t i o n only the provisions of the 1951 Convention. What should be the list of these rights, is it p o s s i b l e to find some objective criteria for their d e t e r m i n a t i o n ? I do not t h i n k that it is possible to define a final set of t h e s e rights, but it seems possible to find a valid foundation for their d e t e r m i n a t i o n . This foundation is Article 22 of the Universal Declaration on Human R i g h t s which states: "Everyone is entitled to realization ... of the economic, social and c u l t u r a l rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of h i s personality." In other words, all those rights which are n e c e s s a r y to maintain the dignity and free development of every human b e i n g , including
Varia
142
refugees , should be considered as rights which constitute a minimum catalogue for every h u m a n being. Without securing the enjoyment of such rights as the right to w o r k , right to social security, right to health and medical care, right to education, right to culture and to preserve cultural identity actually it is not possible to speak about the maintenance of dignity of a human being. V. Mavi
Bibliography Documents 1.
2.
3.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8.
9.
10.
'11. 12.
13.
14.
Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of E c o n o m i c , Social and Cultural Rights (Protocol of San Salvador), adopted 14 November 19B8. See, International Legal Materials, 1989 (28) No 1. p. 156. American Convention on Human Rights of 22 November 1969, ("Pact of San José, Costa Rica") - See, OAS Official Rec o r d s , OEA/Ser.К ./XV1/11. Asian-African Legal Consultative Committee decision on the Principl es Concerning Treatment of Refugees (1966) • — See, Report of the Eight Session of the Asian-Afгican Legal Consultative Committee held in Bankok from 8 to 17 August 1966, p. 335. Collection of International Instruments Concerning Refugees. ÜNHCR. Geneva, 1979. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (28 July 1951). See, UN Treaty Series No. 1545. Vol. 189. p. 137. Convention Concerning Equality of Treatment of Nationals and Non-Nationals in Social Security of 28 June 1962 adopted by the General Assembly of the ILO. Council of Europe. Consultative Assembly Recommendation 773 (1976) on the Situation of De facto Refugees. Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals Who Are Not Nationals of the Country in Which They Live. - See, G.A. Res. 40/144 of 13 December 1985. Employment Policy Convention (No. 122) adopted on 9 July 1964 by the General Conference of the ILO at its fourtyeighth session. European Commission of Human Rights decision of 17 December 1976 (Agee v. the United Kingdom). - See, European Commission on Human Rights. Decisions and Reports, 1977, No. 7, p. 176. European Convention on Social Security of 14 December 1972. - See, Council of E u r o p e Treaty Series, No. 78. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 16 December 1966. - See, Annex to G.A. Res. 2200 А/ХХ1/. OAU Convention of 10 September 1969 Governing Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. - See, UN Treaty Series, No. 14691. Protocol No. 1. annexed to the Universal Copyrights Convention concerning the application of the Convention to
Varia
15.
to works of stateless persons and refugees. Universal Declaration of Human R i g h t s . - See, 217 А / 1 1 1 / of 10 December 1948.
143
G.A. Res.
Studies 16.
17. 18.
19.
20.
21.
22. 23.
24.
25. 26.
Carvey, J.I.: Protection of the refugee in the State of refuge through an international formulation of equal protection - "most-favored refugee status". - In: Thesaurus Acroasium of the Institut of Public International Law and International R e l a t i o n s . Thessaloniki (1987), Vol. XIII. p. 165-161. G o o d w i n - G i l l , G.S.: International law and the movement of persons between S t a t e s . Clarendon Press, O x f o r d , 1978. G r a h l - M a d s e n , A.: R e f u g e e s and r e f u g e e law in a world of transition. - In: AWR-Bulletin, 1981(28), No. 1. p. 88108 . G r a h l - M a d s e n , A.: The emergent international law relating to r e f u g e e s : p a s t - p r e s e n t - f u t u r e . - In: T h e a s u r u s Acroasium of the Institute of Public International law and International R e l a t i o n s . Thessaloniki (1987), Vol. XIII. p. 165-161. Holborn, L.W.: R e f u g e e s . A problem of our t i m e . The work of the U N H C R , 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 7 2 , Vol. I. The Scarecrow Press. New York, 1975. Lohrmann, R.: Social situation and social m e a s u r e s concerning people seeking political asylum or h a v i n g refugee status in the Member States of the Council of Europe. S t r a s b o u r g , 1982. Plender, R.: International m i g r a t i o n law. Second ed. Martinus N i j h o f f , 1988. Transnational legal problems of refugees. M i c h i g a n Yearbook of International Legal S t u d i e s . Clark Broadman Company L i m i t e d , New Y o r k , 1985. Uibopuu, H.J.: In search of most favorable status for refugees: a comparison of international legal instruments dealing with human rights. - A . W . R . Bulletin, 2976, 1 4 ( 2 3 ) , No. 1. p. 152-157. Weis, P.: Commentary on the C o n v e n t i o n relating to the status of refugees (manuscript), 1986. Young, S.B.: Between sovereigns: a re-examination of the refugee's status. - In: Michigan Yearbook of International Legal Studies. Clark Broadman C o m p a n y L i m i t e d , New York, 1985. p. 339-370.
144
Varia JUDICIAL R E P R O D U C T I O N OF THE L A W IN AN A U T O P O I E T I C A L SYSTEM?"1"
There is an antagonism b e t w e e n two k i n d s of o p i n i o n s characterizing j u d i c i a l decision-making p r o c e s s . Decision is either seen as c o m p l e t e l y d e f i n e d by actual facts and legal texts or its novelty and c r e a t i v e nature are emphasized, being in no function of actual facts and legal t e x t s . Both o p i n i o n s have their own m e s s a g e and r o o t s . Mechanical jurisprudence r e f l e c t s the t h o u s a n d s - o f - y e a r s - o l d dream about regulatory comp l e t e n e s s while c o v e r i n g the i d e a l and o f f i c i a l ideology of the functioning of m o d e r n formal l a w , and the concept of free-law stands for the i d e a l of judicial autonomy, unbound by any law. In recent t i m e s , several trends of t h o u g h t are to compete with each other in criticism of both e x t r e m i t i e s . They argue in terms, only to n a m e but few, of the limits of formal determination by the law (Perelman), of the fuzziness of legal language (Wrdblêwski), of the inevitability of jumps and transformation in l e g a l argumentation (Peczenik), or, in view of the whole p r o c e s s , of its institutional dependency and the series of ensuing i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s (MacCormick and Weinberger). N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , there is an underlying idea common to the e x t r e m e stands as well as to their c r i t i q u e s , formulated either as an a s s e r t i o n , or as realization of the lack, of something that may be t e r m e d quasi-1 о giс ality and quasi-ер i s t e m o 1 o g i c a l i t y . This is the idea of the possibility of an established relationship between norms on e q u a l or d i f f e r i n g levels, able to be treated logically and p a t t e r n e d e p i s t e m o 1 оgical1 y. It is the idea adequate to common l a n g u a g e p a t t e r n s describing this relationship by a norm (decision) 'resulting, following from' 'in consequence of, in conclusion d r a w n from' o t h e r norms, in order to be in a relationship of 'entailment, c o n s e q u e n c e , c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , cont r a d i c t i o n with' t h o s e norms. *
The conception Kelsen h a s formulated on normative decisionmaking process in the works l e a d i n g to and embodied by his Pure Theory of Law can be summarized as follows: for juristic activity, the hierarchical order of the positive law suggests the e x c l u s i v e pattern o f a deductive norm-application, breaking down
+
B a s e d on a research program outlined during the author's Visiting Fellowship in January - A p r i 1 , 1987 , at the History of Ideas Unit of the Research S c h o o l of Social Sciences of the A u s t r a l i a n National University, Canberra, for the East/West Colloquium on Legal Theory o r g a n i z e d by the President of the European University Institute, Professor Werner Maihofer, between 13-15 July, 1987, at B a d i a Fiesolana in Florence and, developed in more details, as an invited guest speach in the working session on "Legal and Practical Reasoning", for the 13th World Congress of the International Association for Philosophy of Law and Social P h i l o s o p h y organized between 20-26 A u g u s t , 1987, in K o b e .
Varia
145
the law gradually. It implies that b e t w e e n the e n d - p o i n t s of the hierarchy of legal order, i.e. a p r i m a r y creation founding the kegak order and the last application stipulating t h e execution of the s a n c t i o n , juristic activity is an act of application amounting to an act of creation. L a w - a p p l i c a t i o n is creative in filling in the framework defined by any higher hierarchical level o f the positive law. It is creative as there are no further limitations and stipulations influencing legally the filling in of the framework. Juristic a c t i v i t y is not only c r e a t i v e in its contribution to the determination of the legal c o n t e n t s through the juristic process; it is also of a constitutivity of legal process h a s twofold m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . First, the existence of both facts or norms and relationships between facts and facts, facts and n o r m s or n o r m s and norms c a n be acknowledged within the law only provided that juristic activity has established them by stating them in a legal act. Second, in law there is no guarantee of any such o f f i c i a l establishment of facts or norms c o r r e s p o n d i n g to any a s s e s s m e n t of t h e m made beyond the law. Of course, any such establishment and assessment may be made a function of c r i t e r i a o u t s i d e them law (e.g. of criteria of the value of truth or j u s t i c e ) , but even such a stipulation will only provide with a t i t l e for p r o c e d u r e on the same issue (e.g. revision) instead of b e i n g able to o f f e r genuine guarantee. For it cannot modify the fundamental construction of the n o r m a t i v e system; it cannot challenge the impact of the procedural possibility resorted to at the last w h i c h is going to be the only one to m a t t e r within the system. And provided that the last decision is getting t h e force of t h e final judgement because it has not been appealed against or run out of the last p r o c e d u r a l possibility of g e t t i n g contested any longer, this last decision is going to be definitive in the legal order. In the final analysis, the t h e o r e t i c a l message reads as follows: eventually only what can be transformed into an internal component of the law because of t h e effect of the law is to become l e g a l — at least so long as law as a s y s t e m goes on to prevail. O r , this is to say that / 1 / only what is within the law is to s h a r e the quality of the l e g a l ; /2/ o n l y what is posited by the law as its own element can be within the law; /3/ such a positivation being an internal affair of t h e legal d o m a i n , it can be neither substituted to nor enforced by an external act; in consequence / 4 / conceiving of law b o t h as a process and as a formation, it is somehow controlled from within c r i t e r i a of the quality 'legal' pointing out from the inside in the direction of the outside. An understanding of t h e s e theses n e e d s some preliminary _1 . as a m a t t e r of fact, what is q u e s t i o n s to be considered: n o r m a t i v e of the whole range of the n o r m a t i v e sphere? ï_. as a matter of fact, how can a n y t h i n g p e n e t r a t e into the normative sphere from the outer world? or, to put it more p r e c i s e l y , what is done with what when, e . g . , something gets 'established' as a legal 'fact'? (Ad 1.) In function of the d e v e l o p m e n t level o f civilization and of the kind of legal culture and arrangement, the normative sphere can be carried on by any medium or s u b s t a n c e , e.g. by human behaviour or objectivation artificially b r o u g h t into
146
Varia
e x i s t e n c e in o r d e r to mediate message. In any case, the function of such a medium is to carry signs. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , at a relatively early stage of development a special kind of normativity may be born. It is instrumental normativity aiming at the protection o f identity, whilst the reproduction, of the behaviour or objectivation carrying s i g n s . This s p e c i a l , derived kind of normativity may take the form of Гitualizat ion of behaviour or of the normative treatment of the objectivation itself. However, it is by far not destined for its own e n d . It is to protect the m e s s a g e as m u c h as possible from noise and change while its m e d i a t i o n . For the main function of legal arrangement is to serve the unbroken m e d i a t i o n and uninterrupted reproduction of the n o r m a t i v e m e s s a g e . As to its elementary u n i t s reasonably considerable and observable in s o c i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , the normative s p h e r e is made up of sets of meanings attributed to the terms and propositions of, and to the operations with, n o r m s belonging to the given normative domain. To put some basic characters: the connection of sign and meaning is artificial, based on convention at discretion, in no function of the f e a t u r e s of e i t h e r the sign or the m e a n i n g . To a limited extent it is pre-codified; spanning from m o r e expressly definite c o r e s of meaning to pen u m b r a areas c o n n e c t e d with distant a p p l i c a t i o n s , interferences and kinds of m a r g i n a l cases; defined also by elements of context and of c o m m u n i c a t i o n situation. Determinations o f meaning - its pre-codification and c o n t e x t u a l i t y as well are embedded in conventionalized social practice. Or, meaning does not stand for and by itself. It is with us and within u s , abstracted from our intellectual p r a c t i c e as an aspect of our language p a t t e r n s in c o m m u n i c a t i o n . By reconstructing and interpreting practices o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , historical meaning may be described retrospectively. H o w e v e r , description in i t s e l f and by itself is not substituable to any p r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n . It is a c o m p l e x process with open c h a n c e s and alternatives in which the m e a n i n g gets d e f i n e d . Of c o u r s e , former patterns may have a role in this d e f i n i t i o n . H o e w v e r , former patterns h a v i n g a role in definition get themselves casually reconfirmed in the process of definition through t h e i r having exerted an actual influence on the definition. In sum, there is no meaning in abstract g e n e r a l i t y . It cannot be but actual; it cannot be but actualized. Meaning is t h a t to what and in the connection of w h a t actualization has been made. (Ad 2.) The transformation into something "inside the law" of the same thing apparently purely "outside the law" may be exemplified by the 4 estab 1ishment' of fact as 4 e g a l fact' in explanation of the specificity of n o r m a t i v e process. In respect of meaning, I have argued in the following way: a normative definition of meaning is not a transformation of some meaning into the normative s p h e r e since nothing is g i v e n independently of the normative p r o c e s s defining that m e a n i n g that could be transformed into the normative s p h e r e . In p l a i n contrast to it, fact exist independently of whether it h a s been established or not by any evidencing p r o c e s s . In spite of the suggestion of s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n judicial and c o g n i t i v e processes as corroborated by the transplantation of terminology as w e l l , the 4 e s t a b l i s h m e n t ' of the
Varia
147
existence of a given fact as E e g a l fact' through t h e normative process has nothing to do with making a statement about reality. Instead, it is nothing more than a n o r m a t i v e e n a c t m e n t stipulating for the fact the e x i s t e n c e of which is, by the force of the stipulation, considered to be proved in the process. Hence it follows that the actual existence of the fact is n o t a criterion here; indeed, it must not b e . For the E s t a b l i s h m e n t of fact' in law gets its normative quality by having constituted it in the normative p r o c e s s . The n o r m a t i v e quality of the "establishment of fact' is an attribution given to it by the acknowledgement that the operation recognized by the normative o r d e r as M j u dicial, administrative e t c . ) establishment of fact' has taken place in due form and order in the n o r m a t i v e p r o c e s s . The question of whether it is backed by actual facts or not may at the most be raised as one of the requirements of c o n t e n t s formulated by the normative order, enumerating the criteria of what will be acknowledged as E s t a b l i s h m e n t of facts' in the normative process. But the bare existence of any fact (or establishment of fact) beyond the normative process could interfere with the n o r mative process and have an effect on its result only and exclusively if in itself and by itself it was in a position to b e come a 'fact in law' (or its E s t a b l i s h m e n t in l a w ' ) without any legal process having previously posited it as a by definition legal moment. However, it is not the c a s e . In the normative order, only normative process can produce normative results as t h e only ones which are accepted bases for drawing n o r m a t i v e conclusions of that order in that order. Or, it is the realization of the procedural nature of n o r mative p r o c e s s e s ; a realization that amounts to a complete b r e a k with all remnants of an epistemologico-logical a p p r o a c h to the problem. According to the basic tenet of proceduг a l i t y , what h a s been constituted by the normative p r o c e d u r e has its sole j u s t i f i cation in its getting constituted. In such a way, procedurality is the touching point in understanding the reason d'etre of n o r mative processes. For the whole e n t e r p r i s e of normatively processing has its function in normative q u a l i f i c a t i o n . Or, the quality to the establishment of which normative qua 1ifivat ion has been made is not a consequence, or c o n t i n u a t i o n , of an otherweise featuring q u a l i t y ; it is exclusively the product of the normative process. Of course, the normative o r d e r may stipulate what kinds of otherwise featuring qualities are to proved in order to get a normative qualification. However, as we h a v e seen, even such a stipulation is to be understood as translated into procedural language. Practically it means at the most that evidences concerning especially those qualities s h a l l be taken and balanced; legal fact shall not be established except to strong evidence taken; the evidence s h a l l be sufficiently substantiated in the reasons adduced — but it does not follow in any way therefrom that the existence of any quality will i n d u c e , while its lack block, any normative q u a l i f i c a t i o n . This is the point where it has to be realized that the conclusions I have formulated above - claiming, first, that in the normative sphere normativity can only be carried by meaning attributed in the normative process to normative signs and o p e rations and, second, that any statement can only become a c o m ponent of the normative sphere through its proceduralization -
148
Varia
are but differing aspects of t h e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , which are to c o m p l e m e n t each other. Even what we have called '(judicial, administrative e t c . ) establishment of facts' is not only a procedural product; it is a question of meaning as well. (By way of e x a m p l e , how can and will t h e meaning of the judicial establishment of those facts that c o n s t i t u t e a c a s e in the law be extended to, and interpreted i n , a further, appellate phase of the s a m e p r o c e d u r e ? ) On the l e v e l of g e n e r a l i t y , one could even s a y : the need for proceduг ality may only be linked with the m e d i a t i o n of m e a n i n g taking place in communicative processes. O r , as formulated the o t h e r way round: in a normative context, meaning can o n l y be defined in a p r o c e d u r a l way. That is so b e c a u s e the n o r m a t i v e process is of a constitutive e f f e c t . Only what has been constituted normatively h a s a relevance in law. The components and processes which, t h o u g h , have c o n t r i b uted to the determination of m e a n i n g without themselves, however, being normatively constituted may at most have a relevance in the sociological characterization of the dec ision-making p r o c e s s only. And the meaning defined in the normative process w i l l , as a m o m e n t of the normative s p h e r e constituted norm a t i v e l y , be the e x c l u s i v e v e h i c l e of its n o r m a t i v i t y . Procedurality in the constitution of facts and m e a n i n g is r e a s o n a b l e , and i n t e r p r e t a b l e , within a n o r m a t i v e order only. Normative order is itself an abstraction, standing partly for specific kinds of normative expectations and partly for specific kinds of normative results. Procedurality in such a way is preconditioned by p r o c e d u r e s of s o m e h o w the s a m e kind organizing t h e m s e l v e s somehow into a sort of unity. In other words, a unity is preconditioned of which the individual procedures organize themselves to become a component. As there is no external unity which could, in substitution of the n o r m a t i v e s p h e r e , have a n o r m a t i v e effect in organizing those p r o c e d u r e s into the normative sphere, only a unity is conceivable which gets continually constituted by the individual procedures through their constituting the facts and meanings for the n o r m a t i v e sphere within the n o r m a t i v e sphere. It goes w i t h o u t saying that a system brought about in t h i s way has no own constitution and life. It is a s y s t e m brought about by r e f e r e n c e to the system w i t h i n the s y s t e m in order to enable further r e f e r e n c e s in the c o n tinued practice of t h e normative sphere to be made. It is to say that it is se 1f-referentia 1. A system can be constituted self-referential1 y in a way that any given o r g a n acting in the name, and referring to the n o r m s , of the n o r m a t i v e order qualifies i t s e l f , its p r o c e d u r e , and the result thereof as the organ, the p r o c e d u r e , and the act of t h a t normative order. In the course of time with the highly c o m p l e x network of further organs, procedures and acts referring to the normative order while q u a l i f y i n g , thereby cleaning, in the final analysis also reconfirming, each other, a building is being built from the sum total of references t h r o u g h self-references, effecting s e l f - r e gulated self-reproduction through self-organization e v e n t u a l l y . *
O r , having a n o t h e r formulation, Kelsen's theoretical message offers two alternatives for deeper understanding and
Varia
149
further d e v e l o p m e n t , explicit and i m p l i c i t , in exclusion of one by another. For the Stufenbau-theorie projecting a hierarchical system broken down vertically from superior norms to subordinate ones in foundation of, and originating, their validity is not compatible with the p e r s p e c t i v e s of a procedural t h e o r y he has suggested when he emphasized the c o n s t i t u t i v e contribution by judicial process in establishing facts, declaring a law valid, and applying it to established facts t h r o u g h judicial norm, on the one hand, and the legal force of the final j u d g e m e n t in procedure as the only moment which is a b l e to e s t a b l i s h (by producing in a normatively exclusively relevant q a y ) normative relationship. In this light, normative practice is nothing else but specific (i.e. i m p u t a t i o n - o r i e n t e d ) c o m m u n i c a t i o n through normative references (by m a k i n g and c o n f i r m i n g r e f e r e n c e s as normatively s y s t e m - c o m p a t i b l e ones), and normative relationships between norms and other norms or facts are but outcomes resulted in (and, strictly, not preconditioned by) normative process. For the only relationships that stand for any relevance within the legal system are those that have got established through the processes of that system. Most of the theoretical attempts aiming at the description of law-applying processes (including the ones by Alexy and Dworkin as w e l l ) provide with normative modelling instead of ontological reconstruction. However, instead of a n t a g o n i s m , they are points of view complementing one a n o t h e r . The latter is to explain the general framework of socially practised practice as an objectively conditioned and/or self-conditioning process, and it is within that the question of h o w it works and ought to work can at all reasonably be raised. In analysis of the normative output resulted from normative 'black box' o p e r a t i o n s with a whole range of weries of inputs, ont о 1ogical.reconstгuction aims at explaining what m a k e s it in what conditions and with what effect. Some of the points are as follows: fact or relationship in law can "exist" in no but a p r o c e d u r a l way; 2. procedural possibility means i n - l a w - r e f e r a b l e eventuality in law of making a reference; 3. dispute about 'facts*, divergence of 'meanings' or the characterization of the domain inside the law by the domain outside the law as 'unlawful' is nothing but a merely sociological fact so long as the legal s y s t e m succeeds in reproducing itself as s u c h , and it can turn to be of a constitutive effect in law only and exclusively when it makes the law's further s e l f - r e p r o d u c t i o n impossible; the conditions of what components in what fields may c a u s e that is not codified by, or determined in, the s y s t e m . As an end-result, it is the function of the social total structure m a d e up by the interactions of part-totalities at any given t i m e ; 5_. e v e n the unity of the legal system is nothing more than the conceptualization of the incessantly fed back chain of n o r m a t i v e references to the same texts, taken in its s o c i a l , as well as professional, acceptance . All this is to suggest that legal system is to be considered a whole which gets continuously reproduced within the total motion of the social total structure. It is a system the individual components of which are made c o m p o n e n t s of the system through the continuous s e l f - r e p r o d u c t i o n , by those components,
150
Varia
of the system. In view of self-regulated s e l f - r e p r o d u c t i o n through self-organization, it is autopoiesis itself, of which M a t u r a n a invented the name, developed the theory, and forwarded the definition as 4 systems ... that /1/ recursively, through their i n t e r a c t i o n s , generate and realize the network that produces them; and / 2 / constitute, in the s p a c e in which they exist, the boundaries of this network as components that participate in the realization o f the n e t w o r k ' , (p. 21) Accordingly, legal system is a d y n a m i c social continuum in respect of which 1_. only the end-result of its se 1 f-reproduction can be observed through its s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l practice, while 2_. its boundaries and elements, as well as the regularities asserting themselves and the roles played by individual c o m p o n e n t s whilst its self-reproduction a r e getting recurrently defined through the p r o c e s s of reproduction. *
Who watches the watchmen? How is j u d i c i a l reproduction of the law embedded in social p r a c t i c e in g e n e r a l and in normative (legal, administrative, p o l i t i c a l , etc.) practice in particular? What d o e s conventionality mean in that c o n t e x t ? What are the outer limits and safeguards of se 1f-organization and self-rep r o d u c t i o n , and w h a t motive p o w e r s and b r e a k s are being built in these processes? It goes w i t h o u t saying t h a t in a s k e t c h y presentation like this m o r e questions than a n s w e r s are provided with. Notwithstanding, questions l i k e those a b o v e are by far not specific of any d e f i n i t e trend of thought, and an autopoietical approach to them has s o m e promises of offering a social s c i e n c e theory of legal p r o c e s s e s that may turn to be o f a foundational contribution to p h i l o s o p h y of law and sociology as well. Cs.
Varga
Literature Alexy, Robert (1978) T h e o r i e der juristischen Argumentation: Die Theorie des rationalen Diskurses als Theorie der jur i s t i s c h e n B e g r ü n d u n g . Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Dworkin, R o n a l d (1986) L a w ' s Empire. London: F o n t a n a Paperbacks. Habermas, Jürgen (1981) Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns . Frankfurt am Main: S u h r k a m p . Kelsen, Hans (1967) The Pure Theory of Law translated from the 2nd ed. by Max Knight. Berkeley: University of Cal i f o r n i a Press. Luhmann, N i k l a s (1986) " T h e Self-reproduction of Law and its L i m i t s " , in Gunther Teubner (ed.) D i l e m m a s of Law in the Welfare State. B e r l i n and New York: de G r u y t e r . Maccormick, Neil and W e i n b e r g e r , Ota (1986) An Institutional Theory of L a w : New A p p r o a c h e s to L e g a l Positivism. Dordrecht (etc.): R e i d e l . Maturana, Humberto R. ( 1 9 8 1 ) "Autopoiesis", in Milan Zeleny (ed.) A u t o p o i e s i s : A T h e o r y of L i v i n g Organization. New
Varia
151
York and Oxford: North Holland. Peczenik, Aleksander (1983) The Basis of Legal Justification . Lund: (Malmö: Infotryck AB). Peczenik, Aleksander and Wröblewski, Jerzy (1985) "Fuzziness and Transformation: Towards Explaining Legal R e a s o n ing", Theoria 51. Perelman, Ch. (1 9 7 6 ) Logique .juridique: Nouvelle rhétorique. Paris: Dalloz. T e u b n e r , Gunther (ed.) (1987) Autopoietic Law: A New Approach to Legal Theory. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter. V a r g a , Csaba (1985) "Domaine 'externe' et domaine 'interne' en droit", Revue interdisciplinaire d ' E t u d e s juridiques No. 14. V a r g a , Csaba (1987) "Die R e c h t s a n w e n d u n g s l e h r e von Kelsen E n t w i c k l u n g , M e h r d e u t i g k e i t e n , ungelöste Probleme, Perspektiven manuscript. V a r g a , Csaba and Szájer, József (1987) "Présomption and Fiction: Means of Legal Technique", Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie 7 3 .
I
Acta J u r i d i c a A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 32(1-2) p p . 153-17o.(1 9 9 0 ) INTERNATIONAL^
R A I S E R , Th.: R E C H T S S O Z I O L O G I E . (Sociology of Law). Alfred Metzner Verlag. Frankfurt/M. 1 9 8 7 . 364 p.
Professor Raiser's sociology of law is admittedly a l e g a l socilogy of the liberal social Rechtsstaat. T h o m a s Raiser is professor of business law in Giessen: it is s m a l l surprise therefore that what he has in mind is the West-German subspecies of the social/liberal welfare state and its law. Another major intent of the author is to c r e a t e a textbook for s t u d e n t s (mainly law students as far as I can see). This attempt seems to be highly successful. The history of the sociology of law is full of conceptual debates. Raiser points put that some other c o n c e p t s are b r o a d e r than his o w n . He m a n a g e s remarkably to keep is mind the frame he has imposed on his treatment. Part One of the book concerns the concept or concepts of the sociology of law. Raiser states that sociology of law is a branch of sociology. The sociology of law tries to discover social laws in the field of law. Law is analysed as a complex s y stem of behaviour p a t t e r n s . These patterns of b e h a v i o u r r e a l i z e different functions: law regulates human c o - e x i s t e n c e : l e g i t i mates and limits d o m i n a t i o n and power relations, offers g u i d e lines for social conflict-hand 1 ing, and these s a m e patterns are used as political m e a n s of social c o n t r o l . Raiser reviews the relation between legal sociology and legal s c i e n c e s . An often forgotten element of this long relationship is called to a t t e n tion: the so-called Rechtstaatsachenforschung , an effort started in Germany in 1906 to research empirically the problems of living law. Raiser's special interest in that t r a d i t i o n is related to his researches in c i v i l law. He is not stating that these are the only possible areas of application for t h e sociology of law, nevertheless most of the e x a m p l e s used in t h e book come from civil law, business law and the administration of civil justice. Part Two of the book is devoted to some of the greatest masters of the sociology of law. With the e x c e p t i o n of Dürkheim all these masters are of German o r i g i n . Their c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n is very fair and the review of their theories o f f e r s good o c c a sion to m a k e us familiar with some important p o s s i b l e approaches to the social problems of law. First a short b i o g r a p h y is o f fered followed by the description or r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the t h e ory. A separate subchapter contains the critical-evaluative remarks. Raiser analyses Luhmann's theory on social systems as a prototype of grand theory in contemporary s o c i o l o g y . He follows however, Schelsky's criticism to L u h m a n n . In that opinion Luhmann's theory is u n a b l e to grasp the individual and it c o n c e p t u a l i z e s the person as a function of the s o c i a l system.
Acta Juridica A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 32, 1 9 9 0 . Akadémigi K i a d ó , B u d a p e s t
154
Internationalia
Part Three o f f e r s a review of the main topics in c o n t e m porary empirical l e g a l sociology with the a l r e a d y mentioned r e s t r i c t i o n , viz. p u b l i c law, c r i m i n a l law e t c . are not included. A detailed picture of the German lawyer' social background is o f f e r e d . The data do not support the thesis that social background determines j u d i c i a l decision-making (class justice theory). Law-making is analysed as a problem of " j u г i d i f i c a t i o n " ( Verrechtlichung) and the same concept is operationalized in the case of increasing litigation in West-Germany. The o b s e r v a tions on labour law litidation are particularly interesting. Germans fear their j u s t i c e system and they d i s l i k e and d i s r e spect l a w y e r s . Notwithstanding the increasing case load of the regular c o u r t s there is a growing tendency to make use of extrajudicial conflict s o l u t i o n s . The results of that approach are rather c o n t r a d i c t o r y . One of the major problems is that in certain forms of a r b i t r a t i o n or mediation the mediators are not sufficiently i n d e p e n d e n t . After the very informative survey of e m p i r i c a l findings which m a k e s the reader familiar with a fair n u m b e r of research methods t o o , Raiser o f f e r s a systematic legal sociology under the title Law and s o c i e t y . Law is placed in the context of social n o r m a t i v e s y s t e m s . After a review of c o n s t r a i n t and acceptance t h e o r i e s Raiser offers his own definition of law. Only norms of social c o m m u n i t i e s or organizations (Verband, i.e. a s s o c i a t i o n ) beyond a certain s i z e , but not only those of the state, may constitute law. The association d i s p o s e s of power to create n o r m s and it c a n enforce those norms against its m e m b e r s in a mandatory way. All that r e q u i r e s legal institutions. Raiser points out that one c a n n o t give an absolute definition of law for the sociological approach b e c a u s e the n o r m s which are to be taken into c o n s i d e r a t i o n by the sociologists of law represent different levels of j u r i d i f i c a t i o n . It would be a m a j o r mistake to believe that Raiser has a unilateral consensu s - t h e o r y oriented view. He is quite aware of the perspectives o p e n e d by the conflict a p p r o a c h and therefore a substantive scrutiny of the law's role in s o c i a l domination and in regulating s o c i a l conflicts is offered. Law may have an important role in m a i n t a i n i n g domination but this function is exercised by safeguarding legitimacy: the law not only supporte the status quo but it restricts t h e arbitrariness of the powerful. This is not to say that even outrageous one-sidedness and bias are not present in a legal s y s t e m . The administration of justics is analysed, h o e w v e r , as a way of micro-conflict resolution. In that respect even if the process and the decision are inevitably selective t h e nature of the conflict is transformed: the c o n f l i c t is made juridical. The foreign r e a d e r will find particularly useful the last two c h a p t e r s of the b o o k which offer a review of the legal culture in the Federal Republic of Germany. In R a i s e r ' s understanding legal culture is a system of value s u p p o s i t i o n s , norm, ins t i t u t i o n s , rules of procedure and patterns of behaviour based on law. From a s y s t e m s ' theory point of view law may be conceived as a differentiated social subsystem. The West-German legal culture is characterized by t e r r i torial pluralism. C o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y emphasized religious differences increase the differences in legal c u l t u r e even m o r e .
Internationalia
155
Another s o u r c e of d i f f e r e n c e s is to be found in s o c i a l relations. Technological developments and international influences on the other hand have homogenizing influences. The German legal culture is positivistic to a large extent which results in an instrumental understanding of law. In Raiser's a final analysis this does not mean that the German legal s y s t e m gave up all of its transcendental j u s t i f i c a t i o n . A. Sajó
AUTHORS' COLLECTIVE: Staatsverlag der
DAS POLITISCHE SYSTEM DER USA DDR, B e r l i n , 1987. 461 p.
The undertaking of the Berlin Institute for Political and Legal Sciences of the Academy could be called impressing and up-to-date by itself. Libraries are filled with publications on the p o l i t i c a l , economic and legal development of the capitalist world power in question in the western countries, but valuable comprehensive works, issued in the socialist c o u n t r i e s in the recent d e c a d e s , may be counted on two hands. The volume compiled - being one of the w o r k s by the w e l l - k n o w n a u t h o r s ' collective of the series introducing the great countries of the capitalist world is to be called such a b o o k . The sub-title of the book is "Geschichte und Gegenwart". The foreword of the considerably c o m p l e t e d and m o d i f i e d book, published now in its third edition, intends to e x p l a i n the characteristics of the present development just by the particularities of the h i s t o r i c a l evolution. The first chapter of the volume deals with the establishment of the national state in the United States from 1775 to 1783. It enumerates the colonies, r e m o t e from each other both geographically and in attitude, the settlers of which got fed up in the seventies if the 18th c e n t u r y with the patronage and extortion of the British crown on the other side of the o c e a n , and strived after the establishment of an independent state. The colonies of the s e t t l e r s of E n g l i s h , Irish, German, D u t c h , French, Belgian and other origins had different s t a t u s within the Union: e.g. Virginia was a crown colony, w h e r e a s Maryland was a c o l o n y , being the property of Lord Baltimore. The state of less than 2.5 million settlers the establishment of which w a s promoted by the narrow-minded "Proclamation Act" by King George III, was from the very beginning a heterogeneous formation b e fore which several ways of development were open. According to Gore Vidal "the founding fathers did not want e i t h e r a kingdom or a d e m o c r a c y " , c o n s e q u e n t l y , the new republic did not become a civil democracy in the classical sense of the w o r d , in r e s p e c t of all of its attributes, but rather a confederation rendered possible by compromises which could owe its later successes to a decisive extent to its natural fundamentals, to the consequent expansion that followed in the next a century. The further c h a p ters of the volume a n a l y s e the particularities of the development of the Constitution and of the economic and political changes caused by the c l a s s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , t o u c h i n g in d e t a i l
156
Internationalia
upon the decades of the struggles between slaveholders and abolitionists. In the f o l l o w i n g , the H o m e s t e a d Bill is adequately stressed, w h i c h rendered possible for hundreds of thousands of immigrants to find a h o m e in the unpopulated t e r r i t o r i e s of the far West. The book d e a l s with the r o l e of the Supreme- Court which - a c c o r d i n g to this volume can be unambiguously regarded as reactionary in this period. The further p a r t s of the volume deal already with the e v o l u t i o n of monopoly c a p i t a l i s m , with the development of the state capitalism. The measureless greed for power of the capital is e m p h a s i z e d , but too little is said about t h e populist policy, that blossomed out in America the tendency of in these y e a r s these decades, La Follette and his followers appeared in the main current of the American h o m e politics in these y e a r s . The volume c h a r a c t e r i z e s the American trade u n i o n s in a summary manner as o r g a n i z a t i o n s , subordinated to the capital and as those of the class betrayal and class peace. In this method the e f f e c t s of "c1iché—h ist o r i o g r a p h y " of the fifties-sixties is strongly perceptible. The volume d e a l s in a r e l a t i v e l y short survey with F . D . Roosevelt and his New Deal p o l i c y , with the post-war y e a r s , with the consequences of the Korean and Viet-Namese conflicts, with the p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e s of the democratic and republic eras following each other. In the second part of the volume information is given on the p o l i t i c a l institutional s y s t e m , on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the e c o n o m i c life, on the upshots to be e x p e c t e d , following from the p r e s e n t structure of the U n i t e d States, supporting the arg u m e n t a t i o n with many tables, d i a g r a m s , s t a t i s t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s . The c o r r e c t n e s s of these data and statements is hardly c o n t e s t able h e r e , but p e r h a p s the drawing of the "enemy image", borrowed from the arguments of the d a i l y press is rather reducing here and t h e r e the e l e g a n c e , moreover, the authenticity of the presentation of the generally i m p r e s s i v e set of information. A valuable part of the v o l u m e is the up-to-date documentation c o m pleting by highly fresh data the materials contained in the different chapters. At the compilation of the n e x t , fourth edition of the work it would be u s e f u l and interesting to i n v i t e two o u t s t a n d ing A m e r i c a n political writers (e.g. Michael Harrington as a representative of the left-wing and George F. Will as a r e p r e sentative of the r i g h t - w i n g ) to m a k e short c o n t r i b u t i o n s to this v a l u a b l e volume. Thereby the work could call greater int e r n a t i o n a l attention, deservedly. M. U d v a r o s
Internationalia FINDLAY, В. - FINDLAY, E.: YOUR RUGGED Stanford University Press, 1987.
157 CONSTITUTION 282 p.
The United States have recently celebrated the 200th anniversary of the enactment of their fundamental law. This volume helps understand the a i m s and ideals in the spirit of which the 13 liberated colonies declared their own independence and the principles, having being guided by which they wanted to build up their n a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e , to develop their mode of life, their legal order. In 1787 a "constitutional convention" gathered in the Independence Hall in o r d e r to elaborate an entirely new plan of government for the sake of the establishment of a "more perfect union". The Declaration of Independence stated: "We think self-evident the following f a c t s : each people was created to be equal and their Creator invested them with certain inalienable rights, among them with the r i g h t s to life, freedom and happiness. And for acquiring all t h e s e rights, the people established g o v e r n m e n t s which governments received their power from the approval of those g o v e r n e d . . . " The volume s t r e s s e s that in the wording of both the Declaration and the Constitution it was Jefferson who had the lion's s h a r e . The book deals much with the theory and practice of the system of checks and balances in the development of the federal g o v e r n m e n t . It g i v e s a survey primarily of the rules r e l a t i n g to the a c t i v i t y , s t r u c t u r e , p r o c e d u r a l order of the representative organs which allow an inside view into the m o r e and more difficult and complicated operation of the l e g i s l a t i o n . The legislative s y s t e m of the country, consisting of 13 states of mainly an a g r a r i a n c h a r a c t e r , has c e r t a i n l y gone, through several essential changes and it is hardly comparable to the state order, serving global o b j e c t i v e s , of the present highly industrialized world power and to the legislation functioning therein, but in the c o u r s e of the development considerable changes have n o t , occurred in respect of the b a s i c principles declared 200 years ago. The most significant and inevitable c h a n g e is the consolidation of the federal system to the prejudice of the individual states within the Union. The next c h a p t e r analyses the constitutional r e g u l a t i o n s relating to the system of e l e c t i o n s . It p o i n t s to the f a c t , that as a r e s u l t of the so-called "great c o m p r o m i s e " , the larger and smaller federal s t a t e s delegate representatives to the legislation according to the proportion of the inhabitants, and in order to avoid any m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , a c e n s u s of the p o p u l a t i o n has to be made at the end of each decade. It is provided by the law, that in correspondence to the result of the census each state has to be informed about the number of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s to be d e l e g a t e d in the future to the Capitolium. In the following, the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l bases of the Supreme Court and those o f the judicial system are treated. It is worth m e n t i o n i n g , that the system of special c o u r t s has been established relatively e a r l y , including, among o t h e r s , court of a customs and a court of t a x e s . Today, the d e b a t e is c o n t i n u e d with never seen v e h e m e n c e both among specialist and in the public o p i n i o n on the necessity of the restrictions of the e x e c u t i v e power, on its p r o p o r t i o n s
158
Internationalia
and tasks. The voter's s y s t e m , according to which the president of the United States is elected even t o d a y , is contained just in the o r i g i n a l wording of the Constitution. H o w e v e r , at first it was the person o b t a i n i n g the h e a v i e s t poll (the most votes), who became the president and the p e r s o n with the next heaviest poll became v i c e - p r e s i d e n t . This system was modified already in 1804 when the 12th A m e n d m e n t of the Constitution declared that the v o t e r s had to n a m e the p r e s i d e n t and the vice-president elected by t h e m , and a c c o r d i n g to the practice, the persons obtained the most elector's votes on the occasion of the presidential election held in e a c h fourth year could be considered the next president and vice-president of the United S t a t e s , moreover, from the same p o l i t i c a l party, having practically identical or at least similar political v i e w s . The v o l u m e comments on and e l u c i d a t e s the provisions of the Constitution on the finances, c u s t o m s , defence, on the development of the internal, organizations of the s t a t e s and their amendments to date. It h e l p s also the laymen by the demonstrative, illustrative style and drawings connected to the comments to understand the p r o v i s i o n s of one of the first civil democratic c o n s t i t u t i o n s of the world. M.
Udvaros
AKTUELLE PROBLEME D E S INTERNATIONALEN WIRTSCHAFTSRECHTS, Akademie für Staats- und Rechtswissenschaften der DDR, Potsdam, 1988. 131 p.
The v o l u m e contains the lectures of the c o l l o q u i u m organized in March 1987 on t h e occasion of the t w e n t i e t h anniversary of the Institut für ausländisches Recht und Rechtsvergleichunq. The Institut is of high international reputation and has v a l u a b l e results to look back upon. Its activity is hallmarked by high-level achievements in the с o n c e p t u a l - t h e o retical a n a l y s i s of the legal problems of international relations, in the modern c o m p a r i s o n of law in the same way as by its role in the p o s t - g r a d u a t e education. Its p u b l i c a t i o n s and conferences, reflecting the sound c o m b i n a t i o n of the theoretical and the practical a p p r o a c h , are well known and recognized by the professional p u b l i c i t y . The j u b l i e e volume publishes the texts of 9 lectures. The p a p e r by H. Strohbach surveys the history of the Institut, g i v i n g hereby information about the s t r u c t u r e of it, on the research staff, on the most significant r e s u l t s achieved in the e d u c a t i o n and in t h e research w o r k , on the programmes and the p u b l i c a t i o n s . F. E n d e r l e i n a n a l y s i e s the f u n d a m e n t a l t h e o r e t i c a l questions of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic law in his l e c t u r e . Based on ample s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l , introducing and evaluating the pros and cons, it investigetes such essentiel questions, as the existence of international economic law, its qualification as a legal branch or as a so-called legal field, and if one considered it a legal branch, should one place it into the international or to
Internationalia
159
the n a t i o n a l legal s y s t e m , etc. In the opinion of the a u t h o r , the appreciation of the international economic law as the legal branch of complex character of the national legal system is not only a consequent but also a theoretically established c o n c e p tion (p. 25). He investigates the relation of international economic law to international public law, as w e l l , as the t h e o retical questions relating to the contents of the legal b r a n c h and to the comprehended living conditions. W. Knüpfer has chosen the conceptual q u e s t i o n s of the improvement of the legal foundations of the s o c i a l i s t e c o n o m i c i n t e g r a t i o n , as the subject matter of his l e c t u r e . He underlines that the recent development of the integration lays s t r e s s upon the inter-enterprise r e l a t i o n s , therefore the further development of the legal means, m o r e o v e r , their transformation is required primarily here. His highly interesting comments on the further development of the legal b a s e s of the co-operation survey the advantages and the d i s a d v a n t a g e s of the various approaches, namely of the priority of the international regulation or that of the harmonized n a t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n , the p r o b l e m s relating to certain concurrence between bilateral and multilateral regulation efforts. He underlines emphatically the role of the comparison of law in the harmonization of laws. K. Bacher treats the problems of economic safety in international law. The economic safety of states is an integral part of the general safety system and - the author points out especially two aspects deserve attention here: the freedom from any outer pressure and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , and the necessity of the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the agreements on the economic relations of states of different social systems in as wide a range, as p o s sible •pp. 49-50). The author surveys the hitherto achieved results of universal c h a r a c t e r , first of all the UNO documents serving for the building up of the new universal economic o r d e r , stressing, that several partial questions shall still be regulated in this r e s p e c t , for the sake of the enforcement of mutual advantages. B. Zimmermann undertakes the analysis of the legal p r o blems of the relations of CMEA and the Common Market. Summing up the agreements entered into by the two economic c o m m u n i t i e s , as well, as the agreements between individual socialist c o u n tries and the Common Market, the author raises numerous t h e o retical questions, such as the p r o b l e m s concerning subjects under international law, the division of the s p h e r e s of authority between the integration and its m e m b e r - s t a t e s , the qualification of mixed agreements, etc. The author regarded as his task rather the raising than the conceptual answering of these interesting questions. The lecture of N. Trotz deals with the questions of the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the international law on e n v i r o n m e n t p r o t e c tion. Pointing emphatically to the universal significance of the protection of the e n v i r o n m e n t , he surveys the hitherto achieved results of the international law, first of all the d e c l a r a t i o n s , conventions (of m a r i t i m e law, the one relating to the air pollution e t c . ) established under the auspices of UNO, the relative documents of the Helsinki c o n f e r e n c e , e t c . Analysing their legal character, some of their partial r u l e s , he comes to the conclusion that these agreements - in a d d i -
I
160
Internationalia
tion to t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e - d e s e r v e rather the qualification "soft-law" and c o n s i d e r a b l e efforts are required for their development into " h a r d - l a w " , of a really obligatory character. D. Maskow a n a l y s e s in his l e c t u r e the p r o b l e m s of the universal and the r e g i o n a l (CMEA-level) unification of commercial l a w , with s p e c i a l tespect to the future uniform a c c e p t ance of a possible G e n e r a l Part of the Law of Contracts. The author s u m s up the h i t h e r t o achieved results and points out, that while uniform s o l u t i o n s have been achieved primarily in the field o f the c o n f l i c t s of law within the Common Market, in the CMEA m o r e complex results could be reported on. He investigates in details the Vienna C o n v e n t i o n , emphasizing that it did not only give s o l u t i o n s but raised also new problems such as the q u e s t i o n s of the hierarchy, the priority of the u n i v e r s a l and r e g i o n a l , as w e l l , as the international and national law.The diverse theoretical a p p r o a c h of the unification of law j u s t i f i e s - as remarkably wittily formulated by the author the u n i f i c a tion of the u n i f i c a t i o n s . He touches briefly upon the unification p r o s p e c t s of the general rules on c o n t r a c t s within the CMEA, referring to the divergences of views in this c o n n e c t i o n . (The author has p r e v i o u s l y elucidated his respective a t t i t u d e . ) The lecture by M. Müller c o m p r e h e n d s the legal questions relating to the e x e c u t i o n of the s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l complex programme of CMEA. He stresses that the tasks resulting from the Complex Programme render indispensable also the elaboration of the a d e q u a t e legal m e a n s . He r e f e r s to the practical and scientific results a c h i e v e d in this c o n n e c t i o n , i.e. to the model c o n t r a c t s , e l a b o r a t e d in the frames of the CMEA Permanent Committee of Law, as w e l l , as to the positions assumed in the course of the research co-operation of the Institutes of Legal Sciences of the s o c i a l i s t countries. He points emphatically to the fact that in the s e i e n t i f i x - t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n , in the relations c o m p r e h e n d i n g the innovation cycle, contractual methods have an o u t s t a n d i n g importance and he s t r e s s e s his opinion that the unification o f the general conditions of the contract types, used in this f i e l d , is also necessary. He calls the attention with reason a l s o to the f a c t , that the suitable e c o n o m i c financial b a c k g r o u n d , t h e establishment of the real interestedness are i n d i s p e n s a b l e for the efficient application of the contractual m e t h o d s . D. R i c h t e r - H a n n e s surveys the results of the necessary unification in the field of the international transport law in his l e c t u r e . The lecture of t h e colloquium offered a plastic picture of the wide range of research activity of the Institut. Although the views p r e v a i l i n g in the Hungarian literature are not always s y n c h r o n o u s with the opinions expounded in the lectures (e.g. the appreciation of the c o n c e p c i o n of e c o n o m i c law, t h e r e is a c e r t a i n scepticism for the c h a n c e s of the elaboration of a General P a r t ) , it is h a r d l y contestable that the papers e x c e l lently p r o v e the high level and the s e n s i t i v e n e s s of the j u r i s prudence of the GDR to problems. The volume c o n t a i n s in the appendix the publications by the research workers o f the Institut, as well, as the list of diploma w o r k s defended during the 20-year e x i s t e n c e of the Institut .
E. Lontai
Internationalia
161
SPRUDZS, A.: INTERNATIONAL LEGAL RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES. William S. Hein C o m p a n y . Buffalo, New York. 1988. 154 p.
Adolf Sprudzs name is well-known among specialists of law library profession, not only in the USA but in other p a r t s of the world too. As a lecturer in legal b i b l i o g r a p h y , University of Chicago Law School, and long-time and active member of the International Association of Law Libraries (in 1986-1989 its P r e s i d e n t ) he has earned international recognition through his writings and p u b l i c a t i o n s . This volume is a collection of his writings dedicated to to him on the occasion of his 65th birthday. It contains reprints of articles from different legal p e r i o d i c a l s , which has been written by him mainly on the topic of s o u r c e s of information and research work in the field of international law. In a short review it is not possible to examine in detail all of the studies listed in the volume, t h e r e f o r e , I would like to draw the attention of the reader only to some interesting topics. Article I serves as a useful guide to the basic U.S. sources for research in international law. The author presents a concise summary of available and accessible international law documents, paying special attention to official government publications. Locating the text of a specific international treaty or agreement and finding answer as to the actual status of this treaty, as we know is not an easy task. This article h o w e v e r , provides a clear guide as how to find the related official U.S. sources and the relavant informations on u p - t o d a t e treaty developments. The documentary sources of judicial decesions c o n cerning international law are being precisely defined also. In light of wide-ranging documentary sources examined by the author, one cannot but agree with his conclusion: "the existing U.S. s y s t e m , with all its weaknesses, still m a n a g e s to: provide one of the most u p - t o - d a t e and complete c o v e r a g e s of contemporary practice in the fields of foreign r e l a t i o n s and international law" dp. 14.). Article II is devoted to problems concerning the sources of multilateral treaty status information. Though it was published in 1972, the questions examined in it retain their actuality in our days also. To find adequate s t a t u s informations (members, subsequent m o d i f i c a t i o n s , reservations etc.) on a specific multilateral treaty is still time-consuming. The author made his best to highlite the national and international documentary sources of those publications, which permit ascertaining the availability of published status information on multilateral treaties. His criticism of the existing state of relevant informational network is still valid: "... the road to this information does seem to be clouded with mystery ... and to most researchers the search for the up-to-date answer presents itself as a m u d d l e - t h r o u g h , with uncertain results" (p. 27.)i Article III and IV are actually dealing with the same problèmes, namely: accessibility to world-wide treaty information. They are well-conceived and detailed s t u d i e s , including a number of suggestions for possible improvement, on the state
162
Internationalia
and sources of treaty i n f o r m a t i o n s , both international and national. The author d e s e r v e s special credit for the critical assessment of the system of treaty registration and publication within the League of Nations and the United Nations. He pinpoints the existing problems (non-di1 igent performance by States of their duties to register treaties according to Article 102 of the U.N. Charter, chronic delay in publication of t r e a t i e s in the U N T S , widening gap between national treaty collections and the U N T S ) and makes several suggestions for improving the cooperation of States and intergovernmental organizations in order to facilitate treaty research. National treaty c o l l e c t i o n , treaty i n d i c e s , chronologies and tre aty-in-force publications are also presented in a comprehensive manner. Article V p r o v i d e s important clues for researchers as how to start and proceed with research work devoted to international law. A c t u a l l y , it is a short research methodology guide about "how and where to find what". It gives very useful suggestions to those who intend to approach their subject from the point of view of S t a t e s ' p r a c t i c e s . The sources of court decesions and digests of State p r a c t i c e on international legal matters are solidly presented. The author gives a clear picture about the difficulties and c o n d i t i o n s for researching t r e a t i e s , and he is not very optimistic about the possibility of e n d i n g in the near future the reseracher's involment into an "infinite paper chase". His only hope is the possible use of modern t e c h n o l o g y , but for the time b e i n g , as he puts it, "everybody must swim as he or she can" (p. 64.). In the volume one can find some other informative articles on such subjects as b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l assessment of the International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, law library profession in the U S A , activities of the International Association of Law Libraries. Besides, it contains also two bibliographies. One is about the writings of Max Rheinstein, and the other is a selected bibliography on international t r a d e , investment and organization. The bibliography on international trade c o n t a i n s entries only up to 1965. It would have been much more useful if the entries had been updated by the author. All in all, the collection is a valuable addition to the international law researcher's and librarian's bookshelf, it contains expansive r e f e r e n c e s to sources and m i g h t serve as a useful guide for further exploration of the s u b j e c t . V. Mavi
V I D L Ä K 0 V Ä , 0. - ADAMÜVÄ, E.: PÉCE 0 ZIV0TNI PROSTREDI VE STÄTNI SPRÂVE CSSR. (Care for the environment in the state administration of the Czechoslovak Socialist R e p u b l i c ) , Ustav státni s p r á v y , Praha, 1987. 246 p.
The Czechoslovak legal literature has paid more and more attention to the legal questions of the protection of environment since the middle o f the s e v e n t i e s . Utterance is given generally to the notion that the effective law d o e s not provide
Internationalia
163
for the protection of environment with due efficiency, and an increasing disproportion appears as against the social r e q u i r e ments determined by the development of the industry and other economic activities. The circle of authors dealing intensively with the law on the p r o t e c t i o n of environment in Czechoslovakia is wide enough and this fact can be traced back to several institutions regarding the care for the law on the protection of environment as primary task. Among them the State Administrative Institute of Prague t a k e s up an outstanding p o s i t i o n , where the care for the law on the protection of environment has been the task of Vidláková, •. for many years. R e c e n t l y , her b o o k , written together with Adamová, E. as co-author on the state administrative tasks of the care for the environment has been published. This book is timely just because most of the works to be done devolve upon the state administration in this field, as it is to be read also in the legal publications of other states. Thus, reference should be m a d e by way of example to the work of Bothe , M.: V e r w a l t u n g s o r g a n i s a t i o n im Umweltschutz (Linz, 1986, Institut für Kommunalwissenschaften und Umweltschutz, p. 80) which gives information on the administrative duties of the protection of environment in the German Federal Republic, in Switzerland and in the United States of America. The book of Vidláková and Adamová is divided into five parts. Part I Contains an introduction of general character. It o u t l i n e s that the right to the protection of environment is not investigated "an sich" but from the point of view of the state a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , primarily in the field of the management of water-supplies and of the p r o t e c t i o n of earth (soil), all the more because a c l o s e connection exists between the water and the soil. Further on, the book comes to the analysis of the notions of environment, and of the care for environment, res p e c t i v e l y , of the formation and protection of environment. Part II of the book begins with the survey of the e f f e c tive l a w , namely in the domain of the constitutional law, economic l a w , civil law, criminal law, international law and adm i n i s t r a t i v e law. Then, the detailed analysis of the m i n i s t e r i a l directives follows, with special attention to the protection of the water and the s o i l . The governmental regulations play an important role in the protection of e n v i r o n m e n t . The decisions of the federal government serve as directions for the governments of the republic which p a r t i c u l a r i z e the tasks in the protection of environment in order to implement the decrees of the federal government. In the f u t u r e , the complex character of the legal regulation, the enforcement of the principle of prevention in the legal rules and the efficient attainment of the regular control shall be striven after to a greater extent. In Part III of the work the authors categorize the administrative tasks and distinguish the p r e v e n t i v e , controlling and p l a n n i n g activities in the protection of environment. They point out that the care for the environment is an organic part of the entire planning system, therefore, it should be approached in a complex m a n n e r . The essential ideas from legal point of view of the book are c o n t a i n e d in Part IV which discusses the structure of the
Internationalia
164
organs d e a l i n g with the protection of environment. The tabulations c o m p r i s i n g the organizational structure on central and local l e v e l s are especielly useful since in this way the b r e a k down by spheres of activity is easy to survey. It becomes evident that on the federal level the main activity of the state administration consists of the legislation, the planning and the elaboration of conceptions, whereas on the level of the republics all these are completed by the directing and c o n t r o l l ing a c t i v i t i e s , again, on regional level - i.e. on the level the essential work is the of d i s t r i c t s , towns and villages executive activity Part V of the book contains appendices, namely the summary of the research works in the protection of environment and the critical analysis of the hitherto achieved research results. The work is closed by a detailed list of legal rules and a bibliography . The work is rendered accessible for the foreign specialists by the abstracts in Russian and English languages. Tom sum up, we are of the opinion that the authors render a good s e r v i c e primarily to the e m p l o y e e s of the administrative apparatus by that they describe their task in d e t a i l , supported by legal r u l e s , whereas for the research workers the book lends a significant help because in c o n t a i n s positive legal material hitherto inaccessible or only difficultly accessible and in this way a comprehensive information is given on the development and on the regulation of the protection of environment. L.
Trőcsányi
COING, H.: EUROPÄISCHES PRIVATRECHT Alteres Gemeines Recht (1500-1800) Beck, München, 1985. XVI+665 p. II. 19. Jahrhundert (1800-1914) Beck, München, 1989. XIX+678 p. I.
For more than a lifetime Helmut Coing is one of the greatest p e r s o n a l i t i e s of Roman legal s c i e n c e s . At the same time, interestingly enough, he has acquired his great reputation in another field. Though the history of antiquity owes so much to him, too, he has created -a new school, a new way of research by working out detailedly the story of the survival of Roman law in Europe. He h a s famous foregoers: first of all, S a v i g n y , with the works titled Geschichte des römischen Rechts im Mittelalter u n d System des heutigen römischen Rechts. But the pandects were living law in Germany up to the end of the 19th c e n t u r y ; it meant that the practical point of view dominated the historical one in examining the Roman law. Having accepted the BGB, Germany needed half a century to be able to open up new historical prospecte in studying the newer European law. In connection of these researches Coing wrote excellent books, and the Max - P I a n c k - I n s t i t u t e , founded by him for carrying out r e s e a r c h e s into the newer European history of law, made
Internationalia
165
great efforts to realize this purpose. H o w e v e r , in spite of having a great number of s c i e n t i s t s , it seemed impossible to answer all the questions of the survival of Roman law and to describe the usus m o d e r n u s , in a lifetime. When professor Coing r e t i r e d , leaving his chair and the directorship of the Institute, this work and already begun but nobody saw its e n d . Of the great handbook of Coing it was only the first part that was ready. The d e s c r i b i n g of the European ius commune, based upon the recent studies of soures seemed impossible. Professor Coing was unwilling to accept this i m p o s s i b i l i t y . He admitted that the complete dogmatical systematization of the European private law needed much and d e t a i l e d work but he wanted to prove if a plan like this could be carried out at all. More than fifty years of a researcher's past enrichened him with knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e . With an overwhelming spirit he devoted all his time to the w o r k : and now we can h a p p i l y report the ready book being p u b l i s h e d . With its organic system, clearly arranged method and cathegorical way of description Coing's work can easily be called a kind of school-book or m a n u a l . Though it containes the private law of Europe of the newer ages, it belongs to the domain of Roman legal sciences. In the first volume we can read the dogmatical description of certain institutions; at the same time we can follow their development as well from J u s t i n i a n ' s t i m e up to the early codifications. In the second volume the author describe the course of development starting from a general legal basis and following its was through the 19th century up to the newest codes. So the dogmatical description plastically represents the way by which the Roman law b e c a m e integral part and supporter of the European c i v i l i s a t i o n ; at the same time reveals its (often u n r e c o g n i z a b l e ) presence in our ideas and manners of a lawyer - not only in the realm of the classical private law but in the younger b r a n c h e s as well e.g. the commercial l a w , the industrial law or law of labour. The first part of the first volume explains the author's intentions and g i v e s a general introduction to the birth of the European ius c o m m u n e and to its analysis, too. It e x a m i n e s the reception of Roman and canonical law - and not only what we can call "lawful" reception but that historical progress, too, that led to the application of Roman canoncial law in the everyday p r a c t i c e . According to the author, this line of development - in spits of all the differences between certain details is homogeneus and integrated. The reception (in broad sense) was influenced by many fators: for e x a m p l e , the scientifical p r a c t i c e of the usus mod e r n u s , or the unsuitability of the m e d i e v a l legal systems for regulating new forms of community or new ways of c o m m e r c e . It had material and spiritual factors as w e l l ; political formations and the early capitalism. The ius commune helped the development and motion of the latter b e c a u s e it had an organic theory about the state and l a w ; it could give new forms to the commerce and industry starting to flourish. The basic principles of Roman law - the liberty in c o n t r a c t i n g , the equality of the citizens b e f o r e the law and its internationalism extending beyond frontiers and c l a s s e s of society helped the outbreaking of the
166
Internationalia
European b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n s . Another part of the antecedents in the adaptation of the Justinianean law in the universities of the Middle Ages and the entering of these new principles into the European legal practice. It was the way the recipiated private law (the Roman and canonical l a w ) could enter an interaction with the local statutes and influence their d e v e l o p m e n t , giving them its own forms as m o d e l . We can meet this p r o c e s s in the second volume of professor Coing's work, too, in connection of the intercourse of the international legal s y s t e m s . The most interesting parts of the whole work are that of analysing the legal rules, describing methods of interpretation and the theory of the s t a t u t e s , and the chapters about the general rules of private law. Even the Hungarian readers can recognize certain powers that were silently present in our legal d e v e l o p m e n t , t o o , without being noticed either by the contemporaries or the scientists of our ages. The d o g m a t i c s of private law follows the ancient pandectal system: citizenship and s t a t u s (personal law), familiar law, property, o b l i g a t i o n s and inheritance. As the Roman system of "actiones" wasn't recipiated, the processual law, the public and penal law (in spite of all their influence on the modern legal d e v e l o p m e n t s ) are o m i t t e d . Within these main parts the author analyses the legal institutions; one paragraph describes one institution starting from the Justinianean rules and describing the medioeval development. Then we can follow the institutionalization of the usus modernus and its transformation under the influence of the natural philosophy of law. The paragraph is finished with the n o r m s of the early codes of civil law. In the second volume the basis for the author is the ius c o m m u n e , then he describes the French development and its e r a d i a t i o n , then the pandectistics and the German results in codifying the legal norms. We can meet the British solutions serving as a special example, too. Every paragraph begins with a list of Roman and canonical legal sources together with certain paragraphs of the great codes and statutes dealing with the legal institution in question. We can meet a very rich bibliography in the footnotes. Very often the author remarks that certain questions are still u n a n s w e r e d , they need further researches to be completely explained. H o w e v e r , in spite of some missing details, professor Coing's book is an immense work with exceptional values. It can be used as a solid basis in the forthcoming work of research and it will make easier to find the European connections of certain legal institutions not mentioned in the book. It offers a possibility to the Hungarian history of private law, too, to make a similar comparison of our institutions. There is no doubt that the most important part of the first volume is the law of contracts. The norms about the legal position of the persons and family and the legal order of succession are stable and their institutions haven't been changed for a long time. The law of property is filled with feudal restrictions and represents the fight of the ius commune against the social features of the absolutistic systems - the fight that
Internationalia
167
couldn't be won. At the same time, in the law of contracts we can meet the g e n e s i s of the civilian r i g h t s , where the existing form helps the n e w economical factor to succed and win. The author stresses t h i s principle in the general discussion of the c o n t r a c t s as well as in the analysis of each institution, especially when w r i t i n g about the marine law and the c o m m e r c e law. In spite o f the fact that the followers of the natural law deny it, the Roman regulation of d e l i c t s is an integral part of the E u r o p e a n law. This chapter of the first volume could be an introduction to Géza Martos's great work about the development of t h e theory of responsability in the 19th century. Unfortunately p r o f e s s o r Coing didn't use this work at all either in the first or in the second volume - t h o u g h Marton's book could have been integral part of the bibliography of the European private l a w . The second volume is about the 19th century. It follows the development o f private law from the c o d e s based on the natural law, to the c o d i f i c a t i o n s supported by the pandectal t h e o r y . The v o l u m e describes the c o d i f i c a t i o n s as a phenomenon of private law; it shows their effect of first "meeting" the ius commune, then filling the gap with the idea of a general need of c o d i f i c a t i o n . While a n a l y s i n g this l i n e , the author detailedly writes about the fall o f the international legal sciences - the point pf view chosen by the French experts is essentially different from the ideas o f the followers of the German pandectistics. The French, with their exegetical conception helped by the p r a c t i c e based on the Code C i v i l , contradict the German school. The European and international theory of law disappears to let the comparative one to take its plase. At the same time the legal sciences w a n t to preserve their international attitude. The jurisdiction is much more closed. In every European country it's the national system of law that d o m i n a t e s and the comparative law hardly has an influence on the judicial practice of the courts. Knowing this, c e r t a i n adequacies of the judicial p r a c t i c e of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s are much more interesting for us and it makes the analysis of the legal facts more important. These adequacies are possibly due to the paralelly existing p h e n o m e n o n s of economical and social d e v e l o p m e n t , so the effects are quite clear - though in their identification the comp a r a t i v e method is a very t i r e s o m e way. Among the political i d e a s having an influence on the legal d e v e l o p m e n t , the author mentions the liberalism and its conservative o p p o s i t i o n , the nationalism, the classical theory of economy, the socialism and its catholic version. As an econ o m i c a l factor he describes the agrarian and industrial revolution, the genesis of the w o r k e r s ' class and the development of the capital m a r k e t . On this new field created by the socioeconomical t r e n d s , new formations appear - the companies regulated by p r i v a t e law. This transformation gives new problems to the legal s c i e n c e s and new solutions must be found in the constitutional law as well as in the d o m a i n of private law. It means that a new type of private law is being created, b e s i d e s the c l a s s i c a l norms. In the second volume the author d e s c r i b e s this "new law", analysing the system of c o m p a n i e s ,
168
Internationalia
the defence of patents and other special industrial rights, the labour law and the new rules about real property. His' basis is the material mentioned in the third part but he d e s c r i b e s the French and German situation only, with certain e x a m p l e s of English law. The Hungarian development isn't mentioned at all. Professor Coing has strong reasons to do this. Hungary of the 15th-17th century is a blank spot on the map of the European private law. At the same time, the developments of the 19th century serve as an example: the author c o n s t a t e s that very often the European legal systems only follow the movements and changes - the Hungarian legislation, on the c o n t r a r y , precedes this d e v e l o p m e n t , e.g. it was free to found a share company in 1840. On the other h a n d , the handbook itself gives reason for this o m i s s i o n : if somebody would like to read the Hungarian legal r u l e s , he can easily find them following the list given by Coing. The third part of the second volume is devoted to the classical p r i v a t e law - we can read about the marine law, the law of commerce and the legal regulation of different types of bonds. Like the others, this part is a well-systematized and useful m a n u a l , giving a very good basis for further researches. J.
Zlinszky
HANDBUCH DER QUELLEN UND LITERATUR DER NEUEREN EUROPÄISCHEN für Europ. RechtsP R I V A T R E C H T S G E S C H I C H T E , Max-PI ancK'Inst. geschichte (hrsg. von C O I N G , H. - M ü n c h e n , Beck, 1 9 8 8 ) Bd. 3. Das 19. Jahrhundert. Teilb.5. Südosteuropa (d. Autoren: Mikhail Andreev , Valentin AI. Georgescu, Fanny Miikova, Sergij Vilfan, Panagiótés J. Zepos).
The last volume of the Coing-handbook is devoted to southern and Eastern Europe. In the 19th century - similarly to the this territory didn't belong to the general Northern parts European way of legal d e v e l o p m e n t . It has its own h i s t o r y , its own political map with divided countries and it has just become free from the Asian despotism lasting for centuries. The volume leads us to new fields of political history but legal history as well. From a certain point of view this part of Europe has the oldest legal t r a d i t i o n s ; on the other h a n d , it is one of the territories that have joined the European development r e c e n t l y . In South-East Europe there are two cultures contrasting and living t o g e t h e r : certain countries joined the West-Roman traditions and cultivates the Latin c u l t u r e ; the other and greater part inherited the Syzantinian legal traditions. Of course the roots of both ways of development can be found in the Justinianean c o d i f i c a t i o n . This origin has a c e r t a i n Mediterranean c h a r a c t e r , as Kosschaker s a y s , but the legal and political c u l t u r e of Europe has grown out of this Mediterranean soil. The two parts of the Roman empire belonged together for more than five centuries; then came a five-cehtury-long period of h o s t i l i t i e s . In the end, in the last fifty years, we could
Internationalia
169
see the contг adicit ions diminishing. The g e n e r a l picture of this area is made m o r e colourful by the fact that in two countries these different traditions meet. In the 19th century Transylvania, Croatia, Dalmatia, Slavonia and Carinthia belonged to the Latin "Kulturkreis" and were part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy while the other countries m e n t i o n e d in the handbook cultivated the Syzantinian traditions and became independent again only in the 15th century. At the same time, Hungary and Austria had a great population of Greek orthodoxes, and the territories that once were part of the Byzantinian E m p i r e , met an influence of the Western (French, I t a l i a n , German) legal institutions, too. The a n a l y s i s of this way of development is a very temptating but a very great task. These c h a p t e r s of p r o f e s s o r Coing's work cannot be understood without k n o w i n g the parts about Austria and Hungary - as I have pointed it out in the chapter about Hungary (3.2) and as the descriptions of Roumania and Yugoslavia m e n t i o n it as well. The v o l u m e is exceptionally interesting for a Hungarian reader - "de n o s fabula narratur", we can say, w h i l e reading the history o f our country. The authors describe the Byzantinian era and the centuries of the Osman era as without this knowledge the events in the Balkan Peninsula in the 19th century cannot be understood at all. On the other h a n d , many points of connection can be found with the medieval and later Hungarian h i s t o r y . These contacts are pointed out with the clearness and detailedness of an e x p o e r t ' s work in the essay about Y u g o s l a v i a . This c h a p t e r talks about the c o n n e c t i o n s and the existing problems, t o o , in a frank and objective manner. Unfortunately we cannot say the same about the c h a p t e r describing Roumania. We know very well the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s between the opinions the Hungarian and Roumanian h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s have about certain moments of l e g a l and political history. Many of the discussed questions a r e n ' t answered yet. Anyhow, a handbook for international use should make known all the points of v i e w , especially if the average reader cannot read the sources as w e l l , because of their d i f f i c u l t and less-nown l a n g u a g e . This revision is partly o b s t r u c t e d by the fact that the Hungarian authors and titles m e n t i o n e d by the Roumanian author of the article are written with misspellings and other m i s t a k e s . On the other hand, we must admit that both the introduction about the legal development of South-East E u r o p e and the article about Roumania are very well edited and c o m p o s e d . Professor Georgescu enrichens us with interesting d e t a i l s and unknown data about his h o m e l a n d . Georgescu doesn't follow the original plan of the editor and very often sketches the development from the Byzantinian era up to the 19th century in a sentence. This solution gives some difficulties to the reader who wants to read the c h a p t e r together with the p a r t s about Transylvania. Unfortunately many facts about the Transylvanian legal d e v e l o p m e n t e.g. the Saxon r e c e p t i o n or the legislation of the 18th century arent't worked up detailedly. It is rather a great gap as the second volume of the handbook doesn't have an independent Hungarian chapter. A n y h o w , we get a wide panorama of the Byzantinian influence on the legal development - and
170
Internationalia
this is new for the Hungarian law h i s t o r i a n s , too. It was easier to write about the Bulgarian and Greek events as their tradition are quite h o m o g e n e o u s . As the chapter about the Byzantinian empire gives a general introduction to all the other p a r t s , these c h a p t e r s discuss some details, for example the legal rules of the medieval B u l g a r i a , the late Byzantinian legal renessaince or the influence of Byzantium on the European r e n e a s a i n c e . The development of the private law of both countries in the 19th century is quite short and can be easily sketched. It is a special pleasure for the Hungarian reader to read about the influence the Hungarian commerce law had on the Bulgarian codification as it m e a n s the Hungarian code of commerce being appreciated and used like an e x a m p l e . We are very sorry that the biographical data are omitted from the chapters - it would have made all the facts m o r e understable. Perhaps the richest study is about Yugoslavia. The author describes the p o l i t i c a l sphere detailedly and his description about the very d i f f i c u l t system of legal sources is c l e a r , too - it is divided into two, the sources before 1800 and after 1800. This chapter follows the original plan about the h a n d book and so it is the most u s a b l e part of the whole book. This last volume of the series gives a unique possibility for the Hungarian law historians to know m o r e about this era and area, too, to get acquainted with opposing points of view and to consider well his own m i s t a k e s . History can be written only if we know the general c o n n e c t i o n s . It is a mistake of follow only the discussions on the private law only (as we did it in the last few centuries) or to mind only the life of the leading classes, forgetting about the everyday jurisdiction. These errors caused the genesis of a proud ideology about the independent and unique Hungarian private law; later we explained all the historical facts with the struggle of classes. It is the task of us, living Hungarian law historians to fill the (perhaps intentionally m a d e ) gaps and to make possible to analyse the h i s t o r i c a l facts correctly. For example, according to the Roumanian experts, the union of the three Transylvanien nations was partial - but in this era "nation" meant a group of inhabitants having political r i g h t s . The Roumanian noblemen belonged to the Hungarian nation; the peasants, on the contrary, weren't a "nation" at all - and from this point of view the German, Hungarian or Roumanian peasants were in the same position, too. Otherwise, it is a fact that the roumanians living in Hungary didn't have a n a t i o n a l independence and it may be strange for the historian of our days. But we mustn't forget that this right was given to the migrating Germans only as a p r i v i l e g e . Last but not least, the data published in this v o l u m e should be used in the re-writing of our t e x t b o o k s of legal history as the rules of the orthodox church had quite a great influence on the n o r m s regulating the family and the succession even in the Hungarian territories. We have to do it if we wish the historians of other countries to describe the Hungarian influence on their legal institutions - and it would be a "sine qua non" of the good-neighbouг 1 y relations and peaceful coexistence . J. Zlinszky
Acta Juridica A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 32(1-2) p p . 171-132- (1990) BIBLIOGRAPHIA
HUNGARIAN LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 1989 1 s t PART1
1
E d i t e d by K a t a l i n
Balázs-Veredy.
This b i b l i o g r a p h y c o n t a i n s l e g a l works of Hungarian authors i s s u e d as monographs i n Hungary between the 1 s t o f January and t h e 30th of June 19B9, m a t e r i a l of p e r i o d i c a l s ( a r t i c l e s ) and s t u d i e s p u b l i s h e d i n c o l l e c t i v e works. The m a t e r i a l f o r t h e p e r i o d 1945-1980 i s resumed i n the f o l l o w i n g publications:
B i b l i o g r a p h y o f Hungarian l e g a l l i t e r a t u r e .
1945-1980. Budapest,
Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988. 429 p. The m a t e r i a l p u b l i s h e d from the 1 s t January, 1981 i s c u r r e n t l y
pro-
cessed h a l f - y e a r l y i n t h e Acta J u r i d i c a , beginning w i t h the Tomus 23, 1981. Nos 3 - 4 . P e r i o d i c a l s processed i n t h i s
bibliography:
Á I 1 - 6 / 1 9 8 9 . ; ÁJ 3 - 4 / 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 . ( 1 9 8 9 . ) , 1 / 1 9 8 9 . ; A J u r i d .
3-4/1987.
( 1 9 8 9 . ) , 1 - 4 / 1 9 8 8 . , ( 1 9 8 9 . ) ; JK 1 0 - 1 2 / 1 9 8 8 . ( 1 9 8 9 . ) , 1 - 2 / 1 9 8 9 . ; MJ 1 - 5 / 1 9 8 9 . ; MTud. 1 - 6 / 1 9 8 9 . ; Társadkut. 4/1988. ( 1 9 8 9 . ) ; TSZ 1 - 6 / 1 9 8 9 . A b b r e v i a t i o n s of p e r i o d i c a l s and o t h e r a b b r e v i a t i o n s see i n t h e Acta J u r i d i c a Nos 1-2 of 1989. C o l l e c t i v e works processed i n t h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y and t h e i r D o l g . á l l a m - és j o g t u d . k ö r é b ő l .
abbreviations:
19. é v f . 1988. = Dolgozatok az á l l a m -
és jogtudományok k ö r é b ő l . 19. ( é v f . ) S z e r k . Ádám A n t a l . Kiad. a Janus Pannonius Tudományegyetem, Á l l a m - és jogtudományi k a r a . ( S t u d i e s i n t h e
legal
and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s c i e n c e s . Vol. 1 9 . ) Pécs, Pécsi S z i k r a пу. 1988. 199 p . Emberi jogok Magyarországon. 1989. = Az emberi jogok Magyarországon. Az Emberi Jogok Egyetemes N y i l a t k o z a t á n a k 40. é v f o r d u l ó j a a l k a l m á b ó l ,
1988.
Acta Juridica Academiae S c i e n t i a r u m H u n g a r i c a e , 3 2 , 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
Bibliographie
172
dec. 9-én, a Magyar Tudományos Akadémián r e n d e z e t t tanácskozás e l ő a d á s a i . Szerk. Lakatos M á r i a . ( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar ENSZ Társaság. (Human r i g h t s
in
contemporary Hungary. L e c t u r e s d e l i v e r e d i n t h e Hungarian Academy of S c i ences on December 9, 1988, on t h e 40th a n n i v e r s a r y of the U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n of Humgan R i g h t s . ) Bp. (mimeogr.) 1989. 60 p. 3 t . Jog és p o l i t ,
gondolkodás, 1989. = KULCSÄR Kálmán: Jog és p o l i t i k a i
gondolkodás modernizálódó társadalmunkban. ( K ö z z é t e s z i az) MSZMP Társadalomtudományi I n t é z e t e .
( J u r i d i c a l and p o l i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n t h e
increasingly
modern Hungarian s o c i e t y . ) Bp. Alsónémedi n y . 1989. 96, ( 2 ) p .
/Műhelyta-
nulmányok./
ВЕНГЕРСКАЯ ЮРИДИЧЕСКАЯ БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ 1989 1-я ЧАСТЬ
1
Библиографию с о с т а в и л а К . Настоящая библиография
юридические
издания,
Балая-Вереди.
содержит
в р е м я с 1 я н в а р я до 3 0 и ю н я 1 9 8 9 Материалы о т 1945 д о
себе
самостоятельные
венгерской
в сборниках
за
г.
1980 г г .
опубликованы:
B i b l i o g r a p h y o f Hungarian l e g a l l i t e r a t u r e . [Библиография
в
материалы опубликованные
1943-1980.
юридической литературы.
1945-1980.]
Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988. 429 p. Библиография
материала,
публикуется
последовательно
ная с Е 3-4
т о м а 23, 1 9 8 1 .
Разработанные
появившегося
с 1 января
19 8 1
п о п о л у г о д и я м в Acta J u r i d i c a
г.
начи-
журналы:
ÁI 1 - 6 / 1 9 8 9 . ; ÁJ 3 - 4 / 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 . ( 1 9 8 9 . ) ? 1 / 1 9 8 9 . ; A J u r i d .
3-4/1987.
( 1 9 8 9 . ) , 1 - 4 / 1 9 8 8 . ( 1 9 8 9 . ) ; JK 10-12/1988. ( 1 9 8 9 . ) , 1 - 2 / 1 9 8 9 . ; MJ 1 - 5 / 1 9 8 9 . ; MTud. 1 - 6 / 1 9 8 9 . ; Társadkut. 4 / 1 9 8 8 . ( 1 9 8 9 . ) ; TSZ 1-6/1989. Сокращение Acta J u r i d i c a
журналов
в KS 1 - 2 19 89
Разработанные
и другие
сокращения см.
в
журнале
г.
сборники
и их
сокращения:
Dolg. á l l a m - és j o g t u d . k ö r é b ő l . 19. é v f .
1988. = Dolgozatok az á l l a m -
és jogtudományok k ö r é b ő l . 19. ( é v f . ) Szerk. Ádám A n t a l . K i a d . a Janus Pannonius Tudományegyetem Állam- és jogtudományi k a r a .
[Сборник
работ
по
Bibliographie вопросам государства
и права.
Том
173
19.]
Pécs, Pécsi S z i k r a ny. 198В. 199 p . Emberi j o g o k Magyarországon. 1989. = Az emberi jogok Magyarországon. Az Emberi Jogok Egyetemes N y i l a t k o z a t á n a k 40. é v f o r d u l ó j a a l k a l m á b ó l , 1988. dec. 9-én, a Magyar Tudományos Akadémián r e n d e z e t t tanácskozás e l ő a d á s a i . Szerk. Lakatos M á r i a . ( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar ENSZ Társaság. века в Венгрии
в наши д н и .
организованного
Доклады н а у ч н о г о
по случаю 4 0 - л е т й я
[Права
чело-
заседания
ВАН,
всеобщей декларации
прав
человека,] Bp. (Mimeogr.) 1989. 60 p. 3 t . Jog és p o l i t ,
gondolkodás. 1989. = KULCSÁR Kálmán: Jog és p o l i t i k a i
gondolkodás modernizálódó társadalmunkban. tudományi I n t é z e t e . дернизации
[Право
венгерского
( K ö z z é t e s z i az) MSZMP Társadalom-
и политическое
мышление в
период
мо-
общества.]
Bp. Alsónémedi n y . 1989. 96, ( 2 ) р .
(/Műhelytanulmányok./
BOOK OF REFERENCE -СПРАВОЧНЫЕ ИЗДАНИЯ
Collected Legislation Acts-Сборники
законодательства
Hatályos j o g s z a b á l y o k gyűjteménye. 1945-1987. 2 . k ö t . M i n i s t e r t a n á c s i d e l e t e k és m i n i s z t e r t a n á c s i h a t á r o z a t o k . 3-4 k ö t . A M i n i s z t e r t a n á c s inak r e n d e l e t e i .
ren-
tagja-
Ö s s z e á l l . H á r s f a l v i Rezsőné - Komáromi Gábor - Tamás And-
r á s n é . Szerk. P e t r i k Ferenc - R a f t M i k l ó s . ( C o l l e c t i o n of s t a t u t o r y i n f o r c e . 1945-1987. Vol. 2. Decrees of t h e C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s ,
rules
resol-
u t i o n s of the C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s . Vols. 3 - 4 . Decrees of t h e members o f t h e Council of M i n i s t e r s . ных а к т о в .
1945-1S37
вета Министров,
Сборник действующих г.г.
Том I I .
Том I I I - I V .
законов
Постановления
Постановления членов
и
норматив-
и решения
Со-
Совмина.]
Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1988-1989. 981, ( 2 ) , 1258, ( 2 ) , 1324 p.
Törvények és r e n d e l e t e k h i v a t a l o s gyűjteménye. 1988. K ö z z é t e s z i az Igazságügyi Minisztérium - Minisztertanács Hivatala. and decrees. 1988.
Официальный с б о р н и к
( O f f i c i a l c o l l e c t i o n of a c t s
законов
и указов,
Bp. Közgazdasági és j o g i K i a d ó , 1989. X X V I I I , 1133, (2) p.
1988 г . ]
174
Bibliographie Bibliographies -
Библиография
Hungarian l e g a l b i b l i o g r a p h y . 1986, 2nd p a r t , 1987, 1 - 2 . p a r t - В е н г е р с к а я юридическая
библиография
, 1986,
часть 2 . }
1987,
часть
1-2.
(Ed. Balázsné Veredy K a t a l i n . ) AJurid. 3-4/87:451-466., 1-2/88:275-321.,
3-4/88:413-468.
A magyar á l l a m - és jogtudományi i r o d a l o m b i b l i o g r á f i á j a .
1988. 2 ( f ü z . )
Ö s s z e á l l . Balázsné V e r e d y K a t a l i n - Orosz Agnes. ( K ö z z é t e s z i az) Országgyűl é s i K ö n y v t á r . ( L e z á r v a : ) 1988. dec. 3 1 . ( B i b l i o g r a p h y of Hungarian
litera-
t u r e o f t h e l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s i c e n c e s . 1988. P a r t 2. Closed: December 31, 1988. сударства
Библиография в е н г е р с к и х
и права,
1988 г .
Том I I .
п у б л и к а ц и й по в о п р о с а м До 3 1 д е к а б р я
1988
го-
г.)
Bp. OK (mimeogr.) 1989. ( 2 ) , XIV, 151 p .
I.
THEORY OF STATE AND LAW - I .
ТЕОРИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВА И ПРАВА
Books - К н и г и
BIHARI M i h á l y : P o l i t i k a i rendszer és demokrácia. K i a d . az Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem, Á l l a m - és jogtudományi k a r , P o l i t i k a t u d o m á n y i c s o p o r t . 2. á t d o l g . k i a d . Политическая система
tanszék-
( P o l i t i c a l system and democracy. 2nd r e v . и демократия
Bp. Z a l a i пу. 1989. 518, ( 2 ) p. B i b l i o g r .
2-е перераб.
ed.
изд.)
passim.
IMREH K a t a l i n : A L e g f e l s ő b b Bíróság szerepe a j o g a l a k í t á s b a n , a j o g a l k o t á s folyamatában. ( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Államtudományi kutatások programirodája.
(Role of the Supreme Court i n shaping the law and
the process of l e g i s l a t i o n . в правотворческом
Роль В е р х о в н о г о
Суда в развитии
права,
процессе.)
Bp. (mimeogr.) 1988. 60 p . B i b l i o g r .
45-46.
KULCSÁR Kálmán: Jog és p o l i t i k a i gondolkodás modernizálódó társadalmunkban. ( K ö z z é t e s z i az) MSZMP Társadalomtudományi I n t é z e t e .
( J u r i d i c a l and p o l i t i c a l
t h i n k i n g i n the i n c r e a s i n g l y modern Hungarian s o c i e t y . ческое
Право и
мышление в п е р и о д м о д е р н и з а ц и и в е н г е р с к о г о
полити-
общества.)
Bibliographie
175
Bp. A l f a p r i n t n y . 1989. 96, ( 2 ) p. /Műhelytanulmányok./ B i b l i o g r . passim. Русск.
сод.
-
Eng. summary
PESCHKA V i l m o s : Die E i g e n a r t des Rechts. Übers aus dem u n g a r i s c h e n Kovács Zsuzsanna. (The s p e c i f i c n a t u r e o f law.
Особенности
Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989. 199 p . B i b l i o g r .
Articles -
права. )
passim.
Статьи
KULCSÁR Kálmán: P o l i t i k a i gondolkodás és modernizáció. Európa k e l e t i
régió-
jának e s e t e . ( P o l i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and m o d e r n i z a t i o n . The case o f Europe's Eastern r e g i o n . П о л и т и ч е с к о е точной
мышление
и модернизация.
Опыт в
Вос-
Европе.)
= Jog és p o l i t , gondolkodás.
1989. 5-30.
KULCSÁR Kálmán: A j o g s z o c i o l ó g i a i és a modernizálódó t á r s a d a l o m . A j o g s z o c i o l ó g i a Magyarországon: az u t o l s ó é v t i z e d e k .
(The s o c i o l o g y o f law and t h e
i n c r e a s e i n g l y modern s o c i e t y . Sociology o f law and Hungary: the l a s t decades. Правовая социология гия
в Венгрии:
и модернизация
последние
общества.
Правовая
социоло-
десятилетия.)
= Jog és p o l i t , gondolkodás. 1989. 31-52.
KULCSÁR Kálmán: A j o g i t ú l s z a b á l y o z á s t á r s a d a l m i összefüggései Magyroszágon. ( S o c i a l r e l a t i o n s of l e g a l o v e r r e g u l a t i o n i n Hungary. ствия
правовой зарегулированности
= Jog és p o l i t ,
в
Социальные
Венгрии.)
gondolkodás. 1989. 53-90.
KULCSÁR Kálmán: A p o l i t i k a i rendszer átalakulásának ú t j á n . t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the p o l i t i c a l system. тической
послед-
(Toward the
На п у т и п р е о б р а з о в а н и я
поли-
системы.)
MJ 2 / 8 9 : 9 7 - 1 0 8 .
MAJTÉNYI L á s z l ó : A polgár és az ő joga. ( S a j ó András: Az a l a n y i j o g t u d a t a c . j o g s z o c i o l ó g i a i k u t a t á s z á r ó j e l e n t é s é n e k v i t á j a . Budapest, 1988. o k t . (The c i t i z e n and h i s r i g h t .
25.
Discussionof t h e f i n a l r e p o r t on András S a j ó ' s
research i n l e g a l s o c i o l o g y concerning t h e conscience o f s u b s t a n t i v e h e l d at Budapest on October 25, 1988. Г р а ж д а н и н и е г о
права.
law,
Обсуж-
176 дение
Bibliographie и с с л е д о в а н и я А н д р а ш а Шайо
прав".
Будапешт,
25.
"о
октября 1988
восприятии
субъективных
г.)
JK 2 / 8 9 : 1 0 7 - 1 0 9 .
PESCHKA V i l m o s : Nóvumok Kelsen posztumusz normaelméletében. ( N o v e l t i e s K e l s e n ' s posthumous t h e o r y o f norms. Кельзена
о
Новинки в посмертной
in
теории
нормах.)
ÁJ 3 - 4 / 8 7 - 8 8 : 3 5 7 - 3 8 0 .
POKOL B é l a : A modern j o g r e n d s z e r b i n a r i t á s a . system.
Бинарный х а р а к т е р
(The b i n a r i t y of modern law
современных правовых
систем.)
JK 1 / 8 9 : 2 5 - 3 6 .
SAJÓ A ( n d r á s ) : V e r g e s e l l s c h a f t u n g und Reduktion i n der ( S o c i a l t h i n k i n g and r e d u c t i o n i n l e g a l i d e o l o g y .
Rechtsweltanschauung.
Социализация
и
редук-
ция в юридическом м и р о в о з з р е н и и . ) AJurid.
3-4/87:383-403.
SAJÓ András: A magyar l a k o s s á g j o g o s u l t s á g - t u d a t á r ó l . consciousness of the Hungarian p o p u l a t i o n . ди в е н г е р с к о г о
(The l e g a l competence
Осознание
правомочий
сре-
населения.)
JK 1 / 8 9 : 7 - 1 4 .
SÁNDOR Tamás: A gazdasági é r d e k k é p v i s e l e t e k az NSZK-ban.
(Representative
organs o f economic i n t e r e s t s i n the F e d e r a l Republic o f Germany.
Органи-
з а ц и я по
ФРГ.)
представительству
хозяйственных
интересов в
ÁJ 1 / 8 9 : 5 - 5 6 .
SÁRI János: A hatalommegosztás Eötvös József eszmerendszerében. (The d i v i s i o n of powers i n t h e idea system o f József Eötvös. властей
в системе
идей
Иодефа
Разделение
Этвеша.)
JK 12/88:639-643.
SÁRI János: A hatalommegosztás. Bibó I s t v á n államtudományi
felfogásáról.
(About t h e s h a r i n g of power. On the c o n c e p t i o n of the s t a t e and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sciences of I s t v á n Bibó. цепция о государстве TSZ 5 / 8 9 : 1 1 - 1 7 .
Иштвана
О разделении в л а с т и . Вибо.)
Научная
кон-
177
Bibliographie SCHMIDT P é t e r : A p o l i t i k a i rendszer és az á l l a m s z e r v e z e t r e f o r m j a . reform o f t h e p o l i t i c a l system and t h e s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n . литической
системы и государственной
(The
Реформа
по-
структуры.)
TSZ 4 / 8 9 : 3 0 - 3 6 .
SZÉKELY János: "Gazdálkodás" a j o g s z a b á l y o k k a l . ("Economic use" o f tory r u l e s .
"Экономичность"
statu-
законодательства.)
ML) 4 / 8 9 : 3 6 1 - 3 6 4 .
SOLT K o r n é l : A j o g e l l e n e s jogerős í t é l e t helye a jogrendszerben.
(The
place o f i l l e g a l f i n a l judgement i n t h e l e g a l system.
правовой
системе
противоправного
приговора,
Место в
вступившего
в
силу.)
JK 10/88:382-585.
TÖLGYESSY P é t e r : É r d e k k é p v i s e l e t i r é s z v é t e l az á l l a m i d ö n t é s h o z a t a l i
eljá-
rásokban. (The p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e bodies i n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g procedures o f the s t a t e . процессе
Участие
представительства
принятия государственных
интересов
в
решений.)
ÄI 5 / 8 9 : 4 0 8 - 4 1 5 .
VARGA Csaba: T i s z t a j o g t a n - a m ú l t , j e l e n és j ö v ő t ü k r é b e n . ( K e l s e n ' s pure law p h i l o s o p h y as r e f l e c t e d i n the p a s t , p r e s e n t , and f u t u r e . чение
о праве в зеркале
прошлого,
настоящего
Право
история.
и
Чистое
y-
будущего.)
ДО 1 / 8 9 : 1 3 3 - 1 3 8 .
(VARGA Csaba) ВАРГА Ч а б а :
как
(Law as h i s t o r y . ) AJurid.
1-2/88:240-247.
VARGA Csaba: Kelsen " T i s z t a j o g t a n a " tegnap, ma és h o l n a p . ( K e l s e n ' s pure law p h i l o s o p h y as r e f l e c t e d i n the p a s t , present and f u t u r e . чение
о праве"
OK 1 / 8 9 : 2 2 - 2 5 .
Кельзена
вчера,
сегодня и
завтра.)
"Чистое
y-
Bibliographie
178
I I . STATE LAW. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW - Д . ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ ПРАВО КОНСТИТУЦИОННОЕ ПРАВО Books -
Книги
Az alkotmány a l a p e l v e i . F e l . s z e r k . K i l á n y i Géza. Szerk. Hajdók Z s o l t Máté Jánosné. K i a d . az Építésgazdasági és S z e r v e z é s i I n t é z e t . p r i n c i p l e s of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n .
( B p . ) Pécsi S z i k r a ny. (1989.) 64 p . / A l k o t m á n y j o g i f ü z .
Az ( e z e r k i l e n c s z á z n y o l c v a n k i l e n c e d i k ) j o g r ó l . (Act I I I о
(Fundamental
Основные п р и н ц и п ы К о н с т и т у ц и и . ) 1./
1989. é v i I I I . törvény a g y ü l e k e z é s i
o f 1989 on t h e r i g h t of assembly.
З а к о н »? I I I / 1 9 8 9
г.
собраниях.)
Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó - P a l l a s Kiadó, 1989. 17 p.
Az ( e z e r k i l e n c s z á z n y o l c v a n k i l e n c e d i k ) ( A c t V I I of 1989 on s t r i k e s .
/Törvényfüz./
1989. é v i V I I . törvény a s z t r á j k r ó l .
З а к о н К? V I I / 1 9 8 9
Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó - P a l l a s Kiadó,
г.
о
забастовках.)
1989. 9, ( 2 ) p .
/Törvényfüz./
Parliamentarism and government i n a one-party system. E d - i n - c h i e f Géza. Ed. Lamm Vanda. T r a n s i . K o c s i s Mihály, Simon Sándor. ризм и управление
при однопартийной
Bp. Akadémiai K i a d ó , 1988. 237 p . Bibliogr.
Kilényi
Парламента-
системе.)
(Studies on Hungarian s t a t e and law 1 . )
passim.
A s z o c i a l i s t a országok p a r l a m e n t j e i n e k h á z s z a b á l y a i . Szerk. és e l ő s z ó P i n t é r K a t a l i n . ( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Államtudományi kutatások programirodája.
( S t a t u t e s of t h e Parliaments o f t h e s o c i a l i s t
Регламенты парламентов
социалистических
countries.
стран.)
Bp. (mimeogr.) 1989. 309 p.
TRÚCSÁNIY L á s z l ó , i f j . : Az alkotmánybírásokodás szervezete és működése egyes európai országokban. A jogintézmény e l v i k é r d é s e i , az o s z t r á k ,
fran-
c i a , nyugatnémet és olasz alkotmánybíróságok egyes döntései. ( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Államtudományi k u t a t á s o k
programirodája.
( O r g a n i z a t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l courts i n some European c o u n t r i e s . Problems of p r i n c i p l e o f t h i s l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n ,
some d e c i s i o n s
o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o u r t s i n A u s t r i a , France, Western Germany, and I t a l y .
Bibliographie Структура странах
и деятельность
конституционного
Европы. Принципиальные
австрийского,
179
французского,
суда в
отдельных
вопросы и некоторые
западно-германского
и
Вр. (mimeogr.) 1989. 251 p . B i b l i o g r . 217-251.
решения итальянского
судов.)
Articles - Статьи
ÁDÁM A n t a l : A t á r s a d a l m i közösségek és szervezetek a l k o t m á n y j o g i
helyzeté-
ről.
consti-
( S o c i a l communities and o r g a n i s a t i o n s from the v i e w p o i n t of
t u t i o n a l law. групп
и
О конституционно-правовом
положении
социальных
организаций.)
= D o l g . á l l a m - és j o g t u d . k ö r é b ő l . 19. é v f . 1988. 5 - 2 8 .
ÁDÁM A n t a l : Az emberi és á l l a m p o l g á r i jogok a l k o t m á n y i szabályozásának l ő d é s i i r á n y a i . (The development d i r e c t i o n s of the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a t i o n s o f human and c i t i z e n s ' туционного
rights.
Направления
регулирования прав человека
и
развития
fej-
reguконсти-
гражданина.)
ÁI 6/89:497-509.
ÁDÁM A n t a l : A magyarországi nemzetiségek a l k o t m á n y j o g i h e l y z e t é r ő l de lege f e r e n d a . (The c o n s t i t u i o n a l law s i t u a t i o n of the i n Hungary e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s de lege f e r e n d a . вающихся
Конституционно-правовое
в Венгрии национальных
меньшинств;
положение
JK 1 / 8 9 : 1 5 - 2 2 .
g e
BÁNDI Gyula: A MOSZ elnökségének ü l é s e az ú j Alkotmány
прожи-
соображения
de 1 е -
ferenda.)
koncepciójáról.
(1989. j a n . 24. Meeting o f the P r e s i d i u m of the Hungarian Lawyers'
Associ-
a t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e concept of t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n , held on January 24, 1989.
Заседание Ассоциации В е н г е р с к и х юристов
концепции
новой к о н с т и т у ц и и .
24
января 1989
посвященное
г.)
MJ 3 / 8 9 : 2 1 2 - 2 7 3 .
BUNCSÁK Jenő: Törvénytervezetek t á r s a d a l m i v i t á j a g y a k o r l a t i szemmel. ( P u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n o f d r a f t b i l l s from p r a c t i c a l v i e w p o i n t . обсуждение
законопроектов
MJ 3 / 8 9 : 2 5 4 - 2 6 0 .
Общественное
под у г л о м эрения п р а к т и к и . )
180
Bibliographie
DEZSŰ Márta: A v á l a s z t ó j o g m i n t p o l i t i k a i a l a p j o g . (The r i g h t t o vote as a basic p o l i t i c a l r i g h t . ческое
Избирательное
право
как
основное
полити-
право. )
ЗК 12/88:655-658.
HLAVATHY A t t i l a :
K í s é r l e t az e m b e r i jogok és a j o g á s z i l e h e t ő s é g e k s z o c i a -
l i s t a egyeztetésére.
( S z o c i a l i s t a országok é r t e k e z l e t e .
Pilisszentkereszt,
1988. nov. 9 - 1 0 . An experiment o f the s o c i a l i s t c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f human r i g h t s and the l a w y e r s ' p o s s i b i l i t i e s , held a t P i l i s s z e n t k e r e s z t on November 9-10, 1988.
Попытка с о г л а с о в а н и я
человека и возможностей
юристов.
стран,
9-10
Пилишсенткерест,
п о з и ц и й по в о п р о с а м
Совещание с п е ц и а л и с т о в
ноября
1988
прав соц-
г.)
MJ 5/89:464-473.
HOLLÓ András: A S z o v j e t u n i ó Alkotmányának m ó d o s í t á s á r ó l . (On t h e amendment o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the S o v i e t Union. Советского Ál
Об и з м е н е н и и
Конституции
Союза.)
5/89:457-469.
HORVÁTH László - KONDOROSI F e r e n c : A t á r s a d a l m i v i t á r ó l . society. Институт
принятия
(Debates i n the
решений на основе всеобщего
обсзвдения.)
Á I 2/89:144-153.
IJJAS József: Alkotmány és j o g á l l a m .
(Tudományos ü l é s . Budapest, 1989.
márc. 23. C o n s t i t u t i o n and t h e r o l e of law. S c i e n t i f i c meeting h e l d i n Budapest, March 2 3 , 1989. Научный с ъ е з д .
Конституция
Будапешт,
и правовое
2 3 марта 1989
государство.
г.)
Á I 6/89:561-563.
KOVÁCS I ( s t v á n ) : Du d r o i t p u b l i c hongrois au d r o i t c o n s t i t u t i o n n e l i s t e hongrois. (From Hungarian p u b l i c law t o Hungarian s o c i a l i s t t u t i o n a l law. ческого AJurid.
От в е н г е р с к о г о
венгерского
публичного
конституционного
п р а в а до
social-
consti-
социалисти-
права.)
3-4/87:321-344.
KOVÁCS I s t v á n : Az a l k o t m á n y f e j l ő d é s e l v i k é r d é s e i . (Questions o f o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l development. MTud. 2 / 8 9 : 8 9 - 1 0 5 .
Принципиальные
вопросы
principle
развития конституции.)
Bibliographie
181
KUKORELLI I s t v á n : Az O r s z á g g y ű l é s r ő l gondolkodva. ( T h i n k i n g of the Parliament.
Размышления о г о с у д а р с т в е н н о м
собрании.)
TSZ 2 / 8 9 : 3 0 - 3 8 .
KULCSÁR Kálmán: Az alkotmány k o n c e p c i ó j a az Országgyűlése. (The concept o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n i n P a r l i a m e n t . сувдается
К о н ц е п ц и я новой
конституции
об-
парламентом. )
MJ 4 / 8 9 : 2 8 9 - 2 9 9 .
KULCSÁR Kálmán: Az alkotmányozás d i l e m m á i . (The dilemmas o f the process of constitutionalism.
Дилеммы р а б о т ы над
конституцией.)
TSZ 3 / 8 9 : 3 - 1 0 .
A Magyar Népköztársaság ú j Alkotmányának szabályozási
koncepciója.
( R e g u l a t i o n concept o f t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n of the Hungarian P e o p l e ' s Republic.
Регулятивная
концепция
новой конституции
ВНР.)
МО 1 / 8 9 : 9 - 4 9 .
Az MSZMP Központi B i z o t t s á g á n a k á l l á s f o g l a l á s a a n e m z e t i s é g i p o l i t i k a v á b b f e j l e s z t é s é r ő l és a nemzetiségi t ö r v é n y i r á n y e l v e i r ő l .
o f the C n e t r a l Committee o f the H5WP on the f u r t h e r development of
the
p o l i c y towards the n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s and the g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f B i l l on n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s . развитии
национальной
П о с т а н о в л е н и е ЦК ВСРП о
политики
и принципах
to-
(The s t a n d p o i n t
the
дальнейшем
закона о
националь-
TSZ 1 ( 8 ) : 4 2 - 4 7 .
ностях. )
NAGY Gyula: Az egyház és az emberi j o g o k . (The Church and human r i g h t s . Церковь
и права
человека.)
= Emberi jogok Magyarországon. 1989. 2 1 - 2 6 .
PÁRICSI V i k t o r : A Népköztársaság E l n ö k i Tanácsa vagy a Népköztársaság E l nöke? Gondola-tok a k ö z t á r s a s á g i e l n ö k i intézmény i d ő s z e r ű s é g é r ő l .
(The
P r e s i d e n t i a l Council o f t h e People's REpublic or t h e P r e s i d e n t of
the
Republic? Thoughts on t h e t i m e l i n e s s o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f the P r e s i d e n t o f the R e p u b l i c . П р е з и д и у м и л и п р е з и д е н т
Народной
Республики.)
ÁI 3 / 8 9 : 2 7 3 - 2 8 4 .
PETRÉTEI J ó z s e f : Társadalmi iözreműködés a j o g l a k o t á s b a n .
(Social
contri-
Bibliographie
182
bution to the l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s .
Участие
общественности в
пра-
вотворчестве. ) Ál 5/89:416-425.
(RÉVÉSZ Tamás M i h á l y ) PEBEC T . : О н о в о м в е н г е р с к о м
Законе
о
печати.
New Hungarian a c t on the p r e s s . Act No. I I o f 1986. AJurid.
3-4/87:405-408.
SAJÓ András: Az alkotmányosság és l e h e t ő s é g e i a gazdaságban, különös t e k i n t e t t e l a környzetvédelemre m i n t gazdaságilag releváns tevékenységre.
(Con-
s t i t u t i o n a l i t y and i t s chances i n the economy, w i t h p a r t i c u l a r regard t o environment p r o t e c t i o n as an economically r e l e v a n t a c t i v i t y . онность
и её в о з м о ж н о с т и
окружающей
среды как
в экономике,
Конституци-
с особым у ч ё т о м
экономически релевантной
охраны
деятельности.)
ÁJ 3 - 4 / 8 7 - 8 8 : 4 7 4 - 5 1 1 .
SAJÓ András: Gazdasági alkotmányosság. ( C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y Экономическая
i n the economy.
конституционность.)
MTud. 4 / 8 9 : 2 9 1 - 3 0 0 .
SAMU M i h á l y : Az e m b e r i - á l l a m p o l g á r i jogok szabályozásának és b i z t o s í t á s á n a k g o n d j a i . (The problems of r e g u l a t i n g and e n s u r i n g human and c i t i z e n s ' rights.
З а б о т ы по р е г у л и р о в а н и ю и о б е с п е ч е н и ю п р а в а
человекагражданина.)
Á l 3/89:232-246.
SZAMEL K a t a l i n : A p e t í c i ó s j o g r ó l - alkotmányközeiben. (On t h e r i g h t
for
petitions - i n constitutions.
кон-
ституционного
О праве п о д а ч и петиции в
свете
регулирования.)
JK 12/88:659-663.
TAKÁCS György: Törvényhozó t a n á c s t e s t ü l e t e k , m i n t p a r l a m e n t i ( L e g i s l a t i v e c o u n c i l bodies as a lower house o f P a r l i a m e n t . ное собрание
советов в
качестве
нижней
alsóház. Законодатель-
палаты парламента. )
MJ 5/89:438-443.
TRÓCSÁNYI L á s z l ó , i f j . : A k ö z i g a z g a t á s i b í r á s k o d á s s z e r v e z e t e és működése Olaszországban. in Italy.
( O r g a n i z a t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n g o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
Структура и функционирование
jurisdiction
административного
право-
Bibliographie судия в
183
Италии.)
ÁJ 1 / 8 9 : 9 7 - 1 2 1 .
UDVAROS M i k l ó s : Országgyűlés és v á l a s z t ó j o g Svédországban. ( P a r l i a m e n t and the r i g h t t o vote i n Sweden. П а р л а м е н т
и избирательное
право в Шве-
ÁJ 1/89:142-189.
ЦИИ.)
VASTAGH P á l : L e g i t i m - e a magyar Országgyűlés: ( I s Hungarian P a r l i a m e n t a l e g i t i m a t e body? З а к о н н о л и в е н г е р с к о е
Государственное
собрание?)
TSZ 6 / 8 9 : 1 6 - 2 1 .
III.
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW -
III.
Books -
АДМИНИСТРАТИВНОЕ ПРАВО
Книги
Energiagazdálkodási jogszabályok gyűjteménye. 2 . ( k ö t . ) Ö s s z e á l l . Szabóné Kovács I b o l y a - Farkas László. K i a d . az Á l l a m i E n e r g e t i k a i és E n e r g i a b i z t o n s á g t e c h n i k a i F e l ü g y e l e t . L e z á r v a : 1988. j a n . 31. ( C o l l e c t i o n o f
statutory
r u l e s from the f i e l d o f power economic management. V o l . 2. C l o s e d :
January
31, 1988.
Сборник
нормативных
а к т о в об
ве. Том II. До 3 1 января 1 9 8 8
энергетическом
хозяйст-
г.)
Bp. (mimeogr.) 1988. 502, (2) p .
A gazdálkodásra vonatkozó l e g f o n t o s a b b j o g s z a b á l y o k . 1989. L e z á r v a : 1988. dec. 31. ( P r i n c i p a l s t a t u t o r y r u l e s on economic a c t i v i t y . 1989". Closed: December 31, 1988. г.
Хозяйственные
До 3 1 д е к а б р я 1 9 8 8
ведущие нормативные
акты
1989
г.)
( B p . ) Somogy megyei ny. (1989.) 282, ( 2 ) p.
TRÖCSÁNYI L á s z l ó , i f j . : A környezetvédelem s z e r v e z e t e egyes s z o c i a l i s t a
or-
szágokban. ( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar Tudományos Akadémia államtudományi k u t a t á sok p r o g r a m i r o d á j a . countries.
(Environment p r o t e c t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n i n some s o c i a l i s t
Управление
социалистических
охраной
окрулсапцей среды в
странах.)
Bp. (mimeogr.) 1988. ( 4 ) , 92 p . B i b l i o g r .
passim.
некоторых
184
Bibliographie Articles - Статьи
BALÁZS I s t v á n : I g a z g a t á s bürokrácia n é l k ü l . Nemzetközi k e r e k a s z t a l k o n f e r e n c i a . Budapest, 1988. aug. 30. - s z e p t . 2. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h o u t bureaucracy. An i n t e r n a t i o n a l r o u n d - t a b l e c o n f e r e n c e , held a t Budapest on August 30 t o September 2, 1988. народная
Управление
конференция за к р у г л ы м столом.
AI 4/89:370-373.
без
бюрократии.
Будппешт,
2 сентября 1988
BALÁZS I s t v á n : Az "autonom s t r u k t u r á k " szerepe a közigazgatás
administration.
Роль
т.н.
автономных
структур
-
г.)
fejlesztésé-
ben. (The r o l e o f "autonomous s t r u c t u r e s " i n the development o f
личной
Между-
30 а в г у с т а
public
в развитии
пуб-
администрации.)
ÁI 5/89:426-431.
BALOGH Z s o l t : Önkormányzat és i d e g e n f o r g a l m i i g a z g a t á s . and t o u r i s t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
Самоуправление
(Self-government
и управление
туризмом. )
ÁI 1 / 8 9 : 2 1 - 3 0 .
BÁNDI Gyula: A k ö r n y e z e t i h a t á s v i z s g á l a t ma és h o l n a p . (Examination o f env i r o n m e n t a l impacts, present and f u t u r e . ружающую с р е д у в
настоящее
Исследование влияний
на
ок-
время и в будущем. )
MJ 4/89:317-327.
BÁNDI Gyula: Környezetvédelmi h a t á s k ö r ö k - b í r ó s á g vagy közigazgatás? (Environment p r o t e c t i o n competences - c o u r t or p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ? т и ц и и в сфере о х р а н ы о к р у ж а ю щ е й тивные
среды -
с у д или
Компе-
администра-
органы?)
JK 10/88:555-561.
BARKÚVZY Tamás: Az országos á l l a m i g a z g a t á s i szakmai tudományos k o n f e r e n c i á k ról.
( N a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c conferences on p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
герских
научных
конференциях
специалистов
О
всезен-
государственного
управления.) ÁI 1 / 8 9 : 3 7 - 6 9 .
BENKE Éva: A k ö r n y e z e t v é d e l m i igények érvényesítésének h a t á s k ö r i
kérdései.
(Competence problems o f the environment of e n v i r o n m e n t a l needs. В о п р о с ы
Bibliographie компетенции при осуществлении исков жающей
185 п о делам об
охране
окру-
среды.)
ЗК 10/88:562-567.
BÚZÁS Huba: Modernizáció és a közigazgatás ú j m o d e l l j e . ( M o d e r n i s a t i o n and Модернизация
the new model o f p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . публичной
и новая
модель
администрации.)
ÄI 3/89:215-231.
CSEFKÚ Ferenc: Az e l ö l j á r ó s á g o k működésének t a p a s z t a l a t a i r ó l .
(Experiences
w i t h the f u n c t i o n i n g of m a g i s t r a t e s . Об о п ы т е д е я т е л ь н о с т и
управ.)
= Dolg. á l l a m - és j o g t u d . k ö r é b ő l . 19. é f v . 1988. 113-132.
CSÉPAINÉ SZËLL Pálma - FOGARASI József: A k ö z i g a z g a t á s i s z e m é l y z e t i
politi-
ka és tevékenység l e h e t ő s é g e i az önkomrányzatoknál. ( P r o s p e c t s of p e r s o n n e l p o l i c y and a c t i v i t y i n autonomous a d m i n i s t r a t i v e bodies. в
самоуправлении
кадровой
Осуществление
политики и деятельность
ÁI 6/89:481-496.
публичной
администрации. )
CSIBA T i b o r : A b ü r o k r a t i z m u s s z u b j e k t í v o l d a l á r ó l . (The s u b j e c t i v e s i d e o f bureaucratism.
О субъективной
стороне
бюрократизма.)
ÁI 2/В9:154-161.
CSIBA T i b o r :
. . . önkormányzat . . . Bevezetés és befejezés n é l k ü l . ( . . .
government . . . Without i n t r o d u c t i o n and end.
Self-
Самоуправление.)
ÁI 4 / 8 9 : 330-333.
CSŐSZ Ferenc: A tanácsok h e l y e , szerepe, k ü l ö n ö s t e k i n t e t t e l a k ö l t s é g v e t é s reformjára.
(The place and r o l e of c o u n c i l s , e s p e c i a l l y i n the reform o f
the budget. ного
Место и роль
советов
в
свете
реформы
государствен-
бюджета.)
ÁI 6 / 8 9 : 5 6 9 - 5 7 3 .
DEÁK Gézáné: Tanácsok szerepe az á l l a m i környezetvédelmi p o l i t i k a
végrehaj-
tásában. (The r o l e of t h e c o u n c i l s i n t h e implementation o f the o f f i c i a l environment p r o t e c t i o n p o l i c y . дарственной
политики
ÁI 6 / 8 9 : 5 6 4 - 5 6 8 .
Роль с о в е т о в в и с п о л н е н и и
по охране окружающей
среды.)
госу-
186
Bibliographie 186
FONYÓ G y u l a : Az á l l a m i munka ú j vonásai Lengyelországban.
(Tanácskozás.
Varsó, 1989. j a n . 3 - 1 0 . New f e a t u r e s o f t h e s t a t e a c t i v i t i e s i n P o l a n d . A meeting h e l d i n Warsaw, January 3 t o 1 0 , 1989. ственной
рабрты в Польше.
Совещание.
Новые черты
Варшава,
государ-
3-10 января
1989г.
ÁI 4 / 8 9 : 3 5 1 - 3 6 0 .
FÜRCHT P á l - RIBLING F e r e n c : A megyei t a n á c s i szakigazgatás k o r s z e r ű s í t é se. ( U p d a t i n g the s p e c i a l organs of c o u n t y c o u n c i l s . специального управления в комитатских
Совершенствование
советах.)
ÄI 3 / 8 9 : 1 9 3 - 2 0 3 .
GYERGYÓINÉ RUDNAI Vera: Önigazgatás Svédországban. ( S e l f - g o v e r n m e n t Sweden.
Самоуправление
в
in
Звеции.)
Ál 4 / 8 9 : 3 6 1 - 3 6 9 .
H0LLÚ A n d r á s : A tanácsok k ö z p o n t i i r á n y í t á s á n a k néhány e l v i k é r d é s é r ő l az alkotmányreform t ü k r é b e n .
(Some t h e o r e t i c a l questions o f the c e n t r a l
management o f c o u n c i l s as r e f l e c t e d i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l reform. торых принципиальных ми в с в е т е
вопросах центрального
управления
О
неко-
совета-
реформы к о н с т и т у ц и и . )
ÁI 4 / 8 9 : 3 3 4 - 3 4 1 .
HORVÁTH M. Tamás: Működjék-e tanács megyi s z i n t e ? (Should c o u n t y - l e v e l councils continue f u n c t i o n i n g ? Н е о б х о д и м л и с о в е т
н а уровне
юмита-
ÁI 4 / 8 9 : 3 1 9 - 3 2 9 .
та?)
IVÁNCSICS I m r e : A t a n á c s i s z a k i g a z g a t á s i szervezet f e j l e s z t é s e . development o f the c o u n c i l - l e v e l s p e c i a l system of o r g a n s . темы с п е ц и а л ь н о г о
управления в
(The
Развитие
сис-
советах.)
ÁI 3 / 8 9 : 2 0 4 - 2 1 4 .
KARA P á l : A magyar t e l e p ü l é s e k szövetsége. (The a s s o c i a t i o n of the Hungarina communities.
Союз
венгерских
населённых
пунктов.)
ÁI 2 / 8 9 : 1 0 7 - 1 1 3 .
(KILÉNYI Géza)
КИЛЕНЬИ Г е з а :
0 дальнейшем р а з в и т и и системы
( F u r t h e r development o f t h e c o u n c i l s y s t e m . ) AJurid. 1-2/88:45-81.
ооветов.
Bibliographie
187
KÖKÉNY Mihály - KÁDÁR András: Tapasztalatok a S z o c i á l i s és Egészségügyi Minisztérium létrehozásáról.
(The experiences w i t h the c r e a t i o n o f the
M i n i s t r y of H e a l t h and S o c i a l A f f a i r s . в а Социального
управления
и
Опыт п о
созданию
Министерст-
здравоохранения.)
Á I 4/89:312-318.
LAKATOS I s t v á n : A közakaratú t e l e p ü l é s f e j l e s z t é s f e l é . (Toward a community development o f p e o p l e ' s i n t e n t i o n s . по воле
О развитии населённых
пунктов
населения.)
Á I 4/89:342-350.
LÖRINCZ L ( a j o s ) : M o d e r n i z a t i o n and reform i n p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . д е р н и з а ц и я и реформа г о с у д а р с т в е н н о г о AJurid.
Мо-
управления.)
1-2/88:27-43.
MÁTHÉ Gábor: M e g o l d h a t a t l a n s z a b á l y s é r t é s i f e l e l ő s s é g ? ( I s t h e minor f l i n g e m e n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i m p o s s i b l e t o solve? ветственности
за административные
in-
Нерешимые в о п р о с ы
от-
правонарушения?)
JK 2 / 8 9 : 8 8 - 9 4 .
MOLNÁR M i k l ó s : Az egyedi á l l a m i g a z g a t á s i döntések j o g i meghatározottságának néhány p r o b l é m á j a . (Problems of the l e g a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f some s i n g l e public administrative decisions. определённости
Некоторые
индивидуальных
проблемы
административных
юридической решений.)
OK 10/88:505-588.
MÚNUS L a j o s : A m i n i s z t é r i u m o k a v á l t o z ó időben. times.
Министерства
в эпохе
( M i n i s t r i e s i n the changing
перемен.)
Á I 3/89:263-272.
MÚRÉ László: Gondolatok a tanácsok v á l l a k o z á s i tevékenységéhez. (Ideas on the e n t e r p r e n e u r i a l a c t i v i t i e s o f the c o u n c i l s . З а м е т к и о тельской работе
предпринима-
советов.)
ÁI 1 / 8 9 : 1 - 9 .
MÜLLER György: Gondolatok a szakapparátus h e l y z e t é n e k s z a b á l y o z á s i l e h e t ő s é g e i r ő l a következő tanácstörvényben. (Thoughts on the r e g u l a t i o n possib i l i t i e s of t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e c o u n c i l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f ,
applicable
188
Bibliographie 188
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g b i l l on the c o u n c i l s , статуса
специального
О возможностях
регулирования
аппарата. )
AI 5 / 8 9 : 3 8 5 - 3 9 6 .
Országos á l l a m i g a z g a t á s i szakmai tudományos k o n f e r e n c i a (a k é t s z i n t ű t e r ü l e t i igazgatás g y a k o r l a t i t a p a s z t a l a t a i r ó l .
N a t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l con-
f e r e n c e on p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n on t h e p r a c t i c a l experiences o f l o c a l and r e g i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
Всевенгерская
ция специалистов-административистов местного
территориального
helyi-
научная
об о п ы т е
two-level
конферен-
двухзвенного
управления.)
ÁI 2 / 8 9 : 1 6 2 - 1 8 3 .
PRUGBERGER Tamás: A t e r ü l e t i önkormányzat jogintézményrendszerének
néhány
összefüggése. (Some r e l a t i o n s of t h e l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n system o f
territorial
self-government.
правовых
институтов
Некоторые а с п е к т ы
территориального
соотношения системы
самоуправления.)
ÁI 6 / 8 9 : 5 1 0 - 5 2 2 .
RÁCZ A ( t t i l a ) : A d m i n i s t r a t i v e r u l e - m a k i n g on the n a t i o n a l l e v e l . творчество AJurid.
центральных административных
Нормо-
органов.)
1-2/88:171-195.
RIBLING Ferenc - URY L á s z l ó : E l k é p z e l é s e k a t a n á c s i i n f o r m á c i ó s rendszer és számítástechnika t o v á b b f e j l e s z t é s é r e .
(Ideas on t h e development o f
l e v e l i n f o r m a t i o n system and computer t e c h n o l o g y . нейшем р а з в и т и и
информационной
Размышления
системы и в ы ч и с л и т е л ь н о й
ÁI 6 / 8 9 : 5 3 8 - 5 5 0 .
ки
RÓZSALIGETI L á s z l ó : Az á l l a m i g a z g a t á s és a s p o r t egyes k é r d é s e i . problems o f p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and s p o r t s . сударственного
управления и
councilо
дальтехни-
советов.)
(Some
Некоторые вопросы
го-
спорта.)
ÁI 1 / 8 9 : 8 7 - 9 0 .
SZÜDI János: A n e v e l é s i - o k t a t á s i intézmények i r á n y í t á s a . (The management of the e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . ÁI 6 / 8 9 : 5 5 1 - 5 6 0 .
Управление педагогическими
учреждениЯМИ. )
TARR György: A k ö r n y e z e t v é d e l m i i g é n y e k é r v é n y e s í t é s é n é l bevezetésre j a v a -
Bibliographia
189
s o l h a t ó p o p u l a r i s a c t i o . ( P o p u l a r a c t i o n t o be proposed f o r
introduction
t o enforce environmental needs and c l a i m s .
ипользования
actio popularis Ж
Овозможности
при рассмотрении дел по
охране
окружающей
среды.)
10/88:567-576.
TRÚCSÁNYI L á s z l ó , i f j . : A k ö z i g a z g a t á s i b í r ó s á g o k szervezete és működése az NSZK-ban. (The o r g a n i s a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u r t s i n the Federal Republic of Germany. ративных
судов
в
Организация
и деятельность
админист-
ФРГ.)
JK 11/88:626-631.
ÚJFALVI Annamária: A bevándorlók j o g á l l á s a Franciaországban. immigrants i n France.
Статус
иммигрантов
во
( S t a t u s of
the
Франции.)
MJ 2 / 8 9 : 1 6 1 - 6 4 .
VEREBÉLYI I m r e : A magyar h e l y i önkormányzatok orzságos érdekszövetsége. (The n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e Hungarian l o c a l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t bodies. Вегзрское
представительство
интересов
местных
самоуправлений.)
ÁI 2/89:97-106.
VEREBÉLYI I m r e : A t a n á c s i önkormányzati rendszer alkotmányos a l a p j a i és f e j l e s z t é s i i r á n y a i . (The c o n s t i t u t i o n a l bases and development l i n e s of c o u n c i l - l e v e l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t system. равления
системы самоуправления
Конституционные
основы и
the
нап-
советов.)
ÁI 4/89:289-311.
ZOLTÁN Ödön: Változások a k ö r n y e z e t j o g szemléletében. (Changes i n the e n vironment law a t t i t u d e s . жающей
среды.)
JK 11/88:609-614.
Перемены в подходе к
праву
охраны
окру-
190
Bibliographie 190 I V . FINANCIAL LAW - I V .
Books -
ФИНАНСОВОЕ ПРАВО
Книги
Act (XXIV o f 1988) on investments o f f o r e i g n e r s i n Hungary. Publ. of F i n a n c e .
З а к о н В? X X Ï V / 1 9 8 3
г.
Ministry
о б и н о с т р а н н ы х капиталсвожениях
Bp. Hungarian Banknote P r i n t . 1989. 29 p . / P u b l i c f i n a n c e i n Hungary 4 9 . /
B e f e k t e t ő k könyve. S z e r k . Korányi G. Tamás. (Book o f i n v e s t o r s . ная к н и г а
для л и ц ,
(Bp.) ö t l e t ,
Настоль-
занимающихся к а п и т а л о в л о ж е н и е м . )
1988. 232 p .
A mai magyar á r r e n d s z e r . Szerk. Fürész I s t v á n . (The p r e s e n t system o f p r i c e s i n Hungary.
С и с т е м а цен в В е н г р и и н=ших
дней.)
Bp. Piremon - Metapress, 1988. 90 p .
New r u l e s e f f e c t i n g e n t e r p r i s e incomes. Wage r e g u l a t i o n , a c c e l e r a t e d d e p r e c i a t i o n , unemployment b e n e f i t , funds f o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l development and v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g . P u b l . M i n i s t r y o f Finance. сов
заработной платы,
фонда т е х н и ч е с к о г о
обесценения,
Регулирование
пособий по
р а з в и т и я и повышения
вопро-
безработице,
квалификации.)
Bp. P e r f e k t P r i n t . 1989. ( 8 ) 61 p. / P u b l i c finance i n Hungary 4 8 . /
Tőkekivonás, szanálás, f e l s z á m o l á s . S z e r k . Veress J ó z s e f . (Withdrawel o f capital, reorganisation, и
liquidation.
Сокращение
капитала,
санация
ликвидация.)
Bp. Közgazdasági és J o g i Kiadó, 1988. 191 p . B i b l i o g r .
189-191.
Article - Статья
HORVÁTH Imre - KISS L á s z l ó n é - KISS L á s z l ó : Az állampénzügy viszonyok s z a bályozásának néhány i d ő s z e r ű kérdése a g y a k o r l a t t ü k r é b e n . (Some t o p i c a l problems o f the r e g u l a t i o n o f s t a t e f i n a n c i a l matters as r e f l e c t e d by practice.
Некоторые
актуальные
совых в о п р о с о в в с в е т е
вопросы государственных
практики.)
= Dolg. á l l a m - és j o g t u d . k ö r é b ő l . 19. é v f . 1988. 139-166.
финан-
Bibliographia V. CIVIL LAW - V .
191
ГРАЖДАНСКОЕ ПРАВО
Book - К н и г а
KECSKÉS L á s z l ó : P e r e l h e t ó - e az állam? Immunitás és k á r f e l e l ő s s é g . s t a t e a c t i o n a b l e ? Immunity and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r damages. предъявлять
иск к
государству?
the
ли
Иммунитет и о т а т с в е н н о ш ь за в р е д . )
Bp. Közgazdasági és J o g i K i a d ó , 1988. 340, ( 4 ) p. B i b l i o g r .
Articles -
(Is
Можно
passim.
Статьи
B0YTHA György: A számítógépi programok védelmének i d ő s z e r ű k é r d é s e i . ( T o p i c a l problems of the p r o t e c t i o n o f computer programmes. проблемы охраны программ
Актуальные
электронных вычислительных
машин.)
MJ 2 / 8 9 : 1 1 4 - 1 2 5 .
DOMÉ Györgyné: Észrevételek az á t a l a k u l á s i törvény k o n c e p c i ó j á h o z . (Comments t o the concept o f the Act of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . на о преобразовании
государственных
К концепции
предприятий
в
зако-
общества.)
MJ 5 / 8 9 : 4 2 1 - 4 2 7 .
FALUDI Gábor: A szabadalmi o l t a l o m t a r t a l m á n a k v á l t o z á s a i a t e r v - és p i a c gazdaságokban. (Changes i n t h e content o f patent p r o t e c t i o n i n planned and market economies. ловиях
Изменения в содержании п а т е н т н о й
планового
и рыночного
охраны в
ус-
хозяйства.)
ÁJ 1 / 8 9 : 1 9 0 - 2 1 6 .
Görög-magyar ( c i v l i s z t i k a i )
tudományos ü l é s Miskolcon. (1988. s z e p t .
28-29.)
(A Greek-Hungarian s c i e n t i f i c session on c i v i l law m a t t e r s , held a t M i s k o l c on September 28-29, 1988. листов
в
г.
Мишкольце.
Греко-венгерское 28-29
научное
с е н т я б р я 1983
совещание
циви-
г.)
JK 2 / 8 9 : 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 .
HARMATHY A t t i l a : A v á l l a l k o z á s i szerződések a l a p k é r d é s e i r ő l .
(Fundamental
problems o f c o n t r a c t s f o r work. Об о с н о в н ы х в о п р о с а х дсговфа щ ц р з д а . ) ÁJ 3 - 4 / 8 7 - 8 8 : 3 8 1 - 4 0 2 .
192
Bibliographie 192
HAMZA Gábor: Magyar-olasz j o g á s z k o n f e r e n c i a a modern magánjog = p o l g á r i j o g ) római j o g i g y ö k e r e i r ő l . (Róma, 1986. máj. 1 5 - 1 7 . H u n g a r i a n - I t a l i a n conference of l a w y e r s on the Roman law r o o t s o f modern c i v i l l a w . Rome, May 15 t o 17, 1988. К о н ф е р е н ц и я в е н г е р с к и х скоправовых корнях Рим,
15-17
современного
мая 1986
и итальянских
частного
юристов о
(гражданского)
рим-
права.
г.)
Á j 3-4/87-88:742-753.
KAJOS Gyuláné: A gazdasági munkaközösségekkel kapcsolatos h a t ó s á g i munka (The a c t i v i t y o f a u t h o r i t i e s concerning economic working g r o u p s . венная работа
связанная
с
Ведомст-
х о з я й с т в е н н ы м и т р у д с ш м и товариществами.)
ÁI 1 / 8 9 : 3 1 - 3 6 .
KÚNYÁNÉ SIMICS Zsuzsa: A t u l a j d o n és a t u l a j d o n i elmélet v á l t o z á s a .
(Vita-
ü l é s . Budapest, 1988. nov. 8 . Property and changes i n the t h e o r y of p r o p e r t y . D i s c u s s i o n held at Budapest on November 8, 1988. С о б с т в е н н о с т ь изменения
и
в т е о р и и с о б с т в е н н о с т и . Д и с к у с с и я . % ц а ю ш ; ЗнаяС£я 3388 Г.)
МО 3/89:276-282.
KOVÁCS L á s z l ó : A k ö z k e r e s e t i társaság e l h a t á r o l á s a a p o l g á r i j o g i
társaság-
t ó l . ( D e l i m i t a t i o n between c o - p a r t n e r s h i p and c i v i l law a s s o c i a t i o n . Р а з г р а ничение
открытого
товарищества
от граяданиовревавсго
тазарпцества.)
МО 5/89:410-420.
LENK0VICS Barnabás: A s z e m é l y i t u l a j d o n t á r s a d a l m i j e l l e g e . character o f personal p r o p e r t y .
(The s o c i a l
Общественный х а р а к т е р
личной
собст-
венности. ) ÁJ 3 - 4 / 8 7 - 8 8 : 7 0 7 - 7 4 1 .
LENKOVICS Barnabás: Az ö s s z n é p i vagyon védelmében. ( I n defence of the a l l nation property.
В защиту
общественной
собственности.)
МО 5/89:428-437.
NÉMETH Á ( g n e s ) : Das d r i t t e d e u t s c h - u n g a r i s c h e Symposium f ü r Sept. 1987. (The t h i r d German-Hungarian symposium on c i v i l встреча AJurid.
немецких и в е н г е р с к и х
3-4/88:379-384.
цивилистов.)
Zivilrecht. law.
Третья
Bibliographia NOVOTNI Z ( o l t á n ) : Dogmatische Fragen des
193
Gesellschaftsrechtsverhältnisses.
(Dogmatic problems o f r e l a t i o n s i n t h e law of a s s o c i a t i o n . вопросы правоотношений в рамках AJurid.
Догматические
товарищества.)
3-4/88:347-359.
NOVOTNI Z o l t á n : A k o d i f i k á l t t á r s a s á g i j o g , mint a magyar p o l g á r i j o g megú j u l á s á n a k eszköze. (The c o d i f i e d law o f a s s o c i a t i o n as means o f renewal of the Hungarian c i v i l l a w . ствах
как
средство
Кодифицированное
законодательство
возобновления венгерского
об
обще-
гражданского
права,
JK 2 / 8 9 : 6 5 - 7 3 .
SZAMEL L ( a j o s ) : The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f c o r p o r a t e b o d i e s . коллегиальных AJurid.
Ответственность
органов.)
1-2/88:121-140.
TÖRŐ K á r o l y : Közös i n g a t l a n o n v é g z e t t é p í t k e z é s n é l a t u l a j d o n ( o s ) t á r s zó h o z z á j á r u l á s á n a k a pótlása b í r ó s á g i h a t á r o z a t t a l .
(The j u d i c i a l
hiány-
decision
d e s t i n e d t o r e p l a c e t h e missing consentaient of a c o - p r o p r i e t o r i n case of a c o n s t r u c t i o n work on an e s t a t e i n j o i n t p r o p e r t y . ладельца
с у д е б н ы м решением п р и
х о д я щ и м с я в общей
Замена с о г л а с и я
строительстве
на у ч а с т к е ,
совна-
собственности.)
MJ 4 / 8 9 : 3 0 0 - 3 0 6 .
A v á l l a l a t o k és a KGST- külkereskedelem. Körkérdés. ( E n t e r p r i s e s and f o r e i g n t r a d i n g w i t h i n the CMEA. An a l l - r o u n d i n q u i r y . внешняя торговля
в рамках СЭЗ.
Предприятия
и
Опрос.)
TSZ 2 / 8 9 : 2 1 - 2 9 .
VIDA Sándor: F o g y a s z t ó i véleménykutatás a f i n n b í r ó s á g e l ő t t . p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l i n f r o n t of t h e F i n n i s h c o u r t . тельских
интересов
в финских
(Consumer
Выявление
потреби-
судах.)
JK 1 / 8 9 : 4 8 - 4 9 .
VÖRÖS I ( m r e ) : Neuregelung des ungarischen Vergaberechts.
(Gesetzverordnung
No. 19 vom Jahre 1987. New r e g u l a t i o n o f the Hungarian law on t e n d e r s . Law-decree No. 19 o f 1987. Н о в о е в е н г е р с к о е ний по капиталовложению. AJurid.
3-4/88:365-367.
У к а з HS X I .
регулирование
1987
г.)
отноше-
Bibliographie 194
194
V I . LABOUR LAW - V I . ТРУДОВОЕ ПРАВО
Books - К н и г и
Bérreform - s gazdasági kibontakozás. Országos k o n f e r e n c i a . Budapest, 1988. máj. 2 - 4 . Fószerk. Héthy L a j o s . S z e r k . P r o l i n Zsuzsa. Kiad. az ÁBMH Munkaügyi Kutatóintézete.
(Wages r e f o r m and economic development. N a t i o n a l con-
f e r e n c e , held a t Budapest, May 2 t o 3, 1988. н о й платы Будапешт,
хозяйственное
£ - 4 м а я 1988
Реформа с и с т е м ы
обновление.
Материалы
заработ-
конференции.
г.)
Bp. (mimeogr.) 1988. ( 2 ) , 304 p. B i b l i o g r . passim. - Eng. summary ; IJcoc. сод.
HÉTHY Lajos - MAKÓ Csaba: P a t t e r n s o f workers' behavior and the business e n t e r p r i s e . Publ. I n s t i t u t e of Sociology of t h e Hungarian Academy o f Sciences. Яеизгорые а с п е к т ы поведения рабочих и х с в я й с т з е ш о е предприятие. ) Bp. (mimeogr.) 1989. ( 2 ) , I I I , 213 p . B i b l i o g r .
passim.
Munkaügyi j o g s z a b á l y o k . 1. k ö t . A munkaviszony l é t e s í t é s e , módosítása és megszüntetése. Ö s s z e á l l . Leyrer Lorántné. Főszerk. Kiss Elemér. Szerk. M i h o l i c s T i v a d a r . Lezárva: 1987. s z e p t . 30. ( S t a t u t o r y r u l e s l a b o u r law. V o l . 1. E s t a b l i s h m e n t , m o d i f i c a t i o n , and t e r m i n a t i o n o f a labour s h i p . Closed: September 30, 1987.
Нормативные
шениях.
и сокращение
Том I .
Создание,
изменение
До 3 0 с е н т я б р я
1987
relation-
акты о трудовых трудовых
отно-
отношений.
г.)
8р. Népszava, 1988. 716, (4) р.
Munkaügyi j o g s z a b á l y o k . 3. k ö t . A munka d í j a z á s a . Ö s s z e á l l . Bacskay L á s z l ó . Főszerk. Kiss Elemér. Szerk. M i h o l i c s T i v a d a r . Lezárva: 1988. márc. 1. ( S t a t u t o r y r u l e s o f labour law. V o l . 3. Renumeration of l a b o r u . March 1, 1988.
Нормативные
Плата за т р у д .
До
акты о трудовых
1 марта 1988
Bp. Népszava, 1988. 529, (2) p .
г.)
отношениях.
Closed: Том
III.
Bibliographia Articles -
195
Статьи
LAKATOS L á s z l ó : Közveszélyes munkakerülés és/vagy munkanélküliség. and/or unemployment. О б щ е с т в е н н о - о п а с н о е ятельности и/или
уклонение
от
(Vagrancy
трудовой
де-
безработица.)
OK 1 / 8 9 : 3 6 - 4 8 .
MÁRKUS P é t e r : Az állam szerepe a makroszintű b é r p o l i t i k a a l a k í t á s á b a n . s t a t e ' s r o l e i n shaping m a c r o - l e v e l p o l i c y on wages. Р о л ь ф о р м и р о в а н и и общей п о л и т и к и в о б л а с т и
(The
государства
заработной
в
платы.)
TSZ 4 / 8 9 : 1 1 2 - 1 1 8 .
PÁL L a j o s : V i t a a munka törvénykönyvének t e r v e z e t é r ő l .
(Budapest, 1988. n o v .
22. A d i s p u t e on the d r a f t Labour Code, i n Budapest on November 22, 1988. Обсуждение
проекта
Закона
о труде.
Будапешт,
22
ноября
1938
г.
MJ 1 / 8 9 : 8 9 - 9 1 .
RÁCZ A l b e r t : B i z t o s í t á s - gazdálkodás - önkormányzat. Merre t a r t a t á r s a d a l o m b i z t o s í t á s ? ( I n s u r a n c e - economy - s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t . The f u t u r e of security.
Страхование
-
хозяйствование
ком направлении р а з в и в а е т с я
социальное
-
самоуправление.
social В
ка-
страхование?)
TSZ 1 / 8 9 : 2 9 - 3 8 .
TRÓCSÁNYI L á s z l ó : Előadás a nyugat-német munkavállalók k é p v i s e l e t é r ő l a részvénytársaságok vezetésében. (Budapest, 1 9 8 8 . j ó l . 1. Report on the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of employees i n the West German j o i n t stock complaines. Budap e s t , J u l y 1 , 1988.
О представительстве
ящихся в р у к о в о д с т в е
акционерных
западно-германских
обществ.
труд-
Цудапепиц 1 ю н я 1 9 8 8
г.
JK 11/89:623-624.
TRÓCSÁNYI L á s z l ó : A munkaharc a Német S z ö v e t s é g i Köztársaság és A u s z t r i a jogában. (The l a b o r u c o n f l i c t s i n the law o f t h e Federal Republic of Germany and A u s t r i a .
Борьба
за работу в законодательстве
ФРГ и
Австрии.)
JK 2 / 8 9 : 1 0 2 - 1 0 5 .
ZSIGA L á s z l ó : A munkaszerződés megkötése és megszűnése. (The c o n c l u s i o n o f labour c o n t r a c t and i t s t e r m i n a t i o n . вого
договора.)
Заключение
и прекращение
трудо-
196
Bibliographie 196
ЗК 2 / 8 9 : 8 5 - 8 8 .
V I I . FAMILY LAW - V I I .
РЕПЕЙНОЕ ПРАВО
Book - К н и г а
A c s a l á d j o g i t ö r v é n y . A Legfelsőbb B í r ó s á g á l l á s f o g l a l á s a i v a l .
Összeáll.
Makal K a t a l i n - Somogyvári I s t v á n . L e z á r v a : 1987. n o v . 30. (Act of
family
law. W i t h the stands o f t h e Supreme C o u r t . Closed: November 30, 1987. декс
законов
Верховного
о браке
Суда. До
и семье и 30 н о я б р я
относящихся к 1987
нему
Ко-
практика
г.)
Bp. Közgazdasági és J o g i Kiadó, 1988. 284, (4) p. / K i s jogszabály
sorozat./
Articles - Статьи
CSIKY O t t ó : A házassági k o n f l i k t u s o k f e l o l d á s á n a k ú j a b b j o g i eszközei és lehetőségei.
( A d d i t i o n a l l e g a l means and p o s s i b i l i t i e s of r e l e a s i n g mar-
riage c o n f l i c t s .
Дальнейшие правовые
решения конфликтов
средства
и возможности
для
между с у п р у г а м и . )
MJ 1 / 8 9 : 5 0 - 5 7 .
HÁMORI V i l m o s : P s z i c h o l ó g i a a házassági bontó és gyermekelhelyezési (Psychology i n d i v o r c e and c h i l d accomodation s u i t s . лах о расторжении
б р а к а и помещении
perben.
Психология в
де-
детей.)
MJ 3 / 8 9 : 2 4 4 - 2 5 4 .
KEREZSI K l á r a : Gondolatok a gyermek- és családvédelemről (Ideas on c h i l d and f a m i l y p r o t e c t i o n .
Об о х р а н е д е т е й и
семьи.)
JK 10/88:577-582.
VAVRÚ I s t v á n : A házassági bontóperek f ő j e l l e g z e t e s s é g e i a bíróságok szemszögéből.
(The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d i v o r c e s u i t s as seen by t h e c o u r t s .
О с о б е н н о с т и дел о р а с т о р ж е н и и MJ 4 / 8 9 : 3 2 8 - 3 3 4 .
брака с точки
зрения
судов.)
Bibliographia
197
WEISS E ( m í l i a ) : Über d i e Novelle des ungarischen
Familiengesetzbuches
- Gesetz Nr. IV 1986. (The m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the f a m i l y law Code. A c t IV of 1986.
Новая р е д а к ц и я
AJurid.
з а к о н а ВНР о б р а к е ,
семье и
опеке.)
1-2/88:83-119.
V I I I . LAND LAW -
Book -
VIII.
ЗЕМЕЛЬНОЕ ПРАВО
Книга
F ö l d r ő l szóló j o g s z a b á l y o k . Ö s s z e á l l . Sáriné Simkó Ágnes. ( S t a t u t o r y on t h e l a n d .
Нормативные а к т ы о
Bp. Közgazdasági és j o g i Kiadó, 1989. 204, ( 4 ) p . / K i s j o g s z a b á l y
Article -
rules
земле.) sorozat./
Статья
DOMÉ M ( á r i a ) : Formes de p r o p r i é t é t e r r i e n n e prévues par l a n o u v e l l e
loi
f o n c i è r e . (Forms o f landed p r o p e r t y as p r o v i d e d by the new a c t l a n d . Формы земельной собственности
по
новому земельному к о д е к с у . )
AJurid. 1-2/88:197-206. I X . LAW OF CO-OPERATION - I X .
СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННОЕ ПРАВО
Articles - Статьи
MÁNDY Endre: Egy s z ö v e t k e z e t i t ö r v é n y v á z l a t a .
(1988. é v i I I .
o f t h e law on c o - o p e r a t i v e s . Act I I of 1988. С т р у к т у р н ы е кона
о кооперативах.
З а к о н KS 1 1 / 1 9 8 3
tv.
Outlines
элементы
за-
г.)
MJ 2/89:126-138.
TANKA Endre: A s z ö v e t k e z e t t u l a j d o n o s i autonómiájának alkotmányos s z a v a t o l á s a . ( C o n s t i t u t i o n a l guarantees o f the ownership autonomy o f Конституционное JK 12/88:663-668.
обеспечение
автономии кооператива
co-operatives. как
собственника.)
Bibliographie 198 X. CRIMINAL LAW. CRIMINAL SCIENCES - X .
УГОЛОВНОЕ ПРАВО.ВСПОМОГА-
ТЕЛЬНЫЕ НАУКИ УГОЛОВНОГО ПРАВА Books - К н и г и
BITTÓ Márta: Munkavédelem és b ü n t e t ő j o g . ( P r o t e c t i o n o f labour and c r i m i n a l law.
Охрана т р у д а
и уголовное
право.)
Bp. Közgazdasági és j o g i Kiadó, 1988. 296, ( 4 ) p . B i b l i o g r .
284-294.
Bűnügyi t e c h n i k a i közlemények. 1989. Szerk. Kertész Imre. ( S t u d i e s i n the techniques of c r i m i n o l o g y . 1989.
Известия уголовной
( B p . ) ВМ Kiadó, 1989. 242, (6) р. B i b l i o g r .
техники.
1989
г.)
passim.
A j o g és t e r á p i a összefüggései a k á b í t ó s z e r f o g y a s z t ó k kezelésében.
(Előadá-
sok, k o r r e f e r á t u m o k , hozzászólások. Budapest, 1988. j ú n . 5 . ) Szerk.
Lévai
M i k l ó s . (Közzéteszi az) MTA Magyar K r i m i n o l ó g i a i Társaság. ( R e l a t i o n s between law and t h e r a p y i n c u r i n g drug a d d i c t s . L e c t u r e s , comments. Budapest, June 5, 1988.
Взаимосвязь
correferences,
прага
и лечения
нар-
команов . ) Bp. (mimeogr.) 1988. ( 1 9 8 9 . ) 105 р . / K r i m i n o l ó g i a i közlemények 2 5 . /
Vagyoni kár - népgazdasági hátrány - gazdasági bűnözés. (Tudományos ü l é s e k . ) Wiener A. Imre, D i c z i g I s t v á n előadása. Budapest, 1988. f e b r . 28. - A k r i m i n á l p o l i t i k a l e g ú j a b b f e j l e m é n y e i Nyugat-Európában és Észak-Amerikában. Schneider, H - J . e l ő a d á s a . Budapest, 1988. márc. 24. - Az MTA Magyar K r i m i n o l ó g i a i Társaság. ( M a t e r i a l damage - disadvantage t o the n a t i o n a l economy c r i m i n a l i t y i n the economy. S c i e n t i f i c s e s s i o n s . Budapest, February 28, 1988. Recent development of c r i m i n a l p o l i c y i n Western Europe and N o r t h America. Lecture d e l i v e r e d by H . - J . Schneider. Budapest, March 24, 1988. General assembly of t h e Hungarian A s s o c i a t i o n of C r i m i n o l o g y of t h e Hung a r i a n Academy of Sciences f o r the r e l e c t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s . 1988. + Annexe. ки -
Имущественный
хозяйственные
Доклад Шнейдера,
вред
преступления.
Х.И.
к и в Западной Европе
о новейших
-
Budapest, May 19,
народнохозяйственные
Иатериали аспектах
и Северной Америке.
научного
криминальной 24 марта
убыт-
заседания. полити1988
года.) Bp. (mimeogr.) 1988. 130, 2 р. / K r i m i n o l ó g i a i közlemények 2 2 - 2 3 - 2 4 . /
Bibliographia
199
Articles - Статьи
HEVÉNYI A t t i l a :
R e f l e x i ó Szabó András: A b ü n t e t ő j o g r e f o r m j a - a reform
b ü n t e t ő j o g a című c i k k é r e . ( R e f l e c t i o n s t o András Szabó's a r t i c l e "Reform of c r i m i n l a law - c r i m i n a l law of t h e r e f o r m . " с т а т ь е Андраша Сабо. право
"Реформа у г о л о в н о г о
entitled
Рефлексии
права -
к
уголовное
реформы".)
MJ 5/89:444-445.
LAKATOS I s t v á n - NAGY László: A szenvedélybetegségek (Compulsory t r e a t m e n t of passion-bound i l l n e s s e s ? чение
kényszergyógyítása? Принудительное
ле-
наркоманов?)
MJ 1 / 8 9 : 7 1 - 7 3 .
KELEMEN Ágnes: A Community S e r v i c e - közérdekű munkavégzés-büntetés a n g l i a i tapasztalatairól. vice".
Работа в
( B r i t i s h e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h t h e punishment "Community Serинтересах
общества к а к
мера н а к а з а н и я в
Анг-
лии. ) MJ 1 / 8 9 : 7 4 - 7 9 .
BODNÁR Imre: Az áramlopás e l m é l e t i és g y a k o r l a t i k é r d é s e i . ( T h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l problems o f tapping t h e c u r r r e n t . ческие
вопросы
кражи
Теоретические
и
практи-
электроенергии.)
= D o l g . á l l a m - és j o g t u d . k ö r é b ő l . 19. é v f . 1988. 97-111.
MORVÁI K r i s z t i n a : Meditáció a m e d i t á c i ó r ó l - avagy gondolatok az elkövető és a s é r t e t t k ö z ö t t i k o n f l i k t u s megoldásának ú j m e g k ö z e l í t é s é r ő l .
(Medi-
t a t i o n on m e d i t a t i o n e r t h o u g h t s on a new approach t o the s o l u t i o n of the c o n f l i c t between p e r p e t r a t e r and the of o f f e n d e d p a r t y . новом подходе к
Размышления о
решению к о н ф л и к т а м е ж д у преступником и потерпев-
MJ 2/89:147-153.
шим. )
SINKU Pál - VÖKÓ György: A f o g v a t a r t á s h e l y z e t e és p e r s p e k t í v á i . l a t i o n and p e r s p e c t i v e s of d e t e n t i o n . тута
заключения
MJ 3/89:224-234.
под с т р а ж у . )
(Regu-
Положение и п е р с п е к т и в ы
инсти-
Bibliographie 200
200
SZABÖ A ( n d r á s ) : Déviances e t l a p r é v e n t i o du c r i m e . ( S o c i a l adjustment t r o u b l e s and crime p r e v e n t i o n . Д е в и а н ц и я и п р е д у п р е ж д е н и е
преступнос-
AJurid. 3-4/88:323-345.
ти. )
X I . JUDICAL ORGANIZATION - X I .
СУДОУСТРОЙСТВО
Articles - Статьи
BÓKAI J u d i t : "Eretnek nézetek" a k ö z j e g y z ő i szervezet
korszerűsítéséről.
( " H e r e t i c " views on t h e m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f n o t a r i e s "Еретические
взгляды"
о совершенствовании
работы
public.
нотариата.)
MJ 1 / 8 9 : 6 8 - 7 1 .
BORSI Z o l t á n : Tudományos ü l é s a Legfőbb Ügyészségen. (Az ö n á l l ó ü g y é s z i s z e r v e z e t munkájának f e j l ő d é s e és mai szerepe a t á r s a d a l m i - g a z d a s á g i
kibon-
takozásban címmel. 1988. nove. 10. A s c i e n t i f i c s e s s i o n held at t h e Supreme P r o s e c u t o r ' s l e c t u r e e n t i t l e d Development and p r e s e n t r o l e of t h e of t h e supreme p r o s e c u t o r ' s o f f i c e w i t h i n the socio-economic November 10, 1988. работы
и её р о л ь
Развитие в
работы
reconstruction.
самостоятельной
общественно-экономическом
activity
прокурорской
развитии.)
Ш 1/89:58-67.
HORVÁTH György: Gondolatok az i g a z s á g s z o l g á l t a t á s apparátusának járól.
(Thoughts on t h e democracy as l i v i n g i n the system of
justice.
О демократизме
судебного
demokráciá-
administrating
аппарата.)
MJ 2 / 8 9 : 1 3 9 - 1 4 6 .
A j o g i k é p v i s e l e t i tevékenység egy másik k o n c e p c i ó j a . cept o f l e g a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a c t i v i t y . Ещё о д н а к о н ц е п ц и я
судебного
(MJSZ. An o t h e r con-
Hungarian Lawyers'
представительства.
MJ 3 / 8 9 : 2 0 2 - 2 1 1 .
Association. Ассоциация
Венгерских
Юристов.)
A j o g i k é p v i s e l e t i tevékenység egységes szabályozásának k o n c e p c i ó j a .
(Igaz-
ságügyi M i n i s z t é r i u m Concept of the u n i f o r m r e g u l a t i o n o f l e g a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a c t i v i t y . M i n i s t r y of j u s t i c e .
Концепция
единого
регулирования
Bibliographia судебного
представительства.
201
Министерство
Юстиции.)
MJ 3 / 8 9 : 1 9 3 - 2 0 1 .
KANIZSAI NAGY András: A j o g i k é p v i s e l e t i törvény k o n c e p c i ó j a e l é vagy mögé? Az egységes j o g i k é p v i s e l e t i t ö r v é n y .
(Comments on the concept of t h e
on l e g a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . Act on u n i f o r m l e g a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . о
bill
Концепция
представительстве.)
MJ 4 / 8 9 : 3 0 7 - 3 1 6 .
SZÁDECZKY-KARDOSS I r m a : A technika szerepe az igazságügyi (The r o l e o f techniques i n j u d i c u a l a c t i v i t y . ности
tevékenységben.
Роль т е х н и к и в
деятель-
юстиции.)
MJ 4 / 8 9 : 3 3 5 - 3 4 9 .
UDVAROS M i k l ó s : Legfelsőbb s z i n t ű b í r á s k o d á s az Egyesült Államokban. a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e a t the h i g h e s t l e v e l i n the US. Высшая
(The
инстан-
ц и я п р а в о с у д и я в США. ) ÁJ 1 / 8 9 : 1 3 9 - 1 4 2 .
X I I . CIVIL PROCEDURE -
Book -
XII.
ГРАЖДАНСКИЙ ПРОЦЕСС
Книга
KENGYEL M i k l ó s : Tanúbizonyítás a p o l g á r i perben. (Evidence by w i t n e s s c i v i l procedure. С в и д е т е л ь с к и е
показания
в гражданском
Bp. Közgazdasági és J o g i Kiadó, 1988. 345, (2) p. B i b l i o g r .
Articles -
in
процессе.)
317-325.
Статьи
ASZÓDI I l o n a : F i z e t é s k é p t e l e n s é g , f e l s z á m o l á s . ( I n s o l v e n c y and l i q u i d a t i o n . Неплатежеспособность
и
ликвидация.)
MJ 2 / 8 9 : 1 5 4 - 1 6 4 .
FARKAS J ó z s e f : A környezetvédelem és a p o l g á r i e l j á r á s j o g . p r o t e c t i o n and the law o f c i v i l p r o c e d u r e .
(Environment
Охрана окружающей
среды
202
Bibliographie 202
и гражданско-процессуальное
право.)
OK 10/88:549-555.
KÁLMÁN György: Néhány g o n d o l a t a gazdasági í t é l k e z é s j ö v ő j é r ő l .
(Thoughts
on the f u t u r e o f the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e i n economic m a t t e r s . дебном р а с с м о т р е н и и х о з я й с т в е н н ы х
споров в
О
су-
будущем.)
MJ 2 / 8 9 : 1 0 9 - 1 1 3 .
SZABÓ P é t e r : Discovery - egy különös a m e r i k a i p e r j o g i intézmény. - a p e c u l i a r American p r o c e d u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n . Discovery институт
американского
процессуального
(Discovery
специальный
права.)
JK 11/88:614-622.
SZÉKELY L á s z l ó : A t i t k o s h a n g f e l v é t e l e k p e r b e l i f e l h a s z n á l h a t ó s á g á r ó l . use of s e c r e t sound tapes i n the s u i t s . тайных
Об и с п о л ь з у е м о с т и в
(The
процессе
звукозаписей.)
ŰK 11/88:601-609.
TEMLER Elemér: Hagyatéki e l j á r á s és a b i z o n y í t á s f e l v é t e l . taking evidence. Н а с л е д с т в е н н о е
производство
и
(The probate and
доказывание.)
MJ 3 / 8 9 : 2 3 5 - 2 3 7 .
TÖRÖK G ( á b o r ) : New l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n o f i n s o l v e n c y . (Law-decree No. 11 o f 1986 and decree No. 26 o f 1986 of the C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r . вое р е г у л и р о в а н и е
банкротства.
л е н и е С о в м и н а N2 2 6 / 1 9 3 6 AJurid.
Указ
Ш 11/1986
г.
Новое к
право-
Постанов-
г.)
3-4/87:408-415.
X I I I . CRIMINAL PROCEDURE -
Articles -
XIII.
УГОЛОВНЫЙ НРОЦПСС
Статьи
CSÉKA E r v i n : A b ü n t e t ő e l j á r á s i j o g a l k o t á s j e l e n t ő s é g e , módosítása és a t ö r v é n y e s s é g i garanciák.
büntetőeljárásjogunk
(The s i g n i f i c a n c e of
criminal
procedure l e g i s l a t i o n , m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e Hungarian c r i m i n a l procedure, and the guarantees of t h e r o l e of law.
Значение
уголовно-процессу-
Bibliographia ального
законодательства,
законные
203
изменение процессуального
права
и
гарантии.)
JK 11/88:593-600.
KIRÁLY T ( i b o r ) : Die Wege des S t r a f V e r f a h r e n r e c h t s .
(The trends of t h e law
of c r i m i n a l procedure. П у т и р а з в и т и я у г о л о в н о - п р о ц е с с у а л н с г о AJurid.
npœa.)
3-4/87:345-354.
RUTTNER György: Védői j o g o k - á l l a m p o l g á r i j o g o k . A b ü n t e t ő e l j á r á s
hétköz-
napi g a r a n c i á i a nyomozás során. (The r i g h t s of the defence counsel citizens'
-
r i g h t s . Everyday guarantees i n the c r i m i n a l procedure i n t h e
process o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . но-процессуальные
Права з а щ и т н и к а и п р а в а
гарантии в повседневной
граждан.
Уголов-
ж и з н и при р а с с д е д о в а -
MJ 4 / 8 9 : 3 5 5 - 3 6 0 .
НИЯХ.)
TÓTH M i h á l y : Nyomozás és védelem.A f a l l e h e t üveg i s . defence. There are a l s o g l a s s w a l l s .
( I n v e s t i g a t i o n and
Расследование
и
защита.)
MJ 4 / 8 9 : 3 5 0 - 3 5 5 .
XIV. INTERNATIONAL LAW - X I V .
МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЕ ПРАВО
Books - К н и г и
HORVÁTH P á l : "Az emberijogok egyetemes üggyé v á l á s a " születésének a 200 éves é v f o r d u l ó j á r a .
( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Államtudomá-
n y i k u t a t á s o k p r o g r a m i r o d á j a . (On t h e 200th a n n i v e r s a r y of the p e r i i o d cons i d e r i n g human r i g h t s as a case of u n i v e r s a l concern. дания
всеобщего
значения правам
К 200-летию
"при-
человека".)
Bp. (mi ~ o g r . ) 1989. 80 p . B i b l i o g r . 75-76. - 0 t . Zusammenfassung; Rés. franc.
Emberi j o g o k hazánkban. Az Emberi Jogok Egyetemes N y i l a t k o z a t á n a k 40. é v f o r d u l ó j á r a . Szerk. Katonáné Soltész M á r t a . ( K ö z z é t e s z i az) Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem, J o g i Továbbképző I n t é z e t . (Human r i g h t s i n Hungary. For the 4 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f the U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n of Human R i g h t s . человека в Венгрии.
К 40-летию всеобщей д е к л а р а ц и и прав
Права человека.)
204
Bibliographie 204
Bp. F r a n k l i n y n . 1988. 385, ( 2 ) p . B i b l i o g r .
passim.
Az emberi j o g o k ma Magyarországon. Az Emberi Jogok Egyetemes N y i l a t k o z a t á nak 40. é v f o r d u l ó j a a l k a l m á b ó l , 1988. dec. 9 - é n , a Magyar Tudományos Akadémián r e n d e z e t t tanácskozás e l ő a d á s a i . Szerk. Lakatos M á r i a . ( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar ENSZ Társaság. (Human r i g h t s i n contemporary Hungary.
Lectures
d e l i v e r e d i n t h e Hungarian Academy of Sciences on December 9 , 1988, on t h e 4Cth a n n i v e r s a r y o f the U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n o f Human R i g h t s . л о в е к а в В е н г р и и в наши д н и . организованного
по с л у ч а ю
Bp. (mimeogr.) 1989. 60 p. 3 t .
Доклады научного
40-летия
Права
заседания
всеобщей д е к л а р а ц и и
B i b l i o g r . passim.
A nemzeti kisebbségek és a menekültek j o g a i .
че-
ВАН, прав
человека.)
1 - 2 . k ö t . Szerk.
Timoránszky
P é t e r . ( K ö z z é t e s z i a) Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Államtudományi kutatások programirodája.
( N a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s and t h e r i g h t s of r e f u g e e s . Vols 1 - 2 .
Права национальных меньшинств
и
беженцев.)
Bp. (mimeogr.) 1989. 259, 317 p . B i b l i o g r .
passim.
Tanulmányok a nemzeti kisebbségek j o g i v é d e l m é r ő l . 1 - 2 . ( k ö t . )
Szerk.
Szalayné Sándor Erzsébet. K i a d . a Janus Pannonius Tudományegyetem, Államés jogtudományi kar Kisebbségvédelmi munkaközössége. ( S t u d i e s i n the l e g a l p r o t e c t i o n o f n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s . Vols 1 - 2 . С б о р н и к р а б о т прав национальных меньшинств.
о
ващите
Том X — I I . )
Pécs, (mimeogr.) 1988. ( 4 ) , 251, ( 2 ) , 234-433, ( X L I ) p. B i b l i o g r .
passim.
Articles - Статьи
ÁGH A t t i l a : A békemozgalmak és az emberi j o g o k . rights.
Движение
з а мир и п р а в а
(Peace movements and human
человека.)
= Emberi jogok Magyarországon. 1989. 50-52.
BÁN Tamás: A menedékjogról. (The r i g h t t o asylum.
О праве
убежища.)
MJ 5 / 8 9 : 3 9 4 - 4 0 9 .
BOKORNÉ SZEGŐ Hanna: Az emberi jogok nemzetközi védelme és az ú j magyar
al-
kotmány. ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n o f human r i g h t s and the new Hungarian Constitution.
Международная
защита п р а в ч е л о в е к а
и новая
вен-
Bibliographia герская
205
конституция.)
= Emberi jogok Magyarországon. 1989.
34-39.
B0K0RNÉ SZEGŐ Hanna: A h e l s i n k i záróokmány és az emberi j o g o k . (The H e l s i n k i F i n a l Act and human r i g h t s .
Заключительный
акт
Хельсинкского
человека.)
Совещания и права JK 12/88:643-647.
BRAGY0VA András: A nemzetközi j o g szerepe a nemzetközi k o n f l i k t u s o k
rende-
zésében, a nemzetközi j o g i v i t a és t í p u s a i . (The r o l e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s ; d i s p u t e s i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l law and t h e i r types. дународных
Роль
международного
конфликтов:
права в р е г у л и р о в а н и и
международно-правовой
спор и е г о
межтипы.)
Áj 3-4/87-88:555-632.
Az Emberi Jogok Egyetemes N y i l a t k o z a t a . Human R i g h t s . Text.
(Szöveg. U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n of
Т е к с т Всеобщей деклярации
прав ч е л о в е к а . )
= Emberi jogok Magyarországon. 1989. 53-60.
FICZERE L ( a j o s ) : P r i n c i p e s et systeme j u r i d i q u e de l a c o o p é r a t i o n dans l e CAEM. (The p r i n c i p l e s and l e g a l system o f CMEA c o - o p e r a t i o n . и правовая система AJurid.
сотрудничества
в рамках
Принципы
СЭВ.)
1-2/88:141-169.
HERCEZG Géza: A nemzetiség és az emberi jogok. ( N a t i o n a l i t i e s and human rights.
Национальные меньшинства
и права
человека.)
= Emberi jogok Magyarországon. 1989. 27-33.
KOVÁCS P é t e r : A r e g i o n á l i s vagy K i s e b b s é g i Nyelvek Európai C h a r t á j a . (European Charter o f Regional or M i n o r i t y Languages. тия региональных
я з ы к о в или я з ы к о в
Европейская
Хар-
меньшинств.)
JK 12/88:669-672.
KULCSÁR Kálmán: Az emberi jogok ma Magyarországon. (Human r i g h t s i n contemporary Hungary.
Права ч е л о в е к а
в Венгрии в
= Emberi jogok Magyarországon. 1989. 12-20.
наши
дни.)
Bibliographie 206
206
LAMM Vanda: A c o n n a l l y - f e n n t a r t á s és a Nmezetközi Bíróság k ö t e l e z ő j o g h a t ó s á g i rendszere. (The Connally r e s e r v a t i o n and t h e compulsory system of l e g a l a u t h o r i t y o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Court o f j u s t i c e . ли и обязательная
юрисдикция Международного
Оговорка
Конна-
Суда.)
ÁJ 3 - 4 / 8 7 - 8 8 : 4 0 3 - 4 7 3 .
SZAMEL L a j o s : A nemzetiségi jogok a nemzetközi s z t e n d e r d j ü k . of the e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s and t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l standard. нальностей
и их международный
(The r i g h t s Права
нацио-
стандарт.)
ÁI 5/89:397-407.
ÚJFALVI Annamária: Az emberi jogok és az i f j ú s á g . (Human r i g h t s and the youth.
Права ч е л о в е к а
и
молодёжь.)
= Emberi jogok Magyarországon. 1989. 50-52.
XV. PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW - X V .
МЕЯДУНАРОДНОЕ ЧАСТНОЕ ПРАВО
Articles - Статьи
BURIÁN L á s z l ó : A d e l i k t u á l i s f e l e l ő s s é g a német nemzetközi magánjoban. ( D e l i c t u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e German p r i v a t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w . ная ответственность
по г е р м а н с к о м у международному
частному
ÁJ 1 / 8 9 : 5 7 - 9 6 .
праву.)
KIRÁLY M i k l ó s : A c s ő d e l j á r á s nemzetközi magánjogi k é r d é s e i . n a t i o n a l p r i v a t e law aspects o f bankruptcy p r o c e d u r e . частноправовые
Деликт-
вопросы производства
(Some i n t e r -
Международные
по делам о
несостоятель-
JK 2 / 8 9 : 7 8 - 8 5 .
ности. )
LONTAI E ( n d r e ) : Legal means o f the s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n i n CMEA. ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e , Potsdam-Babelsberg, June 24 t o 26, 1986.) Правовые с р е д с т в а
научно-технического
СЭВ. М е ж д у н а р о д н а я к о н ф е р е н ц и я , AJurid. 3-4/87:429-430.
сотрудничества
Потсдам-Бабельсберг,
в
рамках
24-26
июня 1986
г.)
MÁDL Ferenc: Az a k a r a t i autonómia a magyar nemzetközi magánjogban. (The autonomy of v o l i t i o n i n the Hungarian p r i v a t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w .
Автоно-
207
Bibliographia м и я в о л и с т о р о н по в е н г е р с к о м у м е ж д у н а р о д н о м у ч а с т н о м у
праву. )
Á3 3 - 4 / 8 7 - 8 8 : 6 3 3 - 6 4 4 .
MÄDL F ( e r e n c ) : Values versus l e g a l s e c u r i t y i n p r i v a t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l (To the 1 0 0 t h anniversary o f the b i r t h o f p r o f e s s o r Salamon Beck.) т и или п р а в о в а я у в е р е н н о с т ь права.
К 100-летию
AJurid.
3-4/87:355-381.
в сфере международного
с о д н я р о ж д е н и я Соломона
law. Ценнос-
частного
Бэк.)
MARTONYI János: Az Egyesült Államok, az NSZK és az Európai Közösségek
ver-
s e n y k o r l á t o z á s i jogának f ő j e l l e m z ő i . ( P r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e law r e g u l a t i n g t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e US, the FRG, and the European Communities. куренции в
Основные х а р а к т е р и с т и к и США, ФРГ и
Европейских
права на о г р а н и ч е н и е
кон-
сообществах.)
ÁJ 3 - 4 / 8 7 - В 8 : 6 4 5 - 7 0 6 .
TAKÁTS P é t e r : T e l j e s í t é s a nemzetközi a d á s v é t e l körében - a CISG és az ÁSZF. ( D e l i v e r y i n t h e sphere o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s a l e - CISG and GDT. в
сфере м е ж д у н а р о д н о й
Исполнение
к у п л и - п р о д а ж и CISG и О У П . )
JK 2 / 8 9 : 7 3 - 7 7 .
VEZEKÉNYI U r s u l a : A szorosan v e t t p o l g á r i j o g s e g é l y r ő l egy a u s z t r i a i
tanul-
mányút kapcsán. ( J u d i c i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n i t s s t r i c t e r sense, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h on t h e spot s u t i d e s i n A u s t r i a . делам в у з к о м
смысле
О п р а в о в о й мощи п о
гражданским
с л о в а из о п ы т а н а у ч н о й к о м а н д и р о в к и
MJ 3 / 8 9 : 2 3 8 - 2 4 4 .
в
Австрии.)
X V I . HISTORY OF STATE AND LAW - X V I .
ИСТОРИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВА И ПРАВА
Books - К н и г и
MÉRŐ K a t a l i n : Az é r t é k t ő z s d e szerepe és j e l e n t ő s é g e a t ő k é s Magyarország gazdasági é l e t é b e n . 1864-1944. (A) Magyar Tőzsdealapítvány kiadványa.
(Role
and importance o f the s t o c k exchange i n t h e economic l i f e o f c a p i t a l i s t gary. 1864-1944. Роль и з н а ч е н и е ной ж и з н и В е н г р и и . )
б и р ж и ценных б у м а г
в
Hun-
хозяйствен-
Bibliographie 208
208
Bp. Búzakalász Mgtsz n y . 1988. 126 P. / T ő z s d e e l m é l e t i tanulmányok Bibliogr.
1./
passim.
SZEGVÁRI K a t a l i n , N . : Numerus clausus rendelkezések az e l l e n f o r r a d a l m i Magyarországon. A zsidó és nőhallgatók f ő i s k o l a i f e l v é t e l é r ő l .
(Numerus
clausus measures i n c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y Hungary. Admissionof s t u d e n t s o f Jewish o r i g i n and women t o high s c h o o l . s Numerus c l a u s u s контрреволюционной
Венгрии.
ла на высшие у ч е б н ы е
О приёме
евреев
ограничения
в
и лиц женского
по-
заведения.)
Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988. 200, (4) p . B i b l i o g r .
passim.
TAKÁCS I m r e : Magyarország földművelődésügyi közigazgatása az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia korában. 1867-1918. ( A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the a g r i c u l t u r e i n Hungary i n the e r a o f the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. 1867-1918. равление
Земельное
в Венгрии в период а в с т р о - в е н г е р с к о й
монархии
Вр. Mezőgazdasági Kiadó, 1989. 271 p . B i b l i o g r . 261-270.
уп-
18671918.)
Articles - С т а т ь и
BÉLI Gábor - KAJTÁR I s t v á n : Az o s z t r á k ( - n é m e t ) büntető jogszabályok h a t á s a a magyar jogban a 18. században. (A P r a x i s C r i m i n a l i s . )
( E f f e c t of the
A u s t r i a n (German) s t a t u t e s o f c r i m i n a l l a w i n the Hungarian law i n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . The P r a x i s C r i m i n a l i s . уголовного
Влияние
права на венгерское
австрийского
право
= Dolg. á l l a m - és j o g t u d . k ö r é b ő l . 19. é v f .
в XVIII
(немецского)
веке.)
1988. 2 9 - 6 4 .
FÜLDESI Tamás: Az á l l a m - és j o g f e l f o g á s á t a l a k u l á s á n a k néhány j e l l e m z ő j e az u t ó b b i évtizedekben Magyarországon. (Some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of teh d e v e l o p ment of s t a t e and law t h e o r i e s i n Hungary. ты и з м е н е н и я в понимании г о с у д а р с т в а последние десятилетия
в
Некоторые и права,
характерные
чер-
происшедшего
в
Венгрии.)
JK 1 / 8 9 : 1 - 6 .
GERGELY Jenő: A magyar á l l a m és a k a t o l i k u s egyház v i s z o n y a 1945 és 1951 k ö z ö t t . (The c o n f l i c t s o f s e p a r a t i o n . The r e l a t i o n o f t h e Hungarian s t a t e and the c a t h o l i c church between 1945 and 1951.
Конфликты
разделения.
Отношения между в е н г е р с к и м г о с у д а р с т в о м и к а т о л и ч е с к о й
церковью
Bibliographia в
период
с
1945
года по
1951
209
год.)
TSZ 6 / 8 9 : 3 2 - 4 7 .
HAMZA Gábor: A nemzetközi k a p c s o l a t o k j o g i szabályozásának kérdése az antikvitásban.
(The problem o f t h e l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l
i n the A n t i q u i t y .
Вопрос
связей в античном
правового регулирования
relations
международных
мире.)
ÁJ 3 - 4 / 8 7 - 8 8 : 7 5 3 - 7 7 5 .
HAMZA G ( á b o r ) : Zum S t e l l v e r t r e t u n g s b e g r i f f
i n a l t g r i e c h i s c h e n Recht. (The
concept of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e a n t i c Greek l a w . теля
по д р е в н е г р е ч е с к о м у
О понятии
замести-
праву.)
AJurid. 1-2/88:235-239.
HERCZEGH G ( é z a ) : Ungarn und Europa. 1683-1686. (Hungary and Europe. 16831686.
Венгрия
AJurid.
и Европа,
1683-1686
г.г.)
1-2/88:3-26.
HORVÁTH P á l : A s z o c i a l i s t a j o g l e g ő j a b b k o r i t ö r t é n e l m é h e z . h i s t o r y of s o c i a l i s t law.
К
новейшей и с т о р и и
(On the r e c e n t
социалистического
права.) ÁJ 1 / 8 9 : 1 2 2 - 1 3 2 .
Önkormányzatok j o g i szabályozása 1950 e l ő t t . t h e i r l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n b e f o r e 1950. равлений до
1950
( S e l f - g o v e r n m e n t bodies and
Правовое регулирование
самоуп-
г.)
ÁI 1/89:70-85.
PÉTERI Z o l t á n : Az emberi és á l l a m p o l g á r i j o g o k t ö r t é n e t é h e z . t h e h i s t o r y o f human and c i t i z e n ' человека
и прав
rights.
К истории
(Remarks on
проблемы
прав
граждан.)
JK 12/88:647-655.
RÁCZ György: Az e l s ő hazai d ö n t v é n y t á r . (Planum t a b u l a r e . . . Hungarian c o l l e c t i o n o f d e c i s i o n s . Венгрии.) MJ 5 / 8 9 : 4 4 6 - 4 4 7 .
Первый
сборник
1800. The f i r s t
решений судов
в
210
Bibliographie 210 X V I I I . CANON LAW - X V I I I .
Article -
ЦЕРКОВНОЕ ПРАВО
Статья
FÜRJ Z o l t á n : Az állam és a protestáns egyházak egyezménye. (1948. The agreement o f t h e s t a t e and t h e p r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s . дарством и протестантскими
Соглашение между
госу-
церквами.)
TSZ 6 / 8 9 : 4 8 - 5 8 .
XIX. MISCELLANEOUS - X I X .
CMMAHI-IOE
Book - К н и г а
Dolgozatok az állam- és jogtudományok k ö r é b ő l . 19. ( é v f . )
Szerk. Ádám A n t a l .
Kiad. a Janus Pannonius Tudományegyetem Á l l a m - és jogtudományi k a r a . ( S t u d i e s i n the l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sciences. V o l . бот по
вопросам г о с у д а р с т в а
и права.
Том
19.
Сборник
ра-
19.)
Pécs, Pécsi S z i k r a ny. 1988. 199 p. B i b l i o g r . passim. - D t .
Zusammenfessung;
Rés. f r a n c .
Articles - С т а т ь и
BALÁZS Tamás: Nemzetközi k o n f e r e n c i a Henry Summer Maine h a l á l a centenáriumának a l k a l m á b ó l . (Budapest, 1988. j ú n . 2 0 . I n t e r n a t i o n a l conference i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the death c e n t e n a r y of Henry Summer Maine, h e l d at Budapest on June 20, 1988. ти
Henry
Международная конференция в пфмять
Summer M a i n e .
Будапкшт,
2 0 июня 1 9 3 8
столетия
смер-
г.)
MJ 2 / 8 9 : 1 8 0 - 1 8 2 .
Az európai s z o c i a l i s t a á l l a m o k j o g a l k o t á s a . Sipos K a t a l i n :
Szovjetunió.
Harmathyné Horváth Anna: B u l g á r i a Népköztársaság. T r ó c s á n y i László: Csehszlovák S z o c i a l i s t a K ö z t á r s a s á g . I . j j a s I s t v á n : Jugoszláv S z o c i a l i s t a ségi Köztársaság. Jordán M i k l ó s : Lengyel Népköztársaság.
Szövet-
Jordán M i k l ó s :
Ro-
mánia S z o c i a l i s t a Köztársaság. ( L e g i s l a t i o n o f the European s o c i a l i s t countries.
Новое в з а к о н о д а т е л ь с т в е
европейских
социалисти-
Bibliographia ческих
211
стран.)
JK 2 / 8 9 : 9 4 - 1 0 2 .
FÖLDI András: Nemzetközi M a i n e - k o n f e r e n c i a Budapesten. ( 1 9 8 8 . j ú n . ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Maine-conference i n Budapest. June 20, 1988. ная конференция о деятельности Мэна.
Будапешт,
20.)
Международ-
2 0 июня 1 9 8 8
г.)
JK 2 / 8 9 : 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 .
HORVÁTH P á l : Emlékeink és hagyományaink. ( É v f o r d u l ó k r ó l . t r a d i t i o n s . Anniversaries.
Наша п а м я т ь
Our memories and
и традиции.
О
годовщинах.)
JK 12/88:668-669.
JAKAB Éva: Szeminárium a szegedi j o g i karon a f e l e l ő s s é g m i n t történeti kialakulásáról.
jogintézmény
(2988. j ú n . 13-14. A seminar h e l d a t the l e g a l
f a c u l t y of Szeged U n i v e r s i t y on the h i s t o r i c a l development o f as a l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n . культете вого
в
г.
June 13-14, 1988.
Сегед о формировании
института.
13-14
июня 1988
Семинприй н а
responsibility
правовом
ответственности
как
фа-
право-
г.)
MJ 2/89:184-186.
KABÚDI Csaba: Merre tovább? Egy nemzetközi k o n f e r e n c i a F e l e l ő s s é g és t á r s a dalom címmel S i ó f o k o n . ( 1 9 8 8 . s z e p t . 19-24. The way of t h e f u t u r e -
inter-
n a t i o a n l conference on r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and s o c i e t y , h e l d a t S i ó f o k on September 1 9 - 2 4 , 1988. теме
Международная конференция
"Ответственность
и общество".
19-24
в
г.
сентября
Ширфок 1933
по
г.)
MJ 5/89:474-477.
KISS Ernő: A Magyar Jogász Szövetség B í r ó i Tagozatának megalakulása. (Formation o f the judges' s e c t i o n o f the Hungarian Lawyers' Создание
судейской
сукции
в Ассоциации Венгерских
Association. юристов.)
MJ 5/89:385-393.
KULCSÁR K ( á l m á n ) : P o s i t i o n o f lawyers and t h e i r r o l e i n t h e l a s t f o u r decades of Hungary. венгерского AJurid.
(Статус
и роль ю р и с т о в
в 40-летней
истории
общества.)
3-4/87:303-319.
NAGY L á s z l ó : A Magyar Jogász Szövetség 1988. é v i t e v é k e n y s é g é r ő l . (On t h e
212
Bibliographie 212
a c t i v i t y o f the Hungarian Lawyers' A s s o c i a t i o n i n 1988. Ассоциации Венгерских
юристов
в
1938
О
деятельности
г.)
MJ 1 / 8 9 : 1 - 8 .
TÖRÖK G ( á b o r ) : Die e r s t e n s c h w e i z e r i s c h - u n g a r i s c h e J u r i s t e n t a g e i n Veszprém. ( 1 5 - 1 7 , Juni 1987. The f i r s t Swiss-Hungarian l a w y e r s ' meeting, at Veszprém on June 15 t o 17, 1987. в е н г е р с к и х юристов AJurid.
1-2/88:233-234.
в
г.
Первая встреча швейцарских
Веспрем,
15-17
июня 1 9 3 7
г.)
held и
Acta Juridica veröffentlicht A b h a n d l u n g e n a u s d e m Bereich der Rechtswissenschaft in deutscher, englischer, französischer und russischer Sprache Acta Juridica
erscheint j ä h r l i c h in einem Band a u s vier Heften bei A K A D É M I A I KIADÓ V e r l a g der Ungarischen A k a d e m i e der Wissenschaften H-1117 B u d a p e s t , Prielle K. u. 19-35
M a n u s k r i p t e und Zuschriften an die Redaktion: Acta
Juridica
H-1250 B u d a p e s t , Postfach 25 Bezugsmöglichkeiten Bestellungen nehmen an K U L T U R A Außenhandelsunternehmen H-1389 B u d a p e s t , Postfach 149
und seine Vertretungen im A u s l a n d
Acta Juridica
публикует р а б о т ы в области ю р и д и ч е с к о й науки на р у с с к о м , а н г л и й с к о м , немецком и
ф р а н ц у з к о м языках Acta J u r i d i c a выходит ч е т ы р ь м я выпусками, с о с т а в л я ю щ и м и о д и н т о м в год Ж у р н а л издается A K A D É M I A I KIADÓ И з д а т е л ь с т в о м А к а д е м и и наук Венгрии H-1117 B u d a p e s t , Prielle К. и. 19-35 П е р е п и с к у для редакции следует н а п р а в л я т ь п о адресу Acta
Juridica
H - 1 2 5 0 Budapest, Pf. 25 З а к а з ы принимает п р е д п р и я т и е по внешней т о р г о в л е KULTURA H-1389 Budapest, Pf. 149. и его з а г р а н и ч н ы е представительства
Acta Juridica
is abstracted / indexed in A b s t r a c t s o n Criminology a n d Penology, Index t o Foreign Legal Periodicals, Public Affairs Information Service
©Akadémiai
Kiadó.
Budapest
Periodicals of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences are obtainable at the following addresses: SWETS S U B S C R I P T I O N SERVICE 347b Heereweg, Lisse
AUSTRALIA С B D. LIBRARY A N D S U B S C R I P T I O N SERVICE Box 4886, G P 0 . Sydney N.S.W. 2001 C O S M O S BOOKSHOP. 145 Ackland Street St Kilde (Melbourne). Victorie 3182
INDIA ALLIED P U B L I S H I N G PRIVATE LTD , 1 3 / 1 4 Asel Ali Road, New Delhi 110001 150 B - 6 M o u n t Road. Madras 600002 I N T E R N A T I O N A L BOOK HOUSE PVT LTD Madame Cama Road, Bombay 400039 THE STATE T R A D I N G C O R P O R A T I O N OF INDIA Books Import Division. Chandralok 3 6 Janpath. New 110001
AUSTRIA GLOBUS. Hochstadtplatz 3. 1206 Wien XX BELGIUM OFFICE INTERNATIONAL DE LIBRAIRIE 3 0 Avenue Matnix, 1050 Bruxelles LIBRAIRIE DU M O N D E ENTIER 1 6 2 rue du Midi, 1000 Bruxelles
ITALY INTERSCIENTIA, Via Mazzé 28. 10149 Torino LIBRERIA C O M M I S S I O N ARI A S A N S O N I , Via Lamarmora 45, 50121 Firenze
BULGARIA H E M U S . Bulvár Ruszki 6, Sofie CANADA P A N N Ó N I A BOOKS. P O Box 1 0 1 7 Postal Station "B". Toronto. Onterio M5T
SANTO V A N A S I A . Via M Macchi 5 8 20124 Milano
2T8
CHINA
D E. A . Via Lima 28. 00198
C N P I C O R , Periodical Department. P О Box 50 Peking
K I N O K U N I Y A BOOK STORE CO LTD 17-7 Shinjuku 3 chôme, Shinjuku-ku. Tokyo 160-91 M A R U Z E N C O M P A N Y LTD. Book Department, P O 5 0 5 0 Tokyo International. Tokyo 100-31 NAUKA LTD I M P O R T DEPARTMENT 2 - 3 0 - 1 9 Minami Ikebukuro. Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171 KOREA
DENMARK EJNAR MUNKSGAARD. Norregade 6 1165 Copenhagen К
Box
C H U L P A N M U L . Phenjan
F E D E R A L REPUBLIC O F G E R M A N Y KUNST U N D WISSEN ERICH BIEBER Postfach 46. 7000 Stuttgart 1
NORWAY TANUM-TIDSKRIFT-SENTRALEN 4 1 - 4 3 . 1000 Oslo
Box 128 SP-
00101
FRANCE D A W S O N - F R A N C E S А . В P 40. 91121 Palaiseau EUROPÉRIODIQUES S A.. 31 Avenue de Versailles. 78170 Le Celle St. Cloud OFFICE INTERNATIONAL DE D O C U M E N T A T I O N ET LIBRAIRIE. 48 rue Gay-Lussac 7 5 2 4 0 Paris Cedex 05 G E R M A N DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC H A U S DER UNGARISCHEN KULTUR Karl Liebknecht-Straße 9. DDR -102 Berlin DEUTSCHE POST ZEITUNGSVERTRIEBSAMT Pariser Kommüne 3 - 4 . DDR-104 Berlin
Straße der
BLACKWELL'S PERIODICALS D I V I S I O N Hythe Bridge Street. Oxford OXI2ET B U M P U S . HALDANE A N D M A X W E L L LTD Cowper Works. Olney. Bucks MK46 4BN COLLET'S HOLDINGS LTD . Denington Estate Wellingborough. Northerns NNB 2QT W M D A W S O N AND SONS LTD . Cannon House Folkslone. Kent CT195EE H. K. LEWIS AND CO , 136 Gower Street London WCIE 6BS GREECE KOSTARAKIS BROTHERS I N T E R N A T I O N A L BOOKSELLERS, 2 Hippokratous Street. Athens-143 HOLLAND M EULEN HOFF-BR UNA В V., Beuhngstraat 2. Amsterdam M A R T I N U S NIJHOFF В V Lange Voorhout 9-11, Den Haag
AS,
Kfl
Johansgatan
POLAND WÇGIERSKI INSTYTUT KULTURY. Marszalkowska 80. 00-517 Warszawa CKP-I W. ul. Towatowa 28, 00-958 Warszawa ROUMANIA D E. P.. Bucuresti ILEXIM, Calea Gnvitei 64-66, Bucuresti SOVIET U N I O N
G R E A T BRITAIN
HU ISSN 0001 —592X
Roma
JAPAN
CZECHOSLOVAKIA M A D ARSKA KULTURA. Národnl tfida 22 115 66 Pre ha PN S OOVOZ TISKU. Vinohradská 46. Preha 2 PNS DOVOZ TLACE, Bratislava 2
FINLAND AKATEEMINEN KIRJAKAUPPA, P O Helsinki 10
LTD. Delhi
SOJUZPECHAT — IMPORT. Moscow and the post offices in each town M E Z H D U N A R O D N A Y A KNIGA, Moscow
G-200
SPAIN DIAZ DE S A N T O S . Lagasca 96, Madrid
6
SWEDEN GUMPERTS UNIVERSITETSBOKHANDEL AB Box 346. 401 25 Goteborg 1 SWITZERLAND KARGER LIBRI AG. Petersgraben 31. 4011
Basel
USA EBSCO S U B S C R I P T I O N SERVICES P 0 Box 1943, Birmingham. Alabama 35201 F W FAXON C O M P A N Y , INC 15 Southwest Park. Westwood Mass 02090 R E A D - M O R E PUBLICATIONS. INC 140 Cedar Street. New York. N У 10006 YUGOSLAVIA JUGOSLOVENSKA KNJIGA. Terazije 27, Beograd FORUM. Vojvode MiSiáa 1.21000 Novi Sad
Index: 26.013
ADIUVANTIBUS
I. KERTÉSZ, T. KIRÁLY, |l. KOVÁCS], K. KULCSÁR, E. LONTAI, L. M Á D L , V. P E S C H K A
T O M U S XXXII
REDIGIT
GY. EÖRSI
FASCICULI
3^1
A K A D É M I A I KIADÓ, BUDAPEST 1990
ACTA JURIDICA A QUARTERLY OF THE HUNGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Acta Juridica publishes papers on j u r i s p r u d e n c e by H u n g a r i a n a u t h o r s in English, French, G e r m a n a n d Russian. Ada
Juridica is published in yearly v o l u m e s of four issues by AKADÉMIAI KIADÓ Publishing H o u s e of the Hungarian A c a d e m y of Sciences H-1117 Budapest, Prielle K. u. 19-35.
Manuscripts and editorial correspondence should be addressed to Acta Juridica H - 1 2 5 0 Budapest, P. O. Box 25 Subscription
information
O r d e r s should be addressed to K U L T U R A Foreign T r a d i n g C o m p a n y H-1389 Budapest, P. O. Box 149 o r t o its representatives a b r o a d
Ada Juridica publie des t r a v a u x dans le d o m a i n e de la j u r i s p r u d e n c e en français, anglais, allemand et russe. Acla Juridica est publié sous forme de q u a t r e fascicules qui f o r m e n t un volume p a r an et est édité par AKADÉMIAI KIADÓ M a i s o n d'édition d e l'Académie des Sciences de Hongrie H-1117 B u d a p e s t , Prielle K . u. 19-35. A d r e s s e de la Rédaction: Ada Juridica H-1250 Budapest, P. O. Box 25 Abonnement s'adresser à l'Entreprise d u Commerce Extérieur K U L T U R A H-1389 Budapest P. O. Box 149 ou chez les représentants à l'étranger
ACTA JURIDICA ACADEMIAE SCIENTIARUM HUNGARICAE ADIUVANTIBUS
T: KIRÁLY, I. KOVÁCS , K. KULCSÁR E. LONTAI, F. MÁDL, I. SZABÓ
REDIGIT
GY. EÖRSI
TOM US XXXII
AKADÉMIAI KIADÓ, B U D A P E S T 1990
ACTA JURIDICA, TOMUS XXXII. INDEX PUSZTAI, L. : Freie Beweiswürdigung und das Gutachten /ПУСТАИ, Д.: Заключение эксперта и свободная оценка доказательств/
3
MÁTÉ, G.: Ermächtigung und Regierung im Verordnungsweg /1944-1949/ /МАТЭ, Г.: Уполномочие и управление государством путем постановлений/
27
RÁCZ, L.: State structure and government in 18th century feudal absolutism /РАЦ, Л.: Государственная структура и форма правления в условиях феодального абсолютизма/
45
FERENCZY, E.: Le contrôle financier-économique /ФЕРЕНЦИ, Э.: Финансово-хозяйственный контроль/.
61
KECSKÉS, L.: State immunity and liability for damages /КЕЧКЕШ, Л.: Государственный иммунитет и ответственность за вред/
91
ISTVÁN KOVÁCS
1921
213
1990.
HERCZEGH, G.: La protection des minorités par le droit international /ХЕРЦЕГ, Г.: Международная защита меньшинств/
215
VARGA, Cs.: The non-cognitive character of the judicial establishment of facts /VARGA, Cs.: Le caractère non-cognitif de l'établissement du fait par le juge/
247
TAMÁS, A.: The law as a modernization technique /ТАМАЫ, A.: Право как техника модернизации/
....
263
VISEGRÁDY, А. - KAJTÁR, I.: Rechtstheoretische und Rechtshistorische Erläuterungen zur Effektivität des Rechts /ВИШЕГРАДИ, А. - КАЙТАР, И.: Исторические и теоретические условия эффективности права/
283
KIRÁLY, M.: Possibilities and limits of foreign capital investment as provided by the Hungarian Code on Investments /КИРАЙ, M.: Возможности и пределы зарубежных капиталовложений по положениям Кодекса ЗР об инвестициях/
297
INFORMATI0NES DEZS6, M.: The new electoral system of the Hungarian Republic /ДЕЖЕ, M.: Новая избирательная система Венгерской Республики/
129
LONTAI, E.: On the new regulation of the employee's inventions and innovations /ЛОНТАИ, Э.: Новое регулирование изобретений и рационализиторских предложений служащих/ 315 FERENCZY, Е.: Uber die Staatliche Vermögensagentur /ФЕРЕНЦИ, Э.: Агенство по вопросам государственного имущества/
317
RECENSIONES Die Menschenrechte in Ungarn. Jahrestag der Allgemeinen Erklärung der Menschenrechte. /Ed. KatonánéSoltész, M./ /Horváth, Р./ /Права человека в Венгрии. В честь 40-й годовщины Всеобщей Декларации прав человека, под ред. Катона-Шолтес, М./ /Хорват, П./
133
WIENER, I.A.: Economic criminal offences /Bittó, M./ /ВИНЕР, A.И.: Хозяйственные преступления/
323
VARIA MAVI, V.: Social and economic rights of refugees /МАВИ, В.: Социальные и экономические права беженцев/
137
VARGA, Cs.: Judicial reproduction of the law in an autopoietical system /ВАРГА, Ч.: Судейская репродукция права в автопоетической системе/
144
MAVI, V.: The UN human rights system and the Helsinki process: meaning, assessment and perspectives /МАВИ, В.: Система защиты прав человека в рамках ООН и процесс Хельсинки: понятие, оценка и перспективы/
327
TAMÁS, L. - BEJCEK, J. - MAREK, К.: On the principal changes of the legal adjustment of the economic activity of socialist organizations /TAMAIi], Л. БЕЙЦЕК, И. - МАРЕК. К.: Основные изменения в правовом регулировании хозяйственной деятельности социалистических организаций/
333
DÓSA, Á. : International Round-Table Conference on the binding force of contracts /ДОША, А.: Международная конференция круглого стола по вопросам обязательной силы договоров/
335
INTERNATIONALIA Book reviews - Рецензии
153
Book reviews - Рецензии
339
BIBLIOGRAPHIA VEREDY, К.: Hungarian legal bibliography 1989.1 s t part /ВЕРЕДИ, К.: Венгерская юридическая библиография, часть 1., 1989./
171
VEREDY, К.: Hungarian legal bibliography 1989.2 n d part /ВЕРЕДИ, К.: Венгерская юридическая библиография, часть 2., 1989 ./
355
INDEX
ISTVÁN KOVÁCS
1921 - 1990
HERCZEGH, G.: La protection des minorités par le droit international /ХЕРЦЕГ, Г.: Международная защита меньшинств/
213
VARGA, Cs.: The non-cognitive character of the judicial establishment of facts /VARGA, Cs.: Le caractère non-cognitif de l'établissement du fait par le juge/
247
TAMÁS, A.: The law as a modernization technique /ТАМАШ, A.: Право как техника модернизации/
...
263
VISEGRÁDY, A. - KAJTÁR, I.: Rechtstheoretische und Rechtshistorische Erläuterungen zur Effektivität des Rechts /ВИШЕГРЛДИ, А . - КЛЙТАР, И.: Исторические и теоретические условия эффективности права/
283
KIRÁLY, M.: Possibilities and limits of foreign capital investment as provided by the Hungarian Code on Investments /КИРАП, M.: Возможности и пределы зарубежных капиталовложений по положениям Кодекса BP об инвестициях/
297
INFORMAT I0NES L0NTAI, Е.: On the new regulation of the employee's inventions and innovations /ЛОНТАИ, Э.: Новое регулирование изобретений и рационализаторских 315 предложений служащих/ FERENCZY, Е.: Uber die Staatliche Vermögensagentur /ФЕРЕНЦИ, Э.: Агенство по вопросам государственного имущества/
317
RECENSIONES WIENER, I.A.: Economic criminal offences /Bittó, M./ /ВИНЕР., A.И.: Хозяйственные преступления/ .
323
VARIA MAVI, V.: The UN human rights system and the Helsinki process: meaning, assessment and perspectives /МАВИ, В.: Система защиты прав человека в рамках ООН и процесс Хельсинки: понятие, оценка и перспективы/
327
TAMÂS, L. - BEJCEK, J. - MAREK, К.: On the principal changes of the legal adjustment of the economic activity of socialist organizations /ТАМАШ, Jl. БЕЙЦЕК, И. - МАРЕК, К.: Основные изменения в правовом регулировании хозяйственной деятельности социалистических организаций/
331
DÓSA, Á. : International Round-Table Conference on the binding force of contracts /ДОША, А.: Международная конференция круглого стола по вопросам обязательной силы договоров/
333
INTERNATIONALIA Book reviews - Рецензии
339
BIBLIOGRAPHIA ,nd VEREDY, К.: Hungarian legal bibliography 1989. 2*" part /ВЕРЕДИ, К.: Венгерская юридическая библиография, часть 2. 1989. /
355
I s t v á n Kovács 1921 - 1990
I s t v á n Kovács, membre du c o m i t é de r é d a c t i o n d'Acta J u r i d i c a , cien,
professeur
d'université,
diques e t P o l i t i q u e s
d i r e c t e u r de l ' I n s t i t u t
académi-
des Sciences
Juri-
de l'Académie des Sciences de Hongrie, membre o r d i -
n a i r e de l'Académie I n t e r n a t i o n a l e de D r o i t Comparé et de l ' A c a d é m i e I n t e r nationale
de
Droit
International Société
Constitutionnel,
d'Administration
Internationale
ancien
Publique,
de D r o i t
vice-président
de
l'Institut
membre du Comité e x é c u t i f
Constitutionnel,
titulaire
de
de
la
plusieurs
hautes d é c o r a t i o h s s c i e n t i f i q u e s e t de l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t s u p é r i e u r est décédé l e 29 novembre 1990, à l ' â g e de s o i x a n t e - d i x ans, après une longue et grave maladie. I s t v á n Kovács e s t né à N y í r b á t o r , l e 21 septembre 1921. En 1943 i l obtenu son diplôme en sciences
politiques
cours des années passées a l ' U n i v e r s i t é
à l'Université
il
était
a
de Debrecen. Au
l ' u n des
organisateurs,
puis d i r i g e a n t de l a Jeunesse e s t u d i a n t i n e démocratique, o r g a n i s a t i o n e s t u diantine
antifasciste
et
démocratique q u i s ' é t a i t
formée a
l'université.
Cette c i r c o n s t a n c e a c o n t r i b u é à son é l e c t i o n en 1945 parmi l e s
fonction-
n a i r e s du Gouvernement n a t i o n a l p r o v i s o i r e , p l u s t a r d à sa nomination comme sous-préfet
du c o m i t a t
de Veszprém.
M i n i s t è r e de l ' I n t é r i e u r
En 1949 i l
est e n t r é
au s e r v i c e
du
e t a p r i s p a r t a c t i v e m e n t à l a r é o r g a n i s a t i o n de
l ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p u b l i q u e . En 1950 i l
a été i n v i t é à enseigner à l ' U n i v e r -
s i t é de Szeged, e t à p a r t i r de 1954 i l y a r e m p l i les f o n c t i o n s de p r o f e s seur d ' u n i v e r s i t é t i t u l a i r e de c h a i r e . A p a r t i r
de 1951 i l
a été directeur
a d j o i n t e t a p a r t i r de 1981 d i r e c t e u r de l ' I n s t i t u t des Sciences j u r i d i q u e s et p o l i t i q u e s . 1962 c e l u i
En 1954 i l a obtenu l e grade s c i e n t i f i q u e de c a n d i d a t , e t en
de docteur
es sciences j u r i d i q u e s e t p o l i t i q u e s ,
en 1965 i l
a
été é l u membre correspondant e t en 1976 membre o r d i n a i r e de l'Académie des Sciences de Hongrie. Son a c t i v i t é
scientifique
déployée s u r t o u t
dans l e domaine du d r o i t
c o n s t i t u t i o n n e l a donné des r é s u l t a t s reconnus a l ' é c h e l l e Les
domaines
principaux
de
ses
développement de l a c o n s t i t u t i o n , des sources lique,
les
de d r o i t , droits
les
recherches
les
internationale.
particularités
l e s bases c o n s t i t u t i o n n e l l e s
institutions
des c i t o y e n s ,
sont
du
du système
de base de l ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
pub-
l e développement de l a s c i e n c e du d r o i t
214 constiutionnel.
Ses p l u s
de cent p u b l i c a t i o n s parues e t en h o n g r o i s e t en
langues étrangères t r a i t e n t également ces thèmes. I l et
rédacteurs
jusqu'à
ce
de l ' E n c y c l o p é d i e
jour
la
plus
grande
des
Sciences
entreprise
é t a i t l ' u n des auteurs
Juridiques des
et
sciences
Politiques,
juridiques
et
p o l i t i q u e s hongroises. Un fondement h i s t o r i q u e p r o f o n d , une manière de v o i r comparative e t une a n a l y s e pénétrant j u s q u ' à l a r a c i n e des problèmes c a r a c t é r i s e n t ses oeuvres, reconnues par de nombreuses d é c o r a t i o n s hongroises e t étrangères e t par l e s f o n c t i o n s l u i c o n f i é e s dans l a v i e s c i e n t i f i q u e groise e t
hon-
internationale.
I s t v á n Kovács, en t a n t q u ' o r g a n i s a t e u r
de l a
s c i e n c e a également de
grands m é r i t e s dans l e développement de l a v i e s c i e n t i f i q u e h o n g r o i s e , dans la
direction
des domaines
des s c i e n c e s
proches
de
sa sphère
d'intérêt.
Comme p r é s i d e n t du C o n s e i l de C o o r d i n a t i o n du s u j e t p r i n c i p a l de recherche n a t i o n a l e i n t i t u l é "Examen s c i e n t i f i q u e complexe du développement de l ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n publique", i l direction
a joué un r ô l e d é c i s i f dans l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n e t l a
des travaux de recherches e f f e c t u é s dans ce domaine. I l
une a t t e n t i o n p a r t i c u l i è r e savant q u i f a i t et
école,
l'enseignement
prêtait
à l a f o r m a t i o n de jeunes savants: en t a n t que
il
a formé de nombreux d i s c i p l e s pour l a
supérieur
des s c i e n c e s
juridiques
et
recherche
politiques
hon-
groises, e t comme p r o f e s s u e r i l a donné à des m i l l i e r s d ' é t u d i a n t s une o r i entation stable r e l a t i v e tution.
Il
aux grandes q u e s t i o n s de l ' E t a t et de l a
consti-
a assumé une p a r t a c t i v e dans l e renouvellement du système de
qualification
scientifique.
I s t v á n Kovács a eu un r ô l e éminent dans l e développement de l ' E t a t du d r o i t
hongrois.
Il
s'est
associé t r è s
t ô t aux t r a v a u x qui ont j e t é
base du développement du système d ' i n s t i t u t i o n s
et la
de d r o i t p u b l i c e t a p r i s
une p a r t a c t i v e à l a p r é p a r a t i o n des p r i n c i p e s e t t h é o r i e s au s e r v i c e de l a codification
constitutionnelle.
Sa
communication
faite
à la
séance
de
l'Académie sur les fondements s c i e n t i f i q u e s de l a c o n s t i t u t i o n hongroise a offert
une analyse extrêmement profonde
des q u e s t i o n s
gnant de vastes expériences i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s ; préparé tises et
les
voies du développement démocratique
avis consultatifs
aussi sa d i s p a r i t i o n f a i t
en suspens,
également par ses
non d e s t i n é s à l a p u b l i c a t i o n .
d'université
qui f a i s a i t
il
a
exper-
Dans ce domaine
un vide d i f f i c i l e à combler.
Dans l a personne d ' I s t v á n Kovács e s t disparu un s c i e n t i f i q u e des s c i e n c e s j u r i d i q u e s
témoi-
outre ses p u b l i c a t i o n s ,
et politiques école,
hongroises,
un p a r t i c i p a n t
un savant et très
respecté
s c i e n t i f i q u e hongroise e t i n t e r n a t i o n a l e . L'Académie des Sciences de Hongrie conservera sa mémoire.
éminent
professeur de l a
vie
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 215-246. (1990)
LA PROTECTION DES MINORITES PAR LE DROIT
INTERNATIONAL
G. HERCZEGH Vice-Président
de l a
Cour
Constitutionnelle
République Hongroise,
1.
La n é c e s s i t é de l a
2.
Est-ce q u ' i l
s'agit
protection
des
de
la
Budapest
minorités.
d ' u n e q u e s t i o n i n t e r n e ou d ' u n e q u e s t i o n
inter-
nationale? 3.
Les é c h e l o n s e t
t i o n des m i n o r i t é s 4.
Protection
par
les possibilités le droit
des
de l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n de l a
protec-
international.
minorités
ou
protection
des
langues
minoritaires?
En général, la s i t u a t i o n des minorités est caractérisée par l e f a i t que par rapport à la m a j o r i t é , leurs membres sont désavantagés et frappés par d i f f é r e n t e s règles d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s . Leur protection j u r i d i q u e est donc nécessaire, cependant en elle-meme la p r o t e c t i o n o f f e r t e par le d r o i t interne n'est pas s u f f i s a n t e étant donné que l a majorité peut l a modifier de façon u n i l a t é r a l e . Des garanties i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s doivent renforcer leur p r o t e c t i o n . La r e l a t i o n entre l ' E t a t et certains groupes de ses citoyens n ' e s t pas un domaine inconnu pour le d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l . Depuis des siècles, i l y a des t r a i t é s internationaux qui contiennent des d i s p o s i t i o n s garantissant la l i b e r t é des c u l t e s e t par la s u i t e des règles r e l a t i v e s à la protection des minorités ethniques, dont l'exemple le plus connu é t a i t le système de la prot e c t i o n des minorités qui fonctionnait sous l ' é g i d e de la Société des Nations. L ' i n t e r d i c t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e de l'oppression des minorités peut prévenir la naissance et l ' a g g r a v a t i o n des c o n f l i t s internationaux, donc l e d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l s'acquitte de sa mission par excellence par la protection des minorités. La réglementation du d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l peut se f a i r e à t r o i s échelles; cependant à l ' é c h e l l e u n i v e r s e l l e , par la nature des choses - par l a d i s s i m i l i t u d e de la s i t u a t i o n des minorités - , c e t t e réglementation ne peut dépasser l e s génér a l i t é s et n'impose aux Etats que peu d ' o b l i g a t i o n s concrètes. L ' é c h e l l e régionale promet une p r o t e c t i o n plus e f f i c a c e , tandis que théoriquement la réglementation la plus e f f i c a c e p o u r r a i t être celle a l ' é c h e l l e b i l a t é r a l e , mais les conditions p o l i t i q u e s d'une t e l l e réglementation sont rarement réunies. Si le d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l protege non les minorités, en tant que t e l l e s , mais les langues régionales ou m i n o r i t a i r e s , comme l e p r o j e t de la Charte européenne élaborées sous l ' é g i d e du Conseil de l'Europe cherche a l e f a i r e , cela p o u r r a i t etre également une s o l u t i o n . Du point de vue de l a technique du d r o i t , l e projet est une oeuvre digne d ' a t t e n t i o n , son adoption et son entrée en vigueur représenteraient un progrès important dans l e domaine de la protection juridique i n t e r n a t i o n a l e des m i n o r i t é s ethniques.
1. tiques,
De nos j o u r s etc.
il
y a des m i n o r i t é s
a y a n t une o r i g i n e
et
nationales,
religieuses,
une s i t u a t i o n d i f f é r e n t e s ,
par
linguisconséquent
Acta j u r i d i c a Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiado, Budapest
216
les
HERCZEGH, G.
problèmes
juridiques
qui
se
posent
en
liaison
avec
elles
- et
formes de p r o t e c t i o n présumée ê t r e les p l u s appropriées - d i f f è r e n t ment l e s unes des autres. f i n i t i o n de l a
les
égale-
Sans e n t r e r dans l ' a n a l y s e d é t a i l l é e de l a dé, j e v o u d r a i s brièvement r a p p e l e r
n o t i o n de m i n o r i t é
qu'il
У a a) des m i n o r i t é s
historiques,
disposant d ' u n passé h i s t o r i q u e ,
c'est-à-dire
des groupes de m i n o r i t é s
d'une c u l t u r e développée, m i n o r i t é s qui à
cause des f r o n t i è r e s anciennes ou de n o u v e l l e d a t e v i v e n t sur l e
territoire
d ' E t a t s où l a m a j o r i t é de l a p o p u l a t i o n p a r l e une langue d i f f é r e n t e de l a leur.
Elles sont
veulent
con-
s e r v e r l e u r s t r a d i t i o n s et développer l e u r s r e l a t i o n s avec l a n a t i o n
(les
nationalités)
attachées a l e u r
identité
nationale,
elles
v i v a n t sur l e t e r r i t o i r e d ' u n a u t r e Etat e t p a r l a n t l a même
langue; b)
les
immigrants,
qui
ont
quitté
leur
patrie
originaire
pour
r a i s o n s économiques e t avec l ' i n t e n t i o n de l'abandonner d é f i n i t i v e m e n t . général,
ils
veulent
s'assimiler
rapidement
au peuple
de
leur
des En
nouvelle
p a t r i e , t a n d i s que l ' E t a t d ' a c c u e i l invoque d ' h a b i t u d e f i è r e m e n t sa q u a l i t é de " p o t à f o n d r e " . d ' u n autre E t a t revêt
Les t r a v a i l l e u r s étrangers se trouvent s u r l e
également pour
un c a r a c t è r e
dans
ce
sens
temporaire.
qu'ils
rentrent
majorité
est
des raisons
économiques, mais l e u r
Leur groupe
est
temporaire
et
provisoire
ou
deviennent
des
immigrés;
tôt
c ) la p o p u l a t i o n des E t a t s en une n a t i o n q u i
ou t a r d
par
séjour
du t i e r s monde ne s ' e s t pas encore s ' u n i e
forme une m a j o r i t é au moins r e l a t i v e .
déterminée
territoire
l'appartenance
tribale.
La l o y a u t é de l a
Leurs
gouvernements
i n s i s t e n t sur l e renforcement de l ' i n t é g r a t i o n e t sont opposés à l a reconnaissance
des
droits
des d i f f é r e n t e s
ethnies,
puisque
cela
entraîne
le
séparatisme q u a l i f i é par eux comme l e mal m a j e u r . Par l e u r grand nombre ces E t a t s exercent une i n f l u e n c e d é c i s i v e sur l e s p r i s e s de p o s i t i o n des organisations
internationales;
d) les " a b o r i g è n e s " ,
les
"indigènes"
v i v a n t dans l e s s o c i é t é s
créées
par l e s immigrés européens. Bien s u r , c e t t e énumération n ' e s t pas c o m p l è t e , mais seulement exemplat i v e e t s e r t à i n d i q u e r que l e s E t a t s p e r ç o i v e n t différemment l e s problèmes des m i n o r i t é s , font
ils
interprètent
des c o n c e p t i o n s
d'une façon d i f f é r e n t e son essence et se
différentes
de l a
solution,
de l a
protection
des
m i n o r i t é s . Si un b r é s i l i e n e n t e n d l e mot " m i n o r i t é " , ce mot ne l u i f a i t pas penser
aux Hongrois
territoires
occupés
de T r a n s y l v a n i e , par l e s
ni
Israeliens,
aux mais
Palestiniens aux immigrés
vivant
sur
les
européens
qui
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
pullulent que l a
a Sao Paolo, e t un N i g é r i e n pense aux membres des t r i b u s
sienne,
renoncer et
217
ou bien aux membres de sa propre t r i b u .
à donner un aperçu g l o b a l des m i n o r i t é s n a t i o n a l e s ,
linguistiques
-
et
des
aspects
différents
de ce
autres
Nous devons donc religieuses
problème
-
et
nous
devons p o r t e r n o t r e a t t e n t i o n consciemment sur l e s q u e s t i o n s des m i n o r i t é s "historiques" validité
q u i nous i n t é r e s s e n t l e mieux, en p r e n a n t acte de ce que l a
de nos c o n s t a t a t i o n s
t i o n s p r é f é r é e s sera l i m i t é e En quoi
consiste
l'essence
La s t a b i l i t é de l ' E t a t ritoire,
peuple,
signifie
l'invariabilité
tion qui,
est p a r t i e l l e
pouvoir
et l ' a p p l i c a b i l i t é
du problème des m i n o r i t é s
"historiques"?
Du p o i n t
des f r o n t i è r e s ,
de vue
du t e r r i t o i r e ,
e t en ce q u i concerne l a
tercela
popula-
par l e déplacement de l a p o p u l a t i o n v a r i e constamment e t se r e -
ment de l a ment
solu-
s i g n i f i e l a s t a b i l i t é de ses composants suprême.
générations -
n o u v e l l e pratiquement complètement au cours de t r o i s l'Etat.
des
territorialement.
stabilité
est
son comportement p o s i t i f
l'élé-
témoigné a l ' é g a r d
de
L ' E t a t exige de ses c i t o y e n s non seulement obéissance, non s e u l e -
l'observation
des
lois,
mais
bien
plus:
fidélité,
attachement,
2 loyauté. Pendant
des
siècles,
cette
fidélité
était
assurée
surtout
r e l i g i o n , с ' e s t - a - d i r e par l ' E g l i s e p r ê c h a n t les d o c t r i n e s de l a en f a i s a n t d é r i v e r l e p o u v o i r temporel
( l a ï c ) de l a v o l o n t é de D i e u ,
l a grâce a élevé au t r ô n e c e r t a i n e s personnes et l e u r sur l e u r s semblables.
"Il
fidélité
pratiqué
exigée du s u j e t
éventuellement
p u i s q u ' i l pouvait a r r i v e r
la
dont
a donné un p o u v o i r
f a u t rendre à César ce q u i a p p a r t i e n t à César e t
à Dieu ce q u i a p p a r t i e n t â Dieu" - a enseigné l ' E g l i s e . la
par
religion,
une
Dans ces c o n d i t i o n s
a été mise en danger s u r t o u t au cas où i l autre
religion
que c e l l e
de son
a
souverain,
qu'en s u i t e des commandements de sa r e l i g i o n
il
a i n t e r p r é t é l a v o l o n t é de Dieu d'une f a ç o n d i f f é r e n t e que l e gouvernement du s o u v e r a i n . Les s u j e t s ayant une a u t r e r e l i g i o n é t a i e n t donc moins dignes de c o n f i a n c e que ceux q u i observaient l a même r e l i g i o n que l e s o u v e r a i n e t pour c e t t e r a i s o n on p r a t i q u a i t une d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r é j u d i c i a b l e q u i , e n d r o i t s e t par époques s ' e s t dégradée en p e r s é c u t i o n , résidence
massive e t
a abouti
à des g u e r r e s c i v i l e s
en i n t e r d i c t i o n de d'aspect
religieux.
La p r o t e c t i o n ou l e r é t a b l i s s e m e n t de l ' u n i t é r e l i g i e u s e a f a v o r i s é renforcement de l a s t a b i l i t é de l ' E t a t .
par
La r e l i g i o n du p r o p r i é t a i r e
le
foncier
a d é f i n i l a r e l i g i o n de ceux qui v i v a i e n t sur l a p r o p r i é t é , l a r e l i g i o n du s o u v e r a i n c e l l e des s u j e t s , cependant l e p r i n c i p e c u i u s r e g i o eius
religio
se f a i s a i t v a l o i r également inversement. Un Etat c a t h o l i q u e ne p o u v a i t pas
HERCZEGH, G.
218 avoir
un s o u v e r a i n p r o t e s t a n t
et inversement,
et s i
c'était
pourtant
cas, cela a i m p l i q u é des c o n f l i t s graves. Le r ô l e p o l i t i q u e de l a
le
religion
a entraîné l a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s u r la base de l a r e l i g i o n e t l ' o p p r e s s i o n de la
minorité
religion
religieuse.
qu'au
Le
cas où l a
droit
de l ' é p o q u e
réalisation
de
n'a reconnu
l'unité
la
liberté
religieuse
est
de
apparue
comme n ' a y a n t aucune chance de succès. P u i s q u ' i l s ' a g i t des événements b i e n connus, nous pouvons nous p a s s e r de 1 E n u m e r a t i o n des exemples. La r o u t e a conduit des m i n o r i t é s r e l i g i e u s e s aux m i n o r i t é s par
suite
du
fait
que conformément
aux
idées
de l ' â g e
source du p o u v o i r d ' E t a t e s t devenue l a v o l o n t é du peuple Si l a source de t o u t p o u v o i r
e s t le p e u p l e ,
de c h o i s i r
son système p o l i t i q u e
décider l a
q u e s t i o n de s a v o i r
il
8
la
au l i e u de D i e u .
n ' a pas seulement l e
et son gouvernement,
dans l e c a d r e
nationales
des lumieres
droit
mais également de
de quel pays i l
veut
vivre.
Mais l e peuple n ' e s t pas une masse homogene. Dans de nombreux pays d'Europe son p r i n c i p e ordonnateur fondamental - son c l a s s i f i c a t e u r
dans l e domaine
p o l i t i q u e - e s t devenu l a l a n g u e , l e moyen l e plus i m p o r t a n t de l a communication. lui
Le p e u p l e s ' e s t r é p a r t i
et par s u i t e
( h a b i t é s par
de ce f a i t
une nation)
en " n a t i o n "
il
et
selon les langues parlées par
s ' e s t a v é r é q u ' i l y a des pays nationaux
des pays " m u l t i n a t i o n a u x "
( h a b i t é s par
plu-
sieurs n a t i o n s ) . L'ambiguïté lieu
notion étant
"nation"
terminologie
a subi
donné que l e
tionaux s ' e s t pouvoir
cours
au cours
des
e t donne encore
a confusion.
de l ' h i s t o i r e
développement des n a t i o n s ,
de l ' o r g a n i s m e
devenus
au
a donné
et prête
opéré sous l ' e f f e t
d'Etat
l'impact sont
de la
a de nombreux malentendus
d'un
intégrateur
Français
et
la création
historique
les s u j e t s
des
beaucoup de
la
changements,
des Etats
na-
de l a f o r c e i n i n t e r r o m p u e du
développement
de l ' E t a t
aujourd'hui
Le contenu de
Anglais,
du r o i
assez
français
établissant
long.
Sous
ou a n g l a i s
successivement
l ' u n i t é l i n g u i s t i q u e de l a France et de l ' A n g l e t e r r e dans une époque ou on n ' a pas encore a t t r i b u é une importance p o l i t i q u e â l a l a n g u e . Les r o i s ne v o u l a i e n t pas o b l i g e r
leurs
sujets parlant
une autre langue que c e l l e
du
r o i â p a r l e r l e u r langue, mais l e rayonnement de leur cour a accompli c e t t e tâche
sans
aucune - c o n t r a i n t e ,
façon i n a p e r ç u e . variété
A l'époque
linguistique
contenu dans
les
en a s s i m i l a n t
du féodalisme
de l ' E t a t
Admonestations
si
peuple
de
l'Etat
personne ne s ' i n q u i é t a i t
l'unité
de Saint
le
religieuse
Etienne,
existait.
d'une de
la
L'adage
selon l e q u e l "un E t a t e x monolingue e s t f a i b l e et f r a g i l e " a été v r a i dans l e XI s i e c l e mais n ' a e e x \ pas été v a l a b l e dans les c i r c o n s t a n c e s du XIX ou XX s i e c l e , ou l ' a p p a r t e -
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
219
nance à l a n a t i o n d ' a p r è s l a langue a déterminé l a " f i d é l i t é " p o l i t i q u e des gens. La ou l ' u n i t é l i n g u i s t i q u e a f a i t
d é f a u t , l e s l u t t e s pour l ' u n i t é ou
c o n t r e l ' u n i f i c a t i o n sont devenues de p l u s en p l u s i m p o r t a n t e s . La
littéra-
ture,
se sont
l'art,
toute
la
culture
de l ' è r e
des r é f o r m e s hongroises
d i r i g é s sur l e développement et l e renforcement des sentiments q u i
doivent
commander
fallait
créer
la
l'art
communauté
de ceux q u i
dramatique n a t i o n a l ,
parlent
la
même langue.
l'opéra national,
l a peinture
Il
nationale.
Le même processus s ' e s t opéré chez nos v o i s i n s . Si l ' E t a t
se compose dé n a t i o n s
e t les n a t i o n s se composent de ceux
q u i p a r l e n t l a même l a n g u e , a l o r s non seulement l a r é p a r t i t i o n des et
des Allemands e n t r e
nable,
mais
également
plusieurs
douzaines
l'existence
de
de p e t i t s
l'Empire
pays e s t
Autrichien
Italiens irraison-
ou de
l'Empire
Osman q u i selon l a conception dominante doivent ê t r e partagés en pays nat i o n a u x , en t e r r i t o i r e s h a b i t é s par des peuples p a r l a n t d i f f é r e n t e s La p r o p a g a t i o n de l ' i d é e n a t i o n a l e
langues
a p o r t é en s o i l a p o s s i b i l i t é de
grands succès, mais également l e danger de la d é s i n t é g r a t i o n , de l a décomp o s i t i o n , ce q u i ne r e s t a i t pas caché devant l e s hommes p o l i t i q u e s . r é a l i s é que l e p r i n c i p e n a t i o n a l (ou autrement d i t : nation)
renforce c e r t a i n s Etats,
le droit
I l s ont
d'autodétermi-
tandis qu'il déstabilise d'autres.
L'es-
sence de l a q u e s t i o n n a t i o n a l e en t a n t que problème p o l i t i q u e e s t l a mise en q u e s t i o n
de l a
stabilité
de c e r t a i n s
Etats,
le
danger du séparatisme
l a t e n t ou o u v e r t par s u i t e de l ' e x i s t e n c e des m i n o r i t é s v i v a n t s u r l e
ter-
r i t o i r e de l ' E t a t e t s u r t o u t au long de ses f r o n t i è r e s . Si
-
selon l e
principe
reconnu e t
conformément
à la pratique
géné-
r a l e - l e s E t a t s sont l e s Etats d ' u n e c e r t a i n e n a t i o n , l a l o y a u t é de ceux qui
appartiennent
faire
à la
minorité
linguistique
semble
être
douteuse.
avec un E t a t q u i reconnaît lui-même n ' ê t r e pas l e l e u r ,
mais
Que celui
de ceux q u i p a r l e n t une a u t r e langue? Conformément à l ' i d é e n a t i o n a l e s'orientent
vers l ' E t a t
même langue qu'eux.
ou l a m a j o r i t é
Le pouvoir d ' E t a t
se compose de ceux q u i p a r l e n t en place n ' a
pas c o n f i a n c e
ils la
en ses
m i n o r i t é s e t p u i s q u ' i l n ' e n a pas c o n f i a n c e i l p r a t i q u e une d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r é j u d i c i a b l e à l ' é g a r d de ceux q u i a p p a r t i e n n e n t aux m i n o r i t é s . Mais p r a t i q u e une d i s c r i m i n a t i o n à l ' é g a r d des membres des m i n o r i t é s il
est
irraisonnable
spécifique que p l u s
d'attendre
qu'ils
soient
de l a q u e s t i o n des m i n o r i t é s le
nombre des m i n o r i t é s e s t
loyaux.
nationales
insignifiant,
(Une
contradiction
c o n s i s t e dans l e plus de d r o i t s
sont a c c o r d é s . 3 Par c o n t r e l a n a t i o n p a r l a n t l a même langue que l a donnée, mais v i v a n t parmi
les f r o n t i è r e s
s'il
nationales,
d'une a u t r e Etat e t
fait leurs
minorité
constituant
220
HERCZEGH, G.
dans c e t Etat l a m a j o r i t é , se f a i t ses
frères
opprimés.
Au fond
un devoir m o r a l et p o l i t i q u e de l i b é r e r
ce
devoir
est
indépendant
puisque l ' é t a b l i s s e m e n t de l ' u n i t é est l ' o b j e c t i f l ' e x i s t e n c e de l a par
nation, o b j e c t i f
des c i r c o n s t a n c e s
r a y é de l ' o r d r e
l'oppression
p r i n c i p a l q u i découle de
dont l a r é a l i s a t i o n peut ê t r e
défavorables,
du j o u r .
de
mais ne p e u t
L'histoire
entravée
pas ê t r e d é f i n i t i v e m e n t
de Piémont e t de l a P r u s s i e a prouvé
que ce qui n ' a pas r é u s s i en 1848-49, s ' e s t
r é a l i s é quelques années p l u s
t a r d . Leur redressement au s i è c l e d e r n i e r a s e r v i d'exemple encourageant e t c ' e s t avec zèle que d ' a u t r e s e t a i l l e u r s - a i n s i à Belgrade e t a Bucarest
-
se sont préparés à r e m p l i r l e r ô l e de Piémont.^ J'expose ces c e v a i e n t et i l la
question
faits
en d é t a i l
parce q u ' i l
y a v a i t beaucoup qui con-
y a encore a u j o u r d ' h u i beaucoup q u i conçoivent l ' e s s e n c e de
des
minorités
malgré ses c o n t e x t e s
nationales
internationaux,
l e cadre des f r o n t i è r e s d'un E t a t .
en t a n t peut ê t r e
que problème intégralement
" I l ne s ' a g i t
social
qui,
r é s o u l u dans
pas des a s p i r a t i o n s
vers
l a c r é a t i o n d ' u n E t a t , mais des exigences s o c i a l e s fondamentales de grandes masses de l a p o p u l a t i o n a g r i c o l e , leur
langue m a t e r n e l l e .
q u e s t i o n des m i n o r i t é s Jászi
qui
minorités autre
s'est
nationales
préoccupé
nationales.
gravitation
qui ne peuvent ê t r e s a t i s f a i t e s que dans
C'est p a r t i c u l i è r e m e n t
v r a i en ce q u i concerne
de Hongrie"^
d'une
manière
En même temps c ' e s t
vers l ' e x t é r i e u r
-
a écrit
approfondie lui
la
en 1912 Oszkár
de l a
question
q u i a constaté
que
n ' e s t pas une chose s é r i e u s e ,
des
"toute pusique g
dans l ' é t a t a c t u e l des forces de l a p o l i t i q u e mondiale c ' e s t i m p o s s i b l e "
.
Selon l e s expériences lesproblèmes des m i n o r i t é s p e r s i s t a i e n t e t se r e p r o d u i s a i e n t en Europe de l ' E s t e t
en Europe c e n t r a l e malgré l e s
de formations s o c i a l e s et de systèmes p o l i t i q u e s ,
changements
a l a r i g u e u r l e s oppres-
seurs e t les opprimés ont changé de r ô l e par s u i t e de l a m o d i f i c a t i o n des f r o n t i è r e s des E t a t s , r a p p o r t a n t a i n s i la preuve de ce que l ' o p p r e s s i o n des m i n o r i t é s n ' e s t pas l'apanage du système s o c i a l c a p i t a l i s t e n i l a
spécifi-
c i t é " n a t i o n a l e " d ' u n peuple. Comment se quelle
mesure l a
manifeste situation
l'oppression
minorités?
Pourquoi
et
de ceux qui a p p a r t i e n n e n t a une m i n o r i t é
p r é j u d i c i a b l e , en s u i t e de quoi i l des g a r a n t i e s réglementées par l e La d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
des
l e u r f a u t o f f r i r une p r o t e c t i o n
dans est
assortie
droit?
des m i n o r i t é s peut r e v ê t i r
par époques e t par en-
d r o i t s des formes extrêmes e t p e u t se dégénérer en génocide.^ Au cours des tempêtes de l ' h i s t o i r e de nombreux peuples o n t d i s p a r u , de nombreuses c u l t u r e s ont sombré, des races ont d i s p a r u ou se s o n t vues c o n t r a i n t e s à mener
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
une v i e m i s é r a b l e .
Hélas,
221
l e s h o r r e u r s du génocide h i t l é r i e n
l e s seules dans l ' h i s t o i r e . "
Ailleurs i l
y avait
ne sont pas
égalemenj, des
interdic-
t i o n s de résidence massives q u i ont frappé l a p o p u l a t i o n , on a d i s p e r s é l e s personnes
appartenant
antissement
de l e u r
à la minorité, communauté.
connus dans l ' h i s t o i r e été
en connexion
armés. dans
Mais l a des
dans l ' i n t e n t i o n
Ces mesures d o n t
récente"
é v i d e n t e de
plusieurs
l'ané-
exemples sont
ont eu un c a r a c t è r e e x c e p t i o n n e l et ont
avec des s i t u a t i o n s
exceptionnelles,
avec
des
conflits
s i t u a t i o n des m i n o r i t é s est généralement d é f a v o r a b l e même
circonstances
"normales".
La s t r u c t u r e
sociale
des
minorités
prouve - l a où nous disposons des données p u i s é e s à bonne s o u r c e - que l e taux des a g r i c u l t e u r s ,
des
la nation m a j o r i t a i r e ,
occupant une s i t u a t i o n dominante, e t q u ' e l l e s
représentées
maneuvres est p l u s é l e v é parmi e l l e s que parmi
parmi l e s couches q u i 12 disposent d ' u n revenu e t d'un p r e s t i g e c o n s i d é r a b l e s . Sur l a base de ces données
dans une mesure beaucoup plus
sont
on a c o n c l u
majoritaire justifient
volontiers
(dominante), son r ô l e
a la
a ses
dirigeant,
faible
suprématie
dispositions
culturelle
naturelles
de l a
nation
meilleures,
qui
b i e n q u ' i l ne s ' a g i s s e de ce que l e s p e r -
sonnes de t a l e n t o r i g i n a i r e s de l a m i n o r i t é ne peuvent se f a i r e v a l o i r que par a s s i m i l a t i o n a l a m a j o r i t é e t pour c e t t e r a i s o n e l l e s e n r i c h i s s e n t rangs de l a m a j o r i t é . minorités foulée
de l a
dans l e s
Si
De t e l l e s p e r t e s ont é t é subies avant
Hongrie, Etats
1'intelligentia
tandis
qu'après
successeurs
1918
a payé dans
originaire
la
les
1918 par l e s
m i n o r i t é hongroise
ce sens un l o u r d
de l a m i n o r i t é
veut r é u s s i r ,
re-
tribut. elle
est
c o n t r a i n t e d ' é m i g r e r dans l ' E t a t ou l a m a j o r i t é p a r l e sa langue (où sa connaissance de l a n g u e , ses c a p a c i t é s , sa c u l t u r e l u i identiques majorité
dans de
son
la
compétition
pays
et
sociale)
prouve
sa
ou e l l e
fidélité
assurent des c o n d i t i o n s adopte l a
à sa nouvelle
langue de l a nation
avec
l ' e x c è s de zèle des n é o p h i t e s . " Si e l l e r e s t e chez s o i , f i d è l e à sa propre nationalité,
l e s c i r c o n s t a n c e s défavorables q u i découlent du f a i b l e nombre
des membres de sa communauté a s s i g n e n t a p r i o r i des bornes au développement de ses c a p a c i t é s c r é a t r i c e s , bornes que l a p o l i t i q u e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e ouverte ou camouflée
du gouvernement
peut
encore
aggraver.
Etant
donné que
la
langue e s t l e moyen l e plus i m p o r t a n t de l a communication e n t r e l e s gens, la
minorité
acquérir
qui
ne p a r l e
l e s connaissances
pas suffisamment professionnelles
"la
langue d ' E t a t " ne peut pas
offrant
la p o s s i b i l i t é
d'ob-
t e n i r un m e i l l e u r t r a v a i l e t un p l u s grand r e v e n u , de se p r o c u r e r des i n f o r mations r e l a t i v e s à ses a c t i v i t é s économiques, e t rencontre des d i f f i c u l t é s au cours
de' ses r e l a t i o n s
avec l e s
autorités.
Et pour c e t t e
raison
elle
222
HERCZEGH, G.
n ' e s t pas capable d ' u s e r d'une f a ç o n s a t i s f a i s a n t e de ses d r o i t s e t occupe dans ces c o n d i t i o n s
une place t o u j o u r s
des cas
n a t i o n a l e p r é s e n t e un image d ' u n e s o c i é t é
la minorité
plus d é f a v o r a b l e .
Dans l a
plupart
"mutilée",
où l e s
couches b i e n s i t u é e s manquent, ou ne s o n t que t r è s m i n c e s ,
que l e
nombre de ceux 14
ayant une s i t u a t i o n
défavorable
est h o r s
tandis de pro-
portion. La s i t u a t i o n
des m i n o r i t é s
est
plus f a v o r a b l e
l a où i l
s'agit
E t a t ayant une s t r u c t u r e composée, où l a s t r u c t u r e p o l i t i q u e e s t
d'un
complexe
e t l e s d i f f é r e n t s groupes t r o u v e n t l e u r place. En e f f e t , dans ces E t a t s les minorités turelles
disposent et
d ' u n e autonomie,
sociales
fonctionnent
leurs organisations p o l i t i q u e s ,
relativement
indépendamment
et
cul-
ne dé-
pendent pas du gouvernment. Dans l e s systèmes p o l i t i q u e s m o n o l i t i q u e s , dans les
dictatures
dites
totalitaires
(et
j'y
classe
les
formes
du
modèle
s t a l i n i e n r é a l i s é e s j u s q u ' i c i et c e l l s qui e x i s t e n t encore a u j o u r d ' h u i ) minorités
ne peuvent
bénéficier
et
ne b é n é f i c i e n t
pas d ' a u t o n o m i e ,
les
étant
donné que l e u r s o r g a n i s a t i o n s q u i n ' e x i s t e n t que de nom ne sont en r é a l i t é que l e s agences du gouvernement a y a n t des p o u v o i r s i l l i m i t é s e t soumises à son c o n t r ô l e d i r e c t . tion majoritaire
Evidemment l e
(dominante)
gouvernement met l e s aspects de l a na-
au p r e m i e r
plan,
bien plus,
souvent
il
fait
appel a son n a t i o n a l i s m e pour s ' a s s u r e r de c e t t e f a ç o n l a l o y a u t é manquante ou d ' u n e valeur douteuse de la p o p u l a t i o n . Le système m o n o l i t i q u e du modèle s t a l i n i e n l'Europe
de l ' e s t
et
p r o t e c t i o n a p p r o p r i é e aux m i n o r i t é s . pas
résoudre
la
r é a l i s é dans l e s pays de
de l ' E u r o p e du Centre-Est ne pouvait pas o f f r i r
question
C'est p o u r q u o i ce système ne pouvait
nation-nationalité,
comme
sa
propagande
proclamé c o n t r a i r e m e n t aux f a i t s é v i d e n t s . Par l ' i r o n i e du s o r t , ce S t a l i n e a été q u a l i f i é dans ces pays comme l e l a q u e s t i o n des n a t i o n a l i t é s ,
dont
une
l'a
justement
p r i n c i p a l t h é o r i c i e n de
l a p r a t i q u e p o l i t i q u e - par exemple l a
d é p o r t a t i o n des Allemands de l a Volga e t des T a r t a r e s de l a Crimée - s ' e s t manifestée dans l ' o p p r e s s i o n i m p i t o y a b l e des m i n o r i t é s et q u i a donné son 15 appui à des mesures p a r e i l l e s p r i s e s a i l l e u r s . C ' e s t pour c e t t e raison que l e s d i f f é r e n t e s formes de l a q u e s t i o n n a t i o n - n a t i o n a l i t é émergent toujours
de nouveau dans
l e s pays s o c i a l i s t e s
-
de
temps a a u t r e
dans une
forme t r è s aiguë. Un modele s o c i a l i s t e p l u r a l i s t e a u r a i t évidemment o f f e r t plus cette
de chances e t
de m e i l l e u r e s
possibilités
pour
l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n de
question. Puisque l e s f r o n t i è r e s p o l i t i q u e s n ' a v a i e n t pas été tracées
ment aux f r o n t i è r e s
ethniques e t ces f r o n t i è r e s
conformé-
pour quelque cause que ce
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
soit
ne peuvent
question
peut
l'effet
des
pas ê t r e
consister
éléments
adaptée a ces dans
la
provoquait
derniers
prise la
223
de
-,
mesures
situation
le
règlement
qui
de
la
contrebalancent
défavorable
des
minorités.
J ' a i exposé l e s désavantages pour que l e s exigences e t l e s tâches r e l a t i v e s à l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s puissent se p r o f i l e r sur c e t t e base. On l e s peut
résumer
brièvement
dans
ce que
l'Etat,
dans
lequel
les
minorités
v i v e n t , d o i t g a r a n t i r aux membres des m i n o r i t é s l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t aux n i v e a u x appropriés
dans l a
langue m a t e r n e l l e ,
la
naissances p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s e t d ' e x e r c e r de l a
langue des m i n o r i t é s
possibilité
d'acquérir
des
une a c t i v i t é c u l t u r e l l e ,
dans les r e l a t i o n s
autorités administratives et j u d i c i a i r e s ,
l'emploi
avec l e s s e r v i c e s
e t en g é n é r a l ,
con-
publics,
dans l a v i e
poli-
t i q u e , a i n s i que l a p o s s i b i l i t é de b é n é f i c i e r p r o p o r t i o n n e l l e m e n t des b i e n s de l ' E t a t et des revenus du p a y s . 1 8 Les m o d a l i t é s
m a t é r i e l s du t e r r i t o i r e
dépendent évidemment de l ' e f f e c t i f
de l a m i n o r i t é donnée,
de sa l o c a l i s a -
t i o n géographique, de son développement s o c i a l , et pour c e t t e r a i s o n i l difficile
de réglementer
ces modalités
d'une
façon g é n é r a l e .
est
Pourtant
il
est c e r t a i n que i)
l ' i n t e r d i c t i o n de l a
même pour c o n t r e b a l a n c e r
la
discrimination situation
n ' e s t pas s u f f i s a n t e en
d é f a v o r a b l e des m i n o r i t é s .
elle-
Donc
la
p r o t e c t i o n ne peut pas se l i m i t e r a l a d é c l a r a t i o n de l ' i n t e r d i c t i o n de l a discrimination
et
a sa mise en oeuvre, mais i l est n é c e s s a i r e que
l'Etat
t e r r i t o r i a l prenne une s é r i e de mesures en faveur des m i n o r i t é s ; ii) titre
ces d r o i t s r e v i e n n e n t aux membres des m i n o r i t é s non seulement a
i n d i v i d u e l , mais i l
f a u t r e c o n n a î t r e ces d r o i t s e t réglementer
leur
e x e r c i c e en t a n t que d r o i t s de l a communauté c o n s t i t u é e p a r eux; iii)
la protection interne
(étatique)
des m i n o r i t é s ,
dont l e s
règles
peuvent ê t r e m o d i f i é e s ou supprimées u n i l a t é r a l e m e n t , n ' e s t pas s u f f i s a n t e , il
f a u t que c e t t e p r o t e c t i o n
internationale,
il
soit
accompagnée d'une p r o t e c t i o n
f a u t compléter ces r è g l e s par des g a r a n t i e s
juridique juridiques
internationales. 2.
Est-ce
que l a
situation
et
a f f a i r e " i n t e r n e " ou une q u e s t i o n
la
La m i s s i o n du d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l interétatiques, -
la
protection
peuvent ê t r e dépend de l a
protection
des m i n o r i t é s
est
une
internationale? e s t l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n des r e l a t i o n s
ce qui suppose l a p r o t e c t i o n des a c t e u r s de ces r e l a t i o n s des
Etats.
réglementées stabilité
En e f f e t ,
que s i e l l e s
des E t a t s .
les sont
On p e u t
relations
interétatiques
relativement assurer
stables,
cette
ne
ce
qui
stabilité
par
l ' e f f i c a c i t é de l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n des r e l a t i o n s i n t e r n e s de l ' E t a t .
L'Etat
224
HERCZEGH, G.
peut s ' a c q u i t t e r est
le
forum
de sa m i s s i o n , é t a b l i r
suprême
de
la
l ' e n c e i n t e de ses f r o n t i è r e s . de t r a v a i l e n t r e l e d r o i t façon p l u s
un ordre j u r i d i q u e e f f i c a c e
réglementation
des r e l a t i o n s
s'il
sociales
dans
La conséquence nécessaire en est une d i v i s i o n
international et
l e d r o i t i n t e r n e exécutée d ' u n e
ou moins conséquente et q u i se manifeste dans l a
délimitation
des a t t r i b u t i o n s et des compétences. Comment e t sur q u e l l e quel
droit
relève
semble ê t r e
base peut-on t r a n c h e r l a q u e s t i o n de s a v o i r
l'une
simple:
ou
ce
qui
l'autre est
question?
à l'intérieur
Théoriquement de l ' E t a t
la
rentre
dans
domaine du d r o i t i n t e r n e de l ' E t a t , ce q u i découle des r e l a t i o n s e n t r e Etats r e l è v e du d r o i t de la
ligne
international.
des f r o n t i è r e s
du
réponse le les
Cependant en p r a t i q u e l a démarcation
entre l e s a f f a i r e s
internes
et
les
questions
ayant un c a r a c t è r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n s t i t u e un problème d i f f i c i l e à r é s o u d r e , provocant de v i v e s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , de c o n f l i t s
i n t e r n a t i o n a u x . Cette ques-
t i o n ne peut pas ê t r e t r a n c h é e une f o i s pour t o u t e , p a r c e que la d é l i m i n a t i o n dépend e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t du développement des r e l a t i o n s
internationales.
L ' h i s t o i r e porte témoignage de ce que l a question du l i b r e e x e r c i c e de la
religion
a figuré
déjà
plusieurs
tionales, c ' e s t - à - d i r e a f a i t
fois
dans l e s
conventions
interna-
l ' o b j e t de r é g l e m e n t a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e .
Au
cours de l a q u e r e l l e des I n v e s t i t u r e s - q u i a été un des grands moments du développement européen - Grégoire V I I c h e r c h a n t à a c q u é r i r a v a i t o r g a n i s é son camps a l ' é c h e l o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l . petits
souverains
c'est-à-dire
face à
de l ' E g l i s e ,
l'empereur
comme l e s
ce qui n ' a v a i t
Il
la
suprématie,
a v a i t considéré
vasalles
de Saint
Pierre,
pas seulement s i g n i f i é q u ' i l s
dépendaient pas de l ' e m p e r e u r mais aussi que l ' a f f a i r e
de l ' E g l i s e ,
f a i r e de l a
Cet
religion était
une a f f a i r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e !
les
ne
l'af-
"internationa-
lisme" a s u r v é c u aux q u e r e l l e s des I n v e s t i t u r e s , au schisme, à l a Réforme. La s u p r a n a t i o n a l i t é de l ' E g l i s e c a t h o l i q u e a été r e p r i s e par la protestante.
Les souverains
protestants
persécutés
catholiques
ont
dans
protestants l'autre
tenté de f a i r e
ont pays
valoir
leur
embrassé l a de
même
influence
solidarité
cause des
que s'il
les
sujets
souverains
s'agissait
de
l ' o p p r e s s i o n des s u j e t s c a t h o l i q u e s des s o u v e r a i n s p r o t e s t a n t s . Les t r a i t é s de paix c o n c l u s par l e s p r i n c e s de T r a n s y l v a n i e et l e s empereurs Habsbourg comme l e T r a i t é de Vienne de 1606 ou l e T r a i t é de Linz de 1645 c o n t i e n n e n t plusieurs
dispositions
relatives
à
l'exercice
de l a
religion,
T r a i t é de Westphalie de 1648 parle également de l a r e l i g i o n .
17
r e n t r a n t dans l a
le
On t r o u v e
des exemples d a t a n t d'une époque p o s t é r i e u r e ce qui prouve que l a ne peut pas ê t r e classée parmi les a f f a i r e s
mais
religion
juridiction
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
interne
exclusive
nationaux.
des
Etats,
puisqu'elle
est
225
source
Pour p r é v e n i r e t résoudre l e s c o n f l i t s ,
de c o n f l i t s
le droit
inter-
international
é t a i t amené â s'occuper de c e t t e q u e s t i o n , notamment en accordant une p r o t e c t i o n aux membres de c e r t a i n s groupes c o n f e s s i o n n e l s o b l i g e a n t l e s Etats de s ' a b s t e n i r de l a
discrimination.
C ' e s t pas seulement a l a v e i l l e
de l a guerre balkanique que l a
t i o n des m i n o r i t é s é t a i t un problème i n t e r n a t i o n a l , extérieure), droit clus
mais
dès
international. après
faveur
début,
et
comme t e l ,
(problème de p o l i t i q u e
il
touche
entre
chrétiens
la
doute au
Russie et l a
Turquie é t a i t l ' a c t i o n en 18 turc, - d ' a i l l e u r s l a Russie
de l ' E m p i r e
a essayé de s ' a p p r o p r i e r
ce d r o i t ,
ce q u i é q u i v a l a i t pour
a l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n des problèmes n a t i o n a l e s
m i n o r i t é s déguisés en question de r e l i g i o n ,
des Serbes,
des Bulgares
1'es-
e t des problèmes de
é t a n t donné que sous p r é t e x t e
de l a p r o t e c t i o n des c h r é t i e n s de l ' E m p i r e t u r c i l protection
sans
Un p o i n t q u i r é a p p a r a î t dans l e s t r a i t é s de p a i x con-
guerres
des s u j e t s
tzariste sential
les
le
ques-
s ' a g i s s a i t au f o n d de l a
e t des Grecs q u i é t a i e n t en m i n o r i t é
par r a p p o r t a l ' e n s e m b l e de l a p o p u l a t i o n de l ' E m p i r e . Il
e s t bien connu qu'après l a
protection
première g u e r r e mondiale un système de
des m i n o r i t é s a été c r é é sous 1 ' a u s p i c e de l a S o c i é t é des Na-
t i o n s . La r a i s o n en é t a i t que dans l e s t r a i t é s de p a i x conclus à e t près de P a r i s on s ' é t a i t r é f é r é de nombreuses f o i s au p r i n c i p e de l ' a u t o d é t e r m i n a t i o n , mais ce p r i n c i p e n ' a v a i t pas é t é appliqué d ' u n e manière conséquente. En ce q u i concerne l e s aspects e f f e c t i v e m e n t ficilement
conciliables
suivis,
deux o b j e c t i f s
avaient é t é présent dans l ' e s p r i t
des
dif-
vainqueurs,
notamment l a suppression de l a prédominance c o n t i n e n t a l e de l ' A l l e m a g n e e t l'éviction
de l a
Russie s o v i é t i q u e de l ' E u r o p e .
Au cas ou l e p r i n c i p e de
l ' a u t o d é t e r m i n a t i o n a v a i t s e r v i ces deux o b j e c t i f s , on l ' a cas c o n t r a i r e on l ' a mis a l ' é c a r t , c ' e s t - à - d i r e on l ' a 19 d ' a u t r e s aspects. nouvelles
a p p l i q u é , au subordonné à
Les anciennes m i n o r i t é s n a t i o n a l e s ont d i s p a r u , mais de
se sont créées, ayant un nombre un peu p l u s f a i b l e .
On n ' a pas
r é u s s i à supprimer l e s problèmes des m i n o r i t é s , seulement l e s p o i n t s c r u c i aux se sont transposés dans d ' a u t r e s pays. On j u s t i f i a i t libérer
les
la
minorités
qu'adviendra-t-il
de
modification oppressées ceux
qui
des
de l a
frontières domination
par
la
nécessité
des oppresseurs.
à cause des n o u v e l l e s
frontières
de Mais
tombent
dans l ' é t a t des m i n o r i t é s ? Q u ' e s t - c e q u ' i l a r r i v e r a i t s ' i l s s e r o n t op20 — p r e s s é s , eux a u s s i ? Supposer une t e l l e a t t i t u d e de l a p a r t des a l l i é s de g u e r r e n ' é t a i t pas de mise, p o u r t a n t pour calmer l e s e s p r i t s e t à cause de
226
HERCZEGH, G.
certains
incidents
avertisseurs,
les
"grands"
ont
décidé
d'établir
un
système de p r o t e c t i o n de m i n o r i t é s . Ce système é t a i t des m i n o r i t é s Etats
conclues
successeurs
vaincus,
ainsi
et
que
au fond
entre sur
sur
nouveaux Etats f a i t e tiennent
basé sur
les
les
les
la
Puissances
traités
dispositions protection
alliées
protection
et associées et
conclues
solennelle
avec
les
les
Etats
des r e p r é s e n t a n t s
des
devant l a S o c i é t é des N a t i o n s .
Ces documents-ci con21 concordantes. Les Etats
identiques,
obligés a reconnaître
l e s r è g l e s de l a p r o t e c t i o n des
m i n o r i t é s en t a n t que l o i fondamentale avec mesure o f f i c i e l l e
p o r t a n t sur l a
de p a i x
déclaration
des d i s p o s i t i o n s
mentionnés se s o n t
conventions
l a q u e l l e aucun d é c r e t , aucune
ne peut ê t r e en o p p o s i t i o n .
Laissons l e s d é t a i l s de ces
- c'est
l e s u j e t d ' u n e autre étude du volume 'Etudes sur l a 22 j u r i d i q u e des m i n o r i t é s n a t i o n a l e s " - et l ' é v a l u a t i o n du
fonctionnement du système de l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s ne r e n t r e pas non plus
dans l e domaine de n o t r e
signaler
que l e s
tache.
dispositions
Ici
nous
nous bornons
p r e s c r i v a n t des o b l i g a t i o n s
seulement â
internationales
en f a v e u r des m i n o r i t é s ont été mises sous l a p r o t e c t i o n de l a S o c i é t é des Nations,
sans son consentement
leur
modification
l e u r respect é t a i t c o n t r ô l é par l e C o n s e i l .
28
n'était
v i o l a t i o n de ces o b l i g a t i o n s
et
Chacun des membres du Conseil
de l a Société des N a t i o n s a v a i t l e d r o i t d ' a t t i r e r la
pas p o s s i b l e
] ' a t t e n t i o n du Conseil a
ou a un danger de v i o l a t i o n de ces
obli-
g a t i o n s , e t l e C o n s e i l a v a i t l e d r o i t d ' a g i r e t de donner des o r d r e s approp r i é s e t e f f i c a c e s dans l a s i t u a t i o n donnée. En cas de l i t i g e l e Conseil a soumis
le
litige
à
la
l'arrêt
a été d é f i n i t i f .
Cour
permanente
de
Justice
internationale
dont
Si l ' u n e des p a r t i e s n ' a pas exécuté l ' a r r ê t ,
le
C o n s e i l a du f a i r e v a l o i r l a sentence. Est-ce que l e d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a dépassé de c e t t e façon ses a t t r i b u t i o n s q u i c o n s i s t e n t dans l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n des r e l a t i o n s Est-ce
qu'il
s'est
ingéré
dans
les
affaires
internes
interétatiques? des
Etats?
pouvons répondre a ces questions avec un "non" c a t é g o r i q u e . Le d r o i t national
de l ' é p o q u e
e n t r e l e s deux guerres mondiales s ' e s t
p r i n c i p e de n o n - i n t e r v e n t i o n ,
il
a considéré l a
fondé sur
tout
c e l a - comme nous l ' a v o n s questions
fondamentales
vu -
n ' a pas e x c l u q u ' i l
relatives
aux
le
s o u v e r a i n i t é de l ' E t a t en
t a n t que valeur fondamentale q u i m é r i t e une p r o t e c t i o n absolue,
taines
Nous inter-
relations
cependant
réglemente c e r entre
l'Etat
et
c e r t a i n s groupes de ces c i t o y e n s , groupes qui peuvent ê t r e d é l i m i t é s sur l a base
de
la
nationalité.
Donc
la
création
n a t i o n a l e s pour l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s ,
de
règles
leur
juridiques
inter-
r e s p e c t , l e c o n t r ô l e de
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
leur
respect
n'étaient
pas
une ingérence
227
illégitime
dans
les
affaires
i n t e r n e s d ' a u t r e s E t a t s , mais une a c t i v i t é l é g i t i m e a y a n t un o b j e c t i f haut,
la
prévention
et
la
suppression
des
plus 24 internationaux.
litiges
L ' o p p r e s s i o n des m i n o r i t é s c o n s t i t u e une source de s t i m u l a t i o n à a g i r pour
les
Etats
dont
la
population
appartient
a l'ethnie
oppressée
dans
d ' a u t r e s p a y s . L ' o p p r e s s i o n des m i n o r i t é s e s t donc une s o u r c e de d i f f é r e n d s e t de l i t i g e s
internationaux,
dont l a s o l u t i o n est sans doute un problème
international,
dans l e q u e l
tionales
assumer un r ô l e ,
doit
appropriées
il
empêche
le
droit
l'oppression
l e u r s u r v i e e t ce f a i s a n t c o n f l i t s internationaux.
réglementant
notamment des
les
relations
qu'en f i x a n t différentes
des
interna-
interdictions
minorités,
p r é v i e n t l e développement e t
garantit
l'envenimement des
L ' i n q u i é t u d e gagne l e s m i n o r i t é s non seulement
si
l e u r s membres ressentent à t o u t i n s t a n t l a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n pratiquée à l e u r égard, mais a u s s i s i on met en doute l e u r r a i s o n d ' ê t r e , a s s i m i l a t i o n e t clame 1 ' i n é v i t a b i l i t é
s i on réclame
de l e u r proche a b s o r p t i o n .
leur
Le m o r i -
bond sera p e u t - ê t r e r a s s u r é en sachant que sa d i s p a r i t i o n surviendra sans d o u l e u r , mais l e v i v a n t ne veut mourir n i de c e t t e m a n i è r e n i d'une e t n'aime pas s i on f a i t
des p r é p a r a t i f s de son e n t e r r e m e n t . La l o y a u t é de
l a m i n o r i t é nationale a des c o n d i t i o n s - s i vous voulez - "un p r i x " , ment
que
l'avenir, serait
la
minorité
puisse
se c r o i r e
en
sécurité
en ce qui
notam-
concerne
q u ' e l l e ne v i v e pas dans une s i t u a t i o n plus mauvaise que s i
r e s t é e dans son E t a t d ' o r i g i n e ,
relations
autre
humanitaires
et
culturelles
que l a f r o n t i è r e qui
la
lient
elle
ne rompe pas
les
à ceux qui p a r l e n t
sa
t
propre langue e t qui s o n t par hasard c i t o y e n s d'un a u t r e E t a t . En e f f e t , c ' e s t pas peu, mais t o u t se p a i e . La c o o r d i n a t i o n des i n t é r ê t s , l e compromis ne veut pas d i r e que nous subordonnons sans c o n d i t i o n l ' u n a l ' a u t r e . Si l a source du pouvoir e s t l e peuple, i l
faut tenir
de ce que ce peuple d i s p o s e d'une m a j o r i t é l'opinion légitimes,
de et
ses
différents
la survie
groupes,
il
compte non seulement
numérique,
faut
mais également
satisfaire
a p p a r t i e n t parmi c e l l e s - c i .
Si
leur
de
exigences
l a minorité
n'est
pas opprimées, s i l a m i n o r i t é c r o i t a v o i r un avenir a s s u r é , i l n'y aura pas. de mouvements s é p a r a t i s t e s ,
l e s tendances i r r é d e n t i s t e s
resteront
faibles
e t l e s c o n f l i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a u x ne s u r g i r o n t p o i n t . C ' e s t a i n s i que l e international
peut r e m p l i r
sa f o n c t i o n
développement des r e l a t i o n s balayé
le
système de l a
relative
interétatiques.
protection
de
la
a la
stabilisation
droit et
au
La deuxième guerre mondiale a Société
des
Nations avec
ses
v e r t u s e t ses f a u t e s , cependant l e problème lui-même s u b s i s t e et des c o n c e p t i o n s q u i d i f f è r e n t des anciennes se m a n i f e s t e n t seulement par r a p p o r t à
22B
HERCZEGH, G.
la s o l u t i o n , droits
de
à l a remède de ce problème.
l'homme a é t é
L'encouragement
du respect
des
proclamé comme un des o b j e c t i f s
principaux
des
Nations
Unies et on a supposé que l a
l'homme
et
des
libertés
des m i n o r i t é s n a t i o n a l e s ,
protection
générale
résoudra
également
fondamentales
des d r o i t s les
de
problèmes
c a r e l l e r e p r é s e n t e une p r o t e c t i o n plus g é n é r a l e
et p l u s v a s t e que c e l l e o f f e r t e par l e système de p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s de l a
S o c i é t é des N a t i o n s .
g a r a n t i s sans d i s t i n c t i o n
En e f f e t ,
les
d r o i t s de l'homme doivent
être
de race, de s e x e , de langue e t de r e l i g i o n
pro-
tégeant c o n t r e toute d i s c r i m i n a t i o n également les i n d i v i d u s appartenant aux minorité nationales.
La p r o t e c t i o n des d r o i t s de l'homme n ' é t a i t pas
ins-
c r i t e dans l a Charte avec un caractère p a r t i e l ( r é g i o n a l ) , mais comme ayant un c a r a c t è r e u n i v e r s e l , e t pas à t i t r e a c c e s s o i r e , mais, comme nous l ' a v o n s déjà mentionné, comme un des o b j e c t i f s est cependant
fondamentaux des Nations Unies.
v r a i que p o u r l e s g a r a n t i r ,
Il
on n'a pas é t a b l i un mécanisme
pour l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s semblable a c e l u i i n c a r n é à l'époque par l e Conseil de l a Société des Nations. L'ONU e s t fondée s u r à-dire sur
la souverainlté
Nations Unies i n t e r d i t compétence
l ' é g a l i t é s o u v e r a i n e de tous ces membres,
exclusive
et l ' é g a l i t é
c'est-
des Etats membres. La Charte des
l ' i n t e r v e n t i o n dans l e s a f f a i r e s q u i r e l è v e n t de l a des
Etats,
mais p a r
l'encouragement
du respect
des
d r o i t s de l'homme et des l i b e r t é s fondamentales e l l e f o r m u l e en même temps des p r i n c i p e s e t des r è g l e s individus tional
constituant
se
propose
la
relatifs
aux r e l a t i o n s e n t r e l e s Etats e t
p o p u l a t i o n de l ' E t a t .
donc
une
mission
plus
Le nouveau d r o i t
vaste que
la
les
interna-
réalisation
d'un
système de p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s de l ' é p o q u e de l a S o c i é t é des N a t i o n s , étant donné q u ' i l ne v i s e pas seulement des groupes s é p a r é s ou séparables selon l e u r s langue et r e l i g i o n mais l ' e n s e m b l e de l a p o p u l a t i o n de l ' E t a t . On p e u t tions
caractériser
l'histoire
Unies en t a n t que l u t t e
de p l u s de q u a t r e
continuelle
décennies des Na-
pour la r é a l i s a t i o n des o b j e c -
t i f s esquissés ci-dessus e t des compromis raisonnables e t appropriés e n t r e c e u x - c i . Le d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l sépare mais l i e également. Trouver l a proportion tional
et
e n t r e l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n du d r o i t assurer l e u r
ordination
de
la
r e l a t i o n réciproque
stabilité
voulue
avec
interne e t c ' e s t pour
du d r o i t l'essentiel
1 inévitabilité
du
juste
internala
co25 changement,
c ' e s t - à - d i r e l a s t a b i l i t é r e l a t i v e dans un monde c o n t i n u e l l e m e n t changeant. La D é c l a r a t i o n u n i v e r s e l l e des D r o i t s décember
1948, mail i l
fallait
de l'Homme a é t é adoptée l e 10
18 ans pour élaborer
les
Pactes
tionaux r e l a t i f s aux D r o i t s de l'Homme e t encore 10 ans pour q u ' i l s
internaentrent
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
en v i g u e u r . Conformément à l ' a r t i c l e droits
civils
ethniques, minorités
et
politiques
religieuses ne peuvent
"dans
27 du Pacte i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i f les
E t a t s ou i l
ou l i n g u i s t i q u e s , être
privées
229
existe
des
minorités
l e s personnes appartenant
du d r o i t
d'avoir,
aux
à ces
en commun avec
les
a u t r e s membres de l e u r groupe, l e u r propre v i e c u l t u r e l l e , de p r o f e s s e r de
pratiquer
Depuis
1976,
leur le
propre respect
religion, des
ou
d'employer
de
l'homme
droits
leur
signifie
propre que
et
langue." les
d o i v e n t respecter une s é r i e d ' o b l i g a t i o n s de d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l ,
Etats
contrôlées
en m a t i è r e de d r o i t s c i v i l s e t p o l i t i q u e s par un c e r t a i n mécanisme i n t e r n a tional.
En e f f e t ,
l e s E t a t s membres sont tenus de p r é s e n t e r au S e c r é t a i r e
g é n é r a l des r a p p o r t s sur l e s mesures q u ' i l s auront a r r ê t é e s e t q u i donnent e f f e t aux d r o i t s reconnus par l e Pacte e t sur l e s p r o g r è s r é a l i s é s dans l a 26 j o u i s s a n c e de ces d r o i t s . Ces r a p p o r t s sont examinés par l e Comité des droits
de l'homme, corps composé de 18 p e r s o n n a l i t é s possédant une compé-
tence reconnue dans l e domaine des d r o i t s de l'homme; ce Comité adresse ses propres social
rapports,
ainsi
que ses o b s e r v a t i o n s e t
e t aux E t a t s p a r t i e s .
au Conseil économique e t
Ce mécanisme f o n c t i o n n e e f f e c t i v e m e n t e t ses
e f f e t s ne doivent pas ê t r e sousestimés. Evidemment,
il
est
vrai
qu'à t i t r e
p r i n c i p a l ce sont l e s E t a t s
mêmes e t l e u r s gouvernements q u i assument l a r e s p o n s a b i l i t é de l a tion ces
des m i n o r i t é s droits
incombe
et
du r e s p e c t
aux
Etats,
" a f f a i r e interne exclusive".
de l e u r s d r o i t s .
mais
cela
L'obligation
ne s i g n i f i e
protec-
d'assurer
pas que c ' e s t
Les E t a t s ont des o b l i g a t i o n s
eux-
une
internationales
à l ' é g a r d de l e u r s m i n o r i t é s , o b l i g a t i o n s dont i l s s o n t tenus de s ' a c q u i t t e r de bonne f o i .
Le r e s p e c t ou l e поп-respect des o b l i g a t i o n s
internationales
e s t une question dont également d ' a u t r e s E t a t s , l e s Nations Cnies, l a communauté des E t a t s s o n t i n t é r e s s é s , c ' e s t donc une a f f a i r e publique
interna-
tionale. tion
A u j o u r d ' h u i où des conventions i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s p o r t e n t sur l a p r o t e c \ 27 des especes v é g é t a l e s e t animales en danger, dont l a d i s p a r i t i o n
appauvrirait
notre
nations et c u l t u r e s ,
monde,
de l ' h u m a n i t é ,
doivent
bénéficier
non seulement
survie
et
l e développement
des
différentes
des d i f f é r e n t s peuples, l e m a i n t i e n de l a v a r i é t é de
langues
droit
la
de
d'une
sa
richesse
protection
à disposer
culturelle
accrue.
de l e u r s
Les
sont
des
valeurs
gui
différents
peuples
ont
ressources
premier l i e u e t avant t o u t i l s ont d r o i t à l a s u r v i e .
naturelles,
mais en
Les r è g l e s en vigueur
du d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l d o i v e n t ê t r e i n t e r p r é t é e s , appliquées e t développées a l a lumière de ce p r i n c i p e .
230
HERCZEGH, G.
Par
la
suite
nous
en
examinerons
les
différentes
possibilités.
La r é g l e m e n t a t i o n de l a p r o t e c t i o n ides m i n o r i t é s par l e d r o i t
interna-
t i o n a l peut a v o i r un c a r a c t è r e a) u n i v e r s e l , b) r é g i o n a l , c)
bilatéral
(c'est-a-dire
être
englobée dans un accord
bilatéral).
On peut a p p o r t e r des arguments a l ' a p p u i de chacune de ces c a t é g o r i e s . Chacune a des avantages, mais également c e r t a i n s i n c o n v é n i e n t s non n é g l i g e ables.
Examinons
les
arguments
q u i peuvent
être
invoqués
pour e t
contre
chacune : a) La r é p u t a t i o n , ê t r e considérées que
ceux
des
restreinte.
l e p o i d s p o l i t i q u e e t moral des r è g l e s q u i peuvent
comme u n i v e r s e l l e s
règles
dont
la
vigueur
Les r è g l e s formulées
commandées par l ' O r g a n i s a t i o n
(quasi-universelles) ne
s'étend
qu'a
sont p l u s grands une
sphère
sous 1 ' a u s p i c e des Nations
plus
Unies et
re-
ne sont c o n t e s t é e s ouvertement même pas par
l e s E t a t s q u i pour t e l l e ou t e l l e r a i s o n ne sont pas d ' a c c o r d avec l e contenu
et
la
manière
théoriquement
de l a
réglementation
ne sont pas c o n t e s t a b l e s ,
pratique d i f f i c i l e m e n t
donnée.
Mais ces
avantages
qui
s'accompagnent d ' i n c o n v é n i e n t s en
surmontables.
En e s q u i s s a n t l e problème des m i n o r i t é s , nous avons vu que ce problème se manifeste sous d i f f é r e n t e s formes et e s t perçu par l e s E t a t s de manières différentes.
Beaucoup d ' E t a t s pensent que l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s
par
l e d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l est s u p e r f l u e , é t a n t donné que l a p o p u l a t i o n v i v a n t sur
leur
territoire
autrement d i t : cherchent
n'a a t t e i n t
que l e
de l ' a s s i m i l a t i o n
a intensifier,
niveau minimal de
des m i n o r i t é s ,
a accélérer
l'intégration,
e t pour c e t t e r a i s o n
l a cadence de l ' i n t é g r a t i o n .
Il
q u i , comme par exemple les A n g l a i s e t l e s F r a n ç a i s ont accédé a l e u r
ils y a
situa-
t i o n a c t u e l l e f a v o r a b l e par des processus de l ' a s s i m i l a t i o n r a p i d e et e f f i cace,
qui
ont
gagné beaucoup
pourquoi
il
naturel.
Actuellement
tionale
faudrait
des E t a t s
et
susciter
n'ont
des
la m a j o r i t é
rien
perdu e t
obstacles
artificiels
des membres de l a
ne se range pas a l ' i d é e
ne comprennent à un
communauté
d'une p r o t e c t i o n
pas
processus interna-
sérieuse
et
e f f i c a c e des m i n o r i t é s . Une i n i t i a t i v e p o r t a n t sur l a c o n c l u s i o n d'une conv e n t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e sur l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s t r o u v e r a
difficile-
ment un a c c u e i l f a v o r a b l e dans l e s Nations U n i e s , mais provoquera d ' a u t a n t plus
d'opposition,
proposition douteux.
d'un
de doute e t semblable
de c r i t i q u e
contenu
semble
pointilleuse. être
Le succès d'une
aujourd'hui
fortement
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
Il
y
a encore
législation
d'autres
231
contre-arguments.
Sur
le
plan u n i v e r s e l
la
internationale
volonté
politique
dans l e
fait
e s t extrêmement l e n t e e t d i f f i c i l e , même s i l a 28 existe. Cependant un plus grand désavantage c o n s i s t e
que l e r é s u l t a t
de l a
législation
ne peut ê t r e que l e
plus
grand dénominateur commun de l a v o l o n t é des l é g i s l a t e u r s q u i est n é c e s s a i r e ment t r è s
petit
participants.
a cause du grand nombre e t du c a r a c t è r e
Cela s i g n i f i e
que même s i
elle arriverait
hétérogène
jusqu'à
des
l'entrée
en v i g u e u r , l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n d'un c a r a c t è r e u n i v e r s e l ne c o m p o r t e r a i t que peu d ' o b l i g a t i o n s
concrètes
tion très faible).
( e t par conséquent n ' o f f r i r a i t
qu'une
Donc pratiquement seulement une t e l l e d é c l a r a t i o n a des
chances d ' ê t r e adoptée q u i ne comporte pas d ' o b l i g a t i o n s qui indique les i n t e n t i o n s ,
juridiques,
l e s o b j e c t i f s e t ne dépasse guère l e s
l i t é s énonçant l ' i n t e r d i c t i o n de l a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r é j u d i c i a b l e , déjà
dans
protec-
plusieurs
conventions
et
déclarations.
Le
sort
mais
généra-
contenues
du p r o j e t
de
d é c l a r a t i o n yougoslave p o r t a n t sur l e s d r o i t s des m i n o r i t é s i l l u s t r e ce q u i vient d'être
dit.
En 1947 on a é t a b l i en t a n t que sous-commission de l a Commission des Droits
de l'Homme des Nations Unies,
un corps composé i n i t i a l e m e n t
de 12
membres, p u i s é l a r g i e a 26 membres, chargé des tâches r e l a t i v e s a l a
pré-
v e n t i o n de l a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n e t a l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s . C e t t e sous29 commission - comme on p o u v a i t c o n s t a t e r - , a somnolé pendant deux décennies
pour
s'activiser
successivement
poids ce c e t t e q u e s t i o n . yougoslave droits
des
a présenté
en f o n c t i o n
C ' e s t dans c e t t e
en 1978 son p r o j e t
minorités,
déclaration
qui
de l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n
sous-commission que l e de d é c l a r a t i o n
serait
qu f o n d
portant
du
délégué sur
les
l'introduction,
la
p r é p a r a t i o n d'une c o n v e n t i o n u l t é r i e u r e y a f f é r a n t e , comme cela s ' e s t passé dans
le
cas
Selon guistiques
des
l'article ou
développement linguistiques la
droits
de
premier
religieuses de
l'homme.
leurs
"Les
ont
propres
Que d i s a i t
minorités
droit
a
texte
nationales,
l'existence,
particularités
et a u t r e s e t a l ' é g a l i t é
le
de ce
projet?
éthniques,
au
nationales,
respect
linet
au
culturelles,
p l e i n e e t e n t i è r e avec l e r e s t e de
population..." L ' a r t i c l e second p r é s c r i t que l e s membres des m i n o r i t é s d o i v e n t j o u i r
de tous aucune
les droits
de l'homme e t de tous les l i b e r t é s
discrimination
discriminer
et
les minorités
t r a i r e s aux p r i n c i p e s
déclare
toute
fondamentales sans
propagande ou a c t i v i t é
ou a m e t t r e en danger l e u r
tendant à
développement
con-
fondamentaux de l a Charte des Nations Unies e t à l a
D é c l a r a t i o n U n i v e r s e l l e des D r o i t s de l'Homme.
232
HERCZEGH, G.
Les a r t i c l e s 3-5 mettent en r e l i e f l a n é c e s s i t é de prendre des mesures qui
leur
permettent
développer
leur
souveraineté,
d'exprimer
culture
etc.
l'intégrité
librement
etc.
leurs
soulignant
le
particularités respect
et
de
r i g o u r e u x de
la
t e r r i t o r i a l e e t l ' i n d é p e n d a n c e p o l i t i q u e du pays
ou v i v e n t l e s m i n o r i t é s e t l a
non-ingérence dans l e s a f f a i r e s
intérieures
de ces pays. Les E t a t s membres d o i v e n t s ' a c q u i t t e r de bonne f o i l e s o b l i g a tions
internationales
qu'ils
ont
assumées
d ' a u t r e s t r a i t é s ou accords i n t e r n a t i o n a u x .
aux
termes
de
la
Charte
et
La c o o p é r a t i o n e n t r e l e s E t a t s
f a c i l i t e r a l ' é t a b l i s s e m e n t des c o n d i t i o n s f a v o r a b l e s pour l a promotion des d r o i t s des m i n o r i t é s .
...
etc.
Nous apprécions e n t i è r e m e n t
les i n t e n t i o n s des i n i t i a t e u r s ,
connaissons que l e s r é d a c t e u r s
du p r o j e t o n t cherché de
conditionnellement
l a s i t u a t i o n des m i n o r i t é s ,
à améliorer
nous r e -
bonne f o i e t
in-
mais en l i s a n t
l e s a r t i c l e s c i - d e s s u s i l f a u t c o n s t a t e r q u ' i l s comportent t r è s peu de d i s positions
favorisant
des m i n o r i t é s . tère
appui
les
intérêts
et
la p r o t e c t i o n
juridiques
I l est v r a i , c e l a r é s u l t e dans une c e r t a i n e mesure du c a r a c -
du " g e n r e "
grande
réellement
de la
flexibilité et d'une
déclaration,
possible
ses
acceptation
international
relatif
q u ' e l l e parle
des m i n o r i t é s
de ce q u ' o n a f o r m u l é
dispositions,
générale.
aux d r o i t s
Elle
dans
avec l a
l'espoir
dépasse l ' a r t i c l e
c i v i l s et politiques
d'un
plus vaste
27 du Pacte
seulement dans c e c i
en t a n t que c o l l e c t i v i t é s ,
e t des d r o i t s
des
m i n o r i t é s en t a n t que t e l l e s . Quel a c c u e i l a trouvé l a
proposition?
Le moins q u ' o n puisse d i r e c ' e s t q u ' e l l e n ' a pas soulevé une e n t h o u s i asme unanime b i e n q u ' i l s o i t v r a i q u ' e l l e n ' a pas subi un r e f u s catégorique Les délégués q u i ne v o u l a i e n t même pas adopter une d é c l a r a t i o n q u i ne comporte
pas d ' o b l i g a t i o n s
concrètes,
se sont
engagés dans des
i n t e r m i n a b l e s s u r des q u e s t i o n s c o n c e p t i o n n e l l e s , finition.
discussions
sur des problèmes de dé-
En 1984, l e délégué sénégalais a proposé dans l a commission com-
pétente l a
suspension des t r a v a u x j u s q u ' à
l'élaboration
d'une
définition
d'une v a l i d i t é générale de l a n o t i o n de m i n o r i t é n a t i o n a l e . Bien qu'on a i t continué
les
travaux,
n ' a v a i t pas é t é Au l i e u
d'assumer
sous-commission
jusqu'à
l'heure
actuelle
sur
la
tache
le p r o j e t ,
ingrate
de résumer
nous d é s i r o n s
t i q u e s du p r o f e s s e u r Francesco C a p o t o r t i , des m i n o r i t é s par l e d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l . 8 1 la
déclaration,
aucun p r o g r è s
important
atteint.
mais a q u a l i f i é
exposer
la
discussion
les
remarques
e x p e r t reconnu de l a
de
la
cri-
protection
C a p o t o r t i a approuvé l ' i d é e de
sa f o r m u l a t i o n
"non s a t i s f a i s a n t e "
sous
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
plusieurs rapports.
Selon l u i
233
l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s d o i t r e s t e r dans
27 du Pacte i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i f
l e cadre de l ' a r t i c l e
aux d r o i t s
civils
e t p o l i t i q u e s q u i - r a p p e l o n s - l e - p o r t e sur l e s i n d i v i d u s appartenant aux minorités,
c'est-à-dire
reflète
yougoslave semble en d é p a r t i r . faute,
il
portait
a
réprouvé
le
également sur l a
une c o n c e p t i o n
individualiste;
le
fait
qu'outre
la
minorité
minorité "nationale",
ethnique
le
ce q u i - d i t - i l
f a u t e que l e p r o j e t
appartiennent
ne se r é f é r a i t
a la minorité^
pas à l ' a r t i c l e
et
projet
- est une
r é p é t i t i o n s u p e r f l u e . I l a reproché l ' a b s e n c e de l ' i n s i s t a n c e sur t i o n de l o y a u t é de ceux q u i
projet
C a p o t o r t i a imputé ce f a i t sans équivoque à
l'obliga-
a imputé à
27 d é j à mentionné du
Pacte i n t e r n a t i o n a l . Je ne p a r t a g e pas l ' o p i n i o n de C a p o t o r t i . empêcheraient de v o i r
l'essentiel.
C ' e s t comme s i l e s
détails
La m i n o r i t é n ' e s t pas simplement
l'en-
semble de ses membres, q u i e s t protégée, s i ses membres ne s o n t pas frappés de
discrimination
vivantes si
préjudiciable,
mais
q u i pourra se d é t r u i r e ,
c'est
s i on f a i t
un
système
on l e s supprime même sans p r é j u d i c e d i r e c t e des d r o i t s
individus.
C'est
tenant à l a
une d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
minorité
nationale
si,
faite
de
relations
o b s t a c l e à ces r e l a t i o n s ou
a l ' é g a r d d'un
personnels des individu
appar-
à cause de sa langue m a t e r n e l l e ,
il
n ' e s t pas admis à l ' é c o l e secondaire ou à l ' é c o l e s u p é r i e u r e (au cas ou
il
r e m p l i t d ' a i l l e r u s l e s c o n d i t i o n s n é c e s s a i r e s ) , ou, ensemble avec ceux q u i appartiennent
à l a m a j o r i t é e t à l a langue de l a m a j o r i t é i l
l a connaissance de l ' h i s t o i r e succès que t o t ou t a r d i l rité
nationale
propre
est
histoire
scolaire
assuré
et
leur
faire
o u b l i e sa propre langue. L ' e x i s t e n c e de l a mino-
garantie
dans
pourra
e t de l a c u l t u r e de l a m a j o r i t é avec un t e l
si
propre
leur
ses e n f a n t s culture
propre
dans
langue
se
familiarisent
le
cadre de
maternelle.
Des
avec
leur
l'enseignement individus
ne
peuvent pas e x i g e r qu'on o r g a n i s e pour eux l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t dans l e u r langue maternelle,
mais
un
groupe
ethnique
important
peut
réclamer
d ' é c o l e s p r i m a i r e s , secondaires e t s u p é r i e u r e s conformes à l e u r numérique. Non seulement des i n d i v i d u s , a v o i r des d r o i t s ,
un
réseau
proportion
mais également de groupes peuvent
exercés par l e s r e p r é s e n t a n t s des o r g a n i s a t i o n s
agissant
au nom du groupe, mais l e p r é a l a b l e n é c e s s a i r e en e s t l a reconnaissance du groupe, en t a n t que t e l , comme s u j e t de d r o i t s e t d ' o b l i g a t i o n s . Le s o r t du p r o j e t de d é c l a r a t i o n yougoslave et l e s o b j e c t i o n s formées c o n t r e l u i lustrent
les
grands
obstacles
rencontrés
sur
le
plan
universel
par
illa
p r o t e c t i o n e f f i c a c e des m i n o r i t é s . b) C ' e s t l e système de l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s de l a Société des
234
HERCZEGH, G.
Nations q u i f o u r n i t l e s p l u s amples i n d i c a t i o n s r e l a t i v e s à l a q u e s t i o n de s a v o i r q u ' e s t ce qu'on peut r é a l i s e r
dans l e domaine de l a p r o t e c t i o n des
m i n o r i t é s dans des cadres régionaux,
é t a n t donné q u ' e n e f f e t , ce système a
eu
un
caractère
régional,
et
a
englobé
territorialement
les
pays
de
l ' E u r o p e c e n t r a l e e t de l ' E s t . La d é t e r m i n a t i o n des o b l i g a t i o n s des p a r t i c i p a n t s a été au fond j u s t e , bien q u ' i l tain,
y aient
été
en r a i s o n de l a
quelques e x p r e s s i o n s dont l e contenu é t a i t nature de l a
réglementation
régionale.
"dans un nombre i m p o r t a n t . . . ) ^ 4
e x i s t e des m i n o r i t é s
p e r f e c t i o n n ' é t a i t pas d é c i s i v e ,
la
faiblesse é t a i t
(La
incerou
Cependant c e t t e c o n t r e b a l a n c é e par
il imle
mécanisme s ' y r a t t a c h a n t e t g a r a n t i s s a n t l a mise en oeuvre des d i p o s i t i o n s . Mais c e l a dans l e
s'est
Conseil
incarné de l a
dans l e
Conseil
d'une o r g a n i s a t i o n
Société des N a t i o n s ,
ce q u i
s'est
universelle,
avéré ê t r e
c o n t r a d i c t i o n en s o i , n i a n t l e r é g i o n a l i s m e de l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n Certes,
il
y avait
des personnes q u i
pensaient
qu'il
y avait
une
régionale. avantage à
charger des personnes i m p a r t i a l e s de l a mise en oeuvre des d i s p o s i t i o n s de ce système - ce q u i e s t un p o i n t de vue certainement j u s t i f i a b l e , en r é a l i t é
cependant
l a s o l u t i o n appliquée a s i g n i f i é que c ' é t a i t des gouvernements,
des r e p r é s e n t a n t s des gouvernements q u i n ' a v a i e n t pas conru l e s
problèmes
i n t e r n e s du système e t n ' a v a i e n t pas é t é a même de l e comprendre q u i
avaint
tranché l e s questions s u r g i e s au cours de l ' a p p l i c a t i o n des r è g l e s pour
la
p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s . C e t t e c i r c o n s t a n c e é t a i t l a s p é c i f i c i t é atypique ( c ' e s t - à - d i r e ne déc o u l a n t pas nécessairement de l a r é g l e m e n t a t i o n r é g i o n a l e ) de l a des m i n o r i t é s juste
titre
saire
pour
d'Etat.
de l a
Société
des N a t i o n s ,
mais nous pouvons c o n s t a t e r
que l a c o ï n c i d e n c e des c i r c o n s t a n c e s p a r t i c u l i è r e s établir
une r é g l e m e n t a t i o n
Une r é o r g a n i s a t i o n
protection
régionale
qui
est
a
néces-
s ' é t e n d à un groupe
politique
de grande' envergure s ' e s t opérée en ère après l a I guerre m o n d i a l e . Presque t o u t e s v
Europe c e n t r a l e et de l ' E s t
les f r o n t i è r e s ont s u b i de m o d i f i c a t i o n s
- des m i n o r i t é s sont devenues de
m a j o r i t é s , des m a j o r i t é s de m i n o r i t é s , e t l e s "Grandes puissances associées et a l l i é e s "
provoquant
des m i n o r i t é s
ces changements ont créé ce système de p r o t e c t i o n
- en ayant p l u s ou moins recours à l a
force,
en l ' i m p o s a n t
du dehors aux Etats concernés - pour compléter l e s changements dans une c e r t a i n e mesure pour les l é g i t i m e r .
territoriaux,
Dans l e cas des v a i n c u s ,
les
d i s p o s i t i o n s y connexes o n t été des c o n d i t i o n s modérées comparées avec l e s pertes
territoriales,
tandis
que pour
ceux appartenant
au camp des
vain-
queurs, e l l e s ont r e p r é s e n t é une c o n t r e p a r t i e pas t r è s l o u r d e comparée avec
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
235
l e s t e r r i t o i r e s récemment a c q u i s . Sans une p r e s s i o n e x t é r i e u r e , ture
venant
"d'en haut",
l e s nouveaux e t l e s
une d i c t a -
anciens E t a t s de l a
région
n ' a u r a i e n t pas pu tomber d ' a c c o r d sur aucune p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s .
Par
conséquant:
des
réalités
la
réglementation
que s i
régionale
ne peut
arriver
à proximité
l a n é c e s s i t é de donner e f f e t à un i n t é r ê t
impératif
dé-
réglementation
ré-
passe l e s i n t é r ê t s i n d i v i d u e l s de l ' E t a t donné. La c o n d i t i o n gionale
-
élaborée suite,
la
préalable
Charte
sous 1 ' a u s p i c e revêt
de l ' é t a b l i s s e m e n t
européenne
l'aspect
des
langues
du Conseil d'une
de l ' E u r o p e ,
réglementation
péenne" - c o n s i s t e dans l e f a i t
d'une
régionales
ou des
dont j e
minorités
parlerai
"régionale"
ou
par
la
"ouest-euro-
que l e s q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i v e s aux m i n o r i t é s
ne s o i e n t pas aiguës, ne se t r o u v e n t pas dans une s i t u a t i o n e x p l o s i v e chez l a m a j o r i t é des p a r t i e s , mais ne tombent non p l u s dans l ' o u b l i e en t a n t que problèmes p é r i f é r i q u e s . On peut même imaginer que l e s problèmes des m i n o r i t é s deviennent aigus hors de l a r é g i o n donnée, hors du c e r c l e des Etats q u i concluent régional
l a convention c'est
relations
internationale
justement
a l'égard
de
du groupe
questions de l e u r s m i n o r i t é s Examinant nationales,
prouver
doit
en
extraordinaire
siècle.
Caresser
qui
l'espoir
des o b j e c t i f s
qui
de
ne peuvent
de l a p r o t e c t i o n
arriver
n é c e s s i t e un é q u i l i b r e r e l a t i f casion
d'Etats
l'un
supériorité
de
leur pas
l'accord
système
résoudre
de les
nationales.
les p o s s i b i l i t é s
on
et la
a
la
régionale
conclusion
que
sa
des m i n o r i t é s réglementation
des i n t é r ê t s s ' y a t t a c h a n t a i n s i qu'une o c -
ne se présente qu'elle
que p e u t - ê t r e
surviendra
et
une f o i s
chaque
se basera sur c e l a
n'est
une bonne méthode que s i on a p l u s d'une corde à son a r c . c) En ce q u i concerne l e s accords b i l a t é r a u x , été
dit
qu'au
moins
téoriquement
ce sont
il
r e s s o r t de ce q u i a
ces accords
qui
sont
capables
d ' é t a b l i r une r é g l e m e n t a t i o n comportant l e p l u s grand nombre d ' o b l i g a t i o n s concrètes
et
situation
des m i n o r i t é s .
prenant
le
mieux
en c o n s i d é r a t i o n
les
spécificités
Cependant même dans ce cas,
une t e l l e
de
la
réglemen-
t a t i o n exige des c o n d i t i o n s p o l i t i q u e s e t a u t r e s , notamment, c e l l e que l e s intérêts
des
parties
réglementation soient
contractantes en é q u i l i b r e .
e x i s t e sur l e t e r r i t o i r e la majorité
dans l ' a u t r e
nombre
membres
des
s'établir de l ' E t a t
des
(des
deux
Etats)
Par exemple,
il
est
s'attachant
à
la
é v i d e n t que
s'il
de tous l e s deux E t a t s des m i n o r i t é s qui forment Etat
e t occupent une p o s i t i o n dominante,
minorités
est
a
peu
près
égal,
l'accord
sur l a base des i n t é r ê t s mutuels. Cependant s i sur l e
et
le
peut
territoire
vi-t une m i n o r i t é de 20 m i l l e s membres de l a n a t i o n qui c o n s t i -
236
HERCZEGH, G.
tue l a m a j o r i t é de l ' E t a t J3, une m i n o r i t é de 2 m i l l i o n s de l a n a t i o n cons t i t u a n t l ' E t a t A^, l ' E t a t ]3 est beaucoup moins i n t é r e s s é dans l a réglementat i o n que l ' E t a t
donc, l a p r o b a b i l i t é d ' u n accord b i l a t é r a l e s t f a i b l e e t
l e s succès des e f f o r t s y r e l a t i f s sont Mais matique, limités
la et
politique l'intérêt
extérieure mutuel,
a l'équilibre
problématiques.
n'est
pas simplement
l'équilibre
un c a l c u l
des i n t é r ê t s
numérique des m i n o r i t é s .
mathé-
ne peut pas
Nous connaissons
certains
accords b i l a t é r a u x q u i o n t f a i t l e u r preuve concernant l a p r o t e c t i o n cace des
minorités,
l'archipel
comme par
d ' A l a n d ou l a
exemple
concention
du Sud b i e n que dans l ' u n
l'accord
suédo-finnois
italo-autrichienne
et l ' a u t r e
des cas,
effi-
concernant
relative
l'équilibre
être
au T y r o l
numérique des
m i n o r i t é s a i e des d é f a u t s , l ' é q u i l i b r e qu'on p o u r r a i t q u a l i f i e r comme l ' u n e des p r é a l a b l e s
d'une r é g l e m e n t a t i o n e f f i c a c e . ^
Pratiquement,
sur l e
ter-
r i t o i r e de l a Suede i l n ' y a pas de m i n o r i t é f i n n o i s e , t a n d i s qu'en I r l a n d e i l e x i s t e une m i n o r i t é suédoise i m p o r t a n t e bien que seulement une p a r t i e de celle-ci
vive
sur
le
territoire
de
En A u t r i c h e
le
e t s i dans l ' e n s e m b l e de l ' I t a l i e
l'archipel
d'Aland.
le
nombre des I t a l i e n s e s t
insignifiant
nombre de l a p o p u l a t i o n
de langue allemande est minime, en T y r o l du Sud
( a l i a s A l t o Adige) l e u r taux est d é j à n o t a b l e . la Finlande s ' a c q u i t t e
- comme i l
I l ne demeure pas moins que
semble - s t r i c t e m e n t e t de bonne f o i de
ses engagements à l ' é g a r d de l a p o p u l a t i o n de l ' A r c h i p e l d ' A l a n d . La popul a t i o n de l ' a r c h i p e l a gardé sa langue m a t e r n e l l e , l a r é g i o n son c a r a c t è r e suédois,
le
niveau de v i e a augmenté depuis q u ' i l
fait
p a r t i e de l a
Fin-
lande e t ne r e s t e guère en a r r i è r e du niveau de v i e notoirement haut de l a Suède, e t
l e s mesures économique e f f i c a c e s
sans aucun doute c o n t r i b u é . de mon b r e f
séjour,
rien
Pour a u t a n t ne t r o u b l e
l'archipel
d ' A l a n d avec l e s Suédois.
la rigueur
affaiblie
d ' e n v i r o n 20 m i l l e s
par
le f a i t
d'habitants,
l ' E u r o p e c e n t r a l e est vraiment
du gouvernement f i n n o i s
que j ' a i
les
pu l ' a p p r é c i e r
relations
de l a
y ont
au cours
population
de
La f o r c e probante de l ' e x e m p l e e s t a
qu'il
s ' a g i t d'un p e t i t
groupe
ethnique
q u i comparé aux m i n o r i t é s n a t i o n a l e s de
infime.
La m i n o r i t é allemande du T y r o l du Sud est p l u s nombreuse, l e nombre de ses membres dépasse l e s 200 m i l l e s , mais demeure en a r r i é r é e t de l o i n du nombre des Hongrois de T r a n s y l v a n i e , des A l b a n a i s , de Yougoslavie ou des Turcs de B u l g a r i e . La r é g l e m e n t a t i o n n ' a v a i t pas été s i e f f i c a c e que c e l u i concernant l ' a r c h i p e l d ' A l a n d - l e s s é q u e l l e s de l ' a c c o r d Gruber-de Gasperi avaient é t é des e x p l o s i o n s de bombes, des a t t e n t a t s commis avec des engins explosifs
-
mais i l
semble que par
suite
de longs
efforts,
la
question
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
avait
fini
par se c a l m e r .
mais
également
l'Autriche
Peut-être seront
237
l e moment où non seulement membres
des
Communautés
l'Italie,
européennes,
définitive.37
apportera l a s o l u t i o n
Q u ' e s t - c e q u i a rendu p o s s i b l e l a c o n c l u s i o n des deux accords e t l e u r a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c a c e ou au moins s a t i s f a i s a n t e b i e n que l ' é q u i l i b r e
numé-
r i q u e n ' a i e pas e x i s t é ? Au début des années 20 pour l a F i n l a n d e , en t a n t q u ' E t a t nouveau était
important
que
l'établissement
de ses r e l a t i o n s
internationales
il ne
s o i t pas t e r n i par une question i n t e r n a t i o n a l e non r é g l é e . Dans l a période d'entre-deux-guerres,
et
après
la
deuxième
guerre
mondiale
elle
avait
besoin de l ' a p p u i b i e n v a i l l a n t de l a Suède ( e t des a u t r e s pays Scandinaves) Evidemment,
la r é a l i s a t i o n
d'une v a s t e démocratie
développement économique rapide de l ' E t a t jectifs.
Les
aspirations
d ' A l a n d ont cessé e t l'intérieur de l a
ainsi
que l e
de
la
population
de
l'archipel
semble que l ' a u t o n o m i e v a s t e q u i s ' e s t r é a l i s é e a
de l a F i n l a n d e répond entièrement aux i n t é r ê t s e t aux s o u h a i t s
population. L'Italie
pour
il
séparatistes
finnoise,
nouvel a v a l e n t f a v o r i s é ces ob-
cette
a t e r m i n é l a deuxième guerre mondiale en t a n t que vaincu e t
raison
elle
ne p o u v a i t
pas r e f u s e r
la
conclusion d'un
accord
p o r t a n t sur l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s , comme e l l e l ' a v a i t f a i t après l a ere I guerre mondiale. E l l e ne p o u v a i t pas se p e r m e t t r e d a v o i r - o u t r e l a question relatif
des aux
Slovènes Allemands
vainqueur comme l a honorer
vivant
autour
de T y r o l
Yougoslavie,
ses exigences
du
de Sud.
c'est
territoriales
-
Irieste
-
L'Autriche
pourquoi
elle
mais e l l e
un problème
envenimé
n'était
un
pas
ne p o u v a i t pas
n'était
Etat faire
pas non p l u s un
E t a t vaincu qu'on a u r a i t pu simplement r e f u s e r en m a t i è r e de l a
protection
des m i n o r i t é s . La c o n d i t i o n p r é a l a b l e de l a c o n c l u s i o n d ' u n compromis é t a i t donc une a i t u a t i o n e x t r a o r d i n a i r e ,
extraordinaire
dans l a mesure où aucun
des E t a t s i n t é r e s s é s n ' é t a i t dans une p o s i t i o n f a v o r a b l e ,
dominante e t où
l ' o c c a s i o n e x t r a o r d i n a i r e s ' e s t t r a d u i t e par l a t e r m i n a i s o n e t l a
liquida-
t i o n j u r i d i q u e de l a guerre mondiale. Tout cela manquait e t manque a u j o u r d ' h u i encore sur l e p l a n hungaroroumain e t n ' e x i s t e guère sur l e p l a n s e r b o - a l b a n a i s ,
b u l g a r o - t u r c , pour ne
mentionner que l e s problèmes a c t u e l s l e s plus graves r e l a t i f s aux m i n o r i t é s (Dans ce c o n t e x t e , des m i n o r i t é s
nous l a i s s o n s
vivant
en CRSS.)
intentionnellement En Ouest,
à part
en m a t i è r e
les
de l a
questions
q u e s t i o n de
1 ' I r l a n d du Nord, de l a question basque, un groupe r e l a t i v e m e n t p e t i t , mais d ' a u t a n t p l u s a c t i f a accaparé l ' i n i t i a t i v e et par ses méthodes t e r r o r i s t e s
238
il
HERCZEGH, G.
a réussi
contours
a envenimer
d'une s o l u t i o n
la
situation
rassurante
d'une
telle
ne peuvent
manière
que même l e s
pas se p r o f i l e r .
Faute de
données dignes de confiance nous ne sommes pas en mesure de t r a n c h e r
la
q u e s t i o n de s a v o i r quel r ô l e e s t revenu dans c e c i aux E t a t s t i e r s , n i c e l l e q u e l l e forme r e v ê t i r o n t l ' o c c a s i o n e x t r a o r d i n a i r e e t l a s i t u a t i o n n e l l e posées comme c o n d i t i o n a l a s e n t e n t dans un proche a v e n i r .
réglementation,
La p r o b a b i l i t é
indiquée
en
tant
que
condition
s i jamais e l l e s se p r é -
que c e t t e s i t u a t i o n se p r é -
sente e s t en t o u t cas plus grande que c e l l e de tion
exception-
d'une
l ' a p p a r i t i o n de l a réglementation
situa-
régionale.
4. Le résumé de notre enquête donne un image assez morne e t décevant. Sur l e plan u n i v e r s e l on ne p o u r r a guère a t t e i n d r e plus qu'une d é c l a r a t i o n p r é t e n t i e u s e mais q u i ne comporte que peu d ' o b l i g a t i o n s c o n c r è t e s . Les poss i b i l i t é s d'une r é g l e m e n t a t i o n r é g i o n a l e sont p l u s l a r g e s , mais 4
^
n é c e s s a i r e a sa c o n c l u s i o n - q u i s ' e s t p r o d u i t après l a I a l e en Europe c e n t r a l e et de l ' E s t , mesure de se f a i r e
entendre e t
l'occasion
ere guerre mondi-
lorsque l e s vaincus n ' é t a i e n t pas en
les petits
vainqueurs n ' é t a i e n t
dans une p o s i t i o n dominante - se p r o d u i t rarement.
Les accords
non p l u s bilatéraux
ne peuvent ê t r e e f f i c a c e s que dans l ' h y p o t h è s e de l ' é q u i l i b r e des i n t é r ê t s s'attachant interprêté
à
la
réglementation,
comme é q u i l i b r e
qui
équilibre
se
limite
qui
cependant
a la
ne
proportion
peut
être
numérique
des
sans doute ne j u s t i f i e n t
pas
minorités. Pourtant
les
difficultés
qui
l ' i m m o b i l i s m e dans ce domaine.
existent
Ce n ' e s t pas t o u j o u r s l e chemin d r o i t ,
chemin l e plus c o u r t qui est l e p l u s e f f i c a c e .
Evidemment i l
toutes
promettent
les
possibilités
-
même
si
elles
ne
le
f a u t essayer
pas
un
succès
r a p i d e - e t pour c e t t e r a i s o n l a recherche d ' a u t r e s v o i e s , d ' a u t r e s moyens s'impose. En ce qui
concerne
les
autres
voies,
sous
1'auspice
du Conseil
de
l ' E u r o p e on a mis sur pied l a Charte européenne des langues r é g i o n a l e s ou m i n o r i t a i r e s q u i protège l e s m i n o r i t é s non pas comme t e l l e s ,
c'est-â-dire
comme des groupes ayant l e u r p r o p r e p r o f i l e t l e u r propre p o i d s mais
les
langues
c u l t u r e l européen. futurs
signataires
régionales
(minoritaires)
faisant
partie
de
politiques, l'héritage
Dans l e cadre de c e t t e p r o t e c t i o n e l l e impose aux E t a t s de
la
Charte
des
obligations
concrètes
concernant
l'enseignement p r i m a i r e , s e c o n d a i r e , technique e t supérieur assuré dans l e s langues
protégées
établissements
ou
au moins
scolaires,
ainsi
l'enseignement que
de
ces
l'obligation
domaines i m p o r t a n t s de l a v i e p u b l i q u e e t p r i v é e .
langues
dans
ces
concernant
d'autres
Elle p r e s c r i t
l'obliga-
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
tion
de p u b l i e r
les
lois
et
les
décrets
239
dans ces
langues,
d'assurer
d r o i t de l ' u t i l i s a t i o n de ces langues dans les r e l a t i o n s avec l e s
le
autorités,
d ' a s s u r e r l e recrutement des f o n c t i o n n a i r e s ayant une connaissances
appro-
priée
de
de
la
langue
en q u e s t i o n ,
de
garantir
l'utilisation
langue devant l e s t r i b u n a u x . La Charte s t i p u l e q u ' i l s a t i o n des noms e t
prénoms et des noms des l i e u x
libre
la
f a u t assurer
l'utili-
dans l a langue
minori-
t r a i r e , a i n s i que l ' u t i l i s a t i o n de l a langue m i n o r i t a i r e dans l a v i e économique, l e maintien e t l e développement des r e l a t i o n s â t r a v e r s l e s
fronti-
ères avec ceux q u i p a r l e n t l a même langue de manière que l e s r e p r é s e n t a n t s des groupes m i n o r i t a i r e s p o s s i b l e d'exposer
ici
puissent
faire
toutes les d i s p o s i t i o n s
peut résumer dans ce q u ' e l l e s s a t i s f o r i t la
protection
propriée
des
des m i n o r i t é s . langues
entendre
Exprimé
minoritaires
leur
voix.
de l a
Il
n ' e s t pas
Charte, mais on l e s
toutes l e s exigences imposées par
p l u s simplement:
protège
d'une
La p r o t e c t i o n
ap-
façon s a t i s f a i s a n t e
les
m i n o r i t é s elles-mêmes. E l l e g a r a n t i t l e u r e x i s t e n c e , l a sauvegarde de l e u r s t r a d i t i o n s , l ' e n r i c h i s s e m e n t de l e u r
culture.
Le p r o j e t de l a Charte r e f l è t e une conception i n t é r e s s a n t e en matière de t e c h n i q u e j u r i d i q u e .
La p l u p a r t des d i s p o s i t i o n s
ont deux
formulation:
une minimale e t une maximale. C ' e s t en f o n c t i o n du nombre et de l a t i o n de ceux qui p a r l e n t plus
restreint,
situa-
l a langue m i n o r i t a i r e q u ' u n réseau p l u s l a r g e ou
une presse
plus
riche,
plus d ' é m i s s i o n s
radiophoniques,
plus de programmes t é l é v i s é s sont n é c e s s a i r e s . Ce q u i sera t r o p peu dans un c e r t a i n cas donné, sera dans l e cas d ' u n e m i n o r i t é peu nombreuse une e x i gence exagérée e t une o b l i g a t i o n s u p e r f l u e .
Les "Hautes P a r t i e s
contrac-
tantes" peuvent donc c h o i s i r e n t r e l e s e n v i r o n 70 paragraphes de l a
Charte,
mais e l l e s doivent en c h o i s i r au moins 35 dont au moins douze c h o i s i s parmi l e s paragraphes i n d i q u é s par l a C h a r t e .
La Charte g a r a n t i t par ce f a i t que
ses d i s p o s i t i o n s imposent aux E t a t s c o n t r a c t a n t s e f f e c t i v e m e n t des t i o n s concrètes sans que l e u r maximalisme puisse décourager l e s
obliga-
gouverne-
ments q u i se proposent d ' y adhérer. La Charte sera p o r t é e c e t t e
année devant l e Conseil de l ' E u r o p e . En 38 a t t e n d a n t nous n'avons pas de connaissance de son s o r t , des d é b a t s , mais i l y a t o u t e p r o b a b i l i t é que t ô t ou t a r d e l l e sera adoptée. Si on a r r i v e a conclure langues
un accord i n t e r n a t i o n a l e minoritaires,
internationales devient de l a
superflue.
langue.
la
création
particulières Il
qui
protège d ' u n e
d'une
portant
sur
f a u t donc c o n c e n t r e r
convention la
façon a p p r o p r i é e ou des
protection
des
l e s e f f o r t s sur l a
les
conventions minorités protection
240
HERCZEGH, G.
Quels sont l e s avantages de c e t t e s o l u t i o n ? Nous avons d é j à démontré que l ' a t m o s p h è r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e e s t
défavo-
rable â l a c o n c l u s i o n d'une c o n v e n t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e g l o b a l e p o r t a n t sur p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s . positif
Peu d ' E t a t s se c r o i e n t
intéressés
la
dans un sens
dans ce domaine, d ' a u t a n t plus nombreux sont ceux a q u i les éven-
t u e l s remuement des groupes e t h n i q u e s v i v a n t s u r l e u r t e r r i t o i r e sont s u j e t d'inquiétude. tique
Sauvegarder e t
politique.
Refuser
tâche p l u s d i f f i c i l e
la
cultiver
la langue,
protection
d'une
cela a une a u t r e acous-
valeur
culturelle
est
une
e t plus i n g r a t e que de r e f u s e r l e consentement à une
concession p o l i t i q u e ,
or l a c r é a t i o n des r è g l e s j u r i d i q u e s
q u i servent
la
p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s sont considérées comme t e l l e s . La t r a n s p o s i t i o n du point
crucial
minoritaires
de l a p r o t e c t i o n (régionales)
des m i n o r i t é s
à l a p r o t e c t i o n des langues
" d é p o l i t i s e " l a q u e s t i o n e t f a v o r i s e par ce f a i t
sa s o l u t i o n . Pour
dissiper
panacée u n i v e r s e l l e ,
les
malentendus
je
précise:
il
ne s ' a g i t
pas
d'une
q u i p o r t e remède d'un s e u l coup à tous l e s problèmes
des m i n o r i t é s . Evidemment, l e s gouvernements q u i r e f u s e n t l ' i d é e même de l a protection
des m i n o r i t é s ,
ne s e r o n t pas enthousiasmés pour
la
protection
des langues m i n o r i t a i r e s et f e r o n t t o u t pour assumer l e moind d ' o b l i g a t i o n s j u r i d i q u e s dans ce domaine. Cependant du p o i n t de vue t a c t i q u e , i l s dans une s i t u a t i o n p l u s d i f f i c i l e , s'agirait
seront
plus d é f a v o r a b l e que dans l e cas ou
de l a p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s .
Pour c e t t e r a i s o n l a
t i o n du p o i n t c r u c i a l , l e changement de l ' o b j e c t i f
d i r e c t de l a
t i o n e s t une p o s s i b i l i t é qui m é r i t e une c o n s i d é r a t i o n
il
transposiréglementa-
approfondie.
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
241
Notes
^On trouve beaucoup de d é f i n i t i o n s r e l a t i v e s aux minorités, mais aucune ne peut ê t r e considérée comme généralement reconnue. Parmi ces nombreuses d é f i n i t i o n s nous citons c e l l e de F. Capotorti : "Une minorité est un group qui, vu l e nombre de ses membres, est plus p e t i t que l e reste de l a population du pays, un group qui n'occupe pas une p o s i t i o n dominante et dont les membres disposent de p a r t i c u l a r i t é s ethniques, r e l i g i e u s e s ou l i n g u i s t i q u e s , qui d i f f e r e n t des p a r t i c u l a r i t é s du reste de l a population, un groupe, dont les membres sont l i é s par l e sentiment de l a s o l i d a r i t é en vue de la sauvegarde de leur culture, l e u r s t r a d i t i o n s , l e u r r e l i g i o n et l e u r langue." I l n ' e s t pas nécessaire de nous engager dans l'analyse de c e t t e d é f i n i t i o n , puisque la solution du problème ne dépend pas de la manière dont les minorités sont définies. I l est caractéristique que dans la Sous-commission des m i n o r i t é s constituée au sein de la Commission des Droits de l'Homme de l'ONU " l a forme camouflée de l'ajournement et du freinage des travaux se manifeste dans le f a i t que certains Etats membres cherchent à mettre au premier plan le débat sur l a d é f i n i t i o n des minorités, ce qui vu les questions essentielles équivaudrait à une impasse" - comme l e d i t László Rehák. V . : László Rehák: Nemz e t , nemzetiség, kisebbség Jugoszláviában (Nation, n a t i o n a l i t é , minorité en Yougoslavie) Bp. Gondolat, 1988. p. 18.
2 Dans ce contexte i l faut signaler l ' a u t r e côté de la question, notamment que l ' E t a t , l ' E t a t moderne est - en principe - l'organe exécutif de l a volonté des citoyens, le moyen de la volonté des citoyens, également de ceux qui sont d'un certain point de vue en m i n o r i t é . Nous y revenons plus t a r d , i c i j e veux seulement remarquer que contrairement au principe, dans la pratique c e r t a i n s personnes et groupes avaient une p o s i t i o n p r i v i l é g i é e en ce qui concerne la détermination e t du contenu de l a loyauté des c i t o y e n s . ^En 1776, l a Déclaration de l'Indépendance des Etats Unis a proclamé en tant que v é r i t é incontestable et évidente que "Les gouvernements sont é t a b l i s par les hommes pour garantir ces d r o i t s et leur j u s t e pouvoir émane du consentement des gouvernés. Toutes les f o i s qu'une forme de gouvernement devient d e s t r u c t i v e de ce b u t , l e peuple a l e d r o i t de la changer ou de l ' a b o l i r , e t é t a b l i r un nouveau gouvernement en l e fondant sur les p r i n c i p e s et en o r g a n i sant en la forme qui paraîtront l e s plus propres a l u i donner la sûreté et le bonheur." 4 ч Hélas, l a terminologie est non seulement confuse mais aussi peu c l a r i f i a b l e a cause de la différence entre le développement d i t ouest-européen et de celui de l'Europe centrale e t de l ' E s t , pour ne mentionner que ces deux, - et à cause du f a i t que les auteurs s'attachant aux notions é t a b l i e s dans leur propre m i l i e u . . . Voir József Hermen: A nemzetfogalom meghatározásához: n y i t o t t kérdések és v i t a t h a t ó válaszok ( C o n t r i b u t i o n a la d é f i n i t i o n de la notion de la nation: questions ouvertes e t réponses contestables), Világosság, 1988. No. 8-9. pp. 510-518. Mais dans les memes milieux on peut observer également c e r t a i n s changements. Dans l ' a i r e l i n g u i s t i q u e allemande par exemple au l i e u de l a notion "nationale Minderheiten" les notions "Volksgruppe" et "Volksgruppenrecht" se répendent de mieux en mieux. \ a proportion des personnes dont la langue maternelle est l e c r o a t e , l e Slovène ou l e hongrois monte à 1 pourcent des habitants de l ' A u t r i c h e . De temps en temps des g r i e f s sont formulés dans l e s milieux des Slovènes de la C a r i n t h i e , mais en comparaison de leur nombre, leur s i t u a t i o n ne peut guère être q u a l i f i é e comme p r é j u d i c i a b l e . 6
C ' e s t - a - d i r e : l'établissement de l ' u n i t é n a t i o n a l e selon leur propre i n t e r p r é t a t i o n ! I l n ' é t a i t pas possible de l e déclarer o f f i c i e l l e m e n t , mais tacitement cela f a i s a i t p a r t i e , meme partie e s s e n t i e l l e du programme national certes appuyé par la m a j o r i t é de la population d'un e s p r i t p o l i t i q u e . 7 0 . J á s z i : A nemzeti államok kialakulása és a nemzeti kérdés (Le développement des Etats nationaux et l a question n a t i o n a l e ) , Bp. G r i l l , 1912, p. 504.
g
Jászi: op. c i t . p. 509. 9
Voir Loi No 16 de l'année 1955.
242
HERCZEGH, G.
Un demi siècle après l e débarquement de Christophe Colomb presque personne n ' a survécu parmi les Indiens des Caraïbes. Au cours du XIX siècle le peuple autochtone de Tasmanie a totalement disparu et les massacres subis par des Arméniens de l a Turquie dans les années de la première guerre mondiale sont assez bien connus pour q u ' i l ne s o i t pas nécessaire de les exposer i c i en d é t a i l . U
I c i j e ne pense pas seulement â l ' i n t e r d i c t i o n de résidence appliquée a l ' é g a r d des Allemands de la Volga et des Tartares de la Crimée, mais également aux mesures appliquées dans les Etats-Unis et dans l e Canada contre les citoyens d ' o r i g i n e japonaise vivant dans les Etats-membres de l'Ouest. 12 Voir Kálmán Janics: A szlovákiai magyar társadalom ötven éve (Les 50 années de la société hongroise de la Slovaquie), Valóság, 1971. Noi. 6. pp. 20 à 31. ^ C e phénomène est s i bien connu que nous pouvons nous passer de mentionner des exemples concrets, d'enumeration de noms. 14 Janics: op. c i t . Valóság, 1971. No. 6. pp. 20 a 321. ^Conformément à c e t t e conception s t a l i n i e n n e l e représentant de l'Union soviétique a donné son appui au cours de la conférence de paix de Paris au p r o j e t tchécoslovaque concernant le déplacement u n i l a t é r a l de 200 000 Hongrois. ^ V o i r les dispositions de l ' a r t i c l e 54 et suivants du T r a i t é de Paix de Trianon. G. Herczeg: A kisebbségek nemzetközi jogi védelme (La protection des minorités par l e d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l ) JPTE Dolgozatok az állam- és jogtudományok köréből. Pécs, 1987. pp. 90 e t 91. ^ L ' a r t i c l e premier de l a Paix de Vienne de l'année 1606 s t i p u l e que "les Etats qui vivent à l ' i n t é r i e u r des f r o n t i è r e s de la Hongrie, dans l'ensemble et par i n d i v i d u s , les magnats et les nobles et l e s v i l l e s l i b r e s e t l e s v i l l e s p r i v i l é g i é e s appartenant a la Couronne, a i n s i que les soldats hongrois des c o n f i n s ne seront jamais et nullepart empêchés dans leur r e l i g i o n et leur croyance par Sa Majesté Impériale et Royale et Elle ne permettra pas q u ' i l s en soient empêchés par a u t r u i . (Voir Recueil des Lois Hongrois, 1526-1608, Bp. Franklin, 1899.) La Paix de Linz a étendu la l i b e r t é de r e l i g i o n aux s e r f s , selon l e document de r a t i f i c a t i o n de Ferdinand I I I comme s u i t : "En ce qui concerne l e f a i t que les paysans ne seront empêchés dans leur r e l i g i o n , nous avons déclaré et décidé que par amour de l a paix et de la t r a n q u i l l i t é du pays, en vertu de l ' a r t i c l e et de la condition ci-dessus i l est i n t e r d i t q u ' i l s soient empêchés dans l ' e x e r c i c e l i b r e de l e u r r e l i g i o n par Sa Majesté Royale ou par ses servants ou par les seigneurs t e r r i e n s sous aucun p r é t e x t e , q u ' i l s soient habitants f r o n t a l i e r s ou habitants des bourgades ou campagnards sur la p r o p r i é t é de n'importe quel seigneur t e r r i e n ou du f i s c . . . Décret de 1647 de Ferdinand I I I . Recueil des Lois hongrois, 1608-1657. Bp. Franklin, 1905. 18 La paix de Karlóca de 1699, la paix de Posarevac de 1719 et la paix de Belgrade de 1739 ont contenu des d i s p o s i t i o n s au p r o f i t des chrétiens. La paix de KiicsLik-Kainardj a accordé le d r o i t à l'ambassadeur de la Russie a Constantinople d ' a g i r dans l ' i n t é r ê t des chrét i e n s . Ce d r o i t a été confirmé par le contrat de J a s s i . Sur ces d i s p o s i t i o n s ainsi que c e l l e s contractuelles postérieures v o i r E. Flachbart: System des i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n Minderheitenrechtes. Bp. Gergely, 1937. pp. 10 a 17. 19 V L'argument selon lequel les f r o n t i e r e s l i n g u i s t i q u e s sont tellement embrouillées en Europe centrale que la démarcation des f r o n t i è r e s p o l i t i q u e s est impossible sur l a base ethnique ne r é s i s t é pas ê l'examen. (Voir I . Bibó: Válogatott tanulmányok. Études c h o i s i e s , Magvető, 1986. Vol. I I . p. 243 et s u i v . ) I l e x i s t e relativement peu de domaines tellement emb r o u i l l é s , mais même dans ces domaines i l est possible de tracer une frontière qui orée un é q u i l i b r e entre les d i f f é r e n t s peuples et ne met pas un nombre plus élevé des minorités sous la domination d'une autre n a t i o n , que le nombre de la minorité qui v i t sur le t e r r i t o i r e de la nation parlant la meme langue que la nation première. 20
Dans son memorandum du 31 mars 1919, que les soucis entendus au cours de son séjour à Budapest ont certainement i n f l u e n c e , Coolidge, homme p o l i t i q u e américain a a t t i r é l ' a t t e n -
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
243
t i o n du Président Wilson sur les f a i t s suivants: "Toutes l e s propositions de l a Commission r e l a t i v e s à l ' a d j u d i c a t i o n des t e r r i t o i r e s controversés se basent sans aucun doute sur l'hypothèse que les minorités mises sous domination étrangère b é n é f i c i e r o n t d'un traitement s a t i s f a i s a n t . Cependant une t e l l e hypothese n ' e s t pas suffisante. Au c o n t r a i r e , la conférence doit déterminer d'urgence et d o i t proclamer q u ' e s t - c e qui c o n s t i t u t e l e minimum des d r o i t s p o l i t i q u e s , l i n g u i s t i q u e s , r e l i g i e u x . . . " Voir F. Ermacora: I n n e r s t a a t l i c h e , regionale und univers e l l e Struktur eines Volksgruppenrechts. I n : Th. Veiter: System eines i n t e r n a t i o n a l e Volksgruppenrechts. B / 3 / I I . Wien - S t u t t g a r t , Braumüller, 1972. p. 6 . 21 Voir Pologne ( V e r s a i l l e s , 28 j u i n 1919), Tchécoslovaquie (Saint Germain en Laye, 10 septembre 1919), Royaume Serbe-Croate-Slovène (Saint Germain en Laye, 10 septembre 1919) L i t v a n i e au sujet de l a région de Memel (8 mai 1924), Allemagne ( V e r s a i l l e s , 28 j u i n 1919, a r t i c l e s 85 et 93), Autriche (Saint Germain en Laye, 10 septembre 1919, a r t i c l e s 62 a 64), Hongrie (Trianon, 4 j u i n 1920), a r t i c l e s 54 à 60), Bulgarie ( N e u i l l y , 27 novembre 1919, a r t i c l e s 49 a 57), Turquie (Lausanne, 24 j u i l l e t 1923, a r t i c l e s 37 a 45). 22
Voir Erzsébet Szalay-Sándor: A kisebbségek nemzetközi j o g i védelme a Nemzetek Szövetségének égisze a l a t t (Protection des m i n o r i t é s par le d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l sous 1'auspice de la Société des Nations) I n : Etudes sur la protection j u r i d i q u e des minorités nationales. Janus Pannonius Tudományegyetem, Pécs, 1988. pp. 59 à 128. 23 Idem, p. 95 et s u i v . 24 Le Pacte de la Société des Nations a expressément i n t e r d i t Г ingérence de la part de l ' O r g a n i s a t i o n dans l e s a f f a i r e s internes des Etats membres. L ' a c t i v i t é du Conseil r e l a t i v e a la p r o t e c t i o n des m i n o r i t é s ne peut donc é t r e qualifiée en t a n t qu'ingérence e t l a situation des minorités en tant q u ' a f f a i r e interne exclusive. 25 Référence a l a constatation souvent c i t é e de Roscoe Pound. Voir R. Pound: The Format i v e Era of American Law. New York. 1950. p. 13. 26 En vertu de l ' a r t i c l e 40, les Etats parties au Pacte s'engagent à présenter des rapports sur les mesures q u ' i l s auront arrêtées et qui donnent e f f e t aux d r o i t s reconnus dans le Pacte, e t c . Outre les obligations générales l e Pacte c o n t i e n t des garanties p a r t i e l l e s - et f a c u l t a t i v e s - u l t é r i e u r e s . En vertu de l ' a r t i c l e 41 " t o u t Etat partie peut déclarer à tout moment q u ' i l reconnaît l a compétence du Comité pour recevoir et examiner des communications dans lesquelles un Etat p a r t i e prétend qu'un autre Etat p a r t i e ne s'acquitte pas de ses o b l i gations au t i t r e du présent Pacte. Les communications présentées en vertu du présent a r t i c l e ne peuvent être reçues et examinées que s i e l l e s émanent d'un Etat partie qui a f a i t une dédu c l a r a t i o n reconnaissant, en ce qui l e concerne, la compétence du Comité. L ' a r t i c l e 1 Protocole f a c u l t a t i f annexé s t i p u l e : "Tout Etat partie au Pacte qui devient p a r t i e au présent Protocole reconnaît que l e Comité a compétence pour recevoir et examiner des communications émanent de p a r t i c u l i e r s relevant de sa j u r i d i c t i o n qui prétendent être victimes d'une v i o l a t i o n , par cet Etat p a r t i e , de l ' u n quelconque des d r o i t s énoncés dans le P a c t e . . . " Le cercle des Etats qui appartiennent à ce dernier groupe est beaucoup plus r e s t r e i n t . Parmi les Etats du Pacte de Varsovie, c ' e s t uniquement l a Hongrie qui a f a i t toutes les deux déclarations. Les adhésions sont entrées en vigueur l e 9 décembre 1988. 27 Voir les d i s p o s i t i o n s du d é c r e t - l o i 21 de l'années 1985, du d é c r e t - l o i 6 de l'année 1986, e t du d é c r e t - l o i 15 de l'aînée 1986. 28 Cf. G. Herczegh: A nemzetközi jogalkotás mai lehetőségei és k o r l á t a i (Les p o s s i b i l i t é s et les l i m i t e s actuelles de la l é g i s l a t i o n internationale) Bp. Akadémia, 1987. pp. 20 et suiv. 29 Beaucoup ont déjà présenté l a contradiction qui e x i s t e entre l a ranimation de l a conscience nationale e t ethnique et e n t r e l ' i n t é r ê t modéré - c ' e s t la moins- qu'on puisse en d i r e - des Nations Unies a l'égard de l ' a f f a i r e des minorités nationales. ^ L e s publications o f f i c i e l l e s des Nations Unies n ' a r r i v e n t qu'avec un r e t a r d considérable chez les lecteurs et les quotidiens ne rendent pas compte des travaux de la Sous-commission des minorités.
HERCZEGH, G.
244
^ F . Capotorti: Die Rechte der Angehörigen von Minderheiten. Vereinte Nationen (Bonn, 1980) No. 4. pp. 113 à 118. 32 En e f f e t , l e p r o j e t de déclaration ne parle pas de l a loyauté, mais l e paragraphe premier de l ' a r t i c l e 4 souligne la souveraineté de l ' E t a t donné, l ' i n v i o l a b i l i t é de son t e r r i t o i r e et le principe de la non-intervention. ^ 1 1 en découle la reconnaissance des d r o i t s c o l l e c t i f s , c ' e s t - à - d i r e des d r o i t s revenant a la c o l l e c t i v i t é en tant que t e l l e et exercé par ses organes r e p r é s e n t a t i f s élus. D ' a i l l e u r s le problème n ' e s t pas nouveau. On l ' a déjà d i s c u t é au temps de l a Société des Nations. Cf. E. Flachbart: I n d i v i d u a l i s t a és k o l l e k t i v i s t a irányzatok a nemzetközi kisebbségi jogban (Tendances i n d i v i d u a l i s t e s et c o l l e c t i v i s t e dans l e d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l des minorités) A Debreceni Tisza István Tudományegyetem 1936-37. évkönyve (Annuaire de l ' U n i v e r s i t é István Tisza, Debrecen), p. 16. "L'essence de l a notion des m i n o r i t é s et surtout des minorités nat i o n a l e s est le sentiment conmun de ses membres, leur conscience commune, q u ' i l s constituent une c o l l e c t i v i t é d i f f é r e n t e de la m a j o r i t é , une personnalité autonome." 34 Le nombre important auquel s attache 1 o b l i g a t i o n d accorder des f a c i l i t é s appropriées" en matière de l'enseignement donné dans la langue maternelle aux enfants des minorités, n'a pas été d é f i n i d'une façon satisfaisante et a t t i r e notre a t t e n t i o n a ce q u ' i l faut é v i t e r les formulations qui rend possible l ' a p p r é c i a t i o n a r b i t r a i r e . Comme i l se manifeste dans les r e l a t i o n s hungaro-roumaines, où i l e x i s t e face au 20 m i l l e s Roumains en Hongrie deux m i l l i o n s de Hongrois en Roumanie. La proportion est donc 1 a 100! ^ C f . Gyula Gál: A d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l de la nemzetközi j o g i védelméről nationales) Janus Pannonius
d é l - t i r o l i kérdés nemzetközi j o g i vonatkozásai (Les aspects de question du Tyrol du Sud) I n : Tanulmányok a nemzeti kisebbségek (Etudes sur la protection pur l e d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l des minorités Tudományegyetem, Pécs, 1988 pp. 253 à 293.
^ A u sein du Marché commun on " s p i r i t u á l i s é " les f r o n t i è r e s entre les E t a t s , et par ce f a i t on cherche a f a i r e perdre l ' i n t é r ê t des g r i e f s de la "séparation" des m i n o r i t é s , mais en Europe de l ' E s t - Europe centrale - hélas - avec peu de succès. ~^Dans son numéro du 9-10 octobre 1988 le journal Neue Zürcher Zeitung publie une nouvelle selon laquelle la session parlementaire du Conseil de l'Europe tenue à Strasbourg a p r i s p o s i t i o n pour l e p r o j e t de convention. I l dépend de l a Commission des Ministres s i on soumet le projet aux Etats membres pour signature et r a t i f i c a t i o n . I l est a supposé qu'on le fera dans un proche a v e n i r .
PROTECTION DES MINORITÉS
245
THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF MINORITIES G. Herczegh I t i s generally c h a r a c t e r i s t i c about the s i t u a t i o n of m i n o r i t i e s that t h e i r members are i n adverse s i t u a t i o n conpared to the majority and burdened by various discriminative measures. Therefore i t i s a need for t h e i r legal p r o t e c t i o n , however the p r o t e c t i o n by inner law i s not s u f f i c i e n t by i t s e l f , because i t could be a l t e r e d u n i l a t e r a l l y by the so-called m a j o r i t y . Consequently t h e i r protection should be strengthened by i n t e r n a t i o n a l guarantees. The r e l a t i o n between the state and a p a r t i c u l a r group of i t s c i t i z e n s i s not a l i e n f i e l d for the i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. Since centuries we can meet i n t e r n a t i o n a l agreements securing the r e l i g i o u s f r e e dom, l a t e r regulations concerning the p r o t e c t i o n of national m i n o r i t i e s , i t s best-known example was the minority p r o t e c t i o n system under the aegis of the League of Nations. The p r o h i b i t i o n of the oppression against m i n o r i t i e s the appearance and aggravation of i n t e r national c o n f l i c t s could be prevented, therefore by the protection of minorities the i n t e r national law can accomplish i t s most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c task. Three various levels of i n t e r national law regulation are possible. However, the universal l e v e l - tlue to the d i f f e r e n c e of the s i t u a t i o n of minorities - can operate only as general rule and may establish a few duties concretely f o r the states. The regional l e v e l promises to give a more e f f i c i e n t p r o t e c t i o n , but t h e o r e t i c a l l y the most e f f i c i e n t could be the l e v e l of b i l a t e r a l r e g u l a t i o n , although i t s p o l i t i c a l preconditions are seldom available. I t also can emerge as a solution that the i n t e r national does not protect the minorities as such, but the regional or minority languages, as the d r a f t of the European Charter under the auspices of European Council t r i e s to achieve. From a l e g a l technical p o i n t of view t h i s d r a f t i s a very considerable l e g i s l a t i o n , i t s adaption would mean a s i g n i f i c a n t step forward i n the f i e l d o f protection of n a t i o n a l minorities.
246
HERCZEGH, G. МЕЖДУНАРОДНАЯ ЗАШИТА МЕНЬШИНСТВ Г.
Херцег
Положение меньшинств в общем х а р а к т е р и з у е т с я т е м , ч т о п о сравнению с большинством и х члены н а х о д я т с я в менее в ы г о д н о м п о л о ж е н и и , и они п о д в е р г а ются д и с к р и м и н а т и в н ы м п р а в и л а м . С л е д о в а т е л ь н о , имеется н е о б х о д и м о с т ь в их правовой з а щ и т е , но п р е д о с т а в л е н н а я в н у т р е н н и м правом з а щ и т а сама по с е б е о к а з ы в а е т с я н е д о с т а т о ч н о й , т а к к а к она может быть и з м е н е н а т . н . б о л ь ш и н с т вом в о д н о с т о р о н н е м п о р я д к е . Отношения между г о с у д а р с т в о м и отдельными группами е г о г р а ж д а н не я в л я ю т с я чужой сферой для м е ж д у н а р о д н о г о п р а в а . Уже с т о л е т н е е прошлое имеют международные д о г о в о р н ы е п о л о ж е н и я , обеспечивающие р е л и г и о з н у ю с в о б о д у . Позже п о я в и л и с ь п р а в и л а , о т н о с я щ и е с я к защите н а ц и о нальных м е н ь ш и н с т в . Их самым известным примером была с и с т е м а защиты м е н ь ш и н с т в , д е й с т в о в а в ш а я под э г и д о й Лиги н а ц и й . Запрещение у г н е т е н и я н а ц и о нальных м е н ь ш и н с т в может п р е д о т в р а т и т ь в о з н и к н о в е н и е или о ж е с т о ч е н и е м е ж д у ранодных к о н ф л и к т о в , з н а ч и т , о б е с п е ч и в а я з а щ и т у м е н ь ш и н с т в , международное право в ы п о л н я е т свою н а и б о л е е специфическую з а д а ч у . М е ж д у н а р о д н о - п р а в о в о е р е г у л и р о в а н и е может быть о с у щ е с т в л е н о на т р е х у р о в н я х , о д н а к о у н и в е р с а л ь н ы й уровень - п о природе вещей, т . е . и з - з а р а з л и ч и я в положении меньшинств может о п р е д е л я т ь т о л ь к о общие черты и мало к о н к р е т н ы х о б я з а н н о с т е й для о т дельных г о с у д а р с т в . Более эффективную з а щ и т у обещает р е г и о н а л ь н ы й у р о в е н ь , а в принципе самым эффективным может быть д в у с т о р о н н е е р е г у л и р о в а н и е , о д н а к о е г о п о л и т и ч е с к и е п р е д п о с ы л к и редко и м е ю т с я . Решение может с о с т о я т ь и в т о м , ч т о международное п р а в о о б е с п е ч и в а е т защиту не меньшинствам к а к т а к о вым, а р е г и о н а л ь н ы м языкам и л и языкам м е н ь ш и н с т в , к а к для д о с т и ж е н и я э т о г о делается п о п ы т к а в п р о е к т е Е в р о п е й с к о й Х а р т и и , р а з р а б о т а н н о й под э г и д о й Е в р о п е й с к о г о С о в е т а . С ю р и д и к о - т е х н и ч е с к о й т о ч к и зрения у к а з а н н ы й п р о е к т п р е д с т а в л я е т с о б о й заслуживающий внимания а к т и е г о в с т у п л е н и е в силу о з начало бы з н а ч и т е л ь н ы й шаг в п е р е д в о б л а с т и м е ж д у н а р о д н о - п р а в о в о й защиты национальных м е н ь ш и н с т в .
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 247-261 (1990)
ГНЕ NON-COGNITIVE CHARACTER OF THE JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTS
CS. VARGA Senior F e l l o w , I n s t i t u t e f o r Legal Science o f the Hungarian Academy
1. Logic of Problem Solving and Logic of J u s t i f i c a t i o n . Finding a solution and checking i t may need d i f f e r i n g l o g i c s . The second i s posterior to i n t u i t i o n and also to the issue i t demonstrates. The f i r s t i s most specific i n law where every step i s t a c t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o , as Law actually b u i l t upon, one another. 2. The Difference Between Cognition and Judging. selects elements out of events that can be projected back onto the events. I t i s i n t e r e s t e d , instead of facts themselves, i n t h e i r making use of as mere references. Consequently, l o g i c of the events themselves can only be regarded as relevant i n so far as i t may be turned to be one of the parts of the l o g i c established i n the legal judgment of the event. 3. The Noncognitive Dialectic of Normative C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . That what i s c a l l e d subsumption i n l o g i c i s p a r t l y o f a symbolic e f f e c t , p a r t l y of a s u b s t i t u t i v e character i n law. The apparently heterogeneous components of the legal process i n general can only be treated as merely technical categories of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , which, beyond the reach of law, have' no d i r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t a b l e reference or message whatsoever.
I 1. Logic of Problem Solving and Logic of Justification
A basic
formula
-
according
to
the
" A l l men are m o r t a l / C a i u s i s a man /
classic
syllogistic
formula
of
caius i s m o r t a l " - can be pretended
to r e p r e s e n t the s y l l o g i s m of l a w - a p p l i c a t i o n o n l y provided t h a t a s e r i e s of
further
propositions
presupposing
it
are a l s o accepted.
These are
the
f o l l o w i n g ones: (_a) o p e r a t i o n s w i t h f a c t s and o p e r a t i o n s w i t h norms can be separated from one a n o t h e r ; norms
follow
one another
evaluative/volitive,
(b) o p e r a t i o n s w i t h f a c t s and o p e r a t i o n s
in j u d i c i a l
process
as c o g n i t i v e ,
respectively
components of t h e process; ( c ) l e g a l c o n c l u s i o n
l y reached i s of l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y ;
with
and ( d ) j u d i c i a l process i s
final-
thoroughly
r u l e d by law. As a matter o f judge w i l l
fact,
he/she reaches h i s / h e r law as
reflected
generality positions
these p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s are t o mean t h a t :
(a)
the
" s t a r t o u t from the l a w " i n order t o "accomplish the l a w " , when
of above
to
Оэ) the d e c i s i o n i s a consequence o f
the
t h e given case by the g r a d u a l breaking down of
decision;
the
the l e g a l apply
to
order t o both
the
aspects
individual of
case;
judicial
(c)
the two
activity,
namely
prothe
Acta J u r i d i c a Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
248
VARGA, CS.
j u d i c i a l a c t subsuming the case t o the law as a case of the law, and t h e meting out of l e g a l consequences t o the c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n . " ' " However, c l a i m i n g t h a t we do have a s t a r t o u t from the law i n
judicial
process can o n l y be accepted as an argument p r o v i d e d t h a t we do c h a r a c t e r ise
judicial
process e i t h e r
as l o g i c a l
d e d u c t i o n or e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l
re-
2 flection.
Consequently,
the c l a i m i s by f a r
it
stands
of problem s o l v i n g may d e f i n e j u s t the o p p o s i t e
direc-
f o r a general t h e o r e t i c a l For the l o g i c
t i o n and methods f o r tion
formulation.
a process of r e a s o n i n g ,
and methods defined by t h e l o g i c
o p e r a t i o n can be made use o f stitutable
to
not c o n v i n c i n g i f
one another.
of
as compared w i t h the
justification.
by both k i n d s
The f i r s t
l u t i o n , the second i n checking i t .
of
logic,
direc-
Though the same
they are not
is instrumental in finding
I n general and a l s o i n law i n
sub-
the
so-
particular,
axiomatic r e a s o n i n g ( d e d u c t i o n or d e m o n s t r a t i o n , i . e . any procedure s e t t i n g the c l a i m o f a posterior
l o g i c a l necessity)
can a t t h e most be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n having
c o n t r o l of what has f i n a l l y
conducting t h e search f o r i t .
been reached; and not as a t o o l of
That i s , f o r m a l demonstration i s p o s t e r i o r
i n t u i t i o n and a l s o t o the i s s u e i t
to
demonstrates.
This i s t o say t h a t j u s t i f i c a t i o n of d e c i s i o n s i s i n f a c t p o s t e r i o r a control actually.
of
system-conformism,
i n s t e a d of
being
a tool
of
reaching
I n t h e same way as: m o t i v a t i o n of d e c i s i o n s stands s i m i l a r l y
quasi-logical
r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n , i n s t e a d of
r e p o r t i n g about t h o u g h t
them for
process
which has reached i t s climax when the d e c i s i o n was taken a c t u a l l y . I n t h i s way, i t i s by f a r not "(h)istorically
away
from
reality
to
conclude
and, as f a r as the thought process i s concerned,
also
that ac-
Cf. the socio-ontological version of the r e f l e c t i o n theory of Marxism, which, by r e f e r r i n g to the "ontological f a c t " of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between law-making and law-application, emphasizes that the point of departure for applying the law is provided by the law i t s e l f as i t i s made, whenever law i s put i n t o action in a legal order. Peschka, V.: Az estnorma, avagy a jogszabály és a .jogeset kapcsolatának problémája (The casenorm, or the problem of the connection between legal rule and l e g a l case). Állam- és Jogtudomány 2/1985. pp. 223 et seq. 2 This i s the case when legal process i s explained as specific t y p i f y i n g transformation of social r e l a t i o n s which, on t h e i r t u r n , w i l l be projected back to s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . Cf. Peschka, V.: Jogforrás és jogalkotás (the source of law and law-making). Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1965. ch. I I I , para. 2; Peschka, V.: A jogszabályok elmélete (also i n German: Die Theorie der Rechtsnormen). Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1979. ch. I , para. IV. ^Cf., f i r s t of a l l , Pólya, G.: How to solve i t .
A new aspect of mathematical method.
1945. 4 C f . , e . g . , Wróblewski, J . : Legal decision and i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n . ( p u b l . ) : Le raisonnement j u r i d i q u e . Bruxelles, Bruylant, 1971. p. 202.
In:
Hubien, H.
CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTS
tually,
it
is
the
'case'
necessitating a 'solution'
249
t h a t i s the f i r s t
to
have a s t a r t out f r o m " . ' ' For w i t h i n i t s reach - t h a t i s , having i n mind t h e distinctiveness judge - ,
this
and
discreteness
of
fact
and norm
stand seems easy t o d e f e n d .
t h e o r e t i c a l answer, i t
as
perceived
by
the
However, when i n t e r p r e t e d as a
proves t o be b o t h narrow-minded and s i m p l i s t i c .
It
i s not exempt of h a v i n g been based on t h e assumption o f the s y l l o g i s m
of
law-application,
so
either,
as i f
t h a t I can a t t a c h my law t o A genuine stage.
It
interest "case".
theoretical
has t o d e p a r t i n springs
For
i t were t o suggest:
" B r i n g i n your f a c t
it!" description
has
to
from the r e c o g n i t i o n
from something d i f f e r i n g
t o have a "case"
is
relatively
start that
on
from e a r l i e r
t h e event we h o l d
from and a l s o preceding late
a p r o d u c t of the
process. P r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , i t i s a r e l a t i v e end-product o f a b s t r a c t tutionalisation. artificially way t h a t
-
Precisely,
construed,
it
i s t h e outcome of
and also s i m p l i f i e d .
as reduced t o
some events
Formalisation
an the
legal insti-
formalised,
i s made i n
(and p i g e o n - h o l e d as) one d e f i n i t i v e l y
a c t u a l i z a t i o n of the l e g a l order - i t
a
a
defined
can p r o v i d e the conceptual b a s i s
for
t a k i n g an a c t i o n w i t h i n the o r d e r . "When the c l i e n t step i s
t o discover
placed."
Well,
pours out h i s
troubles to his s o l i c i t o r ,
the legal pigeon-holes
again:
the m e r i t s
of
the
first
i n which the f a c t s are t o
such a s e n s i b l e reportage
notwith-
s t a n d i n g , the same o b j e c t i o n can be r a i s e d a g a i n s t . For " f a c t s " are n o t given
at
t h i s stage.
identification,
Practice
can o n l y
conceptualisation,
and
start
out
from
classificatory
the
be
yet
recognition,
expression,
of
a
problem. P r a c t i c e s t a r t s out from my r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t I want to have somet h i n g , o r t o do s o m e t h i n g . 7 All given a t
I
may say
point
any p r i m i t i v e
to
stage.
the c o n c l u s i o n I h a t what
that
"facts"
i s given i s ,
are i n
first,
no way
at l e a s t
elementary awareness o f what I wish and, second, a l s o the s i t u a t i o n
an
which
^Fikentscher, W.: Methoden des Rechts. Band I V : Dogmatischer T e i l . Tübingen, Mohr, 1977. p. 202. Paton, G.W.: A text-book
of jurisprudence.
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1946. pp.
155
et seq. 7 "Any construction of facts sets out from r a i s i n g a q u e s t i o n . . . The way of how t h i s question i s formulated w i l l at a l l times also determine the way of how i t w i l l be responded t o . " Hruschka, J . : Die K o n s t i t u t i o n des Rechtsfalles. B e r l i n , Duncker und Humblot, 1965. p. 22. A l b e i t t h i s exposition may be f a i r l y i l l u s t r a t i v e in i t s own c o n t e x t , i t turns to be onesided, once regarded as a general theoretical formulation.
250
VARGA, CS.
I claim i t
t o o f f e r some ground f o r f o r m u l a t i n g what I wish. I t may be so
t h a t , at a r a t h e r p r i m i t i v e stage, n e i t h e r expressed wish nor s p e c i f i c a l l y defined s i t u a t i o n
that c o u l d be r e f e r r e d
know: n o t h i n g gets i s o l a t e d by i t s e l f only and e x c l u s i v e l y the t o t a l i t y , The way factors:
us, who s t a r t
to,
are present.
For I have
f r o m / w i t h i n the t o t a l i t y .
the i s o l a t i o n of a n y t h i n g
It is
to us,
from/within
by the very f i r s t act of naming i t . i n which we perform i s o l a t i o n
may vary i n
f u n c t i o n of
two
t h e reason of why I am naming, and 2. the v a r i e t y of names what
I dispose o f . C l e a r l y enough: as many nameable f a c t s can be r e f e r r e d t o the t o t a l i t y as many v a r i a n t s
are given f o r
their
naming.
That i s ,
as many f a c t s
are
a v a i l a b l e as much experience I have to suggest me t h a t I can proceed on by t h e i r naming i n order to construe them as f a c t s . The f i r s t loosely
step to proceed on i s t o
formed or unexpressed.
have some k i n d of wish, even
And here are the items of
the next
t e n t a t i v e d e c i s i o n about t h e p r i m a r i l y d e f i n e d goal (and the
if
step:
alternatives
t o i t ) ; s e l e c t i o n of the s t r a t e g y and paths t h a t may be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n that I accomplish them; c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n i n the l i g h t of goals, s t r a t e g i e s and pathways defined i n r e s p e c t to i t ;
finally,
the
selection
of the f a c t s by which the s i t u a t i o n w i l l have been defined. No need t o say t h a t a l l these o p e r a t i o n s imply some k i n d of e v a l u a t i o n of the p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h reference t o considerations of law. No need t o say, e i t h e r ,
t h a t both p a r t i e s to the procedure and also the judge are
a l l faced w i t h d i s t i n c t , ferent i n t e r e s t s ,
i n d i v i d u a l r o l e s t o p l a y . Being spokesmen of
dif-
they b r i n g d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s and stands i n t o the process.
A l l t h i s i s t o mean t h a t n e i t h e r circumstances, nor motives, nor s i t u a t i o n s ( n e c e s s i t a t i n g a decision) are a v a i l a b l e as ready-made. None of them o f f e r s an undisputable s t a r t i n g p o i n t . That i s t o say t h a t both the f a c t u a l framework and t h e formed by t h e
references acts of
in
respect of
the
dispute are themselves
the p a r t i e s ot t h e procedure.
Their
being
establishment
and/or shaping by the acts o f the p a r t i e s i s generally lead by the t a c t i c s by the p a r t i e s , which they may set and/or r e a l i s e at any stage of the p r o cedure.
Cf., e . g . , Derham, O.P.: Truth and the common law j u d i c i a l process. Malaya Law Review,
5/1963, pp. 338-349.
CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTS
Accordingly, What
is
9
given
neither
is
their
case,
nor
"universe"
251
norm i s
given
from
at
most,
exclusively
the
the
very
start.
logically
defined. In consequence, what i s
going on i s
a game, w i t h r u l e s
i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d framework. I f c o n d i t i o n s f o r i t
v a l i d i n an
a r e g i v e n , I may
s t a r t t o have a move i n any d i r e c t i o n at any g i v e n t i m e . But I have t o know from the b e g i n n i n g t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to a p r e v i o u s l y s e t c o n v e n t i o n , i n o r d e r t o have a step i n one or another d i r e c t i o n , another f a c t .
And so on, and so on. The rub i s t h a t the f a c t needed cannot
be taken and b r o u g h t d i r e c t l y of
I am expected t o show up one or
chess can be reduced t o
i n t o the game. (Not even the p l a y of the game sheerly
physical
acts
of
holding
pieces
and
moving them, as i t can appear t o an o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r . ) The only way I am p e r m i t t e d t o show up t h i s f a c t i s by e n t e r i n g i n t o a second game w i t h i n the f i r s t what
I state
as a f a c t
mine can be proved.
is
one. And I may do so only by a s s e r t i n g
actually
Of c o u r s e ,
the case,
and t h a t
this
that
statement
of
t h i s second game, played i n order t o b r i n g
f a c t s i n t o the game, w i l l i n t h e course of t h e procedure be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the game i t s e l f . will
logically
For a judgment upon the f a c t I have brought i n t o the game
i m p l y a judgment touching upon t h e wish I have intended
to
r e a l i s e by e n t e r i n g i n t o the procedure. As t o
its
structure,
the
made up by a s e r i e s of s t e p s ,
game i n l a w ,
procedurally
played, w i l l
be
succeeding a f t e r , and b u i l d i n g upon, one an-
o t h e r . This i s one of the f e a t u r e s which makes i t analogous t o the game o f chess. For, i n b o t h , every s t e p i s t a c t i c a l l y
r e l a t e d t o , as a c t u a l l y
built
upon, one a n o t h e r . I t goes w i t h o u t saying t h a t each and every step may, and will
actually,
have a v a r i e t y o f meanings and c o n t e x t u r e s .
each and every o f tualised,
them i m p l i e s
the p o s s i b i l i t y
That i s t o say,
of g e t t i n g d i f f e r e n t l y
ac-
r e s u l t i n g i n the d i s p l a y of i t s own i n d i v i d u a l meaning and con-
texture. As I have n o t i c e d a l r e a d y ,
analyzing t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the " d e v e l -
opment" of the meaning of any g i v e n human b e h a v i o u r , 1 8 the meaning of each and every new s t e p , circumscribed,
or move, or aspect, of human a c t i v i t y
and f i n a l l y
defined,
by the p r e v i o u s steps
w i l l have been (and moves and
9 See Alchourrón, C.E. and Bulygin, E.: Normative Systems. Wien and New York, Springer, 1971. Varga, Cs.: The fact and i t s approach in philosophy and in law. I n : R. Kevelson ( e d . ) : Law and Semiotics. Volume 3. New York and London, Plenum Press, 1989. pp. 366 et seq.
252
VARGA, CS.
aspects) That i s tive) can
through
their
historically
superimposed
cumulative
contexture.
t o say, any one ( a p p a r e n t l y s i n g l e ) human behaviour i s t h e
end r e s u l t of a process. only
develop
step
by
And t h e progress embodied by t h i s
step,
move
by
move,
gaining
an
(relaprocess
attributable
meaning p o s t e r i o r l y o n l y . For the c o n t e x t u a l p o s i t i o n of a given s t e p w i t h in
the
process
idealised,
(that
whole
in
is,
its
formation)
formulated d i f f e r e n t l y ,
systemic will
relation
only
get
to
the
defined
prospected,
posteriorly.
or Or,
the r e l a t i v e end r e s u l t of the process a t any given
time w i l l make any s t e p , or move, t h e antecedent of what the whole process w i l l e v e n t u a l l y conclude t o l a t e r on. T u r n i n g back t o the main q u e s t i o n , we can conclude t h a t problem s o l v i n g by f a r
not c o n t r a d i c t s
intuition
o r whatever k i n d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
ex-
I t s operations are unbound, f a r
from
periment. 'For i t s l o g i c i s h e u r i s t i c . being c o d i f i e d p r e v i o u s l y .
As t o problem s o l v i n g i n l a w , i t
is,
paradoxi-
c a l l y s p e a k i n g , f r e e i n a l l aspects, except t o the f o r m a l expression of result.
It
i s only
legal
c a l i t y of expression,
decision t h a t
i s bond. I n c r e a s i n g the
paradoxi-
i s not l e g a l d e c i s i o n i t s e l f ,
but
i t s f o r m a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n t h a t i s a t a l l bond. For i n m a j o r i t y of l e g a l
cul-
tures,
I can even add: i t
its
o n l y and e x c l u s i v e l y such d e c i s i o n s can be accepted as ones o f
legal order
t h a t conform t o the r e q u i r e m e n t s the l e g a l order s e t s f o r
the the
l o g i c a l and r a t i o n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e decisions made."^
2. The D i f f e r e n c e Between C o g n i t i o n and Judging
As we have seen above, that
(1)
f a c t s are brought
pre-assumptions
(2) c o g n i t i o n i s f o l l o w e d by t h e i r tion
to
of
judicial
process
i n t o the process through t h e i r evaluation,
them. What happens i n r e a l i t y
is,
happening w i t h no a c t u a l f a c t s i n v o l v e d i n
that i s ,
however,
just
suggest
cognisance and
a practical
reac-
a sheerly
ideal
it.
For f a c t s can only be i s o l a t e d and name through t h e i r c o g n i t i o n . exclusively
such f a c t s
potentialities
can be i s o l a t e d
(as e q u a l l y
conceivable
And
from the u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d mass of factual,
or
factualisable,
refer-
C f . , e . g . , Wróblewski, J . : Legal syllogism and r a t i o n a l i t y of .judicial decision. Rechtstheorie, 1/1974; Wróblewski, J . : J u s t i f i c a t i o n of legal decisions. Revue I n t e r n a t i o n a l e de Philosophie, 1979; Wróblewski, J . : Paradigms of j u s t i f y i n g j u d i c i a l decisions. I n : Peczenik, A. ( e d . ) : Theory of Legal Science. Dordrecht, Reidel, 1984.
253
CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTS
ences) i n h e r e n t i n any given set o f events t h a t are f i t t i n g t o t h e c o n t e x t of c o g n i t i o n i n q u e s t i o n . There i s an apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n here. Namely, independently of the q u e s t i o n of how much d i r e c t i o n s and c o n t e x t s o f p e r c e p t i o n and c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f events and problem s e n s i t i v i t y are l i m i t e d i n a community, cognition
is
towards
open i n
theories
principle.
It
is
open i n p l a c e
and methods, o u t l o o k s
and time.
and c o n c e p t s .
It
It
is
i s open
open
towards
paradigms i n f o r m a t i o n , t o o . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , w i t h i n i t s own framework, does n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w i t s own l o g i c .
Although i t s o n l y aim i s t o
the i n d i v i d u a l components of a g i v e n phenomenon, as w e l l as the of t h e i r
it
identify
principles
organisation.
I n order
to reconstruct
the l o g i c
of f o r m a t i o n and the one o f
func-
t i o n i n g o f the phenomenon i n q u e s t i o n , i t does n e c e s s a r i l y t e s t a s e r i e s of p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , w o r k i n g hypotheses, i n t u i t i v e f o r m u l a t i o n s . I n o r d e r t o be able t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e l o g i c of f o r m a t i o n and t h e one of f u n c t i o n i n g of a phenomenon, the whole c o g n i t i v e process has to be adaptable and open t o the particularities
of
the s u b j e c t t o a maximum degree,
notwithstanding.
a d a p t a t i o n and openness are needed so t h a t s e l e c t i o n of f a c t s , t h e i r pretation,
the d e f i n i t i o n of t h e i r
contexture,
For
inter-
as w e l l as the e x p l a n a t i o n
of the p l a c e assigned t o them by the m o t i o n of s o c i a l t o t a l i t y , can be done adequately. its
Otherwise speaking: the success of c o g n i t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of
g e t t i n g subordinated That
what
is
t o the phenomenon, s u b j e c t matter of
i s s u e d by j u d i c i a l
g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f the s i t u a t i o n . the case i s c e r t a i n l y tion
(that
is,
not a kind o f
process
is
certainly
cognition.
not
a mono-
That what i s r e f e r r e d t o as f a c t s of e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y patterned
ideal reconstruction)
of
reproduc-
a given o b j e c t . For j u d i c i a l
cess, t h a t leads t o the normative c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f
pro-
acts (through s e l e c t -
i n g , naming and a s s e r t i n g them, f o l l o w e d by the c o n t r o l of a l l t h i s i n the same p r o c e s s ) ,
aims
to
realise
something more and d i f f e r i n g
from
simply
r e p r o d u c i n g the own l o g i c of the s i t u a t i o n concerned. 12 First same t i m e , kind of point
of
of
all,
law
is
par e x c e l l e n c e homogeneous a medium.
any homogeneous medium i s
homogeneity. view of
For
instance,
chemistry,
if
specific, I
or p h y s i c s ,
differing
am l o o k i n g a t an event biology,
At
from any
psychology,
the
other
f r o m the sociology,
12 Cf. Peschka, V.: Gondolatok a jog sajátosságáról. Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó, pp. 14-16.
1984.
254
VARGA, CS.
politics
or h i s t o r y ,
the set o f
facts I shall
e s t a b l i s h and t h e l o g i c
development and o p e r a t i o n I s h a l l r e c o n s t r u c t w i l l be d i f f e r i n g
of
definitely
from one another. Even i f i t w i l l be so upon t h e b a s i s of some fundamentally
common f e a t u r e s .
And the f a c t
notwithstanding
t h a t I s h a l l be f r e e
in
r e c o g n i s i n g a l l t h e s e d i f f e r i n g f e a t u r e s t o have e q u a l l y been d e r i v e d from (and by f a r not o n l y t o have a r b i t r a r i l y totality, in
(as
have
been m e r e l y r e f e r r e d t o ) the same
as d i f f e r i n g aspects o f t h e said t o t a l i t y .
a function
of)
been s e l e c t e d
Their d i f f e r e n c e
the c o n t e x t u r e by the c o n s i d e r a t i o n
and c o n c e p t u a l i s e d .
For
cognition
is
of
lies
which they
always
partial,
dependent upon t h e choice made f o r a given c o n t e x t u r e . Otherwise f o r m u l a t e d , e v e r y t h i n g l e g a l i s , by chance c h a r a c t e r s t r u c t i o n of the
in
respect
to
its
t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , of a
subject.
inherent connections ( i f
For law i s
not
a recon-
t h e r e are any) of an event. Law
p r o v i d e s n o t h i n g b u t a network of c r i t e r i a e x t e r i o r l y
and p o s t e r i o r l y
pro-
j e c t e d onto the e v e n t . The u n d e r l y i n g idea i s t o a f f o r d t h a t I can break an event
into
sets
of
concepts
and
conceptual
connections
(artificially
e s t a b l i s h e d as seen from any p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i t s tors
and e l e m e n t s ) ,
so t h a t ,
by t h e i r
standards,
I can i s s u e
fac-
a judgment
upon the event. I n consequence,
homogeneity
of
law ( i . e .
which law has a c h a r a c t e r and n a t u r e of i t s this:
the f a c t ,
logic
of
according
to
own) means n o t h i n g more than
w h i c h i s going t o be e s t a b l i s h e d , assessed and t e s t e d , and
also interpreted, the
t h e statement
from the l a w ' s own p o i n t o f
the
medium, and not
law's
homogenised
(and
f r o m the event i t s e l f .
geneous medium o r i g i n a t e s
v i e w , w i l l be gained through therefore
also
homogenising)
T h e o r e t i c a l l y speaking, t h i s homo-
the t o t a l set of
facts
from which f a c t s of any
case i n law may o r may not e v e n t u a l l y be e s t a b l i s h e d . This equals mediate cation. ^
among
to
saying t h a t
social
Law s e l e c t s
complexes elements
law f u l f i l s in out
the ontological
interaction of events
through
function
their
to
qualifi-
t h a t can be p r o j e c t e d
back
onto the events under the guise o f f a c t u a l components of e v e n t s , able t o be qualified
by t h e law according t o i t s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y scheme o f " f a c t s
law" making up "a case of the l a w " .
This i s
in
t h e way i n which they can be
C f . , for the terms and the underlying o n t o l o g i c a l philosophy, Lukács, Gy. : A t á r s a dalmi l é t o n t o l ó g i á j á r ó l (Zur Ontologie der g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n Seins). Vol. I I . Budapest, Magvető, 1971. p. 92; Varga, Cs.: The Place of Law i n Lukács' World Concept. Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1985. para 5.1.3, pp. 107-110.
CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTS
q u i t e f o r m a l l y processed as f a c t s o f when j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n i s f i n a l l y "The facts
law
is
interested,
as seen by t h e
a case, t i l l
255
t h e end of t h e procedure
taken.
not
in
the physical
law i n r e l a t i o n
to
its
w o r l d as s u c h ,
particular
but
frame o f
in
refer-
e n c e . " 1 4 P r o p e r l y speaking, i t c o u l d even be added t h a t law i s
interested,
instead
references.
of
facts
themselves,
Formulated o t h e r w i s e ,
I
in
their
making use of
as mere
should say i n a p a r a d o x i c a l manner: no p a r t i e s
the procedure are i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e
knowledge o f
f a c t s or a n y t h i n g
to
else.
The o n l y t h i n g they r e a l l y want i s t o w i n the match. Consequently, n o t even the i n t e n t i o n s o f ,
or t h e goals s e t ,
by the p a r t i e s are as such,
i n them-
s e l v e s , o f too much genuine i n t e r e s t t o them. For even the q u e s t i o n o f what i n t e n t i o n s can be had and goals s e t by the p a r t i e s i s answered p r o c e d u r a l l y at
an e a r l i e r
selection
of
stage.
It
must have
been determined
f a c t s can be presented
(i.e.
r e l e v a n t and p r o v a b l e , and also e f f e c t i v e l y proved i f Similarly, entirely
also
the stand t h a t
retrospective
strategy.
by c o n s i d e r i n g
which
brought i n t o the p r o c e d u r e ) as needed.
t h e judge can take i s d e f i n e d by an
Namely:
he/she
is
expected
to
reach a
d e c i s i o n which, f o l l o w i n g the e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n ,
can be
j u s t i f i e d i n a l o g i c a l manner t o t h e s u f f i c i e n t depth p o s t e r i o r l y .
That i s
t o say t h a t the l o g i c of the events themselves ( i f be regarded as r e l e v a n t
i n so f a r
as i t
there i s any) can only
may be turned to be one of
the
p a r t s of the l o g i c e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e l e g a l judgment of the e v e n t .
(This i s
the case when i t
provided
supports i t e v i d e n t l y ,
or when i t s relevance i s
f o r by t h e l a w . ) For
instance,
t h e cognisance
of
a violent
action w i l l
be
differing
depending on whether - a f t e r a l o s t w a r , or a f a l l e n r e v o l u t i o n , o r amidst a permanent
terror
-
I
am to c o n s t r u e
it
secution, or I am s o l e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n i t ist,
psychologist,
chances
of
human
sociologist,
as a case f o r
it
may
pro-
i n my p r i v a t e q u a l i t y as a moral-
or h i s t o r i a n .
coexistence,
criminal
make
Or, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e changing a
difference
whether
I
am
e s t a b l i s h i n g f a c t s as grounds f o r a l e g a l a c t i o n t o t a k e , or I do c o n s t r u c t the l o g i c a l sequence o f events (by c o n s t r u i n g a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p among them) o n l y i n order
to justify
t h e d e c i s i o n I have taken, or I
a c t simply
as an o u t s i d e observer ( r e p o r t e r , m o r a l i s t , or p s y c h o l o g i c commentator) of the a c t i v i t y of o t h e r s or myself.
14
Paton: A text-book of /[urisprudence. p . 157.
256
VARGA, CS.
A l l t h i s h o l d s a l s o f o r cases i n law, w h i c h are b u i l t up e x c l u s i v e l y from m a t e r i a l built
elements.
upon, and
tied
In such cases,
in,
For the sake o f
the l i f e
simplicity
law seems to have been
processes
of
as t h e i r
directly
regulatory
the management of law,
medium.
foreseeability
of l e g a l a c t i o n s and e f f e c t s o f t h e law, and s e c u r i t y i n d a i l y l e g a l p r a c t i c e , law c o n s t r u c t s the formal d e f i n i t i o n of a l e g a l case t h r o u g h d e f i n i n g the
formal
signs
of
human events
which c o n s t i t u t e
a case.
With such a
c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s p e c t s of l i f e e v e n t s can become t o p i c a l , which would go on simply u n n o t i c e d , i s i n g medium of tion
of
if
the event
ficiality
any other p o i n t of view were t o p r e v a i l .
The homogen-
law can superimpose i t s own l o g i c onto the c o n c e p t u a l i s a till
the p o i n t
and estrangement
of
absurdity.
can even be f u r t h e r
This tendency
of
pushed on by any
artifurther
i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e ways how a case can be c o n s t r u c t e d or c o n s t r u e d i n law and t h e ways i n w h i c h i t s f a c t s can be proved. presumptions, Is i t facts I
fictions,
and
the
regulation
to mean t h a t c o g n i t i v e
are f u l l y
have t r i e d
( T h i s e s p e c i a l l y holds f o r of
the
burden
in
proof.)
aspects ( o r e f f e c t s ) of o p e r a t i o n s
to
prove
has the o n l y
message t o
realise that:
the l e g a l
process.
For
cognition
is
one of
nothing
and t h e various media of s o c i a l homogeneity.
for
the s p e c i f i c
granted:
once
the f o u n d a t i o n s
is
differentiated,
h e t e r o g e n e i t y of everyday l i f e , i t
of life
I n consequence, what matters
impact and c o n t e x t of c o g n i t i o n .
cognition
is
quasi-cogni-
human p r a x i s . I t can be detected i n both the h e t e r o g e n e i t y of everyday
here i s
with
negated by l e g a l procedure? By f a r n o t , I guess. A l l what
s p e c i f i e d by r e c o g n i s i n g t h a t t h e r e i s something c o g n i t i v e , or tive,
of
For i t
and l i f t e d
can be taken out
from the
w i l l be adapted t o the homogenised forms
and s t r u c t u r e s of a c t i v i t y i t w i l l f i n d i t s new c o n t e x t u r e . At the same t i m e , On t h e
one hand,
it
there i s a l a t e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n homogenisation. will
result
in
differentiation,
lifting
out,
i s o l a t i o n ( f o r t h a t g r a s p i n g , p r o c e s s i n g , and t h e r e b y i n f l u e n c i n g , heterogeneity
-
in
heterogeneity
-
can
isation
a
way
that
could
nevertheless
does not r e s u l t
have
be done).
reflection In
in
order
to
a homogeneous c o n t e x t ,
n i t i o n with a l l
its
be
able
like
On t h e
other
everyday
from
hand,
within
homogen-
For homogenisation
I t aims j u s t a c h i e v i n g homogen-
to
law,
homogenised f o r m s ,
homogeneity they a r e components o f . of a c l a s s i f i c a t o r y
been done
in epistemological d i s t o r t i o n .
does n o t touch upon t h e o r e t i c a l c o g n i t i o n . ised
not
and
offer all
homogenising
components,
are s u b o r d i n a t e d t o the
That i s ,
reaction.
including
cog-
particular
t h e y matter only as elements
system i n the q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f
l i f e events. This means
CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTS
that
also
the c h a r a c t e r
ordinated. moment i s
And t h i s
257
and the impact of the c o g n i t i v e moment a r e sub-
means t h a t
each and every element of
this
from the v e r y beginning shaped and formed by t h i s
cognitive
homogenising
medium. Even i t s most elementary, p r i m i t i v e components can o n l y be understood as b u i l t i n and f i l t e r e d through i t s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y - q u a l i f y i n g
struc-
ture.
3. The N o n - c o g n i t i v e D i a l e c t i c of Normative
Mere neither
exert
as
it
follows
from what
we have seen above,
e x p l a i n , nor determine the i n t e l l e c t u a l
judicial even i f
logicality,
treatment o f
function
of
i n t e l l e c t u a l operations
control.
Logic
is
one o f
consequentiality
can
be
guaranteed
in
logicality,
a t a l l t i m e s , can only
the
c o n t r o l by the a p p l i c a t i o n of which we may see f o r and
can
o p e r a t i o n going on i n the
f a c t s and norms i n a l e g a l p r o c e s s . For
omnipresent i n a l l
the
Classification
possible
methods
of
t h a t optimum coherency
judicial
decision-making.
S i m i l a r l y , c o g n i t i o n , t o o , i s omnipresent i n a l l kinds of
intellectual
a c t i v i t y at a l l t i m e s , but not f o r i t s own sake. I n i t s e l f , or d i r e c t l y ,
it
cannot be taken as a f a c t o r of e x p l a n a t i o n or d e t e r m i n a t i o n . E v i d e n t l y enough, both l o g i c a l i t y
and c o g n i t i v i t y
are k i n d s o f homo-
g e n e i t y . They are dysanthropomorphised i n order t h a t they can d i s p l a y conn e c t i o n s of t h e i r s u b j e c t according t o i t s own n a t u r e , independently of the p e r s o n a l t r a i t s of anybody t a k i n g t h e i r
cognisance.
And i t i s t o be noted t h a t law represents a n o t h e r kind of homogeneity. It
i s dysanthropomorphised f o r t h a t
abstraction decision
from
has t o
the
from the system w i t h obviously
to
s i t u a t i o n of
personal
be presented logical
correspond
to
it
can channel t o issue a d e c i s i o n
traits as
the
of
necessity. values
anybody
unique
Albeit,
posited
issuing
possibility
in
at the
l a w - a p p l i c a t i o n and, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ,
it.
which
For
the
concludes
t h e same t i m e , concrete
in
it
has
sociological
a l s o t o requirements of
j u s t i f i c a t i o n p o s i t e d by the normative system. I n consequence, t h a t what i s c a l l e d subsumption i n l o g i c i s p a r t l y of a symbolic e f f e c t , p a r t l y of a s u b s t i t u t i v e c h a r a c t e r . e f f e c t i n so f a r as i t
I t i s o f a symbolic
only expresses w i t h f o r m a l emphasis what has o t h e r -
wise been termed t h e achievement o f
"impracticability
of d o u b t " ,
"reflec-
258
VARGA, CS.
t i ve e q u i l i b r i u m " , that over:
or "hermeneutic t u r n i n g p o i n t " . ^
the
reflection
of
it
is perfect
by reaching a c o n v i n c i n g l y j u s t i f i a b l e
same t i m e ,
it
is
of
the two
sides,
a substitutive
fact
That i s ,
it
and law, on one another,
character
result.
i n so f a r as t h e
It
conclusion.
we can even add t h a t , by t h e advance of l e g a l reasoning,
i s an advance made i n c o g n i t i o n as w e l l .
genuinely another legal
substituted
seems t h a t we have a d m i t t e d the presence of c o g n i t i v e element. As
a m a t t e r of f a c t , there
is
At the
evaluation
which i s a sine qua non c o n t e n t u a l element o f t h e d e c i s i o n , i s f o r by the formal n e c e s s i t y of l o g i c a l
expresses
intellectual
direction.
process and i t s
tation.
achievement
This
is:
is
in
channelling
justification
Notwithstanding,
the
legal
both
the
process
evaluation
t h a t what
is
done
done i n
i n t o the pathway of r a t i o n a l
That i s , i n t o the system and conceptual framwork of l a w ,
in the
argumenpreviously
e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e l a w . For, legal
albeit
ideology,
it
is
actually
only
the
c o g n i t i v e element t h a t
each and every move o f
c o g n i t i o n and r e l a t e d j u d i c i a l
activities
is
in
is
emphasised by
both s o - c a l l e d
judicial
f a c t s u b o r d i n a t e d to the
p r a c t i c a l r e a c t i o n t h a t can and must i n the l e g a l order be i s s u e d . That i s , law has the only
v o c a t i o n here t o
justify,
through i t s a c t u a l i z a t i o n ,
way how p r a c t i c a l r e a c t i o n can, and w i l l f i n a l l y ,
Formulated i n another way: on the f i n a l a n a l y s i s , j u d i c i a l ment
of
facts
is
nothing else
e v a l u a t i v e approach. I is
than practical
I t i s one u n i t y ,
establish-
reaction r e s u l t i n g
from an
i n which two questions - one, how do
see an event, r e a l by the way? and two, what components do I see t h a t made up from? - are i n t e r m i n g l e d .
result.
The f i r s t
The second q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n s the set o f
the end r e s u l t ,
the
be made."^
it
question concerns the end elementary f a c t s
and also the way by which t h e q u a s i - c o g n i t i v e
inducing
process we
C f . , in the l i g h t of d i f f e r e n t approaches - Horváth, В.: Bevezetés a jogtudományba (Introduction to legal science). Szeged, Városi Nyomda, 1932. p. 130; Rawls, J . : A Theory of J u s t i c e . Cambridge (Mass.), The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 1971. pp. 20-21 , 48-51 and 120, r e f e r r i n g to Goodman, N.: Fact, F i c t i o n , and Forecast. Cambridge, (Mass.), Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1955. pp. 65-68; Fikentscher: Methoden des Rechts, p. 100. - Varga, Cs. : A b í r ó i ténymegállapítás imputativ j e l l e g e (The imputative character of the j u d i c i a l establishment of f a c t s ) . Állam- és Jogtudomány, 3/1989, para. 9, forthcoming.
16 E.g.: By his statements of f a c t s , the judge 'makes the statement' o f something else than f a c t s . In r e a l i t y , h i s statements ( . . . ) are the acts o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and understanding of the meaning that l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w i l l attach ( . . . ) to human social a c t i v i t y . " Petev, V.: Structures rationnelles e t implications sociologiques de l a jurisprudence. I n : Archives de Philosophie du D r o i t . Tome 30. Paris, S i r e y , 1985. p. 183.
259
CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTS
speak about can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e end r e s u l t . A l l t h i s double composition is
reminding t o t h e way i n which we have c h a r a c t e r i s e d elsewhere
l e g a l r u l e and l e g a l case as co-shaped i n a u n i t a r y p r o c e s s . In p o i n t of p r i n c i p l e , the
structure,
decision,
is
a l l what we can say about t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t y
argumentation,
sham l o g i c a l n e s s ,
in fact related
i n s t e a d of r e a l i t y
and so
on,
of
of
judicial
t o the c o n c e p t u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
reality
itself.
I n consequence, the a f f i r m a t i v e and n e g a t i v e answer we can f o r m u l a t e i n respect of
them " w i l l
the
non-being
being or
just-so-being general
always concern fundamentally t h e human wish (including
/Gerade-so-Sein/
nature
all
intermediary
be e s t a b l i s h e d
of being as such or i t s
steps)
of a c o n c r e t e
by p r a c t i c e ,
objectivity
in
that
and not
a general
the
sense."
"For i n p r a c t i c e , each and e v e r y moment i s preceded by an a l t e r n a t i v e
deci-
s i o n , p r e p a r i n g p r a c t i c e i n a way t h a t t h e a c t i n g man has t o analyse o u t o f his prevailing situation the tion,
and t h e n he w i l l
everyday l i f e ,
have t o
either
'answer'
it.
Due t o t h e
particularity
of
' a n s w e r ' w i l l i n most of cases be done i n respond-
affirmatively
extraordinarily
which may determine h i s f u t u r e a c -
and also o f language which makes the p a r t i c u l a r i t y of e v e r y -
day l i f e c o n s c i o u s , t h i s ing
'question'
or
negatively.
In
the
heterogeneous mass of d e c i s i o n s ,
apparently
infinite
and
t h i s k i n d o f outlook
and
s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n i s o f t e n c r y s t a l l i s e d by the dichotomy o f and thereby t h e r e i s an appearance made as i f
' y e s ' and
'not',
t h i s were a s u i t a b l e ground
f o r overcoming the l o g i c a l d u a l i t y of d e f i n i t i o n and n e g a t i o n , ' p o s i t i v i t y ' 18 and ' n e g a t i v i t y ' . " Or, as s t a t e d i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , " t h e y work w i t h t h e combination o f p r o p o s i t i o n s and n e g a t i o n s , which c o n c e a l s o r d i n a r i l y t h e 19 genuine f a c t s a l l they are a b o u t . " In
accordance
of
what
we have
seen
above,
the
apparently
hetero-
geneous components of the l e g a l process i n general and t h e j u d i c i a l lishment
of
categories directly
facts of
in particular
classification,
interpretable
can o n l y
which,
reference
or
be t r e a t e d as merely
beyond
the
reach
message whatsoever.
of In
law,
estab-
technical have
no
consequence,
Cf. Varga, Cs.: The mental transformation of facts into a case. I n : Kevelson, R. ( e d . ) : Proceedings of the IVR s p e c i a l session on l e g a l semiotics. Penn S t a t e , in preparation. Abstracted i n : B u l l e t i n of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association for the Semiotics of Law, 5/1989.p.6.
18 19
Lukács: A társadalmi l é t o n t o l ó g i á j á r ó l . V o l . I I I . pp. 134 and 132-133. Ibidem, p. 195.
260
they
VARGA, CS.
cannot
be t r a n s p l a n t e d quasi-mechanically i n t o another system of 2П values, e i t h e r . A l l t h i s i s to say t h a t they do n o t represent a n y t h i n g i n themselves t h a t should o r could be regarded as e i t h e r good or bad under 21-22 any l e g a l l y n o n - s p e c i f i e d r e s p e c t . '
"Moral predilections must not be allowed t o influence our minds in s e t t l i n g l e g a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . " Holmes, O.W., J r . : The common law. London, Macmillan, 1882. p. 148. S i m i l a r l y , see Luhmann, N.: The coding of the legal system. Florence, European University I n s t i t u t e , 1985. p. 4. (IUE 342/85, Col. 9 4 . ) 21 For a treatment of t h i s dilemma in the l i g h t of "the f a l l a c y of white or b l a c k " , see Thouless, R.H.: Straight and crooked thinking. London, 1930. chapter 9. Cf. Williams, G.: Language and the law. The Law Quarterly Review, 1945. p. 182. 22 The present paper i s a p a r t of the monographic undertaking o f the author, which aims to lay the foundations of a general theory of j u d i c i a l process. For basic questions of theoretical understanding, see, from the author, Hans Kelsens Rechtsanwendugslehre. Entwicklung, Mehredeutigkeiten, offene Probleme, Perspektiven. Archiv f ü r Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie , 3/1990. pp. 348-366 ; J u d i c i a l reproduction of the law i n an autopoietical system? Krawietz, W. ( e d . ) : (IVR 13th world congress proceedings). B e r l i n , Duncker und Humblot, 1990, forthcoming. (Rechtstheorie, B e i h e f t 12.) For r e l a t e d part questions, also from the author, see The unity of fact and law i n inferences i n law. Krawietz, W. and MacCormick, N. ( e d . ) : (Proceedings of the 14th world congress of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association for Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy). B e r l i n , Dincker und Humhlot, 1991, i n preparation. (Archiv f ü r Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie, B e i h e f t . ) ; D e s c r i p t i v i t y , n o r m a t i v i t y , and a s c r i p t i v i t y . (A cpntribution to the subsumption/subordination debate.) Koler, P. and Varga, Cs. ( e d . ) : (Proceedings of the IVR Austrian-Hungarian Symposium). B e r l i n , Duncker und Humblot, 1991, i n preparation. (Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie, B e i h e f t . ) ; The j u d i c i a l establishment of facts and i t s procedurality. Krawietz, W. und Weinberger, 0. ( h r s g . ) : Sprache, Performanz und Ontologie des Rechts. F e s t s c h r i f t Kazimierz Opalek. B e r l i n , Duncker und Humblot, 1990, in press; The nature of the j u d i c i a l establishment of f a c t s . Ratio J u r i s , 1991, in preparation
CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTS
261
DIE NICHT-KOGNITIVE NATUR DER RICHTERLICHEN TATBESTANDSFESTLEGUNG Cs. Varga 1. Die Differenz zwischen der Logik der Lösung der Probleme und der Rechtfertigung. Die Logik der Lösung eines Problems und d i e j e n i g e ihrer K o n t r o l l e sind verschieden. Die zweite T ä t i g k e i t i s t eine spätere, als die e r s t e und deshalb geht ihre auch das Objekt der Beweisung voran. Die Suche nach der Lösung i s t im Bereich des Rechts besonders eigentümlich, nachdem s i c h hier jeder S c h r i t t taktisch auf den vorgehenden S c h r i t t bezieht und so auf diesen aufgebaut i s t . 2. Die Verschiedenartigkeit der Erkenntnis und der Beurteilung. Das Recht sucht aus den Elementen der Geschehnisse diejenigen aus, welche es nachträglich auf die Geschehnisse zurückspiegeln kann. Daher i s t das Recht nicht i n den Tatsachen, sondern nur in ihrer Verwendung als Referenz i n t e r e s s i e r t . Infolgedessen hat die Logik der Tatsachen nur i n dem Masse r e c h t l i c h e Relevanz, wie sie zum T e i l der Logik der rechtlichen Beurteilung des Geschehnisses werden kann. 3. Die n i c h t - k o g n i t i v e Dialektik der normativen K l a s s i f i z i e r u n g . Was wir i n der Logik Subsumption nennen, hat im Bereich des Rechts zum T e i l nur eine symbolische Bedeutung, und steht zum Teil nur a n s t a t t etwas anderes. Die anscheinlich heterogenen Elemente des rechtlichen Prozesses sind bloss technische Klassifikationskategorien, die ausser dem Bereich des Rechts k e i n e r l e i unmittelbar i n t e r p r e t i e r b a r e Referenz oder I n h a l t besitzen.
LE CARACTÈRE NON-COGNITIF DE L'ÉTABLISSEMENT DU FAIT PAR LE JUGE Cs. Varga 1. La différence entre l a logique de l a solution du problême et la j u s t i f i c a t i o n . La logique de l a solution d'un problème et c e l l e de son contrôle sont d i f f é r e n t e s . Le deuxième acte est postérieur au premier et par ce f a i t postérieur à l ' o b j e t de la preuve lui-même. Dans le domaine du d r o i t , la recherche de l a s o l u t i o n est d'une nature p a r t i c u l i è r e , étant donné que du point de vue tactique chaque pas se rapporte au précédent et repose sur c e l u i - c i . 2. La nature dissemblable de l a connaissance e t de l ' a p p r é c i a t i o n . Parmi les événements, le d r o i t sélectionne des événements q u ' i l peut p r o j e t e r a p o s t e r i o r i sur les événements. I l n'est pas interessé dans les f a i t s , mais seulement dans leur u t i l i s a t i o n en t a n t que bases de référence. Par conséquent l a logique des f a i t s eux-memes n ' e s t décisive du p o i n t de vue j u r i d i q u e que dans la mesure où i l s deviennent p a r t i e de la logique de l ' a p p r é c i a t i o n j u r i dique du f a i t . 3. La d i a l e c t i q u e non-cognitive de la c l a s s i f i c a t i o n normative. Ce que nous nommons subsumption dans l a logique a d'une p a r t dans l e d r o i t seulement une importance symbolique et d'autre part n ' e s t qu'un s u b s t i t u t . Les éléments du processus j u r i d i q u e en apparence hétérogènes ne sont que des catégories de c l a s s i f i c a t i o n technique qui, en dehors du domaine du d r o i t , n'ont aucun référence ou contenu directement i n t e r p r é t a b l e s .
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 263-282 (1990)
THE LAW AS MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
A. Leader of
the S e c r e t a r i a t
Qualification Assistant
of
TAMÁS of
the
Committee o f
Scientific
t h e H u n g a r i a n Academy o f
P r o f e s s o r on t h e
Faculty of
S c i e n c e s a n d Law o f t h e J ó z s e f
Attila
Sciences;
Political University,
Szeged
The normativist legal theory delimits i t s e l f on a methodological basis from the i n vestigation of the e f f i c i e n c y of law, including i t s modernization e f f i c i e n c y . The theory of the sociology of law i s s e n s i t i v e to the modernization, i t shows, however, l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n the normative r a t i o n a l i t y of means. Legislation and application o f law, i . e . the p r a c t i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s of law as a real functioning cannot be interpreted p e r f e c t l y by i t s e l f from e i t h e r of the said aspects. The technical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of law understands the l e g i s l a t i o n and the application of law as regular l i n e s of operations. I f modernization can be described i n regular legal l i n e s of operations, then law may be a modernization technique. The l i n e s of operations mean here the operations of the l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n . Therein, general questions are the technological representation, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the w i l l , o f r a t i o n a l i t y . The law as a technique used for the modernization origins from the professional sphere of the law. This professional sphere i s h i e r a r c h i c a l : the operation of the l e g i s l a t i o n i s making p r o g n o s t i c a l decisions i n dimensions of space and time, whereas the operation of the application of law i s making decisions of r e a l i z i n g nature in s i t u a t i o n s defined i n space and time. The r e a l operation of these two spheres may r e s u l t in u s e f u l changes i . e . i n a modernization i n the society, i f t h e i r operations are harmonized and are credible both as a motivation and as a conpulsory mechanism, i . e . i f they are accepted by the society.
The
indication
technique
-
of
involves
may be i n t e r p r e t e d brought i n t o
this
obviously
and,
on
connection w i t h modernization may
strument
modernization.
a
matter
of third
offer
the
opinion:
the
Explicated
presupposition;
-
the
two a s s u m p t i o n s .
as a t e c h n i q u e
combination
than
subject
each
in
this
of
them
as
On t h e
the
law
law
a
o n e hand,
othe h a n d ,
a technical
that
a technique
way,
however, a
that
law
law may
sense,
as
requires
modernization
too.
Their
may be t h e
this
is not
separate
be
inmore
interpre-
tation.
X
According a
specific
to
social
the
first
technique.
presupposition According
to
the H.
law may Kelsen,
be
the
interpreted law
is
a
as
moti-
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
264
TAMÁS, A.
v a t i o n t e c h n i q u e 1 and a compulsory mechanism. The l e g a l norm r e l a t e s t o the conduct of two e n t i t i e s : t o t h a t of the l e g a l s u b j e c t a g a i n s t whose i l l e g a l conduct the compulsory measure o f the l e g a l s a n c t i o n i s d i r e c t e d , as w e l l , as t o t h a t o f
t h e executor o f
the compulsory measure. The law as the com-
p u l s o r y measure r e l a t i n g t o t h e i l l e g a l c o n d u c t has a "be" q u a l i t y of b i n d ing force.
If
it
i s said t h a t
the norm " e x i s t s "
t h i s means o n l y the
va-
2 l i d i t y of
the
norm and does
not
Because i t does not l o g i c a l l y happens, i t
the w i l f u l
act
Kelsen i s o n l y accordingly, In
that
it
has an
f o l l o w from t h e f a c t t h a t i f
"is"
nature.
something
or
s h o u l d be or s h o u l d happen. The norm and the norm-making
are not i d e n t i c a l ; by
mean e . g .
fact
i s o n l y a f i c t i o n t h a t the norm i s always produced
directed
to
the c o n t e n t s
of
the r e v e l a t i o n of the l o g i c a l
the norm.
The theory
of
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e l e g a l norm:
i s a normative l e g a l t h e o r y , and thus a p u r e l e g a l d o c t r i n e
it
this
it
background,
the
validity
question t h a n i t s e f f i c i e n c y .
of
the
Consequently,
if
norm i s
a quite
different
the l e g a l r u l e declares
that
the judge has t o punish t h e t h i e f , t h i s norm w i l l be e f f e c t i v e only i f
the
4
judge r e a l l y punishes the t h i e f . not a n o r m a t i v e question b u t contents o f
law,
just like
the
law.
The t h e o r y
of Kelsen does not e x c l u d e
g a t i o n of t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f any r o l e e . g . definitely
The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the law i s , however,
t h a t of t h e s o c i o l o g y of
of
the
investi-
l a w , nor the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e law may have
i n the m o d e r n i z a t i o n of t h e
that
the n e c e s s i t y
t h i s i s not
the specific
society; i t
declares,
however,
f e a t u r e of law b u t i t s
normative
"be" s t r u c t u r e . X
The t h e s e s
of
the n o r m a t i v i s t
interpretation
of
law
in a specific
manner by t h e h i s t o r y of t h e development o f
the a t t e n t i o n
not to the
form of t h e
in
normalities,
to
the
inevitable
l a w , but t o t h e c u r r e n t c o n t e n t s of the l e g a l r u l e s .
as a m a t t e r rules
immanent l o g i c a l
may be c r o s s e d law which c a l l s
of
the
fact,
the
interval
contents t h a t
m a n i f e s t themselves
between m o t i v a t i o n
and compulsory
Because,
i n the
legal
mechanism,
are
h i g h l y v a r i e d and a l t e r a b l e and r a i s e t h e question not w i t h o u t any r e a s o n , whether
the
variety of
essence
of
the
law
should
be
searched
after
not
in
this
contents?
To t h i s e f f e c t , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e law may become r e a l l y a r a t i o n ality
only
as a f u n c t i o n
of
rationalities
external
to
it.3
In such
an
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
interpretation
the c r i t e r i o n
of
pure
legality
265
is selected
out:
"the
law
c o n s t r u c t e d by n e g l i g i n g t h e l o g i c of t h e processes f o r m i n g the r a t i o n a l i t y of purposes and the system o f c o n d i t i o n s o f the f u n c t i o n becomes i r r a t i o n a l in its
function,
no m a t t e r how much i t
i t s inner l o g i c . " as a w i l f u l
strived after
a sociological
t h e laws of
sense
-
the
normativist
and i n
essence w a i t i n g
all
law - i t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the n a t u r a l the c o n t e n t s
of
Or, w i t h another a r g u m e n t a t i o n : the l e g a l order belongs
order under
consequently, i t depends on the c o n d i t i o n s o f t i s In
t h e conservation
is
is
the v a l i d i t y
regulation;
existence.^
probability
according t o
the
by no means t h e l e g a l form
but
rendered l e g a l which i s s i g n i f i c a n t . sense i t
for
On t h e c o n t r a r y , i n
the
of
t h e law which i s
essential:
t h a t may f u n c t i o n as a l e g a l norm, t h a t
i ^ a l e g a l norm.
The v a l i d i t y
only is
the e x i s t e n c e of the norm, the presence o f the f a c t " c o n s t i t u t i n g " t h e о norm. And a l l t h i s i s n o t simply t h e m a t t e r of e s t i m a t i o n and o p i n i o n . The law i n v o l v e s problem e i t h e r may c l a s h , other.
practically
one
It
intricate
two k i n d s
is it
of
true
of
different
interpretations,
or
theoretically.
them may p r o v i s i o n a l l y that
"the
necessarily
is
it
The above mentioned
outshine
more a m b i t i o u s
and f i a n l l y
approaching
the
a legal
veracity
rule
is,
the
aspects of
the
the
more
may achieve t h e l e v e l of
com-
9
plexity
where i t
may mean t h e
becomes confusing and u n a p p l i c a b l e . "
predominance
r a t i o n a l i t y . At any r a t e , the
either
of
the
This
means-rationality
ambitiousness or
the
end-
the law - as a s p e c i f i c e n d - r a t i o n a l system o f
socio-economic-political
sense the making the s o c i a l
sphere - does not exclude i n a s o c i o l o g i c a l modernization
t o an e n d - r a t i o n a l i t y ,
i.e.
it
may become t h e instrument o f the m o d e r n i z a t i o n . X
Therefore, the
basis
of
it the
idea to propose a s y n t h e s i s
would be an o v a r h a s t y above
mentioned t h e o r e t i c a l
tendencies.
: Although
on the
n o r m a t i v i s t l e g a l theory does not e x c l u d e the p o s s i b i l i t y
of law t o p l a y a
role
itself,
in
the
modernization
of
the s o c i e t y ,
it
considers
however,
incompetent i n t h i s q u e s t i o n . The s o c i o l o g i c a l tendency, on the o t h e r hand involves, legal
or
means.
normativist is,
Let
into
us assume,
thesis that
and the s o c i o l o g i c a l
however,
framework,
even puts
a feeble r e s u l t
the
the
systems of
trends
even f o r
possibility
of
modernization
arguments
are l o g i c a l l y
well
of b o t h founded.
by the This
p u t t i n g the q u e s t i o n i n t o a common
n o t to speak about s y n t h e t i z a t i o n .
For t h e
logical
estimation
ТАМ ÄS, А.
266
namely t h a t according
i s the q u e s t i o n t o what e x t e n t
to
problem - i f tation of
these
two
kinds
"existence" i s a real p r e d i c a t e
definition.
Ihe s y n t h e t i z a t i o n
of
this
we can b e l i e v e t o the d i a l e c t i c l o g i c s based on the i n t e r p r e -
Hegel, c r i t i c i z i n g
abstraction.^ tendencies
of
Kant - can be "solved" o n l y by an u n i l a t e r a l
I h i s means t h a t between t h e
of
the present
legal
theory
above mentioned two e s s e n t i a l
a gulf
i s t o be found - f o r
the
t h e o r y ; t h e consequent d e d u c t i o n can be a c h i e v e d only s e p a r a t e l y and n o t by an argumentation drawn up t o g e t h e r . What may be done i n
this
f u r t h e r f r o m the present pretation
of
Keng Chou:
Mo-lsi:
What
correct
action?
building
is
Iheir
T'u-jLi and
important
master
i n order
Hien l s i - s i
thing
to
get
apparently
Ihis
they stamp i t ;
i t up w i t h e a r t h ; who can l i f t
inter-
asked t h e i r
from the p o i n t
Mo-Tsi answered:
Who can stamp,
e a r t h , they f i l l
-
the theses o f M o - l s i may be r e a d , i n the "Chi
the most
a wall.
case? W e l l
is
of
the
view of
the
same as
who can f i l l i t , they l i f t
master
it
with
up
with
i t . Ihe w a l l
i s made i n t h i s way. In t h e matter of t h e j u s t a c t i o n t h e s i t u a t i o n i s same. Who can speak and d i s c u s s , they speak and d i s c u s s ;
the
who can comment
upon a book, they comment upon a book; and who can a c t , t h e y a c t . Ihe
just-
ness complete i t s e l f i n t h i s way." Well t h e n , t h i s i s a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t
sphere of the l o g i c a l judgement,
l e t us say, t h a t of Kant o r Kelsen. Maybe M o - l s i i s wrong. A l l the same, as an o b s e r v a t i o n ,
it
is
disarmingly
correct,
beginning
with
t h a t who can
stamp, they w i l l r e a l l y stamp, e t c . Ihat
is,
they w i l l
each man t o h i s t r a d e . I f
be the theses o f
produce e i t h e r
the legal t h e o r y
r i g h t s or o b l i g a t i o n s .
people, may r e s u l t only from t h e At the same time, quality
of
the
t h e l e g a l t h e o r y draws up t h e s e s ,
or obliging 12 a u t h o r i t y o f the l e g i s l a t o r .
" t h e most e f f i c i e n t
legislation
- says Kelsen - they do n o t
I h e norms e n t i t l i n g
h e l p to the improvement of
can be rendered by the j u r i s p r u d e n c e ,
in
the
the the
questions r e a c h i n g both i n t h e sphere of c o n t e n t s and t h a t o f the f o r s . " ^ " 5 It
i s , however, a question which of the j u r i s p r u d e n c e s ; whether the j u r i s -
prudence o f t h e n o r m a t i v i s t tendency or t h a t of the s o c i o l o g i c a l tendency, not t o mention the o t h e r s .
I h e antinomies o f these two tendencies o f f e r a
chance t h a t p o s s i b l y n e i t h e r o f them would be taken s e r i o u s l y or even b o t h of
them,
realism
but
eclectically.
advocates
the
last
a u t o m a t i c a l l y two c r i t e r i a :
ihe
theory
assumption,
of
e.g.
according
the to
Scandinavian which
legal
the law
has 14 a s o c i o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i o n and a normative one.
Here, those a s p e c t s , the independent a n a l y s i s of which c a n n o t be t h e o r e t i -
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
cally
s y n t h e t i z e d b u t , can be u t i l i z e d i n t h e technology o f
appear i n d e p e n d e n t l y . but
267
a technology.
nothing else.13
According t o L l e w e l l y n ,
What d i d
It
and does e x i s t
t i m e a system-forming element.
techniques
the practice,
n o t a phiolosphy
as r e a l i s m ,
is
a method and
may be, however, added t h a t t h i s method i s a t the same Nevertheless,
l e n c e comprehensive t e c h n i c a l legal
realism i s
of
theory of
realism i s
law.
m o d e r n i z a t i o n do not
not
Gur f u r t h e r
especially
a par e x c e l -
remark i s ,
raise
that
interest
with
advocates of t h e r e a l i s m . "Ihe r e l a t i o n s h i p between law and m o d e r n i z a t i o n can be i n t e r p r e t e d two ways. F i r s t
of a l l as a problem of t h e modernization o f
case the c r i t e r i o n ,
or c r i t e r i a
law - i n
in
this
of the " m o d e r n i t y " of law s h o u l d be c l a r i -
f i e d i n g e n e r a l - and secondly as the q u e s t i o n of law as one o f the i n s t r u ments of m o d e r n i z a t i o n . " As regards cathegories
the law,
are,
this
however,
is
not
an e s s e n t i a l
at
all
aspects i n c o n n e c t i o n of each problem. only in t h e i r aspects
but
question.
homogeneous.
The
They
fundamental
have
specific
These aspects may come across
not
concepts r e v e a l i n g i n a more d e t a i l e d way some p r o f e s s i o n a l somehow i n
the
interpretation
of
the g e n e r a l
concept,
too.
X
Further statements r e l a t i n g to the s u b j e c t matter r e s t on the t e c h n i cal theoretical interpretation17 is
of the l a w .
a technique s p e c i a l i z e d as an o p e r a t i o n a l
and the a p p l i c a t i o n of l a w , problems of terion", than
its
Law as an e f f e c t i v e technique o f
the
being of p r o f e s s i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .
p r a c t i c e and adds p r a c t i c a l
technique
legislation
I t solves t h e
argumentations t o them.
" p r i n c i p l e " and " c o n c e p t i o n " mean something e l s e f o r the p r a c t i c e
for
the
theory.
There
is
no
"pure"
theory
and
"pure"
practice.
Although human knowledge i s sectioned according t o a b s t r a c t i o n it
"Cri-
levels,
i s , however, somehow u n i f o r m . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e law as a modern-
i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i s at l e a s t as much a c o n c e p t u a l - t e c h n i c a l question as an actual p r a c t i c a l
question.
I n c e r t a i n respect t h e i t s p r a c t i c a l technique.
law i s i t s own i n t u i t i o n ,
"The rendering p r o f e s s i o n a l ,
the special l e g a l techniques,
its
situations.
The
of
of the i n t e r n a ] problems o f t h e law, may be a
guarantee a g a i n s t some t h r e a t s emerging f r o m d i f f e r e n t historical
own knowledgein
the expropriation
common
feature
of
these
sides
in
threats
different is:
n e g l e c t i o n o f the inherences o f the l e g a l system i n the name of outer
the prin-
268
TAMÁS, A.
c i p l e s , e . g . of the economic or t e c h n i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y , of the p o l i t i c a l ex18 pediency, of the moral s u p e r i o r i t y . " The p r o f e s s i o n a l i t y of the t e c h n i q u e of the l e g i s l a t i o n and o f the a p p l i c a t i o n of law o f f e r s a c e r t a i n b e h a v i o u r , a s t a b i l i t y t o the o p e r a t i o n . have
the
principle
of
development;
internal
I t pertains t o that that i t
it
should
be
always
ready
should
for
the
tomorrow. The law has t o j u s t i f y day t o day i t s own e x i s t e n c e , i t s n e c e s s i t y and suitability. is
At the same t i m e , j u s t due t o t h i s c o n t i n u o u s p r a c t i c e ,
a preliminary
"credit".
condition
i n the s o c i e t y ;
the p r a c t i c e
this
has always some
Taken i n t h i s way, law i s - as the general r e g u l a t i o n of t h e so-
c i e t y - a s p e c i a l purpose i n i t s e l f , other purposes, and t h u s ,
it
may be concluded t h e r e f r o m ,
t h e n i t may be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o
does n o t remain a purpose i n i t s e l f
several only.
It
t h a t the law may be a m o d e r n i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e .
We must n o t , however, a n t i c i p a t e
the argumentation.
the above mentioned a u t o t e l i s m supposes
the n e c e s s i t y
The n e c e s s i t y
of
the
of
instrument.
This i s i n s e p a r a b l y connected w i t h the n e c e s s i t y of t h e purposes a t t a i n a b l e by r t .
The purposes a r e
dialectics
of
the
changeable,
connection
t h e Instrument
consists
in
the
is
fact
less v a r i a b l e . that
the
The
instrument
l e g a l i z e s the purposes, whereas the a u t h e n t i c i t y of t h e instrument c o n s i s t s i n the a u t h e n t i c i t y of with i t s e l f It
itself
anything e l s e ,
gation
Apparently,
o f the essence comes about,
renders
identity.
t h e purposes.
i.e.
i n which the r e f l e c t i o n i s
homogeneous thereby
identity direct.
and not by t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
but by t h e establishment
The c r i t e r i o n t h e r e o f
i n t h i s way the
is that
from i t s e l f ,
i.e.
from
by an e s s e n t i a l
i s consists n o t of a r e l a t i v e
not from something accomplished beside i t
but:
it
ne-
is i t s
own
i d e n t i t y a c c o r d i n g t o i t s own r e a l i t y . The sense of the s u b s t a n t i a l i t y as o f the r e f l e c t i o n statement i s that
the law produces i d e n t i t i e s ,
despite
the f a c t t h a t
v a r i o u s l e g a l r e l a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h some d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s . the
identity
negation of law;
the
comes b e f o r e itself
identity
t h a t of
the
differences:
of
that
is
in
general
The r e a l i z a t i o n
the
i s founded on the d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s .
here
the r u l e s o f
identity
as
the of the
The law i s t h e r e f o r e
identical
with
the
essence.
The i d e n t i t y may have i t s f u l l sense I n the u n i t y w i t h the d i s s i m i l a r i ties,
being
terminating directed
posed
not
may stand
analytically behind
it.
but
Every
towards the rearrangement of
change i n the above mentioned i d e n t i t y ; life.
The purpose i n i t s e l f
behind i t
synthetically; variation,
a maintenance
reform
of the
law
by is
dissimilarities
and hardly makes a
t h a t the l i f e
o f man i s a r e g u l a r
i s obviously t h a t
the r e g u l a r i t y
of
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
this
regular
life
is
contained i n
269
t h e law a t l e a s t
as regards i t s
base-
l i n e s as the essence and as the appearance of the essence i n i t s e l f . would be s p e c i f i c a l l y own purposes law i s
by a r e l a t e d s m a l l e r community by i t s 20 and by i t s d i f f e r e n t , narrower norms; in a
i n themselves
modern c e n t r a l i z e d
This
crossed e . g .
state,
however, the p r o b a b i l i t y
t h e r e o f decreases.
The
not
only a t e c h n i q u e r e l e a s i n g the s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s and s e t t l i n g 21 the c o n f l i c t s but a technique g u i d i n g g e n e r a l l y and i n d i r e c t l y t h e s o c i a l 22 activities. When the law i s the s i g n i f i c a n c e
of
an a c t i v e g u i d i n g technique i n the s o c i a l the
risk
factor
increases as regards the p r e s t i g e
the l a w . The purpose i n i t s e l f of t h e law i s i n a sense i t s This i s , however, t h e m a t t e r of f a c t s . law can be posed and enforced. concerning method o f
the
treatment
substantiality contradiction law t i m e l y therein. its
legal -
actual,
-
and
it
is
the i d e n t i c a l
simultaneously
the
-
e.g.
selective
e . g . concerning the s u b s t a n t i v e law - i n which the
as a c o n t r a d i c t i o n , returns
of
self-assertion.
Instead o f them, the v a l i d i t y of the
The b a s i s f o r
subjectivity
practice,
into
its
though,
Under d e f i n i t e
as the r e f l e c t i o n
own b a s i s .
i t s e l f of 23 This s e l e c t i v i t y renders
at t h e same time,
conditions,
its
however, t h i s
into
risk
i s also
the the
contained
i s suitable for
risking
substantiality. The t o l e r a n c e
statement w i l l itself
factor
is rather
powerful -
the j u s t i f i c a t i o n
of
this
not be given here - but the t e r m i n a t i o n of the purpose
may be the t e r m i n a t i o n of
t h e normative l e g a l r e g u l a r i t y .
I.e.
in the
l e g i s l a t i o n and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f law are able t o d e s t r o y themselves from i n s i d e , moreover, t o l i q u i d a t e themselves. As i t
brings i t s
i n b e i n g , though i n a negative way, i t t e r m i n a t e s i t s e l f of i t s
appearance i n
itself.
The t e r m i n a t i o n o f e . g .
substantiality
by the t e r m i n a t i o n
the s e l e c t i v i t y ,
s u b o r d i n a t i o n of t h e law t o a s i n g l e i d e a , the l a c k of r e a l t i m e l i n e s s the law have an e f f e c t i n t h i s Especially lation
of
to s t e p " .
legislation
of
state,
the l e g a l
law t o g e t h e r
is
system i . e .
therefore
Since r e f l e c t i o n i s d e f i n i t e ,
and of
of
direction.
the p o l i t i c a l
and the a p p l i c a t i o n
"compulsion both
in
the
the a p p l i c a t i o n o f
law.
it
the
i n a continuous i s the
reflection
Consequently,
m o d e r n i z a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e through t h e law, the l e g i s l a t i o n and t h e c a t i o n o f law have t o be understood t o g e t h e r .
X
legis-
if
the
appli-
270
TAMÁS, A.
The change or the "opening"
starts
not
necessarily
from the
profes-
s i o n a l l e g a l sphere i n a mass o f s i t u a t i o n s e x i s t i n g i n space and time and r e g u l a t e d u s u a l l y l e g a l l y , but sooner or l a t e r i t produces new r e g u l a r i t i e s t h e r e i n . The l e g i s l a t i o n i s i n a key p o s i t i o n : working w i t h o u t the s t a t e ization,
the a c t i v e c o - o p e r a t i o n o f
administration.
As regards
the r u l e i s t h a t i t
p l i c a t i o n of l a w ,
the
it
i s , however, incapable o f
the a p p l i c a t i o n of legal
technique
law and of
of
t h e modern-
has t o cover b o t h t h e l e g i s l a t i o n and the ap-
the impulse, however, s h a l l proceed from t h e
which guides t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f law as p r o f e s s i o n a l f u n c t i o n .
legislation
I t is a fact,
however, t h a t t h e law i s not p r i m a r i l y e f f e c t i v e i n the p r o f e s s i o n a l sphere, it
i s not o n l y
v a l i d there.
The observance and non-observance o f
the law
have also s o c i a l technique. The l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n t o be a p p l i e d comes out o f the p r o f e s s i o n a l
legislative
and l a w - a p p l y i n g range and the law
acknowledged e x i s t s and f u n c t i o n s j u s t
hereby.^
generally
4
The balance of the working c a p a c i t y of the law develops and appears i n the
relations
of
the
a s s e r t i o n of l a w .
legislation,
the a p p l i c a t i c n
of
law
and
che
self-
This balance i s a t l e a s t so much a p o s i t i v e n e s s as a p r e -
supposition; therefore, i t
is
always r e l a t i v e .
I n case of t h e modern law,
t h i s balance may be produced a l s o i n the same sequence, s e v e r a l times and i n s e v e r a l ways.
The demand on the change may proceed from t h e
individual
communities o f the s o c i e t y , from the p o l i t i c a l or other o r g a n i z a t i o n s , the p o l i t i c a l government, e t c .
I t s technical effectuation w i l l
from
a p p l y , how-
e v e r , the same l e g a l technique as t h e modern p o l i t i c a l s t a t e s o f our t i m e ; the r e a d i l y
g i v e n technology i d e n t i f i a b l e
legislation.
The
breaking
down or
the
p r i m a r i l y w i t h the
upsetting
of
the
governmental
above-mentioned
balance means f a c t u a l l y a change or an i n t e n t i o n t o change as compared t o a former - r e l a t i v e l y d e t e r m i n i n g - s t a t e .
One method of the change of the
r e l a t i v e balance i n the s a i d sense i s the m o d e r n i z a t i o n . The e x p l i c a t i o n the j u r i s p r u d e n c e , law.
of
the concept
and s t i l l
of m o d e r n i z a t i o n
i s not
t h e task
l e s s the task o f t h e t e c h n i c a l t h e o r y of the
The m o d e r n i z a t i o n i s a p o p u l a r e m p i r i c concept or t h a t o f
policy
i n which
rather
the a c t u a l
standards are d e t e r m i n a t i v e . tical
concept
having
of
objects
than
the o b j e c t i v e
the
daily
scientific
The "modern" i s t h e r f o r e an e m p i r i c and p r a c -
diverse
meanings.
meanings: new, n o v e l , u p - t o - d a t e ,
It
may
have
e.g.
the
following
t i m e l y , foreshadowing, p r o v i d i n g f o r the
p r o g r e s s , model f o r
the f u t u r e ,
tional.
i t s i g n i f i e s t h e motion, the moving away i n t h e d i r e c -
In g e n e r a l ,
not outmoded, n o t o u t - o f - d a t e ,
not
tradi-
t i o n of the u n i f o r m s o c i a l p r o g r e s s ( i f such a t h i n g e x i s t s ) , t h e r e f o r e , i s p e r s p e c t i v e and p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
it
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
Suppose t h a t the g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c formity to the perspective h i s t o r i c a l moving-away
as compared t o
g a t i o n of a former s t a t e ,
271
of the m o d e r n i t y i s the c o n -
demands, and, a t t h e same t i m e ,
a former
state,
therefore
exceeding,
the
the
ne-
f u r t h e r on, t h i s c o n f o r m i t y means the c o r r e s p o n -
dence t o t h e l a t e s t ; the not-backwardness, approach t o t h e f o r e f r o n t o f
the
world. The m o d e r n i z a t i o n i s s i m u l t a n e i t y and s p e c i a l r e a l i t y
f o r the p r a c t i -
c a l a c t i o n . T h e r e i n , the r e a l i t y e x i s t i n g i n the given p l a c e and i n t i m e t r u e as an assumption. Further
on,
Each o b j e c t ,
t h e elsewhere
i n t e n t i o n and i d e a
existing r e a l i t y
model due t o the s i m u l t a n e i t y but i t t i c a l only strictly future
in
time
but
not
in
cannot
be w r i t t e n
in
ness
space.
in
principle,
certainty
their
slackaning
the
likewise,
The p r a c t i c a l
usefulness
by the prospect
-
it
is
the
conditions,
is
the
their
the assumption,
disengagement
to
the
act
in
all
of course,
-
by
in
interpretation
a not
The p r a c t i c a l d e c i s i o n
however,
from
is the
correct-
by t a k i n g up the space and time f a c t o r s
c i s i o n , d e f i n e s again a t t h e same time t h e c o n d i t i o n s , modernization
real iden-
task
interpreted
- subsequently,
granted t o t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s of the p r a c t i c e . by
the
impossible
tasks - e . g .
broader range. This i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c
limited
a
As t h e h i s t o r y o f
can be f a i r l y
of a h i s t o r i a n
dimensions,
this is
The accomplisnment of the practice.
advance,
moving backwards i n t o t h e p a s t .
i s also t u r e ;
i s h i g h l y r e l a t i v e since i t i s
bound i n space and time f o r
is
i s an assumption.
is
b e i n g t r u e as a det o o . The idea o f
reality
but
the
technically
s t r i c t l y w i t h a comparison w i t h the r e a l i t y . From a c e r t a i n aspect t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n can be d e f i n e d as a t e c h n o l o g y , so as the m a n i p u l a t i o n w i t h sions of space and t i m e .
the c o n d i t i o n s
and assumptions i n the
not? W e l l , t h e s o l u t i o n i s always i n d i v i d u a l , however,
not
unique.
Several
conceptual-technological the mechanism of
analogous
or
i t s c o n c e p t u a l mechanism i s ,
mechanisms can
be denominated
as
models. From among them the models coming n e a r e s t
the m o d e r n i z a t i o n
are
as f o l l o w s :
t h e mechanism o f
the
t h e y belong n o t
into
r e s t o r a t i o n and the mechanism of the l a w .
Obviously,
an i d e n t i c a l
also e v i d e n t
logical
dimen-
I s the mechanism o f t h i s m a n i p u l a t i o n s p e c i f i c
dimension but
it
r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r .
X
is
that
they
have a
272
TAMÁS, A.
The n e g a t i o n of the "modern" i s t h e " r e a c t i o n a r y " as t h e expression o f the o p p o s i t i o n t o the s o c i a l progress. For t h i s once, i t
s h o u l d be l e f t
of c o n s i d e r a t i o n , how f a r t h e " s o c i a l p r o g r e s s " i s an i n t e r p r e t a b l e sion.
If
the
"reaction"
existing
expres-
aims at the r e b u i l d i n g of a p r e v i o u s s t a t e ,
popular e x p r e s s i o n t h e r e o f something
out
i s the " r e s t o r a t i o n " .
by t h e
revival,
by
the
This i s
the
the alteration
reconstruction
of
of
a previous
solution. The o p e r a t i o n s of t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n and the r e s t o r a t i o n do not d i f f e r essentially their
Their c o n t e n t essence - t h e i r o b j e c t i v e and
i n many r e s p e c t s .
t o be expected - show a fundamental d i f f e r e n c e .
results
At the
ac-
complishment o f the o p e r a t i o n n e i t h e r t h e modernization nor the r e s t o r a t i o n has a s p e c i f i c
guarantee.
Both of them have a meaning f r o m the same p r o -
j e c t i v e p o i n t - as compared t o the p r e s e n t f a c t u a l i t y - and t h e i r ation
has
some
chance.
Their
common f e a t u r e
is
their
effectu-
argumentation
of
c r i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r : the p r o t e s t against t h e e x i s t i n g s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , insistence
upon the n e c e s s i t y
basis f o r
discussing p o l i t i c s ,
the l e g i s l a t i o n .
of a change. but i t
is
In g e n e r a l ,
n o t sure t h a t
this it
the
i s a proper
i s enough
for
The m o d e r n i z a t i o n , and a l s o the r e s t o r a t i o n , s t a r t i n g f r o m
the p o l i t i c a l l i f e i s d i r e c t l y connected t o the l e g a l s p h e r e . The p o l i t i c a l government
aims
in
its
each
variation
at
the l e g i t i m a t i o n
which i s
a t t a i n a b l e by the law. The reforms have t h e i n t e n t i o n t o frame the mative l e g a l lation
r u l e s i n the same way as the r e s t o r a t i o n has i t
suitable
for
it.
The f a c t
that
the
matter
namely a r e f o r m a t i v e or r e s t o r i n g d i c t a t o r s h i p too much;
this
wants a l s o
to
achieve
the
is
the
- does n o t
legitimation
held
refor-
f o r the r e g u dictatorship
-
a l t e r the case
and i t
joins
the
l e g a l sphere a t most d i c t a t o r i a l l y . The p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g y s e t s a too h i g h value on t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n and a too low v a l u e on the t e c h n o l o g y of t h e law and on t h e normative of
the
law.
modernizing, frames sooner a p p l i c a t i o n of
Practically restoring or
later
each or
modern
even
government
traditional
-
-
be
it
revolutionary,
aiming
at
its
the
legitimism
normalizedness later.
It is,
purposes,
t h e law and o p e r a t e s an o f f i c i a l apparatus f o r
law. The " n o r m a l l y working"
both
inwardly
and
kept i n f u n c t i o n i n g w i l l
the
f u n c t i o n of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n and
of the a p p l i c a t i o n of law seems namely from the very f i r s t for
nature
outwardly. be p r o p e r l y
The
t o be s u i t a b l e
regularity,
r e c o g n i z e d sooner
the or
however, a m a t t e r of f a c t t h a t the l e g i s l a t i o n and the a p p l i -
c a t i o n of
law
political
authenticity,
functioning
in
its
accordance w i t h the r u l e s may also lose legitimacy.
In
the case mentioned f i r s t
its the
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
l i g i t i m a t i o n comes i n t o being by the f u n c t i o n , lost
due
to
the
function.
According
to
273
i n the second case, i t
the
political
gets
conception,
the
dominance of the l e g a l sphere i s given by the grasp of the power. The law does not q u a l i f y but a l l the same i t a u t h e n t i c a t e the government as p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n . During the prolonged e x e r c i s e o f t h e power, however, also t h e contrary
t h e r e o f becomes e v i d e n t ;
the already e f f e c t i v e law q u a l i f i e s
the
f u n c t i o n of the government, a t t h e same t i m e , however, i t does not render i t definitely
authentic.
The law put i n t o s e r v i c e o f
the m o d e r n i z a t i o n i s o f t e n t h e
following
o f a model: the t r a n s l a t i o n , t h e adaption of t h e law supposed t o be p r o g r e sive
which
is,
of
course,
p r o b a b l e only seldom. larly
more than a s i m p l e
The law p u t i n s e r v i c e o f
the f o l l o w i n g o f a model:
correct
and t h i s
is
also
copying b e i n g
practically
the r e s t o r a t i o n i s
simi-
the r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a f o r m e r law h e l d
a non-adequate
former law. I n p o l i t i c a l sense i t
in
integrum r e s t i t u t i o n
of
the
could be perhaps t a l l y i n g w i t h the model
i n case both of t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n and of the r e s t o r a t i o n . And a f t e r a l l , is not. of
By v i r t u e o f the o b s e r v a t i o n of the f u n c t i o n of law -
it
ireespective
theses - the c o n c l u s i o n may be drawn t h a t
some p o l i t i c a l - s o c i o l o g i c a l
t h e obedience or disobedience t o the law does n o t a r i s e from p o l i t i c a l cons i d e r a t i o n s . The members of the s o c i e t y , the i n d i v i d u a l persons acknowledge the
law and the
various
reasons.
The c o n c e p t i o n
correct,
it
is
also
t i o n , moreover, i t if
legal
rules
according
as v a l i d
t o which
legally correct,
if
by no means f o r something
political
is
politically
i s o n l y t h e expression o f
the
something i s l e g a l l y i n c o r r e c t , i t may not be c o r r e c t p o l i t i c a l l y
I n a modern s o c i e t y the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e law i s p o l i t i c a l l y its
effectiveness
society.
is,
however,
n o t so.
The modern s o c i e t y
is
stability
the modernization
or
to
The law i s n o t b u i l t even i n case of
l e a d t o the idea o f the a l t e r a t i o n
the
either
a political
-
bound t o i n s t a b l e
the
- either
to
conditions.
up e x c l u s i v e l y on p o l i t i c a l r a t i o n a l i t i e s - n o t
totalitarian
such r a t i o n a l i t i e s .
restoration
is:
prompted,
The weakening of the working c a p a c i t y o f the modern s o c i e t y ,
r e d u c t i o n of i t s
of
voli-
i s a c a n v a s s e r ' s argumentation. The o p p o s i t e t h e r e o f
a u t o c r a c i e s - and f u n c t i o n s n o t on the b a s i s
Any modern law i s
some k i n d of
a l g o r i t h m and an
a x i o m a t i c system i n t e c h n i c a l sense. In order t o promote t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n processes of the s o c i e t y ,
t o i n v o l v e a new o r d e r i n t o r e g u l a r i t i e s :
i t has
t o change as an a l g o r i t h m and t o exchange p a r t l y i t s axioms. The t o t a l e x change i s i m p o s s i b l e . For t h i s purpose, the p o l i t i c a l v o l i t i o n ,
the
reso-
l u t i o n of the i n t e n t i o n t o change are not enough: the f u n c t i o n i n g of the law
TAMÁS, A.
274
i s a sphere working r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t l y , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s a p r o f e s s i o n and t h e matter i s here not the p r o f e s s i o n of the but t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f result i f jurists
becoming
politician
the j u r i s t . N o e s s e n t i a l change i s made i n the
some p o l i t i c i a n s pretend t o be p r o f e s s i o n a l j u r i s t s or i f would
like
to
seem s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
like
professional
final
certain
politicians.
X
The lishes rules
legal
of
be
degree
the
reasoning,
numerable can
norm comprises
correctly
cases:
for
typical,
from
probability
preliminary
them,
assumption t h a t
each case to be j u d g e d .
it
estabto
the
t h e s i n g l e and the one appear i n
in-
the s p e c i a l ,
does i t
realizable - total induction. probability.
the
the g e n e r a l i t y ,
the
abstracted of
rule
the g e n e r a l ,
somehow depending function
According
on
instead o f
the
the
tendency-like
fact,
with
what
the - p r a c t i c a l l y
un-
The r e a l l a w f u l n e s s i s replaced by t h e posed
This cannot be solved i n another way: i f
the law wants t o be
g e n e r a l , i t can achieve i t by the i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l cases. The i n c o n t e s t a b l e presumption of t h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n i s i t s i n d i s p e n s a b i l i t y .
The
r e g u l a r i t y but not as t h e d e c l a r a t i o n but as the v o l i t i o n of the c a u s a l i t y . Consequently, finite
the law i s
number but j u s t
not a l a w f u l n e s s a b s t r a c t a b l e from cases o f
the c o n t r a r y :
it
i s a r u l e posed i n advance
in-
deci-
sively f o r each case. Therefore,
a concrete
case s h a l l
be s e t t l e d
in
such a way t h a t
it
should correspond t o t h e general e x p e c t a t i o n hypostased i n the l e g a l norm. Presupposing t h a t e . g . social relations,
lawfulnesses
from t h e values o f
i t may be a l s o presupposed t h a t i f
of
full
value may be s t a t e d from the
the s o c i e t y ,
f r o m the s o c i a l
motions,
t h e y can be d e f i n e d , the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
of the l e g i s l a t i o n and o f the a p p l i c a t i o n of law would become s e n s e l e s s . No doubt, of
it
cannot be excluded t h e o r e t i c a l l y
infinite
number t h e general r u l e
can be analyzed and on t h i s basis people.
This t h e o r e t i c a l
of the
"possibility",
t h a t from the s o c i a l
the p o s s i b i l i t y
situations
of t h e i r
solution
law could be determinable
for
the
however, r e l e g a t e s the problem f o r
the moment i n t o the w o r l d of the Turing-machine.
T h i s would lead t o a con-
c e p t u a l mechanism which would c o n t i n u a l l y reframe t h e r o l e on the b a s i s of all
known parameters
of
all
known cases:
as a m a t t e r
of course,
this
is
p r a c t i c a l l y an a b s u r d i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s absurd assumption s h a l l n o t remain w i t h o u t The c o n d i t i o n
of
its
realizability
would be the e v a l u a t i o n of
evidence.
all
known
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
cases:
i.e.
t h e complete i n d u c t i o n .
co-ordination
i n space.
T h i s may be e x p l a i n e d by the complete
The continuous
tinuous t e m p o r a l i t y , or t h e i d e n t i c a l But j u s t
r e f r a m i n g of t h e r u l e i s the
con-
phase.
t h i s i s w a n t i n g from the l e g a l norms: t h e exact definedness
o f space and t i m e . T h e r e f o r e , the l e g i s l a t o r fields.
275
The r e g u l a r i t y rules,
is
c o n c r e t i z e s the norm i n t h e s e
t h e r e f o r e an a b s t r a c t image o f
conformity
to
however,
originates
in
cation.
In
t h i s sense, t h e l e g i s l a t o r
finally
a n y t h i n g else than they reframe c o n t i n u o u s l y
the o b j e c t ,
the f u n c t i o n s
and t h e a p p l i c a n t
of the
the
appli-
o f law do n o t
do
t h e norms, but by no
means w i t h f u l l knowledge o f a l l cases b u t only on the s t r e n g h t of assumptions
and images of o b j e c t s .
This i s
not
a cybernetic
based o n l y on t h e ground o f the s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y , bility
-:
accordingly,
always f l e x i b l e ,
it
may be u t i l i z e d ,
malleable.
evaluation,
authenticity -
manipulated,
That i s t o s a y ,
it
is
credi-
exploited:
it
is
i t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y worse and,
i n a p e c u l i a r way, i t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y b e t t e r
than a p a r t i c u l a r l y
objective
system b e i n g s l i g h t l y human. I n a p o s i t i v e sense n e i t h e r t h e humane nor anti-humane r u l e can be j u d g e d .
Humane and antihumane:
geneous assumptions and images of o b j e c t s time,
in
or whichever
disapprovable
conduct.
fective
i n the dimensions of space and
t h e same manner as e . g . the u s e f u l and useless
and v a l u e l e s s
variant of
The law i s not
the
they are a n t h r o p o -
t h e judgement o f
or the
valuable
t h e approvable
t h e r e f o r e law because i t g i v e s
v o i c e t o a l l t h e s e but there f o r e , because we r e g a r d as i t s
or ef-
func-
t i o n t o g i v e v o i c e to a l l t h e s e . This f u n c t i o n i s anumated by the t e c h n o l o g y of
the law which then d i c t a t e s p r o f e s s i o n a l l y
the law f o r
the s o c i e t y
as
the t e c h n i q u e of the l e g i s l a t i o n and o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f law. The law i s not s i m p l y the t o t a l i t y a c t u a l i z a b l e t o a great e x t e n t . much p r o g n o s t i c a t o r y state
as
the governmental
o f h y p o t h e t i c a l r u l e s but of
In case o f
rather
programmatical.
legislation
is
rules
the u p - t o - d a t e law i t i s n o t so In
dominating:
the the
modern
political
legislation
of
the
p a r l i a m e n t and of the government. The customary law, t h e law enacted by a plebiscite
governmental
organs
and by the organs of the s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i s of secondary c h a r a c t e r .
There-
fore, law
is
a rarity,
the l e g i s l a t i o n
i n t h e modern p o l i t i c a l or
the
law
by the l o c a l
s t a t e t h e modernization by the means o f
as a modernization
t e c h n i q u e mean a c t u a l
m o d e r n i z a t i o n puts the l e g i s l a t i o n n o r m a l l y , s i t i o n of of
sooner o r l a t e r ,
b e i n g urged: a s h o r t time remains f o r the
the m o d e r n i z a t i o n
(and of
t e c h n o l o g i c a l emergency.
questions.
the r e s t o r a t i o n )
i n the
"maturation";
the The po-
i n case
the l e g i s l a t i o n gets
to
a
276
TAMÁS, A.
This t e c h n o l o g i c a l emergency i s poor
in traditionality,
which i s
c o n t r a s t b o t h t o the m o d e r n i z a t i o n and t h e r e s t o r a t i o n i n t h i s sense. the
denotation
"traditional"
is
an e m p i r i c a l
notion.
In
the Just
technological
sense, something i s a t r a d i t i o n i n a case when the people who could make a change t h e r e o n ,
want h a r d l y
t o make a change, although an other
solution
than t h a t b e i n g t r a d i t i o n a l could be a l s o i n t r o d u c e d a c c o r d i n g to the p r e supposition.
If
the v i t a l element of the modernity i s some p r e s u p p o s i t i o n ,
t h a t of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i t y fore a s p e c i f i c
i s then the a c t u a l i t y . The t r a d i t i o n a l i s
figuratien:
such a f o r c e
the m o d e r n i z a t i o n and the r e s t o r a t i o n .
there-
i s t h e r e i n which e l i m i n a t e s
both
I n i t s nature of t h i s kind i t i s
i d e a l , a c c o r d i n g t o i t s t e c h n i q u e , however, i t i s the most t o l e r a n t i . e . shows an a d a p t a b i l i t y .
not it
The t r a d i t i o n a l government and l e g i s l a t i o n are m o s t -
l y an i d e a l o r a model i n p r i n c i p l e , they c o n s t i t u t e , however, only i n v e r y few i n s t a n c e s a system t o be t r a n s l a t e d ,
t o be copied. Since the l e g a l
rule
of a t r a d i t i o n a l system can be though t a k e n o v e r , i t s l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a tive structures
can be c o p i e d ,
from t h i s ,
however, the f u n c t i o n does
not
become a l r e a d y t r a d i t i o n a l - as known by everybody. The m o d e r n i z a t i o n , t h e r e s t o r a t i o n , not normative c a t e g o r i e s . leading a l l
the preservation of t r a d i t i o n s
are
They are processes s t a r t i n g n o t from the law b u t
the same t h e r e t o since the law and the l e g a l order o f f e r
measure and the form f o r
I n t h i s sense,
the
m o d e r n i z a t i o n may be the reason, the p u r p o s e , the f u n c t i o n a l claim o f
the
upsetting,
t h e attainment o f o b j e c t i v e s .
the
re-establishment,
the working
capacity
of
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the balance which m a i n t a i n s
the
mechanism o f
the l e g i s l a t i o n ,
of the
appli-
c a t i o n of law and of the s e l f - a s s e r t i o n o f t h e law. I n a c e r t a i n sense, t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n i s an o b j e c t r a t i o n a l i t y . assume
that
the
reasonableness,
sense
of
secondly
from the m e n t a l i t y
i.e.
"rational"
the
general
r e f l e c t i o n of thinking
an o b j e c t
n a t u r e , whereas t h i r d l y i t
in
is
in
which
is
first
or
something
the s p i r i t
the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f
the
realizes
Let us logical
produced its
own
the thinking which
blossoms o u t i n a c t i o n s , deeds, r e a l i z e s i t s own essence i n space and t i m e , e . g . t u r n s t h e assumption i n t o In field. is
comparison If
with
you l i k e i t ,
different
the
"rational"
the r a t i o n a l i t y
from t h a t
people who can a c t . . .
that,
fact.
of
has an e x t e n s i v e
playing-
o f people who can speak and d i s c u s s
people who can e x p l a i n
(does the r a t i o n a l i t y
a book,
from t h a t
develop i n t h i s way, say,
of ac-
cording t o M o - T s i ? ) . How i s t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f the l e g i s l a t i o n as a f a c t o r i n the t e c h n i c a l
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
process Since,
of if
the
modernization?
the e f f e c t
This
Theoretically,
a hypothesis
of the l e g a l norm and o f
p r e c i s e l y c a l c u l a t e d i n advance i . e . ties.
is
its
If
treated
as a
functioning
the d e c i s i o n o f
practically,
fact.
cannot be
i n an e x a c t way, i t has o n l y
the l e g a l r u l e i s b i n d i n g ,
observance i s o n l y probable.
291
probabili-
however,
the l e g i s l a t o r i s
a d e c i s i o n " t o be badly programmed", the r a t i o n a l i t y of such d e c i s i o n s r e l a t i v e and s p e c i f i c . s i o n of
Which i s declared t o be r a t i o n a l , i t
the p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s
and s e l e c t e d
p r o j e c t e d only
expediency,
-
in
individual
cases and t e n d e n c y - l i k e
The c o n n e c t i o n
of
the
be r e v e a l e d
facts
is
the assumptions may be reasonable.
usefulness
rational,
and -
estimated
correctness only
as the
actually
the r a t i o n a l i t y
effective
i t can do
i s i n i t s appearance a p r o f e s s i o n a l knack; an
interpretation.
The l e g i s l a t o r
uses i t
if
he wants t o
modify a l e g a l r u l e and the a p p l i c a n t of law argues i n t h i s way i f t o d e p a r t s from t h e l e g a l norm w i t h h i s d e c i s i o n . rationality tion
is
of
self-conscious-
ness of a c t i o n s and deeds may t u r n the assumption i n t o f a c t - i f so. F i n a l l y ,
later.
whereas the connection
The r a t i o n a l i t y ,
is
i s the expres-
t h e f u t u r e from t h e
The e f f e c t i v e
will
facts.
its
actually
thus a m o t i v a t i o n
technique
-
he wants
The p r e s e n t a t i o n of
the routinism of
the
the motiva-
of j u r i s t s - i n d i f f e r e n t ways, a l l t h e same both f o r t h e
legislator
and f o r the a p p l i c a n t of law. The m o d e r n i z a t i o n superposed j u s t has v a r i o u s
as the
alteration
of
the
object
due to the f a c t t h a t the r a t i o n a l i t y
interpretational
rationalities
of the
segments which a r e revealed,
modernization summarized and
d e c l a r e d as v a l i d v o l i t i o n and law not by t h e same o r g a n i z a t i o n . these,
a m o d e r n i z a t i o n technology
s i n g l e o p e r a t i o n s have t h e i r operations
have
their
capable o f
significance
significance
also
From a l l
working evolves o n l y i f
separately, totally,
as
further the
is
the
on, a l l
the
system of
the
harmonized and c o - o r d i n a t e d o p e r a t i o n s . The p o l i t i c a l long
time
to
modernization quarters".
the
this
modernization i s
of
a great
initiated
From
necessary f o r
scientists
attach
by the
point
of
Eastern Europe have been i n c l i n e d f o r a
importance "people" view
of
to
the
purpose, t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y
initiated
the
and t h a t
distinction "initiated
execution it
of
the
between from
the
higher
operations
i s i n e s s e n t i a l whether
the
" f r o m below" by t h e communities o f t h e s o c i e t y
or "from above" by the government. A more i m p o r t a n t question i s , w i t h what degree of e f f i c i e n c y the r e n d e r i n g s y s t e m - l i k e o f the necessary o p e r a t i o n s can be achieved.
The p r o f e s s i o n a l sphere o f t h e law - the l e g i s l a t i o n and
the a p p l i c a t i o n o f law - as the a u t h o r i t i e s d e f i n i n g and a d m i n i s t e r i n g o f -
278
TAMÁS, A.
ficially
the j u s t i c e
can be put d i r e c t l y
i n t o t h e s e r v i c e of the modern-
i z a t i o n . The governmental l e g i s l a t i o n o f the modern p o l i t i c a l s t a t e i s able t o b r i n g i n t o a c t i o n t h e law as a m o d e r n i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e . When d o i n g so, i t poses the m o d e r n i z a t i o n i n the law and enforces through the a p p l i c a t i o n of
law.
Thereby,
corrections carried
o u t as t e c h n i q u e become p o s s i b l e
in
the i n t e r e s t of the e n t i r e s o c i e t y or n a t i o n , or i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f
greater
communities which can be changed m e t h o d i c a l l y ,
respec-
and systematized,
tively . All
t h i s is only a p o s s i b i l i t y ,
o f course. The e f f i c i e n c y of t h e law,
and t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t the v a l i d i t y o f the law appears and f u n c t i o n s by no means i n the p r o f e s s i o n a l sphere o f t h e law but i n t h e m e n t a l i t y and conduct o f the people. T h i s can be r e g u l a t e d so t h a t f i r s t of a l l a g e n e r a l l y acceptable motive o f conduct s h a l l be developed which can be then c o n f i r m e d by t h e compulsion, by a l e g a l compulsory mechanism. Reasonably, t h e vation ity.
i s not only t h e m a t t e r of the l o g i c a l comprehension, of the
I t means l e s s and more than t h a t :
time,
when the m o d e r n i z i n g
modernization i s
is
rational-
i t has t o be c r e d i b l e , i n space and
continues
and as
long as the
rule
of
valid.
For the sake o f ization
action
moti-
also
the
the technical s o l u t i o n ,
the c o n d i t i o n of t h e modern-
excellently
legal
functioning
professional
apparatus
which i s able t o u t i l i z e a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n the g i v e n space-time
interval
f o r t h e most u s e f u l s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n p o s s i b l e , t o arouse the c r e d i b i l i t y
in
the
to
whole
society
with
respect
to
achieve an a c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . stability, legal
t o o . Among o t h e r s ,
acts
of
the
the
regularity
thereof,
possibly
The m o d e r n i z a t i o n i s the promise o f a new
t h i s provides a s p e c i a l significance
modernization.
Their
unsuccessfulness,
t o the
assailability,
bold " s l o g a n l i n e s s " ,
s k e t c h i n e s s , f u r t h e r on, e v e r y t h i n g regarded as f o r g i v -
able i n case of
so-called
the
foreboding in t h i s case.
"revolutionary
legislation",
all
this
is a
A r e v o l u t i o n may modernize but the m o d e r n i z a t i o n
is not a revolution. The
history
keeps
modernization attempts.
in
evidence
more
unsuccessful
than
successful
I t seems t h a t an i n t e r n a t i o n a l modernization paying
no a t t e n t i o n t o the l a w , not u t i l i z i n g the l e g a l t e c h n i q u e f o r i t s is
a temporary
illusion.
Suppose t h a t
the r e v o l u t i o n
of
purpose,
1917 i n
Russia
aimed a l s o at the m o d e r n i z a t i o n . I n t h e course of t h i s r e v o l u t i o n t h e e l i m ination
of
the law f r o m the processes,
so-called "revolutionarly time
the
legal
from the l i f e
of the s o c i e t y ,
l e g a l consciousness" d i d n o t replace f o r
regulation
in
Soviet-Russia
after
November
24,
the
a long 1917.
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE
Dn either
the
other
hand,
no s u c c e s s f u l
modernization
by means of c o n t i n u o u s l y new r e g u l a t i o n s ,
ments, by f a v o u r i n g t h e l e g i s l a t i o n position
of
279
rules,
could
be
achieved
of s t a t e measure-
and recommending t h e s e r u l e s from the
the l e g a l power - as t r i e d
by Joseph I I ,
Hungarian k i n g and
German-Roman emperor. The e l i m i n a t i o n emptying t h e r e o f
is
of
the p r o f e s s i o n a l
just
as an u n f r u i t f u l
s t r a i n e d enforcement t h e r e o f .
sphere of
t h e law, or t h e
phase as t h e u n i l a t e r a l ,
For t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y
real over-
f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e
law
as m o d e r n i z a t i o n technique the t o t a l l e g a l order i s necessary - e s p e c i a l l y as the harmonized o p e r a t i o n of the l e g i s l a t i o n and o f law - as w e l l as s t i l l of l a w ; i . e . inevitable.
the a p p l i c a t i o n
of
numerous " p a r t n e r s " are r e q u i r e d i n the enforcement
the predominant s o c i a l r e c e p t i o n , the s o c i a l understanding
is
TAMÁS, A.
280
Bibliography
1 Kelsen J _ H. : The Law as a Specific Social technique, i n : What i s Justice? Collected Essays by Hans Kelsen. Berkeley - Los Angeles, Univ. of California Press, 1971, pp. 231-256
2 Kelsen^LL: The Pure Theory of Law and A n a l y t i c a l Jurisprudence, i n : What i s Justice? Op. cit;"ppV"267-"26B \elsen b _H_.:
Value Judgements i n the Science of Law, i n : What i s Justice? op.
cit.,
p. 218 4 Kelsenj_th: Value Judgements i n the Science of Law, op. c i t . , p. 225 5 Kul^s=ár,__KL: A .jogfejlődés sajátosságai: a .jog mint eszköz. ( P a r t i c u l a r i t i e s of the development of law: the law as an instrument), i n : Kulcsár, К . : A modernizáció és a magyar társadalom (Modernization and the Hungarian s o c i e t y ) , Budapest, 1986, pp. 266-267
:
°P-
Cit.
p. 267
^ T r a i l e r A _ . : Uberall g ü l t i g e Prinzipien der Rechtswissenschaft, Frankfurt am Main B e r l i n , Т#65~~рГ~?3 g Kelsen_,_Eh: Value Judgments i n the Science of Law, pp. 225-226 9 ^yTcsär-j K^: op. c i t . , p. 269 :
Wissenschaft der Logik, Erster
T e i l , Hegel Sämtliche Werke, 4. S t u t t -
g a r t , 19=5=8/pp" 94-98 Chinese philosophy: A n t i q u i t y , F i r s t Volume, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1980, p. 223 12
KelsenThe
Pure Theory of Law and A n a l y t i c a l Jurisprudence, p. 268
13 See: P^sçhka L _V.: Közlöny, 8/19827"р7"5бГ
A joglakotás minősége, (The Quality of law-making), Jogtudományi
14 Cf. for example: Ekelöf^ FLO. : The Expression " V a l i d Rule". A Study i n Legal Terminology, Scandinavian Studies in law, Vol. 15. 1971, pp. 57-74 The Common Law Tradition. 1960, p. 510 16
Kulcsar^K^: Modernization and Law, Budapest, 1987, p. 59
17 See on the technical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of law: Tamás_,__A_._: The Law as a Command i n the Pure Theory of Law and the Technical Theory of Jurisprudence. Acta U n i v e r s i t a t i s Szegediensis. Acta Juridica et P o l i t i c a , Tom. XXXIX., Szeged, 1990, pp. 225-238
18 Sajó,__A.: Miért lehetközömbös a modern jog az igazságosság i r á n t ? (Why can modern law be insensible of justness?) Állam és Jogtudomány, 1/1985, p. 141 19 Cf. Cardozg_,_fL: The Growth of the Law. Vale Univ. Press, 1925, p. 20 20
Cf.
21
for
example Auerbach^
J..S.:
Justice
without
Law? Oxford
Univ.
Press,
1983
•lájÓL.A^: A jogszabályváltozás mint társadalmi viszályok átmeneti lezárása. (Change of
LAW - MODERNIZATION TECHNIQUE legal rules 6/1983.
as
the
temporary
termination
of
social
conflicts),
281 Jogtudományi
Közlöny,
22 Cf. MoOTj Gy.: Bevezetés a j o g f i l o z ó f i á b a (Introduction to Legal Philosophy), Budapest, 1923, p. 273" 23 The basis of the equal treatment i s normative, according to the s e l e c t i v e treatment as per the norm. Cf. f o r example Westen^ P . : The Empty Idea of Equality, Harward Law Review, 6/1982, p. 547 24 See A n t a l f f y ^ G y . - Tamás^A.: The State and Law-making. Acta U n i v e r s i t a t i s Szegediens i s , Acta JuridTca et Politics","Tom.~ X X X I I I . , Szeged, 1985.
282
TAMÁS, A. DAS RECHT ALS MODERNISATIONSTECHNIK A. Tamás
Die normative Rechtstheorie grenzt s i c h aufgrund methodischer Überlegungen von der Untersuchung der Wirksamkeit des Rechts, - mitverstanden auch die Modernisationswirksamkeit ab. Die rechtssoziologische Theorie i s t o f f e n f ü r die Modernisation, i n t e r r e s s i e r t sich aber wenig f ü r die normative R a t i o n a l i t ä t der M i t t e l . Die Rechtsgestaltung und die Rechtsanwndung, das heiss die praktische Definierung des Rechts als reale Funtkion kann aus keinem der Aspekte von s i c h selbst einwandfrei i n t e r p r ä t i e r t werden. Die technische I n t e r p r ä t a t i o n des Rechts fasst die Rechtsgestaltung als regelmässige Funktonsreihenfolge auf. Falls die Modanizierung in regelrechten r e c h t l i c h e n Operationsreihenfolgen d a r g e s t e l l t werden kann, dann kann das Recht als Modemisationstechnik aufgefass werden. Die Operationsreihenfolgen bedeuten hier die Operationen der rechtlichen Definierung. I n diesen gelten f ü r allgemeine Fragen der W i l l e , die technologische Vergegenwärtigung der R a t i o n a l i t ä t , ihre I n t e r p r ä t a t i o n . Das Recht als Technik zur Modernisierung geht aus der professionellen Sphäre des Rechts aus. Diese professionelle Sphäre i s t hierarchisch: auf der einen S e i t e die Funktion der Rechtsgehung, die i n Zeit-Raum Dimension prognostische Entscheidungen f ä l l t , auf der anderen Seite die Funktion der Rechtsanwendung, die in räumlich und z e i t l i c h bestimmten Situationen realisierbare Entschiedungen t r i f f t . Die reale Funktion dieser beiden Sphären kann eine nutzvolle Änderung, das heisst eine Modernisation i n der Gesellschaft ergeben, f a l l s ihre Funktionen aufeinander abgestimmt und sowohl als Motivation als auch als Zwangsmechanismus glaubwürdig erscheinen, das heisst seitens der Gesellschaft akzeptiert werden.
ПРАВО КАК ТЕХНИКА МОДЕРНИЗАЦИИ А.
Тамаш
Н о р м а т и в и с т с к а я т е о р и я права на м е т о д о л о г и ч е с к о й основе о т г р а н и ч и в а е т себя о т и з у ч е н и я э ф ф е к т и в н о с т и п р а в а , включая и е г о эффективность в области м о д е р н и з а ц и и . Т е о р и я с о ц и о л о г и и п р а в а ч у в с т в и т е л ь н а к м о д е р н и з а ц и и , но у нее мало и н т е р е с а к р а ц и о н а л ь н о с т и нормативных с р е д с т в . П р а в о т в о р ч е с т в о и п р и м е н е н и е права - т о е с т ь , п р а к т и ч е с к о е ю р и д и ч е с к о е дефинирование к а к реа л ь н о е д е й с т в и е , - сами по себе н е м о г у т быть и с т о л к о в а н ы б е з у п р е ч н о ни в к а к и х а с п е к т а х . Т е х н и ч е с к о е т о л к о в а н и е права в о с п р и н и м а е т п р а в о т в о р ч е с т в о и применение права р е г у л я р н о й с е р и е й о п е р а ц и й . При у с л о в и и , ч т о м о д е р н и з а ция может быть о п и с а н а в форме с е р и й регулярных правовых о п е р а ц и й , право может быть т е х н и к о й м о д е р н и з а ц и и . З д е с ь серии о п е р а ц и й означают д е й с т в и я по ю р и д и ч е с к о м у дефинированию. В э т и х в о п р о с а х воля я в л я е т с я т е х н о л о г и ч е с к и м воплощением, и н т е р п р е т а ц и е й р а ц и о н а л ь н о с т и . Право к а к с р е д с т в о д л я модерниз а ц и и и с х о д и т из п р о ф е с с и о н а л ь н о й сферы п р а в а , к о т о р а я я в л я е т с я и е р а р х и ч е с к о й : э т о , с одной с т о р о н ы ф у н к ц и о н и р о в а н и е п р а в о т в о р ч е с т в а , к о т о р о е выносит р е ш е н и я , являющиеся п р о г н о с т и ч е с к и м и во времени и п р о с т р а н с т в е , с д р у г о й же с т о р о н ы ф у н к ц и о н и р о в а н и е применения п р а в а , к о т о р о е выносит т а к и е решения, к о т о р ы е м о г у т быть осуществлены в с и т у а ц и я х , о п р е д е л е н н ы х во в р е м е н и и в п р о с т р а н с т в е . Р е а л ь н о е ф у н к ц и о н и р о в а н и е э т и х д в у х сфер может п р и в е с т и к п о лезным изменениям в о б щ е с т в е , т . е . к модернизации общества при у с л о в и и , ч т о их ф у н к ц и о н и р о в а н и е я в л я е т с я с о г л а с о в а н н ы м и о б щ е с т в о принимает к а к е г о мотивацию, так и принудительный механизм.
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 283-295 (1990)
RECTHSTHEDRETISCHE UND RECHTSHISTORISCHE ERLÄUTERUNGEN ZUR EFFEKTIVITÄT DES RECHTS
A . VISEGRÁDY
I.
Universitätsdozent
KAJTÁR
Universität
Janus Pannonius U n i v e r s i t ä t ,
Oberassistent
Pécs
Die Studia befasst sich mit einer der ä l t e s t e n und komplexesten Problemen der Rechtsentwicklung mit der Wirksamkeit des Rechts. Im ersten T e i l der Studie geben die Autoren eine D e f i n i t i o n der Rechtswirksamkeit, und betonen, dass dieser B e g r i f f aus zwei Komponenten, aus der g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n und r e c h t l i c h e n Wirksamkeit Besteht. Danach f o l g t eine Analyse der Faktoren, die d i e Wirksamkeit des Rechts beeinflussen. Der zweite Teil der Studie s t e l l t durch Beispiele aus der ungarischen und allgemeinen Rechtsgeschichte dar, was f ü r eine zentrale Rolle die Art der Gesetzgebung und der Rechtsanwendung und das Niveau des Rechtsbewusstsein i n der Sicherung der Rechtswirksamkeit s p i e l e n . Die f r e i e n Bürger von Athen im 5. Jh. v . u . Z . durften j ä h r l i c h an etwa 40-50 Volksversammlungen i h r e Probleme oder Vorschläge zu den öffentlichen Angelegenheiten vortragen, wenn einem von ihnen es gelang, die Mehrheit durch logische Argumentation, durch eine gut aufgebaute Rede zu überzeugen, konnte aus seinen Vorschlägen sogar e i n Gesetz getroffen werden. Der Antragsteller verantwortete aber f ü r das derart neu g e t r o f f e n e Gesetz! Erwies sich die Wirkung des Gesetzes i n der Praxis als s c h l e c h t , schädlich f ü r die Gesellschaft, konnte der A n t r a g s t e l l e r sogar zum Tode v e r u r t e i l t werden. Die E f f e k t i v i t ä t b i l d e t aber nicht nur eines der ältesten, sondern auch eines der am meist komplexen Probleme der Rechtsentwicklung. Die Annäherung an ihm konnte deshalb e r s t dann wissenschaftlich möglich werden, als f r e i e r Weg der i n t e r d i s z i p l i n a r e n Anschauung durch die Veränderungen im rechtlichen Denken, in der Rechtswissenschaft gelassen wurde. In diesem Referat möchten wir den Versuch machen, die rechtshistorischen und r e c h t s theoretischen Annäherungen miteinander kombiniert, einige Grundprobleme der E f f e k t i v i t ä t des Rechts darzulegen.
I.
In
der
sozialistischen
Begriff
der
Effektivität
Rechtsliteratur'"
der
Rechtsregeln
haben
sich
folgende
in
Bezug
auf
Hauptauffassungen
den her-
ausgebildet . Von B o r u c k a - A r c t o w a w i r d d i e E f f e k t i v i t ä t Sinne fluss aber
genommen
als
bestimmter als
Einklang 2
Einklang
Rechtsnormen des
der mit
Verhaltens
der
R e c h t s r e g e l n im
gesellschaftlichen
Ergebnisse
dem
Gesetzgeberswillen,
des
Rechtsnormempfängers
in
weiteren
unter engem
mit
der
EinSinne Regel
aufgefasst. Acta J u r i d i c a Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
284
VISEGRÁDY, A. - KAJTÄR, I .
Nach
Mollnau
ist
das
Recht
gesellschaftlich
effektiv,
Regeln i n erwünschtem Masse zum Erreichen d e r vom Gesetzgeber Ziele ihren Beitrag
wenn
seine
ausgesetzten
leisten.'
Nach der Auffassung von Prusák kommt d i e Geltung der E f f e k t i v i t ä t Rechtsregeln
i n bestimmten Verhaltensweisen zum Asudruck,
vorausgesetzt
s i n d , bzw. i n den durch d e i
der
d i e durch Regel
Verhaltensweisen bestimmten E r -
4 gebnissen, i n der
Wirklichkeit.
Imre Szabó weist darauf h i n , dass s i c h n i c h t nur das g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e Z i e l dadurch v e r w i r k l i c h e n
wird.'
Nach Kálmán Kulcsár i s t
d i e E f f e k t i v i t ä t des Rechts g l e i c h mit s e i n e r
V e r w i r k l i c h u n g i n den g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n Schliesslich
ist
die
Effektivität
Verhältnissen. der
Rechtsregeln
nichts
anderes,
a l s das t a t s ä c h l i c h e Ergebnis i h r e r Geltung und das V e r h ä l t n i s zwischen den gesellschaftlichen Zielen,
zu deren E r z i e l u n g s i e geschaffen worden s i n d . ^
Man kann zwei Ebenen d e r E f f e k t i v i t ä t Einerseits
ist
es die
rechtliche
der Rechtsregeln
Effektivität,
unterscheiden.
andererseits
die
gesell-
1
s c h a f t l i c h e E f f e k t i v i t ä t . * Das vorher Erwähnte bedeutet, dass das V e r h a l t e n der Adressaten der vorgeschriebenen Norm e n t s p r i c h t .
Das Letzterwähnte h a t
das rechtsmässige Verhalten der Adressaten n i c h t a l s e i n z i g e s Mass, sondern es
ist
die
Verwirklichung
gesellschaftlichen
des
durch
die
rechtliche
Regelung
erzielten
Ziels.
I n Bezug auf den Themenkreis von den allgemeinen Voraussetzungen und den auf s i wirkenden Faktoren der E f f e k t i v i t ä t marxistischen
rechtstheoretischen
der R e c h t s r e g e l n haben d i e
Forschungen sehr bedeutende Erfolge
h a b t . Nach Mollnau bestehen d i e allgemeinen Voraussetzungen der
ge-
Effektivi-
t ä t der Rechtsregeln aus den Folgenden.
der
Zum B e r e i c h
der
Zustand
Klassenkampfes,
des
makrosozialen
Voraussetzungen
das V e r h ä l t n i s
gehören
zwischen
zum
Beispiel
Kollektiv-
und
E i n z e l i n t e r e s s e n sowie das V e r h ä l t n i s u n t e r den o b j e k t i v e n Bedürfnissen der Gesellschaft,
usw.
Im B e r e i c h
der mit den p o l i t i s c h e n
Organisationen
sammenhängenden Voraussetzungen werden d i e R e c h t s p o l i t i k leninistischen
Partei,
die
Qualität
der
und Rechtsanwendung erwähnt. die Anerkanntheit der F a m i l i e ,
der Empfänger
im K o l l e k t i v ,
sowie das V e r h ä l t n i s
Voraussetzungen
von
Teilnahme
Gesetzgebung
Zu den m i k r o s o z i a l e n Voraussetzungen gehören i n den k l e i n e n Gruppen,
der S t a a t s b ü r g e r
den A r b e i t s s t e l l e n und zu den Gewerkschaften. lichen
marxistisch-
der Gesetzgebung sowie d e i
der W e r k t ä t i g e n und anderer g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n Organen an d e r
zu-
dem e l t e r l i c h e n
in
zu den K o l l e k t i v e n an
L e t z t l i c h werden die persönCharakteren,
vom Niveau
der
EFFEKTIVITÄT DES RECHTS
Schulung-Bildung, 9
285
sowie von der i n d i v i d u e l l e n W e r t o r i e n t a t i o n bzw.
Erfahr-
ungen g e b i l d e t . Von der
Kálmán Kulcsár werden die E i n f l u s s f a k t o r e n
Rechtsregeln
schaftlichen
selbst
System,
in
in
der
der
Gesellschaft,
Korrektheit
auf
Rechtssystems,
Effektivität
i n dem p o l i t i s c h e n ,
der Gesetzgebung im
Sinne" genommen, i n dem r e c h t l i c h e n Adaptierungsprozess, des
die
im Rechtsbewusstsein,
sowie
in
wirt-
"technischen
i n der Konsistenz
der
Effektivität
der
1
V o l l s t r e c k u n g s - und Rechtsanwendungsorgane angegeben.'" "' Von Prusák werden i n der
Gesetzgebung,
writschaftlichen,
das
diesem Zusammenhang die Q u a l i t ä t
Rechtsbewusstsein,
ideologischen
sowie
die
sozialen,
politischen
und Q u a n t i t ä t
psychologischen,
Faktoren
Auf d i e s e r
Grundlage können folgende d r e i r e c h t l i c h e 12 der E f f e k t i v i t ä t der Rechtsregeln hervorgehoben werden:
erwähnt."'"''"
Voraussetzungen
a) Die Vollkommenheit, d i e O p t i m a l i t ä t der Gesetzgebung, b) Die E f f e k t i v i t ä t der Rechtsanwendung, c) Das Niveau des Rechtsbewusstseins. Das grundlegende K r i t e r i u m der Vollkommenheit der Gesetzgebung i s t dass s i e
die
gesellschaftlichen,
hältnisse r i c h t i g In
der
methoden,
wirtschaftlichen,
politischen
usw.
es, Ver-
regelt.
Gesetzgebung
Sanktionen,
soll
auch d i e
Auswahl der
Wirkungsmechanismen,
usw.
adequaten
Regelungs-
berücksichtigt
werden.
Schon von Engels wurde d a r a u f hingewiesen, dass es n i c h t nur die A n f o r d e r ung dem Recht gegenüber i n einem modernen Staat g i b t , d e r allgemeinen W i r t schaftlage
zu entsprechen,
zum Ausdruck
dass es e i n i n s i c h s e l b s t
dieser
läge
zu werden,
sondern,
zusammenhängender Ausdruck s e i , der s i c h d u r c h
d i e inneren Gegensätze n i c h t
i n s Gesicht s c h l ä g t .
I n s o f e r n z ä h l t auch d i e
Konsistenz des Rechtssystems zu den grundlegenden Voraussetzungen f ü r Effektivität -styl
eine
der Rechtsregeln. Rolle
Auch d i e
in
der
Ebenso bekommt die Gesetzgebertechnik
Sicherung
Vollkommenheit
der
Effektivität
der Gesetzgebung b i l d e t
der eine
die bzw.
Rechtsregeln. wichtige
Vor-
aussetzung f ü r d i e E f f e k t i v i t ä t der R e c h t s r e g e l n . Sie w i r d durch z a h l r e i c h e Faktoren b e e i n f l u s s t .
Zu den w i c h t i g s t e n
u n t e r ihnen z ä h l e n die
Qualität
der R e c h t s r e g e l n , die organischen F a k t o r e n , das M i k r o k l i m a , d i e s u b j e k t i v e n Züge des Rechtsanwenders, sowie m a t e r i a l - t e c h n i s c h e Bei Obersten
der
Sicherung
Gerichte,
ihre
der
Effektivität
Normativen e i n e
der
Faktoren.
Rechtsanwendung s p i e l e n
hervorragende
Rolle.
Ebene werden z a h l r e i c h e dann unter den durch die G e r i c h t s p r a x i s ten R e c h t s p r i n z i p i e n auf Würde einer Rechtsnorm gehoben.
Auf
die
dieser
erarbeite-
286
VISEGRÁDY, A. - KAJTÄR, I .
Es
ist
durch d i e
leicht
einzusehen,
dass
es
im Rahmen der
Gerichtsorgane e r m ö g l i c h t w i r d ,
d i e technischen Fehler,
und im bestimmten Sinne genommen auch d i e l i c h e n Charakter zugrunde kann
zu b e s e i t i g e n ,
liegenden
die
Verhältnisse
Rechtsentwicklung
E f f e k t i v i t ä t des s o z i a l i s t i s c h e n Rechts Das
Rechtsbewusstsein
Defekte
Fehler und D e f e k t e vom i n h a l t -
die Kongruenz der Rechtsnorm und der
gesellschaftlichen
richterliche
Rechtsentwicklung
der
einen
herzustellen.
Beitrag
zur
ihr
Dadurch
Erhöhung
der
leisten.
Klassen,
der
Schichten,
des
Individuums
e i n e r G e s e l l s c h a f t , dessen E n t w i c k l u n g s s t a n d , Niveau - a l s r e a l i s i e r u n g der rechtlichen
Vorschriften
-
gehören zu den w i c h t i g s t e n Voraussetzungen
der
E f f e k t i v i t ä t der Rechtsnormen. Das Rechtsbewusstsein
d r ü c k t nämlich e i n V e r h ä l t n i s
des
Individuums,
der S c h i c h t e n , der Klassen zu den Rechstnormen aus. Das p o s i t i v e V e r h ä l t n i s zum Recht b e d e u t e t aber b e i weitem n i c h t , auch a l l e k o n k r e t e R e c h t s r e g e l n immer p o s i t i v teilt der
werden.
Als sehr w i c h t i g e r
Rechtsregeln
soll
der
stimmte g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e kann,
vom
Faktor
Zustand des Faktoren ( z . B .
Rechtsanwender,
besonders
von den Staatsbürgern
b e i der Geltung der Rechtsbewusstseins Öffentlichkeit) vom
Richter,
dass beur-
Effektivität
das durch
deformiert
beobachtet
be-
werden werden.
Die Gesetzgebung s o l l auch die e v e n t u e l l e n Defekte des Rechtsbewussteseins
der
Rechtsanwender
und der
sonst kann d i e E f f e k t i v i t ä t
Bevölkerung
nicht
ausser
Acht
lassen,
der zu schöpfenden Rechtsnorm l e i c h t i n Gefahr
geraten. Im w e i t e r e n s o l l t e n e i n i g e r e c h t s t h e o r e t i s c h e E r l ä u t e r u n g e n zur E f f e k t i v i t ä t des Rechts b e t r a c h t e t werden.
II.
Bei
der
historiker
Untersuchung
mit
der
Effektivität
der S c h w i e r i g k e i t
der F ü l l e ,
des Rechts k ä m p f t der
Rechts-
denn er d e c k t zahllose
Fälle
aus dem B e r e i c h der E f f e k t i v i t ä t der Rechtsnormen während der Untersuchung der J a h r h u n d e r t e , der geographischen Räume. Es i s t das Sammeln von M a t e r i a l i e n doch k e i n e l e i c h t e Aufgabe, denn d i e Quellen s i n d o f t v e r l o r e n gegangen, v e r n i c h t e t worden und es i s t gar n i c h t worren
formulierten
Rechts zu messen.
Urkunden,
Es i s t
ohne K e n n t n i s der Praxis
Akten
auch gewiss,
die
l e i c h t aus den l a k o n i s c h , tatsächliche
Effektivität
dass das Geltendmachen der
verdes
Regeln
aus den Gesetzfassungen kaum f e s t z u s t e l l e n
ist.
EFFEKTIVITÄT DES RECHTS
Es i s t weil
die
schwer,
die E f f e k t i v i t ä t
Durchführungsorgane
über
287
des Rechts auch deswegen zu messen,
die
Erfahrungen
bei
der
Durchführung
"gnadenreichen Bestellungen von oben" o f t das melden, was "an oberen S t e l l e n " erwartet Die
wird.
Einflussfaktoren
auf
die
Effektivität
der
Rechtsregeln
können
h i s t o r i s c h b e t r a c h t e t auch i n den Gemeinschaften untersucht werden, die d i e d u r c h d i e Gesetzgebung, Rechtsanwendung, Rechtskenntnisse und Rechtsnormen zum b e e i n f l u s s e n d e n g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n V e r h ä l t n i s s e tragen. Die entsprechende V o r b e r e i t u n g der Rechtsnormen, E r a r b e i t u n g b i l d e n w i c h t i g e Voraussetzungen f ü r
die
Qualität
ihre E f f e k t i v i t ä t .
ihrer
Es s i n d
bekannt die V o r a r b e i t e n zu den K o d i f i k a t i o n e n i n den vergangenen zwei J a h r hunderten,
die
hochgradige F ä h i g k e i t
zur I n t e g r i e r u n g des
Rechtsmaterials
b i s dahin, i h r e G e n e i g t h e i t zur Adaptation d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n
Erfahrungen.
Die g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e V e r o b e r e i t u n g war weder den Schöpfern vom Preussischen Allgemeinen L a n d r e c h t (1794) noch den Gesetzgebern des Allgemeinen B ü r g e r l i c h e n Gesetzbuches unbekannt, e i n i g e s e i n e r i n der Praxis e i n g e f ü h r t
T e i l e sind versuchsweise sogar
worden.^
Durch d i e Techniken der hochgradigen K o d i f i k a t i o n s i n d d i e der K o m p i l l a t i o n e n des 16/17.
Jahrhunderts
b e n u t z t worden.
I n der
mark gingen zum B e i s p i e l dem E r l a s s der Landgerichtsordnung mehrere
Entwürfe
vor.
Den Ausgang b i l d e t e
das
Sammeln
Ergebnisse Steier-
vom Jahre 1574
strafrechtlicher
V o r s c h r i f t e n und des ungeschriebenen Rechts i n der S t e i e r m a r k , i n die s p ä t e r die
Strafordnungen
der
Erbländer
i n der
Nachbarschaft
und
letzlich
die
Anordnungen von C a r o l i n a e i n g e a r b e i t e t wurden. Die j u r i s t i s c h e n Fachkentnisse und der K u n s t f l e i s s können schon i n den Rechtszusammenfassungen der Länder nachgewiesen werden. I n gab es zum B e i s p i e l einen K o m p i l l a t i o n s p r o z e s s der
rechtlichen
Regelung b i l d e t e
einzelnen A r t i k e l n regierung
und
s i c h das f o l g e n d e V e r f a h r e n heraus:
wurden von v i e r K o m p i l l a t o r e n
Landstände)
Verwaltungsakten,
vorbereitet.
Auf
der
der
Gerichts-,
d i e auch das ungeschriebene Recht e n t h a l t e n ,
des S t r a f -
von zwei R e c h t s w i s s e n s c h a f t l e r n durch e i n
Die
(Funktonären der LandesGrundlage
r e c h t s der Nachbarländer und d e r F a c h l i t e r a t u r wurden d i e
oft
Niederösterreich
zwischen 1651 und 1668. B e i
begutachtet.
Kollegium angenommen, das aus
Landesherren b e s t a n d ,
Beauftragten
die auch eine j u r i s t i s c h e
wurde das V e r f a h r e n durch d i e
Diskussionsfragen
Die e n d g ü l t i g e Fassung wurde d e r Stände und
Ausbildung besassen.
niederösterreichische
Regierung
und s c h l i e s s l i c h vom Herrscher a l s eigene Verordnung v e r k ü n d e t .
Dann
überprüft,
288
VISEGRÁDY, A. - KAJTÄR, I .
I n dem blühenden M i t t e l a l t e r Städten d i e
Praxis,
v e r b r e i t e t e s i c h u n t e r den europäischen
dass das a l t e Recht der bedeutenden Städte d u r c h
neu gegründeten Städte übernommen wurde.
Dadurch wurde d i e Brauch
des
einigen
Rechtsmaterials
Effektivität
gesteigert,
des nach
der
zunehmen, denn man s o l l t e
und
in
Adaptation
Fällen
konnte
weiterentwickelnden
barkeit
sogar
die
Rechtsmaterials
i n einer neuen Stadt m i t den h i s t o r i s c h
g e b i l d e t e n Gebundenheiten der M u t t e r s t a d t n i c h t
die
heraus-
rechnen.^
Die Übernahme e r w i e s s i c h im Laufe der Geschichte aber n i c h t immer a l s erfolgreich,
und die manchmal f a s t m e s s i a n i s t i s c h e n Erwartungen, d i e an das
M u s t e r i n s t i t u t g e s t e l l t worden waren, wurden n i c h t Eine dass
die
der Voraussetzungen f ü r d i e Adressaten
die
erfüllt.
Effektivität
Verordnungen
des Rechts b i l d e t
kennenlernen
sollen.
Es
es,
ist
ein
k l a s s i s c h e s E r e i g n i s , dass das Recht von Drakon oder durch die T a f e l g e s e t z e Nr. X I I s c h r i f t l i c h f i x i e r t worden s i n d . Die Frage i s t der
aber
Veröffentlichung
weise
argumentiert:
trotzdem n i c h t
des
so e i n d e u t i g ,
denn die Gegner von
Rechts haben im a l t e r t ü m l i c h e n
"Wenn das Volk
seine
Rechte
genau
China kennt,
folgendersteht
vor
seinen Vorgesetzten n i c h t mehr mit g e f ü r c h t e t e n Ehren. Ein prozessführender Geist w i r d v o r h e r r s c h e n d . . . Das Volk w i r d n i c h t mehr l e n k b a r s e i n . " Anderswo s t e h t es zu l e s e n : "Das Volk wird d i e T a f e l n s t u d i e r e n und s i c h k e i n e Mühe mehr geben, um seine Männer von Rang und Stand kennenzulernen. Und was f ü r 19 einen Beruf kann dann der Vorstehende aufbewahren?" Im mongolischen Reich wurde das Yasa, das Gesetzbuch vom Dschingis-Khan i n einem Geheimarchiv bewahren, und nur f ü r
die
auf-
ältesten M i t g l i e d e r der D y n a s t i e war es zugäng-
20 lieh.
Im modernen Japan haben d i e
Gesetzgeber der
Tokugawa-Periode
das
Recht n i c h t v ö l l i g vor den Augen des gemeinen Volkes " v e r s t e c k t " , s i e haben aber d i e Sanktionen t r o t z d e m geheim g e h a l t e n , damit "das Volk dem Gesetz 21 f o l g e n , aber es n i c h t sehen kann." I n Europa war vom Gesetzgeber im Sächsisichen K u r f ü r s t e n t u m am Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts a u s d r ü c k l i c h v e r 22 boten, d i e Strafnorm f ü r m i l d e r e B e u r t e i l u n g zu v e r ö f f e n t l i c h e n . Im Laufe der Jahrhunderte wurde aber im allgemeinen die Bekanntmachung des Rechts a l s eine w i c h t i g e Voraussetzung f ü r s e i n e
Geltung
betrachtet.
Vor der Buchdruckerei waren d i e Rechtsquellen nur i n wenig exemplaren a n g e f e r t i g t , s i e s i n d o f t verlorengegangen, vergessen oder f e h l e r h a f t
nach-
geschrieben worden. I n f o l g e der f l e i s s i g e n A r b e i t des s c h r e i b e r s s i n d aber zum B e i s p i e l der Schwäbische Spiegel,
d i e Russkaja Pravda unseren
nach etwa
106 verschiedenen
halten.
in
400 beziehungsweise
in
Über den Sächsischen Spiegel
Quellen
Handschriften
er-
wurde i n der z w e i t e n H ä l f t e des
15.
EFFEKTIVITÄT DES RECHTS
Jahrhunderts z i e m l i c h ü b e r t r i e b e n gehalten,
289
dass er über 5000
Abschriften
23
verfügt.
Die H a n d s c h r i f t e n wurden i n Kodex gebunden, die e i n e Rechtsnorm
v e r b r e i t e t e s i c h m i t der anderen zugebunden. Die Rechtsbücher konnten i n Form vom G e d i c h t , auf Fragen z e r s c h n i t t e n , oder aber auch a l s r e c h t l i c h e r versehen, e r s c h e i n e n . einer
elementaren
"Bilderroman" m i t r e i c h l i c h e n
Illustrationen
Es bedeutete zugleich auch eine Rechtspropaganda auf
Stufe.
Im L a u f e
der Bekanntmachung des Römerrechts
in
Deutschland erzeugte s i c h Anfang des 16. Jahrhunderts eine p o p u l a r i s i e r e n d e " B r o s c h ü r e l i t e r a t u r " , die i n d i e Volkssprache ü b e r s e t z t ,
gründlich-unrichtig
e x z e r p i e r t war. Man
versuchte . o f t
die
Bekanntmachung
der
Rechtsnormen
dadurch
zu
s i c h e r n , dass d i e Anordnungen v o r k l e i n e r e n Gemeinschaften v o r g e l e s e n waren, wie i n e i n i g e n Hansastädten sogar im 18. J a h r h u n d e r t , oder i n Koscie im 17. Jahrhundert der F a l l
war. Diese Lösung i s t
aber
i n der N e u z e i t zu l e e r e r
f o r m a l i t ä t geworden, und bei s t e i g e n d e n Zahl der Normen konnte s i e sich f ü r e i n e n gangbaren Weg a l s geeignet n i c h t
erweisen.24
Durch die E r f i n d u n g des Buchdruckes e r ö f f n e t e n s i c h auch im Bereich der
Publikation
der
Rechtsnormen
neue P e r s p e k t i v e n .
Das e r s t e
gedruckte
w e l t l i c h e Gesetzbuch i n Europa war das r e f o r m i e r t e römische S t a d t r e c h t J.
v.
1471. E i n bedeutender
Faktor der
Erweiterung der
rechtlichen
Informationen
f ü r heute war d i e Ausgabe der A m t s b l ä t t e r . Die Bevölkerung i n Ungarn l e r n t e d i e Nummer von R e i c h g e s e t z b l a t t
und L a n d e s r e g l e r u n g s b l a t t i n e i n e r f ü r d i e
N a t i o n schmerzvollen Periode zu M i t t e des vergangenen J a h r h u n d e r t s kennen, und nach dem A u s g l e i c h hat das Budapester A m t s b l a t t
(=Budapesti
Közlöny)
d i e Beamten und das rechtsuchende Publikum über d i e Rechtsnormen f a s t a c h t z i g Jahre lang i n f o r m i e r t . Die
Rechtsnormen,
scheinen e f f e k t i v e r
die
zu s e i n .
viel
ausführlicher,
weitumfassender
Durch die komplexen S o z i a l v e r h ä l t n i s s e
sind, wird
d i e v i e l s e i t i g e Regelung e r f o r d e r t . Wenn aber d i e Rechtsnormen primär n i c h t der harmonischen Gestaltung der l e b e n s v e r h ä l t n i s s e dienen, sondern darüber hinausgehen, gelangen, b i s zur Überregelung, z u r Bevormundung - dadurch w i r d die
Toleranz der G e s e l l s c h a f t a u f d i e Probe g e s t e l l t und z u g l e i c h die E f -
f e k t i v i t ä t des Rechts v e r m i n d e r t . Für die Überwucherung und I n f l a t i o n der
Rechtsnormen können mehrere
B e i s p i e l e a n g e f ü h r t werden. Während des Neoabsolutismus zwischen 1850/1859 h a t das o f f i z i e l l e
B l a t t des ungarischen Kronlandes etwa 3065 Rechtsnormen
v e r ö f f e n t l i c h t oder d i e V e r ö f f e n t l i c h u n g i n einem Amtsblatt angedeutet.
Im
290
VISEGRÁDY, A. - KAJTÄR, I .
Jahre 1946, i n dem " p r o d u k t i v s t e n "
Jahr nach dem Q u a n t i t ä t der ungarischen
Gesetzgebung,
Publizierten
dürfte
die
Zahl der
Rechtsnormen auf
3000 be-
t r a g e n . Dabei w i r k t e auch d i e U n ü b e r s i c h t l i c h k e i t des R e c h t s m a t e r i a l s gegen seine
Effektivität. Der Gesetzgeber i s t o f t eben wegen seiner p e i n l i c h e n Pedanterie
lächer-
l i c h geworden. I n S a l z b u r g wurde im 17. Jh. v o r g e s c h r i e b e n , dass d i e
Eltern
Kinder u n t e r einem Jahr n i c h t mit i n s B e t t nehmen s o l l e n . Die E f f e k t i v i t ä t
der Rechtsnormen nimmt ab, wenn d i e Adressaten
ihre
Bestimmungen schwer oder überhaupt n i c h t , oder m i s s v e r s t e h e n . Der die
Gesetzgeber
Befolgung
Lange Z e i t
und der Rechtsanwender f ü h l t
des Rechts
durch immer
strengere
versuchte man d i e E f f e k t i v i t ä t
der s c h r o f f e n k o l l e k t i v e n
sich verlockt
Sanktionen zu
des Rechts
zu
sein,
erzwingen.
durch Geltendmachen
Verantwortung zu e r r e i c h e n .
Dieses M i t t e l
wurde
zum B e i s p i e l im mongolischen Reich und noch am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts 25 i n I n d i e n von den e n g l i s c h e n K o l o n i s a t o r e n i n Anspruch genommen. Unseres Erachtens bedeutet d i e Toleranz der G e s e l l s c h a f t e i n e n Grenzwert
auch b e i der
sich
die
Grausamkeit der
Effektivität
Sarktion,
des Rechts n i c h t
und nach einem Punkt
weiter,
Die E f f e k t i v i t ä t des Rechts w i r d auch von den gesichert,
erhöht
sondern v e r r i n g e r t
sich.
Rechtsanwendungsorganen
i h r e Personal s o l l entsprechende Kenntnisse über das anzuwend-
ende Recht, über das Medium der V e r w i r k l i c h u n g b e s e t z e n , und es s o l l auch d i e Z e i l s e t z u n g e n des Gesetzgebers annehmen. Vorbildlich
kann es dienen, w i e von ancien regime
den Zentralorganen wichtig
gehalten,
dass d i e
stammen s o l l e n ,
sie
bestimmte
verbringen,
Zeit
"Meister
s o l l e n nicht
die Sachbearbeiter ausgewählt der
nur
sondern
in Frankreich
worden s i n d .
Bittschriften"
aus a l l e n
i n den verschiedenen auch
auf
dem
Es war
Berufung zum Probendienst
Lande P r a x i s
im M i n i s t e r i u m aus den
Ländern
Zentralorganen aneignen
s o l l e n Unter modernen Umständen h a t e i n e n ähnlichen Charakter das für
in für
Institut
Slebstverwaltungen.
Dagegen i s t das Kenntnis der ö r l t i c h e n V e r h ä l t n i s s e während der BachZeit
in
Ungarn
in
den
Hintergrund
gestellt.
Damals
wollten
zahlreiche
" r e c h t l i c h e Ratgeber", Beamten aus den Erbländern d i e Adoptierung des fremden, ö s t e r r e i c h i s c h e n Rechts f ö r d e r n . s i e versuchten o f t t r o t z
Diese Beamten waren e i f r i g d a r a n , und
besten W i l l e n s e f o l g l o s ,
d i e gewaltsame Übernahme
zu s i c h e r n . Die E f f e k t i v i t ä t der R e c h t s i n s t i t u t e kann n i c h t den,
wenn d i e I n s t i t u t e
isoliert,
Rechtssystem ausgehoben b e t r a c h t e t
r i c h t i g b e w e r t e t wer-
von den Zusammenhängen im werden.
Es i s t
Rechtszweig-
besonders i n
den Über-
EFFEKTIVITÄT DES RECHTS
gangsperioden zu beobachten,
291
dass e i n e modern Rechtsregelung s i c h
selbst
" n i c h t a u s l a u f e n " kann, wenn die Kuppelungselemente des Rechtssystems noch n i c h t m o d e r n i s i e r t worden s i n d . Die
Tätigkeit
der
manchen F ä l l e n dadurch
im Jahre 1840 g e s t e l l t e n Wechselgerichte verlangsamt,
dass die t r a d i t i o n e l l e n
wurde
in
Elemente des
f e u d a l e n Gerichtsorgans i h r e Ersuchungen e r s t v e r s p ä t e t e r f ü l l t e n .
Die Be-
deutung des ungarischen Strafgesetzbuches v .
es
Zeit
am Ende des v o r i g e n
Jahrhunderts,
J.
1878 verminderte
dass das V e r f a h r e n s r e c h t
eine
ziemlich
a n a c h r o n i s t i s c h war. Das Rechtssystem s t e h t auch m i t der P o l i t i k und m i t der W i r t s c h a f t
in
Wechselwirkung, und der Grund f ü r d i e Unwirksamkeit der Rechtsnormen i s t
in
v i e l e n F ä l l e n eben i n d i e s e r a u s s e r r e c h t l i c h e n Sphäre zu suchen. I n erhöhtem Grade Krieges
ist
es wahr
während der
und der W i r t s c h a f t s k r i s e .
regeln
erwiesen
eilends
gesetzt
sich
in
erster
Zeit
der v e r s c h ä r f t e n K o n f l i k t e ,
Die zu dieser Linie
nicht
Zeit
darum
worden waren, oder f e h l e r h a f t e
erlassenen unwirksam,
des
Rechtsweil
sie
Lösungen e n t h i e l t e n ,
viel
mehr aber darum, w e i l d i e Rechtsregelung a l s s o l c h e den Erscheinungen von grosser Dimension, vom stürmischen V e r l a u f Die
Bausteine
der
Gesellschaft,
unterlag.
die Makro-
und
Mikrogemeinschaften
hängen mehrfach von der E f f e k t i v i t ä t des Rechts ab, denn s i e v e r m i t t e l n die Vorschriften führende
zu den M i t g l i e d e r n
Schicht
der
-
Gesellschaft
zu den U n t e r t a n e n . die
unten
Wenn d i e
befindenden
politisch
Gemeinschaften
ausser Acht lassen, werden s i e s i c h a l s Rückwirkung darauf von den oberen Rechtsnormen abgrenzen. Dieses V e r h a l t e n konnte s i c h i n der S o l i d a r i t ä t mit den
Rechtsverletzenden,
in
der
Verbergung der
Verfolgten,
in
knäckigen Ausdauer b e i den a l t e n Regeln der r e f o r m a t o r i s c h e n
der
hart-
Bestimmungen
26
gegenüber äussern.
Es gab einen F a l l ,
a l s eine
M i t t e des 19. Jahrhunderts mit den M i t g l i e d e r n ,
Dorfgemeinschaft noch zu
d i e s i c h i n der
ten Lage zu den Aufsichtsbehörden geschlagen haben,
verschärf-
abrechnete.
Auch d i e Staatsmacht b e s t r e b t e s i c h b e i dem Geltendmachen i h r e r Bestimmungen d i e ö r t l i c h e n verfügen,
fünf
eine
Vergangenheit
n e u l i c h nachweisbar. Familien,
bachten,
d i e über
e i n e n grossen
i n Anspruch zu nehmen. Dieses Bestreben h a t
Dorfgemeinschaften sogar
Gemeinschaften,
von mehreren
In Japan gab es i n der
das v e r p f l i c h t e t
Einfluss
i n den a s i a t i s c h e n
Jahrtausenden,
es
ist
Neuzeit e i n System von
wurde, den V o r b e h a l t
der Gesetze zu beo-
i n den Schutzaufgaben m i t z u w i r k e n und Anzeige zu e r s t a t t e n .
Der 27
Gedanke dieses Systems wurde während des zweiten W e l t k r i e g s w i e d e r e r w e c k t .
292
VISEGRÁDY, A. - KAJTÄR, I .
Trotz
der
staatlichen
Beeinflussung
wollten
die
örtlichen
Gemein-
schaften i h r eigenes geschlossenes wirksames Normensystem h e r s t e l l e n , wie es über e i n Ordnung haltendes s z e k l e r i s c h e s
Dorf
zu sagen I s t :
"Wohin weder
der Staat noch das 'Gesetz' des Stuhls n i c h t e i n d r i n g e n k o n n t e , d o r t haben d i e Leute Regeln geschaffen, deren A r b e i t und das a l l t ä g l i c h e Verbindungssystem lichkeit
unter
der
Unordnung g e l i t t e n
also M i t g l i e d e r der D o r f g e m e i n s c h a f t . . .
hatte.
menschliche
Es waren i n
in erster
Wirk-
L i n i e d o r t , wo
das r e l a t i v e Selbstbestimmungsrecht s c h l e c h t oder recht aufbewahrt b l e i b e n ' k o n n t e . " "Der Mensch, der m i t dem Wohlgefühl der Richtung" zu den o f t e i n e harte
Gebundenheit
bedeutenden
Gebräuchen
"auch unter
bösen
historischen
g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h e n Bedingungen l e b t e konnte über e i n Plus v e r f ü g e n , wodurch 28 s e i n Leben noch e r t r ä g l i c h w u r d e " . I n den l e t z t e n Gemeinschaften
anderhalb
unter
Jahren sind aber
dem E i n f l u s s
sehr v i e l e
traditionellen
der grossen Ereignissen der
a u s e i n a n d e r g e f a l l e n Solche waren auch die Z ü n f t e m i t r e i c h e r
Geschichte
Vergangenheit.
Am Ende i h r e r T ä t i g k e i t erwiesen s i c h schon i h r e umständliche s t a r r e Regeln a l s Hindernisse vor der E n t w i c k l u n g , s i e s i n d zu g u t - s c h l e c h t formellen ohne
Reliquien
Inhalt
bei
geworden
den
und konnten
Gewerbevereinen
höchstens
anstelle
der
als
eingehaltenen
Ausserlichkeiten
Zünfte
weiterleben.
EFFEKTIVITÄT DES RECHTS
293
Noten
Vgl. Kulcsár, Kálmán: A jogszociológia a l a p j a i (Grundlagen der Rechtssoziologie) Budapest, 1976. S. 313. 2 Borucka-Arctova, M.: 0 spoleznum dzialinu prawa. Warsawa. 1967. S. 11. ^Marxistisch-leninistische
Staats-
und
Rechtstheorie.
Berlin.
1980.
S.
457-462.
4 Prusák, 3 . : Právo v s p o l o c n o s t i . Bratislava. 1980. passim. ^Szabó, Imre: A jog és e l m é l e t e i (Das Recht und seine Theorie) Budapest, 1978. S. 61. ^Kulcsár, Kálmán: Gazdaság, Társadalom, Dog ( W i r t s c h a f t , G e s e l l s c h a f t , Recht) Budapest, 1982. S. 165. ^Kudrjawcew, N.N. - N i k i t i n s k i j , V . l . - Samoscenko, I.С. - G l a z ü r i n , V.V.: E f f e k t i v n o s t y pravoviih norm. I z d . Durid. L i t . Moskau. 1980. S. 21-75. Visegrády, Antal: A jogszabályok hatékonyságának értelmezési modelljei ( I n t e r p r e t a tionsmodelle der E f f e k t i v i t ä t der Rechtsregeln). Dogtudományi Közlöny, 1986. Nr. 6 . Kucera, E. - Üapek, Párvnik, 1988. Nr. 3.
I.
-
Gerloch, A.:
Efektivnost
spolecenského
pusobeni
práva.
8 Vgl. Kudrjavcew et a l i i : a.a.O. - Szabó: a.a.O. - Visegrády: a.a.O.
9 Mollnau, К.Д.: Probleme der Bestimmung des gesellshcaftlichen Wirksamkeit ( E f f e k t i v i t ä t ) des s o z i a l i s t i s c h e n Rechts. I n : Oie gesellschaftliche Wirksamkeit des sozialistischen Rechts Probleme i h r e r Begriffsbestimmung und Messung. B e r l i n , 1978. S. 9. ^ K u l c s á r , Kálmán: A jog hatékonyságának társadalmi tényezői (Die gesellschaftlichen Faktoren der E f f e k t i v i t ä t des Rechts) I n : Dogtudományi Közlöny, 1977. Nr. 6. und A jog hatékonysága a társadalomban (Die E f f e k t i v i t ä t des Rechts i n der Gesellschaft) I n : Jogtudományi Közlöny, 1977. Nr. 8. ^ P r u s á k , D.: Effektivne posobenie právnej normy. Právny obzor. 1977. Nr. 7. 12 Kudrjawcew et a l i i : a.a.O. Arm. 7. S. 76-139. - Kulcsár: a.a.O. Anm. 10. - Visegrády: a.a.O. Anm. 7 . ^ V i s e g r á d y , Antal: A b í r ó i gyakorlat j o g f e j l e s z t ő szerepe (Die rechtsentwickelnde Rolle der Gerichtspraxis) Budapest, 1988. 14 Siehe dazu als neueste empirische Erläuterungen: Visegrády, Antal - Schadt, Gyorgyná: A pécsi egyetemi hallgatók jogtudatának néhány vonása (Einige Charakterzüge des Rechstbewusstseins von den Pécser Studenten). I n : Felsőoktatási Szemle, 1985. Nr. 12. Vgl. w e i t e r h i n : Szotáczky, Mihály: A jog lényege (Wesen des Rechts) Budapest, 1970. passim. - Naschitz, A . : Constiinta j u r i d i c a s o c i a l i s t a . ßukuresti, 1964 - Lukaseva, A.E.: S o c i a l i s t i c e s k o j e pravosoznanije i zakonnoéty. Moskau. 1973. - Podgőreczki, Д.: Law and s o c i e t y . London. 1974. Sajó, András: Társadalmi szabályozottság és jogi szabályozás (Gesellschaftliche Geregeltheit und rechtliche Regelung). Budapest, 1978. S. 90-152. - Dojcák, P.: Právne vedomie a zákonnost v s o c i a l i s t i c k e j spolocnosti. B r a t i s l a v a , 1979. - Svensson, R.: Konkretisierung von Rechtsnormen. B e r l i n . 1982. S. 51-57. - Peschka, Vilmos: A jog sajátossága (Die Eigentümlichkeit des Rechts) Budapest, 1988.
294
VISEGRÁDY, A. - KAJTÄR, I .
V a r g a , Cs.: A k o d i f i k á c i ó mint társadalmi-történeti jelenség (Die Kodifikation a l s gesellschaftliche-historische Erscheinung). Budapest, 1979. S. 99. 16 F. B y l o f f : Die Land- und peinliche Gerichtsordnung Erzhg. Karls I I für Steiermark von 24. Dezember 1574., ihre Geschichte und ihre Quellen. Graz, 1987. S. 70-99. ^ T h . Motloch: Landesordnungen (geschichtlich) Staatswörterbuch. (1907) I I I . S. 345-346.
und Landhandfesten.
Österreichische
18
Kajtár, I . : Az európai város jog fejlődése a feudalizmus idején, és hatása a XIX. századi burzsoá városi jogra (Die Entwicklung des europäischen Stadtrechts im Feudalismus und sein Elnfluss auf das bourgeoise Stadtrecht vom 19. J h . ) . I n : Oolgozatok az állam- és jogtudományok köréből. XVII. Pécs, 1986. S. 169-170. 1
V a r g a , Cs.: a.a.O. Arm. 15. S. 27. 536 und 517.
20
P.
Ratchnevskig:
R.
Breuer:
Die Stellung
0.
Stobbe:
Geschichte
21 22
Cinggis
Khan. Sein Leben und Wirken. Wiesbaden, der
der
Staatsanwaltschaft
deutschen
in
Rechtsquellen.
Japan. II.
1983. S.
Berlin,
Leipzig.
1940.
S.
1864. S.
164. 25. 224.
23 G. Köbler: Rechtsgeschichte. München. 1977. S. 130. Varga, Cs.: a.a.O. Anm. 15. S. 42.; Stobbe, I . : a.a.O. Anm. 22. S. 363. 24 Stobbe I I . : S. 230. Corpus Statutorum I I / 2 . Budapest 1890, S. 169., 170., 263., 305. Chinesisches Beispiel: 0. Weggel : Chinesische Rechtsgeschichte. Leiden-Wien. I960. S. 155. 25
Ratchnevskij: a.a.O. Anm. 20. S. 167.
26 Tárkány Szűcs, E.: Magyar j o g i népszokások (Ungarische r e c h t l i c h e Budapest, 1981.
Volksgebräuche).
27 Breuer: S. 16-17., 28-29.; A második világháború története (Die Geschichte des zweiten Weltkriegs). Budapest, 1977. S. 246-247.
28 Imreh: A rendtartó székely f a l u (Das Ordnung-haltende szeklerische Dorf). Bukarest, 1973. S. 33-34.
EFFEKTIVITÄT DES RECHTS
295
HISTORICAL AND THEORETICAL INGREDIENTS TO THE EFFECTIVITY OF LAW A. Visegrády - I . Kajtár The study deals w i t h one of the oldest and the most complex problem of the legal development, the e f f e c t i v i t y of law. I n the f i r s t part of the study, the authors define the e f f e c t i v i t y of the law, underl i n i n g , t h a t i t consists of a social and a l e g a l aspect. They analyze in the forthcoming only the f a c t o r s , affecting the l e g a l e f f e c t i v i t y of law. The second part of the study shows, i n the mirror of many examples of the universal and Hungarian history of law, viiat a central part the quality of law-making and j u s t i c e , as w e l l , as the standard of legal consciousness play i n assuring the e f f e c t i v i t y of law.
ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЕ И ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКИЕ УСЛОВИЯ ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТИ ПРАВА А. Вишегради - И.
Кайтар
Настоящая с т а т ь я посвящена и з у ч е н и ю о д н о г о и з самых д р е в н и х и сложных вопросов развития п р а в а - эффективности права. В первой ч а с т и с т а т ь и авторы дают о п р е д е л е н и е п о н я т и я э ф ф е к т и в н о с т и п р а в а , п о д ч е р к и в а я , ч т о э т о имеет социальные и п р а в о в ы е а с п е к т ы . В д а л ь н е й шем о н и подвергают а н а л и з у т о л ь к о т е факторы, к о т о р ы е касаются э ф ф е к т и в н о с ти п р а в а в виде з а к о н а . Во второй ч а с т и с т а т ь и в з е р к а л е ряда п р и м е р о в и з всеобщей и с т о р и и п р а в а и истории в е н г е р с к о г о права п о к а з ы в а е т с я , ч т о к а ч е с т в о з а к о н о д а т е л ь с т в а и юстиции и у р о в е н ь п р а в о с о з н а н и я в к а к о й мере с о д е й с т в у ю т о б е с п е ч е н и ю эффективности п р а в а .
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 297-313 (1990)
POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITS OF FOREIGN CAPITAL INVESTMENT AS PROVIDED BY THE HUNGARIAN CODE ON INVESTMENTS
M. KIRÁLY A s s i s t a n t Professor Eötvös Loránd U n i v e r s i t y ,
Budapest
The paper examines the influence o f the provisions of Act No. XXIV of 1988 on the investments of foreigners i n Hingary upon the appearance of foreign c a p i t a l , with a p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on the assessment of the p o s s i b i l i t i e s and l i m i t s of l e g i s l a t i o n i n respect of j o i n t ventures. The guarantees, favours, and preferences granted by the positive law are i n v e s t i gated i n d e t a i l , and the appropriate impulses serving to promote the i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n and e f f i c i e n c y of foreign c a p i t a l investment, culminating i n a comprehensive, market-oriented development of the l e g a l system as a whole are considered.
I.
1. As i t i s c l e a r from the t i t l e of the p r e s e n t s t u d y , i t examines t h e l e g a l regulation of corporations w i t h foreign share, i . e . norms t h a t determine ments.
the system o f
conditions
of
the s t r u c t u r e o f
foreign c a p i t a l
invest-
At the same t i m e , the a n a l y s i s does n o t aim at g i v i n g a comprehen-
s i v e assessment o f
t h e d e t a i l e d r u l e s concerned.
Rather, i t s purpose i s
to
assess the o b j e c t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s and l i m i t s o f l e g i s l a t i o n i n respect o f joint
ventures.
To p u t i t more p r e c i s e l y ,
a r e p l y should be g i v e n t o
q u e s t i o n concerning the degree o f e f f i c i e n c y
of
the
t h e p r o v i s i o n s of Act No.
XXIV on the i n v e s t m e n t s of f o r e i g n e r s i n Hungary (Code on Investments)
in
promoting an i m p o r t a n t i n f l o w o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l . ^ " 2. P r i o r t o proceed t o the a n a l y s i s of t h e i n t e r n a l l e g a l m a t e r i a l the
stricter
sense
of
the term
it
is
absolutely
necessary,
however,
in in
o r d e r t o ensure completeness, t o have a look a t the b i l a t e r a l agreements on 2 t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f investments concluded by Hungary and the i n t e r n a t i o n a l conventions
affecting
foreign
r e c e n t years, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
investments
to
which
Hungary
adhered
in
Thus, Hungary i s member t o the Washington Con-
v e n t i o n o f f e r i n g an independent forum f o r t h e p e a c e f u l s e t t l e m e n t of
dis-
p u t e s concerning t h e investments o f s t a t e s and p r i v a t e persons^ as w e l l as Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
298
KIRÁLY, M.
the M u l t i l a t e r a l
Investment Guarantee Agency or MIGA,
common p r a c t i c e .
4
as i t
i s called
Through t h i s l a t t e r membership f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s
in
obtained
the p o s s i b i l i t y
of c o n c l u d i n g insurance c o n t r a c t s w i t h the MIGA
financial
fund,
supported
by the World Bank,
risks
their
investments
crease
the
i n Hungary.
confidence
The b i l a t e r a l are
appropriate
lateral
and
t o cover
Clearly,
this
the non-commercial
entrepreneurship
of
investors
agreements on i v e s t m e n t p r o t e c t i o n ,
to
increase
conventions.
further
In conformity
the with
protective
referred to
screen of
the s t r i c t e s t
the p r o p e r t y of
foreign
investors,
i.e.
in-
considerably. above,
the
norms of
t i o n a l law, Hungary undertook the o b l i g a t i o n by means of t h e i r to protect
of
i s an e f f i c i e n t means t o
multi-
internaprovisions
to r e f r a i n from
their
e x p r o p r i a t i o n as w e l l as, among o t h e r p o i n t s , t o a l l o w the t r a n s f e r of the profits
due t o the f o r e i g n p a r t n e r
to
afore
the
mentioned,
has been f o r m u l a t e d
in
the the
i n convertible
intention Agreement
of
currency.
between t h e
instruments references
As a survey of
would surpass, will
be made t o
the
commercial and
t h e many-sided system of
indeed,
t h e frames o f
relevant
addition companies
European Economic Com-
munity and the Hungarian P e o p l e ' s Republic on t r a d e , nomic c o o p e r a t i o n .
In
the s u p p o r t of j o i n t
eco-
international
the present s t u d y ,
recent
literature.
only
R a t h e r , we
s h a l l c o n c e n t r a t e t o the Hungarian Code on Investments i n the f o l l o w i n g which
the
guarantees
as s t i p u l a t e d
in
the
international
cerned are l a i d down i n the f i e l d of t h e i n t e r n a l
agreements
in
con-
law.
II.
Apart ments of
from few e x c e p t i o n s , foreigners
in
the p r o v i s i o n s
of
Hungary can be grouped,
the act on t h e
w i t h a pointed
invest-
simplifi-
c a t i o n , t o two t o p i c s , i . e . the c a t e g o r i e s of guarantees (3) or f a v o u r s (As a matter of
fact,
the s a i d d i s t i n c t i o n
i s o n l y of a r e l a t i v e
i n view of t h e c l o s e a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two groups o f In
some cases,
guarantees may be regarded as f a v o u r s
the same t i m e , r e s t r i c t i v e measures appear, as i.e.
their
excessive
frequency
would
the o r i g i n a l purpose of the 3.
With
the
enactment
of
endanger
or v i c e
(4)
nature, norms.
versa.)
At
n e c e s s a r i l y , i n l i m i t e d cases incentives
for
investments,
legislator. the
Code on Investments,
it
is,
in
fact,
pronounced i n terms of the p o s i t i v e law t h a t " t h e investments of f o r e i g n e r s g i n Hungary enjoy f u l l s e c u r i t y and p r o t e c t i o n . " This solemn d e c l a r a t i o n i s 9 immediately f o l l o w e d by an o b l i g a t i o n p r o m i s i n g indemnity f o r t h e f o r e i g n
299
CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HUNGARY
i n v e s t o r who s u f f e r e d damage i n case o f n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , similar
disposition,
compliance
w i t h the p r e v i o u s Hungarian s t a t u t o r y
ventures,
e x p r o p r i a t i o n or a
t o be paid a t t h e a c t u a l value and w i t h o u t d e l a y .
the Act
also
provides
for
share o f p r o f i t , due t o the f o r e i g n p a r t y , one can c l a i m with f u l l Code on Investments i s
r i g h t that
rule
ensuring t h e
transfer
i n harmony w i t h both the i n t e r n a t i o n a l
historical
detour,
it
joint of
11
in convertible currency.
t h e guarantee system of the
of the c o u n t r y (see 2 / . ) and the r e q u i r e m e n t s of our Making a s h o r t
bearing upon
free
the Thus
Hungarian
commitments
time.
may be o f
interest
to
t h a t t h e range of l e g a l instruments o f the Codes on i n v e s t m e n t s ,
mention
formulated
i n the 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , d e s t i n e d t o e n s u r e ' a n d promote t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l of c a p i t a l ,
In
flow
s t a r t e d t o take shape i n some of i t s elements as e a r l y as at
the b e g i n n i n g of the exchange of goods. Thus, the p r o t e c t i o n of t h e
foreign
deals o f merchants a r r i v e d from abroad or the c o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e i r
liber-
t i e s i n b r i g h t e r t i m e s used to be t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f the l e g i s l a t i o n of s e v e r a l s t a t e s long s i n c e , as i t i s t e s t i f i e d by sources from the A n t i q u i t y
12 and t h e Middle Ages.
Even the Magna Charta, t h i s fundamental m i l e s t o n e of
British constitutionality, vision enter
laid or
leave
purposes ancient
down i n
of
can be mentioned i n t h i s c o n t e x t , w i t h i t s
a separate s e c t i o n ,
England unharmed,
trade,
free
...
from a l l
that
within i t ,
exactions,
basis of
this
pro-
" a l l merchants may
stay or t r a v e l
illegal
c u s t o m s . " 1 3 On t h e
and l a w f u l
reading
...
i n accordance eminent
for with
declaration,
t h e i r persons and p r o p e r t i e s enjoyed p r o t e c t i o n even i n case of w a r , on the c o n d i t i o n t h a t Englishmen could e n j o y s i m i l a r t r e a t m e n t origin
of
the merchant
reciprocity, 4. garian
"if
i n question.
our
The group o f
merchants
are
d e l i c a t e system of concepts r e l a t i n g easy t o
classify
this
terms o f
safe,
norms c o n c e r n i n g
Code on Investments d i s p l a y s
relatively
In
they
the
i n the c o u n t r y of brief
shall
principle
be
favours as s t i p u l a t e d
safe
too .
in
t h e Hun-
a p i c t u r e even more v a r i e d to guarantees.
multitude,
so
13
rich
than
Nevertheless, i n forms,
correct, rights
in fact,
to
treatment
o r a divergence from i t .
look f o r t h e expression o f
i n these r u l e s as a c l e a r e r
it
into
subgroups, d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i n t h e i r examination whether they r e f l e c t enforcement of n a t i o n a l
of 14
the is two
t o the
I t seems t o be
t h e domestic e q u a l i t y
of
p i c t u r e can be thus obtained from the
Code on Investments through the i n t e r m e d i a r y of a t r a d i t i o n a l l e g a l
insti-
t u t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l commercial l a w . The w o r l d o f norms as l a i d down i n the Code has, i n d e e d ,
an e s s e n t i a l l y
bipolar nature i n this respect,
i.e.
some p r o v i s i o n s mean the enforcement of n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t ( a ) w h i l e other
300
KIRÄLY, M.
favours d i s p l a y n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t as overcome ( b ) , o f f e r i n g more i m p o r t a n t advantages. a) The assurance of n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t validity,
is
formulated,
w i t h a general
a l r e a d y i n the Preamble of the Code and, w i t h t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f
t h i s i n t e n t i o n o f the l e g i s l a t o r ,
i t i s then f o r m u l a t e d i n s e v e r a l p o s i t i v e
provisions. (i)
With
the
provision
that
f o r e i g n share r e q u i r e s a j o i n t t r a d e only
if
establishment
cerned i s complete or r e p r e s e n t s t h i s e s t a b l i s h m e n t and, i n f a c t ,
a
company
inferior
with
finances and
f o r e i g n p r o p e r t y w i t h i n t h e company conthe m a j o r i t y ,
means the f a c i l i t a t i o n
the enforcement of n a t i o n a l
the overwhelming m a j o r i t y
which f o r e i g n share i s
of
l i c e n c e from t h e m i n i s t e r s o f
the p r o p o r t i o n o f
As a consequence,
the
of
enterprises
of
treatment.'^ i.e.
those
in
t o 50 pc may be e s t a b l i s h e d according
to
the same procedure which i s b i n d i n g f o r economic c o r p o r a t i o n s
exclusively
i n domestic p r o p e r t y . (ii) acquire recent
The d e c l a r a t i o n of the absolute c a p a c i t y of j o i n t y companies 18 landed p r o p e r t y t h a t put an end t o the v i c i o u s views of
decades,
is
of
similar
importance.
In
fact,
corporations
to the with
f o r e i g n share needed p r e v i o u s l y the p r e l i m i n a r y l i c e n s e o f t h e M i n i s t r y of 19 Finances f o r a c q u i r i n g a landed p r o p e r t y . Thus, i t was o f no use f o r them if
they had a domestic place o f residence, were r e g i s t e r e d i n Hungary, and
were o p e r a t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e Hungarian s t a t u t o r y
garded as being f o r e i g n i n t h i s
respect.
rules,
they were r e -
T h i s r e g u l a t i o n was, r e a l l y ,
not
only c o n t r o v e r s i a l from the p o i n t of view of l e g a l dogmatics and, the more, 20
c o n t r a r i a n t o the d i s p o s i t i o n s o f the Code o f in addition to t h i s ,
it
I n t e r n a t i o n a l P r i v a t e Law
caused c o n s i d e r a b l e a c t u a l damages t o the economy
as a r e s u l t of i t s d i s c o u r a g i n g e f f e c t on c a p i t a l (iii)
Finally,
;
inflow.
the m o d i f i c a t i o n of s e c t i o n 665 of the C i v i l Code p r o -
nouncing t h a t business a s s o c i a t i o n s should be regarded as economic organ21 izations i s o f prominent importance f o r g i v i n g a f o u n d a t i o n t o the national
treatment,
although i t
i s beyond the d i s p o s i t i o n s o f
the
Code on
Investments. Taking i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n f u r t h e r m o r e t h a t the wording of the C i v i l Code makes no more d i s t i n c t i o n among economic a s s o c i a t i o n s , sociations, classified
including
those
operating
as economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
o n l y from the p o i n t multiplying effect
of view o f c i v i l as w e l l .
It
with
a l l as-
a foreign participation,
This r u l e s
is important,
are
then,
not
law r e l a t i o n s but on account of
its
should be noted t o t h i s t h a t ,
b e i n g , mainly the term "economic o r g a n i z a t i o n "
is
f o r the time
used i n t h e l e g a l regu-
CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HUNGARY
301
l a t i o n of economic a f f a i r s when the range of the r e l e v a n t s u b j e c t s at law is
delimitated.
Civil
Code,
would
"overrun"
As a r e s u l t
the
complete the
of
the a f o r e
material
associations
of or
the
mentioned m o d i f i c a t i o n actual
corporations
of
the
Hungarian economic
law
operating
with
foreign
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the absence o f o t h e r , d i f f e r e n t d i s p o s i t i o n s (see p o i n t b) below).
This
finitely
h i g h number o f
norms i s shaped,
however,
t o t h e category o f state-owned e n t e r p r i s e s ;
the "commercial" substance o f
even now very
a c c o r d i n g l y , not o n l y
the p r o f e s s i o n a l s u b j e c t s o f
the economy i s
expressed i n them but the economic i n t e r f e r e n c e of the s t a t e as w e l l . from the a f o r e s a i d remarks, controversial
to
operating w i t h
the
de-
Apart
the l e g a l m a t e r i a l concerned i s amorphous and
extent
that
its
foreign p a r t i c i p a t i o n
the
coroporations
would mean a profound
application
to
confrontation
w i t h the purposes of the Code on Investments, and the p r o m o t i o n of
foreign
capital
of
investments
in particular.
Paradoxically,
tional
t r e a t m e n t would g i v e
b i r t h necessarily
tation
or
a more p o s i t i v e
to
surpass
it
in
the r e a l i z a t i o n
t o the e f f o r t of i t s l i m i 22 direction, considering the
present s i t u a t i o n of the Hungarian l e g a l system, i r r e s p e c t i v e of a l l of useful e f f e c t s . b)
its
(See also Chapter I V ) .
The c l a i m mentioned
above i s
met by the p r o v i s i o n s
p a r t l y by p o s i t i v e favours ( i ) and p a r t l y by a p p l y i n g a g e n e r a l clause
na-
of
the Code
"exempting"
(ii).
(i)
Taking i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the p o s i t i v e
t h e Code on I n 23 vestments o f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l e advantages, n o t a b l y i n the f i e l d of t a x a t i o n 24 and the r e g u l a t i o n of customs. In case o f a s p e c i f i e d minimum f o r e i g n share or c a p i t a l investment the Code g r a n t s e . g . a d i s p e n s a t i o n of t h e 25 d i s p o s i t i o n s o f the domestic r e g u l a t i o n of wages and s a l a r i e s . In s p i t e of the exemplary nature o f
these r u l e s ,
it
favours,
i s clear that
they do not
re-
present the maximum r a t e o f f a v o u r s t h a t c o u l d be a l l o w e d . Rather, a f u r t h e r extension
of
same would
degree of t a x a t i o n .
be j u s t i f i e d ,
with
particular
attention
I n view o f the i n t e n t i o n s of the p r e s e n t
to
the
expoundings,
concentrated t o examine t h e o p e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y of the system as a whole, a thorough a n a l y s i s of
the
i m p o r t a n t problems
i s here,
exceptionally,
dis-
regarded. On the o t h e r hand, t h e many-sidedness of the p o s i t i v e f a v o u r s , i n g an almost e c l e c t i c a l sitions
nature,
i s worth m e n t i o n i n g .
offer-
I n f a c t , the d i s p o -
i n q u e s t i o n cover
the r u l e s o f
the f i e l d s o f customs and t a x a t i o n law j u s t as 26 f o r e i g n exchange r e g u l a t i o n o r labour l a w . The more, o t h e r
t o p i c s such as the e s t a b l i s h m e n t
of an a s s o c i a t i o n or c o r p o r a t i o n or
its
302
KIRÄLY, M.
capacity
of a c q u i r i n g p r o p e r t y were a l s o mentioned i n the preceding p o i n t
4 a ) . A l l these p o i n t s a l l o w t o get t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the e n t i r e volume of Hungarian law became s e n s i t i v e t o f o r e i g n t r a d e , appearance of f o r e i g n working c a p i t a l ,
e s s e n t i a l l y , w i t h the
t o be u t i l i z e d i n the domestic eco-
nomic t h e a t r e , f i n a n c i n g p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s as i t which would not i n f l u e n c e the o p e r a t i o n o f j o i n t Admittedly,
has h a r d l y any element
companies.
the e x p o r t s and i m p o r t s of commodities can be
regulated
e f f i c i e n t l y by the norms o f f o r e i g n t r a d e , c o v e r i n g a l s o the s p e c i f i c of c i v i l to
law o b l i g a t i o n s w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l relevance and the deals 27
payments.
Nevertheless,
they
are
not
applicable
domestic p r o d u c t i o n and marketing of commodities. the f u n c t i o n i n g c a p i t a l national
of
related
respect
of
the
T r u e , the u t i l i z a t i o n of
f o r e i g n o r i g i n i s a f f e c t e d by the r u l e s o f
l e g a l system a t too much p o i n t s .
conditions
in
rules
Accordingly,
if
the
more f a v o u r a b l e
than those i n common use s h o u l d be c r e a t e d f o r f o r e i g n
capital
i n v e s t m e n t s , one of the p r a c t i c a b l e s o l u t i o n s i s t o f i n d out the p o i n t s of contact of
i n question,
joint
companies,
and then t o s e t up s p e c i a l r u l e s f o r them i n
respect
e.g.
varying
t o group
the
branches of law i n t o a s i n g l e s t a t u t e . Investments
mentioned
in
the
norms a f f e c t i n g
the most
The p o s i t i v e f a v o u r s of the Code on
foregoing
represent,
indeed,
an e f f o r t
to
t h i s end. (ii) however,
A f t e r c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n one w i l l be c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the
fact,
that
other
there
exist
actually
innumerable
restrictions
and
r i g o r o u s r u l e s i n the Hungarian l e g a l system t h a t are n o t a t a l l
investment-
f a v o u r i n g ; r a t h e r , they e x e r t an e f f e c t d i s c o u r a g i n g the c a p i t a l .
Actually,
these norms a f f e c t the r u l e s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of funds or the management o f
premises
cludes,
in
or
general,
stores the
equally.
Furthermore,
economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s ,
would be a p p l i c a b l e a l s o t o the a c t i v i t y ticipation
i n the absence of
opposite
their
legal e f f e c t
consequently
these
norms
of c o r p o r a t i o n s w i t h f o r e i g n p a r -
dispositions
(see p o i n t
(4/a/iii).
Taking i n t o account t h a t there seemed t o be no hope f o r separate p e n s a t i o n s from the r e s t r i c t i o n s , Investments
made recourse
the l e g i s l a t o r
to a p a r t i c u l a r
of
measure,
clause t o f i n d a way out o f the choking pressure of above.
It
was f o r m u l a t e d ,
position
of
the present
content,
that
reading as f o l l o w s :
Act r u l e s i t ,
concern e x c l u s i v e l y
dis-
t h e Hungarian Code on stipulating
a general
the r u l e s r e f e r r e d
was t h i s way t h a t the exempting clause of t h e Code, of
importance,
in-
cardinal
"Unless an o p p o s i t e
the d i s p o s i t i o n s ,
state-owned economic
to
dis-
not of c i v i l
law
organizations
and
c o - o p e r a t i v e s are not a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s i n q u e s t i o n i n connec-
CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HUNGARY
303
28
tion
with
their
economic
activity."
Thus,
the
precarious
situation
c r e a t e d an e l a s t i c r u l e which, i n case of i t s a p p r o p r i a t e a p p l i c a t i o n , fered protection, dispositions.
indeed, against
This f l e x i b i l i t y
t h e enforcement of a l o t of
was a b s o l u t e l y d e s i r a b l e as a g e n e r a l
had t o be put down so t h a t i t would cover the unknown number o f of
not
well.
civil
law c o n t e n t ;
on t h e o t h e r hand,
The general c l a u s e t h a t came t o b i r t h ,
i n g e n u i t y of the l e g i s l a t o r , generalization
that
its
it
character
rule
dispositions
required a s a c r i f i c e
indeed,
represented a c t u a l l y
normative
of-
restrictive
as a r e s u l t
of
as the
such a h i g h degree of a
faded
away t o
some
extent.
Since t h e r u l e s t o be n e u t r a l i z e d are not enumerated only t h e i r n a t u r e
is
o u t l i n e d , r e f e r r i n g t o them as " d i s p o s i t i o n s w i t h a not c i v i l law c o n t e n t " , some i n s e c u r i t y
is
created as an a c t of d e l i b e r a t i o n w i l l
be always
un-
a v o i d a b l e t o decide whether or n o t i t s e f f e c t covers t h i s or t h a t law r u l e . III.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e afore mentioned, the e x t e n t has t o be a l s o examined t o which the e f f e c t limited
(5);
(7);
of the f a v o u r s granted by the Code on Investments
also,
the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
(6)
is
should be considered which
may a r i s e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e promotion o f f o r e i g n investments aimed by the Code. 5. There i s
good reason t o suppose t h a t t h e double-way l e g a l system,
i n t r o d u c e d by c a p i t a l - i m p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s such as Hungary, i . e .
the a p p l i -
c a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t r u l e s to c o r p o r a t i o n s c o m p l e t e l y i n indigenous p r o p e r t y or
owned,
partly
l i m i t s by i t s e l f ,
or
completely,
by
foreigners,
implicated
necessarily
r e s u l t i n g i n a n o t very h i g h r a t e o f economic e f f i c i e n c y .
The d i s p o s i t i o n s o f s e c t i o n 4 of the Hungarian Code on Investments present a v e r y good example t o t h i s , r e a d i n g as f o l l o w s : (1)
A corporation
functioning
with foreign p a r t i c i p a t i o n
is
allowed
t o t a k e p a r t i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an o t h e r economic c o r p o r a t i o n , t o s e t up a c o r p o r a t i o n on i t s own, and t o acquire a share i n a f u n c t i o n i n g corporation, within the
limits
as s p e c i f i e d i n i n d e n t
(2).
The d i s p o s i t i o n s
of
t h e present Act a r e not a p p l i c a b l e t o these c o r p o r a t i o n s , except those l a i d 29 down i n Chapter This Thus,
is
IV.
a logical
and j u r i d i c a l l y
completely
justified
the economic c o r p o r a t i o n s w i t h f o r e i g n p a r t i c i p a t i o n
Hungary are t o be considered as domestic s u b j e c t s
regulation.
functioning
at l a w , "
in
consequently
t h e r u l e s of t h e Code on I n v e s t m e n t s , b e a r i n g upon only t o the e n t e r p r i s e s
KIRÄLY, M.
304
o f f o r e i g n e r s , a r e , a c c o r d i n g l y , not a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e i r subsequent c a p i t a l investments.
Hence, the f a v o u r s granted by the Investment Code are no more
a p p l i c a b l e t o the secondary u t i l i z a t i o n of f o r e i g n c a p i t a l and do not p r o mote i t s m u l t i p l y i n g e f f e c t s . tual
system,
this
It
regulation
should be emphasised t h a t , g i v e n the ac-
is
w e l l - f o u n d e d and an o p p o s i t e
cannot be c o n c e p t u a l i z e d even from a pure t e c h n i c a l
point
of
arrangement view as
it
would be i m p r a c t i c a b l e t o f o l l o w up c o n t i n u o u s l y the course of the i n v e s t ment of a c a p i t a l t h a t , p r e v i o u s l y , was of f o r e i g n o r i g i n ; t h i s i s
particu-
larly
economic
true
if
there
are
several
subsequent
transactions.
From
p o i n t of view, t h e l e g a l s o l u t i o n o u t l i n e d i n the preceding can be assessed, however, as f o l l o w s :
f o r the i n i t i a l
investments o f f o r e i g n e r s , t h e r e i s a
f a v o u r a b l e c l i m a t e as a j o i n t company can be e s t a b l i s h e d and then f l o u r i s h under the p r o t e c t i n g
screen o f
a "legal oasis".
As r e g a r d s , however,
the
subsequent c a p i t a l investments o f a c o r p o r a t i o n of t h i s k i n d , the substantially it
l e s s f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s of the general r u l e s w i l l be a p p l i e d . As
i s hardly
probable t h a t
hard way, t h e i r
capital
and w i l l be r e l u c t a n t all
nature
extent.
is
will
as the scope of
restricted
In f a c t ,
it
would be ready t o opt
not p e n e t r a t e i n t o a l l
t o induce f u r t h e r
the more p r o b a b l e
this
the i n v e s t o r s
c e l l s of
investments.
this
the economy
Furthermore, t h i s
subsequent c a p i t a l
a l s o by the law p r o p e r ,
for
investments
is of
although t o a narrower
i s s t i p u l a t e d i n s e c t i o n 327 of the Act VI of
1988 on
Economic A s s o c i a t i o n s and, s u b s e q u e n t l y , i n s e c t i o n 4 of the Code on I n v e s t ments t h a t
"a company l i m i t e d
by shares owned e x c l u s i v e l y or by
majority
by f o r e i g n e r s i s n o t allowed t o a c q u i r e a m a j o r i t y share i n an o t h e r share company of t h i s k i n d " . 8 1 True, t h e Act on a s s o c i a t i o n s c o n t a i n s , i n g e n e r a l , r u l e s bearing upon the law of concerns, the r e s t r i c t i o n i n q u e s t i o n i s only a p p l i c a b l e t o share companies l i m i t e d by shares w i t h f o r e i g n The
question
former r e s t r i c t i o n property
(see
marks
that
arose
previously,
of the c a p a c i t y of j o i n t
point
4/a/ i i )
are s t i l l
in
participation.
connection
with
the
companies of a c q u i r i n g landed
waiting
for
reply.
Thus,
if
the
company i n q u e s t i o n i s c l a s s i f i e d as a domestic one, why could not i t enjoy 3? n a t i o n a l treatment also i n t h i s respect? D i s r e g a r d i n g the autonomous l e g a l personality
of
a company of
this
k i n d and, i n s t e a d ,
concentrating
to
the
n a t i o n a l i t y of t h e owners has been occurred r e p e a t e d l y i n the course of the h i s t o r y of the law of a s s o c i a t i o n s or c o r p o r a t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the corporate v e i l "
88
"piercing
c o v e r i n g t h e shareholders has been j u s t i f i e d
mainly
if
t h e f i c t i o n o f the separated e x i s t e n c e of the c o r p o r a t i o n concerned used
to
be a p p l i e d f o r causing damage t o the c r e d i t o r s o r ,
i n general,
to
the
305
CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HUNGARY
prejudice
of
public
order.
It
is hardly
probable,
indeed,
t h a t the com-
panies l i m i t e d by shares f u n c t i o n i n g w i t h a f o r e i g n m a j o r i t y could cause a serious
danger menacing t h e n a t i o n a l
share a l s o
in
economy i f
they a c q u i r e d a m a j o r i t y
an other company l i m i t e d by shares. Apart from t h i s
the s a i d s p e c i f i c r e s t r i c t i o n
point,
t o the p r o v i s i o n of s e v e r a l 34 l a t e r a l agreements on investments e n s u r i n g n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t .
bi-
Not t a k i n g i n t o account the unnecessary watchfulness o f the r u l e ,
the
principal
concern i s ,
i s contrary
however, t h a t t h e double-way l e g a l system i s
unable
t o g i v e impulses t o the economy as a whole even i n an i d e a l case; t h u s , favours g r a n t e d to j o i n t
effect.
6. The a t t r a c t i v e " b l u e i s l a n d s " c r e a t e d f o r c o r p o r a t i o n s
functioning
exclusive
theoretical
with
possibility forms of
foreign
itself
participation
bear,
indeed,
also
the
of some abuses w i t h i n themselves: w i t h the coexistence o f
regulation,
understandable i f for
ventures remain w i t h a l i m i t e d range of
the
one being more and t h e other l e s s
two
it
is
each p a r t y of the economic l i f e makes e f f o r t s t o ensure
t h e use of
t h e system w i t h more f a v o u r a b l e
l e a s t , t h e t r a n s f e r of i t s c a p i t a l or p a r t of i t . organization,
favourable,
i.e.
economic
corporation
above, i s a l l o w e d , i n case o f a l i c e n c e ,
as
conditions
or,
at
Thus, a domestic economic
mentioned
in
section
t o set up a c o r p o r a t i o n
4/a/ii
abroad.^
According t o the Hungarian l e g a l r u l e s on f o r e i g n exchange management and the Code on Investments, but out
of
respectively,
a domestic c a p i t a l
will
t h i s corporation established
be considered,
however,
abroad foreign
as a
p a r t y even i n respect o f i t s p o s s i b l e a c t i v i t y i n Hungary. Consequently,
if
a f o r e i g n company of t h i s k i n d e s t a b l i s h e d a " j o i n t c o r p o r a t i o n " some t i m e later,
re-transferring part
of i t s c a p i t a l
t o Hungary o r acquired a share
i n the mother company, t h e " c o r p o r a t i o n s f u n c t i o n i n g w i t h f o r e i g n pation"
would be then e n t i t l e d
t o e x t e n s i v e favours.
If
partici-
a process as o u t -
l i n e d above took place as a r e s u l t o f t h e continuous e x t e n s i o n and i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of the a c t i v i t y
of t h e producing e n t e r p r i s e ,
the domestic
economy would s u f f e r no harm. Much more i m p o r t a n t damages would a r i s e ,
on
the o t h e r
in
hand,
if
an apparent f o r e i g n investment were o n l y m o t i v a t e d
order t o o b t a i n a j o i n t i e s may g i v e
evidence
venture c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . that
than a mere p o s s i b i l i t y ; " ation lished
of
a domestic
the above
at that time,
interest
was t h a t
The p r a c t i c e of the
theoretical
the method chosen f o r the the
1930-
argumentation was more
indigeneous
proprietor
alienestab-
a h o l d i n g company i n abroad d e s t i n e d to manage the shares o f
domestic company.""^
his
306
KIRÄLY, M.
There i s
no r e s t r i c t i o n ,
in fact,
which could o f f e r a safe guarantee
t o avoid abuses. A remedy c o u l d be found e a s i e r by u n i f y i n g the o p e r a t i n g conditions
of
the s u b j e c t s
which would r e s u l t ,
at
sooner
law
in
or l a t e r ,
the
economy i n
a way, of
i n t h e extension o f
course,
the overwhelming
m a j o r i t y o f t h e favours and r i g h t s a l r e a d y granted t o economic c o r p o r a t i o n s f u n c t i o n i n g w i t h f o r e i g n p a r t i c i p a t i o n t o a l l e n t e r p r i s e s . " 5 ' ' Making m a r k e t conform and " e n t e r p r i s e - p r o m o t i n g " the t o t a l i t y of the l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n o f the economy
would mean,
economic d e f i c i e n c i e s o f
at
the same t i m e ,
also a remedy
to
the
macro-
t h e double-way l e g a l system o u t l i n e d above.
(See
point 5.) 7. One can claim a g e n e r a l r e c o g n i t i o n f o r the f o r m u l a t i o n t h a t improvement
of
the l e g a l
system as a whole represents t h e most
the
efficient
means of p r o m o t i n g f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t s which has, a t the same t i m e , the l e a s t c o n t r o v e r s i e s . for
joint
It
i s impossible,
companies i n some s p e c i f i c
the Code on functioning
Investments, of
fields
irrespective
the c o r p o r a t i o n s
indeed, t o s e t up s p e c i a l
of
and t o i n c o r p o r a t e same i n t o
t h e circumstance
in question,
rules
that,
the s e t t l e m e n t
for
the
of l e g a l
re-
l a t i o n s of p r i m a r y importance i s concerned. (i) First
o f a l l , t h e law of o b l i g a t i o n s p e r t a i n s t o t h i s group which
gives the l e g a l context o f
t h e day-by-day d e a l s of e n t e r p r i s i n g . The r u l e s 38 t h a t may be encountered h e r e , p o s s i b l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c , a r e s u s c e p t i b l e of restricting
t h e more c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p a g a t i o n of f o r e i g n
as the l e s s
i n c i t i n g rules
on t a x a t i o n .
would be a d v i s a b l e to s e t
up s p e c i f i c
One could ask, norms also f o r
investments
just
indeed, whether the
internal
civil
law c o n t r a c t s o f c o r p o r a t i o n s f u n c t i o n i n g w i t h f o r e i g n p a r t i c i p a t i o n . seems to be more a u t o p i a
t h a n an a c t u a l p o s s i b i l i t y .
l a y i n g down c o r r e c t i v e c i v i l national
trading
transactions,
and the l e g i s l a t o r
This
An o p p o r t u n i t y
law r u l e s has a r i s e n i n t h e f i e l d of availed
it
for
inter-
itself
of
this
possibility,
i n f a c t , s e t t i n g up a p p r o p r i a t e p r o v i s i o n s i n the " C i v i l Code 39 on f o r e i g n t r a d e " , i . e . Law-decree No. 8. o f 1978. As r e g a r d s , however, t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n of the l a w o f o b l i g a t i o n s
applicable
actions,
norms of t h e end of the
an a d a p t a t i o n t o
the international
century would have gone f a r investments. o n l y i n the
the
beyond the scope of v a l i d i t y
of
translast
any code on
T h i s i s reasonable a l l the more as m o d e r n i z a t i o n would be n o t i n t e r e s t of c o r p o r a t i o n s w i t h f o r e i g n p a r t i c i p a t i o n ;
up a system o f
building
norms r e f l e c t i n g the demands of market economy would have
same s i g n i f i c a n c e
property.
t o domestic
for
the
subjects
at
law
in
exclusively
national
CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HUNGARY
(ii)
The a c t i v i t y
of
the s u b j e c t s
307
of the economy has been more and
more t h o r o u g h l y i n f l u e n c e s also by t h e q u a l i t y o f of
consumer
protection,
environmental
regulation i n the
protection,
and the law
t i t i o n beyond the t r a d i t i o n a l c i v i l law codes on c o r p o r a t i o n s . force
of
international
adaptation has been p a r t i c u l a r l y
of
field compe-
In f a c t ,
intensive
in
the the
s a i d l e g a l branches. T h i s i s demonstrated by the i n t e g r a t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n of the
European Communities,
unification
of
just
w i t h t h e most f a r - r e a c h i n g
t h e said f i e l d s
of
the law,
achievements
in
the
m o t i v a t e d t o ensure
the
f r e e f l o w and c i r c u l a t i o n of goods, persons, s e r v i c e s , ly,
would be i m p r a c t i c a b l e t o s e t
it
and c a p i t a l .
up separate norms f o r j o i n t
Clearcorpo-
rations h e r e . I t i s e v i d e n t too, on t h e other hand, t h a t the Hungarian norms will
have,
sooner
or
later,
no o t h e r
choice t h a n
to
follow
the
European
legal
development proceeding ahead under the s l o g a n of h a r m o n i z a t i o n ,
order
to their
i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e economic c i r c u l a t i o n of the
in
continent
and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of market economy i n p a r t i c u l a r .
IV.
In
spite
necessary
of
their
and i m p o r t a n t
limited
possibilities,
statutes,
at
least
the
investment
codes
i n some given phases o f
are legal
t h e Act No. XXIV of 1988
development. His statement i s a b s o l u t e l y true f o r
which i s not only a h i g h - l e v e l p r o d u c t of l e g i s l a t i o n ; the more, i t may an a c t u a l " l i f e - s a v i n g l e g a l " i n s t r u m e n t f o r Hungary. The balancing as expressed i n t h e Act between n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t and favours
surpassing
double-face joint
nature
it of
is
a result
corporations
logical,
with foreign
companies a r e domestic l e g a l e n t i t i e s ,
and o b l i g a t i o n s
r e s u l t i n g from n a t i o n a l
s a i d domestic q u a l i f i c a t i o n t o g e t h e r of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s utilization
in
fact,
of
the
participation.
hence s u b j e c t s o f
treatment.
specific, Actually, the
rights
On the o t h e r hand, the
w i t h the independent l e g a l
existence
i n question does not change t h e circumstance t h a t the
of c a p i t a l
of f o r e i g n
origin is evident, partly
at
least,
in
t h e i r a c t i v i t y . C l e a r l y , they came i n t o e x i s t e n c e by means of
international
functioning capital
international
investments and,
i n compliance w i t h the
c h a r a c t e r of t h i s c a p i t a l , i t s a c t i v i t y i n Hungary should be adapted t o the 40 c o n d i t i o n s of a l e g a l system based on i n t e r n a t i o n a l standards. Just t h i s i s t h e demand which enforces f a v o u r s d i f f e r i n g f r o m the n a t i o n a l
treatment
and r e a c h i n g beyond same (see p o i n t 4 / a ) i f the n a t i o n a l l e g a l system, as a whole, i s s t i l l
i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o comply w i t h t h e requirements r a i s e d by the
i n t e r n a t i o n a l flow of
capital.
322
KIRÄLY, M.
Accordingly,
the d u p l i c i t y
determining
the
fundamental
structure
the Code on Investments i s o n l y the r e s u l t of t h e said s p e c i f i c
of
regulation
system. At the same t i m e , t h i s s o p h i s t i c a t e d system of f a v o u r s and guarantees makes i t p o s s i b l e to i n t e r p r e t the Code a l s o i n an o t h e r sense. As i t was o u t l i n e d
in
t h e preceding
paragraph,
the
Code r e p r e s e n t s
a
critical
d i f f e r e n c e , e s s e n t i a l l y , from t h e norms which a r e d i s f a v o u r i n g an e f f i c i e n t and p r o f i t - b e a r i n g tives
to
it.
economic management o r ,
Thus the group o f
r a t i o n s appears
also
improvement w i t h
as a " p u l l i n g
the
stagnation
of
statutes"
a general v a l i d i t y .
t h e p r o p e r t y of f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s
private
at
least,
norms a f f e c t i n g
fail
t o g i v e incen-
the modern j o i n t
indicating
The system of
the
corpo-
direction
guarantees
of
protecting
i s a good example. One o f t h e causes of
Hungary's economy has been
that
potential
indigeneous
i n v e s t o r s have been i n want of guarantees, consequently they have
been r e f r a i n i n g t o I n v e s t t h e i r c a p i t a l i n e n t e r p r i s e s . A c t u a l l y , they have been w a i t i n g f o r a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t " t h e i r i n v e s t m e n t s would e n j o y complete 41 s a f e t y and p r o t e c t i o n . Using analogies from t h e more remote p a s t , the law governing the
functioning
of
corporations
c o u l d be compared, m u t a t i s m u t a n d i s ,
w i t h foreign
participation
to the Roman i u s p e r e g r i n i .
In f a c t ,
the f i r s t repsonse o f the Roman law to the appearance of f o r e i g n elements i n l e g a l r e l a t i o n s was a s e l f - c r e a t e d d u p l i c i t y , e s t a b l i s h i n g thus a two42 channel l e g a l system. The i u s c i v i l e was m a i n t a i n e d , to be a p p l i e d to the l e g a l r e l a t i o n s o f Roman c i t i z e n s , and the i u s p e r e g r i n i , s e t up p a r a l l e l to
it,
was d e s t i n e d 43
citizens. (i.e.
to
govern
transactions
With t h e lapse of t i m e ,
ius p e r e g r i n i )
p e n e t r a t e the a n c i e n t
concerning
the
between
"aliens"
and Roman
the i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h i s f l e x i b l e law sale of
commodities
were allowed
to
law, e n s u r i n g thus i t s development. One should only
hope t h a t the time w i l l
come a l s o f o r the development of Hungarian law to
e n t e r t h i s second, and h i g h e r ,
class.
CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HUNGARY
309
Notes V o r the importance of d i r e c t foreign c a p i t a l investments and Hungary's economic need to seek support from the foreign functioning c a p i t a l see: Simal: A 90-es évek magyar külgazdasági s t r a t é g i á j a (The strategy of Hungarian i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic r e l a t i o n s i n the 9 0 - i e s ) . Valóság, 1988/10. pp. 10-20.; I n : Magyar Nemzet, Hároméves gazdasági program - k ü l f ö l d i tőke - t u lajdonreform (A three-year programme of the economy - foreign c a p i t a l and the reform of prope r t y ) . May 4, 1989, p. 3 . ; Kádár: Pályamódosítás vagy pályaváasztás? (Modification or change of the course?) Figyelő, December 1, 1988, p. 3 . ; G . I . : Bankok és vegyesvállalatok, nemzetközi konferencia a működő tőke bevonásáról. (Banks and j o i n t c o r p o r a t i o n ; an i n t e r n a t i o n a l conference an the inclusion of functioning c a p i t a l . ) Figyelő, December 8, 1988, p. 11.; Becsky: Veg y e s v á l l a l a t i boom? (A boom of j o i n t ventures?) Figyelő, December 22, 1988. p. 8. 2 Up to the present, Hungary signed b i l a t e r a l agreements on the protection of investments with the states l i s t e d below: A u s t r i a , Belgium and Luxemburg, Cyprus, the Kingdom of Denmark, the United Kingdom, Finland, France, Greece, the Netherlands, the Republic of Korea, the Federal Republic of Germany, I t a l y , Switzerland, and Sweden. Out of the said agreements, the followings came i n t o force so far : the agreements concluded with Belgium and Luxemburg (see decree No. 7/1989 ( I . 15) MT), Denmark (see decree No. 6/1989 ( I . 15) MT, the United Kingdom (see decree No. 5/1988 ( I I . 12) MT, France (see decree No. 59/1987 ( X I . 29) MT, Finland (see decree No. 91/1989 ( V I I I . 17) MT, the Netherlands (see decree No 83/1988 ( V I I I . 1) MT, the Republic of Korea (see decree No. 46/1989 (V. 31) MT, the Federal Republic of Germany (see Law-decree No. 5 of 1988 of the Presidium of the Hungarian People's Republic), Switzerland (see decree No. 89/1989 ( V I I I . 5) MT, and Sweden (see decree No. 25/1987 ( V I I . 28) MT. ^Law-decree No. 27 of 1987 on the promulgation of the agreement on the settlement of investment disputes between states and the physical and l e g a l persons of other states, signed i n Washington DC on March 18, 1965. 4 Law-decree No. 7 of 1989 on the promulgation of the Convention on the establishment of an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Agency on Investment Insurance, signed i n Seoul on October 11, 1985. "'"Each Contracting Party guarantees i n connection w i t h investments, the transfer of investment p r o f i t s and the revenues of the investors of the other Contracting Party to t h e i r country of residence, with the reservation of the equitable and benevolent use of r i g h t s , based on t h e i r respective statutory r u l e s , to which each Contracting Party i s e n t i t l e d for a l i m i t e d delay, with reference to d i f f i c u l t i e s related to t h e i r balance of payments." (Decree No. 5/1988 ( I I . 12.) MT, a r t i c l e 7, indent ( 1 ) . ) ^Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Hungarian People's Republic on trade, commercial and economic co-operation. (88/595 EEC), A r t i c l e 11, O f f i c i a l Journal of the European Communities, 1988. L 327. V o r a comprehensive analysis of the problem see: Dienes-Oehm: A k ü l f ö l d i tőke magyarországi beruházásainak elősegítése a nemzetközi jog eszközeivel (Promotion of foreign c a p i t a l investments in Hungary by the means of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w ) . Külgazdaság, 1988/ pp. 17-27.; Mádl-Király: Legal Means of Protecting Foreign Investments. Publ.: I n s t i t u t e of Legal and Actninistrative Sciences of the Hingarian Academy of Sciences, 1989.; Martonyi: A k ü l f ö l d i beruházások j o g i kérdései (Legal problems of foreign investments). Külgazdaság, 1987. pp. 113-122., and Pogány: The Regulation of Foreign Investment i n Hungary - some Recent Developments. Manuscript, to be published soon i n the periodical ICSID Law Review.
g Section 1 of Act XXIV of 1988 on the investments of foreigners in Hungary. 9 "A foreign investor i s e n t i t l e d to an immediate compensation i n actual value, for a damage r e s u l t i n g from n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , expropriation or an other measure w i t h similar legal e f f e c t that effected h i s , her or i t s property." Act XXIV of 1988, section 1, indent ( 2 ) .
310
KIRÄLY, M. 10
See Decree No. 28/1972 (X. 3.) PM, section 11, indent ( 1 ) .
^ " T h e share of a corporation p r o f i t due to a foreigner as well as the amount due to a foreigner i n case of the cancellation of the corporation or the sale, p a r t l y or t o t a l , of the foreign share can be t r a n s f e r r e d to abroad f r e e l y , upon the commission of the foreigner and i n the currency in vtiich the investment was e f f e c t e d , provided t h a t the amount i n question i s at the disposal of the c o r p o r a t i o n . " Act No. XXIV of 1988, section 32, indent ( 1 ) . *The wording " i s at disposal" i s , a c t u a l l y , an unnecessary s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t , r e g r e t t a b l y , can be also misunderstood. I t was incorporated i n t o the Code by adopting the formulation of Section 9 of Act No. VI of 1988 on corporations. According to the i n t e n t i o n of the l e g i s l a t o r , the motivation of t h i s condition was, at the same time, only to emphasise the necessity of the a v a i l a b i l i t y of a F o r i n t cover, as a f i n a n c i a l basis. Consequently, there was no provision at a l l t h a t a remittance upon the cormiission of the foreign party could be e f f e c t e d only from the p r o f i t share in convertible currency. 12 Cf. K e l l e r / S i e h r : Allgemeine Lehren des Internationalen Privatrechts (General theses of P r i v a t e International Law). Schulthess Verlag, Zürich, 1986. p. 5. " A l l merchants may enter or leave England unharmed and without f e a r , and may stay or t r a v e l w i t h i n i t , by land or by water, for purposes of trade, free from a l l i l l e g a l exactions, in accordance with ancient and lawful customs." Magna Charta, point 41, from the year 1215. The o r i g i n a l document has been formulated i n L a t i n , and the above text i s a t r a n s l a t i o n , published by the B r i t i s h Museum in 1979. 14
Ibid.
^Some formulations of Section 1 of the Code such as "actual value" or compensation payable i n the currency i n v^iich the investment was effected" are r e s u l t s of the compromises of opposite interests. 16
Act XXIV of 1988, section 9, indent ( 2 ) .
^ The term " j o i n t company or corporation" i s used here as a synonym for a corporation functioning with foreign p a r t i c i p a t i o n , being aware that t h i s l a t t e r i s , beyond doubt, a more precise formulation. 18 Act No. XXIV of 1988, section 19 ( a ) . The corporation i s e n t i t l e d t o acquire the r i g h t of property or other r i g h t in r e l a t i o n w i t h land, needed for i t s economic a c t i v i t y as l a i d down i n the respective contract or s t a t u t e . Cf. Decree No. 79/ 1988 ( X I I . 31.) PM, section 2. 19 Act No. I of 1987 on the land, section 38, indent ( 1 ) ; Decree No. 26/1987 ( V I I . 30.) MT on the implementation of the Act on the land, section 1, f ) ; Decree No. 37/1988 ( I X . 5 . ) PIT on the a c q u i s i t i o n of landed property by f o r e i g n e r s , section 2, indent (1) f . At the same time, the approach of the recent statutory l e g i s l a t i o n on t h i s topic i s s t i l l not unequivocal. See Decree No. 145/1989 ( X I I . 27.) MT, section 1, and Decree No. 5/1990 ( I I . 7 . ) PM, section 3. For the antecedents of these r e s t r i c t i n g rules see also Law-decree No. 6 of 1974.
20 Law-decree No. 13 of 1979, section 18, indent ( 1 ) . The capacity at law, the economic q u a l i f i c a t i o n , the r i g h t s coupled to persons, and the legal r e l a t i o n s of the members to each other of a body corporate are to be judged by the personal r i g h t s in question. (2) The personal r i g h t of a body corporate i s the law of the s t a t e on the t e r r i t o r y of which the body corporate concerned has been r e g i s t e r e d . 21 C i v i l Code, section 685 c ) , according to the formulation of Act No. XXV of 1988 on the amendment of the C i v i l Code, section 4.
CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HUNGARY
311
The recognition of the contradictory nature o f national treatment i s reflected also in the b i l a t e r a l agreements on investment p r o t e c t i o n , concluded by Hungary, e . g . i n section 4 , indent (1) o f the British-Hungarian agreement. With an unclear wording, the claim for Most Favoured Nation treatment i s also conceptualized beside, or instead o f , national treatment. Cf. Pogány, op. c i t . i n Note 7 ) , p. 11. 23
Act No. XXIV of 1988, sections 14-17.
24
I b i d . sections 18 and 31, indent ( 3 ) .
25 "The s t a t u t o r y rules bearing upon wage r e g u l a t i o n and the system of material centives of the employees i n leading position are applicable to the corporation only i f rate of foreign share i s i n f e r i o r to 5 pc or HUF 5M, r e s p e c t i v e l y . " I b i d , section 26
inthe 29.
I b i d . c f . section 31, indent ( 3 ) .
27 See Law-decree No. 8 of 1987 on the a p p l i c a t i o n of the C i v i l Code of the Hungarian People's Republic to foreign t r a d i n g relations. 78 Act No. XXIV of 1988, section 35. 29 Author s i t a l i c s . ^Law-decree No. 13 of 1979 on private i n t e r n a t i o n a l
law, section 18, (see Note 20).
31
Author's i t a l i c s . 32 As i t i s c l e a r , one i s confronted here w i t h a rare rule of the Investment Code, of a t h i r d type, not only surpassing the c r i t e r i o n o f n a t i o n a l treatment b u t , rather, of an i n ferior level. 3
\attin:
The Law of
Corporations,
The Foundation Press,
Brooklyn,
1959. p.
67.
34 See Decree No. 5/1988 ( I I . 12.) MT promulgating the agreement w i t h the United Kingdom on the promotion and mutual protection of investments; a r t i c l e 3: n a t i o n a l treatment and the clause of the most favoured nation ( 1 ) : "Neither Contracting Party w i l l give a less favourable treatment to the investors of the other Contracting Party respecting the investments and revenues on i t s t e r r i t o r y than granted to the investments or revenues of i t s own i n v e s t o r s . " A r t i c l e 3. of the respective t r e a t y between Hungary and the Federal Republic of Germany has a similar p r o v i s i o n . 35
Decree No. 4/1975 ( I I I . 27.) KKM-PM.
3 ^Act No. XXV of 1948 on the n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of some i n d u s t r i a l enterprises; reasoning of the minister to section 11. 37 C l e a r l y , some d i s p o s i t i o n s e . g . the freedom of t r a n s f e r r i n g p r o f i t can be i n t e r p r e t e d only i n respect of a foreign i n v e s t o r .
38 I t seems that the C i v i l Code, enacted now more than three decades ago, i s exposed to sharp challenges. Some of them are mentioned i n the following for sake of an example, n o t i n g , however, that a more thorough analysis of the problem would surpass the frames of the present study, a) I t i s not sure that the s t r i c t rules of the preliminary contract ( C i v i l Code, sect i o n 208.), w i t h a very broad range of competences f o r the courts, f i t well into the l e g a l regulation system of a market economy. In view o f t h i s i t was not an unintentional measure t h a t , together w i t h several other legal provisions, the Law-decree No. 8 of 1978, referred to
KIRÄLY, M.
312
above several times, excluded the application of the dispositions i n question in case of legal disputes r e s u l t i n g from i n t e r n a t i o n a l trading r e l a t i o n s , b) Appearance of transactions of new type such as leasing, factoring requiring a p o s i t i v e regulation sooner or l a t e r , c) The Vienna Convention of 1980 on the i n t e r n a t i o n a l sale of goods (CISG) contains numerous modern s t i p u lations which ought to be incorporated into the i n t e r n a l law. The provisions of the Convention on commercial usances could be mentioned as good examples, d) Some "subcodes" coupled to certain contract types of the C i v i l Code contain several obsolete dispositions, e . g . the Decree No. 7/1978 ( I I . 1.) MT on the delivery and contractor's contracts of the economic organizations. 39 Law-decree No. 8 of 1978 on the a p p l i c a t i o n of the C i v i l Code of the Hungarian People's Republic to foreign trading relations. 40 For the economic analysis of this same problem see: Inotai : A k ü l f ö l d i működő toke változó megítélése a világgazdaságban (Changing assessment of the foreign working c a p i t a l i n the world eocnomy). Külgazdaság, 1989, pp. 3-16, p. 7. in p a r t i c u l a r . 41 Cf. Note 8). This recognition i s reflected i n the reformulation of the Constitution, see: Act No. XXXI of 1989, section 2. 42 Cf. Mádl: A külgazdaság és a nemzetközi beruházások joga a szocialista országokban (Foreign trade and the law of international investments in the s o c i a l i s t countries). Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest, 1988. pp. 30-35. 43
Brósz-Pólay:
Római
jog
(Roman law).
Tankönyvkiadó,
Budapest,
1974.
pp.
46-47.
CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HUNGARY
313
DIE MÖGLICHKEITEN UND DIE SCHRANKEN DER UNGARISCHEN KAPITALANLAGE M. Király Die Studie untersucht die Wirkung der Bestimmungen des Gesetzes 24 vom Jahre 1988 über die ausländischen I n v e s t i t i o n e n in Ungarn auf die Einführung des wirksamen K a p i t a l s . Nach dem Autor ergaben die Gewährleistungen des Gesetzes wichtige Teilergebnisse i n der Stützung der Anwesenheit des ausländischen Kapitals, aber es i s t v i e l s e i t i g zu beweisen, dass die echten anregenden Voraussetzungen nur die Entwicklung der Gesamtheit des Rechtssystems erschaffen kann.
ВОЗМОЖНОСТИ И ПРЕДЕЛЫ ЗАРУБЕЖНЫХ КАПИТАЛОВЛОЖЕНИЙ ПО ПОЛОЖЕНИЯМ КОДЕКСА BP ОБ ИНВЕСТИЦИЯХ М.
Кирай
В с т а т ь е р а с с м а т р и в а е т с я в л и я н и е положений З а к о н а № X X I V / 1 9 8 8 года на и н в е с т и ц и и и н о с т р а н ц е в в В е н г р и и с п р и с у т с т в и е м и н о с т р а н н о г о к а п и т а л а . Особо п о д ч е р к и в а е т с я в л и я н и е в о з м о ж н о с т е й и п р е д е л о в з а к о н о д а т е л ь с т в а с т о ч к и з р е н и я совместных п р е д п р и я т и й . Подробному и з у ч е н и ю п о д в е р г а ю т с я г а р а н т и и , преимущества и п р е ф е р е н ц и и , обеспечиваемые материальным п р а в о м . Подобным о б р а з о м и з у ч а ю т с я с о о т в е т с т в у ю щ и е импульсы, к о т о р ы е призваны с д е л а т ь и н о с т ранные к а п и т а л о в л о ж е н и я более интенсивными и эффективными, и к о т о р ы е п р и в о д я т к всеохватывающему р а з в и т и ю в с е й правовой с и с т е м ы с о р и е н т а ц и е й на рынок.
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 315-321 (1990)
INFORMATIQUES ÜN THE NEW REGULATION OF THE EMPLOYEE'S INVENTIONS AND INNOVATIONS
1. The p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r i l y accompanied by the m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f the l e g a l system. Therein, e s p e c i a l l y the f o l l o w i n g aspects p l a y a p a r t . The development o f the market economy, the p e r f e c t i o n of i t s l e g a l c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e t h e enforcement o f a r e g u l a t i o n f u r t h e r c o n s o l i d a t i n g the autonomy of the p a r t i c i p a n t s o f the market, t h e economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n t h i s connection - and i n c o n f o r m i t y also w i t h t h e consequent e x t e n s i o n o f the l e g a l s t a t e h o o d - i t comes t o the s o - c a l l e d der e g u l a t i o n i . e . t o t h e r e d u c t i o n and s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of the o v e r - c l r c u m s t a n t i a l l e g a l r u e l s , r e s t r i c t i n g and i n f l u e n c i n g the autonomous d e c i s i o n s . F i n a l l y , one should a l s o take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t the - r e p e a t e d l y d e c l a r e d - a m b i t i o n o f Hungary i s t h e adherence t o the European Economic Community, t h e r e f o r e , i n accordance t h e r e w i t h , t h e r e s u l t s and endeavours of t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f law i n the Common Market s h a l l be c o n s i d e r a b l y observed when modernizing the l e g a l system. The Hungarian system of the p r o t e c t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y produces a more advantageous s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n f o r t h e above e f f o r t s , t h a n the average. The r e c o d i f i c a t i o n of t h i s l e g a l f i e l d between 1969 and 1984 e s t a b l i s h e d an u p - t o - d a t e system o f i n s t i t u t i o n s and norms of t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y which o f f e r s adequate l e g a l frameworks f o r the f u n c t i o n of the market economy and, a t the same t i m e , which i s p r o p e r l y i n accordance w i t h t h e l a t e s t - u n i v e r s a l and European - s o l u t i o n s and conc e p t i o n s - i n t h e o p i n i o n not o n l y o f the home e x p e r t s but a l s o of the f o r e i g n ones. T h e r e f o r e , the p r o f e s s i o n a l g e n e r a l p u b l i c takes w i t h reason the view t h a t our system of the p r o t e c t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y w i l l not stand i n need o f r a d i c a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s w i t h i n a reasonable t i m e . This does not p r e c l u d e , however, some improvements, " c h i s e l i n g s " i n c e r t a i n f i e l d s . The government accepted i n 1989 t h e "package p l a n " of such m o d i f i c a t i o n s d e s i r a b l e i n the s h o r t run. (The v a r i o u s p r o f e s s i o n a l f o r o r g a n i z e d by the Hungarian A s s o c i a t i o n f o r the P r o t e c t i o n of I n d u s t r i a l Property have played s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n i t s p r e p a r a t i o n . ) This programme comprises t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of the p r o t e c t i o n p r o d u c t s o f the i n s e r t i o n of the p r o t e c t i o n of u t i l i t y models i n t o the forms o f p r o t e c t i o n , t h e enactment o f a s p e c i a l l e g a l norm f o r the p r o t e c t i o n of i n t e g r a t e d e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t s , as w e l l , as the f u r t h e r development of the e f f e c t i v e r e g u l a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o the inn o v a t i o n s and o f t h e emplyoee's i n v e n t i o n s . The r e - r e g u l a t i o n of t h i s l a t t e r f i e l d was e f f e c t e d i n 1989 by the government decrees Nos 77/1989 ( V I I . 1 0 . ) and 78/1989 ( V I I . 1 0 . ) . 2. The new r e g u l a t i o n m a i n t a i n e d the e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s , r e f l e c t e d i n the previous l e g a l r u e l s of 1983. They are e s p e c i a l l y the f o l l o w i n g ones: - The d e l i m i t a t i o n of the employee's i n v e n t i o n s i s e s t a b l i s h e d by a d e f i n i t e o b l i g a t i o n o f the i n v e n t o r based on a l e g a l r e l a t i o n ( p r i m a r i l y on a labour r e l a t i o n ) . - I n r e s p e c t o f the i n v e n t i o n s of employee's character t h e r i g h t of d i s p o s a l (the r i g h t t o the p a t e n t ) i s ex lege due t o the employer ( t o the person e n t i t l e d as from the s e r v i c e r e l a t i o n ) , t h i s r i g h t of d i s p o s a l may, however, devolve t o the i n v e n t o r , e i t h e r owing t o the e x p l i c i t s u r r e n d e r of t h e employer or as a consequence o f the f a c t t h a t the employer does not f i l e the p a t e n t a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h i n a d e f i n i t e t i m e . Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadő, Budapest
316
INFORMATIONES
- In r e s p e c t o f i n n o v a t i o n s , proposals f o r improvement can be f i l e d i n a wide range f u r t h e r on, i . e . n o t only f o r s o l u t i o n s of a t e c h n i c a l , but a l s o those of an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . The p r i n c i p l e a l s o p r e v a i l s f u r t h e r on, t h a t t h e employee's o b l i g a t i o n does not mean an e x c l u d i n g circumstance i . e . everybody ( a l s o a developing e n g i n e e r , a r e s e a r c h worker, e t c . ) may f i l e a proposal f o r i n n o v a t i o n . (The employee's o b l i g a t i o n may have an e f f e c t i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s . See the next i t e m . ) - The r e l a t i o n between the employer and t h e c r e a t o r ( i n n o v a t o r , i n v e n t o r ) i s a c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n fundamentally o f a c i v i l - l a w c h a r a c t e r . The c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e remuneration due - as an e n t i t l e m e n t , beyond the wages - t o the i n v e n t o r and i n n o v a t o r i s d e t e r m i n e d by a c o n t r a c t between the i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s . (As a m a t t e r o f course, r i g h t s of p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r are a l s o due t o t h e c r e a t o r s , t h e l e g a l norm i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s also the forms of t h e i r m o r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . ) Those persons ( p a r t i c i p a n t s ) s h a l l be s i m i l a r l y s t i m u l a t e d who promote by t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s of non-creative c h a r a c t e r but exceeding t h e i r l a b o u r - l a w o b l i g a t i o n s the i n t r o d u c t i o n and p r o p a g a t i o n of t h e i n v e n t i o n s and i n n o v a t i o n s . - I t i s f u r t h e r on a guarantee t h a t i n each e s s e n t i a l q u e s t i o n ( e . g . a u t h o r s h i p , s e r v i c e c h a r a c t e r , remuneration) t h e d e c i s i o n o f disputes r e l a t i n g t o the employee's i n v e n t i o n s and i n n o v a t i o n s belongs t o the competence of the c o u r t s . 3. The amendments i n t r o d u c e d by the l e g i s l a t i o n of 1989 can be summarized, as f o l l o w s : - The r e g u l a t i o n has become c o n s i d e r a b l y s i m p l i f i e d and i s c o n f i n e d t o the r u l e s h e l d e s s e n t i a l . Thus, i n r e s p e c t o f the i n n o v a t i o n s , regul a t i o n s a l i e n t o c i v i l law, b e i n g , so to say, o f a "movement" c h a r a c t e r , r e l a t i n g t o e . g . t h e o b l i g a t o r y e n t e r p r i s e s t a t u t e s , ' t o the y e a r l y "plans of d u t i e s " e t c . a r e neglected. (The l e g i s l a t o r wanted by no means to say thereby t h a t they m i g h t not be i n given cases u s e f u l methods s t i m u l a t i n g and c o n s c i o u s l y o r g a n i z i n g the c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , he considered, however, t h e i r o b l i g a t o r y p r e s c r i p t i o n unnecessary and r e l e g a t e d t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e competence o f the e n t e r p r i s e s or v a r i o u s s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . ) The ommission of the s o - c a l l e d d i r e c t i v e s may be p u t a l s o here - i n accordance w i t h the tendencies of d e r e g u l a t i o n . P r e v i o u s l y , the N a t i o n a l O f f i c e of I n v e n t i o n s gave recommendations t o the s t a t u t e s o f the e n t e r p r i s e s e . g . f o r the method of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of r e m u n e r a t i o n s , e t c . i n r e l a t i v e l y d e t a i l e d d i r e c t i v e s . These d i r e c t i v e s were q u a l i f i e d by no means as l e g a l r u l e s , t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n r e s u l t e d , however, i n a c e r t a i n s t e r e o t y p i f y i n g . - I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the f o r e g o i n g , the new l e g a l r u l e s n e g l e c t the l a y i n g down of the - h i t h e r t o customary - t a r i f f s o f i n f o r m a t o r y c h a r a c t e r and of the f a c t o r s i n c r e a s i n g or r e d u c i n g the c a t h e g o r i e s of t a r i f f s . The former r e g u l a t i o n was, of course, o f p e r m i s s i v e c h a r a c t e r , the p r a c t i c e a p p l i e d i t , however, almost m e c h a n i c a l l y . The new r e g u l a t i o n b u i l d s cons c i o u s l y upon the " m a j o r i t y " of t h e e n t e r p r i s e s , upon the d e l i b e r a t i o n of t h e i r i n t e r e s t s i n v o l v e d i n the c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y . The l e g a l r u l e s render p o s s i b l e f o r the e n t e r p r i s e s t o i s s u e i n t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n s s e t t l i n g c e r t a i n p r o c e d u r a l - r e g i s t e r i n g q u e s t i o n s , on the one hand, and determining - so t o say as "general c o n d i t i o n s of c o n t r a c t " - the u s u a l c o n d i t i o n s , on the other hand, the enforcement of which i s s t r i v e n a f t e r by the e n t e r p r i s e i n the i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r a c t s t o be e n t e r e d i n t o w i t h t h e i n v e n t o r s and innov a t o r s . (Here, i t i s w o r t h c a l l i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n t o the f a c t t h a t according t o the C i v i l Code t h e u n i l a t e r a l g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s can be c o n t e s t e d before the c o u r t i n given c a s e s . ) As f o r t h e measure o f remuneration, the legal
INFORMATIONES
317
r u l e s o r d a i n o n l y t h a t i t must be p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o the advantage ensured by the c r e a t i o n ( i n v e n t i o n , i n n o v a t i o n ) (which can be commensurable not o n l y w i t h money b u t can mean e . g . the advantage r e f l e c t e d i n s a f e r labour c o n d i t i o n s , i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t - p r o t e c t i n g c h a r a c t e r , e t c . ) , and t o the " c o n t r i b u t i o n " o f the c r e a t o r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . ( W i t h t h i s approach, the Hungarian l e g i s l a t o r has r e l i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y on t h e conception o f t h e 1957 l e g i s l a t i o n of the FRG.) - The new l e g a l r u l e s have rendered more unambiguous the l o c a t i o n o f the r i g h t o f d i s p o s a l depending on the v a r i o u s c a t h e g o r i e s of the i n n o v a t i o n s . I n case of i n n o v a t i o n s the f i l i n g of which i s q u a l i f i e d a t t h e same time as the o b l i g a t i o n of the i n n o v a t o r as an employee, the employer disposes of the t e c h n i c a l ( o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l ) s o l u t i o n t o be considered an i n n o v a t i o n , i t may u t i l i z e i t not only i n the range o f i t s own economic a c t i v i t i e s b u t may s e l l i t t o t h i r d p a r t i e s . For the i n n o v a t i o n s , however, which are not connected w i t h the employee's l a b o u r ' o b l i g a t i o n , the employer obtains p r a c t i c a l l y a "simple" licence o n l y , a licence of e x p l o i t a t i o n , b u t the i n n o v a t o r i s e n t i t l e d t o r e a l i z e t h e s o l u t i o n , t o put i t i n t o t h e business c i r c u l a t i o n . A l l these r u l e s a r e , however, of p e r m i s s i v e c h a r a c t e r , the c o n t r a c t i n g p a r t i e s may agree upon o t h e r w i s e , t o o . 4. The above mentioned new decrees e n t e r e d i n t o e f f e c t by January 1 s t , 1990. P r a c t i c a l experiences supporting t h e e f f o r t s of t h e l e g i s l a t o r , t h e i r success are - t o an a p p r e c i a b l e e x t e n t - not yet a v a i l a b l e . The i d e a s b u i l d i n g upon the m a j o r i t y of the e n t e r p r i s e s , upon t h e c a r e f u l e n t e r i n g i n t o c o n t r a c t of the i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s do not depend e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n . For t h i s purpose t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f f a c t o r s o u t s i d e the l a w , namely the economic environment promoting t h e e n t e r p r i s e , t h e i n n o v a t i o n , the c r e a t i v i t y , the s u i t a b l e development and f o r m a t i o n o f the f i n a n c i a l r u l e s s t i m u l a t i n g the former ones ( e . g . t a x a t i o n ) i s a l s o necessary, moreover, primary. The Hun g a r i a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r the P r o t e c t i o n of I n d u s t r i a l Property, b e i n g the s o c i a l b a s i s of the Hungarian i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y p r o t e c t i o n , has a d v e r t i s e d - t o g e t h e r w i t h the National O f f i c e of I n v e n t i o n s - a c o m p e t i t i o n f o r summarizing and v a l u a t i n g the experiences of the f i r s t period and w o u l d i n t r o d u c e and discuss t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e framework o f a Conference. E. L o n t a i
ÜBER DIE STAATLICHE VERMÖGENSAGENTUR I c h muss m i t e i n e r s u b j e k t i v e n Bemerkung beginnen, was im Zusammenhang mit der Darlegung eines Gesetzes n i c h t ü b l i c h i s t . Infolgedessen, dass diese Darlegungen i n e i n e r fremdsprachigen F a c h z e i t s c h r i f t erscheinen, b i n i c h ä u s s e r s t gespannt, ob es gelingen w i r d den Text der Gesetze entsprechend den Absichten der Gesetzgeber zu i n t e r p r ä t i e r e n . Die T ä t i g k e i t der Vermögensagentur - h e i s s t es i n der Begründung e r s t r e c k t s i c h i n i h r e r e r s t e n Stufe auf das i n e i n e G e s e l l s c h a f t umgewandelte oder umzuwandelnde s t a a t l i c h e Unternehmungsvermögen. Im Zuge dessen w i r d es i h r möglihc " d i e E i g e n t ü m e r r o l l e des Staates wirksam zu v e r t r e t e n , zur g l e i c h e n Z e i t w i l l s i e aber weder durch die Umformungen, noch im Zusammenhang m i t den W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t e n i n e i n e ausschliessliche
318
INFORMATIONES
E i g e n t ü m e r p o s i t i o n g e l a n g e n " . Das w i r d i n der Begründung v e r m u t l i c h d e s h a l b u n t e r s t r i c h e n , w e i l ( i n f o l g e des g e w a l t i g e n Umfangs des v e r s t a a t l i c h t e n Vergömgens d i e V e r g e s e l l s c h a f t l i c h u n g und P r i v a t i s i e r u n g ) desselben, sowie dessen Verwaltung auf s t a a t l i c h e und auch U n t e r n e h m e n - I n i t i a t i v e r e a l i s i e cent werden s o l l . Die Vermögensagentur kann i n diesem Vorgang - wie es i n der Begründung betont w i r d - e i n wirksames M i t t e l d a s t e l l e n . Es t a u c h t mit Recht d i e Frage a u f : was war e i g e n t l i c h die A b s i c h t der Rechtsgebung m i t der V o r l a g e dieses Gesetzes. Die A n t w o r t hat mehrere Aspekte: v o r a l l e m s i c h e r l i c h der Umstand, dass die eigentümerische bzw. d i e b e h ö r d l i c h e Funktion des Staates g e t r e n n t w i r d , was auch i n der sogenannten s o z i a l i s t i s c h e n w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e n neuen Mechanismen n i c h t der F a l l w a r . A n d e r e r s e i t s s o l l t e d i e E i g e n t ü m e r p o s i t i o n des Staates im I n t e r e s s e der konsequenten V e r w i r k l i c h u n g des s t a a t l i c h e n Eigentums bezw. der s t a a t l i c h e n P r i v a t i s i e r u n g s p o l i t i k g e k r ä f t i g t werden. Als Ergänzung zu d i e s e r F e s t s t e l l u n g muss man w i s s e n , dass e i n e r der l e i t e n d e n Fachmänner der f r ü h e r e n Regierung der Meinung war, dass im Zuge der P r i v a t i s a t i o n u n v e r m e i d l i c h - k l a r herausgesagt: - Gemeinheiten v o r kommen. Dem möchte das Gesetz e n t g e g e n t r e t e n . Diese Erscheinungen wurden dadurch a u s g e l ö s t , dass d e r Marktwert des s t a a t l i c h e n Vermögens n i c h t f e s t gelegt w a r ; d i e Begründung des Gesetzes h a t s i c h auch das zum Z i e l g e s e t z t . Die Begründung des Gesetzes hat s i c h noch d r e i w e i t e r e Z i e l e g e s t e c k t . Das eine i s t , dass die zwecksmässigsten Formen der F u n k t i o n i e r u n g der e i n zelnen s t a a t l i c h e n Vermögensteile herausgeformt werden; das zweite Z e i l wäre, d i e a u f K a p i t a l i n t e r e s s i e r t h e i t gründende F u n k t i o n i e r u n g des s t a a t l i c h e n Vermögens, die Auswahl der dazu geeigneten Eigentümer zu f ö r d e r n ; und zum d r i t t e n : die Änderung der W i r t s c h a f t s s t r u k t u r und d i e Verminderung der S t a a t s s c h u l d h e r b e i z u f ü h r e n . Es s e i bemerkt, d i e Schulden des ungarischen S t a a t e s wurden s e i t e n s des Staatsrechnungshofes i n einem Betrag von 1300 M i l l i a r d e n F o r i n t e n f e s g e s e t z t . § 7 bestimmt k a t e g o r i s c h den Kreis des zur Vermögensagentur gehörenden Vermögens, es w i r d a u s f ü h r l i c h a u f g e z ä h l t , welche A r t des Vermögens, beziehungsweise welche Vermögensteilte zum Vermögensfonds gehören. ( I n der Begründung w i r d der Ausdruck "Vermögensfonds" angewendet, obzwar i n § 7 dieser Ausdruck n i c h t a u f s c h e i n t . Das i s t o f f e n s i c h t l i c h e i n " F r e u d " - i s c h e r Fehlausdruck, b i l d e n doch d i e Vermögensgegenstände des Staates n o r m a l e r weise eine Vermögensbasis. Um was f ü r e i n Vermögen, bzw. Vermögensteile mag es sich h i e r wohl handeln? - können w i r uns die Frage s t e l l e n . Zur V e r mögensagentur gehören l a u t § 7 des Gesetzes Vermögen, beginnend m i t den zum Vermögen der aufgrund des sog. Umwandlungsgesetzes i n W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t e umgestalteten s t a a t l i c h e n Unternehmen und s o n s t i g e r s t a a t l i c h e n W i r t s c h a f t s o r g a n e gehörenden n i c h t i n den Besitz von äusseren U n t e r nehmen gelangsämtlichen G e s c h ä f t s a n t e i l e und Aktien, f e r n e r , im F a l l e von s t a a t l i c h e n Unternehmen, d i e unter der allgemeinen L e i t u n g eines U n t e r nehmenrates und D e l e g i e r t e n t a g u n g f u n k t o n i e r h a b e n eine 20%-ige Quote des i n der Vermögensbilanz f i g u r i e r e n d e n , den Unternehmen z u f a l l e n d e n Geschäftsuma n t e i l s ( A k t i e n ) , bzw. e i n e vereinbarungsgemässe Quote (§ 17 Abs. / 3 / des wandlungs G 3 s e t z e s ) , f e r n e r - das Recht d e r Veräusserung u n b e r ü h r t lassend - j e n e G e s c h ä f t s a n t e i l e , die d i e W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t aufgrund § 23 Abs. / 1 / , zwecks Veräusserung zu b e h a l t e n b e r e c h t i g t i s t . Im w e i t e r e n gehört zur S t a a t l i c h e n Vermögensagentur j e n e s unter d i e v o r h i n erwähnten Bestimmungen n i c h t gehörende G e s e l l s c h a f t s vermögen, das s i c h b e r e i t s v o r dem I n k r a f t t r e t e n des Umformungsgesetzes Eigentum des S t a a t e s b i l d e t e und auch im Z e i t p u n k t des I n k r a f t t r e t e n s des Gesetzes im B e s i t z des Staates w a r . Und s c h l i e s s l i c h gehören z u r Vermögensagentur (gemäss § 7 / с / ) jene nach der L i q u i d i e r u n g der s t a a t l i c h e n W i r t s c h a f t s o r g a n i s a t i o n e n i n S t a a t s b e s i t z )
INFORMATIONES
319
v e r b l e i b e n d e n Vermögensgegenstände und jenes s t a a t l i c h e Vermögen, welches durch e i n s e p a r a t e s Gesetz oder Parlamentsbeschluss der Vermögensagentur zugewiesen w i r d . Angesichts der obigen kann d i e Frage g e s t e l l t werden, d i e auch beantw o r t e t werden muss: was gehört dann n i c h t z u r Vermögensagentur? Vor a l l e m das i n e i n e r W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t b e f i n d l i c h e Vermögen der Budgetorgane, m i t der Bedingung, dass dessen Quelle e i n e i g e n e s , im Budgergesetz oder i n e i n e r s o n s t i g e n Rechtsnorm f e s t g e l e g t e s eigenes F i n a n z m i t t e l war, b e z i e hungsweise das i n den durch s i e f ü r W o h l f a h r t s - und Betriebszweige gegründet e n W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t e n b e f i n d l i c h e Vermögen der Budgetorgane, und es g e h ö r t n i c h t z u r S t a a t l i c h e n Vermögensagentur das i n s t a a t l i c h e n U n t e r nehmen und s o n s t i g e n s t a a t l i c h e n w i r t s c h a f t e n d e n Organisationen b e f i n d l i c h e Vermögen. Es f o l g t e i n s c h w i e r i g e r P u n k t : die Ziehung der Konsquenzen. Wir r e s k i e r e n es auszusagen, dass d u r c h d i e E r r i c h t u n g der S t a a t l i c h e n Vermögensagentur d i e T e i l u n g des s t a a t l i c h e n Vermögens begonnen h a t . Gemeint i s t d a m i t , dass e i n T e i l des f ü r s t a a t l i c h e Unternehmungen bestimmten Vermögens z u r S t a a t l i c h e n Vermögensagentur g e l a n g t e , über andere T e i l e desselben v e r fügen Gründer von W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t e n und s c h l i e s s l i c h g i b t es noch unternehmungsbedingte Vermögensgegenstände, über deren S c h i c k s a l noch e n t schieden werden muss. (Darüber v e r f ü g t auch § 9 Abs. / 2 / des Gesetzes.) Übrigens i s t d i e Konzepiton ( n ä m l i c h e Abmessung der eine s t a a t l i c h e U n t e r nehmung zum Z i e l habenden Vermögensteile, d i e Ausfindigmachung und konsequente Durchfühung der zwecksmässigsten Form i h r e r Betätigung) die schwerste Aufgabe. Auch das i s t keine l e i c h t e Sache, - was übrigens das Gesetz versucht - , dass das eine Unternehmung bezweckende s t a a t l i c h e Vermögen zwischen dem Zentrum und den S e l b s t v e r w a l t u n g e n g e t e i l t w i r d . D i e s b e z ü g l i c h v e r s p r i c h t das Gesetz Nr. V I I von 1990 d i e Schaffung e i n e s separaten Gesetzes, das dann b e z ü g l i c h des Eigentumsrechts des Vermögens der s e i t e n s der Räte (nach unserem Wortgebrauch: Selbstverwaltungen) gegründeten und u n t e r der A u f s u c h t der Räte stehenden s t a a t l i c h e n W i r t s c h a f t s o r g a n i s a t i o n e n , resp. bez ü g l i c h des von dem s i c h aus d i e s e n O r g a n i s a t i o n e n umwandelnden W i r t s c h a f t s o r g a n i s a t i o n e n dem Staat z u f a l l e n d e n Vermögensteils v e r f ü g t . Des erwähnte Gesetz v e r s p r i c h t e i n separates Gesetz auch noch h i n s i c h t l i c h der im B e s i t z des Staates b e f i n d l i c h e n A k t i e n der Ungarischen Nationalbank b e t r e f f e n d d i e Ausübung der Eigentümerrechte des S t a a t e s , doch durch d i e s e beiden Ges e t z e i s t d i e Problematik des i n s t a a t l i c h e m Besitz b e f i n d l i c h e n U n t e r nehmungsvermögens s i c h e r l i c h n i c h t e r l e d i g t . Wir wollen b l o s s auf das i n der Verwaltung der Ungarischen W i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e n Akademie b e f i n d l i c h e n Vermögen h i n w e i s e n . Es s e i uns g e s t a t t e t i n d i e s e r H i n s i c h t a u f Punkt 2 der am 23. August 1990 verabschiedeten Verordnung des P r ä s i d e n t e n der Föder a t i o n der S o v j e t i s c h e n S o z i a l i s t i s c h e n R e p u b l i k über d i e R e c h t s s t o l l u n g der W i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e n Akademie der S o v j e t u n i o n , im Sinne dessen "Grundmitt e l und s o n s t i g e s Staatsvermögen, die s i c h gegenwärtig i n Verwendung der I n s t i t u t e , L a b o r a t o r i e n , Unternehmen und Organisationen d e r Wissenschaftl i c h e n Akademie der S o v j e t u n i u n b e f i n d e n , müssen d i r e k t i n i h r Eigentum gegeben w e r d e n . . . " . Nach a l l dem i s t es e i n e v e r s t ä n d l i c h e Neugier, welche Rechte d e r S t a a t l i c h e n Vermögensagentur b e t r e f f e n d d i e s e - nennen w i r - Vermögensfonds z u f a l l e n . Von diesen Rechten w o l l e n w i r folgendes hervorheben: v o r a l l e m , dass s i e d i e dem Gründerorgan z u f a l l e n d e n Rechte über kann, s i e kann f e r n e r das Unternehmen u n t e r S t a a t s v e r w a l t u n g s a u f s i c h t s t e l l e n ; s i e kann f ü r d i e V o r b e r e i t u n g der Verwertung bzw. der Nutzbarmachung desselben Sorge t r a g e n ; ausnahmsweise und p r o v i s o r i s c h kann s i e Vermögensverwaltung a u s üben; s i e kann über den sog. Umwandlungsplan Meinung äussern und kann auch
320
INFORMATIONES
Vorschläge u n t e r b r e i t e n ( s i e kann an das umzuwandelnde Unternehmen - vor allem wenn die Umwandlung die I n t e r e s s e n der G e s e l l s c h a f t o f f e n s i c h t l i c h v e r l e t z t , oder der N a t i o n a l w i r t s c h a f t schadet, - b i n n e n 60 Tage) gerechnet vom E r h a l t des Umwandlungsplans, d i e Umwandlung a b s t e l l e n . Gegen diese Entscheidung g i b t es k e i n e n r i c h t e r l i c h e n Weg. Die Rechte der s t a a t l i c h e n Vermögensagentur h ö r e n nach der Umwandlung n i c h t a u f . Wenn n ä m l i c h i n n e r h a l b d r e i Jahre nach d e r Umwandlung d i e W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t d i e G e s c h ä f t s a n t e i l e ( A k t i e n ) derweise verwerten w i l l , dass das d i e Eigentümerinteressen des Staates v e r l e t z t , kann die Vermögensagentur d i e i n Rede stehenden G e s c h ä f t s a n t e i l e ( A k t i e n ) zu s i c h nehmen (gegen Bezahlung der der W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t gemäss des Umwandlungsgesetzes zustehenden Quote; dessen höhe w i r d a u f g r u n d des O f f e r t e n p r e i s e s festgelegt). Es war auch davon d i e Rede, das d i e S t a a t l i c h e Vermögensagentur ausnahmsweise auch Vermögenverwaltung üben kann. Deshalb s o l l t e man w i s s e n , was das überhaupt b e d e u t e t , und auch d a s , was u n t e r Nutzbarmachung des Vermögens zu verstehen i s t . Im Zusammenhang damit besagt das Gesetz vor a l l e m , dass das i n s t a a t l i c h e n Unternehmen t ä t i g e Vermögen durch jede b e l i e b i g e i n l ä n d i s c h e oder a u s l ä n d i s c h e Rechtsperson, W i r t s c h a f t g e s e l l s c h a f t ohne R e c h t s p e r s ö n l i c h k e i t , und auch durch i n d i v i d u e l l e Unternehmer v e r w a l t e t werden kann, wenn d i e Vermögensagentur m i t diesen V e r t r a g geschlossen h a t . ( H i n s i c h t l i c h der Ausländer muss auch das Gesetz XXIV von 1988 i n B e t r a c h t gezogen werden.) Das i s Unternehmungen t ä t i g e Vermögen des S t a a t e s Vermögen kann durch Wettbewerb i n Verwaltung gegeben oder v e r m i e t e t , bzw. verwertet werden. Der Wettbewerb w i r d durch d i e Vermögensagentur ausgeschrieben - mindestens 7 Tage v o r dem zur E i n r e i c h u n g f e s t g e l e g t e n Anfangsdatum - und i n zwei zent r a l e n T a g e s b l ä t t e r n v e r k ü n d i g t . Die Wettbewerbe s i n d ö f f e n t l i c h , es s e i denn d i e D i r e k t i o n s b e r a t u n g der Vermögensagentur h a t t e einer geschlossenen e i n l a d u n g s b e d ü r f t i g e n Ausschreibung des Wettbewerbs zugestimmt. ( I n einem solchen F a l l müssen d i e i n t e r e s s i e r t e n P a r t e i e n u n m i t t e l b a r zum Wettbewerb eingeladen werden.) Über das Ergebnis des Wettbewerbs e n t s c h e i d e t d i e D i r e k t i o n s b e r a t u n g der Vermögensagentur. Die Agentur kann nur mit der j e n i g e n P a r t e i einen V e r t r a g eingehen, d i e den Wettbewerb gewonnen h a t . ( B e i einem ausländischen Bewerber i s t die Bedingung des V e r t r a g s , dass der Bewerber im I n l a n d W i r t s c h a f t s g e s e l l s c h a f t gründen kann.) D i e Vermögensagentur s c h l i e s s t f ü r d i e Verwaltung des s t a a t l i c h e n Vermögens m i t den obsigenden Parteien des Wettbewerbs V e r t r ä g e . I n h a l t der Verträge w i r d f r e i f e s t g e l e g t ( i n n e r h a l b der Rahmen des Gesetzes und s o n s t i g e r Rechtsnormen, sowie der ö f f e n t l i c h v e r l a u t b a r t e n Bedingungen und V o r s c h r i f t e n des Wettbewerbs). Der Vermögenverw a l t u n g s v e r t r a g kann 10 Jahre n i c h t ü b e r s t e i g e n . I n dem Vertrag d i e s e n Typs ( d . i . Vermögenverwaltungs-Werkvertrag) v e r p f l i c h t e t s i c h der Vermögensverwalter, dass er f ü r den seitens der Vermögensagentur zu zahlenden Lohn die Eigentümmerchte über das Vermögen ausübt - m i t ausnähme der Veräusserung - und zwar d e r w e i s e , dass er d i e Verb i n d l i c h k e i t e i n g e h t , den entsprechend dem Vermögen im voraus f e s t g e l e g t e n E r t r a g ( D i v i d e n d e , G e w i n n b e t e i l i g u n g ) zu e r z i e l e n und v e r p f l i c h t e t s i c h das im Vermögenswertvertrag f e s t g e l e g t e Niveau zu h a l t e n oder zu e r r e i c h e n . (Die Vermögensagentur und der Vermögensverwalter können auch abmachen, das d i e Vermögensverwaltung einen T e i l des Ertrages dem Verwalter ü b e r l ä s s t . Darauf muss aber i n den Bedingungen der Bewerbung hingewiesen w e r d e n . ) Der sog. Vermögenverwaltungs-Mietvertrag hat e i n e n anderen Charakter a l s der vorangegangene. Hier z a h l t der Vermögensverwalter der Vermögensagentur einen P r e i s , d e r E r t r a g g e h ö r t aber ihm. (Über d i e Niveauhaltung muss auch h i e r e i n Abkommen geschlossen werden, doch der Verwalter kann einen bestimmten T e i l des Ertrags der Vermögensverwaltung ü b e r l a s s e n . )
INFORMATIONES
321
Der d r i t t e Typ des V e r t r a g e s , den d i e Parteien m i t e i n a n d e r s c h l i e s s e n können, i s t der sog. P o r t f o l i o Vermögenverwaltungsvertrag. I n diesem V e r t r a g nimmt der Vermögensverwalter auf s i c h , dass er gegen e i n e n s e i t e n s der Vermögensagentur ihm zu zahlenden Lohn d i e Eigentümerrechte über das V e r mögen ausübt - das Recht der Veräusserung m i t v e r s t a n d e n - und zwar d e r weise, dass e r s i c h v e r p f l i c h t e t , d i e im Vertrag f e s t g e l e g t e E r t r a g - und Vermögenvermehrung zu e r r e i c h e n ( e r s t e V a r i a t i o n ) . Die z w e i t e V a r i a t i o n i s t dass s i c h der Vermögensverwalter v e r p f l i c h t e t entweder der einen V e r s i o n ( e i n f e s t g e l e g t e r E r t r a g ) oder der anderen ( e i n e f e s t g e s e t z t e Vermögenszunahme) nachzukommen. Im V e r t r a g können s i c h d i e V e r t r a g s p a r t e i e n auch i n der T e i l u n g des Ertrags v e r e i n b a r e n . Wir f i n d e n im Gesetz auch Regeln b u c h h a l t e r i s c h e n C h a r a k t e r s . So z . B . kann der V e l w a l t e r den s e i t e n s der Vermögensagentur g e z a h l t e n Lohn a l s E i n nahme, seine im Zusammenhang m i t der Vermögensverwaltung aufgetauchten Ausgaben ( f ü r d i e Vermögensagentur g e z a h l t e r P r e i s usw.) a l s Kosten verrechnen Eine beachtenswerte Verfügung i s t , dass der Vermögensverwalter während der Dauer des Vertrags b e i der Vermögensagentur beantragen kann, den s e i n e r s e i t s verwahrten Vermögensanteil abzukaufen. Die Vermögensagentur kann aber d i e veräusserung auch aus eigenen Stücken, ohne äussere I n i t i a t i v e , beantragen. Das s t a a t l i c h e Vermögen kann f ü r jede b e l i e b i g e i n l ä n d i s c h e une ausländische n a t ü r l i c h e oder Rechtsperson, f ü r j e d e G e s e l l s c h a f t ohne R e c h t s p e r s ö n l i c h k e i t und f ü r jeden i n d i v i d u e l l e n Unternehmer v e r ä u s s e r t werden. Zusammengefasst: Diese Rechtsnorm, der im Sinne des § 8 / 2 / s p ä t e r noch Gesetze f o l g e n werden, i s t eine w i c h t i g e Rechtsgebung des ungarischen P r i v a t i s a t i o n s v o r g a n g e s . Z w e i f e l l o s muss d i e I n i t i a t i v e von S e i t e n des ungarischen Partners, von der S t a a t l i c h e n Vermögensagentur ausgehen, ausserhalb der Bewerbung kann nämlich k e i n ungarisches Unternehmen und auch k e i n G e s c h ä f t s a n t e i l erworben werden. ( I n der Wettbewerbsausschreibung bestimmt d i e S t a a t l i c h e Vermögensagentur den i n Verwahrung zu geben den V e r mögensanteil ( G e s c h ä f t s a n t e i l , A k t i e n ) , sowie deren W e r t , d i e Verwahrungsbedingungen, d i e e r f o r d e r n i s s e b e z ü g l i c h der G e s c h ä f t s p o l i t i k , wie auch den Ort und den Endtermin der E i n r e i c h u n g der Bewerbung, der n i c h t weniger s e i n kann a l s o 15 Tage. F a l l s d i e Bewerbung d i e v o l l e oder e i n e T e i l v e r ä u s s e r u n g zum Z i e l h a t , muss d i e V e r l a u t b a r u n g auch d i e w i c h t i g e r e n B i l a n z d a t e n und den V e r ä u s s e r u n g s - R i c h t p r e i s b e i n h a l t e n . ) I n der Z u k u n f t kann auch v o r kommen, dass d i e Ausländer e i n z e l n e Unternehmen f ü r s i c h "auswählen". Anges i c h t s dessen, dass d i e Regierung b i s 1994 e i n S t a a t l i c h e s Vermögen im Werte von 2400 M i l l i a r d e n p r i v a t i s i e r e n w i l l , e r s c h l i e s s t s i c h f ü r d i e ausl ä n d i s c h e n Unternehmen und I n v e s t a n t e n e i n e z i e m l i c h b r e i t e M ö g l i c h k e i t . E. Ferenczy
Acta J u r i d i c a Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 323-326 (1990)
337 R E C E N S I O N E S ECONOMIC CRIMINAL OFFENCES (A THEORY OF ECONOMIC CRIMINAL LAW) Wiener, I . A . Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1990. 108 p .
Imre A. Wiener i s a s p e c i a l i s t o f economic c r i m i n a l law pven beyond the f r o n t i e r s o f our c o u n t r y . He has d e a l t w i t h economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s f o r s e v e r a l decades and has p u b l i s h e d i n t h e meantime a l o t of s t u d i e s and expounded h i s views on the s u b j e c t m a t t e r on many i n t e r n a t i o n a l conferences The p r e s e n t book i s the summary of h i s oeuvre on the s u b j e c t . The q u e s t i o n whether the matter i s the product o f s c i e n t i f i c s e n s i t i v i t y , or a mere c o i n c i d e n c e , i s o f secondary importance. However, i t i s a matter o f f a c t , t h a t the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the book r e p r e s e n t s not only t h e completion o f t h e research work of t h e author i n the f i e l d o f the economic c r i m i n a l l a w , but i t i s a l s o a m i l e s t o n e t o the end of the c r i m i n a l law t o be marked w i t h t h e a t t r i b u t e " s o c i a l i s t " , s i n c e the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l system c a l l e d s o c i a l i s m i s w e l l g o i n g on i n t h e f a t h e r l a n d o f t h e author. The book c o n s i s t s o f seven c h a p t e r s . The f i r s t c h a p t e r i n t r o d u c e s t h e general c h a r a c t e s t i e s o f economic d e l i q u e n c y and t h e economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s i n the c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , on t h e one hand, and i n the s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , on the o t h e r . As the above mentioned s o c i a l process takes p l a c e a l s o o u t s i d e of Hungary, the p o l i t i c a l a c t u a l i t y o f t h e book may be of q u e s t i o n . However, the book i s a s c i e n t i f i c and p a r t i c u l a r l y a t h e o r e t i c a l work, t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l p o i n t s of view a r e of primary importance. The p i c t u r e drawn i n t h i s chapter i s , however, h i g h l y g e n e r a l and sketches the economic c r i m i n a l laws o f the two s o c i a l systems o n l y i n some w e l l a p p r e h e n s i b l e a s p e c t s . The reason t h e r e o f s h o u l d not be searched i n the a b s t r a c t i o n from the p o l i t i c a l a c t u a l i t i e s , but r a t h e r i n t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e h e t e r o g e n e i t y which may be found w i t h fundamental s c i e n t i f i c conceptions, a c c o r d i n g t o the a u t h o r . The author names t h e deliquency connected w i t h the economy, the economic d e l i q u e n c y , t h e economic c r i m i n a l offences and the economic c r i m i n a l l a w , as the f o u r fundamental n o t i o n s , on the b a s i s of the d i f f e r e n t s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f which, a narrower or broader range o f the d e l i c t s can be brought i n t o connection w i t h the c r i m i n a l p r o t e c t i o n o f the economy. By v i r t u e o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f various a s p e c t s , t e n d i n g t o the s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n , the tendency takes shape t h a t the economic d e l i q u e n c y i s of g r e a t e r volume i n t h e c a p i t a l i s m t h a n i n the s o c i a l i s m . The second chapter o f f e r s a survey o f the economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s i n Hungary. The author analyzes the economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p r e v a i l i n g Penal Code - act No. IV o f 1978 - which are classed i n f o u r groups: c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s v i o l a t i n g economic o b l i g a t i o n s , those v i o l a t i n g t h e o r d e r o f the economy, the f o r g e r y o f stamps and banknotes, as w e l l , as t h e f i n a n c i a l c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s . F o l l o w i n g the a n a l y s i s of the l e g a l f a c t s , i t i s the c r i m i n o l o g i s t t o lead the pen o f the a u t h o r when i n t r o d u c i n g the economic d e l i q u e n c y o f t h e s e v e n t i e s by t h e t r e a t m e n t o f the data o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . A c c o r d i n g l y , the concept of the economic d e l i q u e n c y i s much broader i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g y than t h a t of the economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s i n the c r i m i n a l law. The t h i r d chapter i s e n t i t e l d "The economic c r i m i n a l law and the economic p o l i c y " . The author i n v e s t i g a t e s f i r s t t h e r e l a t i o n between the economic and the c r i m i n a l p o l i c i e s . The p a r t i c u l a r i t y of the economic c r i m i n a l law renders necessary the a n a l y s i s of t h i s r e l a t i o n . Namely, i n Acta J u r i d i c a Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
324
RECENSIONES
t h i s f i e l d t h e c r i m i n a l p o l i c y i s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n f l u e n c e d by the economic p o l i c y , moreover, t h i s i n f l u e n c e d i r e c t l y appears i n t h e s p e c i a l r u l e s o f the economic c r i m i n a l law. The aspects o f t h e economic p o l i c y have an e f f e c t also on t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s a n t i o n s . Consequently, t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n between the c r i m i n a l s a n c t i o n s and the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ones, the question o f the c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the l e g a l e n t i t y have s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n the economic c r i m i n a l l a w . According t o h i s general method of t r e a t m e n t , t h e author compares here t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e c a p i t a l i s t and the s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , t o o . The comparison does not seem t o be d e t r i mental to t h e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s here. The r e v i e w e r , however, cannot r e f r a i n h e r s e l f from a d m i t t i n g t h e missing o f c e r t a i n more profound c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . Presumably, the change of the t i m e s provokes t h e reviewer t o make t h i s remark, s i n c e at the t i m e of the w r i t i n g of t h i s book i t occurred t o nobody t h a t t h e method of t h e comparison o f law may come i n t o q u e s t i o n i n so f a r as t h e i d e n t i c a l l y denominated i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e democracy and the d i c t a t o r s h i p are compared. I t i s a m a t t e r of f a c t t h a t i t was and c o u l d not be the purpose of the a u t h o r to p r e s e n t a comprehensive and c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s being i n a loose c o n n e c t i o n only w i t h t h e c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a c c o r d i n g to t h e p o s i t i v e l a w , so the f a c t u a l nature of some summary s t a t e m e n t s can be q u e r i e d today. Such i s e . g . t h e statement t h a t i n the s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s t h e exercise o f the e m p l o y e r ' s r i g h t s , the i n d i v i d u a l c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , as w e l l as t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sanctions a l l f u n c t i o n w e l l and serve e f f e c t i v e l y t h e o b j e c t i v e s b o t h o f the c r i m i n a l and the economic p o l i c i e s ( p p . 45-46). The f o u r t h chapter d e a l s w i t h the l e g a l s u b j e c t s o f the economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s . The t r e a t m e n t i n a s e p a r a t e chapter i s j u s t i f i e d by the hypothesis of t h e author, p r e s e n t e d i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n , a c c o r d i n g to which t h e economic c r i m i n a l law i s t h e e n t i r e t y o f c r i m i n a l p r o v i s i o n s concerning t h i s l e g a l s u b j e c t . The a u t h o r p o i n t s t o some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t t i t u d e s o f the c r i m i n a l s c i e n c e of c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , and o u t l i n e s the s u b j e c t matter more d e t a i l e d i n r e s p e c t of the s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s . This i s t h e reason why t h i s chapter c o n t a i n s statements most exceeded by the l i f e . The author proceeds namely from h i s assumption t h a t under the circumstances o f t h e s o c i a l i s t economy t r a n s g r e s s i n g the system of plan d i r e c t i v e s a del i m i t i n g l i n e can be drawn between the p r o p r i e t o r y and t h e e x e c u t i v e managements of t h e s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s . This d e l i m i t a t i o n , however, would s e r v e n o t only the purposes of s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t - f o r m a t i o n b u t - as a consequence of the g r o w i n g independence of the s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s - the means o f t h e p r o p r i e t o r y and executive economic management also become more and more separated from each o t h e r . From the p o i n t o f view of the c r i m i n a l defence, however, t h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the very r e a s o n , because t h e l e g a l s u b j e c t o f the economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s , the e n t i t y of o b l i g a t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e range of e x e c u t i v e economic management become d e f i n a b l e . The change o f regime i n Hungary and i t s programme of r e - p r i v a t i z a t i o n render at l e a s t d o u b t f u l the r e a l i t y of t h i s t h e o r y since t h e economy based on the s t a t e ownership proved unviable i n t h e case of t h e " s o c i a l i s t " economy based e i t h e r on p l a n d i r e c t i v e s o r on the independence of t h e e n t e r p r i s e s . While the f o u r t h chapter i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e economic a c t i v i t é s of t h e s t a t e and d e t e c t e d t h e r e i n t h e l e g a l s u b j e c t o f the economic c r i m i n a l def e n c e , the f i f h t chapter t r e a t s the q u e s t i o n s o f the economic a c t i v i t i e s o f e n t e r p r i s e s . T h i s , however, s t a n d s apart f r o m the range o f the economic c r i m i n a l law. The treatment i s j u s t i f i e d by d e l i m i t a t i o n problems, t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o the management of p r o p e r t y , on the one hand, and the o b l i g a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n the norms o f the economic management, on the other hand. Further on, t h e e l u c i d a t i o n of the c r i m i n a l e s t i m a t i o n of the assumption o f r i s k s g i v e s motives t h e r e f o r . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e
RECENSIDNES
525
d e l i m i t a t i o n i s proved by t h e f a c t t h a t the reasonable economic r i s k may lead t o the p r e c l u s i o n o f the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a c c o r d i n g t o the g e n e r a l c r i m i n a l p r o v i s i o n s , the economic c r i m i n a l law does n o t t o l e r a t e , however, the assumption of economic r i s k , i . e . t h e property g r o w t h achieved by t h e breach of d u t y does not compensate the breach of the d u t y p r e s c r i b e d by the economic management of t h e e x e c u t i v e power. The d e l i m i t a t i o n caused s e r i o u s p r a c t i c a l problems e s p e c i a l l y i n cases when the s o c i a l i s t s t a t e , as the owner of the means of p r o d u c t i o n , r e g u l a t e d the q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o the management o f p r o p e r t y i n i t s c a p a c i t y o f e x e c u t i v e power, by economymanaging norms. The a u t h o r analyzes t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r w i t h a thorough grounding i n economics. Thus, he i n v e s t i g a t e s the q u e s t i o n s belonging t o the range o f c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s a g a i n s t t h e p r o p e r t y a r i s i n g i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the o b l i g a t i o n s t o t h e management o f p r o p e r t y , w i t h the assumption of r i s k of t h e e n t e r p r i s e s , w i t h the c r i m i n a l e v a l u a t i o n o f economic d e c i s i o n making. The s u b j e c t of t h e s i x t h chapter i s the c o d i f i c a t i o n of economic c r i m i n a l l a w . The survey o f the h i s t o r y o f Hungarian l e g i s l a t i o n i s h i g h l y i l l u m i n a t i n g and r e p r e s e n t s an e x c e l l e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the chapter from the p o i n t o f view of r a i s i n g of t h e problem, s i n c e i n our h i s t o r y of economic c r i m i n a l law v e r y d i f f e r e n t v a r i a n t s and models of c o d i f y i n g p o l i c y are found. The a n a l y s i s of t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f law and, p a r a l l e l t h e r e w i t h , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the a t t e m p t s made f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of these problems by prominent s c i e n t i s t s c o n v i n c e everybody o f the f a c t , t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of the s k e l e t o n s t a t e s o f f a c t s i n e v i t a b l e i n the economic c r i m i n a l law threatens w i t h the i n j u r y o f the fundamental c r i m i n a l law guarantees, or at l e a s t produces the p o s s i b i l i t y of such an i n j u r y , r e q u i r i n g t h e r e f o r e a s p e c i a l c a u t i o n . Consequently, the author i n v e s t i g a t e s f u r t h e r on w i t h f u l l p a r t i c u l a r s how t h e p r i n c i p l e of nullum crimen s i n e lege and t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c r i m i n a l i t y can and must be e n f o r c e d w i t h some types of the f o r m a l s k e l e t o n s t a t e s of f a c t s . The e x p o s i t i o n s of the author l a y c l e a r l y open t o us t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r u l e s f i l l i n g out the s k e l e t o n s t a t e s of f a c t s r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e temporary e f f e c t of the l e g a l norm and o f t h e e r r o r i n law and the c o r r e c t answer t o t h i s quest i o n i . e . t h e c o r r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s not p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t the consequent enforcement of the two c r i m i n a l fundamental principles. The l a s t chapter o f the book c o n t a i n s the concepts d i r e c t i n g the c r i m i n a l law and the c r i m i n o l o g y when e v o l v i n g t h e n o t i o n of the eocnomic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s , and t h a t of the economic d e l i q u e n c y , r e s p e c t i v e l y . As regards t h e economic c r i m i n a l law and t h e economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s cons t i t u t i n g i t , these a s p e c t s a r e , as f o l l o w s : a) t h e independent l e g a l subj e c t ( t h e budgetary economy of the s t a t e and the economic management o f the e x e c u t i v e power); b) a connection w i t h the economic p o l i c y and w i t h the r u l e s of t h e economic management ( t h e i r change d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s t h e c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , narrows down or e n l a r g e s the range of penal o f f e n c e s ) ; c ) the s p e c i a l c o d i f i c a t i o n technique ( t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of s k e l e t o n s t a t e s of f a c t s and thereby t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f elements r e q u i r i n g an e v a l u a t i o n i n t o the statement o f f a c t s ) . As a g a i n s t the n o t i o n d e f i n a b l e w i t h general e f f e c t o f t h e economic c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s i n the c r i m i n a l j u r i s p r u d e n c e , the author c o n s i d e r s the c r i m i n o l o g i c a l concept of the economic deliquency as a concept expressing q u i t e d i f f e r e n t groups of phenomena depending on the place and t i m e . The book of Imre A. Wiener was w r i t t e n i n a bygone age, under the circumstances of the t o t a l i t a r i a n p a r t y s t a t e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e on the economic c r i m i n a l law of t h i s t i m e i n a more c r i t i c a l tone b u t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o say something t h a t i s new w i t h s c i e n t i f i c thoroughness a f t e r
326
RECENSIONES
the a u t h o r . The work has been w r i t t e n w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l p r e t e n s i o n and has f o r m u l a t e d these u t i l i z a b l e f o r the development of t h e model of economic c r i m i n a l law independently o f the s o c i a l system. M. B i t t ó
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 327-338 (1990)
VARIA
THE UN HUMAN RIGHTS SYSTEM ANU THE HELSINKI PROCESS: MEANING, ASSESSMENT AND PERSPECTIVES*
I.
The UN human r i g h t s venture: a general assessement
The n o t i o n of human r i g h t s i s one of the most remarkable achievement of contemporary human t h o u g h t . The s t r u g g l e t o s a f e g u a r d and promote basic human r i g h t s c o n t i n u e s i n every s o c i e t y , and human r i g h t s a c t i o n s are i n the focus of worldwide i n t e r e s t . I n the process o f i n t r o d u c i n g human r i g h t s on the i n t e r n a t i o n a l scene the United Nations has played a c r u c i a l r o l e . From o u r - d a y s - p e r s p e c t i v e i t seems absolutely c l e a r t h a t the establishment i n the UN C h a r t e r of the . p r i n c i p l e of u n i v e r s a l respect f o r human r i g h t s was a very w i s e and f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g v e n t u r e . One can f u l l y grasp the impact of t h i s d e c i s i o n only i n our days. As a r e s u l t of t h i s d e c i s i o n , i n t h e second h a l f o f the 20th c e n t u r y one can w i t n e s s the appearance of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g a l codes o f human r i g h t s which enable people t o r e q u i r e governments t o e n f o r c e the p r o t e c t i o n of human r i g h t s . A l l t h i s happened d e s p i t e the f a c ' t , t h a t during the process of a d o p t i o n of the UN Charter, i t was p o s s i b l e t o enact i n i t o n l y a r a t h e r g e n e r a l and a b s t r a c t r u l e on t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f human r i g h t s ( s e e , f o r example A r t i c l e 1, p a r a . 3; A r t i c l e 55, para c . ) . A t t h a t time i t was not p o s s i b l e t o overcome t h e s u s p i c i o n i n r e l a t i o n to human r i g h t s . I n the o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n of States and i n many p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l w r i t i n g s of t h a t time t h e r e was a f e a r t h a t the e l e v a t i o n o f human r i g h t s onto the i n t e r n a t i o n a l scene might f o r s t e r subversive p r a c t i c e s , and c r e a t e t e n s i o n and c o n f l i c t among S t a t e s . However, s i n c e the adoption o f the C h a r t e r ' s r a t h e r s c a n t y and general p r o v i s i o n s on human r i g h t s , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n c r e a t e d by t h e Charter has made a tremendous e f f o r t t o promote the i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h i s f i e l d , and a c t u a l l y has s u c c e s s f u l l y demolished the v e i l o f the abovementioned s u s p i c i o n and f e a r . Human r i g h t s nowadays are r e c o g n i z e d as a most i m p o r t a n t c o n s t i t u e n t element of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l n o r m a t i v e svstem. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o examine the UN a c t i v i t i e s i n the f i e l d of human r i g h t s from d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f view ( t h e o r e t i c a l p r a c t i c a l , c o d i f i c a t i o n a l and p r o m o t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s e t c . ) . However, I would l i k e t o p o i n t out o n l y some basic achievements which can be considered as milestones i n the i n t e r s t a t e p r a c t i c e and i n the development of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. 1. Due t o t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n a l e f f o r t s o f t h e UN the w o r l d community has accepted the idea of the u n i v e r s a l i t y o f a t l e a s t some b a s i c r i g h t s . The attempt t o f o r g e a s i n g l e , c o l l e c t i v e s t a n d on the n e c e s s i t y of p r o v i d i n g t o the i n d i v i d u a l s some e s s e n t i a l r i g h t s and freedoms was successf u l . The basic UN documents ( t h e Universal D e c l a r a t i o n , the two Covenants) have f o r m u l a t e d a u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d concept o f what values s h o u l d be p r o t e c t e d by a l l S t a t e s i n t h e i r domestic system. What i s i n t e r e s t i n g here i s t h a t the a t t i t u d e o f the U n i t e d Nations towards the human r i g h t s problem from the very o u t s e t was based n o t only on s i m p l e m u l t i l a t e r a l i s m ( i . e . t h e involvement i n t o t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n a l process as many s t a t e s as p o s s i b l e ) b u t
Short version of the report made i n the p a r a l l e l a c t i v i t i e s conference (CSCE) i n Copenhagen, June 1990. Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
i
328
VARIA
e x p l i c i t l y on u n i v e r s a l i s m . U n i v e r s a l i s a i means much more than m u l t i l a t e r a l ism, i t i s a t r a n s n a t i o n a l , t r a n s i d e o l o g i c a l and t r a n s c u l t u r a l g e n e r a l i t y which presupposes t h e acceptance o f common s t a n d a r d s by e v e r y s t a t e . 2 . When assessing the UN r e l e v a n t a c t i o n s another fundamental f a c t s h o u l d be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . This world o r g a n i z a t i o n has g r a d u a l l y achieved t h a t human r i g h t s problems a r e not c o n s i d e r e d any more as matters of domestic j u r s d i c t i o n . According t o the modern e v o l v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l n o r m a t i v e system, t h e o l d p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s i d e r i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between States and i n d i v i d u a l s as m a t t e r s of S t a t e s o v e r e i g n t y has been s e r i o u s l y undermined. One can a c t u a l l y witness a development when human r i g h t s are being c o n s i d e r e d as some s o r t of res communis value t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f which i s a common i n t e r e s t o f a l l members o f the w o r l d community. Hence, when t h i s v a l u e i s under s e r i o u s j e o p a r d y , t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n on the p a r t o f others i s n o t an encroachment upon s o v e r e i g n t y but a l e g a l l y and m o r a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e response. The gradual acceptance of t h e i d e a t h a t S t a t e s do not have absolute freedom i n the domain o f human r i g h t s , t h a t S t a t e autonomy i s s u b o r d i n a t e d to i n d i v i d u a l autonomy, t h a t o t h e r a c t o r s of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community have an inherent i n t e r e s t i n the s a f e g u a r d i n g o f b a s i c human r i g h t s , has helped t o r e a l i z e a g e n e r a l and a v e r y important aspect of modern i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i f e , namely: the era of u n l i m i t e d freedom of States I s over and the n o t i o n of a b s o l u t e sovereignty o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s should be m o d i f i e d acc o r d i n g t o the needs of modern i n t e r d e p e n d e n t w o r l d . When e x a m i n i n g the r o o t s o f t h i s general conclusion one has to be a r e a l i s t of c o u r s e . Human r i g h t s a c t i o n s of t h e UN were not t h e only f a c t o r s t h a t f o s t e r e d t h i s tendency. Apart human r i g h t s problems had appeared many other u n i v e r s a l concerns t h a t raised t h e i s s u e about t h e l i m i t s of n a t i o n - s t a t e s a c t i o n s . But i t i s n o t an e x a g g e r a t i o n to c l a i m t h a t the UN human r i g h t s i n i t i a t i v e s have d e l i v e r e d the f i r s t r e a l blow upon the impenetrable a r b i t r a r i n e s s of S t a t e s which f o r c e n t u r i e s has been grounded on the n o t i o n o f absolute s o v e r e i g n t y . One can o n l y welcome t h i s r e s u l t because there are many other i m p o r t a n t issues which demand the r e s t r i c t i o n of S t a t e a c t i o n s . 3. When g i v i n g a general assessment of the UN a c t i o n s i n t h e f i e l d of human r i g h t s one s h o u l d not d i s r e g a r d another fundamental f a c t . As a r e s u l t of i t s a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e modern i n t e r n a t i o n a l n o r m a t i v e system has been i n c o r p o r a t e d r u l e s and p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h cover i n d i v i d u a l s per s e , t h a t i s r e c o g n i z e t h e i r l e g a l c a p a c i t y , t r e a t them as b e a r e r s of r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s a t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . The l e g a l p e r s o n a l i t y of i n d i v i d u a l s at t h e l e v e l of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l community has become a r e a l i t y . T h i s has been recognized even by those who f o r decades had been denying t h e poss i b i l i t y of c o n s i d e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s as s u b j e c t s o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l normat i v e system. I n d i v i d u a l s alongside n a t i o n - s t a t e s and i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e being g r a d u a l l y admitted t o the i n t e r n a t i o n a l community as subjects d i r e c t l y e n j o y i n g r i g h t s and b e a r i n g o b l i g a t i o n s . The acceptance of i n d i c i d u a l s as members o f the i n t e r n a t i o n a l community may be c o n s i d e r e d as a r e a l breakthrough i n t h e modern t h e o r y of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, and i t might have v e r y serious consequences f o r t h e f u t u r e development of the whole body of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r branch of law. A c t u a l l y both t h e n o t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community and i t s normative base are e v o l v i n g i n t o a q u a l i t a t i v e l y new phase. This n o r m a t i v e system i s no longer c o n s t r i c t e d by t h e t r a d i t i o n a l concept t h a t S t a t e s alone a r e the s u b j e c t s and o b j e c t s o f the system, i t goes beyond the t r a d i t i o n a l perceptions o f f e r i n g the i d e a t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s may become " i n t e r n a t i o n a l s " when a S t a t e s e r i o u s l y v i o l a t e s t h e i r r i g h t s . We are a t the very b e g i n n i n g of t h e process of u n i v e r s a l r e c o g n i t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s as independent members o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community, hence i t i s d i f f i c u l t to make long-term p r e d i c t i o n s as t o i t r e a l
VARIA
consequences. which weakens nation-states, States i n t h i s
II.
329
But one t h i n g seems t o be q u i t e o b v i o u s : t h i s i s a process the t r a d i t i o n a l l y p e r c e i v e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l system based on undercuts the dangerous and s e l f i s h c l a i m f o r omnipotency of system.
The H e l s i n k i process i n l i g h t of UN human r i g h t s
initiatives
I have no i n t e n t i o n t o examine i n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l the n a t u r e of the H e l s i n k i process i t s e l f , and t h e adopted documents. I t has been done by o t h e r s i n r e l e v a n t w r i t i n g s and a n a l y s i s . The o n l y aspect which I want t o s t r e s s i s t h a t one can hardly q u e s t i o n the p o l i t i c a l and moral s i g n i f i cance o f these documents. But f o r t h o s e who are i n v o l v e d more c l o s e l y i n t o the l e g a l r e a l i t i e s o f modern i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i f e i s a b s o l u t l y c l e a r also t h a t even from f o r m a l l e g a l p o i n t o f view one can h a r d l y d e c l a r e them as n o n - e x i s t e n t , as such instruments w h i c h have no l e g a l f o r c e behind them at a l l . When States adopt an i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t by consensus, when through t h e i r o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s pledge themselves to f o l l o w a s p e c i f i c way o f conduct i n t h e i r mutual r e l a t i o n s , the r e s u l t of t h e i r a c t i o n s (whatever are the forms o f t h i s a c t i o n s ) do have l e g a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a l s o . As f o r the s u b s t a n t i a l aspects o f the H e l s i n k i process, e s p e c i a l l y from t h e p o i n t of i t s c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the UN human r i g h t s i n i t i a t i v e s , I would l i k e t o draw t h e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g s . F i r s t , when assessing the human r i g h t s p r o v i s i o n s of the H e l s i n k i process one should n o t f o r g e t t h a t t h e background f o r them has been p r e pared by the UN human r i g h t s i n i t i a t i v e s . Without t h e continuous e f f o r t s of the U n i t e d N a t i o n s , and without t h o s e p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s which had been reached by t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n from t h e adoption o f i t s Charter up t o the s e v e n t i e s , the human r i g h t s dimensions of the H e l s i n k i F i n a l Act probably would have received much less a t t e n t i o n . So we have t o give due c r e d i t to the UN e f f o r t s because they prepared the way f o r t h e treatment o f human r i g h t s as e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r s i n modern i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i f e . Second, both i n H e l s i n k i and a t the f o l l o w - u p conferences (Madrid, Vienna) human r i g h t s have been i n t e r p r e t e d i n a w i d e r c o n t e x t . S u f f i c e t o mention the acceptance of the idea t h a t such o t h e r important n o t i o n s as peace, s e c u r i t y , c o o p e r a t i o n are d i r e c t l y l i n k e d w i t h human r i g h t s . This wider i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f human f a c t o r s by the p a r t i c i p a n t s of the H e l s i n k i process has had i t s r a m m i f i c a t i o n s w i t h i n the UN human r i g h t s a c t i o n s . Since 1977, United Nations organs have been engaged i n an e f f o r t t o broaden the i s s u e s of human r i g h t s , and t o b r i n g the r e l a t e d i n i t i a t i v e s t o the mainstream of i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i a l and economic c o n c e r n s . This new tendency i n t h e UN human r i g h t s a c t i v i t y t o some e x t e n t i s a s i d e - e f f e c t of the H e l s i n k i process. T h i r d , the H e l s i n k i process n o t o n l y recognized and extended t h e r o l e of human f a c t o r s i n modern i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , but l e g i t i m i z e d the general importance o f human r i g h t s i n the r e l a t i o n s of those S t a t e s who p a r t i c i p a t e i n the process. A c t u a l l y one can w i t n e s s a process when i n a p a r t i c u l a r region o f t h e world t h e r e i s a general consensus, t h a t t h e u l t i mate j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f the e x i s t e n c e o f governments i s the p r o t e c t i o n and p r o m o t i o n of human r i g h t s . From t h i s p o i n t the H e l s i n k i process can be cons i d e r e d as a s u p p o r t i n g mechanism o f the UN i n i t i a t i v e s aimed a t t h e u n i v e r s a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f the importance o f human r i g h t s . And f i n a l l y , t h e l a s t issue w h i c h I would l i k e t o r a i s e h e r e i s the q u a l i t a t i v e assessment of the two systems, t h a t i s the UN human r i g h t s system and the system e s t a b l i s h e d by the H e l s i n k i process. I t i s o f course, i s t h e most c h a l l e n g i n g question because i t demands an answer t o t h e f o l -
330
VARIA
l o w i n g : has t h e H e l s i n k i process i n t r o d u c e d r a d i c a l l y new elements i n t h e domain of i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s , has i t overstepped t h e r e l e v a n t UN system. The d i f f i c u l t y of t h e answer l i e s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e of t h e two systems and i n the divergency of aims and purposes. The UN human r i g h t s system has been moving on a t r a c k of l e g a l f o r m a l i z a t i o n ( s t a n d a r d - s e t t i n g , i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a r e p o r t i n g system and some embryonic c o m p l a i n t mechanism) w h i l e i n the H e l s i n k i process t h e purely f o r m a l i s t i c approach u n t i l now has not r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n . In i t a much more general aim has been persued, namely, the l e g i t i m i z a t i o n of human r i g h t s concerns. From t h i s f o l l o w s t h a t i t would not be c o r r e c t t o counterpose the two systems i n a manner t h a t one o f them i s b e t t e r or more e l a b o r a t e t h a n the o t h e r . Apart the l e g i t i m i z a t i o n o f human r i g h t s concerns the H e l s i n k i process has of course o t h e r p o s i t i v e elements a l s o . Some of the commitments adopted w i t h i n i t s framework should be considered as a r e a l step f o r w a r d on the way o f c r e a t i n g an o p e r a t i v e system of human r i g h t s p r o t e c t i o n . Here I want t o p i n p o i t only t h o s e which r e i n f o r c e the UN r e l e v a n t a c t i o n s . The p a r t i c i p a t i n g States o f the H e l s i n k i process have i n f a c t accepted and n o r m a t i v e l y confirmed the idea of the UN i n i t i a t i v e s t h a t human r i g h t s are res communis values the p r o t e c t i o n of w h i c h i s a common i n t e r e s t . The r a i s i n g of the i s s u e s of human r i g h t s by any o f the p a r t i c i p a t i n g States i s not considered any more as an i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t o domestic m a t t e r s . I t has been e x p l i c i t l y confirmed by t h e Vienna Concluding Document under the terms of which "any p a r t i c i p a t i n g S t a t e which deems i t necessary may b r i n g s i t u a t i o n s and cases i n the human dimension of t h e CSCE to the a t t e n t i o n o f o t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i n g States t h r o u g h d i p l o m a t i c c h a n n e l s " . For the e f f e c t i v e enjoyment o f human r i g h t s i s very i m p o r t a n t another commitment a l s o , according t o which the p a r t i c i p a t i n g States s h o u l d i n t r o duce the necessary changes i n t o t h e i r domestic l e g i s l a t i o n w i t h the aim t o enforce f u l l y t h e i r t r e a t y o b l i g a t i o n s (see a l s o the Vienna Concluding Document). This commitment shows t h a t human r i g h t s are not o n l y promises and d e c l a r a t i o n s . Every State s h o u l d devise a system of machinery capable t o s u p e r v i s e , c o n t r o l and e n f o r c e the compliance w i t h i t s international o b l i g a t i o n s . Non-compliance w i t h t h i s commitment creates j u s t i f i e d ground f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n on the p a r t o f o t h e r s . The H e l s i n k i process i s p r e p a r i n g the ground f o r the acceptance o f another i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e , t h a t i s the r e q u i r e m e n t of t h i r d p a r t y a d j u c a t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s i s s u e s . I n the Vienna Concluding Document the p a r t i e s have recognized i n p r i n c i p l e the need o f i n v o l v i n g t h i r d p a r t i e s i n t o d i s p u t e s e t t l e m e n t . I t h i n k t h a t t h i s g e n e r a l acceptance of t h i r d p a r t y ' s r o l e r e l a t e s a l s o to human r i g h t s disp.utes. The r e q u i r e ment of a p o t e n t i a l t h i r d p a r t y a d j u d i c a t i o n d e r i v e s from t h e fundamental p r i n c i p l e of j u s t i c e t h a t no one can be a j u d g e i n h i s own case. The absence of t h i r d p a r t y i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t dispute l e a v e governments i n a p o s i t i o n t o judge u n i l a t e r a l l y the l i m i t s of t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s . A l l t h i s r e p r e s e n t s undoubted achievements, but c l e a r l y much remains t o be done. A r e a l l y o p e r a t i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t system needs an enforcement mechanism a t the l e v e l of i n d i v i d u a l s . I t h i n k t h a t w i t h i n the H e l s i n k i process t h e time has come t o i n t r o d u c e some s o r t of such mechanism The sweeping changes i n East European c o u n t r i e s have c r e a t e d favourable c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f such mechanism. The most s e r i o u s obs t a c l e which f o r many years had blocked t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r a i s i n g the issue about an a l l - E u r o p e a n enforcement mechanism disappeared. I mean the i d e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s , the i d e o l o g i c a l r h e t o r i c over human r i g h t s issues. I t seems obvious t h a t w i t h i n t h i s f u t u r e system a simple r e p o r t i n g mechanism on the p a r t o f States would not be s u f f i c i e n t . I t i s necessary to open the doors before i n d i v i d u a l s t o have access t o an i n t e r n a t i o n a l machinery.
VARIA
331
The e x t e n s i o n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l some s o r t of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l remedy f o r v i o l a t i o n s of h i s r i g h t s has t o be t h e most urgent t a s k w i t h i n t h e H e l s i n k i p r o c e s s . What k i n d o f machinery would i t be depends on t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of States t o e x p l o i t t h e present f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s . I t might be i n a form of an a l l - E u r o p e a n j u d i c i a l body o r commission on human r i g h t s , o r a t l e a s t i n a form of an a l l - E u r o p e a n ombudsman. Lessons o f h i s t o r y show t h a t the broader t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r o l t h e less the chances f o r d i s c r i m i n a t i v e p r a c t i c e s i n the h i d d e n and dark c o r n e r s of State p o l i c y .
I I I . The r o l e and t a s k s of NGOs i n rights
t h e p r o t e c t i o n and promotion o f human
There are thousands of NGOs throughout the w o r l d d e a l i n g w i t h human r i g h t s i s s u e s . They p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e both i n promoting t h e aims of UN r e l a t e d i n i t i a t i v e s and i n the a c t u a l p r a c t i c e o f enforcement o f human r i g h t s . Their key r o l e i s to r a i s e t h e awareness o f human r i g h t s importance. I n many respect NGOs are i n a more favourable p o s i t i o n than S t a t e organi z a t i o n s and organs because i n t h e process of f o r m u l a t i n g t h e i r s t a n d on a s p e c i f i c human r i g h t issue they a r e n o t c o n s t r a i n e d by p o l i t i c a l and other c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of h i g h p o l i t i c s . The a c t i v i t y o f h u m a n - r i g h t s - o r i e n t e d NGOs has received l e g i t i m a t e framework w i t h i n t h e H e l s i n k i p r o c e s s . One has t o mention e s p e c i a l l y the Vienna Concluding Document which recognized t h a t everybody has t h e r i g h t i n an i n d i v i d u a l c a p a c i t y or i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s ( i . e . i n t h e form of an o r g a n i z a t i o n ) a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n the promotion and p r o t e c t i o n of human r i g h t s . The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s r i g h t means t h a t they ceased to be unwanted a d v e r s e r i e s of o f f i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . States s h o u l d not only t o l e r a t e t h e i r a c t i v i t y but r e g a r d them as p a r t n e r s i n the p r o c e s s of p r o moting human r i g h t s . The a c t i o n s o f NGOs should be aimed a t : - using f u l l y the p o t e n t i a l s provided t o them w i t h the aim t o r a i s e the awareness o f human r i g h t s and the r o l e o f human f a c t o r s i n every society ; - m a i n t a i n i n g permanent v i g i l a n c y among t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o the r i g h t s and freedoms of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h t h e aim of c r e a t i n g a meaningf u l framework f o r m o n i t o r i n g t h e a c t i v i t y of S t a t e machinery concerned w i t h the enforcement o f human r i g h t s ; - p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the m o n i t o r i n g of S t a t e s ' compliance w i t h t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s under i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s i n s t r u m e n t s ; ( I t i s a very i m p o r t a n t task s i n c e States u s u a l l y do not admit the v i o l a t i o n of t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s . On t h e basis of i l l - p e r c e i v e d " c o r p o r a t e s o l i d a r i t y " States p r e f e r t o l i e about t h e i r c o n d u c t . ) - t a k i n g an a c t i v e r o l e i n i l l u m i n a t i n g human r i g h t s i l l i t e r a c y . ( I n t h i s respect i t i s necessary t o p o i n t out t h a t n o t only the access of human r i g h t s i n s t r u m e n t s are of paramount importance b u t an o b j e c t i v e and meaningf u l e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y i s a l s o v i t a l . What I mean here i s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s should be aware of t h e r e a l meaning and p o s s i b i l i t i e s of human r i g h t s i n s t i t u t i o n s . The g e n e r a t i o n of u n r e a l i s t i c e x p e c t a t i o n among the p o p u l a t i o n , the sowing of the seeds of i l l u s i o n s as f o r the s o c i a l r o l e of human r i g h t s s h o u l d be avoided. Thus f o r example, one c o u l d w i t n e s s some s o r t of exaggerated e x p e c t a t i o n s among the p o p u l a t i o n o f developing c o u n t r i e s i n t h e s e v e n t i e s , and i n our days t h e same i s t r u e f o r the emerging democracies of East-European c o u n t r i e s , where one can d i s c e r n a s t r o n g general b e l f t h a t human r i g h t s a u t o m a t i c a l l y b r i n g p r o s p e r i t y and w e l l - b e i n g . The maintenance o f such i l l u s i o n s may have an adverse e f f e c t .
332
VARIA
Human r i g h t s , t h e i r promotion and enforcement do not create w e l l - b e i n g but prepares the ground f o r a m e a n i n g f u l l i f e , c r e a t e s the necessary c o n d i t i o n s f o r p r o s p e r i t y and w e l l - b e i n g . ) V. Mavi
UN THE PRINCIPAL CHANGES GF THE LEGAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE ECONOMIC ACTIVITY OF SOCIALIST ORGANIZATIONS (SELECTED QUESTIONS)
The main aim o f the amend o f the Economic Code, which came i n t o e f f e c t the 1 s t July 1988 i s t o c r e a t e a l a r g e r space f o r the working o f the s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , c o o p e r a t i v e , s o c i a l and other s o c i a l i s t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n the branch of r e l a t i o n s , d i r e c t e d by t h i s code. The r u l e s which r e g u l a t e working of the s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s must be l a i d down i n such way, t h a t ensures i t s harmony w i t h the i n t e r e s t s of the whole society and increased r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s a t i s f y i n g requirements of t h e s o c i e t y and expresses the new conception of r e l a t i o n s among organs of economic o p e r a t i o n and economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s by means of law ( e . g . i n s p e c i a l cases i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o c l a i m a recompense towards the organs o f economic operation). The amend uses a new term t h e " r i g h t of management" i n s t e a d of the former " a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , of the n a t i o n a l p r o p e r t y " , t o o . In comparison w i t h the former s t a t e , t h e term " p r o p e r t y of the o r g a n i z a t i o n " was extended and now a l s o contents r i g h t s t o the r e s u l t s of the r e s e a r c h , development, proj e c t i n g and o t h e r s . Very i m p o r t a n t f a c t i s , t h a t t h e " r i g h t c f management" i s not l i m i t e d by t i m e . The amend also extends the p o s s i b i l i t y of the economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o e n t e r p r i s e i n a harmony w i t h the needs of the s o c i e t y and i n s p e c i a l cases even t o exceed the framework of t h e b a s i c subj e c t of p r o d u c t i o n . The independence of the economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s to decide about changes and t r a n s f e r s of the p r o d u c t i o n a l programmes i s s t r e n g h t e n e d . On t h e o p p o s i t e , t h e compulsory c o n c l u s i o n of c o n t r a c t s and the r i g h t of the organs of economic o p e r a t i o n and t h e a r b i t r y t o i n t e r f e r e with obligation relations is restricted. The extended independence of t h e economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s caused the extended p r o t e c t i o n both of t h e i r economic a c t i v i t y and t h e i r p r o p e r t y , t o o . The increased independence i s , of course, connected w i t h t h e increased r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Therefore t h e amend lays down s t r i c t e r p e n a l t i e s f o r l o s s e s (besides t h e r e a l l o s s , t h e l o s t p r o f i t must be r e compensed), and f o r n o n - q u a l i t y p r o d u c t i o n . Great requirements are newly imposed on t h e q u a l i t y of t h e c a p i t a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s d e l i v e r i e s ; there were l a i d down new d u t i e s f o r t h e purveyors, e . g . t o remove the d e f e c t s of t h e d e l i v e r y d u r i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n . The customer may remove t h e d e f e c t h i m s e l f , i f the p u r v e y o r f a l l s b e h i n d with i t . The charges of t h e r e p a r a t i o n bears the p u r v e y o r . The amend of t h e Economic Code besides h i t h e r t o f a c t u a l substances of the economic p e n a l t i e s newly l a y s down p e n a l t i e s f o r abusing the p o s i t i o n i n the economic r e l a t i o n s against customers, e s p e c i a l l y i n such case when i t concludes i n g a i n i n g u n q u a l i f i e d p r o f i t and monopoly p o s i t i o n on the market. The amend complied w i t h the demands of the t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e and gave up the o b l i g a t o r y accounting and l e v y i n g the pecuniary s a n t i o n s . (Acc o u n t i n g i s f a c u l t a t i v e except the sanctions caused by d e f e c t i v e f i l l i n g
VARIA
333
and d w e l l i n g . The l a t t e r case i s connected w i t h s p e c i a l t a s k s of the s t a t e plane. Even accounting o f these s a n c t i o n s i s o b l i g a t o r y when the r a t e o f one s a n c t i o n reaches over 5,000 crowns.) C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e sanctions connected w i t h d e f e c t i v e f i l l i n g and d w e l l i n g enables t o reduce the p e n a l t y i n case the purveyor p r o v i d e s the e f f o r t t o remove or m i n i m a l i z e the d e f e c t s . New conception of t h e r e l a t i o n s between organs o f economic o p e r a t i o n and the economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e cond i t i o n s on which the d i r e c t i v e measures are s u b m i t t e d . Economic o r g a n i z a t i o n i s p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t c o n t i n g e n t u n l a w f u l measures. I n connection w i t h t h e " s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e law" t h e amend a d j u s t s i n ' d e t a i l t h e i n s t i t u t e o f t h e " d i r e c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " w h i c h has t o c o n s o l i date the e n t e r p r i s e . A l s o i t solves t h e process o f t h e winding up t h e e n t e r p r i s e i n complex. The amend s t r e n g h t e n s the r o l e o f the R e g i s t e r o f E n t e r p r i s e s and removes h i t h e r t o d i s p e r s i o n of the c o d i f i c a t i o n of t h a t i n s t i t u t e i n our law system. Today a l l t h e economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s and e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r subj e c t of p r o d u c t i o n a r e r e g i s t e r e d i n the R e g i s t e r . The r e s u l t o f t h i s c o d i f i c a t i o n i s f u r t h e r l e g a l s e c u r i t y and p r o t e c t i o n o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n s . A f t e r t h i s b r i e f survey we can d e a l o n l y w i t h some s e l e c t e d q u e s t i o n s . The amend enables new systems o f t h e inner o r g a n i z a t i o n of e n t e r p r i s e s , because t h e p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n bodies i n s i d e t h e e n t e r p r i s e a r e not determined by law (§ 17, a r t . 2 ) . I n o t h e r cases t h e h i t h e r t o r e g u l a t i o n was k e p t . I t concerns e s p e c i a l l y t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and the l i t t l e places o f business d i r e c t e d by N a t i o n a l Committees. T h i s k i n d of r e g u l a t i o n , however, does not concern the s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , which a r e d i r e c t e d by the " s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e l a w " . The inner u n i t of the s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e cannot be the s u b j e c t of law and a c t s i n the name o f the whole e n t e r p r i s e . The new r e g u l a t i o n says: Inner u n i t s and b o d i e s of the s o c i a l i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s have t h e r i g h t to act i n the economic r e l a t i o n s and can bear the p r o p e r t y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y only i n cases and on c o n d i t i o n s l a i d down by the l a w . The enactments o f t h i s law and other r u l i n g s can be a p p l i e d a l s o t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o have r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s , t o t h e i r economic a c t i v i t y , l e g a l a c t s and o b l i g a t i o n r e l a t i o n s . The new r e g u l a t i o n o f the s u b j e c t of p r o d u c t i o n (§ 18a) i s v e r y imp o r t a n t f o r the development of the s o c i a l i s t e n t e r p r i s i n g . The s o c i a l i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s can c a r r y on t h e i r economic a c t i v i t y i n t h e framework o f the s u b j e c t o f p r o d u c t i o n l a i d down by t h e s t a t u t e , f o u n d e r instrument o r o t h e r a c t ; t h e s u b j e c t of p r o d u c t i o n covers a l s o the sale o f p r o d u c t s , t h e a d j u s t ment or o t h e r p r o c e s s i n g of the s o l d products, g i v i n g works and s e r v i c e s connected w i t h the s a l e , complementary sale of p r o d u c t s connected w i t h ' works and services which a r e given by o r g a n i z a t i o n . S o c i a l i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h , can carry on o t h e r economic a c t i v i t i e s , t o o , i f the f u l f i l l i n g of o b l i g a t o r y t a r g e t o f t h e s t a t e p l a n e and economic o b l i g a t i o n s a r e not affected. For the s t r e n g t h e n i n g the l e g a l c e r t a i n t y , t h e amend r e g u l a t e s the case when the a u t h o r i z e d organ r e f u s e s the a p p r o v a l or does not d e c i d e . The Economic Code r e q u i r e s the a p p r o v a l f o r d i f f e r e n t types of c o n t r a c t s . I n case t h a t the a u t h o r i z e d organ does not give i t s s t a n d p o i n t i n one month a f t e r t h e r e c e i p i n g o f the a p p l i c a t i o n , i t means t h a t the a p p r o v a l was given. The r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e "Measures o f the organs o f economic o p e r a t i o n " (§ 26a - 26e) i s a l s o completely new. The main sense o f t h i s r e g u l a t i o n i s t o c r e a t e l e g a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r g r e a t e r independence o f the s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s and other o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t o provide t h e l e g a l c e r t a i n t y for these s u b j e c t s . The p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e organs of t h e economic o p e r a t i o n t o i n v o l v e the working o f t h e s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s i s l i m i t e d . This p o s s i b i l i t y
334
VARIA
i s d e l i m i n a t e d by q u a l i f i c a t i o n norms. The i n t e r f e r e n c e i s p o s s i b l e only i n case and on c o n d i t i o n mentioned by the r e g u l a t i o n . The organs of economic o p e r a t i o n have the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e damage caused by the measure which i s not i n harmony w i t h t h e r e g u l a t i o n s : t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y cannot be r e f u s e d . Other s i g n i f i c a n t r e g u l a t i o n s (§ 27a - 27g) deal w i t h t h e questions o f the regime of c o n s o l i d a t i o n , d i r e c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and t h e l i q u i d a t i o n . These s p e c i a l methods of management mean t h e c e r t a i n i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t o t h e management of the s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s which can be a p p l i e d commonly. The p o s s i b i l i t y of the l i q u i d a t i o n i s necessary, but the p r o p o s a l i s , t h a t i t i s the e x c e p t i o n a l measure. The y i e l d o f t h e l i q u i d a t i o n w i l l be used f o r paying the debts i n t h i s o r d e r : the debts o f the employees, the s t a t e debts ( d u t i e s , t a x e s , d e l i v e r i e s ) , o t h e r debts. New l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n extends the term " n a t i o n a l p r o p e r t y " and a d j u s t s i t t o the " s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e l a w " . Also i t contents t h e new conception o f the " r i g h t o f management". The n a t i o n a l p r o p e r t y c o n t e n t s not only t h e p r o p e r t y of the people, d e b t s and other p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , b u t also debts and other p r o p e r t y r i g h t s of t h e s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Changes i n the 3rd p a r t o f the Economic Code mean, t h a t the p o s i t i o n and the l e g a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h e c o o p e r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i l l be a d j u s t e d both i n the Economic and i n t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Codes. The s i g n i f i c a n t changes are connected w i t h the R e g i s t e r of E n t e r p r i s e s , t o o . The Register c f E n t e r p r i s e s i s the p u b l i c book i n which t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n bodies and f a c t s c o n c e r n i n g these u n i t s are w r i t t e n . The Register fflf E n t e r p r i s e s h e l p s the check and ensuring f u n c t i o n o f the economic law. The s p e c i a l f u n c t i o n s o f the r e g i s t r a t i o n i n the R e g i s t e r of E n t e r prises are: - c o n s t i t u t i v e f u n c t i o n - the r e g i s t r a t i o n i s the c o n d i t i o n on which the c e r t a i n r i g h t r i s e s , changes or e x p i r e s , - d e c l a r a t o r y f u n c t i o n - the r e g i s t r a t i o n i s not t h e c o n d i t i o n on which the r i g h t r i s e s , changes or e x p i r e s , but i t c e r t i f i e s , t h a t i n time of r e g i s t r a t i o n c e r t a i n f a c t s e x i s t e d , - i n f o r m a t i v e f u n c t i o n - i t i s p o s s i b l e t o look i n t o a Register or t o take out the e x c e r p t . Besides the s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , also o t h e r s o c i a l i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s are w r i t t e n i n t h e Register o f E n t e r p r i s e s , e . g . c o o p e r a t i v e s , e n t e r p r i s e s and economical bodies of the s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and o t h e r s u b j e c t s which c a r r y the economic a c t i v i t y ( f o r e i g n t r a d e c o r p o r a t i o n s , n a t i o n a l comm i t t e e s c a r r y i n g economic a c t i v i t i e s , e t c . ) . The r e g i s t r a t i o n i s the p r o posal of the i n c e p t i o n o f t h e s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e . That means, t h a t the Register o f E n t e r p r i s e s i s t h e important medium of the s t a t e s u p e r v i s i o n upon f o u n d i n g e n t e r p r i s e s , w o r k i n g of which might not be i n the harmony w i t h law. For b e t t e r i n f o r m a t i o n o f the economic c e n t e r , the R e g i s t e r of E n t e r p r i s e s extends the data about working of t h e s o c i a l i s t organizations, strenghtens the certainty o f the s u b j e c t s o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a c t i v i t y . New l e g a l adjustment determines the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l type o f t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n f o r the f o r e i g n t r a d e c o r p o r a t i o n s , t o o . There are also new f a c t s , which must be r e g i s t e r e d . I t i s , e s p e c i a l l y , the datum about t h e e x t e n t of the p r o p e r t y of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the moment o f the f o u n d a t i o n and the subj e c t of p r o d u c t i o n . The duty t o discuss t h e purveyor-customer r e l a t i o n s remains i n f o r c e . I t ' s e x t e n t w i l l be concreted by the s p e c i a l r e g u l a t i o n . I f t h e discussing i s w i t h o u t d i s c r e p a n c i e s , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s are obliged t o conclude the c o n t r a c t . The r e c o r d about t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e d i s c u s s i n g t h e purveyor-
VARIA
335
customer r e l a t i o n s i s v a l i d o n l y i n case t h a t t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s appeared. The d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e solved by the organs o f economic o p e r a t i o n ; i n case t h a t the discrepancy i s removed, the c o n t r a c t about the p r e p a r a t i o n o f d e l i v e r i e s i s t o be concluded ( t h e c o n t r a c t o r s are o b l i g e d t o close t h e c o n t r a c t on d e l i v e r y ) . The change i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of § 18 i s very i m p o r t a n t , too. The organs of economic o p e r a t i o n can f o r c e the o r g a n i z a t i o n t o c l o s e the cont r a c t i n e x a c t l y determined cases: p r o t e c t i o n and s e c u r i t y o f the s t a t e , o b l i g a t i o n s of f o r e i g n c o n t r a c t s , p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e l i f e and h e a l t h of t h e p e o p l e , p r o t e c t i o n o f the l i f e environment, removing the r e s u l t s of n a t u r a l catastrophes and s e r i o u s c r a s h e s ; (the a r b i t r a r y has not even t h i s common r i g h t - i t s d e c i s i o n can be based only on t h e l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n ) . On t h e same c o n d i t i o n t h e organs of economic o p e r a t i o n can change or cancel t h e o b l i g a t i o n s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The c o n t r a c t o f the t r a n s f e r r i n g the r i g h t of management (§ 347) has the o b l i g a t o r y c o n t e n t which must be concluded as a c o n d i t i o n on which t h e c o n t r a c t a r i s e s : t h e t r a n s f e r r e d p r o p e r t y , t h e day of the t r a n s f e r and t h e p r i c e must be determined i n advance. That means t h a t the t r a n s f e r s of r i g h t of the o r g a n i z a t i o n s are p r i n c i p a l venal. (The organs of economic o p e r a t i o n must not give t h e i r approval t o the t r a n s f e r . ) I n the § 352a, there appears a brand new conception - t h e t r a n s f e r o f the program o f p r o d u c t i o n . The o r g a n i z a t i o n s can make t h i s agreement on s t r i c t l y determined c o n d i t i o n s : the t r a n s f e r must be e f f e c t i v e and purposef u l and the f l u e n t s u p p l y i n g o f the n a t i o n a l economy must be ensured as w e l l as f u l f i l l i n g of the f o r e i g n o b l i g a t i o n s . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of e v e n t u a l damages must be s t r i c t l y determined i n c o n t r a c t i n order t o p r o t e c t the r i g h t s o f the customers. Some changes appeared i n the c o n t r a c t o f a s s o c i a t i o n , t o o . A l l t h e s o c i a l i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s can a s s o c i a t e ; they j o i n t h e i r a c t i v i t y or t h e i r f i a n c e s t o reach the c e r t a i n purpose. The c o n t r a c t must be w r i t t e n , t h e approval of the organs of economic o p e r a t i o n i s not necessary. In the f i n i s h , i t i s necessary to s a y , t h a t f u r t h e r stage of t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e economic law and the appearance of t h e new Economic Code i s planned on the 1st January 1991. L . Tamás - J . Bejcek - K. Marek
INTERNATIONAL ROUND-TABLE CONFERENCE ON THE BINDING FORCE OF CONTRACTS The I n s t i t u t e f o r Legal and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Sciences o f the Hungarian Academy of Sciences w i t h s u p p o r t of the Hungarian UNESCO Commission o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d - t a b l e conference on questions o f l e g a l r u l i n g of c o n t r a c t s . The conference took place i n Budapest, between 10-14 September, 1990. The f o r e i g n guests i n v i t e d were e x p e r t s i n v o l v e d i n t h e h a r m o n i z a t i o n works of c o n t r a c t law of t h e EC c o u n t r i e s ( P r o f . Beale, Warwick; P r o f . Drobnig, Hamburg; P r o f . H e l l n e r , Stockholm; P r o f . Lando, Copenhagen; P r o f . Denis, Louvain-la-Neuve, P r o f . T a l i o n , P a r i s ) and t h e o r e t i c a l j u r i s t s f r o m Yugoslavia ( S a r c e v i c , P. r e c t o r , U n i v e r s i t y o f R i j e k a ) , Poland ( S t e p n i a k , L . , research o f f i c e r , Warsow), and from Czecho-Slovakia (Pauknerova, M . , research o f f i c e r , Prague). On b e h a l f o f the Hungarian p a r t i c i p a n t s , P r o f . Mádl, F. M i n i s t e r w i t h o u t p o r t f o l i o ; Kecskés, L . , deputy M i n i s t e r of J u s t i c e , Martonyi, J . deputy M i n i s t e r of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic R e l a t i o n s , P r o f . Vékás, L. r e c t o r , U n i v e r s i t y of Budapest, l e c t u r e r s o f the Hungarian Law S c h o o l s ;
336
VARIA
p r a c t i s i n g lawyers from e n t e r p r i s e s o f f o r e i g n t r a d e , from m i n i s t r i e s , from c o u r t s of j u s t i c e and the r e s e a r c h o f f i c e r s o f the I n s t i t u t e f o r Legal and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Sciences t o o k p a r t i n the work of the c o n f e r e n c e . Professor Harmathy, A . , Professor o f t h e Eötvös Loránd U n i v e r s i t y , deputy d i r e c t o r o f the I n s t i t u t e f o r Legal S c i e n c e s , Budapest, performed t h e p a r t of h o s t and he had a l i o n ' s share i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the m e e t i n g . The aim of the conference was, t h a t w i t h help o f d i s c u s s i o n on basic problems o f c o n t r a c t l a w , the p a r t i c i p a n t s could c r e a t e a b e t t e r unders t a n d i n g o f fundamental concepts, c a t e g o r i e s of t h e law of c o n t r a c t i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s o f Europe. I h i s c o u l d promote f u t u r e economical conn e c t i o n s , may e s t a b l i s h f u r t h e r h a r m o n i z a t i o n works, and may help t o solve the problems r a i s i n g i n connection o f c o n t r a c t s i n t h e r o u t i n e work of lawyers. The form of the conference was f r e e d i s c u s s i o n , w i t h o u t formal l e c t u r e s , although P r o f . Beale, P r o f . Harmathy, P r o f . H e l l n e r , P r o f . Lando, P r o f . P h i l i p p e és P r o f . T a l i o n p r e s e n t e d t h e i r paper f o r the p a r t i c i p a n t s . The main t o p i c s on t h e agenda o f t h e conference were: 1. s p e c i f i c p e r formance, 2. a d a p t a t i o n o f c o n t r a c t s t o changed c i r c u m s t a n c e s , 3. nonperformance and remedies. F. Mádl, M i n i s t e r w i t h o u t p o r t f o l i o opened the conference, a f t e r t h a t r a p i d l y a c t i v e d i s c u s s i o n developed on the q u e s t i o n s of s p e c i f i c p e r formance . P r o f . Drobnig, examining the European law systems, separated t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : Ihe f i r s t one i s r e p r e s e n t e d by the system of common l a w , where s p e c i f i c performance i s r a t h e r an e x c e p t i o n , c l a i m f o r damages i s regarded as normal remedy. S p e c i f i c performance i s o n l y a p p l i e d , when there i s no other way o f compensation - because o f the f e a t u r e o f the market o r o f • t h e c o n t r a c t i t s e l f . The second c a t e g o r y i s r e p r e s e n t e d by the c o n t i n e n t a l systems, where the main p r i n c i p l e i s the one o f " p a c t a sunt s e r v a n d a " . Ihe t h i r d category would be r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e former s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , where the p r i n c i p l e of r e a l performance was dominating. I n t h e course of t h e d i s c u s s i o n i t was remarkable, what a c o n s i d e r able d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d between the aspects of P r o f . l a l l o n and P r o f . Beale - as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the c o n t i n e n t a l and t h e English l a w . While the French p r o f e s s o r argued from an e t h i c a l - m o r a l p o i n t of view - p r o mises s h o u l d be b i n d i n g " - , the E n g l i s h professor made r a t h e r a b u s i n e s s based approach. The E n g l i s h law even knows the case o f " e c o n o m i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e breach of c o n t r a c t " , - t h i s means, t h a t i f one o f the c o n t r a c t i n g p a r t i e s g e t s a more advantageous o f f e r , he may t e r m i n a t e the c o n t r a c t , i f the i n n o c e n t p a r t y d e s i s t s from h i s c l a i m i n r e t u r n f o r sharing t h e s u r p l u s p r o f i t developing from the more advantageous o f f e r . The d i f f e r e n c e s , which occur even i n the p r a c t i c e , could n o t be abolished by the h a r m o n i z a t i o n e f f o r t s . The Vienna Convention of 11 A p r i l 1980 on C o n t r a c t s f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Sale of Goods was not a b l e t o u n i f y t h e law of c o n t r a c t s on the f i e l d o f s p e c i f i c performance. Ihe n a t u r e of the c o n t r a c t a l s o e x e r t s an i n f l u e n c e over s p e c i f i c performance. P r o f . H e l l n e r emphasized t h a t i n t h i s p o i n t of view s p e c i a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c a l are the l o n g - t e r m c o n t r a c t s , c o r t r a c t s , which c o n t a i n o b l i gations t h a t are f u l f i l l e d by repeated a c t i o n s , or by prolonged performance and c o n t r a c t of p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s . Boytha, Gy. summarized t h e problems a r i s i n g on the f i e l d of c o n t r a c t s on i n t e l l e c t u a l property. In c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h s p e c i f i c performance one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t questions i s : how can i t be enforced? I n some of the c o u n t r i e s v e r y e f f i c i e n t means are a v a i l a b l e f o r the c o u r t . The E n g l i s h c o u r t s can o r d e r s p e c i f i c performance o f an o b l i g a t i o n t o do or to convey: i f the d e f e n d a n t does not comply, he may be imprisoned o r f i n e d f o r contempt of c o u r t .
VARIA
337
French and B e l g i a n law a s s o c i a t e s the s p e c i f i c performance w i t h " a s t r e i n t e " , and t h i s a l s o provides v e r y e f f i c i e n t j u d i c i a l r e s u l t s . A s t r e i n t e means, t h a t the c o u r t can o r d e r the defendant t o pay f i n e , but not f o r the Treasury, but f o r the i n n o c e n t p a r t y . I s t h e innocent p a r t y expected t o t u r n immediately t o the c o u r t or r a t h e r t o make a l t e r n a t i v e arrangements ( t y p i c a l l y by going out i n t o t h e market)? T h i s might be an e s s e n t i a l p o i n t i n connection w i t h s p e c i f i c p e r formance, and t h e r e are g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s on t h i s f i e l d among d i f f e r e n t law systems. P r o f e s s o r H e l l n e r pointed o u t , t h a t even t h e Scandinavian l a w s are d i f f e r e n t i n t h i s p o i n t o f view: i n t h e Norwegian system i t i s c o n s i d e r e d as an o b l i g a t i o n f o r t h e innocent p a r t y t o make a l t e r n a t i v e arrangements, i n the Swedish system i t i s n o t . Of c o u r s e t h i s cover t r a n s a c t i o n can only be e f f e c t i v e i n t h o s e c o u n t r i e s , where r e a l market e x i s t s , so i n the former s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of i t a r e more r e s t r i c t e d - as P r o f e s s o r Sarcevic p o i n t e d o u t . P r o f . Harmathy s t r e s s e d , t h a t i n our country t h e r e are g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e arrangements, e s p e c i a l l y on f i e l d s of b u i l d i n g c o n t r a c t s and f l a t s . The second s u b j e c t on the agenda o f the meeting was a d a p t a t i o n of c o n t r a c t s t o changed circumstances. The f i r s t concept discussed was t h e one of f s t r a t i o n . I n E n g l i s h law - as P r o f e s s o r Beale p o i n t e d out - a c o n t r a c t w i l l be f r u s t r a t e d i f t h e substance o f i t has become impossible or i l l e g a l , or the commercial purpose has been c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d . The f r u s t r a t i n g event must a l s o have been unforeseen by t h e p a r t i e s ; and the i m p o s s i b i l i t y must not be " s e l f i n d u c e d " . The e f f e c t o f f r u s t r a t i o n i s , that the p a r t i e s are r e l e a s e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y from l i a b i l i t y to p e r f o r m f u r t h e r . But the p a r t i e s are f r e e t o p u t i n t h e i r c o n t r a c t express t e r m s , under w h i c h the c o n t r a c t may subsequently be a d j u s t e d . The p a r t i e s a r e given c o n s i d e r a b l e l a t i t u d e i n t h i s r e s p e c t , and the c o u r t s have gone q u i t e f a r i n p r o v i d i n g support f o r what has been agreed. The c o u r t s u s u a l l y do not m o d i f y the contract. P r o f e s s o r T a l i o n b r i e f l y summarized the French p r a c t i c e . A c c o r d i n g t o i t the c o u r t s do not a d j u s t the c o n t r a c t , only t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u r t s have adopted a d i f f e r e n t r u l e , grounded on the s p e c i f i c i t y of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r a c t s , but even i n t h i s case i t i s h o t l y debated, to what e x t e n t i t i s acceptable. P r o f e s s o r L o n t a i emphasized the importance o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e cont r a c t s on t h e f i e l d s o f l i c e n s i n g c o n t r a c t s . On t h e l a s t day o f the meeting t h e t h i r d t o p i c was ^discussed : non performance and remedies. The e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l laws d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y both i n terms and s t r u c t u r e s to be u s e d , even on f i e l d s of remedies - as Professor Lando p o i n t e d o u t . In common law damages a r e the r u l e , s p e c i f i c performance i s the e x c e p t i o n , i n t h e C o n t i n e n t a l system i t i s j u s t the opposite. One o f the most i n t e r e s t i n g t o p i c s discussed i n t h e domain o f remedies was the r i g h t t o t e r m i n a t e the c o n t r a c t . Here t h e d i f f e r e n t law systems apply d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s . The B e l g i a n C i v i l Code - as Professor P h i l i p p e p o i n t e d o u t - s i m i l a r t o the French s o l u t i o n compels the c r e d i t o r t o ask f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e judge i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the c o n t r a c t . The judge a p p r e c i a t e s , whether the non-performance i s o f such a s e r i o u s n e s s , t h a t i t j u s t i f i e s the t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n t r a c t . In t h e German law t h e innocent p a r t y has the r i g h t to t e r m i n a t e the c o n t r a c t , t h e judge i s o n l y involved i n case of d e b a t e . According t o common law, the q u e s t i o n of t e r m i n a t i n g the c o n t r a c t f a l l s i n t o the domain o f the autonomy o f the p a r t i e s and u s u a l l y t h e r e i s no j u d i c i a l c o n t r o l above i t . The p a r t i e s u s u a l l y f i x the c o n d i t i o n s of t e r m i n a t i n g i n the c o n t r a c t .
338
Pauknerova, M. and and the r e s u l t s reached and Poland i n t h e r e c e n t I n summary we can experience.
VARIA S t e m p n i a k , L. summarized b r i e f l y t h e e f f o r t s made on t h e f i e l d s o f c o n t r a c t law i n C z e c h o - S l o v a k i a time. s a y , t h a t the c o n f e r e n c e was a most p r o f i t a b l e
A. Dósa
Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 339-354 (1990)
3 5 3I N T E R N A T I O N A L I A
Stefanovic,
M.:
POROVNÄVANIE PRÁVA - SOCIALISTICKÄ PRÁVNA KOMPARATISTIKA (COMPARISON OF LAW - SOCIALIST LEGAL COMPARATISTICS), B r a t i s l a v a , 1987, Veda, p. 170 I n the f o r e w o r d , t h e author r e f e r s t o the f a c t t h a t i n the Czechos l o v a k i a n l e g a l l i t e r a t u r e t h i s i s the f i r s t work, which gives a comprehens i v e p i c t u r e o f the s o c i a l i s t comparative j u r i s p r u d e n c e . The book c o n s i s t s o f f i v e c h a p t e r s . The f i r s t chapter i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e f u n c t i o n and p l a c e of the comparat i s t i c s i n t h e Czechoslovakian s o c i a l i s t j u r i s p r u d e n c e . I t s t a r t s w i t h d e f i n i n g fundamental c o n c e p t i o n s . I t seeks f o r the p l a c e of the comparat i s t i c s i n t h e j u r i s p r u d e n c e . I t s t a t e s , t h a t the comparison i t s e l f is only a method, known s i n c e the o l d e s t ages. I t t u r n s i n t o a science i f i t r e s u l t s i n new s c i e n t i f i c r e s u l t s - t h i s i s w r i t t e n i n the second c h a p t e r . In the o p i n i o n of the a u t h o r , the new knowledge i s something which d i d not e x i s t h i t h e r t o , or r e f u t e s or completes o r enriches our knowledge g a t h e r e d knoh i t h e r t o ( p . 49). I f t h e existence o f t h e new s c i e n t i f i c branch o f wledge - t h e comparative j u r i s p r u d e n c e - should be proved, the arguments s u p p o r t i n g t h i s independence have t o be f i r s t e v a l u a t e d . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n the author i n v e s t i g a t e s i n d e t a i l s t h e s i n g l e phases o f the development from a method t o a s c i e n t i f i c branch o f knowledge. The a u t h o r comes t o t h e exhaustive i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s process i n the t h i r d c h a p t e r . The o r i g i n s of comparative j u r i s p r u d e n c e are dated back t o e a r l i e r t i m e s , than t h e 19th c e n t u r y . The C i v i l Code of Napoleon i s r e garded as i t s f i r s t document, compiled by the a p p l i c a t i o n of the a c c e s r s i b l e m a t e r i a l s of d i f f e r e n t l e g a l r u l e s . A f u r t h e r document i s t h e dec l a r a t i o n o f human r i g h t s i n 1789. A m i l e s t o n e , s i g n i f i c a n t from t h e p o i n t of view o f the development of the comparative j u r i s p r u d e n c e , was the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the p r o f e s s o r s h i p f o r the g e n e r a l l e g a l h i s t o r y and comparative law a t the Sorbonne i n P a r i s i n 1831. I n r e s p e c t of the d e v e l opment o f c o m p a r a t i s t i c s , Montesquieu's " L ' E s p r i t des l o i s " i s a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t composition because i t s e x p l i c a t i o n s are founded mainly i n the comparison o f law (pp. 6 8 - 6 9 ) . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the development, t o be observed i n the Western c o u n t r i e s of the comparative j u r i s p r u d e n c e , the a u t h o r emphasizes t h e act i v i t y of t h e A s s o c i a t i o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l e de D r o i t comparé which - as i t i s w e l l known - has e s t a b l i s h e d i n S t r a s b o u r g an i n t e r n a t i o n a l f a c u l t y f o r the t e a c h i n g o f comparative law (pp. 7 5 - 7 6 ) . I n the s o c i a l i s t j u r i s p r u d e n c e , the l e g a l c o m p a r a t i s t i c s serve p r i m a r i l y f o r the s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f the mutual r e l a t i o n s of t h e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s and f o r the exchange o f the gathered e x p e r i e n c e s . I n consequence o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l development and of the n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s namely numerous i n s t i t u t i o n s and notions a r e t o be found i n each country which are d i f f e r e n t , causing o f t e n d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r f i n d i n g the c o r r e c t common s o l u t i o n . Steps may be t a k e n only g r a d u a l l y f o r the u n i f i c a t i o n of the l e g a l r u l e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , the author a t t a c h e s g r e a t importance t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l meetings o r g a n i z e d i n the r e c e n t decades i n some s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s f o r d i s c u s s i n g v a r i o u s quest i o n s o f t h e comparative law. He s t r e s s e s the r e s u l t s of the Xth I n t e r n a t i o n a l World Congress on Comparative Law, h e l d i n Budapest i n 1978. From t h e f o u r t h chapter the comments of the a u t h o r on the c h a r a c t e r of the s u b j e c t matter of comparison o f law are w o r t h emphasizing. S i n c e i t Acta J u r i d i c a Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 199U. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
INTERNATIONALIA
340
concerns a s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h , the purpose i s the search f o r the o b j e c t i v e laws of the development o f t h e examined phenomenon - w r i t e s the a u t h o r ( p . 99). I n t h i s way, the i n v e s t i g a t i o n may comprise t h e l e g a l r u l e , t h e l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n , the l e g a l branch, t h e n a t i o n a l law as a system, t h e g r e a t l e g a l systems and l e g a l c u l t u r e s and t h e types of t h e law (p. 1 0 2 ) . R e l a t i n g t o t h e method of i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h e author observes t h a t the p u r e dogmatic a n a l y s e s or the e x p l i c a t i o n s of t o t a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r a r e not very l i k e l y t o be s u c c e s s f u l . The s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e q u i r e s the a b s o r p t i o n i n the essence of phenomena, since new, u t i l i z a b l e knowledges may be a c q u i r e d only i n t h i s way ( p . 1 2 1 ) . In the modern comparative law, the d i v i s i o n of l e g a l systems i n t o t h r e e great branches, namely i n t o the Romanist-Germanic, t h e Anglo-Saxon and the s o c i a l i s t law i s a c u r r e n t c o n c e p t i o n , the i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e a c h i n g of comparative law i s also on t h i s basis - wrote Imre Szabó i n the f o r e word of the Hungarian e d i t i o n o f René D a v i d ' s Great l e g a l systems of t h e contemporary age (1977). These t h r e e l e g a l f a m i l i e s a r e , however, i n c l o s e connection w i t h the European e v o l u t i o n and c i v i l i z a t i o n - we read i n René D a v i d ' s book. I n a d d i t i o n t o them, there a r e other l e g a l systems i n o t h e r p a r t s of the w o r l d among which the r e l i g i o u s and t r a d i t i o n a l l e g a l systems are the most s i g n i f i c a n t . From the l a t t e r ones the f i f t h chapter of t h e reviewed book g i v e s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e Islamic law s i n c e , i n t h e o p i n i o n of t h e a u t h o r , t h i s i s the most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c one and the p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f the East European c o u n t r i e s are the c l o s e s t w i t h t h e Arabian c o u n t r i e s . In a d d i t i o n , the book d e a l s w i t h the A r a b i a n c o u n t r i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e book deals w i t h the E n g l i s h law, w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s several p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s . In the c o n c l u d i n g e x p o s i t i o n s the a u t h o r gives u t t e r a n c e t o h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e knowledges a c q u i r e d by comparison always e n r i c h the s t o c k of i n f o r m a t i o n s on the corresponding l e g a l branch and on the s e c t o r a l j u r i s p r u d e n c e , i f t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h i n t h i s l e g a l branch i s concerned. The s c i e n t i f i c research work r e l a t i n g t o t h e law as an e n t i t y , the k n o wledgeacquired through i t and i t s c o n c l u s i o n s belong t o t h e l e g a l t h e o r y , i n the framework of which t h e y take up t h e i r p o s i t i o n as a s p e c i a l i z e d s c i e n t i f i c l e g a l branch of knowledge. The work o f the author i n t r o d u c e s comprehensively, s y s t e m a t i z i n g and a n a l y t i c a l l y t h e s o c i a l i s t comparative j u r i s p r u d e n c e , b e i n g a p i o n e e r i n g work i n the s o c i a l i s t r e l a t i o n . The s c i e n t i f i c e d i t o r o f the book was K. Rebro, t h e reviewers were V. Knapp and E. Ku^era. The a c t i v i t y i n the comparative law of Luby and L. Bianchi was a l s o of g r e a t h e l p to the a u t h o r . A summary of rne essence of the book i n Russian, German and French languages renders t h e work more e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e i n a wider c i r c l e . L. Trócsányi
Folsom, Rlaph H. - Minan, John H.
(Edit.):
LAW IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINE Martinus N i j h o f f
Publishers (Dordrecht - Boston - London), 1989. 1076 p .
The p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l development o f t h e g i g a n t i c c o u n t r y of more than one thousand m i l l i o n i n h a b i t a n t s engages the a t t e n t i o n of s e v e r a l s c i e n t i s t s over t h e world. The Chinese h i s t o r y looks back upon m i l l e n n i a and the p h i l o s o p h y o r i g i n a t i n g w i t h K o n f u c i u s , according t o which a j u s t
INTERNATIONALE
341
regime o f good p e o p l e , whose v i r t u o u s a t t i t u d e i s t h e best mode o f c o n v i c t i o n , i s a b l e t o r e s u l t i n t h e d e s i r a b l e s o c i a l behaviour and s o c i a l harmony, e x e r t s a r e m a r k a b l y s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on t h e development o f t h e p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s even t o d a y . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f s e v e r e measures and severe punishments may be o n l y s e c o n d a r y . The European l e g a l s c h o o l s have had and have, of c o u r s e , a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e p r a c t i c e and t h e o r y o f t h e Chinese l a w . I n China, t h e j u r i s t s were educated t r a d i t i o n a l l y r a t h e r on p h i l o s o p h i c a l bases and were f a m i l i a r i z e d w i t h t h e masterworks of t h e c l a s s i c a l Chinese l i t e r a t u r e . The e d u c a t i o n o f l e g a l e x p e r t s i s a r e l a t i v e l y new phenomenon. I n 1982 o n l y one q u a l i f i e d j u r i s t c o u l d be found among 50,00C i n h a b i t a n t s . The c o n f l i c t o f the w r i t t e n law and t h e " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " law i s n o t n o v e l , though t h e f i s t - l a w , wrapped up i n extreme l e f t d o g m a t i c p h r a s e o l o g y , a s s e r t e d i t s e l f d o u b t l e s s l y on t h e nadir of the Maoist r e v o l u t i o n , i n t h e time of t h e s o - c a l l e d c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n . Since 1976, when Mao deceased, t h e l e g i s l a t i o n and l e g a l educ a t i o n have come a g a i n i n t o prominence and t h i s f a c t has not been changed even by t h e t r a g i c and a g g r e s s i v e i n c i d e n t s of t h i s summer. The e x i s t i n g l e a d e r s o f China a r e aware o f t h e f a c t t h a t no modern power can e f f e c t i v e l y f u n c t i o n w i t h o u t a s o l i d and c o h e r e n t l e g a l system and w i t h o u t a system of l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . Teng H s i a o - p i n g ' s aim i s t h a t by t h e end of t h e c e n t u r y t h e r e w i l l be two m i l l i o n Chinese j u r i s t s a c t i n g i n o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t i e s and i n t h e s u p p o r t o f t h i s a wave o f j u r i s d i c t i o n has s t a r t e d . The development of an u p - t o - d a t e Chinese s t a t e and law w o u l d , however, take y e a r s , decades, r e a c h i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t o t h e n e x t c e n t u r y , even i n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e authors. The t h o r o u g h - g o i n g volume t r e a t i n g p r o f o u n d l y a l l aspects o f t h e Chinese law a n a l y z e s t h e p e c u l i a r r e l a t i o n s between t h e Chinese c o n s t i t u t i o n a l law and t h e Communist P a r t y . The a u t h o r s p o i n t to the f a c t t h a t though t h e Chinese c o n s t i t u t i o n i s s i m i l a r i n i t s f o r m and s t r u c t u r e t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e s i m i l a r i t y , however, does n o t go f u r t h e r on the w h o l e . The a u t h o r s a n a l y z e i n d e t a i l s t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s , the o b j e c t s t o be a t t a i n e d o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of 1982 ( t h e f i f t h communist c o n s t i t u t i o n ) and t h e y emphasize t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e i n c r e a s e d i m p o r t a n c e and r o l e o f t h e law i n t h e P e o p l e ' Republic o f China. The d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n s of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n on human r i g h t s i n h i b i t , howe v e r , n o t i n t h e l e a s t degree t h e possessors o f t h e power f r o m a c t i n g b r u t a l l y again s t t h e o t h e r w i s e t h i n k i n g p e o p l e , a g a i n s t t h e r e f r a c t o r y n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s . An endless m u l t i t u d e of examples proves unambiguously t h a t the s t r u g g l e f o r the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e , a g a i n s t the a u t o c r a t i c a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s t a t e power has by no means come t o an end i n China. Both t h e s p i r i t and t h e l e t t e r o f t h e new c o n s t i t u t i o n are imbued w i t h t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e f o u r m o d e r n i z a t i o n s and t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l system i s t r a n s formed i n t h e s p i r i t t h e r e o f . I n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e a u t h o r s , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e P e o p l e ' s Republic o f China - a t l e a s t i n i t s w o r d i n g - adj u s t s i t s e l f i n a s p e c i a l way r a t h e r t o t h e t h e o r i e s of the c r e a t o r o f t h e modern China, Sun J a t - s e n , than t o t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e of t h e regime of Taiwan, s i n c e D r . Sun has always b e l i e v e d , t h a t p o l i t i c a l power s h o u l d be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e governmental power. As a m a t t e r of c o u r s e , the p r e s e n t Chinese Communist P a r t y i s n o t any more an i l l e g a l group o f a few f a n a t i c r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s b u t , among o t h e r s , i t i s t h e d o m i n a t i o n of a m i l l i o n o f s m a l l e r and g r e a t e r b u r e a u c r a t s . The m a j o r i t y of t h e p r e s e n t i n h a b i t a n t s of China has never l i v e d under an o t h e r regime t h u s , t h e y r e g a r d as a f a t a l i t y t h a t t h e way t o t h e c a r e e r leads t h r o u g h t h e p a r t y membership and t h e p a r t y b u r e a u c r a c y c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y d e t e r m i n e s t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l p o l i c y and t h e d a i l y p r a c t i c e , t o o . I n s p i t e o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l changes g o i n d o n , so t o s a y , c o n t i n u o u s l y i n t h e Chinese s t a t e m a c h i n e r y , which p r o v e t h a t t h e " r u l i n g é l i t e " i s n o t homogeneous i n t h i s r e s p e c t e i t h e r ,
342
INTERNATIONALIA
t h e r e i s a s t r u g g l e f o r the p o s i t i o n s , f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e under the s u r f a c e - just like before. In the f o l l o w i n g the book i n t r o d u c e s t h e development o f the i n s t i t u t i o n s of m e d i a t i o n and c o n c i l i a t i o n . T h e i r importance i s d u l y proved by the s i n g l e d a t a t h a t the c o n c i l i a t i n g b o d i e s acted i n 1981 i n cases about t h i r t e e n times more than t h e c o u r t s of f i r s t i n s t a n c e , i . e . i n about 8 . 2 m i l l i o n cases. I n the e s t i m a t e , 90 per c e n t of the c i v i l a c t i o n s were s e t t l e d by these committees, about 4 m i l l i o n mediators p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s work, whose number increased by 50 per c e n t i n the l a s t few years. The Chinese Communist Party advocates the s e t t l e m e n t of such k i n d of the l e g a l d i s p u t e s f o r a l l t h a t i t symbolizes the c o r p o r a t e o b l i g a t i o n s and r e f u s e s the t r a d i t i o n a l formal c o u r t s which were t r i e d t o be i n t r o d u c e d as t h e instruments o f t h e c l a s s m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e overthrown c a p i t a l i s t system. D o u b t l e s s l y , m e d i a t i o n i s the most c o s t - s a v i n g method of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of law i n a s o c i e t y i n which t h e number of j u r i s t s i s low, the i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e i s i n embryonic s t a t e , t h e competence o f the c o u r t s i s h i g h l y l i m i t e d , as w e l l as the P a r t y t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n t e r v e n e s d i r e c t l y i n t h e d e c i s i o n s o f c o u r t s . Several l e g a l processes, e . g . the d i v o r c e s u i t come o b l i g a t o r i l y b e f o r e the c o n c i l i a t i n g committees as f i r s t i n s t a n c e s . Although a good p a r t of cases i s s o l v e d through t h e channels o f i n f o r m a l m e d i a t i o n , the r u l e s of mediation h a v e , however, been l a i d down a t f i r s t i n 1954, whereas conf i r m e d and p a r t l y modified i n 1979. This l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n i s , of course, dominated by t h e t h e s i s of " c h i a - t ' i n g c h ' u - s h e n " ( c l a s s o r i g i n ) which f i t s i n the Maoist d o c t r i n e of t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f classes. The m e d i a t i o n and c o n c i l i a t i o n have a l s o d i d a c t i c f u n c t i o n s i n a mass s o c i e t y where the i n d i v i d u a l i s c o n s t a n t l y s u b j e c t t o the " s o c i a l e d u c a t i o n " . To f u r n i s h i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h e volume i n t r o d u c e s s e v e r a l d e c i s i o n s taken i n c o n c r e t e cases In the n e x t p a r t , the Chinese methods o f s e t t l i n g business d i s p u t e s are t o be f o u n d . The m a j o r i t y o f d i s p u t e s i s presented b e f o r e the s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e of commerce and i n d u s t r y ( t h e a r b i t r a g e forum), t h e o p e r a t i o n a l development and t h e changes of which are t r e a t e d i n d e t a i l s by the essay, completed by the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the connection between the s e t t l e m e n t of d i s p u t e s and t h e market mechanism. The i n c r e a s i n g r o l e o f commercial market i n c e n t i v e s i s o b v i o u s l y accompanied by t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n and evolvement o f the r o l e o f a r b i t r a g e . The paper a l s o i n t r o d u c e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the r u l e s o f Chinese a r b i t r a g e and the m e d i a t i n g r u l e s of UNCITRAL. A separate chapter deals w i t h the p e o p l e ' s t r i b u n a l s which d i s c p n t i n u e d t h e i r a c t i v i t y i n the c h a o t i c p e r i o d o f t h e c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n . The t a s k of these f o r i i s , i n a d d i t i o n t o the judgement of c i v i l and penal cases, also t h e " t r a i n i n g f o r t h e l o y a l t y t o t h e s o c i a l i s t f a t h e r l a n d and the propagation o f the r e s p e c t t o the c o n s t i t u t i o n and laws among t h e c i t i z e n s " . The paper mentions t h a t i n the l a s t decades the number of l i t i gated cases i n c r e a s e d by leaps i n the P e o p l e ' s Republic o f China. The chapter also c o n t a i n s the l e g a l norms r e g u l a t i n g the o p e r a t i o n of the p e o p l e ' s t r i b u n a l s . The volume deals w i t h t h e methodology o f the l e g a l e d u c a t i o n , w i t h t h e r o l e of " p o p u l a r l e g a l a d v i s e r s " , w i t h the p u b l i c p r o s e c u t o r ' s o f f i c e , the c o n s t r u c t i o n of which was developed on the b a s i s of the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the S o v i e t p u b l i c p r o s e c u t o r ' s o f f i c e . The next c h a p t e r t r e a t s t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y Chinese i n s t i t u t i o n a l system of the law of p r o c e d u r e , t h e r e l a t i v e l e g a l norms. The volume renders p o s s i b l e t o get a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e fundamental p r o v i s i o n s of t h e s u b s t a n t i v e l a w , w i t h the n o v e l changes o f the c r i m i n a l l a w , c i v i l law, f a m i l y law i n t h e recent y e a r s . One of the papers mentions, as a p o i n t of i n t e r e s t , t h a t t h e law of n a t i o n a l i t i e s enacted i n 1980 combines the p r i n c i p l e s of i u s s o l i s and i u s s a n g u i n i s , a c c o r d i n g l y "any
INTERNATIONALE
343
person born i n China from Chinese parents o r from parents one of whom i s Chinese, s h a l l be regarded as o f Chinese o r i g i n " . Last but n o t l e a s t , t h e papers of t h e volume deal w i t h the s p e c i f i c l e g a l s t a t u s o f Hong Kong and Macao, w i t h t h e r e l e v a n t l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l system, a p p a r e n t l y r e f l e c t i n g the p r i n c i p l e o f "two systems, one c o u n t r y ' ' . The c o l l e c t i o n o f essays o f o u t s t a n d i n g l y h i g h l e v e l may be considered a fundamental work f o r those i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e present l i f e and society o f the most populous country o f the world. M. Udvaros
Davies, K e i t h : LOCAL GOVERNMENT LAW B u t t e r w o r t h s , London, 1987. 352 p.
Walter Bagehot has w r i t t e n i n h i s c l a s s i c a l work on t h e B r i t i s h c o n s t i t u t i o n : "We l o v e independent " l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s " . . . The degree of t h e l o c a l freedom d e s i r a b l e i n a c o u n t r y v a r i e s according t o many circumstances, and a P a r l i a m e n t a r y government may c o n s i s t w i t h any degree o f i t . " I n the f i r s t chapter o f the comprehensive work on t h e B r i t i s h l o c a l government an e x t e n s i v e l i s t o f laws and l e g a l norms, as w e l l , as a l i s t of l e g a l cases are t o be f o u n d , the l a t t e r representing t h e m i l e - s t o n e s i n the d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s of t h e development o f the B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l laws. The f i r s t chapter of t h e volume a n a l y z e s the e v o l u t i o n of the l o c a l government i n England and i n Wales. I t p o i n t s t o the f a c t t h a t the concept of the l o c a l government i s p a r a d o x i c a l because i t supposes a c e n t r a l government t o which the l o c a l government i s subordinated t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , but which i s also independent and f r e e t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . This p r e sumes some k i n d o f balance between the dependence and t h e authonomy but i f i t i s so, t h i s d e l i c a t e e q u i l i b r i u m i s n e a r l y c o n s t a n t l y i n danger f r o m whatever d i r e c t i o n . The q u e s t i o n comes up whether a r e a l l o c a l s e l f - g o v e r n ment can be made, c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the requirement of s t a b i l i t y . Several modern s t a t e s do not accord t h i s chance o r r a t h e r t h i s r i s k . I n the French h i s t o r y e . g . waves of d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n f o l l o w e d each o t h e r , and a t p r e s e n t , P r e s i d e n t M i t t e r a n d t r i e s j u s t t h e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n i n order t o e q u i l i b r a t e t h e long t r a d i t i o n of c e n t r a l i z a t i o n i n France. I n Chapter I I i n f o r m a t i o n can be g a t h e r e d about t h e present l o c a l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t e s . The a u t h o r p o i n t s o u t , t h a t the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e f o r m s a f t e r World War I I i n t r o d u c e d c o n s i d e r a b l e changes p r a c t i c a l l y i n 1948, i n 1958 and i n 1966, but not w i t h o u t r e s i s t a n c e . The c o u n t i e s have been m a i n t a i n e d on t h e whole, but i n several m a t t e r s of d e t a i l s changes have o c c u r r e d , and - i n the f i r s t place - the f o r m a t i o n of l a r g e r and s i m p l e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s has been s t r i v e n a f t e r . The l o c a l government law o f 1972 aimed a l r e a d y at s t a t i n g the sphere o f a c t i v i t y of t h e a u t h o r i t i e s o f v a r i o u s l e v e l s more p r e c i s e l y than h i t h e r t o . Chapter I I I i n t r o d u c e s t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s as c o r p o r a t e bodies. T h i s i s deduced i n f a c t from t h e L a t i n word " c o r p u s " (Body) s i n c e the law t r e a t s these e n t i t i e s as c o r p o r a t e bodies f u r t h e r on. The a u t h o r r e f e r s t o t h e very long p r e - h i s t o r y of t h i s concept i n t h e B r i t i s h development of l a w . Chapter IV deals w i t h t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the l o c a l organs, w i t h s p e c i a l r e g a r d s t o the s p e c i f i c a of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e j u r i s -
344
INTERNATIONALIA
d i c t i o n , as w e l l , as i n t r o d u c i n g the connections between the a c t i v i t i e s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e c o u r t s , w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g remark : "This a l s o serves t o p r o v e how much a f f e c t e d the d o c t r i n e of the s e p a r a t i o n of power i s . " The reader may get a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f l e g a l remedies. I n Chapter V of t h e volume the o r d e r of c i v i l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f the l o c a l organs i s d e s c r i b e d . T r e a t i n g t h e c o n t r a c t u a l l i a b i l i t i e s o f the l o c a l organs the author s t a t e s , t h a t t h e c o n t r a c t o f a l o c a l o r g a n , concluded i n an area o u t s i d e i t s sphere o f a c t i v i t i e s i s t o be considered n u l l and v o i d . He deals w i t h t h e l i a b i l i t y f o r damages and w i t h the c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of these organs. I n Chapter VI i n f o r m a t i o n may be gathered about t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r i n i t i a t i v e of l e g a l n a t u r e of the l o c a l organs. The r e s t r i c t i o n s o f the i n i t i a t i o n and of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l e g a l norms imposed on t h e l o c a l organs; a r e i n t r o d u c e d . The n e x t Chapter d e a l s w i t h the f i n a n c i a l matters o f the l o c a l g o v e r n ment. The Law on the l o c a l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t of 1972 d e c l a r e s as a g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t the l o c a l a u t h o r i t y i s e n t i t l e d to do a n y t h i n g , may i t c a r r y costs or n o t , i m p l y i n g l o a n or the purchase of a r e a l e s t a t e , but i t must not a c q u i r e money by i n c r a s l n g the r a t e s . The p u b l i c i t y of the f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s i s a p r i m a r y requirement, t h e r e s p o n s i b l e organ of the s e l f government informs the g e n e r a l p u b l i c , t h e voters t o t h e proper degree. The same Chapter o u t l i n e s t h e methods of l e n d i n g amounts u t i l i z a b l e f o r communal works, the organs and methods of t h e f i n a n c i a l c o n t r o l . I n Chapter V I I I t h e author makes us acquainted w i t h the f o r m a t i o n and work of t h e l o c a l m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . He d e a l s w i t h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the e l e c t i o n d i s t r i c t s , w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of m u n i c i p a l e l e c t i o n s , w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s of the a c t i v i t y of t h e c o u n c i l s , w i t h t h e work of t h e committees. Chapter IX o u t l i n e s the governmental ( c e n t r a l ) c o n t r o l of local organs, i n t r o d u c i n g the l i m i t s of t h e m i n i s t e r i a l s u p e r v i s i o n o f the various f i e l d s of a c t i v i t i e s of the l o c a l m u n i c i p a l i t y . Chapter X i n t r o d u c e s t h e a c t i v i t y o f the l o c a l organs of s e l f - g o v e r n ment a i m i n g a t the c o n f i r m a t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n of t h e law and the l e g a l o r d e r . I t makes c l e a r t h a t i n the i n s u l a r country the l o c a l development o f the p r o t e c t i o n of the p u b l i c o r d e r , t h e constable s y s t e m , looks back upon a t r a d i t i o n of s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s . By t h e way, the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the p o l i c e a u t h o r i t i e s has been r e g u l a t e d by a law i n 1964 and the M i n i s t e r f o r Home A f f a i r s has been e n t r u s t e d w i t h i t s n a t i o n a l supervision. The n e x t Chapter d e a l s w i t h the l o c a l governmental tasks r e l a t e d t o the l e a s e h o l d . I t p o i n t s t o the B r i t i s h s p e c i a l i t y t h a t some k i n d of p u b l i c roads may be b u i l t a l s o by p r i v a t e persons, w i t h o u t , of c o u r s e , the i n j u r y o f t h e r i g h t s o f o t h e r s . By t h e development o f t h e present u p - t o date road-system the t a s k s o f b u i l d i n g , p l a n n i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g roads were i n e v i t a b l y more and more c e n t r a l i z e d . The executive power has undertaken the performance of the s a n i t a r i a n tasks r e l a t i v e l y l a t e , a f t e r the c h o l e r a epidemic o f the t h i r t i e s i n the l a s t c e n t u r y . The harmonized c e n t r a l and l o c a l e f f o r t s f o r the s a f e g u a r d i n g o f environment b e l o n g r a t h e r t o t h e r e s u l t s o f our days. Last b u t not l e a s t , Chapter X I I d e a l s w i t h the s e r v i c e s of p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h e performance o f s o c i a l arE e d u c a t i o n a l t a s k s . The same Chapter t r e a t s a l s o consumer p r o t e c t i o n which s t a r t e d on B r i t i s h t e r r i t o r y i n 960 A.D. when King Edward s t r i c t l y ordained the use of s c a l e s i n the t r a d e . Though the l e g a l norms o f t h e weights and u n i t s of measurement were uniform i n t h e c o u n t r y , t h e i r enforcement, however, was c o n sidered more or less a l o c a l t a s k , j u s t l i k e the t a s k s o f the c o n t r o l o f food-hygiene.
INTERNATIONALE
345
The Appendix of the volume c o n t a i n s the l i s t of c o u n t i e s and d i s t r i c t s of England and Wales, completed by an i n d e x . The book i s a h i g h l y thorough a n a l y t i c a l work supported by l e g a l h i s t o r y antecedents, the study of which may be recommended e s p e c i a l l y t o persons showing an i n t e r e s t i n t h e Anglo-Saxon p u b l i c administration and law. M. Udvaros
Kempf, Udo - Uppendahl, Herbert: EIN DEUTSCHER OMBUDSMAN Leske Verlag und Budrich GmbH, Opladen, 1986. 267 p.
The ombudsman a c t i v e i n the t e r r i t o r y of R h i n e - P f a l z ( a c c o r d i n g t o the German t e r m i n o l o g y : BLirgerbeauftragte) could l o o k back upon a s u c c e s s f u l time of s e r v i c e o f 10 years i n May 1984. The i n t e r e s t i n the i n s t i t u t i o n , f u n c t i o n i n g u n t i l now only i n t h i s t e r r i t o r y o f the FRG f o r the p r o t e c t i o n of the r i g h t s and l e g a l i n t e r e s t s of c i t i z e n s , commenced i n the Western w o r l d a c t u a l l y i n t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s and has prospered p r i m a r i l y i n the c o u n t r i e s , where an e f f e c t i v e system of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u r t s existed. The f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s promoted t h e world-wide propagation o f this i n s t i t u t i o n , founded i n Sweden i n 1809: - t h e i n c r e a s i n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the s t a t e i n a l l f i e l d s o f s o c i a l l i f e , the spreading o f t h e r e l a t i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a p p a r a t u s , as w e l l , as the widening of the range o f c o n f l i c t s between the c i t i z e n s and t h e s t a t e ; - t h e i n c r e a s i n g helplessness and misgivings o f t h e c i t i z e n i n the jungle of state administrative regulations; - t h e extensive f o u n d a t i o n of s t a t e a c t i v i t i e s and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e work by l e g a l norms; - t h e demand, a r i s i n g due t o t h e s p e c i a l development o f the p a r l i a mentarism on the c o n f i r m a t i o n of c o n t r o l l i n g r i g h t s o f the p o p u l a r r e presentations; - t h e i n t e n t i o n t o t h e development of the s e l f - r e g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y of the p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process and t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y government. I t i s beyond q u e s t i o n , t h a t the ombudsman p r o v i d e s f o r the c o n t i n u i t y of c o n t r o l since n e i t h e r h i s a c t i v i t y , nor h i s o f f i c e i s bound t o t h e duration o f the l e g i s l a t i v e p e r i o d . F u r t h e r on, the ombudsman can r e v e a l also the s t r u c t u r a l f r a g i l i t y , the d i s a c c o r d s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s and the i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s o f the i n f o r m a t i o n f u r n i s h e d by i t . For t h i s p u r pose, e s p e c i a l l y w e l l educated and h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d co-workers a r e r e quired. The book also d e a l s w i t h t h e West-European and North-American experiences b u t , f i r s t o f a l l , the German experiences are t r e a t e d by famous a u t h o r s , among whom e . g . c h a n c e l l o r Helmut Kohl h i m s e l f and o t h e r w e l l known German statesmen are to be f o u n d . The a c t i v i t y of t h e c i v i l spokesman of R h i n e - P f a l z gave r i s e i n the r e c e n t years t o a keen i n t e r e s t beyond the borders o f the Federal Republic of Germany, t o o . F o r e i g n and German t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l experts i n v e s t i g a t e d the s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l elements and t h e e c o n o m i c - f i n a n c i a l background of the a c t i v i t y of the ombudsman. They were e s p e c i a l l y anxious
346
INTERNATIONALIA
about the s o c i a l s t r a t a , t h e s o c i a l g r o u p s , which have had p r i m a r i l y r e course t o t h e ombudsman, s i n c e these data have e v i d e n t l y shown the anoma l i e s t o be remedied of t h e s o c i e t y and, w i t h i n t h i s , t h o s e of the s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , . b o t h i n t e r r i t o r i a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e s p e c t s . The t a b l e s e n r i c h i n g t h e book c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i v e numbers on the f a c t s which l e g a l remedies were employed b t h e c i t i z e n s , i n which f i e l d s such demands a r o s e , which e f f i c i e n c y could be achieved i n r e s p e c t of the l e g a l remedies, w h i c h i n s t i t u t i o n s were most a b l e and w i l l i n g t o co-operate and which i n s t i t u t i o n s o b s t r u c t e d s u c c e s s f u l l y t h e a c t i v i t y o f the ombudsman, advocating t h e r i g h t s and i n t e r e s t s of the c i t i z e n s . The book o f f e r s an o v e r a l l p i c t u r e o f t h e p e r s o n i f i e d method of such character o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l , o f t h e c o n s i s t e n c y of the c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s and sometime o f t h e i r l a c k . The d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e ombudsman, f u n c t i o n i n g a t t h e m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and f u n c t i o n a l p i c t u r e o f the m i l i t a r y ombudsman, as w e l l as the e f f o r t to f u r n i s h the Bundestag w i t h continuous i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e l e g a l p r o t e c t i o n of t h e members of m i l i t a r y forces are especially i n t e r e s t i n g . The book deals also w i t h the f o r e i g n ( A u s t r i a n , Dutch, e t c . ) e x periences. I n A u s t r i a , t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f V o l k s a n w a l t s c h a f t has been e x i s t i n g s i n c e 1971, the l e g a l norms r e l a t i n g t o i t s a c t i v i t y have been summarized i n 1981 i n the amendment of t h e Federal C o n s t i t u t i o n . The e x p l i c i t d e s c r i p t i o n of the a c t i v i t i e s , the working order f o r the A u s t r i a n ombudsman has been a v a i l a b l e a c t u a l l y from J u l y 1, 1977 and i t s r e l a t i o n t o the other sources of l e g a l remedies and t o the i n f o r m a t i v e sources, r e sponsible f a c t o r s have been r e g u l a t e d r e c e n t l y . The Dutch ombudsman i s r a t h e r a " s o c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f j u s t i c e " t h a n an i n v e s t i g a t i n g judge, h i s a c t i v i t y aims, however, at t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e anomalies, a t the r e s t o r a t i o n of c i v i c r i g h t s . The work d e a l s also w i t h t h e ombudsman system of the U n i t e d States o f America and o f t h e United Kingdom. Here, the p a r t i c u l a r ombudsman-system of s p e c i a l i z e d s a f e g u a r d i n g o f i n t e r e s t i s w o r t h mentioning. I n some American f e d e r a l s t a t e s namely t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l i z e d ombudsman f u n c t i o n i n g i n p r i s o n s and h o s p i t a l s . The " s o c i a l i s t " s t a t e s show also a more and more i n t e n s i v e i n t e r e s t i n the q u e s t i o n s concerning t h e ombudsman and t h i s book h e l p s to a cons i d e r a b l e e x t e n t t o throw l i g h t on the n a t u r e and the s p e c i a l i t i e s of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h i s e s s e n t i a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l democracy. The book i s completed by t h e a u t h o r ' s "who i s who".
Jongen, F r a n ç o i s : LE DROIT DE LA RADIO ET DE LA TÉLÉVISION De Boeck-Wiesmael, B r u x e l l e s ,
1989. 312 p.
Three l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n s a p p l y to the B e l g i a n r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n , connected w i t h French-, F l a m i s h - and German-speaking communities - the author p o i n t s o u t i n the f o r e w o r d . There a r e , o f course, common r u l e s , t o o , i n so f a r as t h e t e c h n i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e statements o f t h e n a t i o n a l government, t h e t r a d e advertisements are concerned. The comments of the a u t h o r are c e n t r a l i z e d on the law of the French community, whereas the laws
INTERNATIONALE
347
of the o t h e r communities are i n t r o d u c e d w i t h a comparative c h a r a c t e r . The author a l s o pays a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, r e l a t i n g t o r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n , i f they show any s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s as against t h e B e l g i a n law. The book c o n s i s t s of t h r e e p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t t r e a t s emission, meaning - i n t h e o p i n i o n of t h e author - t h e programming and the t r a n s m i s s i o n t o t h e frequency bands used f o r b r o a d c a s t i n g , the second p a r t d e a l s w i t h t r a n s m i s s i o n , under which b r o a d c a s t i n g i t s e l f i s t o be understood, whereas the t h i r d p a r t deals w i t h the r e c e p t i o n of b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n s . This d i v i s i o n - as i t may be read i n the foreword o f the author n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e s d i s p r o p o r t i o n s , s i n c e t h e most d e t a i l e d r e g u l a t i o n s r e l a t e t o the emission, but t h e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e e x p l i c a t i o n s and the s u i t a b l e e l u c i d a t i o n o f the q u e s t i o n s have r e q u i r e d t h i s method after a l l . Coming now t o the d i s c u s s i o n s on the m e r i t s , the f i r s t chapter o f t h e f i r s t p a r t deals w i t h the d e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e r i g h t t o e m i s s i o n , as r e f l e c t e d i n the r u l e s of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l law and the B e l g i a n law. The p r o v i s i o n s r e l a t i n g t o the b o r a d c a s t i n g and the t e l e v i s i o n o f the European Convention of Human Rights and of the T r e a t y of Rome o f 1957 on t h e European Economic Community ( e . g . the p r o h i b i t i o n of the misuse of s u p e r i o r i t y ) are i n t r o d u c e d among t h e r u l e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w . I n case o f t h e B e l g i a n l e g a l r u l e s , i t s t a r t s w i t h the c o n s t i t u t i o n and then i t i n t r o duces the s p e c i a l l e g a l r u l e s r e l a t i n g t o the r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n . The r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n have been c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s s i n c e 1971, b e l o n g i n g t o the Councils o f the r e l e v a n t communities. The second chapter t r e a t s the addresses of the r i g h t t o e m i s s i o n . Among them, the most s i g n i f i c a n t i s w i t h i n the French community the Radio T é l é v i s i o n Belge de l a Communauté c u l t u r e l l e f r a n ç a i s e ( R . T . B . F . ) b e i n g a p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n , i t s t e l e v i s i o n having f o u r channels, i t s radio h a v i n g f o u r w a v e - l e n g t h s , moreover, i t broadcasts on a separate wave-length t o remote c o u n t r i e s . The author deals w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , means, permanent s t a f f and c o n t r o l of R . T . B . F . i n d e t a i l s . Since 1987, p r i v a t e t e l e v i s i o n s can a l s o f u n c t i o n , p a r t l y w i t h r e g i o n a l programmes and p a r t l y w i t h p r o grammes f o r the e n t i r e French community; t h e i r name i s c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y : Les t é l é v i s i o n s p r i v é e s de l a Communauté f r a n ç a i s e . Up t o t h e present, one p r i v a t e t e l e v i s i o n i s f u n c t i o n i n g , t r a n s m i t t i n g programmes of business c h a r a c t e r f o r the e n t i r e community. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e establishment o f p r i v a t e t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s f o r performing r e g i o n a l t a s k s - Les t é l é v i s i o n s is r é g i o n a l e s p r i v é e s - i s a l s o p o s s i b l e , the f u n c t i o n i n g of which r e s t r i c t e d t o s p e c i a l r e g i o n s . U n t i l t h e c l o s i n g of t h e manuscript - May 1 s t , 1989 - no such t e l e v i s i o n was r e g i s t e r e d . Since the s i x t i e s , v a r i o u s s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l groups experimented w i t h a u d i o v i s u a l t e c h n i c s w i t h i n narrow d e c e n t r a l i z e d l i m i t s . Thus, n i n e communal t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s have s t a r t e d f u n c t i o n i n g between 1976 and 1979. The decree of 1985 l a i d down the c o n d i t i o n s of t h e establishment o f l o c a l and communal t e l e v i s i o n s - Les t é l é v i s i o n s l o c a l e s e t communautaires. I n 1983 the i n s t i t u t i o n o f the s o - c a l l e d paying t e l e v i s i o n s e r v i c e s - Les organismes de t é l é v i s i o n payante - was i n t r o d u c e d w i t h i n the French community, t h e addresses o f which may be the general p u b l i c ( i n case o f f i l m s , s p o r t i n g events, programmes f o r young people, e t c . ) or narrower professional c i r c l e s (stock-brokers, estate brokers, f a r m e r s , e t c . ) i n subj e c t s i n t e r e s t i n g them. These t r a n s m i s s i o n s can be r e c e i v e d by means o f decoder ( " d é c o d e u r " ) . The organs of the community have t h e duty to s e t t l e the method and the amount o f the payment. F i n a l l y , i n t h i s c o n t e x t the p r i v a t e r a d i o s - Les r a d i o s p r i v é e s are mentioned, the l e g a l frameworks o f which were r e g u l a t e d i n 1987.
348
INTERNATIONALIA
These types of r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n have the f u l l r i g h t t o e m i s s i o n which means t h a t they may transmit t h e i r programmes t o the wave-lengths s e r v i n g f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n . This i s the s o - c a l l e d i n d i r e c t r i g h t t o e m i s s i o n which i s due t o d e f i n i t e i n s t i t u t i o n s , such as the government, the execut i v e organs of the community, a s s o c i a t i o n s , f o u n d a t i o n s . The c o n t e n t s of t h i s r i g h t can be summarized i n the f a c t , t h a t these organs determine o n l y the c o n t e n t s of the communications, t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n i s , however, the t a s k of the p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s of radio and t e l e v i s i o n . Among them, t h e c o r responding i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the Flemish and German communities are t o be found i n a d d i t i o n t o R . T . B . F . The t h i r d chapter t r e a t s the c o n d i t i o n s of t h e r i g h t to e m i s s i o n . These c o n d i t i o n s are g e n e r a l , p a r t l y f o r a l l media ( r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n , press, t h e a t r e , cinema), whereas some o f them r e l a t e o n l y to the r a d i o and the t e l e v i s i o n . The g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e : the s e c u r i t y of law, and t h a t of the s t a t e , the r e s p e c t f o r the p u b l i c order and f o r the p u b l i c m o r a l s , the o b l i g a t i o n of a b s t a i n i n g from a c t s committed t o t h e i n j u r y of f o r e i g n s t a t e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e are common r u l e s d e c i s i v e f o r the r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n , t h u s , among o t h e r s , i n r e s p e c t of p r o m o t i o n , the commercial and non-commercial p r o m o t i o n s i n c l u d e d , f u r t h e r , t h e r e i s the r e q u i r e m e n t of the o b j e c t i v i t y of i n f o r m a t i o n o r d e r e d already by t h e law on the r a d i o of 1930, d e c l a r i n g t h a t t h e I n s t i t u t n a t i o n a l belge de r a d i o - d i f f u s i o n ( I . N . R . ) i s o b l i g e d t o f u n c t i o n i n the s p i r i t of the " s t r i c t i m p a r t i a l i t y " and i t must not take up p o s i t i o n s i n f a v o u r of any i d e o l o g y or p h i l o s o p h y . I t must have respect f o r the i n t e r e s t s o f t h i r d p a r t i e s and ensure the r i g h t t o answer. The p r o t e c t i o n of c o p y r i g h t must a l s o be guaranteed. I n respect o f some radios and t e l e v i s i o n s - corresponding t o t h e i r c h a r a c t e r - there a r e f u r t h e r r u l e s , t o o , thus e . g . the R.T.B.F. - s i m i l a r l y t o t h e other r a d i o s and t e l e v i s i o n s f u n c t i o n i n g i n the form o f p u b l i c i n s t i t u - has t o promote t h e c u l t u r a l development t h e continuous e d u c a t i o n tions and e n t e r t a i n m e n t ( f i l m p r o j e c t i o n s , t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e a t r i c a l performances, s p o r t i n g events, e t c . ) . The second part of t h e book deals w i t h the problems of the t r a n s m i s sion which i s , i n the o p i n i o n of the a u t h o r , p r i m a r i l y an economicalt e c h n i c a l a c t i v i t y , though the law has a l s o a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t i n i t s r e g u l a t i o n , namely both on the c e n t r a l and on the community l e v e l s . The t r a n s m i s s i o n of programmes i s an a c t i v i t y s u b j e c t t o l i c e n c e . The l i c e n c e i s granted by the m i n i s t e r of telecommunication on n a t i o n a l l e v e l and by the competent executive o r g a n of the community on the community l e v e l . The a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o the e s t a b l i s h m e n t and t h e maintenance of the e m i s s i o n d i s t r i b u t i n g network i s s u b j e c t to c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , such as B e l g i a n n a t i o n a l i t y , or residence i n Belgium f o r t h e l e g a l e n t i t i e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , the p r o v i s i o n of t e c h n i c a l , f i n a n c i a l and moral guarantees and, i n a d d i t i o n to t h a t , the loyalty t o t h e given community on a community l e v e l . The author s t u d i e s thoroughly t h e question which programmes must be, may be and must not be t r a n s m i t t e d . The t h i r d p a r t of t h e book deals w i t h the r i g h t t o the r e c e p t i o n o f programmes. I t f o l l o w s f r o m A r t i c l e 10 o f t h e European Convention on Human Rights t h a t the freedom o f expression o f views comprises the freedom o f g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , knowledge or ideas w i t h o u t the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s and i r r e s p e c t i v e of the n a t i o n a l boundaries. A r t i c l e 14 of t h e Belgian C o n s t i t u t i o n a l s o mentions the freedom of e x p r e s s i o n of views, the r e c i p r o c a l s i d e of which i s the freedom of g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . The exercise o f t h i s r i g h t n e c e s s i t a t e s the s u i t a b l e t e c h n i c a l i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e , thus, a r e c e i v i n g apparatus i s needed, moreover, an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s u i t a b l e f o r the r e c e p t i o n of programmes and t r a n s m i s s i o n s i s a l s o r e q u i r e d . The acquirement and maintenance o f radio and t e l e v i s i o n apparatuses i s n o t subject t o l i c e n c e . The programpe t r a n s m i s s i o n s may be re-
349
INTERNATIONALE
ceived t h r o u g h Herzian waves, through c a b l e or through e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s . The cable t r a n s m i s s i o n s r e q u i r e a u t h o r i z a t i o n , the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a e r i a l s , however, i s f r e e . Summing up the m e r i t s of the book: i t t r e a t s the s u b j e c t i n a h i s t o r i c a l approach so t h a t the development o f t h e various i n s t i t u t i o n s can be e a s i l y f o l l o w e d . In a d d i t i o n , a q u i c k l y changing s u b j e c t i s concerned h e r e , proved by t h e f a c t , t o o , t h a t i n s p i t e o f the s h o r t t i m e the book g o t through t h e press ( h a r d l y a h a l f year f r o m the c l o s i n g o f the m a s n u c r i p t ) the c o m p i l a t i o n of an Addendum and i t s i n s e r t i o n i n t h e book i n form o f a supplement, c o n t a i n i n g t h e l e g a l r u l e s amended i n t h e meantime, became necessary. The l e g a l analyses of the a u t h o r are c l e a r , unambiguous, each chapter i s i n t r o d u c e d by a b r i e f summary. The comprehensive, quick i n f o r mation i s c o n s i d e r a b l y f a c i l i t a t e d t h e r e b y . I t s s t y l e i s s i m p l e , i t s i d i o m i s c l e a r . The u p - t o - d a t e treatment of t h e law of r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n i s welcome s i n c e i t may open new v i s t a s i n s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s f o r the d e v e l o p ment of our home law. L. T r ó c s á n y i
McWhinney, Edward: UNITED NATIONS LAW MAKING Holmes and Meier P u b l i s h e r s , New York - London, P a r i s , 1984. 274 p .
I n 1974 UNESCO planned the p u b l i c a t i o n of a new s e r i e s e n t i t l e d "New challenges t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l law" w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l law and the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the methods of a b e t t e r a d a p t a t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law t o the demands of a c h a n g i n g w o r l d . T h i s volume i s the t h i r d essay o f t h e s e r i e s . The keystone of the i n t e r - s t a t e s t r u c t u r e of t h e w o r l d has been s i n c e 1945 e v i d e n t l y the United Nations, as w e l l , as the s p e c i a l i z e d agencies o f the w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n . Professor McWhinney has undertaken t o a n a l y z e i n t h i s volume a l l processes, f o r i and persons which and who have s l o w l y but s u r e l y remodelled the p r e v i o u s order o f t h e world i n t h e "age of c h a n g e s " . As a member of the I n s t i t u t de D r o i t I n t e r n a t i o n a l , as a leading a u t h o r i t y of the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a w , he i n v e s t i g a t e d the p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l a s p e c t s of the " b i p o l a r " world f o l l o w i n g the w a r , as w e l l as t h e events h a v i n g l e d to the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s b i p o l a r w o r l d system. The present i n t e r n a t i o n a l law r e f l e c t s not o n l y the momentary s t a t e of t h e bargain between the two superpowers but both the new l e g a l norms concerning development between North and South and the s p e c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of the Western hemisphere or even the r e s u l t s of the " s o c i a l i s t " i n t e r n a t i o n a l law belong a l s o t o i t s elements. The volume deals w i t h the h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i v i s m and the s p a c i a l dimensions o f the i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, and i n t h i s range i t i n v e s t i g a t e s the j u r i s t i c s o l u t i o n s r e f l e c t i n g the s p e c i a l demands and l e g a l t r a d i t i o n s of the i n d i v i d u a l geographic areas which f r e q u e n t l y appeared as t h e l e g a l forms o f compulsory compromises i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t . The author a n a l y z e s the aspects i n t e r n a t i o n a l of law of t h e Far-Eastern p r i n c i p l e of "Pancha S h i l a " which acts a g a i n s t "unequal agreements", r e q u i r i n g namely the e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e e l i m i n a t i o n of norms and agreements which were f o r c e d i n p r e v i o u s h i s t o r i c a l ages by the c o l o n i z i n g European powers t o the A s i a n and A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . The author p o i n t s t o the f a c t t h a t the " s o c i a l i s t " theory and p r a c t i c e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law have also undergone c o n s i d e r a b l e
350
INTERNATIONALIA
changes s i n c e the appearance of the theses o f professor K o r o v i n , argumenting w i t h t h e " s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e " and v a l u a t i n g the s y n t h e s i s of i d e n t i c a l norms of t h e l e g a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s as r u l e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w . The volume i n t r o d u c e s i n d e t a i l s and w i t h due c r i t i c i s m t h e views of K r i l o v , Tunkin and o t h e r s , m e n t i o n i n g the p r i n c i p l e of " p e a c e f u l c o - e x i s t e n c e " i n the range o f fundamental p r i n c i p l e s o f the i n t e r n a t i o n a l legislation. P r o f e s s o r McWhirter d e a l s w i t h the c o r r e l a t i o n between the h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i v i s m and the temporal dimensions o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, emphasizi n g the p r o and contra arguments of t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e " o l d " and "new" i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. He d e a l s w i t h the e s s e n t i a l l y e u r o c e n t r i c views o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law worked o u t by the Swiss j u r s i t Max Huber and w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f the s o - c a l l e d " i n t e r t e m p o r a l law". He g i v e s a h i s t o r i c a l survey of the examples of t h e c r e a t i v e j u r i s d i c t i o n , m e n t i o n i n g the d e c i s i o n s of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u r t of J u s t i c e i n connection w i t h Namibia, on t h e Western Sahara (1975), and t h e one r e l a t i n g t o the L y b i a n c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f (1982). The volume deals w i t h t h e process o f the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n and w i t h t h e v a r i o u s sources of law. The a u t h o r mentions here the concept of B e g r i f f s j u r i s p r u d e n z , w h i c h emphasizes t h e importance and the primacy of the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s and r u l e s as against t h e v a l u a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o e t h i c a l o r even s o c i o l o g i c a l p o i n t s o f view. An a n a l y s i s i n t r o d u c i n g the present tendencies of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l law i s t o be found i n t h e volume i n t h e same manner as the memorandum presenting t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l customs. The author touches e s p e c i a l l y upon the r e s o l u t i o n s of the U n i t e d Nations General Assembly as the o u t s t a n d i n g a c t s of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n , as w e l l as upon t h e d e c i s i o n s o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Court o f J u s t i c e . In the f o l l o w i n g p a r t , p r o f e s s o r McWhirter makes the reader acquainted w i t h the fundamental p r i n c i p l e s s u p p o r t i n g the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n being g e n e r a l l y recognized by the n a t i o n s . They have been and are developed, on the s t r e n g t h of the comparative law, f r o m the p r i n c i p l e s proved t o be of remarkable and l a s t i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e d u r i n g the development of t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n and being t h e r e f o r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e . In the f o l l o w i n g the author makes t h e reader a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e scenes of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n : t h e United N a t i o n s General Assembly, the Securi t y Council, and the Committee o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law. He p o i n t s o u t , t h a t i n the b e g i n n i n g , the membership o f the w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n f i n e d i t s e l f t o the " p e a c e - l o v i n g s t a t e s " , namely, to t h e a n t i - f a s c i s t b l o c k s t r u g g l i n g against the a x i s powers. T h i s caused d i f f i c u l t i e s at the very s t a r t , s i n c e the views o f t h e a f t e r - w a r S o v i e t f o r e i g n p o l i c y as t o t h e q u e s t i o n , which s t a t e may be considered p e a c e - l o v i n g , were e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e r e l e v a n t o p i n i o n s of the Western powers. Consequently, t h e world o r g a n i z a t i o n was transformed i n t h e f i r s t a f t e r - w a r years i n t o a cold-war f r o n t l i n e . Long and desperate d i s c u s s i o n s were held also on the q u e s t i o n , whether the U n i t e d Nations Charter was a c t u a l l y a c o n v e n t i o n cf l i m i t e d character or a fundamental law of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . The volume deals w i t h t h e procedure o f e l e c t i n g judges t o the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Court of J u s t i c e , w i t h i t s p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l a s p e c t s , w i t h t h e " a c t i v i t y " o f judges. L i g h t i s thrown upon the p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f the s p e c i a l chambers e s t a b l i s h e d by the i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e f o r m w i t h i n the C o u r t . Worth m e n t i o n i n g are t h e antecedents o f the n e g o t i a t i o n s of s e v e r a l years preceding the b i r t h o f t h e Manila D e c l a r a t i o n (1982) promoting t h e peaceful s e t t l e m e n t of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n s , b e i n g s u b j e c t t o a separate c h a p t e r . Here, the author emphasizes the c o n f i r m a t i o n and t h e making more e f f e c t i v e of the f i e l d of a c t i v i t y of the S e c u r i t y Council. The
INTERNATIONALE
351
volume t r e a t s , i n a d d i t i o n , the p r e s e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g a l v a l u e s , f i r s t of a l l t h e r i g h t of self-government o f people, as w e l l , as the s u p p o r t of the w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n t o the d e c o l o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , and t h e a t t i t u d e s r e l a t i n g t o the e v o l u t i o n of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r . The volume i s completed by a comprehensive b i b l i o g r a p h y and s u b j e c t index. M. Udvaros
Arkhipova,
L.B.:
TREATY RELATIONSHIPS OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS OF SOCIALIST COUNTRIES Dogovori mezhdunarodnih ekonomitsheskih o r g a n i z a c i j s o t s i a l i s t i c h e s k i h s t r a n . Nauka, Moskva, 1989. 175 p.
i
Arkhipova's book i s divided i n t o t h r e e c h a p t e r s . The f i r s t c h a p t e r under the t i t l e "The law o f t r e a t i e s concluded by i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s " i s a g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t o r y survey of i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r e a t y - m a k i n g c a p a c i t y . The second chapter c o v e r s issues r e l a t e d t o the s t a t u s and t r e a t y - m a k i n g c a p a c i t y of s o c i a l i s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The t h i r d chapter which i s the most volumous one deals i n d e t a i l w i t h such q u e s t i o n s as the c o n c l u s i o n , e n t e r i n g i n t o f o r c e , e f f e c t u a t i o n and t e r m i n a t i o n of t r e a t i e s concluded by s o c i a l i s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The l a s t 15 pages i n c l u d e t h e a u t h o r ' s c o n c l u d i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s and a s h o r t l i s t o f a b b r e v i a t i o n s used i n the book. I n the f i r s t chapter Arkhipova p r o v i d e s a s h o r t , p r e c i s e and informat i v e review of problems r e l a t e d t o the e v o l v i n g r o l e and n a t u r e o f modern i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , examining the views of both Western and Eastern s c h o l a r s . She provides t h e reader w i t h enough examples t o unders t a n d the d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e n o t i o n of " i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g a l persona l i t y " and " t r e a t y - m a k i n g c a p a c i t y " o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . She i s of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t a l l i n t e r s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s have t h e i r s e p a r a t e w i l l and s h o u l d be t r e a t e d as s u b j e c t s having independent i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g a l p e r s o n a l i t y . This i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g a l p e r s o n a l i t y i s a c t u a l l y an o b j e c t i v e phenomena, and n e i t h e r t h i r d s t a t e s , nor o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s - whether they recognize i t or n o t - can i n f l u e n c e i t s essence (18-19 p . ) . As f o r t h e i r t r e a t y - m a k i n g c a p a c i t y , the author support the i d e a of those who denies i t s customary law b a s i s (23-24 p . ) , and the 1986 Vienna Conv e n t i o n on the t r e a t i e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s b e i n g considered by her as a major c o d i f i c a t i o n a l s t e p towards c l a r i f y i n g the i s s u e on the basis of w r i t t e n r u l e s . I n chapter two she examines b a s i c a l l y two main i s s u e s , namely: the t r e a t y - m a k i n g c a p a c i t y of e x i s t i n g s o c i a l i s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r g a n i z a t i o n (41-61 p . ) and the organs and persons o f f i c i a l l y empowered t o conc l u d e t r e a t i e s (61-72 p . ) . She c o n s i d e r s i n d e t a i l both s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s of the r e l a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e i r a c t u a l p r a c t i c e o f t r e a t y making. The chapter i s provided w i t h a good s c h o l a r y sources, t o o . I n chapter t h r e e , which i s t h e main p a r t o f the book, Arkhipova d i s cusses a wide range o f i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g such as the aims and p r i n c i p l e s , the form and s t r u c t u r e , e n t e r i n g i n t o f o r c e , r e g i s t r a t i o n , m o d i f i c a t i o n , t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e i n v o l v e d t r e a t i e s . Like t h e o t h e r two c h a p t e r s t h i s one a l s o c o n t a i n s a l o t of u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n s . However, some o f t h e a u t h o r ' s
352
INTERNATIONALIA
c o n c l u s i o n s may be q u e s t i o n e d f r o m t h e p o i n t s o f p r e s e n t - d a y r e a l i t i e s . E s p e c i a l l y those w h i c h r e l a t e t o t h e r o l e o f aims and p r i n c i p l e s o f " s o c i a l i s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic t r e a t i e s " . Particularly disappointing t h a t t h e r e i s no c r i t i c a l assessment o f t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s and f a i l u r e s o f t h e i n t e r - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e CMEA. She s t i l l b e l i e v e s i n t h e usef u l n e s s of such p r i n c i p l e s as " s o c i a l i s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m " , "fraternal m u t u a l a s s i s t a n c e " and suggests t o extend them t o a l l economic t r e a t i e s c o n c l u d e d by CMEA-countries ( 8 8 . p . ) . As i t i s w e l l - k n o w n , t h e l e g a l cont e n t o f these p r i n c i p l e s has never been c o n c r e t e l y s p e c i f i e d , and i t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t t h e p r e s e n t - d a y t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s of East-European c o u n t r i e s would c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r e x t e n s i o n . I t i s o b v i o u s , t h a t t h e a u t h o r when p r e p a r i n g here m a n u s c r i p t was not i n a p o s i t i o n t o f o r e s e e the d r a m a t i c changes i n t h e c o u n t r i e s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s o - c a l l e d s o c i a l i s t w o r l d . Hence i t i s n o t h e r f a u l t t h a t t h e book f a i l s t o r e f l e c t t h e s e e v e n t s . The r e a d e r w i l l a c t u a l l y f i n d i n t h e book a t h o r o u g h and c o n s c i e n t i o u s p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e p r a c t i c e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e p a s t and p r e s e n t . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f o r e t e l l t h e p o s s i b l e f u t u r e tendencies i n t h i s i m p o r t a n t f i e l d o f c o - o p e r a t i o n between East-European c o u n t r i e s . Perhaps f o r t h e s h a p i n g o f t h e f u t u r e one has t o know t h e p a s t . For t h o s e who want t o v e n t u r e i n t o such f u t u r e s p e c u l a t i o n s t h i s book p r o vides a u s e f u l background. V. Mavi
Mertanova,
Stefania:
IUS TAVERNICALE The S l o v a k i a n Academy o f S c i e n c e s , B r a t i s l a v a ,
1985. 254 p.
R e c e n t l y , the h a r d l y c o u n t a b l e b l a n k areas o f t h e science o f Hungarian l e g a l h i s t o r y was r e d u c e d by one. The young, b u t a l r e a d y mature l e g a l h i s t o r i a n , a c t i v e beyond our f r o n t i e r s , S t e f a n i a Mertanova has w r i t t e n her work on t h e development process o f t h e r i g h t o f t h e t r e a s u r e r i n t h e 15th t o 1 7 t h c e n t u r i e s . The debts o f r e s e a r c h i n t h i s f i e l d were f o r m u l a t e d e a r l y i n t h e c e n t u r y , more p r e c i s e l y i n 1912, when Gyula Szekfij f o r c e f u l l y u r g e d , among o t h e r s , t h e monographic s t u d y of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e t r e a s u r e r i n h i s work " S e r v i e n t e s and F a m i l i a r e s " , when e n u m e r a t i n g t h e t a s k s of l e g a l h i s t o r y . A f t e r n e a r l y two d e c a d e s , p o s s i b l y t h e most e f f i c i e n t l e g a l h i s t o r i a n of our c e n t u r y , the s c h o o l - f o u n d i n g Ferenc Eckhart t r e a t e d a p r e s s i n g n e c e s s i t y t h e t a s k of t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e c i v i l - l a w development of t h e f e u d a l age i n h i s p r o g r a m m e - s e t t i n g essay e n t i t l e d "Law and C o n s t i tutional History". Presumably a l s o due t o the appearance of t h e s e s c i e n t i f i c n o t a b i l i t i e s , Imre S z e n t p é t e r i j r . i n v e s t i g a t e d the e a r l y p e r i o d of t h e germs of t h e t r e a s u r e r ' s j u r i s d i c t i o n and o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e t r e a s u r e r ' s c o u r t i n a l o n g e r t r e a t i s e e n t i t l e d "The development o f t h e t r e a s u r e r ' s t r i b u n a l " p u b l i s h e d i n t h e 1934 volume of Századunk (The C e n t u r y ) , a l t h o u g h ( f o l l o w i n g a l s o from t h e s e t t i n g of t a s k i n h i s paper) h i s a n a l y s i s was concent r a t e d t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and p r o c e d u r a l moments o f t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y of t h i s j u d i c i a l f o r u m . For a l o n g t i m e , however, nobody c o u l d be f o u n d t o c o n t i n u e t h e way shown by S z e n t p é t e r i , u n t i l f i n a l l y M i k l ó s Vermes, t h e famous a r c h i v i s t o f f e r e d t o survey a f u r t h e r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s o f t h e existence o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e t r e a s u r e r . He p u b l i s h e d t h e r e s u l t s o f h i s
INTERNATIONALE
353
research work i n 1968 i n h i s work e n t i t l e d "The t r e a s u r e r ' s a u t h o r i t y and the t r e a s u r e r ' s c o u r t (1526-1849)" e x e m p l a r i l y d e s c r i b i n g the development of the j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h i s a u t h o r i t y , the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f i t s o f f i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , the development of i t s management. The amply documented work i n t e n d i n g t o c a l l the a t t e n t i o n of the s c h o l a r s of h i s t o r y t o source v a l u e s of the l e g a l - h i s t o r y , town h i s t o r y and economic h i s t o r y o f the " a l r e a d y more e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e m a t e r i a l of t h e t r e a s u r e r ' s a r c h i v e " , d i d a c h i e v e i t s purpose. The monography d e a l i n g w i t h the h i s t o r y of the o f f i c e could be a r e a l c h a l l e n g e f o r Mertanova, who was a t t h e s t a r t of her c a r e e r a t the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the mentioned book, t h a t i n t h e knowledge o f t h e tableau o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f the o f f i c e and the t r i b u n a l o f the t r e a s u r e r and the j o u r n a l of i t s f u n c t i o n i n g , shw c o u l d submerge t o a thorough examination o f t h e l e g a l m a t e r i a l t a k i n g shape s y s t e m a t i c a l l y and g r a d u a l l y , which m o b i l i z e d o r i g i n a l l y the a p p e l l a t e f o r u m , the t r e a s u r e r ' s t r i b u n a l o f the seven towns of the t r e a s u r e r - Buda, Kassa, Pozsony, Nagyszombat, B á r t f a , Eperjes and Sopron. The task was o b v i o u s : t o get acquainted w i t h t h e mass of l e g a l r u l e s h a v i n g grown f o r n e a r l y t h r e e hundred years and i n f l u e n c i n g t h e everyday l i f e of a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t o f the Hungarian towns, and h a v i n g a d i r e c t e f f e c t on the a c t i o n s of t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s . The f o r e g o i n g may e x p l a i n t h a t t h e promising r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the S i o v a k i a n l e g a l h i s t o r i o g r a p h y could n o t be s a t i s f i e d w i t h the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the system of norms d e f i n i t e l y growing r i c h e r and i n c r e a s i n g i n elements and r u l e s of the t r e a s u r e r ' s law but she i n v e s t i g a t e d t h o r o u g h l y i t s e f f e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n . And she d i d so by enumerating such sources which c o u l d be done by a home r e s e a r c h worker o n l y w i t h great d i f f i c u l t i e s s i n c e f o u r of the f i r s t t r e a s u r e r ' s towns are t o be found on t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e p r e s e n t Slovakia'. The work, f o l l o w i n g the development of the t r e a s u r e r ' s law and the s e n t e n c i n g p r a c t i c e of t h e a p p e l l a t e forum of the c i t i z e n s , t r e a t s , a n a l y zes and e v a l u a t e s the l e g a l m a t e r i a l , a p p l i e d to t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the t r e a s u r e r and the p r a c t i c e f o l l o w i n g therefrom i n two main p a r t s . The author sees and renders p e r c e p t i b l e t h e process and i t s e a r l y phase, i n which t h e magister t a v e r n i c o r u m r e g a l i u m , a high d i g n i t a r y of t h e r o y a l c o u r t p e r f o r m i n g economic and f i n a n c i a l t a s k s , t u r n e d more and more i n t o a d i g n i t y o f a j u d i c i a r y and i n which t h e t r e a s u r e r passed judgements i n l e g a l d i s p u t e s on appeal I n s t e a d of t h e n o b i l i a r y j u d g e f e l l o w s , l a t e r by the a i d o f the judge f e l l o w s delegated by the town m a g i s t r a t e s . The above changes served s u r e l y t h e matter both o f the competency of j u r i s d i c t i o n and of the independence o f the j u d i c i a l forum. I t i s perhaps needless t o say t h a t the c o n s o l i d a t i o n of the p o s i t i o n of the t r e a s u r e r produced an advantageous e f f e c t on t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f the l e g a l m a t e r i a l of towns under h i s a u t h o r i t y . The homogenization t o a c e r t a i n degree o f the s u b s t a n t i v e law was f o l l o w e d by the c o d i f i c a t i o n o f the law of p r o c e d u r e . The c o l l e c t i o n o f p r o c e d u r a l r u l e s o f 1456 was q u i c k l y f o l l o w e d by the a r t i c l e o f the law of the t r e a s u r e r , h a l l - m a r k e d by t h e name of t r e a s u r e r János L a k i Thuz - i t disappeared w i t h o u t a t r a c e i n 1541 - which s t a n d a r d i z e d f o r t h e f i r s t time t h e r u l e s of the procedure b e f o r e t h e t r e a s u r e r ' s c o u r t by p u t t i n g the basic p r o c e d u r a l p r i n c i p l e s and fundamental i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t o w r i t i n g . Then, t h e c o l l e c t i o n r e l a t i n g t o t h e procedure o f t h e Chief J u s t i c e ' s C o u r t , p u t down twenty years l a t e r , u n i f i e d the p r o c e s s i n the cases appealed i n the t h i r d i n s t a n c e of the t r e a s u r e r ' s towns. The t r e a s u r e r ' s law homogeneized i n t h i s way u n t i l the middle o f the 16th c e n t u r y , f a c i l i t a t e d the a p p l i c a t i o n and enforcement of t h e law of towns, produced an a n i m a t i n g e f f e c t on the everyday l i f e of c i v i t a t i s , promoted the l i v e l i n e s s o f the t r a d e , the s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the c r a f t m a n s h i p , t h e appearance o f t h e germs o f manufactures.
354
INTERNATIONALIA
In a d d i t i o n t o the d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e process o f t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f law, Mertanova deals comprehensively w i t h t h e p r a c t i c e o f the t r e a s u r e r ' s c o u r t s b e f o r e the b a t t l e o f Mohács, f o r m i n g a f a v o u r a b l e opinion on t h e l e v e l of t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n , on i t s competence, i n i t s b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s on the sense o f s e c u r i t y of t h e c i t i z e n s . The T u r k i s h occupation r a t h e r d e s t r o y e d the law and the t r i b u n a l o f the t r e a s u r e r , p o i n t s out t h e second main p a r t of the w o r k , which makes t h e readers a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e changes of f o r t u n e between 1526 and 1723 of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n chosen as s u b j e c t matter. Not o n l y the r e c o r d s of the treasurer's c o u r t were l o s t but a l s o the once u n i f o r m l e g a l procedure d i s s o l v e d . Thus, i t i s understandable t h a t i n t h i s s e r i o u s s i t u a t i o n , i n the d r u m f i r e of the more and more f r e q u e n t attacks o f nobles, the towns enjoying t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f the t r e a s u r e r s t a r t e d t h e i r s t r u g g l e w i t h renewed e f f o r t s f o r the p u t t i n g of t h e i r r i g h t s i n w r i t i n g again and, i f necessary, f o r t h e i r "modernization". And the d e s i r e d r e s u l t had not t o be waited f o r a t l e n g t h . Towards the middle o f t h e 16th c e n t u r y namely, f i r s t the d e l e g a t e s o f those towns which escaped t h e Turkish r u l e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n a new code the r e g u l a t i o n s f r a g m e n t a r i l y s u r v i v e d or n o t f a l l e n t h r o u g h the s i f t e r o f memory whereas l a t e r a new c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e s t a t u t e s o f the t r e a s u r e r ' s c o u r t - having been completed s e v e r a l t i m e s - was f i n i s h e d i n 1602. The work, f o l l o w i n g a l s o the enforcement of a r t i c l e s confirmed by King R u d o l f , i n v e s t i g a t e s i n d e t a i l s the p r a c t i c e of the c o u r t s of the p r i v i l e g e d towns, not f o r g e t t i n g , however, the a n a l y s i s of t h e j u d i c a t u r e o f the t r e a s u r e r ' s c o u r t , e i t h e r . Relying upon two c a t h e g o r i e s o f sources, upon the sources of law and t h e documents of j u d i c i a l p r o c e d u r e s , S t e f a n i a Mertanova d e f i n e s the treasurer's law, f u r t h e r the t e r r i t o r i a l and p e r s o n a l v a l i d i t i e s thereof i n a manner, d i f f e r i n g from the h i t h e r t o p r e v a i l i n g a t t i t u d e . According t o the v i e w , g e n e r a l l y accepted u n t i l now i n the l e g a l h i s t o r y , the t r e a s u r e r ' s law was a c i v i l b y - l a w i . e . i t covered only t h e t r e a s u r e r ' s towns from among t h e r o y a l towns, and t h e i r c i v i l - l a w r e l a t i o n s ( r e a l p r o p e r t y , testament, d e b t ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f t e r a n a l y z i n g the p r a c t i c e of the c o u r t s , the a u t h o r comes t o t h e statement t h a t t h e a c t i v i t y of the t r e a s u r e r ' s c o u r t c o m p r i s e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o the t r e a s u r e r ' s towns, a l s o o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t s , moreover, i n a d d i t i o n t o the c i v i l l a w , c e r t a i n penal cases f e l l a l s o under i t s competence. The personal e f f e c t of the treasurer's law c o u l d cover, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c i t i z e n s o f t h e corresponding towns, also t h e clergymen and t h e nobles. The work o f the l e g a l h i s t o r i a n of B r a t i s l a v a c o n t a i n s several novel statements, and r e l i e s upon t h e sources o f a r c h i v e s , t h e r e b y a great asset not only f o r t h e science o f the n e i g h b o u r i n g country b u t the Hungarian l e g a l h i s t o r y may s u r e l y t a k e advantage o f her r e s u l t s and seemingly s u r p r i s i n g r e c o g n i t i o n s . As a m a t t e r of f a c t , t h i s l a t t e r c o u l d be r e a l i z e d w i t h o u t r e s t r a i n t i f the work o f Stefania Mertanova w i l l be published a l s o i n Hungarian. T.M. Révész
Acta J u r i d i c a Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 32(3-4) pp. 355-412 (1990)
BIBLIOGRAPHIA
HUNGARIAN LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 1989. 2nd P A R T 1
1
Edited by Katalin
Balázs-Veredy.
This bibliography contains legal works of Hungarian authors issued as monography in Hungary between the 1st of July and the 31th of December 19G9, material of periodicals (articles) and studies published in collective works. The material for the period 1945-1930 is resumed in the following publication: Bibliography of Hungarian legal literature, 1945-1930. Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1938. 429 p. The material published from the 1st of January, 1981 is currently processed half-yearly in the Acta Juridica, beginning with the Tomus 23, 1931. Nos 3-4.
Periodicals processed in this bibliography:
ÂI 7-12/1939.; AJurid. 1-2/1909.; JK 3-0/1909.; MJ 6-12/1939.; MTud. 7-12/1989.; Társadkut. 1-2/1989.; Tsz 7-12/1939. Abbreviations of periodicals and other abbreviations see in the Acta Juridica Nos 1-2 of 1989.
Collective work processed in this bibliography and their abbreviations :
Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. = Alkotmány és alkotmányosság. [Az MTA Gazdaság- és jogtudományok osztályának tudoActa Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,32, 1990. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest
Bibliographia
356
mányos ülésén elhangzott előadások és hozzászólások. Budapest, 1938. máj.] Szerk. Kovács István.
[Constitution and constitu-
tionality. Lectures delivered at a scientific meeting of the Department of economic and legal sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, held at Budapest in May, 1983, with comments.] Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1909. VIII, 189,
[2] p.
Annales Bp. Tomus 30. 1989. = Annales Universitatis Scientiarum Budapestinensis de Rolando Eötvös nominatae. Sectio iuridica. Tomus 30. 1988/[19]89. Bp. Állami ny. 1989. 133, [4] p. Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 1, köt. = Jogász szövetségi értekezések. 1989. 1. [köt.] Főszerk. Nagy László. Kiad. a Magyar Jogász Szövetség.
[Studies of the Hungarian Lawyers' Associa-
tion. 1989. Vol. 1.] Bp. [mimeogr.] 1989. 184 p. Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 2. köt. = Jogász szövetségi értekezések. 1989. 2. [köt.] Főszerk. Nagy László.
[Közzéteszi a]
Magyar Jogász Szövetség. [Studies of the Hungarian Lawyers' Association. 1989. Vol. 2.] Bp.
[mimeogr.] 1989. 105 p.
Krim, tanulm. 26. köt. 1989. = Kriminológiai és kriminalisztikai tanulmányok. 26. [köt.] Szerk. Gödöny József. Közzéteszi az Országos Kriminológiai és Kriminalisztikai
Intézet.
[Studies on criminology and criminalistics. Vol. 26.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 447 p. Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1930. = Emlékkönyv Meznerics
Iván
egyetemi tanár születésének 80. évfordulójára. Szerk. Tóth Mihály.
[Memorial volume honouring the 80th anniversary of the
birth of Professor Iván Meznerics.] Szeged, Szegedi ny. 1983. 296 p.
(Acta Universitatis Szegediensis de Attila József
nominatae. Acta juridica et politica. Tomus 30. Fasc. 1-21.) Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1938. = A polgári eljárásjog újraszabályozásának
átfogó
egyes kérdései. Fel. szerk. Németh János.
[Közzéteszi az] Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem, Állam- és jogtudományi kar, Polgári eljárásjogi tanszék. [Problem of a new comprehensive regulation of the law of civil procedure.] Bp. [mimeogr.] 1988. [1939. 2], 172 p. 14.)
(Polgári eljárásjogi
füz.
357
Bibliographie
Proceedings of the Hung. Group. IAPIP. V o l . 16. 1989. = Proceedings of the Hungarian Grouo [of the] International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property.
[Vol.]
16. Bp. [mimeogr.] 1989. 116 p.
ВЕНГЕРСКАЯ ЮРИДИЧЕСКАЯ БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ 1989, 2-я ЧАСТЬ 1 1 Библиографию составила К. Балаж-Вереди . Настоящая библиография содержит самостоятельные юридические издания, материалы, опубликованные в сборниках за период с 1 июля по 31 декабря 19 89. Материалы от 1945 по 1980 гг. опубликованы в Bibliography of Hungarian legal literature. 1945-1980. [Библиография венгерской юридической литературы. 1945-1980.] Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988. 429 p. Библиография материала, появившегося с 1 января 1981 г., публикуется последовательно по полугодиям в журнале Acta Juridica, начиная с № 3-4 тома 23, 1981. Разработанные журналы: AI 7-12/1989.; AJurid. 1-2/1989.; JK 3-8/1989.; MJ 6-12/1989.; MTud. 7-12/1989.; Társadkut. 1-2/1989.; TSZ 7-12/1989. Сокращения журналов и другие сокращения см. в журнале Acta Juridica в № 1-2 1989 г.
Разработанные сборники и их сокращения; Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. = Alkotmány és alkotmányosság.
[Az MTA Gazdaság- és ioqtudományok osztálvának
tudo-
mányos ülésén elhangzott előadások és hozzászólások. Budapest, 1988. mái.] Szerk. Kovács István.
[Конституция и конституцион-
ность . Доклады и содоклады экономической и юридической ВАН.] Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989. VIII. 189,
[2] p.
секции
358
Bibliographia
Annales Bp. Tonus 30. 1989, = Annales Universitatis Scientiarum Budapestinensis de Rolando Eötvös nominatae. Sectio iuridica. Tomus 30. 1983 / [19]S9. Bp. Allami ny. 1989. 188, [4] p. Jogász szöv. ért. 1939. 1. köt. = Jogász szövetségi értekezések. 1989. 1. [köt.] Főszerk. Nagy László. Kiad. a Magyar Jogász Szövetség. Том 1.] Bp.
[Вестник Ассоциации венгерских юристов. 1989.
[mimeoqr.] 1989. 184 p.
Jogász szöv. ért. 1939. 2. köt. = Jogász szövetségi értekezések. 1939. 2. [köt.] Főszerk. Nagy László. Magyar Jogász Szövetség.
[Közzéteszi a]
[Вестник Ассоциации венгерских юристов.
1989. Том 2.] Bp. [mimeogr.] 1989. 105 p. Krim, tanúim. 16. köt. 1939. = Kriminológiai és kriminalisztikai tanulmányok. 26. [köt.] Szerk. Gödöny József. Közzéteszi az Országos Kriminológiai és Kriminalisztika
Intézet.
[Исследования по криминалистике и криминалогии.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Joai Kiadó. 1989. 447 p. Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1938. = Emlékkönyv Meznerics Iván egyetemi tanár születésének 80. évfordulójára. Szerk. Tóth Károly.
[Юбилейное издание, посвященное 80-летию со дня рож-
дения Ивана Мезнерич.
]
Szeged, Szegedi ny. 1908. 296 p.
(Acta Universitatis Szegediensis de Attila József
nominatae.
Acta juridica et politica. Tomus 33. Fasc. 1-21.) Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1983. = A polgári eljárásjog átfogó újraszabályozásának egyes kérdései. Fel. szerk. Németh János. [Közzéteszi az] Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem, Állam- és jogtudományi kar, Polgári eljárásjogi tanszék. [Некоторые вопросы обновления гражданского процесса.] Bp. 2], 272 р.
[mimeoqr.] 1988.
1989,
(Polaári eljárásjogi füz. 14.)
Proceedings of the Hung. Group. IAPIP. Vol. 16. 1989. = Proceedings of the Hungarian Group [of the] International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property. [Vol.] 16. [Материалы заседания венгерской секции
международной
ассоциации охраны промышленной собственности.] Bp.
[mimeogr.]
1989. 116 p.
Bibliographie
359
Books of Reference - Справочные издания
Collected Legislative Acts - Сборники
законодательства
Hatályos jogszabályok gyűjteménye. 1945-1997. 5. k ö t . A Minisztertanács tagjainak rendeletei.
6 - 8 . köt. Nemzetközi
ződések. + Függ. összesített szám- és betusoros Összeáll. Hársfalvi Szerk. Petrik
Rezsőné - Komáromi
Ferenc - Raft Miklós.
szer-
tárgymutató.
Gábor - Tamás
Andrásné.
[Collection o f the legal
statutes in force. 1945-1907. Vol. 5. Decrees of the members o f the
Council of ministers. Decrees of the heads of organs of
national competence. Vol. 6-8. International treaties. Appendix. Compound numerical and alphabetical register. Сборник действующих нормативных актов. 1945-1987. Том V. Совмина и руководителей
Постановления
ведомств.]
Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 1269, [2], 1311, 1171, 754,
[2] p.
Practice of Courts - Судебная
практика
Büntető elvi határozatok. 1981-1987. A Magyar Legfelsőbb Bíróságának
Népköztársaság
irányelvei, elvi döntései,
kollégiumi
állásfoglalásai és elvi jelentőségű határozatai. Szerk. Czili Gyula. Közzéteszi a Magyar Népköztársaság Legfelsőbb
Bírósága.
[Decisions of principle in criminal law. 1981-1987.
Directives,
decisions of principle college standpoints and resolutions principle of the Supreme Court of the Hungarian
of
People's
Republic. Руководящие постановления и репения Верховного Суда ВНР по уголовно-правовым
вопросам.
Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 343, [2] p.
Bibliographies - Виблиограбии
Hungarian legal bibliography, 1988, 1st part - Венгерская юридическая литератупа: библиография. 1-я часть. Ed. B[alázsné ] Veredy Katalin. AJurid.
1-2/39:221-2 87.
360
Bibliographia
A magyar állam- és jogtudományi irodalom bibliográfiája.
1989.
1. [füz.] összeáll. Balázsné Veredy Katalin - Orosz Ágnes. 'Közzéteszi az] Országgyűlési Könyvtár. [Lezárva:] 1939. jun. 30. [Bibliography of Hungarian legal and administrative
litera-
ture. 1989. Part 1. Closed: June 30, 1989. ВиблиограЛия венгерской литературы по воппосам государства и права. Часть 1. 1980 г. До 30 июня 1089 г.] Bp. OK Soksz. 1990. XXII, 155 p.
THEORY OF STATE AND LAW - I. ТЕОРИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВА И ПРАВА
Books - Книги
KULCSÁR Kálmán: A modernizáció és a jog. [Modernization and law. Модернизация и право.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 227 p. Bibliogr.
POKOL Béla: Politikai reform és modernizáció.
215-228.
[Political
reform and modernization. Политическая реЛорма и модернизация.] Bp. Magvető Kiadó, 1989. 437,
2
p.
(Gyorsuló idő.) Bibliogr.
423-433.
SAMU Mihály: Jogpolitika - jogelmélet. [Legal policy - legal theory. Правовая политика - теория права.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 275, [2] p. Bibliogr. passim.
Articles - Статьи
ANTALFFY György: Über die staats- und
rechtstheorischen
Zusammenhänge zwischen Recht und Politik.
Relations between
law and politics in the field of the theory of state and law. Соотношение права и политики в свете теории права и государства . ] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 7-19.
Bibliographie
DOBSI Attila: Összehasonlító jogalkotás-elemzés.
361
[A compara-
tive analysis of legislation. Сравнительный анализ правотворчества . ] Társadkut.
1/39:41-64.
HERCZEGH Géza: Egypártrendszer - több párttal. [A single-party system with pluralism. Однопартийная система - со многими партиями . ] JK 7/39:347-349.
KULCSÄR K[álmán]: Political culture - legal culture: conflicts and harmony. [Политическая культура - правовая культура.] AJurid. 1-2/89:3-46. KULCSÁR Kálmán: A tekintélyuralomtól a demokráciáig. A magyar politikai rendszer átalakulásának problémái. [From autocracy to democracy - transformation problems of the Hungarian political system. От авторитарности к демократии.[Проблемы преобразования венгерской политической
системы.]
MJ 7-3/39:581-597.
PESCHKA V[ilmos]: Werte und Kategorien in der RechtsSchöpfung. [Values and categories in legislation. Ценности и категории в правотворчестве.] AJurid. 1-2/89:47-71.
PÉTERI Zoltán: A jogállamiságról.
[On the constitutional
state. О правовом государстве . ] MTud. 9/89:724-735.
TöLGYESSY Péter: Az érdekképviseleti intézmények kai meghatározása, tipológiája és szabályozása.
jogi-dogmati[Legal-dogmati-
cal definition, typology, and regulation of representative institutions. Ьридико-догматическое определение и типизация институтов по выражению интересов.] JK 7/39:350-357.
362
Bibliographia
ÚJFALVI Annamária: Kulcsár Kálmán a jogállamiságról.
[Előadás
az Ifjúsági igazságügyi konferencián. Budapest, 1938. nov. 11. Kálmán Kulcsár on constitutional statehood,. Lecture delivered at a conference of the youth, held at Budapest on November 11, 1933. О правовом государстве.] JK 6/39:342.
VASTAGH Pál: A fegyveres erők a szocialista orientációjú országok politikai rendszerében.
[The armed forces in the
political system of the countries with socialist orientation. Вооруженные силы в политической системе стран
социалистической
ориентации.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1983. 275-287. VASTAGH Pál: Az afrikai termelési mód hatása a társadalom és az állam kapcsolatára. [The effect of the African method of production upon society-state relations. Влияние африканского способа производства на уровне соотношения общества и государства . ] JK 3/39:146-150.
II. STATE LAVJ. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW - II. ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ ПРАВО
Books - Книги Az alkotmány alapelvei. Fel.szerk. Kilényi Géza. Szerk. Hajdók Zsolt - Máté Jánosné. Kiad. az Építésgazdasági és Szervezési Intézet.
[Fundamental principles of the constitution. Основные
принципы конституции.] [Bp.] Pécsi Szikra ny. [1989.] 64 p. (Alkotmányjogi füz. 1.) Alkotmány és alkotmányosság. [Az MTA Gazdaság- és jogtudományok osztályának tudományos ülésén elhangzott előadások és hozzászólások. Budapest, 1988. máj.] Szerk, Kovács István. [Constitution and constitutionality. Lectures delivered at a scientific meeting of the Department of economic and legal
Bibliographie
363
sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, held at Budapest in flay, 1988, with comments. Конституция и конституционность . Доклады и содоклады экономической и юридической секции ВАН. ] Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó. 1939. VIII, 189,
[2] p. Bibliogr. passim.
Az alkotmányosság alapjai. Társadalom - demokrácia - alkotmányosság. Szerk. Kukorelli István - Schmidt Péter.
[The founda-
tions of constitutionality. Society - democracy - constitutionality. Основы конституционности. Общество - демократия конституционность.] [Bp.] Kossuth Kiadó, 1989. 289, [6] p. Bibliogr.
[291.]
Az államfő és a kormány. - Az igazságszolgáltatás és az ügyészség. Fel. szerk. Kilényi Géza. Szerk. Haj dók Zsolt fláté Jánosné. Kiad. az Építésgazdasági és Szervezési
Intézet.
[The hand of state and the government. - The administration of justice and the procurator's offices.
Глава государства и
правительство. - 'Петиция и прокуратура.] [Bp.] Pécsi Szikra ny. [1989.] 128 p.
(Alkotmányjogi füz. 5-6.)
Emberi és állampolgári jogok. Fel. szerk. Kilényi Géza. Szerk. Hajdók Zsolt - Máté Jánosné. Kiad. az Építésgazdasági és Szervezési Intézet. Lezárva: 1989. máj. 31. [Human and civil rights. Closed: May 31, 19 89.
Права человека и права гражда-
нина . ] Bp. Pécsi Szikra ny. 1989. 77 p.
(Alkotmányjogi füz. 2.)
HOLLÖ András: A közigazgatás ügyészi felügyeletének
államjogi
alapkérdései. [Fundamental problems of the procurator's
super-
vision of public administration in the context of state law. Государственно-правовые вопросы прокурорского надзора в области административного
управления.]
Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989. 239 p. Bibliogr. passim.
Bibliographia
364
KUKORELLI István: Az országgyűlési képviselők jogállása.
[Legal
status of the members of Parliament. Правовой статус депутатов Государственного собрания.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 312, [4] p. Bibliogr. 307-313. Parlament, választás. Fel. szerk. Kilényi Géza. Szerk. Hajdók Zsolt - Máté Jánosné. Kiad. az Építésgazdasági és Szervezési Intézet.
[Parliament, elections. Парламент, выборы.]
Bp. Pécsi Szikra ny. [1989.] 87 p.
(Alkotmányjogi füz. 4.)
A számvevőszék. Tanulmányok, külföldi törvények. Szerk. Timoránszky Péter. [Közzéteszi a] Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Államtudományi kutatások programirodája. [The audit office. Studies and foreign statutes. Верховные ревизионные Статьи, иностранная законодательная
ведомства.
практика.]
Bp. [mimeogr.] 1989. 233 p. Bibliogr. passim.
Articles - Статьи
ÁDÁM Antal: A társadalom és az állam viszonyának
alkotmányjogi
vonatkozásairól. [Society-state relations in the field of constitutional law. Конституционно-правовые аспекты отношения общества и государства.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989.
129-146.
ÁDÁM Antal: A nemzetiségek helyzetének alkotmányjogi zásáról.
szabályo-
[Regulation of the situation of nationalities in con-
stitutional law. О конституционно-правовом регулировании
ста-
туса национальных меньшинств.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 2. köt. 7-30.
BAKA András: A nemzeti kisebbségek
joga a politikai gondolko-
dás szemszögéből. [The rights of national minorities as viewed for political thinking. Права национальных меньшинств в свете политического мышления.] JK 3/89:115-119.
Bibliographie
365
BOKORNÉ SZEGŐ Hanna: Az emberi jogok nemzetközi védelme és az új magyar alkotmány. [International protection of human rights and the new Hungarian Constitution. Международная защита прав человека и новая венгерская
конституция.]
= Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 115-122.
DEZSŐ Márta: Választási rendszerek Nyugat Európában.
[Election
systems in Western Europe. Избирательные системы в Западной Европе. ] JK 7/39:358-363.
FICZERE Lajos: Alkotmány - gazdaság - reform. [Constitution economy - reform. Конституция - экономика - реформа.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 175-130.
HALMAI Gábor: Adalékok a szabadságjogok új szabályozásáról. [The new regulation of civil rights. Замечания о новом регулировании основных свобод граждан.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 147-154.
HARMATHY Attila: A gazdaság irányításának rendszere az alkotmányban. [The system of economic management in the constitution. Система управления экономикой в конституции.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1939. 75-84.
HARMATHY Attila: A tulajdonjog alkotmányos védelme.
[Constitu-
tional protection of the right to property. Конституционная охрана
собственности.]
JK 5/89:217-228.
HERCZEGH Géza: A nemzetiségek és az emberi jogok.
[Nationali-
ties and human rights. Национальности и права человека.] JK 8/89:391-394.
366
Bibliographia
HLAVATHY Attila: Nemzetközi ízelítő alkotmányosságból. [An international cocktail of constitutionality. Из международного опыта конституционности.] MJ
11/39:1024-1033.
HOLLÓ András: Az ügyészi szervezet az alkotmányozás nézőpontjából. [The system of procurator's offices viewed from the functioning of the constitution. Прокуратура с точки зрения конституционного развития.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 181-187.
HORVÁTH István: Az országgyűlési képviselők és a köztársasági elnök választásáról szóló törvényjavaslat.
[Draft bill on the
election of members of Parliament and the President of the Republic. Законопроект о выборах депутатов парламента и президента республики.] MJ
12/89:1046-1051.
KILÉNYI Géza: Az államszervezet az alkotmányban.
[The state
system in the constitution. Государственная система в конституции. ] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 95-102.
KILÉNYI Géza: Az alkotmányosság védelmének szervezeti garanciái a különböző országokban. [Organization guarantees of the protection of constitutionality in various countries. Организационные гарантии конституционности в различных странах.] MJ
7-3/89:598-610.
KISS Lászlóné: A közpénzügyek alkotmányi szabályozásának lehetőségéről.
néhány
[Possibilities of regulating public finances by
the constitution. О некоторых вопросах регулирования Финансовых = Meznerics-emlékkönyv.
отношений.] 1988. 147-159.
конституционного
Bibliographie
KOVÁCS István: Az alkotmányfejlődós elvi kérdései.
367
[Problems
of principle of constitutional development. Принципиальные вопросы конституционного развития.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 1-46.
KOVÁCS István: Az Alkotmányjogi Tanácstól az Alkotmánybíróságig. [From the Council of Constitutional Law to the Constitutional Court. От конституционно-правового совета к Конституционному
суду.]
MJ 7-8/89:611-632.
KOVÁCS Péter: Skandináv kisebbségvédelmi megoldások.
[Rela-
tions of the protection of minorities in Scandinavia. Скандинавский опыт зашиты национальных меньшинств.] JK 6/89:339-341.
KULCSÁR Kálmán: Sarkalatos törvényjavaslatok az Országgyűlés napirendjén. [Draft bills on fundamental issues on the agenda of Parliament.
Главные законопроекты на повестке дня Парла-
мента . ] MJ 12/89:1037-1045.
LŐRINCZ Lajos: Az új alkotmány szabályozási tárgyairól.
[The
domains of regulation of the new Constitution. О предмете регулирования новой
конституции.]
= Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 123-127.
A Magyar Jogász Szövetség észrevételei Magyarország nyának szabályozási elveihez.
alkotmá-
[Comments to the principles of
regulation of Hungary's constitution by the Hungarian Lawyers' Association. Замечания Венгерской ассоциации юристов о регулятивных принципах Конституции
Венгрии.]
ÁI 9/89:796-811.
RÁCZ Attila: A jogvédelem mechanizmusa ős az alkotmány.
[The
mechanism of legal protection and the constitution. Механизм правовой защиты и конституция.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányoss. 1989. 171-174.
Bibliographia
368
RUSZOLY József: A Választási Bíróság nyomában. [In search of an election court. О суде по рассмотрению дел, связанных с нарушением избирательной
системы.]
MJ 11/39:995-997. SCHMIDT Péter: A politikai rendszer és az alkotmány. [Political system and constitution. Политическая система и конституция.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1939. 65-73. SZAMEL Katalin - TÜTÖS Sándor: Választási technikák - választási taktikák. Egy finnországi tanulmányut
tapasztalatai.
[Election techniques and tactics. Experiences of s study-tour in Finland. Избирательная техника, - избирательная тактика. Финляндский опыт.] JK 7/39:363-368.
SZAMEL Lajos: A szabadságjogok alkotmányos szabályozása. [Regulation of civil rights in the Constitution. Конституционное регулирование основных свобод.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 103-111. SZENTPÉTERI István: Az alkotmányok társadalmi
legitimitása.
[Social aspects of legitimacy of constitutions. Общественная легитимность
конституции.]
= Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 47-63. TAKÁCS Albert: Alkotmányszemlélet és alkotmányváltozás.
[Con-
stitutions, as viewed and changing. Конституционные взгляды и конституционные изменения.] JK 6/39:233-291.
TAKÁCS Imre: Az alkotmánybíráskodásról. [Jurisdiction by the constitutional court. О конституционном суде.] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1939. 155-169.
Bibliographie
369
TAKÁCS Imre: A lelkiismereti és vallásszabadság törvényi
sza-
bályozásáról. [Legislative regulation of the freedom of conscience and religion. Регулирование свободы совести и религий на уровне закона.] JK
7/89:368-373.
ТбТН Judit: Emberi jogok, alkotmányozás, szocialista
jogok.
[Human rights, constitution-making, social rights. Права человека, конституционное развитие, социальные права.] JK
6/89:299-308.
TRŐCSÁNYI László, ifj.: Jogállamiság, alkotmánybíráskodás és közigazgatási bíráskodás.
[Constitutional statehood, and the
administration of practice by constitutional and administrative courts. Правовое государство, конституционное и административное судопроизводство.] JK
4/89:183-191.
UDVAROS Miklós: A polgárjogok őre a Lengyel
Népköztársaságban.
[Ombudsman. [The institution of ombudsman in the Polish People's Republic. Омбудсмэн в Польской Народной JK
Республике.]
3/89:154-158.
VÉKÁS Lajos: A tulajdonviszonyok és az alkotmány.
[Ownership
conditions and constitution. Отношения собственности и конституция. ] = Alkotmány, alkotmányosság. 1989. 85-94.
Bibliographia
370
III. ADMINISTRATIVE LAW - III. АДМИНИСТРАТИВНОЕ ПРАВО
Books - Книги Helyi és szakmai önkormányzatok. - Tulajdonformák és állami pénzügyek. Fel. Szerk. Kilényi Géza. Szerk. Hajdók Zsolt Máté Jánosné. Kiad. az Építésgazdasági és Szervezési
Intézet.
[Local and professional self-governing bodies. - Forms of property
and state finances. Местное самоуправление и самоуправ-
ление на профессиональных началах. - Формы права собственности и государственная финансовая система.] [Bp.] Pécsi Szikra ny. [1989.] 120 р. (Alkotmányjogi füz. 7-8.) KISS Daisy: Lakásjogi kézikönyv. Lezárva: 1983. dec. [Manual of housing law. Closed: December, 1988. Справочник по жилищному законодательству.] Bp. Népszava, 1989. 290, [2] p. Bibliogr. 269-272. A kormány reformprogramja és a működő gazdaság. A pécsi tanácskozás tanulmánykötete. Pécs, 1939. máj. 11-12. Összeáll. László Gyula - Szemere Mátyás - Szűcs Pál. Kiad. a Szervezési és Vezetési Tudományos Társaság Baranya megyei szervezete. [Programme of reforms of the government and the working economy. A collection of studies of a meeting held at Pecs on May 11-12, 1989. Правительственная программа реформ и Функционирующее хозяйство.
Материалы совещания в г. Печ 11-12 мая
1989 г.] Pécs, Temporg ny. 1989. 191 p. Lakásgazdálkodás. 1989. Lezárva: 1909. jun. 1. [Housing management. Closed: June 1, 19 89. Жилищное хозяйство.] Bp. Unio Kiadó, 1989. 287 p. Reform of economic planning. Publ. Ministry of Finance. Реформа системы экономического планирования.] Bp. Perfekt Print. 1909. [6], 40 p. (Public finance in Hungary 53.)
371
Bibliographie
A sajátos helyzetű térségek terület- és
településfejlesztési
problémái. Tudományos tanácskozás anyaga. Szombathely, 19 36. nov. 4-5. Szerk. Erdősi Ferenc - Tóth József. Kiad. az MTA Regionális Kutatások Központja, Pécs. [Problems of regional and settlement development of regions of specific
situation.
Papers of a scientific meeting, held at Szombathely on November 4-5, 1986. Территориальное и поселковое развитие в особых регионах. Материалы научного совещания
(4-5 ноября 1986 г.).]
Bp. [mimeogr.] 1988. 221 p. Bibliogr. passim.
SZAMEL Lajos: A korrupció, a protekció és a többi. tion, protection and other points. Коррупция,
[Corrup-
протекционализм.]
[Bp.] Kossuth Kiadó, 1989. 213, [2] p.
TIMÄR János: Hatalom és döntésképtelenség. Az
oktatáspolitika
és az oktatástervezés négy évtizede. 1948-1988. [Power and inability of decision-making. Four decades of education policy and planning. Власть и некомпетентность по принятию решений. Четыре десятилетия политики по образованию и планирования системы образования.
1948-1988.]
Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 165 p. Bibliogr. 161-166.
Articles - Статьи
ÁDÁM Lóránt: A tanácsi önkormányzatok személyi állománya kialakításának szabályozási elvei. [Principles of regulation of forming the staff of council-level self-government bodies. Принципы регулирования подбора кадров для системы
самоуправле-
ния советов.] Al 12/89:1073-1083.
BAITZ Andor: A fővárosi tanács, a kerületi tanácsok és az önkormányzati koncepció.
[The metropolitan council, the district
councils, and the concept of self-government. Городской совет столицы, районные советы и концепция Al 10/89:907-915.
самоуправления.]
372
Bibliographia
BAKONYI Sándorné - VARGA Sándor: Az önkormányzati modell kísérleti számításai.
gazdálkodási
[Experimental calculations of the
management model for autonomous bodies. Экспериментальные ные, связанные с самоуправленческой моделью
дан-
хозяйствования.]
Al 8/89:673-683.
BALÁZS István: "Egy, az állampolgárokhoz közelebbi
igazgatás".
A Közigazgatástudományok Nemzetközi Intézete - I.I.S.A. kongresszusa. Marrakech, 1939. jul. 23-28. ["Public administration closer to the citizens". Congress of the International Institutes of the Administrative Sciences - I.I.S.A. - held at Marrakech, on July 23-28, 1989. "Об управлении, приближенном к гражданам." Конгоесс Международного института
административных
наук, 23-28 июня 14 89 г., Мароакеш.] ÁI 11/89:1052-1056.
BALOGH Zsolt: Az önkormányzati jogok védelme és az önkormányzati működés kontrollmechanizmusának
jogi eszközei.
[Protec-
tion of the rights of self-management and legal means of the control mechanism of a functioning
self-government.
Охрана прав по самоуправлению и правовые средства контроля за самоуправленческой
деятельностью.]
ÁI 7/89:597-608.
BAUER Jánosné POLÓNY Enikő: Bírósági hatáskör az államigazgatási perekben. [Az államigazgatási határozatok bírósági felülvizsgálata a gyakorló bíró szemszögéből. The competence of courts in administrative decisions from the point of view of the practising judge. Полномочия суда в административном процессе. Судебный пересмотр административных решений с точки зрения судьи.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988. 211-223.
BÉKÉSI László: A tanácsi önkormányzat gazdasági
megalapozása.
[Documents to the regulation concept of self-government property. Экономическое обоснование самоуправления ÁI 10/89:932-938.
советов.]
373
Bibliographie
BESENYEI Lajos: A lakásbérleti jog nem polgári jogi elemeiről. [Elements of the law of leasing flats other than from the field of civil law. He гражданско-правовые элементы отношений по найму жилья.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 45-54.
CSÉPAINÉ SSÉLL Pálma - FOGARASI József: Körkép a tanácstagok és az elöljárók
"képzésének",
"továbbképzésének" helyzetéről
1905-[19]88 között. [A survey of the professional and postgraduate training of the members of councils and administrative foremen in 1985-1988. Вопросы "обучения" и "повышения квалификации" членов советов и управ. 1985-1988 гг.] ÂX 9/89:777-795.
CSIBA Tibor: Önállóan - társakkal - szövetségben.
[Települések
önkormányzata. Acting independently, with associates or allies. Self-government of settlements. Независимо - совместно - в союзе. Самоуправление поселков.] ÁI 9/89:857-864.
DUDÁS Ferenc - MOLDOVÁN Ernő: Gondolatok a szakmásításról. [Közszolgálat.
[Thoughts
on specialization. Civil service.
Замечания о профессионализме.] Ál
11/89:984-987.
FELMÉRY Imre - MÉSZÁROS József: Néhány gondolat a szabálysértési kódex tervezete rendelkezéseiről és a szakmai vitákról. [Thoughts on the dispositions of the draft code of petty offerences and the respective discussions of specialists. Некоторые замечания о проекте закона о правонарушениях и о связанных с ним спорах.] ÁI
11/89:961-967.
GÁSPÁR István: Elgondolások a fővárosi igazgatás továbbfejlesztésére. [Concepts for improving metropolitan administration. Предложения о дальнейшем развитии управления в столице.] ÁI
10/89:896-906.
374
Bibliographia
GÁSPÁR Mátyás: A közigazgatási munkaszervezés reformja. Gondolatok és javaslatok a megújuláshoz.
[Reforming labour organiza-
tion in public administration. Thoughts and proposals for a renewal. Реформа организации труда в государственном управлении: замечания и предложения.] ÁI
11/89:976-983.
GÁSPÁR Miklós - LÁZÁR Ervin: A mezőgazdasági és élelmezésügyi ágazatban működő szakigazgatási intézmények. [Special administrative
institutions in the sectors of agriculture and food
supply. Специальные институты управления в сЛере сельскохозяйственного и продовольственного ÁI
управления.]
11/89:1022-1038.
G1MESI Szabolcs: Tanácsi bizottságok működése a bajor közigazgatásban. [The functioning of council committees in the Bavarian administration. Деятельность комиссий местных советов в Баварии.] ÁI
11/89:1048-1051.
HALÁSZ Gábor: A helyi társadalom és az iskola kapcsolata. [Connections of society and school at the local level. Взаимосвязь местного сообщества со школой.] ÁI
7/89:586-596.
A helyi és megyei önkormányzati törvény szabályozási koncepciója. [Regulation concept of the Act on legal and county autonomy. Концепция регулирования местного и областного самоуправления . ] ÁI
9/39:812-856.
HORVÁTH Ferenc: A fővárosi önkormányzati
szabályozásról.
[Metropolitan self-government regulation. О регулировании самоуправления в столице.] ÁI
10/89:890-895.
Bibliographie
375
HORVÁTH István: A ki- és bevándorlásról, valamint az útlevélről szóló törvény.
[Act on emigration, immigration, and pass-
ports. Закон об эмиграции и иммиграции и о паспортах.] MJ 10/89:953-958.
KAITENBACH Jenő: A felügyelet fogalma a jogirodalomban és а jogi szabályozásban.
[The concept of inspection in juris-
prudence and legal regulation. Понятие надзора в юридической литературе и правовых актах.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 113-133.
KAMARÁS János - ONDRUS Lajos - VARGA György: Vízrendezés a tanácsi munkában. [Water management regulation within the functioning of the councils. Водяное хозяйство в деятельности советов.] Ál 8/89:752-756.
KIGLICS István: A japán makroiránvítás tervezési
környezetének
néhány jellemzője. [Some characteristics of the planning environment within the Japanese macro-orientation. Некоторые характерные черты планирования на макро уровне в Японии.] ÁI 12/89:1130-1137. KILÉNYI G[éza]: Quatre décennies de l'administration publique en Hongrie. [Four decades of public administration in Hungary. Четыре десятилетия публичной администрации в Венгрии.] AJurid. 1-2/89:95-128.
KISS Sándor: A tanácsi önkormányzat tisztségviselői.
[Func-
tionaries of the council-level self-government. Функционеры в системе самоуправления советов.] Ál
11/89:1013-1021.
Bibliographia
376
KISS Tamás, T.: Vitairat a közművelődés állami és társadalmi igazgatásáról.
[A paper for discussing the state-run and
autonomous administration on public cultural activity. Статья для диспута о вопросах государственного и общественного управления в сфере культуры и образования.] ÂI 8/39:719-730.
KULCSÁR Kálmán: Deviáns bürokráciák. A közigazgatás pában és a fejlődő országokban.
Kelet-Euró-
[Deviating bureaucracies -
public administration in Eastern Europe and the developing countries. Девиантные бюрократические системы. Публичная администрация в Восточной Европе и развивающихся странах.] Társadkut.
2/89:5-17.
KEZEI Gyula: A művelődés tanácsi irányítása. [Orientation selfgovernment regulation. Управленческая деятельность в области культуры и образования.] ÁI
10/89:334-889.
MIHAJL0V Dobromir: A nyugat-európai önkormányzatok állománya - ùj körülmények és elvárások.
személyi
[The staff of self-
government bodies in Western Europe - new circumstances and aspectations. Кадры самоуправленческих систем в Западной Европе - новые обстоятельства и ожидания.] ÁI
12/89:1084-1091.
MOLNÁR Miklós: Jogkövetői mérlegelés az államigazgatási [Consideration of observing the law in administrative Решение по усмотрению в административном JK
jogban.
law.
праве.]
7/89:376-378.
NAGY Sándor István: A környezetvédő egyesületek szerepe Franciaországban.
[The role of environment protection associations
in France. Роль ассоциаций по охране окружающей среды во Фоанции.] JK 7/39:373-385.
OROSZ Éva: Az egészségügyi reform önkormányzati
alternatívája.
Bibliographie
377
[An autonomy-based alternative to the reform of the health care system. Самоуправленческая система здравоохранения как альтернатива реформ.] Társadkut.
2/09:59-80.
PÁLNÉ KOVÄCS Ilona: A helyi önkormányzatok és a településpolitika. [Local autonomous bodies and settlement policy. Местные органы самоуправления и политика поселкового развития.] TSZ 10/89:52-58. PAPP Ignác: A közigazgatás struktúrájáról.
[The structure of
public administration. О структуре административного управления . ] = Meznerics-emlckkönyv. 1988. 227-240.
PÁTI Jenőné BONCZ Lenke: Az állami ellenőrzési rendszer hatékonysága.
[Efficiency of the state control system. Эффектив-
ность государственной системы контроля.] ÁI 12/39:1105-1114.
PÉTERI Gábor: A költségvetési restrikció hatása a tanácsi gazdaságra. ment.
[Economic foundations of council-level
Влияние
бюджетной рестрикции
на
self-govern-
хозяйствование
советов.] ÁI 10/89:939-946.
PFEIL Edit: Területi egyelőtlenségek kezelése a Német Szövetségi Köztársaságban.
[Dealing with territorial inadequacies in
the Federal Republic of Germany.
Опыт преодоления различий
в территориальном развитии в ФРГ.] ÁI 8/89:706-718.
PINTÉR István: A helyi tanácsok vb titkárainak helyzete, tevékenységük.
[Position of the secretaries of the executive com-
mittees of the local councils and their activities. Статус и деятельность глав исполкомов местных советов.] ÁI 7/39:618-626.
Bibliographia
378
SAJÓ András: Alkuban létrejött jog a környezetvédelmi zás példáján.
szabályo-
[Law resulting from bargaining as demonstrated by
the regulation of environment protection. Право, созданное на основе торга заинтересованных Társadkut.
(пример права охраны среды).]
2/09:18-27.
SAJŐ A[ndrás]: Bargaining, law-enforcement, and environment protection. [Согласование интересов, осуществление права и охрана среды.] AJurid. 1-2/89:73-93.
SCHWARCZ Béla: Prémiumok a tanácsoknál?
[Bonuses from the
councils. Премии с советах.] Ál 12/89:1115-1117.
SINDELYES Gábor: A balatoni épitési korlátozások
tapasztalatai.
[Experiences with building restrictions in the lake Balaton region. Опыт запрета застроек в зоне озера Балатон.] ÁI 3/39:757-761.
SZABÖ János: Világkiállítás és infrastruktúra.
[World exposi-
tion and infrastructure. Экспо и инфраструктура.] IlTud. 12/89 :944-948.
SZABÖ Lajos: Hatósági ellenőrzés - hatósági végrehajtás.
[Con-
trol and implementation by the authorities. Ведомственный надзор - ведомственное
исполнение.]
ÁI 7/39:577-585.
SZAKÁCS Gyula: Deregulációs törekvések Magyarországon.
[Efforts
of deregulations in Hungary.
в
Стремление к дерегуляции
Вен-
грии . ] ÁI 9/39:769-776.
SZÁNTÓ Ferenc: A fővárosi önkormányzat múltja. Gondolatok egy alapkutatási program indítása elé. [The past of metropolitan self-government. Thoughts for starting a basic research program. Уроки поотлого самоуппавления в Столице.] ÁI 10/89:921-931.
Bibliographie
379
SZEGVARI Péter: Elképzelések a fővárosi önkormányzat törvényi szabályozásáról.
[Concepts on the statutory regulation of
metropolitan self-government. Предложения относительно регулирования столичного самоуправления на уровне
закона.]
Al 10/39:865-383.
SZIKINGER István: Rendészet és önkormányzat.
[Public adminis-
tration and self-government. Управление внутренними делами и самоуправление.] ÁI 12/89:1057-1072.
A tanácstagok felkészítésének helyzete és módszerei с. tanulmány vitája. [írta] Csépainé Széli Pálma - rogarasi József. [Budapest, 1939. jul. 13. Discussion on the monograph on the situation and methods of the professional training of the members of councils, held at Budapest on July 13, 1989. Обсуждение статьи "Состояние работы и способы подготовки
чле-
нов советов".] ÁI 12/39:1138-1140.
TORMA András: A tanácsi nyilvántartások számítógépesítési hetőségei Miskolcon.
le-
[Possibilities of computerising council
registers and data in Miskolc. О возможности регистрации и хранения данных городского совета г. Мимкольц на ЭВМ.] Al 7/89:642-651.
WIENER György: A tanács testületi és bizottsági rendszere. [The corporate and committee system of the councils. Система органов и комиссий
советов.]
ÂI 11/89:1001-1012.
ZOLTÁN ödön: A vadászat és vadgazdálkodás tervezett zásáról.
szabályo-
[Planned regulation of hunting and the care of the
stock of game. О проекте регулирования охотничества и охотного хозяйства.] MJ 11/39:970-991.
Bibliographia
380
ZSIGA Ferenc: A szabálysértési eljárás egyes ügyintézési kérdései. [Problems of the procedural settlement of petty offences. Некоторые вопросы рассмотрения дел о правонарушениях.] ÁI 8/39:731-737.
IV. FINANCIAL LAW - IV. ФИНАНСОВОЕ ПРАВО Books - Книги Act [I of 1987] on enterpreneurs' Publ. Ministry of Finance.
[entrepreneurs'] profit tax.
Закон 1987 г. о налогах на прибыль
предприятий.] Bp. Hungarian Banknote Print. 1988. [1989.] 40 p.
(Public
finance in Hungary 48.)
Értékpapírok és értékpapírpiacok. Szerk. Sulyok-Pap Ilárta. [Securities and security markets. Ценные бумаги и их рынок.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1909. 277, [2] p. Bibliogr. 271-275. KÁLLAI Lajos - SZTANKб Imréné: Vállalati pénzügyek. 1. [köt.] Jövedelemszabályozás. Szerk. Sugár Dezső. Kiad. a Saldo. [The finances of enterprises. Vol.1. Income regulation. Фининсовые отношения предприятий. Регулирование доходов.] [Bp.] Pécsi Szikra ny. [1989.] 300 p. Bibliogr. 295-297.
Articles - Статьи DÁNI Sándor: A pénzügyi jogtudomány továbbfejlesztése Meznerics Iván tudományos munkáiban.
[Furthering financial law as re-
flected in the works of Iván Meznerics. Развитие Финансового права как науки в тпудах Ивана Мензерича.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1938. 71-81.
FERENCZY Endre: Közpénzügyek, pénzügyi igazgatás. Budapesti kerekasztal, 1988. aug. 30. - szept. 2. [Public finances and
Bibliographie
381
financial administration, A round-table conference, held at Budapest on August 30 to September 1, 19 88. Публичные фининсы, финансовое управление. Материал круглого стола, 30 августа 2 сентября, 1988 г.] ÁI 10/89:947-949. FERENCZY Е[ndre]: La législation financière. tion. Фининсовое
[Financial legisla-
законодательство.]
AJurid. 1-2/89:187-192.
H0RVÄTH A. Robert: A construction et l'interprétation des indicateurs monétaires.
[Structure and interpretation of finan-
cial regulators. Структура и толкование финансовых = Meznerics-emlékkönyv.
показателей.]
1988. 97-102.
LALUSKA Pál: Adalékok a magyar pénzügyi jog általános részének egyes kérdéseihez.
[Contributions to some problems of the gen-
eral part of Hungarian financial law. Замечания по поводу отдельных вопросов общей части венгерского финансового права.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv.
1988. 161-167.
NAGY Tibor: A jövedelemadó szocialista variánsa - összehasonlító jogi megközelítésben.
[The socialist counterpart of income
tax as approached from the view of comparative law. Социалистический вариант налога на прибыль - сравнительно-правовой
анализ.]
= Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 215-226.
V. CIVIL LAW - V. ГРАЖДАНСКОЕ ПРАВО
Books - Книги
Act XIII
[of] 1989. On the transformation of economic organisa-
tions and economic associations. Transformation act. [Publ.] Ministry of Finance. Закон № XIII 1989 г. о преобразовании хозяйственных организаций и объединений.] [Bp.] Perfekt Print. 1989. 49 p.
(Public finance in Hungary
54.)
Bibliographia
382
The act on business associations and the related statutes. VI of 1933. Publ.] Investcenter Hungary.[Закон
[Act
» vi 1989 г. об
обществах.] [Bp.] s.p. [1989.] 90 lev.
Ausländische Investitionen in Ungarn. Zgest. Sárközy Tamás. [Foreign investments in Hungary. Иностранные
капиталовложения
в Венгрии. ] Bp. Láng К. [1989.] 259 p.
(Recht und Praxis.)
A cégjog. Szerk. Petrik Ferenc. Lezárva: 1989. márc. 31. [The law of fi rms. Closed: March 31, 1939. Право регистрации
обществ
и объединений.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 337, [2] p.
(A gyakorló
jogász kézikönyve 1.)
Foreign investments in Hungary. Ed. Sárközy Tamás.
[Иностран-
ные капиталовложения в Венгрии.] [Bp.] Láng Ltd. [1939.] 222 p.
(Law and practice.)
Iparjogvédelmi kézikönyv. Főszerk. Pusztai Gyula. Szerk. Vincze Attila.
[Közzéteszi] az Országos Találmányi Hivatal. Lezárva:
1989. jul. 10. [Manual of the legal protection of property. Справочник по охране промышленной
industrial
собственности.]
Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1939. 535, [2] p .
Proceedings of the Hungarian Group
[of the] International As-
sociation for the Protection of Industrial Property. [Vol.] 16. [Материалы заседания венгерской секции международной ции охраны промышленной
ассоциа-
собственности.]
Bp. [mimeogr.] 1989. 116 p. Bibliogr. passim.
Articles - Статьи
BÊRCZES Róbert: Relationship between trademark law and the prohibition of unfair competition.
[Соотношение между торговым
знаком и запретом недобросовестной
конкуренции.]
383
Bibliographie
= Proceedings of the Hung. Group IAPIP. Vol. 16. 1939. 109-116.
BÉRCZI Imre: A feltalálói és újítói tevékenység rendszerének kérdései.
érdekeltségi
[Problems concerning the interest
of investing and innovationing activities. Вопросы
system
заинтересо-
ванности в изобретательском и новаторском деле.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1938. 37-43.
DOBROVSZKY Jenő: A know-how és oltalma. [Know-how and its protection. Hoy-xoy и его охрана.] MTud. 9/89:782-734.
BOYTHA György: Topical questions concerning the development of the protection of computer programs.
[Основные вопросы разви-
тия системы правовой защиты программ ЭВМ.] = Proceedings of the Hung. Group IAPIP. Vol. 16. 1989. 31-67.
CSILLAG György: Fehér lovagok, méregkapszulák és időzített bombák: új fejlemények a felvásárlók
("takeover") amerikai jogá-
ban. [Víhite knights, poison-filled capcules and time-bombe: new development in the American law of
"takeover"-obsessed.
Рыцари, капсулы с ядом и бомбы замедленного действия: новые моменты в американском законодательстве о "тейковер".] JK 5/89:265-271.
Elgondolások a tisztességtelen gazdasági tevékenység tilalmáról szóló 1984. évi IV. tv.
(TGT) módosításához és
kiegészítéséhez.
[Thoughts on the amendment and completion of Act No. IV of 1984 on banning unlawful economic activities. Предложения об и з м е нении и дополнении Закона № IV/1984 г. о недобросовестной яйственной
хоз-
деятельности.]
JK 8/89:414-422.
FERENCZI József: Egy gazdálkodási modell margójára.
[Marginal
comments to a model of economic management. Замечания об одной модели
хозяйствования.]
Ál 12/89:1092-1093.
Bibliographia
384
FERENCZY Endre: La statut juridique des grandes enterprises du point de vue du droit comparé. [The legal status of big corporations from the point of view of corporative law. Правовой статус крупных предприятий в сравнительном плане.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv.
Az igazságügyminiszter
1988. 33-95.
[Kulcsár Kálmán] expozéja az átalakulási
törvényről és a kapcsolódó törvénymódosításokról.
[Speech of
the minister for justice, Kálmán Kulcsár, on the draft bill of transformations and the relevant amendments of statutes. Экспозе министра юстиции о Законе по преобразованию тий и о соответствующих изменениях
предприя-
законодательства.]
MJ 9/39:753-763.
KEMÉNY Judit: Protection of chemical and pharmaceutical inventions in Hungary. Охрана химических и фармацевтических изобретений в Венгрии.] = Proceedings of the Hung. Group. IAPIP. Vol. 16. 1989. 99-108.
KOTZ László: A tulajdonviszonyok rendezéséről.
[On the settle-
ment ownership relations. О решении вопросов собственности.] MJ
9/39:805-819.
MISKOLCZI-BODNÂR Péter Pál - HARSÁNYI Gyöngyi Melinda: Az új vállalatirányítási formák működésének gyakorlati és a szervezeti reform továbbvitele.
[Practical
tapasztalatai experiences
with the functioning of new forms of corporation management and advance of the organisational reform. Практика новой системы управления предприятий и дальнейшее развитие системы реЛорм.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 1. köt. 62-116.
MISKOLCZI BODNÁR Péter: A szerződésen kivül okozott károkért való felelősség, mint hibás teljesítés esetén alkalmazható
jog-
védelmi eszköz. [Liability for extra-contractual damages asi a means of legal protection application in case of deficient filment. Ответственность
за внедоговорннй вред как средство
правовой защиты в случае ненадлежащего JK
3/89:130-136.
исполнения.]
ful-
385
Bibliographie
MOLNÁR István: A bélyegző jogosulatlan használata után okozott kár megtérítésének problémái.
[Problems of conpensation for
damages caused by the unauthorised use of a stamp. Вопросы возмещения вреда,возникшего в результате незаконного использования штемпелей.] MJ
6/89:521-530
MOLNÁR Miklós: Az állampolgári ingatlantulajdonjogot
csorbító
beavatkozások jogi szabályozásának néhány problémája.
[Legal
regulations problems concerning restrictive interventions of the landed property rights of individuals. Некоторые вопросы правового регулирования ограничения прав граждан на недвижимость . ] MJ
12/89:1058-1069.
N0CHTA Tibor: A kármegelőzés polgári jogi eszközeiről.
[Preven-
tion of damages by the means of civil law. Гражданско-правовые средства предотвращения JK
вреда.]
3/89:126-130.
NOVOTNI Zoltán: A gazdasági társaságokról szóló törvény és a magyar polgári jog megújulása. [The act on economic associations and the renewal of Hungarian civil law. Закон о компаниях и обновление венгерского гражданского права.] JK
5/89:243-251.
PALÁGYI Tivadar: Development of Hungarian patent rights in the last 40 years. [Развитие венгерского патентного права в последние 40 лет. ] = Proceedings of the Hung. Group IAPIP. Vol. 16. 1989. 69-85.
PETRIK Ferenc: A tulajdonjog tárgyairól. [The objects of the right of ownership. О предмете права MJ
собственности.]
10/89:868-878.
PRUGBERGER Tamás: A gazdasági társasági és a vállalati vagyonhoz történő tagi dolgozói hozzájárulás néhány aktuális elvi kérdéséhez.
[Some topical problems of principle concerning
.contributions to the property of economic associations and
the
386
Bibliographia
enterprises by employment and members. Некоторые
актуальные
и принципиальные вопросы долевого участия членов хозяйственных обществ и трудящихся предприятий в собственности.] JK 3/89:121-125.
SAJÖ András: A vállalat tevékenysége és társadalmi felelőssége. [The efficiency and societal responsibility of the enterprise. Эффективность деятельности и ответственность перед обществом предприятия.] JK 5/39:223-232.
SÁNDOR T[amás]: Bemerkungen zu den neuen ungarischen Gesellschaftsgesetz. [Gesetz No. VI von 1988. Comments to the new Hungarian act on associations. Act VI of 1988. О новом венгерском Законе о компаниях.] AJurid. 1-2/39:133-186.
SÄRKÖZY Tamás: Átalakulási törvény - mint a gazdasági társaságokról szóló törvény szerves folytatása.
[The Act on transforma-
tion as an organic development of the Act on economic associations. Закон о преобразовании государственных предприятий как составной элемент и продолжение законодательства о компаниях.] JK 5/39:233-239. SÄRKÖZY Tamás: A magyar gazdasági jogalkotás hároméves programjáról. [Three-year programme of Hungarian economic Трехгодичная программа венгерского хозяйственного
legislation. законотвор-
чества . ] MJ 6/89:431-492.
SZABÓ Agnes: Industrial property in agriculture.
Промыиленная
собственность в сельском хозяйстве.] = Proceedings of the Hung. Group IAPIP. Vol. 16. 1989. 15-23.
SZABÓ Zoltán: Harmonization of patent and trademark. зация патентного законодательства и норм о торговых
[Гармонизнаках.]
= Proceedings of the Hung. Group IAPIP. Vol. 16. 1989. 7-13.
387
Bibliographie
SZALAY Gyula: Tradíció vagy megűjulásgondolatok a vasúti fuvarjog helyzetéről és jövőjéről. [Traditional or reform ideas on the present and future situation of the fight of railroad transport. Соблюдение традиций либо возобновление права железнодорожной перевозки: настоящее и будущее.] MJ
6/39:493-507.
SZEGEDINÉ SEBESTYÉN Katalin: Jogtechnikai elgondolások az Rt. egyes jogintézményeivel összefüggésben.
[Thoughts on technical
problems in connection with some legal institutions of share companies. Некоторые вопросы правовой техники создания и деятельности акционерных обществ.] MJ
10/89:879-891.
TARR György: Jog az élethez. [Right to life. Право на жизнь.] MJ 12/89:1092-1107.
TÖRŐ K[ároly]: Die Tücken des Persönlichkeitsschutzes.
[Tricks
in the protection of personality. Недостатки системы охраны личности. ] AJurid. 1-2/89:129-151.
VIDA [Sándor] Alexander: Industrial property in joint ventures. [Промышленная собственность совместных
предприятий.]
= Proceedings of the Hung. Group IAPIP. Vol. 16. 1989. 25-30.
VI. LABOUR LAW - VI. ТРУДОВОЕ ПРАВО
Books - Книги ARANY Jánosné - LATKÖCZY Antal - LŐRINCZ György - RADNAY József Munkajogi kézikönyv. Szerk. Radnay József. 3. átdolg. kiad. Lezárva: 1989. márc. 25. [Manual of labour law. 3rd rev. ed. Closed: March 25, 1939. Справочник по трудовому праву.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 887 p.
CZUCZ Ottó: Társadalombiztosítás a változó világban. A társada-
Bibliographia
388
lombiztosítás jogi szabályozásának alapproblémái.
[Social
security in a changing world. Fundamental problems of the legal regulation of social security. Социальное обеспечение в меняющемся мире. Основные проблемы правового регулирования
социаль-
ного обеспечения.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 343 p. Bibliogr.
MIHOLICS Tivadar: Munkavégzés külföldön - külföldiek tatása.
333-343.
foglalkoz-
[Közzéteszi az] Economix. Lezárva: 1939. jun. 30.
[Working in abroad and employment of foreigners. Closed: June 30, 1989. Условия оформления на заграничную работу и наем на работу иностранцев.] Bp. ÉTK пу. 1939. 111 р.
A Munka törvénykönyve. A végrehajtásáról szóló minisztertanácsi rendelettel egységes szerkezetbe foglalt szöveg, magyarázó jegyzetekkel, a Legfelsőbb Bíróság elvi állásfoglalásaival a munka törvénykönyvével kapcsolatos egyes munkaügyi
és
jogszabá-
lyokkal. összeáll. Kertész István - Radnay József. Szerk. Nagy Zoltán. Lezárva: 1989. márc. 25.
[Labour Code. Consolidated
text including the Decree of the Council of Ministers on implementation, explanatory notes, stands of principle of the Supreme Court, and some labour law statutory rules related to the Labour Code. Closed: March 25, 1939. Кодекс о труде. Единый текст, включая постановление Совмина о его вводе в действие и руководящие постановления Верховного Суда по трудовым спорам.] Bp. Közgadasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 654, [2] p.
(Kis jogsza-
bály sorozat.)
Munkaegészségügyi és munkavédelmi enciklopédia. A-Z. 1-3. köt. Szerk. Fölkl Rezső. [Közzéteszi az] International Labour Office - Országos Műszaki Információs Központ és Könyvtár. [Enyclopoedia of labour hygiene and labour protection. A-Z. Vols. 1-3. Энциклопедия по охране труда и здоровья. А-Я.] Bp. Franklin ny. 1936-1989. XVI, 1119, XII, 1121-2132, XII, 2133-2996 p. 14 t.
389
Bibliographie
Munkajogi kézikönyv. Szerk. Radnay József. 3. átdolg. kiad. Lezárva: 1989. márc. 25. [Textbook of labour law. 3rd rev. ed. Closed: March 25, 1989.
Справочник
по
трудовому
законодатель-
ству. ] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 887 p.
ROMÁN László: Munkajog. [Labour law. Трудовое право.] Bp. Tankönyvkiadó, 1989. 368 p.
Articles - Статьи
FAZEKAS Marianna: A szociális járadék és segélyezési átalakításáról.
rendszer
[Transformation of the system providing social
allowances and material apport . О перестройке системы социальных льгот и социальной помощи.] JK
6/89:319-325.
KAMARÁS Károly: A területi foglalkoztatás szerepe és feladata a teljes foglalkoztatás fenntartásában.
[Role and tasks of
regional employment in maintaining full employment. Роль и задачи территориального управления в обеспечении полной занятости. ] ÁI
8/89:743-748.
LöRINCZ György: A munkajogi szabályozás változásai. the regulation of labour law.
[Changes in
Изменения в трудовом законода-
тельстве . ] MJ 7-8/89:64 > 6 5 4 .
MOLNÁR Szabolcs: A területi munkaügyi tevékenység értékelése és a munkaügyi igazgatás korszerűsítése.
[Assessment of regional
activities in the field of labour incomes and modernization of labour administration.
Трудовые отношения на территориальном
уровне и совершенствование систем управления в сЛере труда.] ÁI 8/89:738-742.
NAGY László: Dereguláció és munkajog. [Deregulation and labour law. Дерегуляция и трудовое право.] ÁI 11/89:968-976.
Bibliographia
390
NAGY László: Gondolatok a munkaügyi viták elbírálásának megreformálásáról. [Thoughts on reforming the judgement of labour disputes. О реформе рассмотрения трудовых споров.] MJ
6/89:541-544.
PÁL Lajos: A társadalombiztosítási felelősség kapcsolatos bírói gyakorlat.
érvényesítésével
[The judicial practice in rela-
tions to the enforcement of responsibility under the social security system. Судебная практика относительно реализации ответственности в области социального обеспечения.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 1. köt. 156-184.
RÓZSA József: A munkaerőpiacról.
[On the labour market.
О рынке рабочей силы.] TSZ 10/89:90-94.
SZALAI Éva: A szocialista szolgáltatásokat nyújtó
intézmény-
rendszerre vonatkozó jogi szabályozás. [The legal regulation concerning the system of institutions offering social services. Правовое регулирование деятельности институтов, предоставляющих услуги социального характера.] JK 6/89:313-318.
SZEGŐ Szilvia: Liberális bérszabályozás, konzervativ tika.
bérpoli-
[Liberal regulation of wages and conservative wages
policy. Либеральное регулирование заработной платы, консервативная политика цен.] TSZ 11/89:68-75.
SZŰCS László: A társadalombiztosítás jogi szabályozásának kérdései.
[Problems of the legal regulation of social security.
Вопросы правового регулирования социального
обеспечения.]
JK 6/39:308-313.
TRÓCSÁNYI László: A társadalombiztosítási rendszer jogi szabályozásának főbb megoldásai: felelősségi kérdések, iránymutató tendenciák. [Main solutions in the legal regulations of the social security system: problems of responsibility,
guiding
391
Bibliographie
tendencies. Основные аспекты правового регулирования
социаль-
ного обеспечения: вопросы ответственности, тенденции развития.] JK 6/89:293-299. TRÓCSÁNYI László: A vállalatvezetők jogvédelme egyes nyugati országokban. [Legal protection of company managers in some western countries. Законная защита директоров предприятий в некоторых странах Западной Европы.] JK 8/89:436-438.
VII. FAMILY LAW - VII. СЕМЕЙНОЕ ПРАВО
Book - Книга ALBRECHT István - NAGY Erzsébet, T.: Kézikönyv a házastársi vagyonközösség megszüntetéséről.
[Manual on the discontinuation
of matrimonial community of goods. Справочник о прекращении имущественных отношений между
супругами.]
Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 275 p. Bibliogr.
257-261.
Articles - Статьи CSIKY Ottó: Felróható magatartás értékelése a Csjt. bontási rendszerében.
[Assessment of imputable behaviour in the dis-
solution system of the Act on Family Lav/. Оценка вменения в вину при применении норм о разводе семейного кодекса.] MJ
12/89:1070-1077.
WEISS Emilia: Házasságkötés - válás; a jogalkotás dilemmái. [Marriage and divorces, problems of legislation. Брак - развод; дилеммы MJ
правотворчества.]
12/89:1078-1091.
Bibliographia
392
VIII. LAND LAW - VIII. ЗЕМЕЛЬНОЕ
ПРАВО
Articles - Статьи
BOBVOS Pál: A termőföld értékelése: az aranykorona érték és a földár. [Assessment of cultivated
land: value in gold crown and
land price. Оценка стоимости плодородных "золотой короны" и стоимость Al
земель: Фонды системы
земли.]
7/89:658-662.
BOBVOS Pál: A termőföld árumozgásának változásai. the transfer cultivated родных MJ
[Changes of
land. Изменения в купле-продаже
плодо-
земель.]
9/89:779-786.
OROSZ Gábor: Lehet-e a termőföld az állam
tulajdonában?
[Admissibility of state property on arable land? Может ли плодородная земля находиться в собственности JK
государства?]
8/89:394-398.
PRUGBERGER Tamás: A földjogi szabályozás megújításának kérdései.
[Problems of the renewal of the regulation of land
law. Некоторые вопросы обновления земельного ÂI
egyes
законодательства.]
7/89:609-617.
PUSZTAY Béla: Az új földtörvény.
[The new act on the
land.
Новый Закон о земле.] Al
7/39:652-657.
TANKA Endre: Szövetkezés és földtulajdon. landed property. Кооперация и земельная JK
5/89:260-264.
[Co-operation
собственность.]
and
393
Bibliographie
IX. LAW OF CO-OPERATION - IX. СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННОЕ ПРАВО
Articles - Статьи DOMÉ Györgyné: Gondolatok a mezőgazdasági
termelőszövetkezetek
jelenéről és jövőjéről. [Thoughts on the present and future of co-operative farms. О настоящем и будущем сельскохозяйственных кооперативов.] MJ 7-8/89:633-646.
DOMÉ Györgyné: A szövetkezeti tulajdonról. [The property of co-operatives. О кооперативной
собственности.]
JK 3/89:119-121.
SZÉP György: Uj szövetkezeti törvény a jogállamiság
sodrában.
[A new act on co-operatives in the screan toward the rule of law. Новый кооперативный закон в условиях правового государства . ] MJ 6/89:508-520.
X. CRIMINAL LAW - X. УГОЛОВНОЕ ПРАВО. ВСПОМОГАТЕЛЬНЫЕ CRIMINAL SCIENCES
НАУКИ УГОЛОВНОГО ПРАВА
Books - Книги FÖLDESI Tamás: Jog és igazságosság. Büntetőjog és igazságosság. [Law and justice. Criminal law and justice. Право и справедливость. Уголовное право и справедливость.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 291 p. Bibliogr. passim. —
Eng. summary; Русск. содерж.
I Kriminológiai és kriminalisztikai tanulmányok. 26. [köt.] Szerk Gödöny József. Közzéteszi az Országos Kriminológiai és Kriminalisztikai Intézet. [Studies of criminology and
criminalistics.
Vol. 26. Исследования по криминалистике и криминологии.] Bp. Közgazd. és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 447 p. Bibliogr. passim. Русск. содерж.;
—
Eng. summary; Dt. Zusammenfassung; Rés. franç.
Bibliographia
394
A társadalomtudományok és a büntető igazságszolgáltatás. mányos ülés. Budapest, 1988. okt. 23.] - A büntetőjog
[Tudo-
reformjá-
ról és a reform büntetőjogáról. [Tudományos ülés. Budapest, 1988. dec. 6.] + flell. Beszámoló a 10. Nemzetközi
Kriminológiai
Kongresszusról. Hamburg, 1988. szept. 4-9. Szerk. Kerezsi Klára. [Közzéteszi az] MTA Magyar Kriminológiai Társaság.
[Social
sciences and the administration of criminal justice. A scientific session, held at Budapest on October 23, 1938. - On the reform of criminal law and the criminal law of the reform. Scientific nex.
session at Budapest, held on December 6, 1988. + An-
Report on the 10th International Congress of Criminology,
held at Hamburg on September 4 to 9, 1988. Общественные науки и уголовная юстиция. Материалы национального заседания
(октябрь
1988 г.). О реформе уголовного права и уголовное право периода реформ. Материалы национального заседания
(декабрь 1988 г.).]
Bp. [mimeogr.] 1989. 149, [2], 9, [2] р. /Kriminológiai közlemények 26-27 . /
Articles - Статьи ÁDÁM György: Adócsalás-e az üzér? [is a speculator defrauding the revenue?
Нарушает ли спекулянт обязанность по уплате
налога?] MJ
6/89:531-533.
BAKÓCZI Antal: A testi épség elleni bűnözés oksága és megelőzése. [Causality and prevention of criminality aimed at corporal integrity.
Причины преступлений против здоровья и их устра-
нение . ] = Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 147-187.
BAKÓCZI Antal - NAGY László Tibor - SZIKI Lajos: A garázdaság néhány kriminológiai kérdése. [Some problems of ruffianism from criminological aspect.
Некоторые криминологические
хулиганства.] = Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 245-291.
аспекты
Bibliographie
395
BÁRD K[ároly, ifj.]: Legality and the persecution of crimes. Законность и борьба с преступностью.] AJurid. 1-2/89:153-181.
CSALAY András - SZIKI Lajos: A rablás alakulása [Appearance and trend of robbery in Budapest.
Budapesten. Грабеж в г. Бу-
дапешт . ] = Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 293-322. CSEREI Gyula: A magyarországi szervezett bűnözés és főbb jellemzői egy ügyészi vizsgálat tükrében.
[Organized crime in
Hungary and its main characteristics as demonstrated by a prosecutor's investigation. Характерные черты организованной преступности в Венгрии на основе анализа одного прокурорского исследования.] MJ 7-8/89:664-474.
FEHÉR Lenke: Felelősség és társadalom.
[Nemzetközi
konferencia.
Siófok, 1988. szept. 19-24. Responsibility and society. International conference, held at Siófok on September 19 to 24, 1988. Ответственность и общество. (Научная конференция, 19-24 сентября 1988 г. Шиофок.)] JK 4/89:212-214.
GÖNCZÖL Katalin: Büntetőpolitika és szociálpolitika.
[Criminal
policy and social policy. Уголовная политика и социальная политика.] JK
6/89:326-333.
GRÁD András: Egy bírósági tudósítás margójára, avagy néhány gondolat a pszichopátiáról.
[Marginal comments to a court
report or same thoughts on psychopathy. Об одном судебном деле: некоторые замечания о психопатии.] MJ
6/89:534-536.
GYÖRGYI Kálmán: A büntetőjog és a modern orvosbiológiai eljárások. [Criminal law and the modern procedures of biology in medicine. Уголовное право и современные медицинско-биологичес-
Bibliographia
396
кие
исследования.]
JK 4/89:203-207.
IRK Ferenc: A szükséglettől a tettig.
[From need to the crimi-
nal act. От необходимости до совершения.] = Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 7-43.
KABÓDI Csaba: Merre tovább? Egy nemzetközi konferencia
"Fele-
lősség és társadalom" cimmel Siófokon. [1988. szept. 19-24. What future course should taken? International conference on "Responsibility and society" held at Siófok, on 19-24 September, 1988. Как дальше? О международной конференции на тему "Ответственность и общество", г. Шиофок.] MJ
6/89:567-570.
KATONA Géza: ENSZ ajánlások és a büntetőjog reformja.
[UN re-
commendations and the reform of criminal law. Рекомендации
ООН
и реформа уголовного права.] MJ
11/89:992-995.
KÖVÉR Agnes: Reszocializáció a börtönben?
[Resocialization
in
prison? Ресоциализация в тюрьмах.] JK 4/89:172-178.
KRÁNITZ Mariann: A prostitúció jellegzetes megjelenési
formái.
[Characteristic forms of apparition of prostitution. Характерные формы проституции.] = Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 189-244.
KULCSÁR Kálmán: A büntető törvénykönyv és büntető eljárás m ó dosításáról.
[On the amendment of the Criminal Code and the
Code of Criminal Procedure. Об изменении уголовного и уголовно-процедурного
законов.]
MJ 10/89:941-952.
Megalakult a Viktimológiai Szekció.
[Budapest, 1989. márc.
29.
[Formation of the Victimological Section. Budapest, March 29, 1989. Учредительное заседание виктимологической
секции.
397
Bibliographie
29 марта 1989 г.,
Будапешт.]
JK 8/89:440.
MERÉNYI Kálmán: A nemi erkölcs elleni erőszakos
bűncselekmények
viktimológiai kérdései. [Victimological problems of violent criminal acts infringing sexual morals. Виктимологические аспекты половых преступлений.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 169-186.
MERÉNYI Kálmán: A rablás objektív tényállási elemeiről. [The objective elements of the statement of facts in robbery. 0 составе преступления грабеж.] MJ
10/89:892-897.
MÜNNICH Iván - VÁG András: A férfi bűnelkövetők gyermekkora és a P.F.T. teszt.
[The childhood of make criminals and the P.F.T.
test. Детство преступников мужского пола и тест P.F.T.] = Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 369-426.
NAGY Ferenc: A szabadságvesztés-büntetés és végrehajtása a lengyel büntetőjogban,
[imprisonment and the implementation in
Polish criminal law. Наказание в виде лишения свободы и его исполнение в польском уголовном праве.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 201-213.
NAGY Ferenc - LAMMICH, Siegfried: A lengyel büntetőjogi reformról. Törvények, vélemények, viták. [On the Polish reform of criminal law. Statutes, views, discussions. О реформе польского уголовного права.] MJ
9/89:834-842.
Orvosi hálapénz és büntetőjogi felelősség.
[Kerekasztal-beszél-
getés, 1989. m á j . 30. Vitaindító referátum: Györgyi Kálmán, hozzászólások. Gratuities for doctors and responsibility under criminal law. Round table conference held on May 30, 1989. Initial lecture of the discussion by Györgyi Kálmán and com-
Bibliographia
398
ments. Плата врачу за лечение в знак благодарности и уголовная ответственность. Беседы за круглым столом, 30 мая 1989 г.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 1. köt. 5-40.
PATERA Antal: A bűnözés alakulása és a visszaesők részvétele a bűnözésben.
[Trends in criminality and the share of recidives
in it. Преступность и рецидивисты.] Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 45-83.
PUSZTAI László: Számitógép és bűnözés. [Computers and
criminal-
ity. Вычислительная техника и преступность.] = Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 85-145. SÁRKÁNY István: Jogállam és/vagy szigorított őrizet.
[Constitu-
tional state and/or strict custody. Правовое государство и/или строгий режим для MJ
арестованных.]
9/89:801-805.
SZABÓ András: A bunfogalom jogi megközelítése.
[A judical ap-
proach to the concept of crime. Правовое определение преступления . ] JK
4/89:167-172.
SZABÓ András: A francia és amerikai jogrendszeri különbségek a büntetőjog alkotmányjogi kontrolljában.
[Differences between
the French and American legal systems in the constitutional control of criminal law. Различия в контроле
конституционности
уголовного законодательства во французской и американской системе права.] MJ
11/89:959-977.
SZILI Zoltán: Szakmai konferencia a fogvatartottak jogi helyzetéről.
[Pécs, 1988. nov. 23. Conference on the legal position
of detained persons.
Конференция специалистов по вопросам
правового положения арестованных. 23 ноября 1988 г., г. Печ. ] JK
4/89:=14-215.
TÓTH Gabriella - SZILI Zoltán: Bűnügyi oktatók a jogállamiság-
Bibliographie
399
ról. [Bűnügyi oktatók találkozója. Pécs, 1989. jun. 8-9. Teachers of criminology on the constitutional state. Meeting of teachers of criminology, held on Pécs 8-9, 1989, at Pécs. Преподаватели уголовного права о правовом государстве. Встреча преподавателей уголовного права, 8-9 июня 19 89 г., г. Печ.] MJ 12/89:1127-1128.
VIGH József - TAUBER István: Juvenile delinquency in Hamburg and Budapest. Преступность среди несовершеннолетних в Гамбурге и Будапеште.] = Annales Bp. Tomus 30. 1989.
91-110.
VIGH József: Racionalitás a büntető
igazságszolgáltatásban.
[Rationality in the administration of criminal
justice.
Рациональность в уголовном правосудии.] MJ
9/89:764-773.
VIRÁG György - VÁG András: Csalók szociológiai és pszichológiai jellemzői.
[Sociological and psychological characteristics of
defrauders.
Социологические и психологические аспекты мошен-
ничества . ] = Krim, tanúim. 26. köt. 1989. 323-367.
VÖKÓ György: A bűnelkövetők jogkorlátozásáról. Az elitéltek jogi helyzetéről általánosságban.
[Restriction of the rights
of criminal perpetraters. General views on the juridical position of convicted persons. Об ограничении прав лиц, совершивших преступление. О правах
заключенных.]
JK 8/89:399-406.
VÖKÖ György: A fogvatartottak joga vallásuk gyakorlásához Franciaországban.
[The right of detained persons to practising re-
ligion France. Право заключенных на свободу религии во Франции.] MJ
9/89:827-823.
400
Bibliographia
XI. JUDICIAL ORGANIZATION - XI. СУДОУСТРОПСТВО
Books - Книги FÜRÉSZ Klára: Bírói függetlenség. Lezárva: 1988. aug. pendence of the judge. Closed: August, 1988.
[Inde-
Независимость
судьи.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 271 p. Bibliogr. 259-272. ZOLTÁN ödön : A Legfelsőbb Bíróság a nemzetközi tükrében.
összehasonlítás
[The Supreme Court in the context of international
comparison. Верховный Суд: сравнительный анализ деятельности.] Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989. 267 p. Bibliogr. 249-250.
Articles - Статьи CSÉKA Ervin: Rôle du tribunal suprême dans la juridiction pénale. [The role of the Supreme Court in the administration of criminal justice. Роль верховного суда в уголовном
судопроизводстве.]
= Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 55-70.
HORVÁTH János: Gondolatok a bírósági szervezet reformjának néhány kérdéséhez egy polgári ügyszakban működő bíró nézőpontjából. [Thoughts on some problems of the reform of judicial organization as seen by a judge practising civil cases. О некоторых вопросах реформы судебной системы (взгляды судьиучастника гражданских дел) . ] MJ 7-3/89:684-693.
IMREGH Géza: Gondolatok a közjegyzői szervezetről
"eretnekség"
nélkül. [Thoughts on the institution of the notary public without being a heretic. Нотариальная система без
"еретических"
взглядов.] MJ
9/89:820-826.
KORDA György: A katonai bíróságok hatásköréről és szervezetéről - de lege ferenda. [Competences and organization of mili-
401
Bibliographie
tary courts de lege ferenda. О компетенции и структуре военных судов.] MJ 7-8/89/655-663. MOHÁCSY János: Az egységes jogi képviseleti rendszer érdekében. [For a uniform legal system of representation. В интересах создания единой системы юридического MJ
представительства.]
9/89:793-797.
SZÉKELY Katalin: Javaslatok egy korszerűsített szervezet kialakítására.
igazságügyi
[Proposals for setting up a modernized
system of judicial organization. Предложения по
совершенствова-
нию системы правосудия.] MJ
11/89:998-1000.
TARR György: Gondolatok a bírói hatalom gyakorlásának reformjáról és a bíróságok szervezetéről.
[Thoughts on the reform of
exercising judicial power and the organization of the courts. О реформе порядка реализации судебной власти и структуры судов.] MJ 7-3/89:677-683.
VARGA Csaba: A birói ténymegállapítás! folyamat
természete.
[The nature of process of the judicial statement of facts. Природа процесса судейского установления Фактов.] JK 4/89:191-197.
XII. CIVIL PROCEDURE - XII. ГРАЖДАНСКИЙ
ПРОЦЕСС
Books - Книги GÁSPÁRDY László: A polgári per idődimenziója.
[Temporal dimen-
sions of civil action. Фактор времени в гражданском Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989. 107 p. Bibliogr. 99-104. —
праве.] Estr.it.
A polgári eljárásjog átfogó újraszabályozásának egyes kérdései. Fel. szerk. Németh János.
[Közzéteszi az
Eötvös Loránd Tudo-
mányegyetem, Állam- és jogtudományi kar, Polgári eljárásjogi
402
Bibliographia
tanszék. [Problems of a new comprehensive regulation of the law of civil procedure. Некоторые вопросы обновления гражданского процесса.] Bp. [mimeogr.] 1988. [1989. 2],
272 р. (Polgári eljárásjogi
füz. 14.) Bibliogr. passim.
Articles - Статьи
FARKAS József: A környezetvédelem és a polgári eljárásjog. [Environmental protection and the law of civil procedure. Охрана окружающей среды и гражданский процесс.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988. 181-209.
GÁTOS György: A bírósági végrehajtás jelene és jövője. [Present and future of judicial distraint. Настоящее и будущее судебного исполнения.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988. 65-125.
HORVÁTH János: Tárgyalás a polgári perben. [The hearing in civil cases. Судебные прения в гражданском процессе.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 1. köt. 117-155.
IMREGH Géza: A tárgyalás előkészítése a Szlovák Köztársaságban. Egy tanulmányút tapasztalatai.
Szocialista [The preparation
of hearings in the Slovak Socialist Republic. Experiences of a study tour. Подготовка процесса в Словацкой
Социалистической
республике.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988. 143-164.
KENGYEL Miklós: A polgári eljárásjog reformja Ausztriában. [Reform of the law of civil procedure in Austria. Реформа гражданского процесса в Австрии.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988. 127-142.
NASCH Károly, ifj.: A polgári bíráskodás terhei: avagy mennyi a sok? [Burdens of jurisdiction in civil cases or what a qualification for much means?
Время гражданского
судопроизводства;
Bibliographie
403
где предел допустимости?] MJ
10/89:897-900.
SOMOGYVÁRI István: A polgári eljárásjog átfogó újraszabályozásának koncepciója.
[A concept of the new comprehensive regula-
tion of the law of civil procedure. Концепция обновления гражданско-процессуального
регулирования.]
= Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988. 7-47.
SZ0LCSÂNSZKY Vilmos: A hagyatéki eljárás egyes aktuális kérdései.
[Some topical problems of the probate. Некоторые
актуаль-
ные проблемы процесса по вопросам наследования.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988.
ÚJLAKI László: Ideiglenes eljárásban.
225-2чЗ.
(függő) joghatások a magyar polgári
[Provisional or pending legal effects in Hungarian
civil procedure. Временные
(приостановленные) правовые послед-
ствия в венгерском гражданском процессе.] MJ
12/89:1108-1112.
VARJASNÉ РАРР Emese: A cégbírósági eljárási szabályok alkalmazásának elvi problémái.
[Problems of principle of the applying
the procedural rules of the Court Registration. Принципиальные вопросы применения процессуальных правил судом по регистрации фирм.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988. 245-268.
VISONTAY Kálmán: A tanubizonyítás a polgári eljárásban.
[Evi-
dence by hearing witness in the civil procedure. Свидетельское доказательство в гражданском процессе.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 1988.
165-180.
XIII. CRIMINAL PROCEDURE - XIII. УГ0Л0ВНЫП ПРОЦЕСС Articles - Статьи
BORICS Gyula: Az 1956-os népfelkeléssel összefüggő orvoslásáról.
elítélések
[Remedies to those sentenced in connection with
404
Bibliographia
the 1956 popular revolt. О преодолении наследствий и восстановлении справедливости в свете приговоров, вынесенных в связи с народным восстанием 1956 года.] MJ
12/89:1052-1057.
Memorandum a védő nyomozásbeli jogairól.
[Az MJSZ Büntetőjogi
szakosztályának állásfoglalása. Memorandum on the rights of the defence counsel in the investigation. Stand of the Criminal Law Section of the Hungarian Lawyers' Association. Меморандум о правах защитника на стадии расследования.] MJ 7-8/89:675-676.
XIV. INTERNATIONAL LAW - XIV. МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЕ ПРАВО
Books - Книги
FÖLDESI Tamás: Emberi jogok.
[Human rights. Права человека.]
[Bp.] Kossuth Kiadó, 1989. 195, Русск. содерж.;
[4] p. Bibliogr. passim.
—
Eng. summary.
VALKI László: A nemzetközi jog társadalmi természete.
[The so-
cial nature of international law. Социальная природа международного права.] Bp. Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. 370,
[2] p. Bibliogr.
353-368 .
Articles - Статьи
BLUTMAN László: Az emberi jogok és egyéni kötelezettségek a nemzetközi jogban. [Human rights and individual obligations in international law. Права человека и индивидуальные обязанности в международном праве.] JK 8/ö9:407-413.
BRUHÂCS János: A kisebbségek nemzetközi jogi védelme és a helsinki folyamat.
[The protection of minorities under interna-
tional law and the Helsinki process. Международно-правовая
за-
Bibliographie
405
щита национальных меньшинств и процесс Хельсинки.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 2. köt. 68-85.
GÁL Gyula: A dél-tiroli kérdés nemzetközi jogi vonatkozásai. [International law aspects of the South Tyrol problem. Международно-правовые аспекты южно-тирольского
вопроса.]
= Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 2. köt. 86-105.
KOVÁCS Péter: Az Rland-szigetek státusza. Vázlatok a finnországi regionális kisebbségvédelmi rendszerről.
[The states of the
Rland Islands. Outlines of the regional protection of minorities in Finland. Статус Аландских островов. Замечания о защите региональных меньшинств в Линляндчи.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 2. köt. 48-67.
SZALAYNÉ SÁNDOR Erzsébet: A Nemzetek Szövetségének kisebbségvédelmi eljárása.
[Procedures hearing the protection of minori-
ties in the League of Nations. Система защиты национальных меньшинств при Лиге наций.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 2. köt. 31-47.
XV. PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW - XV. МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЕ ЧАСТНОЕ_П_РАВО
Articles - Статьи
KECSKÉS László: A m i a konzervativizmus kérge alatt van... lami immunitás a common law-ban
[Ál-
[What is covered by conserva-
tism. .. State immunity is the common law. За фасадом консерватизма. Государственный иммунитет в общем праве.] JK 5/89:252-260.
MÁDL Ferenc: Az Európai Közösségek egységesülő piacának jogi szabályozásáról.
[Legal regulation of the market of the European
Communities on the way to unification. О правовом регулировании унифицированного рынка ЕЭС.] JK
5/39:240-242.
Bibliographia
406
MARTONYI János: Az Európai Gazdasági Közösség versenyjogának néhány kérdése.
[Problems of the rights of competition in the
European Economic Community. Некоторые вопросы права
конкурен-
ции ЕЭС. ] JK 8/89:423-432. TAKÁCS P[éter]: Comparative conference on the uniform regulation of international sales.
[Budapest, October 18-19, 1988.
Международная конференция о единообразном регулировании международной торговли, октябрь 1988 г., Будапешт.] AJurid. 1-2/89:199-204.
XVI. HISTORY OF STATE AND - XVI. ИСТОРИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВА И ПРАВА LAW Books - Книги
Dokumentumok a magyar hitelpolitika, pénzforgalom és bankrendszer történetéhez. 1945-1949. Összeáll, és bev. Tallós György. [Documents to the history of Hungarian credit policy, monetary turnover, and the banking system. 1945-1959. Документы, относящиеся к истории развития кредитной системы, денежного обращения и банковой системы. 1945-1949.] tBp.] Közgazdasági és Jogi Kiadó, 1989. L, 845 p.
(Források a
magyar népi demokráciák történetéből 9.) GALÁNTAI József: Trianon és a kisebbségvédelem. A kisebbségvédelem nemzetközi jogrendjének kialakitása. 1919-1920. + Függ. Dokumentumok.
[Trianon and the protection of minorities. Forma-
tion of the international legal order of minority protection. 1919-1920. Appendix, documents. Трианон и защита национальных меньшинств. Формирование защиты национальных меньшинств в международном правопорядке.
1919-1920.]
Bp. Maecenas Kiadó, 1939. 228,
[4] p. Bibliogr. passim.
KÁLLAY István: A városi önkormányzat hatásköre Magyarországon. 1636-1848. [Competences of town administration in Hungary.
407
Bibliographie
1686-1848. Полномочия в городском самоуправлении в Венгрии. 1686-1848.] Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989. 417, [2] p.
(A Magyar Országos Le-
véltár kiadványai III. Hatósági hivataltörténet
9.) Bibliogr.
397-403.
TRŐCSÁNYI Zsolt: Habsburg-politika és Habsburg-kormányzat
Er-
délyben. 1690-1740. [Habsburg policy and government in Transylvania. 1690-1740. Политика Габсбургов и система их управления в Трансильвании.] Bp. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988. 476, [4] p.
(A Magyar Országos Le-
véltár kiadványai III. Hatóság- és hivataltörténet
8.) Bibliogr.
passim.
Articles - Статьи
ANDRÁSSY György: Marx és az emberi jogok. [Marx and human rights. Маркс и права человека.] TSZ 8-9/89:102-108.
BALOGH Elemér: A pénzhamisítás bűncselekménye а XIX. század
el-
ső felének néhány német kódexében és a korabeli magyar büntetőtörvénykönyv-tervezetekben.
[The crime of forgery in some Ger-
man codes from the first half of the 19th century and in the contemporary Hungarian drafts of the criminal codes. Наказание Фальсификации денежных знаков в немецких кодексах XIX века и в проектах венгерского уголовного закона тех времен.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv.
BÁRD Károly,
1988. 21-36.
[ifj.]: Mittermaier und die Reform der ungarischen
Strafverfahrens. [Mittermaier and the reform of Hungarian
cri-
minal procedure. Миттермайер и реформа венгерского уголовного права.] = Annales Bp. Tomus 30. 1989. 5-14.
GYÖRGYI Kálmán: Mittermaier und der ungarische
Strafgesetzent-
wurf vom Jahre 1843. [Mittermaier and the Hungarian draft
code
of criminal procedure from 1843. Миттермайер и проект уголовно-
Bibliographia
408
го закона 1843 г.] = Annales Bp.Tomus ЗО. 1989. 15-25.
HAMZA Gábor: Zur Frage der Stellvertretung im Willen anhand der P. Amh. 90 und P. Oxy. 501. [The problem of the substituion of volition as related to P. Amh. 90 and P. Oxy. 501. Представительство в производстве по наследуству согласно папирусовым источникам права, ймх. 90 и Оху 501.] = Annales Bp. Tomus 30. 1989. 55-66.
HORVÁTH Pál: Az emberi jogok születésének a 200 éves évfordulójára. [On the 200th anniversary of formulating human rights. К 200-летию провозглашения прав человека.] ÁI 8/89:689-695.
IJJAS József: Die Rolle des Nationalrates und der Volksregierung in der ungarischen bürgerlich-demokratischen
Revolution von
1918-1919.
[The role of the National Council and the People's
Government
in the Hungarian
bourgeois-democratic revolution of
1918-1919. Роль национальных собраний и народная власть в период венгерской буржуазно - демократической революции 19181919 гг.] = Annales Bp. Tomus ЗО. 1989. 67-77.
IJJAS J[ózsef]: Kontinuität und Wandel in den Beziehungen zwischen
Regierungssystem und Rechtsordnung.
Internationale
rechtshistorische Konferenz. Wien-Krems, 7-11 September 1987. [Continuity and changes in the relations between the system of government and legal order. International conference of the history of law
held in Vienna-Krems on September 7-11, 1987.
Международная конференция по вопросам истории
права.
Континуитет и изменение в сфере отношении между
управлением
и правопорядком.] = Annales Bp. Tomus 30. 1989. 111-113.
IRK Ferenc: Az erkölcs és a jog viszonyának történeti fejlődése. [Historical development of the relations between moral and law. Историческое развитие соотношения морали и права.] JK 4/89:197-201.
409
Bibliographie
JAKAB Éva: A kommerciális csere állami kontrolljának megnyilvánulása az agoranomosok piacrendészeti tevékenységében az V-IV. századi Athénben.
i.e.
[Appearence of state control of com-
mercial exchange in the market administration activity of
the
agoranomos in Athens during the 5-4th centuries B.C. Проявление государственного контроля за коммерческой деятельностью со стороны агор при надзоре над рынком в Афинах
(V-IV. в.в. д.н.э.).]
= Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 103-112.
KEMENES Béla - PÓLAY Elemér: Die Pandektistik and die Kodifikation des Zivilgesetzbuches der Ungarischen
Volksrepublik.
[Pandectistics and the codification of civil law in the Hungarian People's Republic. Пандекты и кодификация права в Венгерской
гражданского
республике.]
= Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 135-145.
SZEGVÁRI Katalin, N.: Die ersten Dokumente der tigung der Frauen in Ungarn.
Gleichberech-
[The first documents on the
legal
equality of women in Hungary. Ранние документы, относящиеся к равноправию женщин в Венгрии.] = Annales Bp. Tomus 30. 1989. 79-89.
SZEGVÁRI Katalin, N.: Az USA alkotmányos rendszerének lása.
kialaku-
[Formation of the constitutional system in the USA.
Формирование конституционной системы США.] = Jogász szöv. ért. 1989. 1. köt. 41-61. TÓTH Árpád: A hatósági árszabályozás és az árdrágító visszaélések problémái az első világháborúi idején
Magyarországon.
[Authoritative price regulation and the problems of abusive price profiteering
in Hungary during World War I. Государст-
венное регулирование цен и злоупотребление ценами в Венгрии в период первой мировой войны.] = Meznerics-emlékkönvv. 1988.
255-274.
Bibliographia
410
XVII. ROMAN LAW - XVII. РИМСКОЕ ПРАВО
Articles - Статьи
MOLNÁR Imre: A posztklasszikus és a jusztiniánuszi korszak felelősségi rendszere.
[The responsibility system of the post-
classic and Justinian era. Система ответственности в постклассический и юстинианский
период.]
= Meznerics-emlékkönyv.
1988. 187-200.
PÖLAY Elemér: Rechtsvergleichendes in den Institutionen des Gaius. [Legal comparison in the Institutions of Gaius. Институция Гая в сравнительном плане.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv.
1988. 241-253.
XVIII. MISCELLANEOUS - XVIII. СМЕШАННОЕ
Book - Книга
Emlékkönyv Meznerics Iván egyetemi tanár születésének 80. évfordulójára. Szerk. Tóth Károly. [Memorial volume honouring the 80th anniversary of the birth of Professor Iván Meznerics. Юбилейное издание, посвященное 80-летию со дня рождения Ивана Мезнерич.] Szeged, Szegedi ny. 1988. 296 p. (Acta Universitatis
Szegedien-
sis de Attila József nominatae. Acta juridica et politica. Tomus 38. Fasc. 1-21.) Bibliogr. passim. —
Eng. summary; Dt.
Zusammenfassung; Русск. содерж.; Essays alternatively in French, Hungarian, German and
Russian.
Articles - Статьи
Abonyi Géza. 1917-1989. An obituary. Некролог. JK 6/89:333.
[Nekrológ. Irta] T[rócsányi] L[ászló.
411
Bibliographie
BALÁZS Tamás: Internationale Konferenz als Anlass der
hunderts-
ten Wiederkehr des Todesjahres von Henry Sumner Maine. [Budapest, 20. Juni 1988. International conference in commemoration of the centenary of the death of Henry Sumner Maine. Budapest, June 20, 1988. Международная конференция по поводу
столетия
со дня смерти Генри С. Мейн. ] = Annales Bp. Tomus 30. 1989. 115-118.
In memóriám Pólay Elemér. 1915-1988. [irta] Molnár
Imre. [An
obituary. Некролог. JK
4/89:201-203.
Meznerics Iván tudományos munkáinak jegyzéke. [List of the scientific works of Iván Meznerics. Список научных тредов Ивана Мезнерича.] = Meznerics-emlékkönyv. 1988. 289-294.
Meznerics Iván. 1907-1989. ÍAn obituary. JK
[Nekrológ. Irta] Ferenczy Endre.
Некролог.]
6/89:333-335.
STIPTA István: Der zweite Rechtshistorikertag Mai 1987. [Gedenksitzung buchdiskussion.
in Miskolc,
5.
in memóriám Gusztáv Wenzel und Lehr-
The second meeting of historians of law held
at Miskolc. May 5, 1987. Commemorative meeting of Gustaw Wenzel and a discussion of textbooks. Вторая конференция по вопросам истории права в г. Мишкольц. Торжественное собрание, посвященное памяти Густава Венцел.] = Annales Bp. Tomus 30. 1989. 123-126.
SZÁDECZKY-KARDOSS Irma: A nyelvhelyesség szerepe a jogalkotásban és a jogszabályok számítógépes nyilvántartásának megszervezésében.
[The role of the correct use of language in legisla-
tion and the organisation of the computerized registration of statutory rules. Роль правильного языкового оформления в правотворчестве и их обработке и регистрации на ЭВМ.] = Polg. elj. füz. 14. 198. 49-64.
законов
412
Bibliographia
TAKÁCS György: Gazdasági és jogi ismeretek középfokon.
[Iledium-
level material of economic and legal knowledge. Общие хозяйственные и правовые
знания.]
ÁI 7/39:627-636.
ТбТН Tihamér: Évfordulós megemlékezés a viktimológia megalapítójának
[Hans von Hentig, 1887-1974] munkásságáról.
[Commemora-
tion of the scientific activity of Hans von Hentig, 1887-1974, founder of victimology. Торжественное заседание в знак признания научной деятельности основателя виктимологии Ганс Фон Гентиг.] JK 4/89:207-210.
PRINTED IN HUNGARY
Akadémiai Kiadó és Nyomda V á l l a l a t ,
Budapest
Acta Juridica veröffentlicht Abhandlungen aus dem Bereich der Rechtswissenschaft in deutscher, englischer, französischer und russischer Sprache Acta Juridica erscheint jährlich in einem Band aus vier Heften bei A K A D É M I A I KIADÓ Verlag der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften H-1117 Budapest, Prielle K. u. 19-35 Manuskripte und Zuschriften an die Redaktion: Acta Juridica H-1250 Budapest, Postfach 25 Bezugsmöglichkeilen: Bestellungen nehmen an K U L T U R A Außenhandelsunternehmen H-1389 Budapest, Postfach 149 und seine Vertretungen im Ausland
Acta Juridica публикует р а б о т ы в области юридической науки на русском, английском, немецком и французком языках Acta Juridica выходит четырьмя выпусками, составляющими один т о м в год Журнал издается A K A D É M I A I KIADÓ Издательством Академии наук Венгрии H-1117 Budapest, Prielle К. и. 19-35 Переписку для редакции следует направлять по адресу Acta Juridica H-1250 Budapest, Pf. 25 Заказы принимает предприятие по внешней торговле KULTURA H-1389 Budapest, Pf. 149. и его заграничные представительства
Acta Juridica is abstracted / indexed in Abstracts on Criminology and Penology, Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals, Public Affairs Information Service
©Akadémiai
Kiadó, Budapest
Periodicals of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences are obtainable at the following addresses: AUSTRALIA C . B . D . LIBRARY A N D S U B S C R I P T I O N SERVICE 39 East Splanade P.O. Box 1001, Manly N.S.W. 2095 AUSTRIA G L O B U S , Höchstädtplatz 3, 1206 Wien XX BELGIUM O F F I C E I N T E R N A T I O N A L D E S PERIODIQUES A v e n u e Louise, 485, 1050 Bruxelles E. STORY-SC1ENTIA P.V.B.A. P. v a n Duyseplein 8, 9000 Gent BULGARIA H E M U S , Bulvár Ruszki 6, Sofia CANADA P A N N Ó N I A BOOKS, P.O. Box 1017 Postal Station "B". Toronto. Ont. M5T 2T8 CHINA C N P I C O R , Periodical Department, P.O. Box 50 Peking C Z E C H AND SLOVAK F E D E R A L REPUBLIC M A D ' A R S K A K U L T U R A , N á r o d n i trida 22 US 66 Praha P N S D O V O Z TISKU, Vinohradská 46, Praha 2 P N S D O V O Z FLACH. Bratislava 2 DENMARK E J N A R M U N K S G A A R D , 35, N a r r e Sogade 1370 Copenhagen К F E D E R A L REPUBLIC O F G E R M A N Y K U N S T U N D WISSEN E R I C H BIEBER P o s t f a c h 10 28 44 7000 Stuttgart 10 FINLAND A K A T E E M 1 N E N K I R J A K A U P P A , P.O. Box 128 00101 Helsinki 10 FRANCE D A W S O N - F R A N C E S.A., B P. 40, 91121 Palaiseau O F F I C E INTERNATIONAL D E DOCUMENTATION E T L I B R A I R I E , 48 rue Gay-Lussac 75240 Paris. Cedex 05 G R E A T BRITAIN B L A C K W E L L ' S P E R I O D I C A L S DIVISION H y t h e Bridge Street, Oxford OX1 2ET B U M P U S , HALDANE A N D M A X W E L L LTD. C o w p e r Works, Olney. Bucks MK46 4BN C O L L E T ' S HOLDINGS L T D . , Denington Estate, Wellingborough. Northants NN8 2QT W M D A W S O N A N D SONS L T D . . Cannon House Folkslone, Keni CT19 5EE GREECE K O S T A R A K I S BROTHERS I N T E R N A T I O N A L B O O K S E L L E R S , 2 Hippokratous Street, Athens-143 HOLLAND F A X O N EUROPE, P O. Box 167 1000 AD Amsterdam M A R T I N U S N I J H O F F В. V. Lange Voorhoul 9-11, Den Haag S W E T S SUBSCRIPTION S E R V I C E P.O. Box 830, 2160 Sz Lisse
INDIA A L L I E D P U B L I S H I N G PVT. L T D . 750 M o u n t Road. Madras 600002 C E N T R A L N E W S A G E N C Y PVT. L T D . C o n n a u g h t Circus, New Delhi 110001 I N T E R N A T I O N A L BOOK H O U S E PVT. L T D M a d a m e C a m a Road, Bombay 400039 ITALY D. E. A „ Via Lima 28, 00198 Roma INTERSC1ENT1A, Via Mazzé 28, 10149 Torino LIBRER1A C O M M I S S I O N A R 1 A S A N S O N I Via L a m a r m o r a 45, 50121 Firenze JAPAN K I N O K U N I Y A COMPANY LTD. Journal Department, P.O. Box 55 Chitose, Tokyo 156 M A R U Z E N C O M P A N Y LTD., Book Department P.O. Box 5050 Tokyo International, Tokyo 100-31 N A U K A LTD., Import Department 2-30-19 Minami Ikebukuro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171 KOREA C H U L P A N M U L , Phenjan NORWAY S.A. Narvesens Litteraturjeneste Box 6125, Etterstad 1000 Oslo POLAND W Ç G I E R S K I INSTYTUT K U L T U R Y Marszalkowska 80, 00-517 Warszawa C K P I W . ul. Towarowa 28, 00-958 Warszawa ROUMANIA D. E. P., Bucuresti I L E X I M , Calea Grivitei 64-66,
Bucuresti
SOVIET UNION SOYUZPECHAT IMPORT, Moscow and the post offices in each town M E Z H D U N A R O D N A Y A K N I G A , Moscow SPAIN
G-200
D I A Z D E S A N T O S Lagasca 95, Madrid 6 SWEDEN ESSELTE T I D S K R I F T S C E N T R A L E N Box 62, 101 20 Stockholm SWITZERLAND K A R G E R LIBRI AG, Petersgrabcn 31, 4011 Basel USA EBSCO S U B S C R I P T I O N S E R V I C E S P.O. Box 1943, Birmingham. Alabama 35201 F. W. F A X O N C O M P A N Y , I N C . 15 Southwest Park, Westwood Mass. 02090 MAJOR SCIENTIFIC SUBSCRIPTIONS 1851 D i p l o m a t , P.O. Box 819074, Pallas. Tx. 75381-9074 R E D M O R F , PUBLICATIONS, Inc. 22 Cortlandt Street, New York, N.Y. 1007 YUGOSLAVIA J U G O S L O V E N S K A K N J I G A , Terazije 27, Beograd F O R U M , Vojvode Misica 1. 21000 Novi Sad
