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Využívanie informácií v informačnej spoločnosti Zborník z medzinárodnej konferencie Bratislava, Slovenská republika, 10. – 11. októbra 2006

Information Use in Information Society Proceedings of the International conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11 2006

Centrum vedecko-technických informácií SR 2006

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― Publisher/Vydavateľ: Centrum vedecko-technických informácií SR, 2006 © Dept. of LIS, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University, 2006; the authors of contributions © Katedra knižničnej a informačnej vedy, Filozocká fakulta Univerzity Komenského, 2006; autori príspevkov Edited by/Zostavili: Jela Steinerová, Jaroslav Šušol Reviewers/Recenzenti: doc. PhDr. Dušan Katuščák, doc. PhDr. Rudolf Vlasák Design and layout/Gracká úprava: Irena Lányiová The issue was processed within the research project VEGA 1/2481/05 Zborník bol spracovaný v rámci riešenia výskumnej úlohy VEGA 1/2481/05 Acknowledgements/Poďakovanie: The editors and organizers acknowledge the help of the following international group of reviewers and editors: D. Sonnenwald, A. Komlodi, I. Johnson, S. Gradmann, E. Maceviciute, A. Androvič, T. D. Wilson. We would like to thank all volunteer members of the international programme committee for their kind support. International programme committee Medzinárodný programový výbor:

Local organizing committee Miestny organizačný výbor:

Jela Steinerová, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Tom D. Wilson, University of Shefeld, UK Tefko Saracevic, Rutgers University, USA Diane Sonnenwald, University College of Borås, Sweden Elena Maceviciute, University College of Borås, Sweden, Vilnius University, Lithuania Elisabeth Davenport, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK Crystal Fulton, University College Dublin, Ireland Sanna Talja, University of Tampere, Finland Umesh Thakkar, University of Illinois, USA Anita Komlodi, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA Stefan Gradmann, Hamburg University, Germany Richard Papík, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic Soňa Makulová, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Jaroslav Šušol, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Pavol Rankov, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Alojz Androvič, University Library Bratislava, Slovakia Daniela Gondová, Slovak Association of Libraries, Bratislava, Slovakia Dušan Katuščák, Slovak National Library, Martin, Slovakia Mária Žitňanská, Centre for Scientic and Technical Information, Bratislava, Slovakia

Jela Steinerová, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Alojz Androvič, University Library Bratislava, Slovakia Petra Bendová, University Library Bratislava, Slovakia Katarína Gabovičová, University Library Bratislava, Slovakia Mirka Grešková, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Ľudmila Hrdináková, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Jana Jelínková, University Library Bratislava, Slovakia Marcela Katuščáková, University of Žilina, Slovakia Irena Lányiová, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Lucia Lichnerová, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Soňa Makulová, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Miriam Ondrišová, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Jaroslava Pírová, University Library Bratislava, Slovakia Pavol Rankov, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Milan Regec, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Jaroslav Šušol, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia

The proceedings and further information are available at the website of the conference: http://indico.ulib.sk; http://www.kkiv.fphil.uniba.sk/ Zborník a ďalšie informácie sú dostupné na stránke konferencie: http://indico.ulib.sk; http://www.kkiv.fphil.uniba.sk/ ISBN 80-85165-92-9

Table of contents Obsah Foreword Predhovor ....................................................................................................................................................................3 Ann-Soe Axelsson, Diane Sonnenwald, Maria Spante Needs and challenges with respect to establishing a collaboratory within library and information science: practitioners’ perspective Potreby a výzvy pri vytváraní kolaboratória v oblasti knižničnej a informačnej vedy: pohľad praxe .......................5 Ian Johnson Electronic publishing and the international dimensions of research Elektronické publikovanie a medzinárodné rozmery výskumu ....................................................................................13 Tom D. Wilson Rethinking information behaviour research: an activity theory approach Nová interpretácia výskumu informačného správania: pohľad teórie aktivity ...........................................................21 Jela Steinerová, Jaroslav Šušol, Mirka Grešková Information behaviour in relevance judgements Informačné správanie pri posudzovaní relevancie informácií ....................................................................................29 Gabriella Szalóki Virtual togetherness – real success: the online communities Virtuálna súdržnosť – skutočný úspech: online komunity ...........................................................................................41 Stella Korobili Society of users and information: an approach to communication systems of the information production Spoločnosť používateľov a informácií: prístup ku komunikačným systémom informačnej produkcie .......................49 Ute Krauss-Leichert Blended learning – better than e-learning? Kombinované vzdelávanie – lepšie ako e-learning? ...................................................................................................53 Aphrodite Malliari, Mersini Moreleli-Cacouris, Konstantinos Kapsalis Usage patterns in Greek academic libraries’ catalogues: the case of Technological Educational Institution in Thessaloniki Vzorce využívania katalógov gréckych akademických knižníc: prípadová štúdia Technologického inštitútu Thessaloniki ................................................................................................................................................................61 Jurgita Rudžionienė, Irena Krivienė Academic library and study process: are we on the right way? Akademická knižnica a proces štúdia: sme na správnej ceste? ..................................................................................67 Sanjica Faletar Tanacković, Maja Krtalić Memory institutions in Croatia: digital services (and their users): state of the art report Pamäťové inštitúcie v Chorvátsku: digitálne služby a ich používatelia – správa o aktuálnom stave ........................75 Martin Katuščák Strategy for digital access to and preservation of cultural, scientiﬁc and intellectual content in the Slovak Republic and coordination of digitisation Stratégia sprístupňovania a uchovávania kultúrneho, vedeckého a intelektuálneho obsahu v SR ............................81 Jadranka Lasić-Lazić, Sonja Špiranec, Mihaela Banek-Zorica The long way to an efﬁcient information society – information literacy perceptions among Croatian librarians Dlhá cesta k efektívnej informačnej spoločnosti – vnímanie informačnej gramotnosti medzi chorvátskymi knihovníkmi . .91 Ľudmila Hrdináková, Elena Sakálová Problémy čitateľskej a informačnej gramotnosti detí: východiská, problémy a hypotézy výskumu Problems of children’s reading and information literacy: background, problems, and hypotheses of the research .......97 Soňa Makulová Analýza faktorov vplývajúcich na nájditeľnosť webových sídiel Analysis of factors influencing the ndability of web sites .........................................................................................109 Richard Papík Vývojové změny rešeršních strategií. Body zvratu a omezení Developmental changes in search strategies. Turning points and constraints ...........................................................119 Ladislav Svršek Nadstavbové riešenia pre správu a sprístupňovanie elektronických informačných zdrojov Extension tools for management of and access to electronic information resources .................................................127

Otakar Pinkas Rozpoznávání a řešení drobných problému uživatele při práci s aplikacemi v internetu Recognition and xing of minor user problems in working with internet applications ..............................................135 Zita Mušutová, Eva Mihalíková Využívanie informácií v centrálnej banke Information use in the central bank ............................................................................................................................143 Beáta Sedláčková Data mining v knihovní a informační vědě Data mining in library and information science .........................................................................................................149 Papers of PhD students Doktorandské príspevky ..............................................................................................................................................155 Eeva-Liisa Eskola Information literacy and collaborative information behavior of medical students studying in the problem-based and traditional curriculum Informačná gramotnosť a kolaboratívne informačné správanie študentov medicíny študujúcich v rámci problémovo orientovaného a tradičného študijného programu ..................................................................................155 Isto Huvila One size ts all in the archaeological information work? Jedna veľkosť pre všetkých v archeologickej informačnej práci? ..............................................................................165 Andrea Johnson The language of primary sources: the challenge of digital archives Jazyk primárnych zdrojov: výzva digitálnych archívov ..............................................................................................171 Katalin Lovász The role of school libraries and school librarians in student’s acquiring information literacy skills Úloha školských knižníc a školských knihovníkov pri získavaní zručností a informačnej gramotnosti .....................175 Mirka Grešková Cognitive foundations of information science Kognitívne základy informačnej vedy .........................................................................................................................181 Břetislav Šimral Znalostní mapy a služby centra CBK v Ernst&Young Knowledge maps and services of Centre for Business Knowledge in Ernst&Young ..................................................187 Hana Landová Knihovna: katalyzátor využívání informačních zdroju Library: the catalyst of information resources use .....................................................................................................195 Peter Búci Optimalizácia webových stránok pre vyhľadávacie stroje ako súčasť informačnej architektúry webových stránok Search engine optimization as part of web site information architecture ..................................................................201 Věra Jurmanová Volemanová Svobodný přístup k informacím versus autorské právo Free access to information versus copyright ..............................................................................................................205 Milan Gonda Výskum najnovších dejín verejných knižníc v rokoch 1951 – 2000 Investigation of the most recent history of public libraries in Slovakia in the years 1951-2000 ...............................209 Kvetoslava Rešetová Informačný a vedomostný manažment Information management and knowledge management .............................................................................................211 Marcela Katuščáková Možnosti využitia poznatkov z manažmentu znalostí v kontexte knižničnej a informačnej vedy Potential of knowledge management use in the context of library and information science ......................................215 About the authors O autoroch ..................................................................................................................................................................223 Index of authors Autorský register .........................................................................................................................................................228

Foreword Predhovor This volume contains papers from the conference on Information Use in Information Society. The aims of the conference are to support the international research and collaboration in library and information studies, to im prove international intercultural knowledge transfer between western and central and eastern European countries, and to discuss national culture-speciﬁc information society developments. Central and eastern European coun tries still lag behind in building knowledge-based economies. The conference is therefore focused on the con cepts of information use as means of progress to new ways of knowledge transfer and information literacy. Information use in information society is a vital topic of information science. The topic should respond to changing ways of traditional information use as a result of information technologies inclusion into social and communication processes. This leads to the development of information society. From the viewpoint of informa tion use transformations of information to knowledge are crucial. They are based on information literacy and rel evance judgements. Sensitivity of systems to contexts and user proﬁles are parts of future services in information society based on web 2.0 developments. We can see that information services are moving to natural human environment and value-added services are integrated into intelligent and mobile objects. That is why it is important to examine human information be haviour, especially in the electronic environment. Information use is based on abilities to recognize relevance of information. It is linked with information behaviour in various contexts (disciplines, ﬁelds, domains) and with communities of users. Culture-speciﬁc fea tures of information use are based on patterns related to social settings. Information use requires different levels of information literacy as lifelong adaptation of people to the information environment. Library and information science can be beneﬁcial for building information society based on a new cyber infrastructure. Information behaviour research is applied to design of interfaces and services, organization of in formation, intellectual property rights, and to information literacy strategies. Thirty-one papers in these proceedings represent and respond to challenges for reconsideration of inform ation and library work in web 2.0 environments. Key trends can be named as e-collaboration, access to digital collections, elimination of barriers between users and information they need. Following this we have grouped the papers into the four topical clusters: 1. e-collaboration and human information behaviour research E-collaboration and international dimension of research in library and information science is represen ted by the introductory paper (A. S. Axelson, D. Sonnenwald, and M. Spante). The authors propose the estab lishment of an e-collaboratory for international projects. E-publishing in the international perspective is ad dressed by I. Johnson. T. D. Wilson presents possible strengths of activity theory for a common framework which could link scattered theories of information behaviour. The applications are illustrated by interacting activity systems in child care and mobile information systems of metropolitan police. For the information society development it is crucial that information services be placed into daily pat terns of work, study and play. New strategies of human information behaviour in various cultural, technological and institutional contexts should be recognized. That is why the category of relevance has been reconsidered (Steinerová, Šušol, Grešková). Results of a study of PhD students on relevance judgements are presented. 2. information society, information literacy and e-learning A complex strategy of digitisation and digital library services in Slovak cultural and intellectual contexts is introduced by M. Katuščák. Special models of information literacy are presented by S. Korobili, emphasizing feedbacks of the information systems and users. A possible way to information society in Croatia is depicted in the paper by J. Lasić-Lazić et al. based on a survey of information literacy perception among Croatian librarians. A number of papers are concerned with education, e-learning and information literacy. In her paper, Ute Krauss-Leichert proved that students in Germany prefer blended learning as a new way of education combining traditional learning and e-learning. Research issues of childrens’ information literacy in Slovakia are presented by the paper of Hrdináková and Sakálová. An interesting research is being reported on in the paper of G. Szalóki. It follows the topical trend of e-collaboration of a special online community in Hungary, namely parents of babies. The research illustrates that web-based communication can help in everyday information behaviour problems. 3. information systems and services in the electronic environment Practical value-added systems and services in the electronic environment are represented by two groups of papers. The ﬁrst group covers libraries; the second group includes information seeking in internet and search strategies. As for the libraries, case studies of academic libraries in Greece (Malliari, Moreleli-Cacouris, Kapsalis), in Lithuania (Rudžionenė, Krivienė), and digital services in Croatia (Tanacković, Krtalić) are presented. 3

From the viewpoint of information systems and internet, research results of web sites’ ﬁndability and usability within a case study of Slovak libraries are presented (Makulová). Historical development of searching strategies shifting from analytical to intuitive approaches is outlined by R. Papík. Problems of the internet use are presented by O. Pinkas. L. Svršek presents the value-added services and extension tools of database providers. The position of information services in the National Bank of Slovakia is reported by Z. Mušutová and E. Mihalíková. B. Sedláčková reects on data mining in library and information science. 4. PhD. students’ papers A special section is devoted to papers of PhD students. The papers are based on students’ their dissertation theses. Our aim was to support research and education of young professionals in library and information science. They integrate both research and learning and form an interesting group for further research. Moreover, in the east and central European countries not much attention has been paid to PhD students in conferences so far. Therefore, for the ﬁrst time we invited PhD students to present their work. The published PhD papers report on aims, issues, challenges, and projects that are in progress. They in clude the topics of information literacy (E. Eskola), digital archives (A. Johnson), cognitive background of in formation science (M. Grešková), information literacy and school libraries (K. Lovász), library and the use of in formation resources (H. Landová), user needs in archaeological information work (I. Huvila), knowledge maps (B. Šimral), copyright and free access to information (V. Volemanová), history of Slovak public libraries (M. Gonda), information and knowledge management (K. Rešetová), web sites and information architecture (P. Búci), and knowledge management and e-collaboration (M. Katuščáková). Majority of papers is written in the English language. However, with regard to our cultural environ ment, we have included also papers in Slovak and Czech languages. These papers are supplemented by sum maries in English. I believe that our proceedings will be beneﬁcial not only to conference participants, but also to informa tion policy makers, developers and information architects, managers of library and information institutions, re search workers, teachers, and students of library and information science. Last but not least, I hope that our com munication and research results will form a starting point for further professional discussions and possible (e-)collaboration. Jela Steinerová Program Committee Chair July 2006

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Needs and challenges with respect to establishing a collaboratory within library and information science: practitioners’ perspectives 1

Ann-Soﬁe Axelsson; 2Diane H. Sonnenwald; 3Maria Spante 1;2

Swedish School of Library and Information Science, Göteborg University&University College of Borås, SE-501 90 Borås, Sweden 3 Chalmers Institute of Technology, SE-412 96 Göteborg, Sweden 1 Ann-Soﬁ[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract This paper reports on a study that explored the needs and challenges with respect to the creation of a collaboratory for li brary and information science practitioners. To identify needs and challenges interviews were conducted with practitioners at a variety of institutions. The results suggest that there is a need for a collaboratory to facilitate on-demand, personalized knowledge sharing. The collaboratory should also be well integrated into the everyday practice of library and information science practitioners.

Keywords collaboratory; community knowledge environments; collaborative work environments; library and information science; collaboration; e-social science; interviews

Introduction The vision for the next generation of collaboratories, also referred to as community knowledge environments and collaborative work environments, includes students, teachers, researchers and practitioners using advanced, se cure multi-media information and communications technology to have effective and reoccurring access to col leagues and other experts, research data, publications, research instruments, services and tools across geographic distances, organizations and time (Atkins, et al, 2003; Berman&Brady, 2005; Hey&Trefethen, 2003). With sub stantial national and international ﬁnancial support, to date most collaboratories have focused on supporting nat ural science and engineering research and education as well as business (Atkins, et al, 2003; Arzberger&Finholt, 2002; Finholt, 2001; EU Commission New Working Environment Unit, 2006). Yet there is also a need to support the social sciences (Berman&Brady, 2005) and non-proﬁt organizations, including collaboration among practi tioners as well as among practitioners and researchers in the social sciences and non-proﬁt organizations. As a social science discipline and profession, library and information science (LIS) plays a critical role in the discovery of knowledge, education and democracy, cultural heritage and, more recently, economic develop ment. For example, a recent study conducted in Florida (U.S.) shows that public libraries’ return on investment is approximately 6.5 to 1; for every $1.00 spent in public support of public libraries, a return of $6.54 was seen in terms of gross regional product and time and money saved (Grifﬁths, King, Lynch&Harrington, 2005). Library and information science today faces many challenges. It is inherently multi-disciplinary. For example, it includes research and education in a range of specialties such as: organization of information (metadata, thesaurus construction, abstracting); information retrieval; human information behaviour; bibliometrics; in formation and library services; library management; collaboration and knowledge management; information policy; archival science; digital libraries; social informatics; and public, children and special libraries. There are rapid changes in information and communications technology, government policies and regulations, the publica tion industry, and patrons’ expectations which have a large impact on the discipline. This has lead to an increas ing debate and controversy regarding what topics should be taught in LIS university degree programs and profes sional education. In addition, government research funding agencies in many countries do not support library science research and higher education to the same degree as other ﬁelds, and funding for public institutions such as libraries is always threatened during periods of economic recession. In many countries library science depart ments are small in terms of faculty. For example, the department at the University of Växjö (Sweden) has 1 fulltime faculty member. This situation is mirrored in professional practice where many library practitioners are the only library practitioner in their organization and/or geographical area. Thus, it is a period of increasing com plexity with changes imposed by external forces and limited ﬁnancial resources for LIS. In an effort to meet these challenges, libraries initiate collaborative projects to share materials (e. g., Atkin son&Kensler, 2004; Rodger, Jörgensen&D’Elia, 2005) and utilize new information and communications technolo gies (e. g. JCDL, 2006). Could a collaboratory that spans geographic distances and different types and sizes of or ganizations more broadly beneﬁt LIS, helping practitioners meet challenges facing their institutions? We know of 5

no research that investigates the potential for a collaboratory within LIS. Could a collaboratory help address chal lenges facing library and information science practitioners and/or support future visions of the profession? This paper reports on an exploratory study that investigated library and information science practitioners’ perspectives on the needs that might be addressed by a collaboratory, as well as norms and practices within their organizations that might facilitate and/or hinder the adoption of a collaboratory. Our goal is to provide insights regarding the potential and limitations for a collaboratory within this unique and important profession. Without such studies, there is a risk that a digital divide may emerge between social science and natural science profes sions and disciplines, and between for-proﬁt and non-proﬁt organizations.

1 Previous research Throughout this paper, collaboration is deﬁned as human behaviour among two or more individuals that facilit ates the sharing of meaning and completion of tasks with respect to a mutually-shared super ordinate goal. Col laboration always occurs within social contexts that impose constraints and enables possibilities. It may occur within or across organizations, disciplines (or communities), and/or countries. Synthesizing previous research on scientiﬁc collaboration, Sonnenwald (in press) identiﬁed ﬁve factors that emerged as important for a collaboration to even be considered. These factors are: scientiﬁc, political, socioeconomic, resource accessibility and social networks and personal factors. The factors may also apply to other contexts, such as professional work contexts, by interpreting the scientiﬁc factor as a professional factor. Professional (or scientiﬁc) factors reported in the literature that inuence whether a collaboration may be established include: the need to discover new knowledge and solve complex problems in a timely manner; in creasing specialization and the need to utilize different types of knowledge and expertise; opportunity to extend the scope of a project and foster innovation; diffusion of epistemic and ethical responsibility; and impact on indi viduals’ career advancement. For example, Michael and Higgins (2002) discuss how collaboration can help a lib rary become a world-class innovative library but the library must reward employees based on their abilities to „share knowledge, learn and collaborate“ (p.175). Political factors include: national and international situations and policies such as acts of aggression and national security policies; promotion of political unity within a region; need for world peace; and, healing of post-war wounds. Socio-economic factors focus on opportunities to spread ﬁnancial risks, leverage ﬁnancial re sources, and support economic development. The factor, resource accessibility, refers to opportunities to gain access to scarce resources, such as spe cialized expertise, equipment, software, materials, etc., that a collaboration may enable. Collaborations are typic ally more successful when each partner provides and receives resources. Collaborations typically emerge from social networks, or previous connections and inter-connections among individuals. Personal compatibility, com patible work styles, mutual respect, trust and the ability to get along and enjoy each other’s company are issues individuals often consider when deciding whether to collaborate. These issues may be inuenced by specialized languages, cultural heritage and gender. In addition to these factors, we need to consider factors that impact technology adoption and use because information and communications technology is an important component of a collaboratory. For examples, col laboratories have been referred to as socio-technical interaction networks (Kling, McKim&King, 2003). The design and adoption of technology in general is to a large extent about meeting needs, or challenges, within par ticular contexts. Needs may be based on perceived breakdowns or limitations with current, existing practices (Winograd&Flores, 1986), and advantages over current practices (Grudin, 1994; Rogers, 1995; Wierba, Finholt& Steves, 2002). Compatibility with current practices and norms is also critical (Rogers, 1995). In this exploratory study we consider whether these types of collaboration and technology related factors might enable or constrain the creation of a collaboratory among LIS practitioners.

2 Research methods 2.1 Data collection Interviews were conducted with ten library and information science practitioners working in a variety of settings, including a research university library, regional college library, large city public library, small town public lib rary, government research agency, international corporation, small business, and non-government organization. All participants were managers responsible for library or information services in their organization. All parti cipants, except one, live and work in Sweden, however, the practitioners at the non-government and international organizations have professional responsibilities worldwide. The interviews were one to three hours in length, with an average length of one hour, 45 minutes. The participants were introduced to the concept of a collaboratory both in our initial request to participate in an interview and at the beginning of their interview. A collaboratory was deﬁned broadly as a social and tech 6

nical forum in which information and other resources could be shared among practitioners, students, teachers and researchers to provide the means to enable new types of collaboration, learning and sharing. This deﬁnition is based on Atkins, et al (2003) and the Science of Collaboratories report (2003). The interview questions were de signed to elicit participants’ perspectives on motivations for a collaboratory and socio-technical constraints that may impact its success. All interview questions were open-ended, and follow-up questions were asked to help ensure we captured the participants’ meaning. The interviewers were not members of the Swedish library and in formation science community and thus participants could freely discuss any aspect of the library science com munity and work without fear of insulting a colleague.

2.2 Data analysis The interviews were analyzed using both open coding and axial coding (Robson, 2002). During open coding a subset of the interviews were read thoroughly and carefully by a researcher who identiﬁed coding categor ies, or coding frames. This initial set of categories and data was discussed among the research team, and simil arities with the ﬁve factors discussed in the scientiﬁc collaboration literature that provide a foundation for sci entiﬁc collaboration and/or which can prohibit a collaboration from being considered (Sonnenwald, in press) were observed. The remaining interviews were read and analyzed using these coding categories and also look ing for any new emergent categories. No new categories emerged, although no data regarding one category, political factors, emerged. In the ﬁnal step, i. e., during axial coding, all interviews were re-read and analyzed using the coding categories. Because most of the interviews were conducted in Swedish, many quotes from study participants in the sections below have been translated from Swedish. Every effort was taken to ensure the voice of the participant still was present in the translation.

3 Results The data analysis shows that the practitioners’ reasons for wanting to collaborate and share resources with other LIS practitioners, and obstacles that could prohibit collaboration can be categorized as: professional factors; so cio-economic factors; resource accessibility factors; and, social networks and personal factors.

3.1 Professional factors Many participants reported that they would like a collaboratory to facilitate their individual and their organiza tion’s professional development and problem-solving. This was mentioned by all study participants, but most frequently by managers in large organizations, and mirrors the ﬁndings by Michael and Higgins (2002). Participants reported that they want new, innovative ideas from the wider library community coming into their organization. One manager explained that a collaboratory should ideally put her into contact with a range of community members to introduce new ideas: I would like to have [people]…from different industries, and researchers [in the collaboratory]… You are curious to see new things. You may have completely different ideas than I have, which I can learn, which can trigger me. I would like to have different age groups; young people do not think like old people. Four participants also mentioned that they want more speciﬁc expert advice in relation to problems that emerge in their daily work – problems that can not easily be solved with the knowledge and resources at hand in their own organization. Several stressed that they want access to, via a collaboratory, experts in different library related topics who can deliver fast and precise answers to speciﬁc questions. One manager of a large public lib rary spoke about his need for expert advice in a rapidly changing world where a manager has difﬁculties know ing what rules apply in different situations: The experts I talk about, I mean it is in a way difﬁcult… the legislation constantly changes and technology develops and the legislation does not follow the technical development, so there would be a lot of questions concerning this. One manager of a large university library explicitly stressed that what she thinks is needed is not imper sonal expert advice but access to experienced people who can, on demand, visit libraries in order to inspire the staff or show alternative ways of working. This is similar to the results of an online survey conducted by Brown and Ortega (2005). The survey respondents, 72 physical science librarians, reported their most important source of information is personal communication with colleagues. A study participant explained: So something like a committed, interested, experienced… person …in almost every subject… [Let me] borrow your skilled staff. When my staff think they are stuck in old routines, let [the ex perienced person] come work [with us] and explain how things work elsewhere… It will also be the case that the people who go out will also get something back, that is always the case.

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The same manager emphasized that an experienced library person would probably be most useful for small libraries that have little or no competence in specialized and peripheral areas (e. g. construction and library architecture) in their ordinary network: Imagine that you are thrown out somewhere in a small place where you are two staff and that… you can get this renovation task…or you are supposed to modernize the library… just to get started. [You think], ‘Oh my God what shall we do?’ This is an issue not discussed in the scientiﬁc collaboration literature, that is, a need for specialized ex pertise to address one-time issues and not for a collaborative projects

3.2 Socio-economic factors Collaboration and resource sharing can lead to new, proﬁtable services and products, and extend an organiza tion’s limited monetary resources. However, collaboration also incurs costs. An issue is whether the costs associ ated with a collaboratory are greater than its near- and/or long-term beneﬁts. In contrast to scientiﬁc collaboratories and business collaborations that are perceived as providing eco nomic beneﬁts (e. g. Lambert, 2003; Autio, Hameri&Nordberg, 1996; US Ofﬁce of Science&Technology Policy, 2000), ﬁve out of seven participants did not perceive that a collaboratory would ﬁnancially beneﬁt their organiz ation. Rather they expressed concern that a collaboratory would introduce additional costs, in particular with re spect to time. This is clearly an important issue for the practitioners; ﬁfty percent of the participants mentioned it. One concern focuses on the time required to maintain a well-functioning collaboratory: Quite a time consuming thing in the long run. These common sites services are easy to set up but not so easy to maintain…without funding. Another concern is the perception that it may be very time consuming to use a collaboratory, e. g. time consuming to log in, check for news, participate in the exchange of information, etc. One participant, who is very positive towards technology mediated collaboration in general, sees this as a large obstacle: Participant: If one has the time, there are a lot of great and fun things one could use technology for but, I don’t know… Interviewer: Is it too time consuming or too difﬁcult or… Participant: No, it is never too difﬁcult…no, I don’t think so, it is rather the time. Only two participants felt a collaboratory could provide economic beneﬁts. According to a participant from an NGO, collaboration and funding are tightly coupled in their organization. Both are required to enable their projects. A manager of a large corporate library had a very positive view towards a LIS collaboratory, but with the condition that it would bring value into the organization: The absolutely most important thing is that it brings something back to the company.

3.3 Resource accessibility factors Establishing a collaboratory is often motivated by the need to gain access to expensive equipment, specialized ex pertise, software, unique materials, etc. All study participants mentioned one or more resources that they would like to gain access to, and believe a collaboratory could provide. Not surprisingly, most participants stated that it would be good to have access to tools and documents online. However, many participants explicitly said there are already too many online resources that offer tools and documents. What they would prefer is personal contact with people knowledgeable in library and information science. As one manager of a large university library explained: I think that [having access to people knowledgeable in library science] is the most important thing because you can always read. There is plenty around to read. You can access web sites… there are lots. And you can feel that it is interesting but you don’t get this extra… No, it must be a human! Even within our small sample of practitioners, we found matches between needs for knowledge and willingness to share knowledge. For example, one manager of a regional college library explained his needs focus on copyright: One recurrent question is copyright law. The legal aspects of library management are very com plicated questions. Whereas, a manager of a large corporate library reported: There are a lot of questions about copyright because companies will get into trouble unless they have sorted out the copy-clearing, and this is an area where I have been involved a lot…So I think I could contribute quite a lot to a network. Encouragingly, ﬁfty percent of the participants explicitly stated that they have resources that could be shared with other LIS practitioners. Resources mentioned included: individuals with experienced-based expertise; organizational best practices; and tools and content (e. g. databases and training materials). However, the re sources mentioned most often focused on people and their knowledge. Tools and materials were mentioned least. 8

An issue with respect to resource accessibility raised by the NGO participants is unequal access to tech nology. As reported by our participants and elsewhere (e. g. Olson, Teasley, Bietz&Cogburn, 2002) access to the Internet is not always available or may only be available in a limited way in developing countries: In Africa, you know not everybody has a computer on their desk and that means getting to a computer and then… getting access…is not quite as easy as when everybody has a com puter on their desk which is connected [to a high speed network] all the time… Access is not what’s easy. One of the key ideas of a collaboratory is that members should be able to exchange resources with each other on a reciprocal basis. However, managers in small LIS institutions expressed the belief that they have nothing to offer larger, and wealthier, LIS institutions. As one participant, the manager of a small town public library, said: Well, we have nothing to offer, I think. At least we have never gotten any inquiries… This is an issue that is not discussed in collaboration literature, and yet is important. When individuals be lieve they have nothing to offer they may proactively exclude themselves from many interactions without realiz ing they may actually be withholding valuable information from others.

3.4 Social networks and personal factors Collaboration emerges from and also builds social networks. Analysis of the interview data shows that social net works and personal factors prove to be important for many library practitioners irrespective of where they work today. One participant, the manager of a large corporation library, described her vision for a LIS collaboratory: I will get a super network with branches into all kinds of workplaces and activities and the com pany is very positive towards external networks. However, a majority of the participants expressed personal doubts rather than enthusiasm when envision ing a collaboratory. Several participants mentioned that it seems to be difﬁcult to ﬁnd the right balance between width and scope within a network. A network needs to be wide in order to cover various interests, but not too wide so that is looses focus and becomes uninteresting to everyone. One participant explained: I think [the collaboratory] needs to be focused and it’s quite important that the scope is wide enough to be able to make people contribute, but focused enough to be narrow, so one knows it’s of interest. Another participant speaks about the same issue from his own experience from a national LIS listserv: It’s a simple mailing list but it has all gone awry. Too many are on the list. There are too many odd people on the list that post stuff that is of no interest to other people. This is in contrast to previous research reports that LIS listservs are valued by LIS practitioners (Brown& Ortega, 2995; Xu, 1998, Kovacs, Robinson&Dixon, 1995), and research on communities of practice in general. This ﬁnding raises questions regarding limitations of listservs, communities of practice and large collaboratories. Other participants questioned whether the collaboratory would be something in addition to their current work activities, require changes to their work styles, or be appreciated by their organization. As two parti cipants commented: It is also a matter…of how you connect back to [the collaboratory] in daily discussions and meet ings. You need to somehow build it into the system, into the organization. I would be less inclined to contribute if I had to do anything different then I was doing already.

4 Discussion The results of the analysis indicate that a collaboratory is, to most participants, a viable way of connecting to and exchanging resources with other practitioners. Nevertheless, there are many challenges that must be ad dressed to help ensure success. Some of the challenges have been identiﬁed previously in the literature, and others identify new issues. The majority of the study participants envisioned that a collaboratory could provide resources to facilitate their individual and their organization’s professional development and problem-solving. Some participants talked about this in terms of a need for expert advice while others talked about it as a need for new and innovative ideas or practices to be brought into their organization. It appears that participants ﬁnd that their own institution occa sionally lacks critical professional competences, which may very well also be the case since the demands on LIS practitioners have increased in recent years, at the same time as resources have often decreased. One way of ad dressing this increased demand without increasing costs could be to increase the knowledge-base among LIS practitioners by connecting them in a collaboratory, a socio-technical interaction network. This is particularly im portant to small and resource-scarce library organizations. Perhaps the most difﬁcult challenge in this will be to bring about exchange of ideas between organizations and individuals with very different core activities, organiz ational size, experiences and knowledge, such as small town public libraries and large academic libraries. 9

As mentioned earlier, collaboration has been shown to provide economic beneﬁts. However, all but two study participants did not believe that a collaboratory would provide economic beneﬁts. Rather it may impose a high cost in terms of time; time needed to maintain a well-functioning collaboratory and time needed to parti cipate in a collaboratory. In most knowledge organizations people’s work is fragmented (Mark, Gonzalez&Harris, 2005), and this increases as the number of electronic systems, emails, etc. increases. Hence, participants’ reluctant attitude to wards the idea of using a collaboratory is fully understandable. Is it possible to design a collaboratory which will not be a burden to its users, especially when most potential users seem to be overloaded with information already? This has been discussed elsewhere in relation to the design of groupware (Grudin, 1994), and needs to be further considered in relation to a LIS collaboratory. Access to data is a current focus of most scientiﬁc collaboratory efforts (Arzberger&Finholt, 2002). However, study participants expressed needs primarily for resources of a different kind, namely for intangible re sources such as people’s knowledge and experience in different areas. Although some of the participants also ex pressed a wish for things such as tools, legal documents, and useful link collections, several participants expli citly expressed that they have more than enough resources of that kind already available. The majority of parti cipants took the same perspective when they talked about sharing their own resources. Although a few men tioned concrete things, e. g. teaching materials, they would like to share, the majority were more enthusiastic about the idea of sharing their experiences, perspectives and tacit knowledge. A challenge is how to make such intangible resources visible and possible to share in a collaboratory, especially since failures of early collaboratories that attempted to support tacit knowledge sharing have been reported (e. g. Orlikowski, 1993). This last point relates clearly to what the participants expressed as the most attractive about the idea of a collaboratory, which was, undoubtedly, the idea of having access to a network of people from a wide range of LIS related organizations. However, here lies also the largest challenge with a LIS collaboratory: to be able to make the collaboratory focused enough to be interesting to participate in, but still wide enough to be able to pro mote new collaborations across organizational and disciplinary borders. This is especially challenging because LIS is a multi-disciplinary profession that does not have a recognized unifying core activity or grand challenge. The challenges to meet on a personal level lie in introducing the collaboratory into organizations in a way that complements but does not compete with existing routines and practices, and will be rewarded. These results suggest that a collaboratory to support LIS practitioners should include an „expert on demand“ service. Each organization participating in this service would identify their areas of expertise and commit to allow ing their experts to consult a speciﬁc number of days per year. These organizations would then be entitled to request expert help from other participating organizations up to and including the same number of days per year. Each re questing organization could be responsible for any travel and living expenses to support a face-to-face meeting. For example, Library A might request a two-day consultation from an expert in Organization B and pay for that expert to come to their library. In turn, organization B might request a one-day consult from Library C. The collaboratory would keep track of expertise and days offered as well as requests for expertise and consulting time provided. Over a three-year period, the numbers of offers and requests per organization could very well be equal. To explore this idea further research is needed. Examples of issues to be investigated include: representa tion of expertise for non-experts; design of the management structure and practices within the collaboratory; mechanisms regarding consultation feedback; and, implementation of organizational practices to recognize and reward consulting experts. We look forward to investigating such issues.

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ARZBERGER, P., & FINHOLT, T.A. (2002). Data and collaboratories in the biomedical community. Crew Technical Report, CREW-02-01, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. ATKINS, D.E., DROEGEMEIER, K.K., FELDMAN, S.I., Garcia-Molina, H., Klein, M.L., Messerschmitt, D.G., Messina, P., Ostriker, J.P., & Wright, M.H. (2003). Final Report of the NSF Blue Ribbon Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure. Retrieved Feb 3, 2004 from http://www.cise.nsf.gov/evnt/reports/toc.htm. ATKINSON, J., & KENSLER, E. (2004). HELP is at hand: Reviewing and developing Welsh academic library collaboration. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 10(2), 105-118. AUTIO, E., HAMERI, A., & NORDBERG, M. (1996). A framework of motivations for industry-big science collaboration: A case study. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 13, 301-314. BERMAN, F., & BRADY, H. (2005). Final Report: NSF SBE-CISE Workshop on Cyberinfrastructure and the Social Sciences. Retrieved June 3, 2005 from http://www.sdsc.edu/sbe. BROWN, C.M., & ORTEGA, L. (2005). Information-seeking behavior of physical science librarians: Does research inform practice? College and Research Libraries, 66(3), 231-247. Retrieved June 16, 2006 from http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/crljournal/backissues2005a/crlmay05/Brown0505.pdf. EU Commission New Working Environment Unit. (2006). New Collaborative Working environments 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2006 from http://europa.eu.int/information_society/activities/atwork/hot_news/publications/documents/new_collab_ environments_2020.pdf.

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FINHOLT, T. (2001). Collaboratories, In B. Cronin (Ed.) Annual Review of Information Science and Technology (pp. 73-108). Medford, NJ: Information Today. GRIFFITHS, J., KING, D., LYNCH, T., & HARRINGTON, J. (2005). Taxpayer return on investment in Florida public libraries. Retrieved October 10, 2005 from http://ddlis.dos.state..us/bid/roi/pdfs/ROISummaryReport.pdf. 2005. GRUDIN, J. (1994). Eight challenges for developers, Communications of the ACM, 37(1), 92-105. HEY, T., & TREFETHEN, A. (2003). e-Science and its implications. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London A, 361, 1809-1825. JCDL (2006). Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries. NY: ACM Press. KLING, R., MCKIM, G., & KING, A. (2003). A bit more to it: Scholarly communication forums as socio-technical interaction networks. JASIS&T, 54(1), 47-67. KOVACS, D.K., ROBINSON, K.L, & DIXON, J. (1995). Scholarly e-conferences on the academic network; How library and information science practitioners use them. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 46(4), 244-254. LAMBERT, R. (2003). Lambert Review of Business-University Collaboration: Final Report. Norwich: HM Treasury. Retrieved June 12, 2005 from http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/DDE/65/lambert_review_final_450.pdf MARK, G., GONZALEZ, V., and HARRIS, J. (2005). No task left behind? Examining the nature of fragmented work. Proceedings of ACM CHI’05 (pp. 321-330). NY: ACM Press. MICHAEL, T.S.C, & HIGGINS, S.E. (2002). NTU (Nanyang Technological University) Library as a learning organization. Libri, 52, 169-182. OLSON, G.M., TEASLEY, S., BIETZ, M., & COGBURN, D.L. (2002). Collaboratories to support distributed science: The example of international HIV/AIDS Research. Proceedings of SAICSIT, 44-51. ORLOWSKI, W. (1993). Learning from Notes: Organizational issues in groupware implementation. The Information Society, 9(3), 237-252. ROBSON, C. (2002). Real world research. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. RODGER, E.J., Jörgensson, C., & D’ELIA, G. (2005). Partnerships and collaboration among public libraries, public broadcast media, and museums: Current context and future potential. Library Quarterly, 75(1), 42-66. ROGERS, E. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations. NY: The Free Press, NY. Science of Collaboratories (2003). Workshop on the social underpinnings of collaboration: Final summary, 2003. Retrieved March 17, 2006 from http://www.scienceofcollaboratories.org/Workshops/WorkshopJune42001/index.php?FinalSummary SONNENWALD, D.H. (in press). Scientiﬁc collaboration: Challenges and solutions. In B. Cronin (Ed), Annual Review of Information Science & Technology (ARIST). Medford, NJ: Information Today. U.S. Ofﬁce of Science & Technology Policy. (2000). Examples of international scientiﬁc collaboration and the beneﬁts to society. Retrieved June 14, 2005 from http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/html/00426_7.html WIERBA, E., FINHOLT, T., & STEVES, M. Challenges to collaborative tool adoption in a manufacturing engineering setting: A case study. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. IEEE Computer Society, NJ, 2002. WINOGRAD, T., & FLORES, F. (1986). Understanding Computers and Cognition: A New Foundation for Design. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. XU, H. (1998). Global access and its implications: The use of mailing lists by systems librarians. Proceedings of the ASIS ’98 Conference (pp. 501-515). Medford, NJ: Information Today.

Acknowledgments Our thanks to the study participants and Stiftelsen Förenings Sparbanken Sjuhärad for funding this study.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Electronic publishing and the international dimensions of research Ian M. Johnson Aberdeen Business School, The Robert Gordon University, Garthdee Road, Aberdeen AB10 7QE, Great Britain [email protected]

Abstract The paper reviews some of the challenges faced by researchers in accessing appropriate literature to provide an internation al dimension to their work. This paper draws on research undertaken in 2004 and 2005 by an international team supported by the European Commission’s ALFA Programme. The research project, REVISTAS, investigated the feasibility of digitis ing librarianship and information sciences journals published in Spanish and Portuguese, particularly those published in Latin America, as a means of raising the quality of teaching and research. It discusses the barriers to the development of an international research community that have existed to date, including not only linguistic capabilities but also the availability of printed publications and indexes, issues of quality control, the international ranking of scholarly journals, and academic reward systems. It reviews critically the implications of the emergence of electronic journals, open access publishing, the development of institutional repositories, and web search engines. Finally, it discusses the issues that are raised by the new media in so far as they might contribute to a more international approach to research.

Keywords research; innovation; publication; electronic journals; institutional repositories; language barrier; Latin America

Introduction The transmission of an idea from research to implementation has been widely studied because its contribution to development gives it a wide public signiﬁcance. Behavioural scientists who have observed this process have noted that it is possible to identify individuals or organisations who may be characterised as ‘innovators’, whilst those who follow may be described as ‘early-’ or ‘late adopters’, or even as ‘laggards.’ These variations in behaviour may, at least in part, be explained by the results of research into the diffusion of innovation, which notes the signiﬁcance of communication channels in transferring awareness and understanding of innovations (Rogers, 1995). Whilst there are many channels through which advances in LIS professional policy and practice could be communicated (Johnson, et al., 2004), professional journals clearly have a signiﬁcant role to play in the process of transferring innovative concepts and practices. A key part of that process is the peer-reviewed journal. Madkour (1975) identiﬁed 3 fundamental obstacles impeding the transformation and modernisation of information services in developing countries: the volume of material being published; its limited geographic dissemination; and linguist ic barriers. Whilst accepting that the language barrier remained a largely unsolved problem, Madkour argued that the use of computers and the establishment of international information systems had alleviated the ﬁrst 2 problems areas. His judgement may have been premature. This paper will review the problems that have continued to affect research and its communication within the Librarianship and Information Sciences (LIS) community in one region, the opportunities that are now being presented by developments in the applications of new technologies to the com munication of information, and the challenges that still remain to be addressed. This paper therefore focuses on the particular features of professional journals in Latin America that have inuenced their contribution to spreading awareness of research and professional developments, and the emer gence of electronic publishing in the region. There was a perception even within the region that LIS in Latin America could be seen to have lacked cross-fertilization from LIS research from other regions, that the profes sion was failing to keep pace with developments, and that poor communications contributed to these weaknesses. Thirty years ago, Sabor (1977) associated the problems in development of the LIS profession in Latin America profession with the lack of access to international journals and other research-orientated publications. Over the last 20 years, however, concerns have regularly been expressed about the implementation in developing coun tries generally of development processes in which the objectives, techniques, content and outcomes are derived from the context and values of advanced industrialised countries. Behavioural research has explained that the factors that inuence individuals to adopt new ideas include not only the visibility of examples of its successful implementation, as well as their perceptions of both the complexity of introducing and the relative advantages of adopting a new idea, but also their understanding of its compatibility with existing practices. More recently, Sabor (1992) maintained that the development problems in Latin America persisted, but the focus of her concern had shifted to the lack of indigenous journals. The environment in Latin America for the development of a research infrastructure for LIS is favourable, as the region has not only a sufﬁcient number of academics and practitioners to carry out research but also the re gional readership needed to support the publication of a signiﬁcant number of LIS journals of high scholarly 13

quality. For example, the latest investigations suggest that there are now about 100 universities offering courses in the discipline.1 However, Urbizagástegui Alvarado (2004) has suggested that perhaps only about 12 of the LIS journals published in the region have a substantial scholarly content. Indeed, many Latin American journals in the ﬁeld simply describe what is happening rather than testing and validating it and feeding back the results from that investigation to the wider community. Studies undertaken at IFLA’s behest in 1997, funded by the European Commission’s ALFA programme (América Latina Formación Académica)2, and in 1998, funded by UNESCO, highlighted the lack of quality re gional journals with which to feed, cross-fertilize and sustain professional practice and research within the re gion. Further research, undertaken in 2004 and 2005 with more support from the ALFA programme, investigated the availability of journals published in the region and the feasibility of digitising them to make them more widely available. This paper reviews some of the issues that were identiﬁed during that project. It will consider not only the language barrier that has inhibited interaction between the region’s LIS professionals and their inter national peers, but also a number of other issues that need to be addressed to enable the region’s journals to play a more signiﬁcant role in communicating innovative research and practice.

Research and recognition The individual researcher clearly has a key part to play in the process of development and its communication, and it is therefore important that we understand how they are motivated. What most researchers seek as the out put of their work is that their efforts should achieve some recognition, and that their work should make some im pact. This brings prestige in their peer group and in society at large, perhaps leading to invitations to participate in professionally signiﬁcant activities such as journal editing, participating in government committees, and invitations to speak at the major conferences where they can build their network of contacts – the ‘invisible college’ through which much information about innovations is actually exchanged. It may also lead to the award of pub lic Honours, or promotion in their employment. In many countries, tenure (a permanent academic post) is generally based on an individual’s record of re search and publication. The system for promotion – from Lecturer or Assistant Professor through to Senior Lec turer or Associate Professor and ultimately to full Professorial rank – is also based largely on an individual’s re cord of research and publication.

Researchers and publication To achieve their goals of recognition and impact, the primary motivation of researchers in selecting a journal in which to publish is the quality of its readership and the wide exposure of the results of their work. The most highly regarded journals are those international journals known to have the highest standards for selecting papers offered to them, based on a rigorous system of peer-reviewing. In most cases, that has meant the journals that are included in the Citation Analyses published by the Institute for Scientiﬁc Information in the U.S.A., because it is the data produced by ISI that has been used most commonly to assess the productivity of individual and national research efforts and their international standing. Researchers in all disciplines, whatever their country of origin, have therefore sought to maximise the ex posure of their research by submitting their manuscripts to the well-established European and North American journals indexed by ISI. To date, the ISI Citation Indexes have only included journals that are published in Eng lish. The dominance of the English language has been noted by a number of authors, highlighting the esteem at tached to those LIS journals included in ISI’s Social Science Citation Index, which are long established journals and mainly (but not exclusively) scholarly in their nature and American in origin. It has been estimated that today two-thirds of the journals indexed by ISI are published in English by El sevier, Springer, and Taylor and Francis, and Ingenta, who have been assiduous in ensuring that their journals meet the criteria for indexing by ISI (Thomson Scientiﬁc, n.d.). This is not necessarily the result of ethnocen trism. The commercially published indexing and abstracting databases are faced with a deluge of publications. They must exercise strict inclusion policies addressing qualitative, quantitative, and logistic issues, but they have also assumed that the majority of their users have the ability to read English. The addition of any new title to the database of one of these secondary sources represents a considerable ﬁnancial and technical investment, because there is a commitment to the indexing and abstracting of the yearly runs of the periodical in the future. However, non-inclusion of a journal in major databases is a serious limitation when authors select journals as outlets for disseminating their research. The lack of visibility of a journal from the point of view of its inclusion in the ma jor indexing and abstracting sources such as those produced by ISI affects the attraction power it exerts on pro spective authors. 1

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A list of Schools of Librarianship and Information Sciences was compiled in 2006 from web searches to conﬁrm entries in earlier printed and online directories, and may be seen at: http://www.rgu.ac.uk/files/SCHOOLS%2DADD%5B1%5D.doc [Accessed 3 May 2006] European Commission ALFA programme. [online]: http://europa.eu.int/comm/europeaid/projects/alfa/index_en.htm [Accessed 7 August 2004]

The Russian speaking research communities appear to have been well served by abstracting and indexing services (Tomlinson, 1986), but poor coverage of other non-English language journals by widely available ab stracting and indexing services has inhibited sharing information with and between the developing regions. It has been suggested that 70% of all the scientiﬁc journals published in Latin America are not included in any index ing service (Ardila, 1999), and little of the Latin American literature in LIS is covered by the relevant English language abstracting and indexing services (Rodriguez, 1987). Papers in the LIS ﬁeld that are published in the region therefore probably conform to the norm in being cited between 40% and 60% less than the world average for papers in the same ﬁeld (Ardila, 1999). The problems of accessing foreign language material in librarianship and information science have aroused only occasional concern in the English-speaking community. Edwards (1971) examined the limitations of Library and Information Science Abstracts as a source for international and comparative studies. Riley (1992) reported on a wider survey of indexing and abstracting tools held at the University of Tasmania’s library to de termine the amount of foreign language materials available to researchers working at the University. The re search workers themselves were also surveyed in order to ascertain the effects of the foreign language barrier on their ability to access information relevant to their ﬁelds of study. The data suggested that there was a consider able barrier which adversely affected information dissemination and that there was a need for the development of library services especially designed to confront this barrier. In disciplines other than librarianship and information science, however, globalisation has focused some attention on the need to capture the information in journals produced in developing countries. For example, the spread of diseases from developing countries, as a result of increased international travel, has changed the pat tern of medical research and related information needs, and the emergence of new technologically advanced na tions has similarly focused attention on their publications (Sakharusova, 1987).

Research and publication Limited geographic dissemination of indigenous professional publications remains a problem in many parts of the world, particularly in the less wealthy developing countries. Wise (1994) has noted the limited distribution and short life span of printed African journals in librarianship and information sciences, both within and outside the region. Journal publishing in Latin America has been similarly inhibited. Its problems have been attributed not only by the relatively weak economies in the region, and by the poor infrastructure of the book trade (John son, 1976; Babini and Smart, 2006), but also by the dominance of institutionally supported journals whose edit ors have no ﬁnancial incentive to improve distribution. Wayt-Gibbs (1995) has noted that the attraction power of most indigenous journals is thus low for elite Latin American authors who ‘vote with their feet’ and write in English and submit papers for publication else where, giving credence to Garﬁeld (1996) when he claimed that: „if anything really signiﬁcant is discovered (in a developing country) it gets into the mainstream journals“. Licea de Arenas et al (2003) in a study of the pro ductivity of Mexican PhD doctoral holders trained abroad found that the majority had selected international pub lishing outlets in ISI indexed journals. Alternatively they wrote in English for journals published in their own countries that are known to have a sufﬁciently wide circulation outwith the region. Both of these approaches have been supported by speciﬁc policies of the research councils in some countries who have given career in centives and ﬁnancial rewards to academics who publish in journals of high recognition and visibility as deﬁned by their inclusion in major international indexing and abstracting publications. Understandably, Bonilla and Perez Aragon (1999) have questioned the implementation of contradictory policies in some Latin American countries that provide ﬁnancial support for local journals’ development whilst at the same time offering incent ives to academics to publish abroad. An explanation for this may be found in the nature of journal publishing in Latin America, which has been dominated by journals that are published by universities or with ﬁnancial support from public institu tions. In LIS, Rodriguez Gallardo (1987) noted that national library associations account for 50% or more of known professional periodicals. Commercial journal publishing has been inhibited by the relatively weak eco nomies in the region. The editors/publishers of the journals supported by national research councils or through universities depend on the annual budgetary allocation to enable them to sustain regular publication, and have also been affected by ﬁnancial crises in the region which from time to time have left editors with limited re sources (Babini and Smart, 2006), and the editors have not always succeeded in maintaining a regular publica tion schedule. There may have been other reasons such as a shortage of papers to print, a phenomenon noted by Al-Ansari et al. (2001) in a study of the faculty of the LIS Schools in the Arabian Gulf States. Moreover, because of their institutional ﬁnancial support, they may face low expectations of sales revenue (Babini and Smart, 2006), or even lack any need to recover their costs, and thus have little ﬁnancial incentive to increase sales improving distribution mechanisms. These institutional journals are frequently not sold through subscription mechanisms but exchanged in a barter system for journals from other universities or associations. These may eventually enter the collections of some libraries, but not as part of a managed collection development programme and thus libraries’ holdings 15

rarely include complete sets (Cano-Reyes, 2003). The editors of the institutionally supported journals have also had no ﬁnancial incentive to raise standards, and peer-review mechanisms in Latin American journals have been lax (Cano, 1992; Meneghini, 1992). Only about 50 current LIS journals published in the region met Urbiza gástegui Alvarado’s (2004) limited deﬁnition of an ‘academic’ journal (that did not necessarily imply that they used peer-reviewing in selecting papers for publication) and have been published regularly, implying that few are likely to be highly regarded and well known, and thus rarely reach a wide audience within the region, let alone internationally.

Electronic publishing in Latin America Conventional print publishing is now universally recognised as inefﬁcient because an increasing number of titles and regular price increases have resulted in fewer purchasers for each title, and in most cases the contents of each journal consequently enjoy declining visibility amongst potential readers. As in other parts of the world, however, several models of electronic publishing are now emerging to serve the needs of the Spanish and Por tuguese speaking communities, bringing new opportunities for sharing information about research and develop ments in professional practice. Commercial database publishers’ interest in the region is growing. Grupo Océano3 (a Spanish company), EBSCOHost4, Thomson Learning5, and Dialnet6 are all established providers of full-text Spanish and Portuguese journals, and ProQuest7 is about to join them. As yet, few LIS journals are included, but there is some coverage of LIS topics in the journals that these services include. This is partly because publication of the results of in formation management research often takes place in Latin America in the journals covering the disciplines that provided the context for the research. However, it is thus scattered and may be difﬁcult to access. Universities in the region are increasingly active in seeking to increase the visibility of their research, and some have seen the new electronic media as one way to achieve their goal. Some efforts are thus being made by universities (and by professional bodies) to begin to publish their existing journals electronically and to make them available on open access through the World Wide Web. More than 70 Latin American LIS journals have web sites, and at least 35 are published in full-text, whilst 5 others are publishing their Tables of Contents, or Ab stracts. A number of organisations in Latin America and in Spain are acting as aggregators, hosting links to those electronic journals that are made available on open access. These include RedALyC, Red de Revistas Cientíﬁcas de América Latina, el Caribe, España y Portugal8, and REI, Recursos Electrónicos de Información9, but their coverage of the available LIS titles varies as a result of different approaches to the selection of titles. Only a small proportion of printed scholarly periodicals from developing countries has been indexed and abstracted by the major scientiﬁc secondary databases, and Latin America is no exception (Whitney, 1992; Cano, 1992; Goncalves da Silva and Silva Fernandez, 1997; Ardila, 1999). However, possibly under gentle pressure from its considerable Spanish customer base (as well, perhaps, as incipient competition from new and more in clusive indexing services such as Google Scholar10 and SCOPUS11), Thomson ISI has recently agreed to begin including journals in Spanish in its Citation Indexes from January 2006. To date, only one (Spanish) LIS journal (El Profesional de la Información) is reported to have been selected. Similarly, only one (Brazilian) LIS journal (Ciência da informação) has met the quality criteria for inclusion in SciELO12, the best known of the open access aggregators in Latin America (Urbizagástegui Alvarado (2004), which now includes not only an index to the journals it includes but also its own rudimentary citation analysis. INFOBILA13, the major regional indexing ser vice for LIS appears to have covered less than half of the 270+ LIS journals that have been or are currently being published in the region, and few of the recently developed electronic journals.14 In any event, although online and free to use, it appears that it may not be well known to the LIS community in the region or internationally. An impromptu survey of the c.350 participants of a conference on digital libraries in Argentina in October 2005 sug gested that only about 10 people present were familiar with INFOBILA.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

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Grupo Océano [online]: http://www.oceano.com/oceano/oceano.html [Accessed 5 December 2005]. EBSCOHost [online]: http://www.epnet.com/ [Accessed 15 December 2005]. Thomson Learning – Informe [online]: http://www.gale.com/pdf/facts/inform.pdf [Accessed 5 December 2005]. Dialnet [online]: http://www.dialnet.com.mx [Accessed 12 April 2005]. Proquest – Prisma [online]: http://www.il.proquest.com/division/pr/05/20050408.shtml [Accessed 5 December 2005]. RedALyC [online]: http://www.redalyc.com/mx [Accessed 3 January 2006]. REI, Recursos Electrónicos de Información [online]: http://aps.unirioja.es/biblio/recursos?sub=1 [Accessed 3 June 2006]. Google Scholar [online] – http://scholar.google.com/ [Accessed 7 May 2006]. SCOPUS [online] – http://www.scopus.com/scopus/home.url [Accessed 7 May 2006]. SciELO – Scientiﬁc Electronic Library Online [online]: http://www.scielo.br/ [Accessed 7 August 2005]. INFOBILA [online]: – http://cuib.laborales.unam.mx [Accessed 7 August, 2005]. A list of journals compiled during the REVISTAS project may be seen at: http://bc.uns.edu.ar/alfa [Accessed 7 May 2006].

Institutional repositories In addition to expressing support for open access journal publishing, the Budapest Open Access Initiative 15 re commended open access self-archiving, where an author deposits in an open web site a copy of an un-reviewed paper to seek comment or to draw immediate attention to important research ﬁndings, while possibly continuing to publish in conventional journals. Self-archiving in Institutional Repositories is deﬁned by SPARC16 as ‘a digit al collection capturing and preserving the intellectual output of a single or multi-university community.’ This deﬁnition has attracted the attention of a number of Latin American Universities, as it offers yet another opportun ity to promote their research on a global basis. It is alleged that open access self-archiving is currently generating far more open access articles per year than open-access journal publishing, and may be able to grow much sooner and faster than new e-journals but, as Pinﬁeld (2003) points out, ‘the biggest challenge is getting content’, i. e. persuading the authors to make their pa pers available for inclusion in the Repository. In Latin America, with its tradition of institutionally supported publishing, this may not be such a problem, but in most cases the development of Institutional Repositories there is at an early stage and it is not possible to certain about whether they will be successful in capturing the majority of their institution’s output. Whilst it has many champions who believe that it may become an important comple ment to journal publishing, it is important to remember that the original application of self-archiving was in the physics community, where the validity of research requires less independent assessment than in more subjective topics such as those covered by much LIS research. Where independent peer review provides some assurance that the work is at least sound, albeit not necessarily generally applicable, the merits of self-archiving may not be so self-evident as in the exact sciences.

Continuing challenges Making Latin American LIS journals available globally through digital publishing will undoubtedly improve the potential availability of information about developments in the Spanish and Portuguese speaking research com munities. It does not, however, seem to provide a complete solution to the problems. It is clear that information professionals in Latin America are not immune from linguistic handicaps to ac cessing information about international developments in LIS, a ﬁeld in which the predominant language of the prestigious, internationally available journals tends to be English. Discussions with educators in the region in 1997 indicated that while many institutions had a number of staff who spoke uent English, and many more who could read it because it is the main language of communication in the discipline area, the ability of students to speak or read English varied more widely (Johnson, 1998). Whilst some Latin American researchers may be re luctant to publish in their own language, if they publish in English, others in their own country may not read English well enough to understand the signiﬁcance of their work. Linguistic handicaps may prevent some researchers publishing in the international journals, but if they publish papers in Spanish or Portuguese, that may restrict their global readership. Babini and Smart (2006) have commented on the fact that, for many potential readers in the English-speaking research community, their inability to read Spanish or Portuguese: „…not only prevents access and use of the published content…, but also even discovery of the journals within the Latin American indexes, which – naturally – are also in Spanish and Portuguese.“ A few important English-language journals in major disciplines are translated in full and republished, whilst selected papers from others are similarly treated through regular arrangements. Historically, most of the conventional English-language journal publishers have rejected the concept of preparing and publishing multilingual abstracts of papers in their journals as an unnecessary cost. Some publishers of journals in other lan guages have, however, adopted the practice of publishing abstracts in English. Most Chinese journals do this. For many years, Hungarian Library Abstracts has published English summaries of all the signiﬁcant papers originat ing in that country. The Polish Library Association’s web site recently began to include EBIB, with abstracts in English of the signiﬁcant papers published in that country.17 In a global society, with widening opportunities for higher education probably leading to a lower proportion of graduates uent in English, is it now time for a recon sideration of the need for a more comprehensive approach to the provision of multilingual abstracts? Is that the highest priority for the journals publishers in Latin America? Should it be? Libraries and pub lishers in Latin America and Spain face a number of other challenges if they are to offer effective access to the region’s research for the international research community: • developing digital collections that provide a more comprehensive coverage of the information outputs of the region; • providing easy cost-effective access to the relevant databases, electronic journals and other information resources that exist in digital formats; 15 16 17

The Budapest Open Access Initiative, 2001 [online]: http://www.soros.org/openaccess/read.shtml [Accessed November 2003] SPARC: Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition [online]: http://www.arl.org/sparc/ [Accessed 3 June 2006] EBIB – Elektroniczna Biblioteka [online]: http://www.ebib.info [Accessed 3 June 2006]

17

• •

resolving the issues of quality control in the journals; developing a profession that is evidence based.

Commercial publishers and not-for proﬁt intermediaries are increasingly expected to provide online the full text of older articles that had previously been accessible only to a printed journal’s subscribers or through document delivery services. However, there are few journals for which complete ﬁles of older materials are available online, and these are mainly the result of the efforts of their editors to do the necessary processing. The aim of the SciELO project is to encourage the participating publishers to ensure that all the issues of their journ als are available online from 1997, when SciELO was established, but earlier material is not expected to be digit ised until the initial aim has been achieved. SciELO itself includes only about 2% of the 15,000 titles represented in Latindex18, the main directory of journals in the region. OCLC and SCOPUS have recently incorporated the indexes to regional journals that the Dirección General de Bibliotecas in the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México has compiled for the last 28 years, but few of the 400 journals that are indexed are available online in full-text and UNAM-DGB does not have the resources to digitise them. Moreover, the evidence points to the ex istence of incomplete runs of many other printed journals in libraries (Cano-Reyes, 2003), and it is anticipated that any efforts to digitise a wide range of older journals in Latin America will face a similar challenge to that en countered in planning for an extension of the LAPTOC database 19, where difﬁculties were encountered in ﬁnding complete collections to index (Williams, 2003). The cost of ﬁnding complete collections suitable for retrospect ive digitisation will be an additional burden, and could be an additional deterrent unless a generous benefactor can be found, such as the Heritage Lottery Foundation’s support for the National Library of Scotland’s project to microﬁlm all the extant copies of local newspapers that were held in collections scattered throughout the country (NEWSPLAN, n. d.20). The budgetary constraints on Latin American University Libraries, and the generally lower level of Inter net penetration and PC ownership and use in the region seem likely to depress the subscriptions that the commer cial publishers could demand. For universities outwith Latin America and Iberia, where the number of potential users of Spanish and Portuguese language journals in all disciplines will be small, subscription charges using current pricing models could prove to be prohibitive for many institutions. These factors may inhibit such rapid development as has been achieved by the publishers of English language journals who have had a much larger and generally more afuent market to underpin the signiﬁcant investment required. The technology lends itself to creating electronic collections that offer the user such beneﬁts as cross-ﬁle searching, browsing, saved search histories, and Table of Contents alerts by email, are increasingly expected as standard features of e-journal services. For example, to meet the growing demands of users for links to cited pa pers, CrossRef21 was developed to enable publishers to provide reference linking between electronic journals, us ing a Digital Object Identiﬁer system to provide permanent online access to the full text of identiﬁed documents, uninhibited by content ownership. Inevitably, the cost of all these features, and the associated manual work, must be factored into the development of both electronic journals and Institutional Repositories, and that must raise concerns about their effectiveness. The shift to electronic publishing of journals supported by institutions does nothing to assure their future sustainability in developing countries. The problem is compounded by the fact that National Libraries in the region may not have a preservation policy that extends to electronic media produced in their country – or the resources to implement one. Just because journals begin to appear in digital formats does not mean that the issues of quality control will be addressed. If researchers within the region and internationally are to regard reading the journals published in Latin America as worthwhile, they will need to be re-assured about their quality. The SciELO service does re quire peer-reviewing as one of its criteria for inclusion, and also includes a citation analysis, albeit currently only at the level of the journals rather than individual authors or papers. Whilst its citation analysis may develop, Sci ELO covers only about 2% of the journals published in Latin America. Although comparisons between ISI’s Citation Indexes and Google Scholar are already beginning to appear, and comparisons with SCOPUS will no doubt appear soon, the debate about the extent to which their indexing is more comprehensive and whether their approach to ‘open peer-reviewing’ is a more relevant measure of a paper’s or a journal’s signiﬁcance will be un resolved for some time. It will be some time before the impact on the aspirations of Latin American authors and journal editors of the potential for inclusion of Spanish language journals in ISI’s Citation Indexes can be fully evaluated, but the likelihood is that pressure from institutional managements for academic researchers to publish in journals that are included by ISI will continue for the immediate future and should not be under-estimated. The state of development of research and scholarly publishing activities in LIS must be understood within the context of higher education in Latin America as a whole. Cultural and pedagogical practices as well as a political lack of awareness of the value of information as a resource have acted against the development of environments that are information rich for teaching and learn 18 19 20 21

18

Latindex [online]: http://www.latindex.unam.mx/ [Accessed 3 June, 2006] LAPTOC: Latin American Periodicals Tables of Contents [online] – http://lanic.utexas.edu/larrp/laptoc.html [Accessed 7 May 2006] NEWSPLAN [online]: http://www.nls.uk/professional/newsplanscotland/index.html [Accessed 27 June 2006] CrossRef [online]: http:www.crossref.org [Accessed 3 June 2006]

ing activities as a whole (Sanchez Diaz and Vega Valdez 2003). Lau (2001) has described the development of a user education programme at a Mexican University, presenting a picture of a pedagogical environment in which memorization, note-taking based on attendance to lectures, and a focused demand for textbooks are indic ative of a lack of research skills. Following one of the few reported studies of the use of LIS journals within the region, Cano-Reyes (2003) stressed the need for lecturers to make more use of journals within their teaching and learning practices. If pedagogical practices do not develop students’ skills in ﬁnding information, critically evalu ating it, and synthesising the results, how can a research community evolve and develop a strong and supportive publishing culture?

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Acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges the efforts of Sara Lansdale and Virginia Cano that have contributed to the development of this paper.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Rethinking information behaviour research: an activity theory approach Tom D. Wilson Leeds University Business School, UK

Abstract The paper deals with the activity theory in information behaviour research. Activity theory offers us the possibility of an in tegrative framework that deﬁnes context more effectively and can help us to integrate our work with that of researchers in the other information sciences. The contribution of the activity theory (Vygotsky, Luria, Leontjev) is linking the develop ment of consciousness to the human use of tools – not only physical tools, but the tools of language and other symbol struc tures. The contextual issues affecting the activity are the norms and rules that govern the activity, the community of inter est, and the division of labour in the accomplishment of the activity. When applied to human information behaviour two il lustrative cases are analysed from the perspective of activity theory, i. e. the UK child care activity system, focused on the ow of information between agencies and numerous investigations, and the use of mobile information systems by emergen cy services in the UK (police, ﬁre services and ambulance services).

Keywords information behaviour; activity theory; child care system; emergency information systems; integrative research framework

Introduction Information behaviour research, in which we include information needs assessment, information seeking, in formation searching and information use is one of the most active areas of information science research. I have deﬁned ‘human information behaviour’ previously as the totality of human behaviour in relation to sources and channels of information, including both active and passive information seeking, and information use. Thus, it in cludes face-to-face communication with others, as well as the passive reception of information as in, for ex ample, watching TV advertisements, without any intention to act on the information given (Wilson, 2000: 49). This wide ranging area has attracted approaches to research that use a very wide variety of theories, meth odological positions, conceptual views and methods. Theories of information behaviour (Fisher et al., 2005) lists seventy-two ‘theories’, although the word is interpreted very widely. This diversity, of course, is a strength, in that multiple approaches to a scientiﬁc problem often lead to useful insights. However, I believe that in informa tion science, it is a weakness, indicating a lack of a common conceptual framework within which the different methods and theories are employed. Within science at large, as Kuhn (1962) demonstrated, there is usually a dominant paradigm – in information science and in human information behaviour research, this is not the case: as a result, research fails to accumulate and our understanding of behaviour continues to fragment. What I wish to propose, therefore, is the need for a common conceptual framework for research and that activity theory offers the basis for that framework.

1 Activity theory It is rather ironic that I should be promoting activity theory in this particular venue, since it is a theory that was the dominant psychological theory under communism in the Soviet Union and those countries under Soviet inuence. I imagine, therefore, that, to a degree, my explanation of its nature and origins is somewhat redundant! However, for those who are new to the ideas, activity theory was developed in the Soviet Union as an alternative to the prevailing Western psychological orthodoxy of behaviourism, which was associated with the Pavlov’s work with dogs on conditioning and Watson’s work on rats and Skinner’s work on pigeons. According to Wat son: Psychology as the behaviourist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theor etical goal is the prediction and control of behaviour. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientiﬁc value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviourist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behaviour of man, with all of its reﬁnement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviourist’s total scheme of investigation. (Watson, 1913, quoted in Wikipedia article, Anon., 2006). Behaviourism left out of consideration those things that we might today think make us human, mind and consciousness, and activity theory sought to connect consciousness with human behaviour, linking the develop ment of consciousness to the human use of tools – not only physical tools, but the tools of language and other symbol structures. 21

The key names in the development of activity theory were Vygotsky, Luria and Leont’ev: the latter two were students of Vygotsky and subsequently co-researchers with him. Later, they developed their own distinctive research areas and their own careers. Of the three, the names of Vygotsky and Luria are probably best known in the West: Vygotsky’s work on child development has been enormously inuential, not only in psychology but also in education, and Luria’s work as a founder of the ﬁeld of neuropsychology (see, e. g. Cole, 1997). Of the three, Leont’ev’s name is most closely associated with the development of activity theory, although the founda tions are found in Vygotsky’s work and the introduction of the concept ‘activity’ into psychology is credited to Rubinshtein (see Zinchenko, 1995, p. 42). Leont’ev’s contribution was to take the basic outline created by Vygotsky (which is usually represented diagrammatically as in Figure 1) and expand it to show more clearly the societal inuences on activity such as the role of the division of labour (explored in a very persuasive account of the prehistoric hunt [Leont’ev, 1977]). Leont’ev also developed the hierarchical sequence of activities, actions and operations, linking these levels to motives, goals and the conditions under which the activity is pursued (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Vygotsky’s conception of activity

Figure 2. The hierarchical structure of activity

In the West, activity theory has been chiey associated with the name of Engeström, who drew upon the Soviet and German sources to apply the theory to educational development (Engeström, 1987) and ultimately to the development of learning in organizations (e. g. Engeström, 1999). Activity theory has also been employed in information systems design and development (e. g. Turner, et al., 1999), human-computer interaction (e. g. Nardi, 1996) and Computer-supported Cooperative Work (e. g. Fjeld, et al., 2002) However, there has been little appreciation of the value of the theory in librarianship and information science – at least in the West. I under stand that in Russia and in Eastern Europe, the ‘activity approach’ has been employed, but I am unsure as to what relationship this bears to activity theory as it is now understood. It may be that the ideas spread into library research through the inuence of Rubinshtein who, in the 1920s and 1930s (largely as a result of ideological dis putes in the academic world) became a librarian, ﬁrst in the city of Odessa and subsequently at St. Petersburg, before returning to academia and psychology (Don, 2004).

1.1 Principles Today, activity theory is often presented in the way expressed by Engeström in his diagrammatic model (Fig ure 3). This shows the main elements of the theory – interaction between a subject (person or group) and an ob ject (determined by a goal to be achieved) mediated by intellectual (psychological) or physical tools or artefacts. The contextual issues affecting the activity are the norms and rules that govern the activity, the community of in terest, and the division of labour in the accomplishment of the activity.

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Figure 3. Engeström’s image of the activity system (Engeström, 1987: 78)

However, there are other elements to the theory: ﬁrst, it is often referred to as cultural-historical activity theory, and this acknowledges the importance of the way the activity has developed over time and the cultural inuences affecting that development. This idea is Marxist in its origins and it is somewhat ironic that as the ideas of Marx have declined in signiﬁcance in post-communist Russia, a theory based on Marxist philosophy has gained adherents in the West! The other principles have been set out by a number of writers and this list is a composite (see Kaptelinin and Nardi, 1997; Harris, n. d.): • The unity of consciousness and activity – in other words, human consciousness has emerged as a consequence of human action (and interaction) in the world. • The hierarchical structure of activity – referred to earlier and expressed in Figure 2. • „Object orientation“; that is, human activity takes place in an objective reality (sometimes referred to as a ‘realist’ perspective). However, that reality is not simply a physical reality, but also a social reality. • Internalization/externalization: human activity involves mental processes as well as actions towards the object. The object is deﬁned in terms of the subject’s understanding of the object and, in working on the object, the subject’s understanding will be modiﬁed. External actions have internal consequences. This is a consequence of 1 above. • Mediation: as noted earlier – human activity, the interaction between subject and object, is mediated by tools of various kinds. • Development: activity is not static, nor is it necessarily simply repetitive, because of 1 and 4 above; con sequently, there is a need to include in research objectives how the activity has developed.

2 Activity theory in information science Although Hjørland does not appear to have used activity theory to any signiﬁcant extent, he is probably the ﬁrst information science researcher to draw attention to the potential value of the theory (see e. g. Hjørland, 1997, 2002, 2004). However, the earliest researcher that could be identiﬁed as an information scientist (rather than, say, a human-computer interaction specialist) is Spasser, who suggested that activity theory offered the possibility of a common conceptual framework for information science (Spasser, 1999) and who also used it as a research framework for a study of the development of a digital library (the Flora of North America digital library). Currently, there appear to be one or two PhD students in the ﬁeld, using an activity theory perspective, but their work does not yet appear to have surfaced in the literature and, having become alerted to the theory quite accidentally through reading a paper on the subject, I have helped to introduce it into the activities of our re search group (AIMTech) at the University of Leeds Business School. I also prepared a paper, related to this one, for the ISIC conference in Sydney earlier this year (Wilson, 2006). That paper dealt with the potential of activity theory for research on human information behaviour and I would like to develop the ideas set out there.

2.1 Activity theory and human information behaviour research Like many other areas of information science, research in this very popular and dynamic area suffers from the lack of a common conceptual framework that would allow the development of common research agendas and the accu mulation and ‘sedimentation’ of ﬁndings and the subsequent generalisations that could guide information practice. The reasons for this are not hard to discover: researchers enter the ﬁeld from a wide diversity of back ground disciplines – most commonly in the humanities and social sciences. The decline of quantitative research and the emergence of qualitative methods and social constructionism as the dominant ideas behind much re search has led to methodological diversity (within the qualitative domain) and to a focus on small-scale investigations. Others have called for continuity in research (e. g. Kuhlthau, 2005 – whose paper was also concerned with the need for a conceptual framework) and that continuity, to my mind, is impossible without a common conceptual framework. 23

If this is the case, why activity theory? When we consider the nature of human information behaviour we can immediately see that the subject, object, tools relationship deﬁnes exactly what is involved: people (whether individually or collectively) engage in the activity of information seeking (for example – other modes of beha viour are possible) for the achievement of some object (writing a paper like this one) and, in doing so, they em ploy a variety of intellectual and physical tools: I use my knowledge of library organization to search the shelves (tools for organizing documents) and access physical objects called journals. At the more speciﬁc level of in formation searching I use my knowledge of Boolean logic to carry out a search using a search engine accessed by a computer. We can extend this framework more or less indeﬁnitely. We can also see that our information behaviour has evolved over time, within a given cultural-historical framework – we have learnt how to use libraries and computers over time and the tools we employ (whether psy chological or physical) have evolved in a socio-cultural context, and we have learnt how to use them in that context. Equally, we carry out our activity under certain rules and norms – certain libraries and electronic ﬁles are accessible to us, others are not accessible because either we or our parent organization does not have ac cess rights. In preparing the scholarly paper there are other norms to observe, of literature review, citation, quotation and so on. Similarly, we engage in our activities within a community of some kind: we may think of that com munity as the local community of fellow scholars, working together to develop curricula or in collaborative research groups, or we may think of the community as the wider community of the peer group in our research area or the discipline more generally. In any event, we will have some regard for whatever the community with which we identify and we may call upon others within that community to assist us in our research and in our information seeking behaviour. For example, I may write (or, more likely, e-mail) fellow scholars if I can not access their papers electronically (as I did in writing this paper – I e-mailed Mark Spasser for a copy of a paper that I couldn’t otherwise access). Finally, in a collaborative research group we may divide the labour of information seeking – and paper writing – so that the load on any one individual is not too great. Or, indeed, we may ask the most proﬁcient in formation searcher to carry out the searches on behalf of the rest of us. (It is interesting to recall that the term in formation scientist was coined by Dr. Jason Farradane to describe a member of a work team recruited speciﬁcally to act as the information gatherer – this was in pre-Web (and, indeed, almost pre-computer) days and the work involved much library research!)

2.2 An illustration In the paper referred to earlier (Wilson, 2006), I elaborated how activity theory might be applied to the analysis of research data. I used my recollection of the information generated by the INISS Project (Wilson&Streatﬁeld, 1980) to outline the information behaviour involved in the decision on whether or not to take a child at risk of abuse into the care of the local authority (child protection is one of the functions of social services departments in the UK). The following chain of events is taken from that paper: „The Social Services Department (community) is tasked with the care of children at risk in the wider community (local authority) and a social worker, as a consequence is assigned a ‘case’ (a child to be evaluated in the family setting). The Object, is the child to be assessed, the Motivation (stimulated by the law) the child’s wellbeing; the Goal, to ensure the safety of the child. The action taken is the visit to the child’s home, to observe the treatment of the child, to see the child washed or bathed (to observe any bruising, etc.), to observe the rela tionship between child and parent(s), and, on the basis of this evaluation, to make a recommendation. The Medi ating Artefacts, in the initial action, are the manual tools of note-taking – pencil and paper, and the abstract tools of the social worker’s practical experience and theoretical knowledge of similar situations. The outcome of this initial action takes the form of feedback from the Subject to the Community (in the form of his/her supervisor[s]), on the basis of which further action may take place, that is, a new activity system is invoked. For example, a case conference (another abstract artefact) is called in which there may be representatives of the Social Services Department, the school or nursery attended by the child, the child’s doctor, and, if the parents are ‘known to the police’, the relevant community ofﬁcer (clearly an instance of the division of labour). The outcome from that action may be a decision to take the child into care (invoking yet another activity system), placing him or her, initially, in a children’s home before further assessment may lead to fostering (an other activity system). A further outcome may be a court case of child abuse against the parent(s), which is yet another activity system.“ (Wilson, 2006). It is evident from this account that the actual assessment activity, which generates a report, is simply the starting point of a process involving a number of other ‘activity systems’. Initially, the report will be reviewed by the social worker’s supervisor, in a ‘supervisory activity’, and possibly by a specialist in child care within the de partment, and then referred to a case conference about ‘Child X’ at which representatives of other agencies will be present. These agencies are engaged in activities that relate to the child (or the family) in question: schooling, health care, policing and the criminal justice system. Thus, we have internal, department activity systems concerned with the case (assessment, supervision, specialist advice) and external activity systems. The external connections are diagrammed below: 24

Figure 4. Interacting activity systems in child care

Clearly, one of the key elements in this whole child care activity system, is the ow of information between agencies and numerous investigations in the UK into the failure of child care services in some not able cases of child abuse, have demonstrated that one of the major problems is the failure of agencies to com municate effectively. What one agency knows about a child or a family, is not known to others. This ought to lead to investigations into the information needs of the activity system composed of the interacting agencies, but achieving this is problematical because of the privacy issues that each agency raises: police fail to reveal information to social services, who fail to reveal information to the school, the health service fails to reveal information to either and receives information from none. No one seems to have the political will to ensure that the connections are made.

2.3 Another illustration At the University of Leeds Business School, the AIMTech research group is applying activity theory in its in vestigations into the use of mobile information systems by emergency services in the UK (police, ﬁre services and ambulance services). One of the areas we have looked at is the activity called ‘Stop and Search’. As a result of a case that gave rise to charges of institutional racism in the London Metropolitan Police (known, colloquially, as ‘The Met’), rules were introduced to ensure that, if individuals were stopped by the police (in the street, or wherever), the ofﬁcer concerned would have to issue a document that conﬁrmed that he or she had been stopped and, possibly, searched. The ofﬁcer had to have ‘reasonable suspicion’ that the individual was engaged in, or sought after in relation to, a crime, or was in possession of drugs or a weapon. Here we have an illustration of the potential difﬁculty of deﬁning the activity system: is it, in this case, ‘policing’ – that is, the protection of community at large; or ‘community policing’ – that is, that subset of poli cing activity that is carried out in speciﬁc areas; or ‘stop and search’ – the speciﬁc set of actions carried on a spe ciﬁc occasion? We decided on the latter, since the activity is at the professional discretion of the ofﬁcer con cerned and not simply one of a chain of actions carried out in a programmed manner. The analysis of the information behaviour involved in this situation shows that the activity is quite com plex in terms of information: …the ofﬁcer is obtaining ‘information’ from the environment generally – noting the behaviour of indi viduals and assessing whether or not there is ‘reasonable’ suspicion. This ‘information ow’ may be very sub jective and determined by local conditions: a person in a shop doorway at two o’clock in the morning has a dif ferent signiﬁcance from one in that situation at two o’clock in the afternoon; …having ‘stopped’ an individual, the ofﬁcer will seek information from that person as to their identity, where they live, what they are doing in this situation, and so on; …having a mobile communication device, the ofﬁcer may transmit information about the person to the Force Command and Control Centre (FCC), seeking further information. If the mobile device includes a digital camera, the ofﬁcer may transmit an image of the individual also; …the FCC will respond, with information that either conﬁrms that the person is wanted in respect of a crime, or for having failed to appear in court, or that the individual is not wanted; …the ofﬁcer issues a receipt to the individual conﬁrming that a ‘stop’ has been carried out; and 25

…the ofﬁcer transmits information about the ‘stop’ to the FCC, concluding the incident. The description also illustrates the hierarchical structure of activity: the activity ‘stop and search’ is broken down into a series of actions undertaken by the ofﬁcer, and these actions are composed of operations, some of which are instinctive or internalised, some of which have to be ‘invented’ as the circumstances demand. Thus, the action of transmitting information to the FCC will involve operations of calling the centre on the mo bile device and keying in information (or transmitting it by voice). When the receipt is issued (an action), the ofﬁcer will carry out certain operations to key information into the mobile device and operate the mobile printer. In this situation, we also see that the ofﬁcer is not only seeking information: he or she is receiving inform ation from the environment, receiving information requested from the FCC and creating information to transmit to the FCC and to the individual who has been ‘stopped’. When we examine the context of the incident, the other elements of activity theory come into play: the ofﬁcer uses certain ‘tools’, both intellectual and physical. He or she will use their understanding of the situation, their knowledge of the individuals concerned, their professional skills, as well as the speciﬁc communication devices. The interaction takes place according to established rules and norms – formal and informal. For ex ample, there is legislation governing the interaction and rules of procedure issued by the Police Force. There will also be informal norms of behaviour, which will vary in character, depending upon how well known the person is to the ofﬁcer: he or she may have been arrested or stopped previously and a certain understanding of the ‘rules of the game’ will exist. The ofﬁcer is also part of a professional community, which is involved in similar activities and in the overall activity of ‘community policing’. Members of that community are part of the general neighbourhood community, as is the person stopped, and there is a degree of division of labour between the ofﬁcer on the street and the operators in the FCC. If the ofﬁcer is one of a two-person car crew, the other ofﬁcer may be carrying out other checks on the individual or searching possessions as the ﬁrst engages the person in conversation. If a car has been stopped, one ofﬁcer may be carrying out, through a mobile communication device, a check on the Po lice National Computer to determine whether or not the driver is the registered owner, whether it is taxed and in sured, whether it has been involved in any recent criminal incident and so on. Activity theory, therefore, enables us to review the information behaviour of individuals in the wider con text of their work and the organizational frameworks of that work, achieving a fuller understanding of how the behaviour relates to socio-cultural context of the activity.

3 Conclusion Activity theory is well established in psychology, where it originated, in education, where Vygotsky’s inuence is mainly felt, and in human-computer interaction research, where a number of researchers have been strong advocates. In information science, the picture is fragmentary: activity theory is mentioned by some as potentially inuential, but there is only a very limited amount of research that has been undertaken within the framework. Even here, as with Spasser’s (2002) work on the Flora of America digital library, it is questionable whether the work is part of information science, or part of information systems development. For information behaviour research activity theory offers us the possibility of an integrative framework that deﬁnes context more effectively, that distinguishes between activity, actions and operations in a way that clariﬁes their relationships to motives, goals and the conditions under which the activity is performed, and that provides a well-deﬁned vocabulary that can be used to enable effective communication among researchers. As Kuhlthau (2005) noted, information behaviour research lacks an integrating conceptual framework: activity theory can be that framework and can help us to integrate our work with that of researchers in the other information sciences.

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Anon. (2006). John B. Watson. In, Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ John_B._Watson/. COLE, M. (1997). Alexander Luria, cultural psychology and the resolution of the crisis in psychology. Paper delivered at a conference in Moscow, August 26, 1997. [Available at http://lchc.ucsd.edu/People/MCole/luria.html]. DON, E. (2004). Sergey Rubinshtein, 1889-1960. Historical Times, 24(3) [Available at http://www.ericksonfoundation.org/news/Archives/Acrobat%20Files/24_3%20 acrobat.pdf]. ENGESTRÖM, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: an activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit. [Available at http://communication.ucsd.edu/LCHC/MCA/Paper/Engestrom/expanding/toc.htm]. ENGESTRÖM, Y. (1999). Innovative learning in work teams: analyzing cycles of knowledge creation in practice. In, Yryö Engeström, Reijo Miettinen and Raija-Leena Punamaki, (Eds.). Perspectives on activity theory. (pp. 377-404). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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FJELD, M., LAUCHE, K., BICHSEL, M., VOORHORST,F., KRUEGER, H. and RAUTERBERG, M. (2002). Physical and virtual tools: activity theory applied to the design of groupware. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 11(1-2), 153-190. HARRIS, S. (n.d.). Activity theory: introduction and background. Pontypridd, Wales: University of Glamorgan, Centre for Astronomy and Science Education. [Available at http://case.glam.ac.uk/CASE/StaffPages/SteveHarris/Research/AT.html]. HJØRLAND, B. (1997). Information seeking and subject representation: an activity theoretical approach to information science. Westport, CT: London: Greenwood Press, 1997. HJØRLAND, B. (2002). Epistemology and the socio-cognitive perspective in information science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(4), 257-270. HJØRLAND, B. (2004). Arguments for philosophical realism in library and information science. Library Trends, 52(3), 488-506. KAPTELININ, V. & NARDI, B.A. (1997). Activity theory: basic concepts and applications. [Available at http://www.acm.org/sigchi/chi97/proceedings/ tutorial/bn.htm]. KUHLTHAU, C.C. (2005). Towards collaboration between information seeking and information retrieval. Information Research, 10(2), paper 225. [Available at http://informationr.net/ir/10-2/paper225.html]. KUHN, T. (1962). The structure of scientiﬁc revolutions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. LEONT’EV, A.N. (1977). Activity and consciousness, in, Philosophy in the USSR: problems of dialectical materialism. (pp. 180-202). Moscow: Progress Publishers. [Available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/leontev/works/1977/leon1977.htm]. NARDI, B.A. (Ed.). (1996). Context and consciousness: activity theory and human-computer interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. SPASSER, M.A. (1999). Informing information science: the case for activity theory. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(12), 1136-1138. SPASSER, M.A. (2002). Realist activity theory for digital library evaluation: conceptual framework and case study. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 11(1/2), 81–110. TURNER, P., Turner, S. and Horton, J. (1999). From description to requirements: an activity theoretic perspective. In, Proceedings of the international ACM SIGGROUP conference on Supporting group work, (pp. 286-295). New York, NY: ACM Press. WATSON, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177. [Online version available at http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/ views.htm]. Wilson, T. D. (2000). Human information behavior. Informing Science, 3(2), 49-56. Retrieved 6 September, 2006. [Available at http://inform.nu/Articles/Vol3/v3n2p49-56.pdf]. Wilson, T. D. (2006). A re-examination of information seeking behaviour in the context of activity theory. Information Research, 11(4), paper 260. Retrieved 7 September, 2006. [Available at http://informationr.net/ir/114/paper260.html]. WILSON, T. D. & STREATFIELD, D.R. (1980). ‘You can observe a lot…’ A study of information use in local authority social services departments conducted by Project INISS. Shefﬁeld: University of Shefﬁeld, Postgraduate School of Librarianship and Information Science. [Available at http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/INISS/]. ZINCHENKO, V. (1995). Cultural-historical psychology and the psychological theory of activity: retrospect and prospect. In James V. Wertsch, Pablo del Rio and Amelia Alvarez (Eds.), Sociocultural studies of mind (pp. 37-55). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Information behaviour in relevance judgements 1

Jela Steinerová; 2Jaroslav Šušol; 3Mirka Grešková Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia 1 [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract The paper presents rst results of the research project VEGA 1/2481/05 Information use in information behaviour in educa tion and science, related to relevance study. It is based on an empirical research, namely 21 interviews with PhD students of various disciplines at Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava. Contexts of relevance studies in the history of information science are briey explained. This empirical study reconsidered relevance from the standpoint of phenomenography and constructivism. It is assumed that relevance is a specic experience in information use and a way of com munication. The aim of the study is to discover perceptions of relevance by PhD students, including special language and implicit information used in the communication. Methodology of semi-structured interviews is described in detail. Tran scripts, content analysis and interpretations have been carried out by 3 researchers and resulting conceptual structures sum marize the collective discourse. Results of analyses are selected and concentrate on perception of relevance as a concept, metaphoric designations of relevance, and emotions, moods and attractiveness of relevance judgement. Derived models show that the most common perceptions of relevance are value, utility and importance of information. It is based on cogni tive processes of evaluation, sorting and problem solving and supported and controlled by emotions of delight, satisfaction, anger and uncertainty. Metaphoric images disclosed intuitive perception of relevance as linking, satisfaction and intellectual cleaning. The emphasis is laid on novelty, prospectiveness and purity of information. The concluding model presents „a relevance triangle“ based on set of values, set of concepts, and set of contexts, and processes of evaluation, problem solving, and sorting.

Keywords relevance judgement; human information behaviour; information use; PhD students; interviews

Introduction How can one recognize relevance of information in information seeking and in use of information resources? This question has been asked by information professionals for more than a half-century. Relevance can be ranged with such concepts as information, communication, system, knowledge. These concepts are marked by their ab stract nature as well as by methodological viewpoint on operations of a human being and information in environ ment. This viewpoint explicitly or implicitly answers the questions, if the knowledge is rather subjective or ob jective, and if it is united or if it is distributed in numerous manifestations. In this paper we will briey present contexts of relevance studies in information science. We will determ ine the connection with the issues of information use and information behaviour. First results of the research pro ject VEGA 1/2481/05 Information use in information behaviour in education and science will be presented with regard to the line concerning relevance of information. It is based on empirical research, namely interviews with PhD. students of various disciplines at Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava. As for the ana lyses and interpretations, in this paper we concentrate on questions of perceptions of relevance as a concept, metaphoric expressions of relevance, and emotions in relevance judgements.

1 Relevance of information in information science During the history of information retrieval systems in information science the concept of relevance has become the central. Originally, its system aspects have been emphasized. Relevance should serve as a measure of success of information retrieval system in performance of the algorithmic matching function. Only later shifts towards new paradigms of information science have shown that relevance should be a broader concept. After all, it is simultaneously studied by psychology, sociology, and philosophy. And it is just these sciences that are the reas ons for a turn leading to rethinking the relevance in information science. The social sciences indicate that relev ance is closely connected with human information behaviour. That is why we cannot understand relevance solely as a unitary, objective concept. Many authors have explained that relevance is rather a process (e. g. Dirndorfer Anderson 2005). A common-sense strategy of information seeking in any environment, which posits a human being into the centre, includes two steps. In the ﬁrst step one „casts a net“ so that he can catch the broadest range of information resources into his information horizon. In the second step he narrows, ﬁlters, puts the ﬁrst inform ation under a sow, and „mines“ the value, meaning. If we regard relevance as a process, then we have to make accurate that the construction of meanings is at the heart of the process. It is both cognitive and social process in which we can apply human information beha viour. Prominent information science authors have created a background for rethinking the category of relevance (Mizzaro 1997). For example, complex and alternative approaches to positivistic tradition have been introduced 29

by T.J. Froehlich (1994) and T.K. Park (1994). Since 1994 a new, naturalistic paradigm of relevance has been es tablished in information science. Is has been supported especially by sense-making methodology (Dervin, 2003), socio-cognitive aspects of relevance (Bruce, 1994, Hjorland, 2002), and constructivist aspect (Howard, 1994, Talja, 2005). Reconsideration of relevance towards a notion of a system and types of relevances has been intro duced by T. Saracevic (Saracevic, 1996). Situation aspect of relevance has been elaborated by Schamber (Schamber et al. 1998) putting stress on multidimensional and dynamic characteristics of relevance. Psycholo gical relevance has been explained by Harter (1992). In current information studies it is hard to ﬁnd a signiﬁcant author who would not touch upon an issue of relevance in various contexts (e. g. Spink et al., 1998, Maglaughlin, Sonnenwald, 2002, Vakkari, 2001). And still the category of relevance attracts research and further studies. It is caused not only by new methodological pos sibilities which are provided by human information behaviour studies (e. g. naturalistic, phenomenological ap proaches, and qualitative methods), but also by the fact that this type of study moves relevance towards ordinary people and everyday information use in decision making. In human information behaviour relevance judgement can be regarded as the most difﬁcult activity connected with information use. The ability to recognize relevance builds on information literacy and life-long habits of information work. Generally speaking, relevance is a complex of relationships between the human information need and in formation which is being acquired from information environment. One of the most signiﬁcant authors in relev ance studies, T. Saracevic (1996) discerns a system of interdependent types of relevances: system (algorithmic), topical (subject), cognitive (pertinence), situational (utility), and motivational (affective). Other authors suppose that relevance is a process embedded into different stages of problem solving, or that it is partial relevance (Maglaughlin, Sonnenwald, 2002). Recent studies emphasize active social and cognitive processes of human in formation behaviour (Dirndorfer Anderson, 2001, 2005). Basic characteristics of relevance are situatedness, con text, processual character, and non-linearity. However, today, relevance has been shifting from a narrow profes sional concept towards current everyday information environment (e. g. the concept of „information grounds“, Fisher 2005). In this new concept we can note such implicit emerging characteristics of relevance which would have been difﬁcult to express so far. Therefore, in line with this idea, we have reconsidered the concept of relevance in our research as a set of links between a man and information in creating meanings. Some of the links become borders which determine what will be included into the cognitive structure (of a man or a system), and what not. We try to discover new aspects of relevance from the standpoint of phenomenology using the assumption that relevance is a speciﬁc ex perience in information use. Naturalistic paradigm emphasizes the natural environment in examination of a man in context, applies qualitative methods and proceeds towards a grounded theory which emerges from the ana lyzed data. This paradigm is convenient for the study of human beings, their behaviour and experiences, and that is why we apply its methods to our study of information behaviour in relevance judgements. In this type of re search we suppose that relevance is not a computation or an algorithmic matching, bur rather a way of commu nication and an everyday experience of information behaviour.

2 Information use in information society Relevance is part of a broader issue of information use. Many programmes and initiatives based on progress to information and knowledge society emphasize that the ability to use information is more important than numer ous facts. That is why information use has become part of many diverse social contexts: in education, informa tion literacy, science and research, but also in work processes, enterprises, and in everyday life, e. g. in commu nicating with public authorities, and in the use of services. Information use has long been neglected in human information behaviour research. T. Wilson (2000) deﬁnes information behaviour in information seeking as physical and cognitive activities working in inclusion of the found information into the existing knowledge base of humans. However, in information science information use is regarded as an extremely difﬁcult part for study. It is so because it is concentrated on abstract processes of cognitive and social manipulations with information and it is difﬁcult to determine the subject, derive categories, and realize empirical studies. Some authors regard information use as a „black box“ which should be followed by other social sciences and humanities (e. g. psychology). Indeed, cognitive psychology provides for the basis of information use examination, especially in the study of the rise of information need, changes of mental models of information processing, mental representations, and in the examination of how personality types inuence cognitive and information styles (Steinerová, 2005). In the past information science concentrated on more visible aspects of use of information resources, services, and systems. At present, however, the studies are included into transdisciplinary projects aimed at human beings and their information behaviour. Founding theories of relevance are represented by the cognitive paradigm of information science (Belkin, Taylor, Kuhlthau), models of information behaviour (Wilson, Ellis), and Dervin’s sense-making methodology. In many theories and models metaphors are applied (e. g. constructivist theories, sense-making) so that the interaction between man and information environment can be better expressed. We suppose that these concepts can contribute to new views on relevance of information. By using objects and information it is 30

possible to discover their meanings. Following the sense-making methodology, discovering relevance includes human cognitive and affective processes, but also relations between language, thought, and reality in gapbridging the problem situation. Relevance of information can also be seen as a core of processes which connect information needs and in formation use. Speciﬁc activities of human information behaviour and information literacy form a part of them. In our previous studies (Steinerová et al., 2004, Steinerová 2005) we have determined two stages of information processing, the orientation stage, and the analytic (intellectual) stage. Based on this we suppose that two strata of information relevance exist. The orientation stratum is more traditional, focused on relevance judgements using bibliographic information which indicate the appropriateness of primary documents. In this case relevance judgement is aimed at metainformation, namely explicitly articulated formal aspects of documents. The second stratum of information relevance represents the level of information analysis. It means a set of intellectual pro cesses in extracting information from texts towards the value of information. In order to understand relevance, an important issue of the interaction of the objective and the subjective emerges. The objectivization of relevance leans on external contexts and communities, subjective aspects are linked with internal cognitive and affective processes, styles or states as part of human information behaviour. Following several synthetic works on relevance (Froehlich, 1994; Saracevic; 1996, Mizzaro, 1997) we do not make an attempt to deﬁne relevance. In contrast, we are interested in understanding the phenomenon of the study by means of natural human information behaviour. Our assumption is that manifold information needs and vari ous situations of information use give rise to manifold relevances in different contexts.

3 Empirical study: relevance judgements by PhD students Based on these assumptions we have designed our empirical study of PhD students’ information behaviour in relevance judgements. The study is aimed at discovering perceptions of relevance and deriving proposals for more effective ways of information use. The background is represented by naturalistic-phenomenographic and constructivist concepts of relevance and information use aimed at human being in the information process. This approach has not been applied in Slovak information research so far. The incentive for its introduction comes from foreign human information behaviour research in information seeking and use, applying methods from re lated social sciences.

3.1 Methods of empirical study Data have been acquired by semi-structured interviews with 21 master graduates and PhD. students of Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University. Additional methods supporting the validity of research include a focus group with 10 ﬁrst year PhD students in library and information science and the previous questionnaire survey in aca demic libraries throughout Slovakia, the sections focused on relevance (Steinerová et al., 2004; Steinerová, Šušol, 2005). PhD students and master graduates have been selected from various disciplines of social sciences, majority of them being from library and information science. In PhD students, the information use in the areas of science and education is integrated. All of them have real information needs and previous experience in research of a topic. That is why they represented a convenient group for our research. The structure of interviews has been designed as a set of open questions aimed at complexity of the in vestigated phenomenon based on related studies of relevance (e. g. Dirndorfer Anderson, 2005). In Appendix 1 questions of the directed semi-structured interview are listed. The goal was to capture the perception and inter pretation of relevance issues, and follow one’s own, original verbalization of the category of relevance. Instructions accompanying the interviews have been elaborated explaining the goals and contexts of the research in detail. The interviews have been realized by 2 researchers in the course of 5 months (October 2005-February 2006). The varying duration of the interviews ranged from 25 to 60 minutes. The age of subjects was between 24 and 47 years, with the average age of 28,9 years. Gender distribution was 12 women (57%) and 9 men (43%). The subjects had different lengths of practical experiences ranging from 3 months to more than 20 years. As for the disciplines, 13 subjects came from library and information science (61%) and 8 from other disciplines (39%) (philosophy, ethnology, journalism, psychology, history). The disciplines, domains and prob lems which are investigated by subjects in their education and research are summarized in table 1.

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Subject 1.

Discipline library and inf. science

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

library and inf. science library and inf. science library and inf. science library and inf. science library and inf. science library and inf. science

Area* types of libraries and information providers services to user populations development/principles of LIS development/principles of LIS organization of information organization of information competitive intelligence

8. 9. 10. 11.

library and inf. science library and inf. science library and inf. science library and inf. science

organization of information services to user populations development/principles of LIS information systems and retrieval

12. 13. 14. 15.

development/principles of LIS development/principles of LIS Byzantine history applied ethnology ethnology

globalization

17. 18. 19.

library and inf. science library and inf. science general history ethnology and cultural anthropology ethnology and cultural anthropology philosophy philosophy psychology

ﬁction literature prints in German language in Slovakia copyright/intellectual property knowledge management organization of knowledge information professional, competitive intelligence knowledge management digital reference services public library, information society information management, academic libraries Trnava prints of non-ﬁction literature library of the noble Palfy family war of Byzantines against Pecenegs urban settlements

gender studies semiotics experimental psychology

20. 21.

journalism journalism

theory and practice of editing theory of journalism

gender identity philosophical problems of semiotics interference of emotional and cognitive processes electronic editing medial property, globalization

16.

Problem digital libraries

Table 1. Identiﬁcation of survey subjects: disciplines, areas and problems *source: LIS Research Areas Classiﬁcation Scheme. 2003. In Alise [online]. c2003. Available on internet: .

The semi-structured interview consisted of an introductory part, and a part of the interview itself. In the articulation of questions we have concentrated on the rise of reection and previous experiences in work with professional information. In the ﬁrst part the subjects were asked to explain their idea of relevance. Following that they had to recall the activities, decisions, and criteria which they apply in relevance judgements. In the next part we asked about differences in relevance judgements in electronic and printed environments. The complexity of the process of relevance judgements has also been examined by means of questions about auxiliary sorting of information, inuences, supportive intuitive clues, relations between subjective and objective components. We have tried to identify differences between relevant information in the orientation stage and in the stage of prob lem solving. We have studied the affective component of information behaviour by questions about emotions and about the most exciting part of relevance judgements. The holistic idea, the interaction of the cognitive and af fective, has been closed by the question focused on a metaphor or simile of relevance. As the interview was rather exacting and required deeper abstract thinking, the subjects needed time for articulation of their answers. Some of them found several questions similar, or they felt their answers to different questions were the same. Some would appreciate if the questions were sent to them in advance, or they would make use of the written forms of questions. Generally speaking, however, the interviews progressed in an agree able situation of mutual communication and collaboration. Comments were related especially with lack of time for reection, problems with understanding, or with „overload“ of subjects (e. g. too much abstraction, theory, similarity of questions). All comments can be represented by an expression of one subject: „it was nice talking,…but I feel already dizzy“. The interviews and discussions have been recorded and transcribed. For analyses the records, transcripts and notes from interviews have been used. The analyses and interpretations have been carried out by 3 research ers and proceeded in several steps. In the ﬁrst step the answers of subjects have been analyzed and coded from the viewpoint of the used key concepts. In the next step the answers have been integrated with regard to single questions. A common record including set of 21 answers has been created. The next step was represented by content conceptual analysis of the single sub-issues related to single questions of interviews. The extracted concepts have been categorized to higher categories based on common at tributes. Broader categories were derived from quantitative occurrences of semantically related concepts. In some cases a concept map of broader categories and concepts was created (e. g. understanding and perception of the concept of relevance). Based on semantic analyses semantic models have been derived. In other cases the ex pressions of subjects have been analyzed in detail by comparison of pros and contras of the problem in question (e. g. traditional and electronic environments, subjective and objective components of relevance). Tables of con cepts and their occurrences have been elaborated for single answers. Resulting conceptual structures have been discussed and categorized at several levels of abstraction. Validity and reliability of results are provided by three independent analyses and interpretations. In the pro cess of further analyses selected respondents (subjects) will evaluate the results. In the closing stage the inter 32

pretations of collective discourse and new models emerge. The models generalize conceptual analyses and de rive conclusions which not only describe the statements of subjects, but also explain possible contexts and causes of the examined issues.

3.2 Results of analyses In this section we have selected analyses and interpretations of interviews related to perceptions of relevance, metaphors of relevance, and emotions of PhD students in relevance judgements.1 We select just those parts and examples which introduce newer views on relevance resulting from the applied phenomenological methodology. In the end we derive models as background for a possible grounded theory.

3.2.1 Perception of relevance Using the question „In your view, what is relevance of information?“ we focused on intuitive understanding of relevance, as implicit in an everyday language. The aim is not to arrive at a deﬁnition of relevance (which is by some authors regarded as impossible, e. g. Froehlich, 1994), but to discover successively the prototype meaning of the concept. The examples of the three analyses of subjects’ responses are included in tables 2, 3, and Figures 1, 2, 3. The Figures represent three visualizations coming from the content analysis. Based on this it is possible to derive the prototype of meaning (semantic core) of the concept of relevance, as it has emerged in the collect ive idea of subjects. This semantic core is composed of the three derived categories: value of information, utility of information, importance of information Frequency 10

Category importance

9

suitability/match

8

value

6

utility

3

goal

2

up-to-datedness

2

satisfying the need

1 1 1

entropy capacity of man attribute of information

Concept importance substantiality focal nature cruciality signiﬁcance for work importance for work importance for solution importance weightiness importance suitability adequacy suitability sufﬁciency accuracy correspondence with topic correspondence with demand answer to the question relation to the topic valuability value of information reputation credibility value veriﬁability truthfulness trustworthiness usefulness proﬁtability usefulness usability usefulness usability end of search ﬁnding a solution reaching goal up-to-datedness up-to-datedness satisfying the need satisfying the need in proper time decreasing the uncertainty capacity of man attribute of information

Table 2. Quantitative summary of conceptual/categorial analysis of understanding the relevance with survey participants. 1

The expressions used in this part are mainly derived from metaphors used in Slovak language. We are aware that by translation into English, some of them can lose or shift their ﬁgurative meaning. However, we have included this analysis into the paper in order to illustrate intuitive components and common sense related with metaphors of relevance.

33

Concept

Category Characteristic 6* 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Context Process importance value utility accuracy usability recency feasibility category adequacy truthfulness substantiality veriﬁed credibility trustworthiness ability concept accuracy quality sufﬁciency need 4 time 2 topic 2 demand 2 goal 2 solution 1 source 1 answer 1 decreasing 1 selection 1 transformation 1 taking (position) 1 formulation 1 power of category** 35 14 6 number of concepts within category 19 7 6 Comment: * concept occurrence; ** frequency of concept occurrence in the category Table 3. Analysis of concepts and resulting categories, perception of relevance

Figure 1. Conceptual phenomenographical analysis of of relevance perceptions, network model2

2

34

Conceptual analysis of answers to the question 1, perception of relevance. Collective conceptual map (analysis, categorization, verbalization). Clusters of expressions are grouped around the three main concepts: value, utility and importance of information. Main links between the three concepts are depicted. Links between the clusters connected to main concepts are determined. In some cases links between clusters from different main concepts are also depicted. Clusters of value have a common meaning as connections with goal, quantitative and qualitative satisfaction, grade of veriﬁcation. Clusters of utility stress the usefulness, usability and contexts of use. Clusters of importance are connected with subjectivity (need, state of knowledge).

Figure 2. Conceptual phenomenographical analysis of relevance perceptions, hierarchical model

Figure 3. Conceptual phenomenographical analysis of relevance perceptions, rotating, dynamic model

The value of information represents its internal integrity, validity, reliability. The subjects have connected this meaning with a process, often with the accomplishment of seeking (e. g. „way to knowledge“, or „guidance by goal“). A number of subjects emphasized the aspects of veriﬁcation, authentication, and credibility of information. The aspects of trustworthiness of the source and verity of information have also been mentioned. Utility narrows the extension of the concept of value towards a more concrete use of information. It is linked with the context of information use, namely with relation to topic, problem solving, and time („the most important information in a minimum of time“). Additional aspects of the category of utility are appropriateness and topical matching. The concepts of appropriateness and accuracy express more explicitly the topic matching, or the answer to a question (concrete context). Importance expresses such qualities of relevance as an emphasis on the problem essence, priorities, and hierarchical division of information (important, peripheral). The subjects emphasized focal, carrying informa tion, implicit categorization, and a subjective nature of relevance. It is connected with taking up a position and ability to „select“. This has been explicitly put by a respondent who explained relevance as information which I need „in my state“. Among the subjects, traditional, established ideas of relevance prevail, however, often enriched with more original dimensions of the value of a resource (reputation, verity). Common qualities of value, utility, and importance are represented by judging, sorting, and using. Subtle semantic shifts follow the progress from objective to subjective, from more general to speciﬁc. Mutual 35

interconnections of value, utility and importance are depicted in a dynamic semantic model of relevance (Figure 4). The nested model indicates hierarchy and mutual connectivity of the concepts. It also points to dy namism of relevance as a constructive process of successive discovering of meaning. Both horizontal and ver tical connections interchange each other during the interactions of man and information in information envir onment. It also shows that relevance judgement is a process of progressive „unpackaging“ of the form towards the content, latent, valuable and desired meaning. It proceeds from orientation to analysis. It makes use of senso-motoric, cognitive, affective, communicative and social activities and skills in information use. The complexity of the process is expressed by networking, dynamics (rotating) and hierarchical principles in the rise of the prototype semantic core of relevance.

Figure 4. Dynamic semantic model of the core prototype meaning of the concept of relevance

3.2.2 Metaphoric designations of relevance In order to clarify the concept of relevance we have also asked the subjects to create a metaphor or simile that would express their idea of relevance. Results of analyses are depicted as a conceptual map (Figure 5) presenting two categories used in the creation of metaphors of relevance: similarity and interaction. In the conceptual map the occurrences of semantically related concepts express similarity from the aspects of link ing, process, thing (object), abstract value, and person. The occurrences of expressions related to interaction are indicated by clusters of concepts based on contrast, and quantity and quality of information.

Figure 5. Metaphoric semantic map

The analysis shows that the most visible subjects’ idea about relevance is linking (putting through, ﬁtting in). It is a speciﬁc relation between people and information, which mirrors the human being itself in information structures. For example the subjects mentioned „seeking oneself“, „mirror“, „connection of myself with something else“, „wheelwork“, „puzzle“. Often an image of seeking has been mentioned. For example, „seek ing oneself“, „seeking similarity“, „seeking a partner – intuition“. Another repeated image is based on the achievement of a goal, including such metaphors as „see the light in the end of tunnel“, „hitting the target“. The objective part of relevance is represented by a speciﬁc pattern of ordering or of organization of information. This pattern bears meaning and can be recognized, for example, by a subject’s statement, as „a position in a system“. The subjective part of relevance is represented by a large proportion of intuition, chance, and of implicit know ledge and skills (e. g. „target“). In this context the image of satisfaction was determined („a good book“, „a good drink“). Relevance was also connected with especially valuable, credited information which can be used in practice (e. g. „inquiry, investigation“). It means relevance is directed to construction of meaningful in 36

formation. Other important expressed attributes were the indication of a direction (progress in construction of meaning) and spatial links of information structures (e. g. „bridge“, „footprint“). Relevance is marked by highly valuable information which can be achieved only with difﬁculty and much intellectual effort (e. g. „stage for winners“). The basis is „cleaning“ from not substantial, nonessential (e. g. „a diamond in a stack of coal“). An extraordinary value is created by persistent effort in disclosing the latent meaning. Another attribute of relevance was mentioned as creative potentiality of valuable information coming from the human mind (e. g. „something of discovery“, „challenge“). Majority of metaphors bears a positive as pect, emphasizing the goal-oriented activity of a subject. The process characteristics of relevance are conﬁrmed by such images as seeking, never-ending run, inquiry, and a road. Novelty, cleaning and prospectiveness have been identiﬁed as not often widely recognized and explicitly named attributes of relevance. The metaphors also point to the fact that subjects apply intuitively a speciﬁc language for relevance state ments. Metaphoric expressions of this language comprise much of implicit information.

3.2.3 Emotions, moods, and perception of the attractiveness of relevance judgement We have categorized the described subjects’ feelings by basic approaches to human emotions into „agreeable“ (positive) emotions and „disagreeable“ (negative) emotions. In modelling emotions we apply the following di mensions: 1. positive/negative, 2. agreeable/disagreeable (evaluating aspect), 3. tension/relief (activating as pect), 4. excitement/ease (grade of intensity). Evaluation and activation are complementary. Emotions regulate information behaviour as relevance judgement in selecting information, in associating information with know ledge in memory, in organization and recollection of information. The content analysis has shown that at the level of agreeable feelings, most often used expression was delight. It is a pleasant feeling of achieving something desired. Different grades of intensity of delight have been manifested in the used concepts of satisfaction and happiness. Some of the subjects stressed the satisfac tion in metaphoric statements – e. g. „I can check this off (my list)“. One of them used the expression of „the subjective scientiﬁc delight“. Enthusiasm, encouragement, and discovering have been identiﬁed as further agreeable feelings (e. g. „when I enjoy myself“, „it is a gift to be able to read“). In verbalization of negative feelings higher grade of activation dominates, namely anger as reactions to obstacles while reaching the goal. The contexts of anger have been explained from different perspectives, e. g. anger at oneself („that I was not able to better articulate the requirement“), or anger as rage, passion („when information is based on false points“). Other negative feelings have been grouped around the concept of fear (uncertainty, helplessness, anxiety). It is related with one’s own inability to control the situation and with a large amount of unknown („dead ends, when I am unable to move forward“). Novelty and extraordinary nature of situations in relevance judgement can in long-term cause both nervousness and stress (e. g. time pressure, overload by tasks). The subjects have also mentioned additional feelings of fatigue, resistance, and disappointment. Some of them expressed their effort for „no emotional engagement“ in relevance judgements. However, emotions are an important part of relevance judgement. They operate in an interaction with cog nitive processes. They integrate especially the evaluation of information and can be manifested in different grades of intensity. The positive feelings in relevance judgements function as activation, vitality, self-conﬁdence (self-reection). Based on an implicit value system a desired information is acquired as an extraordinary value. In sci ence and education something new, latent is discovered and one can proceed towards (scientiﬁc) truth. The func tions of negative feelings in relevance judgements include reactions to obstacles and limitations. These feelings of ten come from lack or surplus of information. The problem is usually the control of situation conditioned by nov elty, un-commonality and surprise in interaction with information. Imbalance between expectations and results and lack of time are also frequent reasons of negative feelings. We suppose that the role of emotions in relevance judgement is more vital than it has been admitted so far and requires further studies. Usually one should proceed from disagreeable feelings of uncertainty and ten sion to feelings of relief. However, this process is not straightforward. It is highly individual and changing, manifested in mutually permeable circles. The analysis of emotions is ﬁnalized by a schema of concepts used by subjects for description of their feelings (Figure 6).

37

Figure 6. Schema of emotions. Categorized concepts of subjects expressing emotionsin relevance judgements in four dimensions: positive/negative, agreeable/disagreeable, excitement/ease, tension/relief.

As for the perception of the attractiveness of relevance judgement (exciting, interesting component) the subjects emphasized especially creative thought, ﬁnding a value, and discovering something new. Some of them appreciated understanding of the problem, inspiration and learning. The attractive aspect was represented by pos itive attitudes (success, victory), but also by conﬁrmation, veriﬁcation, and self-reection („ﬁnding oneself in texts“). It also means ﬁxation of self-conﬁdence and cognitive balance. Common denominator for positive as pects of relevance judgements is quality of information (following the „quality of mind“). Relevance judgement is mainly intellectual activity. Therefore, its positive side can be sought in its suc cessful completion – ﬁnding, discovery, conﬁrmation, veriﬁcation. The agreeable part of relevance judgement is a positive value which can be achieved by quality of information. What is of value in the process can also come from selecting something interesting, based on moments of surprise and understanding which lead to successful problem solutions.

4 Conclusion The essential perception of relevance is the interaction of object and subject in various contexts (information environments). At the level of object it is information (information resources). At the level of subject it is a man, human cognitive and affective processes. Our analyses show which attributes of information were considered as the most signiﬁcant in relevance judgements and which cognitive and affective processes dominate in the interaction. In perception of relevance in information behaviour we have identiﬁed most common attributes of in formation as value, utility, and importance. They are based on cognitive processes of evaluation, sorting, and problem solving (information use). These processes are supported and controlled by emotions of delight, satis faction, anger, and uncertainty. Relevance judgement as a process can be attractive by its support of creativity, discovering of novelty, ﬁnding quality and value, and by conﬁrmation (self-reection). Semantic analysis of relevance points to constructive intellectual process of successive disclosure of meaning, sense-making of information. In our resulting semantic prototype of the concept the principles of link ing (networking), hierarchy and dynamism (variability depending on context) have been derived. Metaphoric expressions complement relevance perception by images of linking, satisfaction, and intellec tual cleaning of information. Intuitive information in these images comprises new, positive qualities of the concept of relevance, namely novelty, prospectiveness, and purity of information. Our primary analyses conﬁrmed that we can reconsider relevance as an active cognitive process of interac tion with information in contexts which is integrated by emotional experiences of discovery, ﬁnding value, learning, inspiration and self-conﬁrmation. Detailed analyses of activities and decisions in relevance judgements lead to a concluding model of three components and three basic processes in a „relevance triangle“ (Figure 7). The model presents the situation, when relevance judgement is mediated by three components – set of values, set of concepts, and set of contexts. By means of these the three following processes can operate – evaluation, problem solving, sorting. Their mutual relationship in the triangle shows that from contexts emerge concepts which designate the contexts explicitly. The contexts can be both explicit and implicit. Implicit contexts are represented by information needs, explicit contexts by information requirements. Concepts and contexts are being critically evaluated by means of the set of values, which is usually implicit. Set of values in the triangle operates in the interaction of cognitive and affective structures of human mind. All the three sets are multidimensional and hierarchically organized. They make it possible that relevance judgement operates on evaluation, problem solving, and sorting of information. Me diating component is basic human cognitive and information literacy (reading). The model also shows that by vari ous combinations of contexts, values and concepts various kinds of relevances can be formed. 38

Figure 7 „Relevance triangle“. Mediating components and processes of relevance creation. Components: set of values (I-implicit), set of contexts (I-implicit, E-explicit), set of concepts (E-explicit). Relationships of these components are organized by three basic processes in relevance judgements: evaluation, problem solving, sorting and categorization.

In further analyses we will concentrate on detailed processes of sorting, differences of relevance judge ments in traditional and electronic environments, and differences between orientation and analytical stages of in formation behaviour in relevance judgements.

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SCHAMBER, L., Eisenberg, M.B., Nilan, M.S. 1990. A re-examination of relevance: toward a dynamic, situational deﬁnition. In Inf. Process. Mgmt. 1990. Vol. 26, 755-776. SPINK, A., G. Greisdorf, H., Bateman, J. 1998. From highly relevant to nor relevant: Examining different regions of relevance. In Inf. Process. Mgmt. 1998. Vol. 34, 599-621. STEINEROVÁ, Jela et al. 2004. Správa o empirickom prieskume používateľov knižníc. Bratislava : KKIV FiFUK, 2004. 113 s. Available at: http://www.kkiv.fphil.uniba.sk/ STEINEROVÁ, Jela. 2005. Informačné správanie : Pohľady informačnej vedy. Bratislava: CVTI SR, 2005. 189 s. ISBN 80-85165-90-2. STEINEROVÁ, Jela – ŠUŠOL, Jaroslav. 2005. Library users in human information behaviour. In: Online Information Review. 2005. Vol. 29, No.2, pp.139-156. ISSN 1468-4527. THEORIES of Information Behavior. Ed. By K.E. Fisher, S. Erdelez, L. McKechnie. Medford : ASIST – Information Today, 2005. 431s. ISBN 1-57387-230-X. NEW Directions in Human Information Behavior. Ed. By A. Spink, Ch. Cole. Dordrecht: Springer, 2005. 246s. ISBN 1-4020-3667-1. TALJA, Sanna. 2005. The Domain Analytic Approach to Scholars’Information Practices. In Theories of Information Behavior. Medford: ASIST-Information Today, 2005, 123-127. VAKKARI, Pertti, Pennanen, Mikko. 2001. Sources, relevance and contributory information of documents in writing a research proposal: a longitudinal case study. In The New Review of Information Behaviour Research. Vol.2, 2001, 217-232. WILSON, T.D. 2000. Human Information Behavior. In Informing Science. Special Issue on Information Science Research. 2000. Vol. 3, no.2, 2000, 49-55.

Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the cooperation and efforts of all participants of interviews and their supervisors from Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava. The paper has been prepared as part of the research project VEGA 1/2481/05.

Appendix 1. Questions of the semi-structured interview 1. In your view, what is relevance of information? 2. Which decisions do your most often take in relevance judgements? 3. Which criteria do you apply in relevance judgements of information from professional texts? (while reading professional printed documents, articles, papers) 4. How do you proceed in relevance judgements of information from electronic texts in internet? (retrieved references in Google, secondary information, list of bibliographic references, full-texts, papers and articles from periodicals) 4.1. Do you see any difference in judging relevance of information in printed and electronic form? What difference is it? 4.2. How often do you use network electronic resources in your work (study)? It is possible to express it relatively, in comparison with traditional (printed) resources, on the scale 1 seldom, less frequently than traditional ones – 2 equally often – 3 more frequently than traditional ones 4.3. Do you prefer using network electronic resources to traditional ones? a. If you do prefer, why? (speed, readiness, comfort…?) b. If you do not, why? (reliability…?) 4.4. Do you publish your scientiﬁc papers/articles in electronic form? If you publish or you would publish, then: a. Where? (type of the resource – electronic journal, personal/institutional/conference web page, electronic conference…) b. What percentage (estimate) of your overall publishing output does the electronic publishing represent? 4.5. Do you prefer network electronic publishing to traditional one? a. If you do, why? (speed, readiness, comfort…?) b. If you do not, why? (reliability, „value“ of publishing…?) 5. Which supportive sorting of information do you most often apply in relevance judgements? (e. g. important, interesting, known, conforming, useful, peripheral etc.) 6. Which three inuences are decisive for you in relevance judgements (e. g. requirement, topic, aims, context of use, motiva tion, knowledge state, mood, situation, time, experience, other). 7. Which types of information and resources are relevant for you if you want to get a basic overview in a certain topic? (e. g. beginning of a problem solution – databases, terminological sources, textbooks etc.) 8. Which types of information and sources are relevant for you if you want to derive the solution, analyze and synthesize in formation? (e. g. end of the task – professional articles, analyses…) 9. Which other supportive criteria do you apply in relevance judgements with respect to a topic? (especially intuitive clues, unaware traits) 10. Which components or types would you determine within relevance of information? (e. g. topical, cognitive, social, system) 11. Which emotions or moods do you most often experience when practicing relevance judgements? (anxiety, uncertainty, fear, optimism etc.) 12. What is the most exciting or interesting part in relevance judgements for you? (discovering new things, experience of new connection, understanding the concept etc.) 13. Which metaphor or simile could express your idea of relevance of information? 14. Do you have any comments on the questions of this interview? Thank you. 40

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Virtual togetherness – real success: the online communities Gabriella Szalóki National Széchényi Library, Budapest [email protected]

Abstract Online communities reect the culture they originate from – whether it is the culture of the topical domain or the social and cultural backgrounds of the participants. The study described in this paper examines the success factors of online communi ties in Hungary, more speciﬁcally communities tied together by a common health or physical issue. A survey developed by Abras (2003) was used to collect feedback from the users of several online communities in Hungary. The survey tests wellknown usability heuristics, and validates less well explored sociability heuristics from the participants’ perspectives. The questionnaire was prepared for deﬁning the success of online communities, and providing guidelines for designers how to create successful online health communities. The communities were chosen by the number of postings in each online com munity discussion board. Data collection was launched in June 2004 on the discussion boards, and it was closed in the early October 2004. During this short period we gathered 642 answers, from which 87% came from the members of a child care community called BabaNet (BabyNet). The answers retrieved from the other two communities were not relevant to com pare with the childcare community. The success of the BabaNet originates in its exciting theme, and topics. Since the previ ous survey was completed, another outstanding successful online community has reached the top of its lifecycle. IwiW (abbreviation for International Who Is Who) is a Hungarian social networking system web service It was launched in 2002 as WiW, and in 2006 it became the most visited web site in Hungary. One can ﬁnd friends using a search tool or looking through one’s acquaintances’ acquaintances. Its success is based on real-life relationships, which can be nursed easier online.

Keywords online community; success factor; social networking system; BabaNet; IWiW

Introduction The Internet reconstitutes almost all the elements of our society from supporting personal contacts to economical or political actions. Since it is possible for many individuals to communicate at one time, numerous online communities are born and die every day. What factors make some communities successful, and why do the others fail? First we have to understand the characteristics of an online community, then we can try to deﬁne the factors of its success. The study described in this paper examines the success factors of online communities in Hungary, more speciﬁcally communities tied together by a common health or physical issue. A survey developed by Abras (2003) was used to collect feedback from users of several online communities in Hungary. The survey tests wellknown usability heuristics, and validates less well explored sociability heuristics from the participants’ perspectives (Abras, 2003). The questionnaire was prepared for deﬁning the success of online communities, and provid ing guidelines for designers how to create successful online health communities. The communities for the study were chosen by the number of their postings. Data collection was launched in June 2004 on the discussion boards of the health communities, and it was closed in the early October 2004. During this short period we gathered 642 answers, from which 87% came from the members of a childcare community called BabaNet („BabyNet“). The answers retrieved from the other two communities were not relevant to compare with the childcare community. The success of the BabaNet originates in its exciting theme and topics. Since the previous study was completed, another outstanding successful online community has reached the top of its life-cycle. IWiW (abbreviation for International Who Is Who) is a Hungarian social networking sys tem web service. It was launched in 2002 as WiW, and in 2006 it became the most visited web site in Hungary. One can ﬁnd friends using a search tool or looking through one’s acquaintances’ acquaintances. Its success is based on real-life relationships, which can be nursed easier online (Wikipedia, 2006).

1 Historical approach The history of the online communities is closely linked to the development of computer-based communication tools. These can be divided in two main categories depending on their technical potential. There are asynchron ous and synchronous communication tools.

1.1 Asynchronous tools Asynchronous tools do not require communication partners to be co-present in time. Messages can be read and then responded to, hours, weeks or months later. 41

The creation of the ﬁrst asynchronous communities through the 1970s were fostered by researchers, for whom the communication and sharing of experiences were crucial. The history of the communication tools be gins with the development of the E-mail in 1971 by the ARPANET, which is still one of the most popular com munication tools. Listservers were invented in 1975, which allow one-to-many postings. Bulletin boards, in existence for a similar time, are designed based on the metaphor of a physical bulletin board. Online forums are one type of them, which are usually created for discussing certain topics. Usenet News, like a bulletin board, provides open areas for discussion of topics clustered in hierarchies. Moderated newsgroups were introduced on Usenet in 1984 (Preece, Malonay-Krichmar,&Abras, 2003). Blogs (short form of the WebLog) are web sites, where one or more individuals can publish notes. Their development started at the early stage of the establishment of the World Wide Web (Maróy, 2004).

1.2 Synchronous tools Synchronous tools require communication partners to be co-present in time. The dialogues consist of quick and short comments. These are the chat systems, instant messaging and texting systems. Chat services enable real-time conversations for the participants. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) was developed in 1988 by Jarkko Okarinen. Instant messaging, made famous by ICQ and AOL Instant Messenger, is somewhat similar to chats in that communication is synchronous and very rapid but individuals can control who participates in a particular conversation. ICQ was developed in Israel by Mirabilis in 1996 and purchased by AOL in 1998. Texting, a related technology, occurs across phone lines (SMS), and it seems to be more popular in Europe and Asia, than in the U.S. Wiki (Wiki Wiki Web) is an open source collaborative server technology that enables users to access, browse, and edit HyperText pages in a real-time context (Preece, Malonay-Krichmar&Abras, 2003). The ﬁrst Wiki Wiki Web site was created by Ward Cunningham in 1994. This is realized in a web site, which pages can be modiﬁed or added more by any reader. This may sound chaotic, but it can create surprisingly thoughtful communities and contents. The most popular one is the Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org, the lexicon site (Maróy, 2004). When we look through the different technologies, it is quite obvious, that the development of the techno logy has a major inuence on the characteristics of the online communities. Internet telephone, streaming video, photographs, sound, voice, web cam, blogs (i. e., web logs), and wikis are all available on today’s machines and can be used by online communities. In 1991, one year after ARPANET ceased to exist, the World-Wide Web (WWW), developed by Tim Berners-Lee, was released by CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research). This event facilitated the widespread use of web sites and the development of online community groups supported by web pages and vari ous forms of communications software (Preece, Malonay-Krichmar,&Abras, 2003).

2 Online communities There are many deﬁnitions for describing online community, from different aspects. Howard Rheingold, the de veloper of the WELL, often referred as The First Citizen of the Internet, deﬁned ﬁrst the phenomenon as virtual community. „Virtual communities are cultural aggregations that emerge when enough people bump into each oth er often enough in cyberspace.“ (Rheingold, 1993). It possesses all the desires, needs and behaviors of face to face communities; people meet others if they fulﬁll a certain need, if they have the same purpose, they also need to share emotions, discuss ideas, feud, fall in love, and ﬁnd friends (Rheingold, 1996). Now the prevalent phrase used is the online community, because it gives a better approach for the descrip tion. The problem with the term ‘online community’ is that it refers to a wide range of online activities. In this paper we use the term ‘online community’ broadly to refer to all communities that exist predominantly online (Preece, Malonay-Krichmar,&Abras, 2003). An online community is a group of people who interact in a virtual environment. They have a purpose, are supported by technology, and are guided by norms and policies (Preece, 2000). The characteristics of an online community are determined by the social interactions of the members, and the policies that guide them, a concept known as sociability. Software design also contributes to the character of an online community (Preece, Malonay-Krichmar,&Abras, 2003). The term, Online Community, has multiple and complex formal deﬁnitions. Researchers do not yet agree on one universal deﬁnition, but for the purpose of this study, the working deﬁnition stated in Preece (2000) will be used. An online community consists of: • People who interact socially as they strive to satisfy their own needs or perform special roles, such as leading and moderating. • A shared purpose, such as interest, need for information exchange, or service that provides a reason for the community. • Policies in the form of tacit assumptions, rituals, protocols, rules, and laws that guide people’s interac tions. • Computers systems to support and mediate social interaction and facilitate a sense of togetherness (Abras, 2003). 42

Which factors make an online community successful? Designers and developers have already deﬁned the key elements of the success: • Critical mass is the number of active members who are needed for the survival of a community. However, critical mass is very elusive and hard to quantify. If the community attracts many members at ﬁrst but a few come back, the developers need to consider what is needed to maintain the community (Preece, 2000). • The level of participation by members is important because if the community has a good number of mem bers, but only a few are active and participate in discussions, this could be considered a failure in enga ging the members of the group (Preece, 2000). • The level of reciprocity (Rheingold, 1993) is a key characteristic, because if a member often receives help without ever reciprocating, this could have negative effects on the viability of the community (Preece, 2000). • Support for social presence online is another important factor in successful online communities. Social presence online can give a sense of visibility, awareness and accountability, which are three pillars needed for social interaction. However, these factors never been tested from the users’ perspectives. Abras developed her survey to con trol and verify these statements (Abras, 2003).

3 The survey Chadia Abras, researcher of the University of Maryland, developed a survey for collecting feedback from the users of online communities, more speciﬁcally communities tied together by a common health or physical issues. (Abras, 2003). To verify her ﬁndings internationally, the study was carried out in different countries, among oth ers also in Hungary. The study examined the success factors of healthcare online communities in Hungary.

Figure 1. BabaNet’s discussion board

3.1 Methodology The survey tests well-known usability heuristics, and validates less well explored sociability heuristics from the participants’ perspectives. The questionnaire was prepared for deﬁning the success of online communities, and providing guidelines for designers how to create successful online health communities. The questionnaire consisted of ﬁve clusters of questions: demographics, activity in the community, usability, sociability, factors of the success. For testing the usability and the sociability a Likert scale was used. The candidates had to determine, how important the different factors were from the users’ perspectives. The answers 43

ranged from very important through neutral to not important. They also could choose N/A (not applicable). The reasons of the success were asked from the respondents directly. The communities were chosen by the number of postings, which are apparent signs of their participants’ activity. The following healthcare forums were the most visited that time on the Hungarian domain: BabaNet, Elixír, Házipatika. Two of them (Elixír, Házipatika) were traditional communities discussing general healthcare topics, and the third was a childcare forum for young mothers. BabaNet distinguished from the others not just by its theme, but also by the incredibly high activity of its participants. Of very Not little important importance

Of little importance

Neutral

SomeVery what Important N/A important important

Total

Navigation is easy

0% (1)

0% (1)

0% (2)

0% (2)

4% (15)

40% (163) 55% (228) 0% (0)

412

Layout of the site is intuitive and easy to follow

0% (0)

0% (1)

1% (5)

2% (8)

8% (34)

41% (169) 47% (192) 1% (3)

411

Site is accessible at all times 0% (0)

0% (0)

0% (1)

1% (4)

6% (24)

28% (114) 65% (267) 1% (3)

411

Search sequence easy to remember

5% (22)

2% (10) 1% (5)

12% (50) 18% (76)

30% (124) 28% (117) 2% (8)

411

Original search page easily accessible

1% (6)

2% (10) 3% (14)

12% (48) 20% (84)

34% (139) 26% (105) 1% (5)

411

Search sequence easy to remember

2% (6)

1% (3)

1% (3)

7% (28)

20% (78)

47% (185) 23% (89)

1% (3)

395

Language used familiar

0% (0)

0% (0)

1% (2)

4% (14)

9% (34)

45% (179) 42% (165) 1% (2)

395

Familiar icons

3% (11)

2% (6)

2% (7)

10% (41) 19% (76)

40% (158) 24% (94)

1% (2)

395

Feeling in charge of the system

7% (29)

6% (23) 3% (13)

22% (89) 25% (99)

25% (100) 6% (26)

6% (25)

403

Ability to obtain necessary information very easily

0% (1)

0% (2)

1% (6)

2% (9)

12% (49)

47% (189) 35% (143) 1% (4)

403

Pace of interaction fast

0% (0)

0% (1)

0% (0)

1% (5)

4% (18)

33% (135) 60% (243) 0% (1)

403

Consequent layout

0% (0)

0% (1)

0% (1)

3% (13)

10% (40)

47% (188) 38% (155) 1% (5)

403

Consistent design

1% (3)

2% (6)

1% (4)

7% (28)

16% (62)

46% (183) 28% (109) 0% (0)

395

Layout of the discussion board is organized by topic

1% (5)

1% (2)

2% (8)

4% (15)

15% (58)

43% (163) 33% (123) 1% (2)

376

2% (9)

3% (10)

22% (84) 18% (69)

25% (94)

13% (49)

7% (26)

376

8% (31)

2% (6)

3% (12)

40% (150) 376

9% (32)

Layout of the discussion board is in one long string of 10% (37) messages on one page Pace of interaction is slow

35% (133) 5% (20) 4% (14)

3% (10)

Directions on how to use the 8% (29) site provided

6% (21) 11% (42) 13% (49) 26% (97)

26% (96)

3% (12)

376

The site is useful

2% (7)

34% (128) 34% (126) 3% (13)

376

4% (16)

1% (4)

8% (30)

14% (52)

Table 1. Usability Questionnaire Data

3.2 Data collection For the data collection we used the Surveymonkey software, which helped us not just making the survey online, but also in summarizing the results. The online survey was launched parallel in June 2004 on the discussion boards of the health communities, and it was closed in the early October 2004. During this short period we gathered 642 answers, from which 87% came from the members BabaNet („BabyNet“). The answers retrieved from the other two communities were not relevant to compare with the childcare community.

3.3 Findings The very special theme of the BabaNet community had a major effect on the demographic data and the ﬁnal results. The 96% of the candidates were female, ranging between 26 and 35 years old. This may give a special perspective of the ﬁndings. 1/3 of the respondents posted one or more messages per day, and 2/3 of them were active readers of the topics.

3.3.1 Usability The majority of respondents reported several usability factors were very important, in particular, the easy naviga tion, accessibility, and rapidity were identiﬁed as important. They also reported that the well arranged and con sistent layout of the site was important.

44

3.3.2 Sociability Regarding the sociability factors the survey respondents reported that the purpose of the community, interactive discussions, set of useful information, respect of rules, and the sense of a community was important. They saw the active participation in the discussions, shallow discussions, or shallow relationships as neutral, neither im portant or unimportant. They did not think pictures and avatars were important. Not important

Of very little importance

Of little importance

Neutral

SomeVery what Important N/A important important

Total

Policies are clear

1% (4)

1% (5)

2% (9)

5% (17)

17% (64)

50% (184) 22% (81)

1% (4)

368

Policies are prominently displayed on the site

5% (18)

6% (22)

5% (20)

15% (55) 26% (95)

30% (109) 12% (44)

1% (5)

368

Policies are enforced

1% (2)

2% (6)

5% (17)

8% (30)

37% (136) 31% (113) 1% (5)

368

Web site contains valuable information and icons

2% (7)

4% (14)

2% (8)

10% (37) 18% (67)

40% (148) 23% (85)

1% (3)

368

Purpose of the online community

2% (7)

1% (3)

2% (6)

12% (42) 23% (82)

42% (154) 14% (51)

5% (18)

363

Purpose is clearly stated

6% (20)

2% (7)

3% (10)

14% (52) 21% (75)

40% (145) 11% (39)

4% (15)

363

Purpose changes and evolves with the community

5% (19)

1% (2)

2% (6)

15% (54) 17% (63)

40% (146) 15% (56)

5% (17)

362

Purpose is relevant to members’ lives

4% (16)

2% (8)

3% (10)

15% (53) 17% (61)

36% (129) 18% (64)

6% (21)

362

Discussion board included as part of the web site

3% (11)

2% (8)

3% (9)

17% (59) 19% (68)

39% (139) 13% (46)

4% (13)

353

Subjects of discussions are interesting

2% (6)

0% (1)

1% (3)

7% (24)

49% (172) 24% (85)

3% (10)

353

Moderators are active in the discussions

19% (68)

6% (22)

4% (14)

22% (78) 18% (63)

16% (58)

10% (34)

5% (16)

353

New topics are introduced regularly

8% (28)

4% (13)

6% (21)

18% (62) 22% (79)

27% (95)

13% (46)

3% (11)

353

Putting one’s picture in the discussion board area

48% (165)

7% (25)

5% (18)

19% (67) 11% (37)

4% (13)

1% (3)

5% (17)

345

Using an online representation of oneself 40% (138) (such as an avatar)

11% (38) 4% (15)

23% (79) 10% (34)

5% (18)

2% (7)

5% (16)

345

Policies should not be enforced

28% (97)

5% (16)

2% (6)

15% (51) 2% (7)

1% (2)

1% (5)

47% (161) 345

Feeling a sense of belonging to the online community

5% (18)

3% (10)

3% (12)

12% (40) 24% (82)

34% (116) 16% (56)

4% (13)

345

Community adapts and changes to ﬁt the needs of the group

5% (16)

2% (7)

4% (14)

19% (59) 28% (89)

29% (93)

3% (9)

317

Community is multimodal different kinds of needs 3% (10) for different people)

2% (7)

4% (12)

13% (42) 24% (76)

40% (126) 12% (39)

2% (5)

317

Community keeps users interested

3% (9)

2% (6)

3% (10)

8% (25)

15% (47)

52% (164) 16% (52)

1% (4)

317

Community is able to attract new members

3% (8)

2% (7)

3% (10)

6% (18)

15% (49)

44% (138) 27% (86)

0% (1)

317

Dynamics of online interactions are as close as possible to f2f interactions

3% (10)

2% (7)

5% (16)

14% (41) 28% (85)

31% (92)

9% (27)

8% (23)

301

8% (24)

5% (15)

20% (59) 23% (70)

14% (41)

4% (13)

8% (23)

301

Strong ties present between the members of the online community 19% (56) (similar to ties you would have with your family&best friends)

16% (60)

15% (52)

9% (30)

45

Of very little importance

Of little importance

Neutral

Weak ties present between the members of the online community 11% (33) (similar to ties you have with co-workers and acquaintances)

5% (16)

6% (19)

27% (80) 16% (48)

12% (36)

Need to feel connected to 2% (5) others

0% (1)

6% (17)

8% (24)

30% (85)

Discussions are natural and active

1% (2)

0% (1)

1% (3)

3% (10)

22% (63)

Discussions are deep (discuss issues in depth and detail)

3% (8)

2% (5)

5% (13)

Discussions are light (like everyday light 14% (41) conversation)

8% (24)

Being able to ask questions in a secure environment

1% (2)

Activity

0% (0)

Not important

SomeVery what Important N/A important important

4% (11)

Total

19% (58)

301

38% (109) 14% (40)

2% (6)

287

55% (159) 16% (47)

1% (2)

287

20% (57) 28% (81)

31% (88)

10% (30)

2% (5)

287

5% (14)

27% (77) 13% (36)

5% (15)

2% (7)

26% (74)

287

0% (0)

0% (1)

4% (11)

7% (21)

48% (137) 39% (113) 1% (2)

287

1% (2)

2% (5)

7% (21)

24% (67)

46% (131) 19% (53)

1% (4)

283

Participants are in control of discussions not 6% (16) moderators

2% (5)

3% (8)

9% (26)

20% (56)

33% (93)

7% (19)

283

Information needs to be updated regularly

1% (3)

1% (2)

1% (2)

6% (18)

13% (36)

45% (128) 30% (85)

3% (9)

283

Members need to receive beneﬁts and satisfaction 0% (1) from the site

1% (4)

1% (2)

4% (11)

12% (35)

43% (123) 36% (101) 2% (6)

283

Members are committed to the process

5% (13)

2% (6)

4% (12)

14% (39) 27% (76)

33% (92)

11% (31)

5% (14)

283

Interactions should not be as dynamic like the face to face interactions

7% (17)

5% (12)

7% (18)

35% (91) 10% (27)

7% (17)

3% (9)

26% (68)

259

Community should reach out to non-participants in 21% (54) discussions

5% (12)

6% (16)

22% (56) 24% (61)

11% (29)

5% (12)

7% (19)

259

Participating in discussions

7% (19)

3% (8)

5% (13)

18% (47) 31% (79)

24% (62)

10% (25)

2% (6)

259

Reading messages without participating in discussions

3% (8)

3% (8)

3% (8)

28% (73) 22% (56)

25% (64)

10% (25)

7% (17)

259

21% (60)

Table 2. Sociability Questionnaire Data

3.3.3 Success 75.7% of the respondents found the community successful, 2.6% disagreed, and 21.7% had no opinion. In sum, the success of an online community from the participants’ perspective is the common interest, the members and their behavior, and the usefulness. Many of the respondents reported that the personal meetings, which can strengthen the sense of identity to the community, and the relationships, were very important. They also men tioned open-mindedness, politeness, and sense of humor as key elements to the success of the online community.

4 The IWiW Another outstanding successful online community is the IWiW (abbreviation for International Who Is Who). This is a Hungarian social networking system web service that started on April 14th 2002 as WiW. It is similar to the Google’s Orkut. It has currently over 500,000 registered users with real names and over 15,000,000 connec tions between them. Membership in the community is by invitation-only. Every member can provide personal in formation such as the place they live in, date of birth, schools and universities they attended, workplaces, in terests and pets. One can ﬁnd friends by a search tool or looking through one’s acquaintances’ acquaintances (Wikipedia, 2006). It goes back to the small world’s phenomenon, which was ﬁrst invented by the Hungarian writer, Frigyes Karinthy. He said each person on the world can be reached through maximum 6 acquaintances. Besides looking for friends the site offers different services: adds, messages, programs. The success originates from the following factors: the sense of belonging to a uniqe community, old and new friends can be found eas 46

ily, through its services friendships can be nursed easier, and the registration is volunteer. The success is bonded with the purpose of the community, it helps the users to map their personal relationships.

Figure 2. IWiW social networks

5 Conclusions The online communities investigated in this study do not differ from many aspects from the face-to-face communities. They have the same conditions for the success: People who interact socially as they strive to satis fy their own needs or perform special roles, such as leading and moderating; a shared purpose, such as interest, need for information exchange, or service that provides a reason for the community; and, policies in the form of tacit assumptions, rituals, protocols, rules, and laws that guide people’s interactions. The only aspect in which the online communities differ from face-to-face communities are the computers systems, which support and mediate social interaction and facilitate a sense of togetherness online. This may inuence the patterns of the members’ behavior, but this can be controlled by the moderators and by the other members. From the users’ perspectives the common purpose and the easy navigation seem the most important factors for the success of an online community. So to create a successful online community the content has to be chosen ﬁrst, then it has to be presented in an easy-to-use environment. All the researchers agree on the fact that software designers should develop close relationships with users, to serve their needs. From the factors of success deﬁned by the designers and developers, only the level of reciprocity was not found to be important by the users, which means the activity in the discussions is not an expectation from the other members of the community – so lurkers are also welcome to read the messages. Many of the respondents stated that personal meetings, which can strengthen the sense of identity to the community, and also relationships between the members of the community are very important. They also mentioned open-mindedness, politeness, and sense of humor as key elements for success.

Acknowledgments I would like to thank to the researchers of the University of Maryland – Chadia Abras, Jennifer Preece, and Anita Komlódi – for their support in carrying out of the survey, and making available all the useful mater ials and the needed tools. I also would like to thank to the Hungarian experts, Krisztina Bali, who helped with the data collection, István Boda, the supervisor of my thesis, and also the moderators and the participants of the BabaNet forum. I hope their success will continue, and it can serve as a good example of a successful on line community.

References 

 

Abras, C. (2003). Determining Success in Online Academic and Health Communities: Developing Usability and Sociability Heuristics. (Szerzői közlés alapján). Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Baltimore, MA: University of Maryland-Baltimore Campus. Maróy, Á. (2004). Virtális közösségek. Retrieved 7 October 2005 from http://www.niok.hu/download/vc.pdf. Preece, J. (2000). Online Communities: Designing Usability and Supporting Sociability. NY: Wiley. 47

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48

Preece, J., Malonay-Krichmar, D., & Abras, C. (2003). History of emergence of online communities. In B. Wellman (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Community. CA: Sage. Retrieved 12 July 2006 from http://www.ifsm.umbc.edu/~preece/paper/6%20Final%20Enc%20preece%20et%20al.pdf Rheingold, H. (1993). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley Publishing. Rheingold, H. (1996). A slice of my life in my virtual community. In P. Ludlow (Ed.), High Noon: On the Electronic Frontier (pp. 431-436.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wikipedia. (2006). The free encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IWiW

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Society of users and information: an approach to communication systems of the information production Stella Korobili Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki [email protected]

Abstract The paper suggests an explanation about the circulation of information as a system, which may be presented by a com municative loop. In this system are included knowledge, information itself, the user as subject of information and the subsystem of communication. According to this information system, knowledge is produced by human activity. This knowledge is recorded as document at ﬁrst. Information is revealed ad hoc as entity. The totality of information varies in the space between the simple semiotic reference and the whole recorded knowledge of a human activity. The ad hoc production of information is based on the possibility of trans-communication between the potential user and the holder of documents of knowledge. There is a communication subsystem between users and knowledge records which involves a mediator that is the librarian or the information scientist. This communication subsystem includes the language and the cognition of the data of the system. The loop of circulation system operates as feedback of the users’ requests at the information sources. Finally, this circulation system of information transforms together the language of the information transmitter and the code of the information receiver.

Keywords cybernetics; knowledge; information; librarianship and information science

Introduction There has been considerable interest in recent years in the role and circulation of information and/or in the role of information systems. The interpretation of circulation of information guides us to suggest a model, which may be presented by a communicative loop. This model is similar to Cybernetics’ self-controlled systems. Models play an important role in representing reality. They provide, in a simpliﬁed way, order and structure and help us in understanding the phenomena under study. As a result a theoretical model is presented, which provides a frame of reference that explains what is happening when users search for information and before they use it. It is widely accepted that librarianship or information science are interdisciplinary (Saracevic 1999; Hjør land 2000; Brier, 2003; Raber 2003). Theories of communication, cybernetics, control theory, theory of cogni tion, semantics and semiology all may contribute „…to a clarifying framework surrounding practical experiences of daily life in a library, and be useful in many practical implications, implementations and problem-solving situ ations.“ (Bonnevie 2001, p. 520). This statement enforces us to locate the frameworks that will help us analyze and deﬁne everyday practical applications in a library. The similarity between the suggested model and the cybernetics’ models relies on the issue of recursive interaction and feedback, because as Geyer (1995) mentions „Cybernetics has always concentrated on both: the results of input-output transformation processes may be explained by the structure of the system, while that structure can in turn be conceived as the resultant of previous processes.“ (p. 7). Similarly, Brier (2004) referring to the information systems says that „…it is important to appreciate the role of system-regulated feedback from inuential user groups of different parts of the system. This organizational structure includes retrieval systems and user-interfaces.“ (p. 634). The elements of the system that is described by the suggested model are knowledge, information itself, the user as subject of information and the communication process, which will be referred to as subsystem.

1 Factors of the system The schematic presentation of the circulation of information leads to the acceptance that information process consti tutes a communication system. The difference from the other communication systems consists in the introduction of communication technology, as factor of this system and in the use of essential specialized knowledge of the two ter minal subjects of communication as factors, too. The two terminal subjects of communication are the users and the databases. The process of this circulation of information may be presented by a communicative loop. In the communicative loop the information does not exist until it is requested. As Brier (2004) states there is no information without users and interpreters. This view is also widely accepted. According to Saracevic (1999) information should be treated in a context. (p. 1054). Before the connection of the requester of informa tion, as the potential user of information with the database, the two terminal points of the information process, function and develop independently. The user, independently of the database, becomes aware of his/her informa 49

tion needs or wants. The database accepts passively and transcribes records of knowledge without any control of their ﬁnal use, assuming the existence of users and expecting their requests. The records of knowledge are trans formed into information when the users request them (Bonnevie 2001). At this stage information is oriented to wards a target group.

2 Users and information systems After the user’s request, part of the knowledge records may be transmitted as information. The quantity of know ledge that information carries degrades between the whole knowledge, that means the knowledge domain, and the specialized information, which is ready for use. The level of information depends on the explicitness of the information request and the quality of the knowledge records; in other words it depends on the qualitative fea tures of the terminal factors of the communication. For this reason: • The user should know what to ask for and he/she should be able to determine his/her information needs; this process depends on the cultural characteristics of the user. • The user should describe clearly the object of research and with explicitness; this procedure depends on the cognition of the language of communication. • The user should be able to choose the right sources of information; in other words he/she should be know ledgeable of the locus of the information network. The cognition of the sources determines also the speed and the credibility of information. Kangassalo (1999) describes this process as follows: „A user has to recognise the situation in which he is specifying his information requirements. He has to specify the point of view and select what kind of information he wants, as well as formulate the requirements on the basis of the properties of the situation, his own knowledge and needs“ (p. 110). When the database receives the request: • It recognizes and decodes the message. • It identiﬁes the elements of the request; this stage is affected by the explicitness of the request. • It forwards the message to the specialized knowledge-based system and it decides on what information can satisfy the request; it is prerequisite that the stored records are well organized and indexed. • Finally, it codes and sends the information to the user. • • •

When information is received by the user, the following eventuate: Evaluation of the information and decision for the use of it. Classiﬁcation of the information into the user’s knowledge structure. Rewording of the information request, if it is needed, and forwarding the new request, which would be of more explicitness. The new request should be more specialized in the cognitive ﬁeld.

The rewording of the user’s new request and the narrower determination in a cognitive ﬁeld constitutes the feedback in a communicative loop. Brier (2004) considers the need to appreciate the role of feedback in order to understand the organization and function of information systems. „These feedback analyses allow us to see in formation-storing and intermediary systems as self organizing cybernetic systems in a constant inner interaction that includes users as causal parts of the system“ (p. 634).

3 Closed communication system The information communicative loop, with the implementation of feedback, constitutes a closed communica tion system: 1. It is considered a closed system because the interference of an external factor between the user and the in formation source it is not allowed. 2. It constitutes a communication system because it is interactive between the user and the database and the result of the information process is modulated according to the initial request and is evaluated in the range between general and specialized information; the evaluation of the received information determines the need for feedback. The closed communicative loop creates in the output of the system a series of information which is of de creased width of unclarity, as all the self-controlled systems, which are analyzed by the principles of Cybernetics and control theory. To the above suggested system, the explicitness of the information series, that the user of the system retrieves, is affected by the ability of the user to satisfy the necessary terms for sending the request. If the explicitness of the request is small, then the width of the unclarity is large and the result is general information or information of large spectrum. The simplest type of information which is retrieved by this system is the informa tion that refers to the existence of sources or knowledge documents. The successive reformulation of the request, 50

with narrower determination of the ﬁeld of interest, increases the explicitness, decreases the unclarity and there fore increases the relevance of the information. Thus, the totality of information varies in the space between the semiotic reference of the message in the output of the system, which may be a title of a source or a document, and the appearance of a satisfactory, relevant answer, which may be information of a narrow width of unclarity. The width of unclarity that is ac ceptable at the end of the communication process depends on the degree of relevance that satisﬁes the inform ation needs of the user.

4 Knowledge and information In the information system described above, the ow knowledge – information – user as subject of information processing is obvious. Prerequisite of this ow is the acceptance that knowledge is the written transmitted expe rience that is produced by human activity. It includes the process and the outcome or product, which conﬁrms the utility of this activity. This knowledge is recorded as document at ﬁrst. As Fuchs&Hofkirchner (2005) say „…knowledge that is materialized in technologies, artefacts and collective social organizations is an expression of the expertise, experience, practice, meaning, etc. of active human beings who enter social relationships where they jointly produce knowledge products.“ (p. 250). This acceptance raises knowledge as a product of an organized intellectual effort (Kangassalo 1999). This same acceptance attributes also to knowledge value in use and value in exchange. These values of knowledge are transferred to the information as well (Saracevic 1997). The value in use of information coexists with its value in exchange as long as information is autonomous; in other words during the period in which information has not been located in the user’s knowledge structure and has not transformed it. The processing by the subject – user of the retrieved information results in new information, which will be returned to the database or to knowledge structure in general as a new document. At this point the value in use and value in exchange of the new informa tion are independent one of the other, since the new information maintains the value in use in relation to the user – creator. The value in exchange of this new information is going to be appreciated by a new user who will deter mine this value in the future. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the phenomenon of the autonomous existence of information and what kind of user is the subject of the information process. Information is a portion out of knowledge (Sholle 1999), it is extracted from the general knowledge and it is revealed ad hoc as entity at the end of a communication process. According to Eaton and Bawden (1991) „informa tion is shareable, not exchangeable, it can be given away and retained at the same time“ (p. 161). During the pro duction process, information is not autonomous, because it depends on its source and is affected by the information behavior of a future user. The information is autonomous when this same information leaks to other users. In this case information is not oriented to the information needs of a single user, but it is formulated waiting to be reques ted. At this stage information carries its value in use, which has been modulated during its production process and the existence of its value in exchange is acknowledged and it is expected to be identiﬁed by a future user.

5 User of the information The user of the information is an active being. The user affects the formulation of the request, the creation of in formation and the synthesis of the new information. The question that arises from the above suggestion is refer ring to the identity of the subjects of the two successive actions. Can the one who searches for information be a different person from the user of information? If the user and the searcher are the same person, then the com munication system stands as it has been described. In the case that the searcher is an independent person, then a new position is added to the communication system, which has been already described. Referring to the in formation loop, the searcher is not the terminal factor but an information node closer to the ﬁnal user than the in formation system is. With this ﬁnal suggestion the issues of the role of the librarians or information scientists in the commu nication net and their independence are introduced. It is necessary to determine and analyze the role of librarians or information scientists in the distribution and dissemination of information. Therefore, we consider that two marginal cases should be examined: 1. The ﬁnal user is adequately information literate and his/her information behavior is completely modu lated, that is he/she knows how to handle the information systems and how to use the sources. This user of information is identiﬁed with the terminal factor of the communication system. In this case the librari an or the information scientist provides a subsidiary system of information, which observes the develop ment of the sources and creates information about the sources. This subsidiary system functions as an in dependent terminal factor. 2. In the other case the ﬁnal user of information takes part in the communication system mainly by evaluat ing the sources. This user knows what to search, but he/she does not know where and how to search; this phenomenon is quite often among many specialized scientists, researchers and students. When the user 51

has the above characteristics, a librarian or an information scientist is needed, who is not independent and is included in the communication system. As Hjørland (2000) states „Library and Information Science (LIS) is a professional domain drawing on many kinds of knowledge. LIS is both a knowledge producing ﬁeld and a knowledge utilizing ﬁeld,…“ (p. 502). In regard to the librarian or information scientist the communication system functions as independent in the ﬁrst case, while it is incorporated as a subsystem in the information system of the ﬁnal user in the second case.

6 Conclusion Concluding we consider that there are strong elements that guide us to study the information systems, as closed communication systems. This aspect inducts us to determine knowledge as independent entity from information; to objectify information, acknowledging that it is a result of a production process and for this reason it comprises value in use and value in exchange. Information is produced ad hoc during the request process and its modula tion depends on the direct or indirect interactive communication between the potential user and the medium of knowledge; ﬁnally, this same aspect inducts us to speculate that there is a reverse proportional relationship between the unclarity of the request and the relevance with the desired portion of knowledge. The same aspect guides us to speculate about the identity of the ow of elements which exists between the communication model of the industrial society and the informational communication model. If this concur rence exists because of the dialectic relationship of the laws of communication with the communication itself, then there will be a difference between the societal behavior in the industrial society and the emerging behavior in the information society. The difference between the two societies, if it exists, will be based on the relations of production, which will develop a new information behavior. That means that the new society will be based on the socialization of information and ﬁnally, on the awareness of the productive forces of the new society. This view is depicted in Fuchs&Hofkirchner (2005), as well: „Today we live in knowledge-based society in the sense that knowledge and knowledge-based technologies have become immediate forces of production that inuence and change all subsystems of society.“(p. 255).

References       

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BONNEVIE, E. (2001). Dretske’s semantic information theory and metatheories in library and information science. Journal of Documentation, 57 (4), pp. 519-534. BRIER, S. (2003). Cybersemiotics and the question of semiotic and informational thresholds. World Futures, 59, pp. 361–380. BRIER, S. (2004). Cybersemiotics and the problems of the information-processing paradigm as a candidate for a uniﬁed science of Information Behind Library Information Science’. Library trends, 52 (3), pp. 629-657. CORNING, P. A. (2001). Control information. The missing element in Norbert Wiener’s cybernetic paradigm. Kybernetes, 30 (9/10), pp. 1272-1288. EATON, J.J. – BAWDEN, D. (1991). What Kind of Resource is Information? International Journal of Information Management, 17, pp. 156-l 65. FUCHS, C. – HOFKIRCHNER, W. (2005). Self-organization, knowledge and responsibility. Kybernetes, 34 (1/12), pp. 241-260. GEYER, F. (1995). The challenge of sociocybernetics. Kybernetes, 24 (4), pp. 6 – 32.Hjørland, B. (2000). Library and Information Science: practice, theory, and philosophical basis. Information Processing and Management, 36, pp. 501-531. HJØRLAND, B. – ALBRECHTSEN, H. Toward a new horizon in Information Science: Domain-analysis. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 46 (6), pp. 400-425. HJØRLAND, Birger (2005). Library and information science and the philosophy of science. Journal of documentation, 61 (1), pp. 5-10. KANGASSALO, H. (1999). Are global understanding, communication, and information management in information systems possible? A conceptual modelling view – problems and proposals for solutions. In P. P. Chen et al. (eds.) (1999). Conceptual Modelling, LNCS 1565, pp. 105-122. MACGREGOR, G. (2005). The nature of information in the twenty-ﬁrst centuryConundrums for the informatics community? Library Review, 54 (1), pp. 10-23. RABER, D. – BUDD, K. M. (2003). Information as sign: semiotics and information Science. Journal of Documentation, 59 (5), pp. 507-522. SARACEVIC, T. (1999). Information Science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50 (12), pp. 1051-1063. SARACEVIC, T. – KANTOR, P. B. (1997). Studying the value of library and information services. Part I. Establishing a theoretical framework. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 48(6), pp. 527–542. SCHACK, T. (2004). Knowledge and performance in action. Journal of Knowledge Management, 8 (4), pp. 38-53. SHOLLE, D. (1999). What is Information? The Flow of Bits and the Control of Chaos. MIT Communications Forum. http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/papers/sholle.html accessed 5-15-2006.

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Blended learning – better than e-learning? Ute Krauss-Leichert Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Design, Media and Information, Department Information [email protected]

Abstract Lifelong learning is becoming increasingly important in knowledge-based economies. E-learning plays a special role in this area. E-learning enables exible and individual access to multi-media and didactically prepared learning material via Inter net. Is e-learning a learning method for the future? Should librarians show an interest for e-learning or blended learning? Does e-learning open up new opportunities for the library and information management professions? After a short overview of the advantages and disadvantages of this learning method it will be described examples of distance learning programs in Germany. One of this example is a distance learning programme of the Department Information of the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences. Students of library and information science learn and work with this online module. This lecture will describe a project in which students were asked to evaluate and compare e-learning and blended learning as a teaching and learning method. The important results of this evaluation will be described.

Keywords e-learning; blended learning

Introduction Why should librarians be interested in e-learning? Is e-learning a learning method of the future? Does elearning open up new opportunities for the library and information management professions? Or is e-learning merely a soap bubble? This article will look at these questions in further detail. It will begin by examining the importance of lifelong learning and the advantages and disadvantages of e-learning methods. The role of libraries in lifelong learning will then be discussed. The article will go on to describe the development of e-learning activities in the library profession. Finally, the article will describe a tertiary-level e-learning project („STRuPI“), under which students were asked to evaluate e-learning as a teaching and learning method.

1 Lifelong learning The concept of „lifelong learning“ has acquired greater importance than ever before. In recent years an increasing number of e-learning scenarios have been discussed and implemented with the aim of promoting lifelong learning.

1.1 What are the advantages of e-learning? What potential does this learning method offer? Spatial and temporal exibility: E-learning permits instructional materials to be downloaded at any time of day or night and from any chosen location. Such exibility and independence are especially important in the area of further training. As a rule, most employees do not have the opportunity or the time to engage in further training at their place of work. They are de pendent on the availability of training opportunities outside working hours. E-learning gives potential learners who live a long distance away from instructional institutions the chance to participate in training courses. Last but not least, e-learning is advantageous for handicapped persons, especially in terms of spatial exibility. Individualisation of learning: The student has greater scope to determine his or her own learning process (content, approach and pace of learning). In other words, e-learning is the best method for ensuring self-determination in the learning process (learning on one’s own individual responsibility) (cf. Glatt 2002, p. 165). Larger and more up-to-date range of course content: E-learning enables the student to access the offerings of geographically remote training and further training institutions, including institutions located abroad. In addition, e-learning modules provide the basis for the incorporation, publication and dissemination of topical information. This means that e-learning pro viders are in a position to integrate the latest developments into their instructional materials at any time, thus ensuring that their course content remains up-to-date.

53

Multimedia content as an effective learning tool: Images, graphics, simulations and videos foster the understanding of complex issues and enhance the mo tivation of the student. Vividness is an important aspect of learning. This has been recognised by the e-learning sector and delivers one of its central arguments: „Someone who learns through action learns better, is more inter ested and more highly motivated: for him, learning is fun“ (Lippoth/Schweres 2004). Enhancement of media skills: In addition to disseminating knowledge, e-learning courses train participants in the use of modern in formation and communication technology (e. g. e-mail, chat rooms, mailing lists). The communication poten tial of the Internet also fosters communication between students and instructors (by comparison with conven tional distance learning programmes). The exchange of ideas and opinions between students can reinforce the creative learning process.

1.2 What are the disadvantages of e-learning? Limited scope for social exchange: It is self-evident that communication via data networks cannot achieve the quality of communication and interaction of face-to-face teaching. The lack of personal contact with instructors and other students can be per ceived as enforced anonymity. Motivation: Self-determined learning demands a high degree of self-motivation and self-discipline. Conventional dis tance learning programmes are known to have high dropout rates. Technical requirements: E-learning depends on access to technical equipment. If the student depends on the use of institutional computer facilities, this can have a negative impact on his or her independence and exibility. A private Internet connection can be expensive, especially if the student has to spend long periods online. Stable and trouble-free access to the Internet must be guaranteed. Basic knowledge of the Internet: Web-based learning depends on a certain degree of basic knowledge and experience with the Internet. This is an obstacle to those who have had little or no previous exposure to the Internet at school or at work. Inadequate didactic concepts: The biggest problem with e-learning courses is the frequently observed inadequacy of the didactic con cepts. In many cases existing printed teaching materials are simply placed on the Internet without any corres ponding didactic revision. E-learning is not just a matter of presenting knowledge; it is a matter of adapting knowledge to an electronic medium. Frequently, didactic questions are subordinated to technical requirements (hardware-driven approach) or design considerations. Yet the success of multimedia learning environments de pends to a considerable extent on the didactic adaptation of the course content. To sum up, we can say that there is still a major discrepancy between the potential of new information and communication technology on the one hand, and its real-life implementation for the purposes of teaching and learning on the other. The planning and development of multimedia course content should be regarded as an interdisciplinary task. In particular, this task should involve IT specialists, designers, experts in media di dactics, technical specialists and educationalists. It should be clear to all those concerned that the development of e-learning content is a learning process which requires the deﬁnition of a clear learning strategy/education strategy (cf. Glatt, 2002, p. 166).

1.3 Are libraries suitable partners for lifelong learning? In many cases however, the potential of e-learning outweighs these disadvantages. E-learning provides the basis for lifelong learning, as demanded by institutions, organisations, universities and the business community. In 1996 the European Commission proclaimed the „European Year of Lifelong Learning“. In 2001 the European Commission staged a conference in Brussels on „European strategies for lifelong learning“. UNESCO placed the demand for „education for all as a chance for lifelong learning“ at the centre of its medium-range strategy for the period 1996-2001. Each of these campaigns emphasises that all citizens must engage in lifelong learning in order to accomplish the transition from an information society to a knowledge society which enjoys the support of all members of the population. Libraries are an important element in a lifelong learning infrastructure. They are the starting point for learning the methods needed in order to manage information and unlock sources of knowledge. Libraries provide assistance with the competent utilisation of the Internet and other electronic sources. Alongside conventional literacy, so-called „information literacy“ is acquiring ever-greater importance in the modern world. This term de scribes the ability to locate, evaluate and act on information (cf. BDB 2000, p. 57). Libraries offer quality-as 54

sured access to information and counteract the digital division of society into the informed and the non-informed (cf. Bertelsmann Stiftung 2004, p. 11). Increasingly librarians are being called upon to establish libraries as centres of lifelong learning. To an in creasing extent libraries are being used as a venue for training courses. This demands new qualiﬁcations and skills on the part of librarians. The job proﬁle of librarians is changing. Librarians need to acquire new learning tech niques themselves, and they have to help others acquire such techniques. This was reected in the 2004 IFLA Con ference in Buenos Aires, where a discussion session was be devoted speciﬁcally to the subject of e-learning. „E-learning is playing an increasingly signiﬁcant role in our professional lives, either as a medium through which we learn, or as an activity that our library services must support. The IFLA Professional Commit tee, at the request of the Education and Training Section and the Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning Section, has approved the inclusion of a discussion session on E-Learning in the IFLA Con ference programme.“ (Call for Presentations IFLA 2004).

2 What is the situation with regard to e-learning in the German library sector? The e-learning activities in the German library sector pursue various different goals. Some of these activities have been developed by librarians and are targeted directly at students. The emphasis here is on the acquisition and dissemination of information management skills. One example is the „DISCUS“ project („Developing In formation Skills&Competence for University Students“) developed by Hamburg-Harburg Technical University (http://www.tub.tu-harburg.de/index/php?id=418). Secondly, there are various tertiary-level e-learning activities which are supported by libraries. And thirdly, there are various further training activities in the library sector which rely on e-learning methods. The best-known project in Germany is the „bibweb Lernforum für Bibliotheken“ organized by the Bertelsmann Foundation1 and ekz-bibliotheksservice GmbH2 (www.bibweb.de). Since 1999, the „bibweb Lernforum für Bibliotheken“ [„bibweb Learning Forum for Libraries“] has provided an online further training platform for the employees of public libraries. The programme centres on key issues such as the Internet, customer-oriented services, and gearing library activities to the needs of young people. More than 4,600 persons in Germany, Austria and Switzerland have already taken part in bibweb courses. Meantime the bibweb platform and the Internet training courses have been available in Poland and in Spain in a translated and localised form. The „bibweb Learning Forum for Libraries“ recently won the „2004 European E-Learning Award“ of the state of Baden-Württemberg3. This award is presented in recognition of outstanding examples of electronic, mul timedia learning methods. In particular, the award singles out concepts which propagate vocational knowledge and which can be applied in various different organisations. The goal is to develop bibweb into a learning forum for professionals working in a networked educational environment. The latest training module is entitled „Devel oping children’s potential at an earlier stage“. The basic elements of the „bibweb“ concept are as follows: • Exclusive use of online media (i. e. no face-to-face seminars) • No tutorial support (due to the planned large number of course participants) • Hotline for technical questions and questions of content • Certiﬁcate of successful completion • A steering committee4 which advises on the development of the course modules. This committee consists of experts on the relevant course content, as well as e-learning experts, practitioners and academics).

3 What is the situation with regard to e-learning in tertiary-level library training? Several university courses in Germany already operate e-learning platforms, also across national boundaries. For example, I conducted a seminar with an Austrian university of applied sciences on the „Role of women in librar ies and information institutions“ (http://www.bui.haw-hamburg.de/pers/ute.krauss-leichert/Aktiv-fh/Glow/text/ 1

2

3

4

The Bertelsmann Foundation (www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de) is a non-proﬁt organisation which funds its work out of investment income derived from its equity stake in Bertelsmann AG. Since its inception the Bertelsmann Foundation has provided approx. 428 million Euro for projects dedicated to the public good. In the ﬁnancial year 2003 the Foundation’s budget amounted to approx. 65 million Euro. ekz.bibliotheksservice GmbH (www.ekz.de) is a specialist supplier of library equipment. The company’s portfolio encompasses media, furniture and materials – from bookbindings, bookends and book cards to modern developments such as RFID technology and the ‘Library Ltd.’ (Bibliotheks-GmbH). ekz.bibliotheksservice GmbH has more than 70 shareholders. These are directly involved in running or supporting libraries (municipalities, rural districts, federal states, charitable foundations). Baden-Württemberg is one of the larger German federal states. It is the venue of Germany’s largest e-learning trade fair. („Learntec“). Learntec describes itself as the „European Conference and Specialist Trade Fair for Educational and Information Technology“ (www.learntec.de). I have been a member of this steering committee since its inception.

55

Frames.html) (cf. Merschitzka / Krauss-Leichert 2002). This intercultural online seminar was very well received by the female students. The main priorities were intercultural exchange and personal encounters. At present there is no complete online library training course at a tertiary level in Germany 5. However, in dividual e-learning modules already exist. These are not developed centrally. In most cases they are the result of initiatives by individual professors and receive research funding.

3.1 The project STRuPI online – ofine This article will now go on to examine a project under which an e-learning module for tertiary-level library train ing was implemented and evaluated. The name of this project is „STRuPI online – ofine“ [„STRuPI“= =„STRuctures and Politics of the Information System“]. I am head of the „STRuPI online – ofine“ project. The underlying e-learning module was originally developed by a colleague and myself for the research project „Virtual University of Applied Sciences“. The objective of this latter project was to develop online courses leading to internationally recognized qualiﬁcations, and to make these courses available via the Internet to persons undergoing initial and post-qualiﬁcation training (www.oncampus.de). Funding worth 20 million Euro was received from the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (bmb+f). Within the framework of this pro ject a bachelor degree course in media information science was developed. To this end I evolved an e-learning module entitled „Media industry and communication policy“. Parts of this module are deployed by myself at my home institution, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences6, in the area of library training. This part module „Information Services“ is the starting point for a project which is designed to evalu ate e-learning activities. The goal of the STRuPI project is to develop and test effective learning strategies for students. This article will not examine the content or the didactic structure of the module. Instead, it will eval uate this online module in actual practice and list the pros and cons of such e-learning modules from the stu dents’ viewpoint. The project „STRuPI online – ofine“ is funded by the Department of Science and Research (BWF) 7 of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg. It forms part of the promotion programme „E-Learning and Multime dia in University Teaching („Seminars on the Net“). The background to this project is the increasingly critical assessment of ‘pure’ e-learning offerings. To an increasing extent, the academic discussion is emphasizing ‘blended learning’, i. e. the alternation of online offer ings and face-to-face instruction (cf. Reiss 2003, Volkmer 2003). Blended learning brings together the students in real-life encounters, thus fostering communication and collaboration. Such collaboration increases the students’ motivation and their ability to attend courses through to the end (cf. Ruisz / Hummel / Krcmar 2003, p. 23). For this reason the project deployed and evaluated conventional face-to-face seminars, as well as innovative multi media-based instruction and learning units. The e-learning platform WebCT was used. In keeping with the project goals, the students were to: • acquaint themselves with an e-learning platform; • learn to apply this platform effectively to their studies; • familiarise themselves with contemporary and exible learning structures; • put self-determined learning into practice; • enjoy greater scope for shaping the learning process; • experience differing instruction and learning methods in a single course; • decide which learning method is the more effective for them personally; • acquire additional media skills via the interactive online modules. The online module „Information Services“ was deployed in the foundation course in the ﬁrst semester of the BA programme „Information and Library Services“ at Hamburg University of Applied Sciences (De partment Information). The students were asked to give their assessments of online learning. As a basis for comparison, the ‘normal’ face-to-face instruction in the subject „National structures and services of the in formation system“ was also evaluated. Evaluation took place at the end of the semester (normally in the last session of the course). Participa tion in the survey was voluntary. Twenty-nine students of the BA programme „Information and Library Ser vices“ took part in the survey.

5

6

7

56

The Humboldt-University in Berlin offers a distance-learning course (a postgraduate course in Library Science) that includes around ten on-campus study days per semester. The course is not free of charge; fees are € 1250 per semester. Hamburg University of Applied Sciences is Hamburg’s second largest tertiary institution and has approx. 14.000 students. The Department offers two bachelor courses and one master course: „BA of Information and Library Services“, „BA of Media and Information“ and „MA of Information Science & Services“ (start in 2008). Approx. 500 students are enrolled in the Department Information. The BWF is the research ministry of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg. Hamburg is one of Germany 16 federal states and at the same time is a city in its own right. With 1.7 million of inhabitants Hamburg is Germany’s second largest city and extends over an area which is seven times larger than Paris, and two and a half times larger than London.

In addition to giving a global evaluation of the course8 the participants were also asked to assess the teaching style and the dedication of the lecturer. The main emphasis, however, was placed on online learning versus face-to-face instruction. In general, the students gave a positive evaluation of the course. Chart 1

Please give a global assessment of the course. I found the course

25 20 15 10 5 0

very good

good

satisfactor

mediocre

poor

1

25

3

0

0

Chart 2

As you are aware, this course was experimental in character. Please evaluate the following as pects of the course: Learning with the online module poor 0%

mediocre 17%

very good 20%

satisfactory 17% good 46%

Chart 3

Please evaluate the following aspects of the course: Face-to-face instruction satisfactory 14%

mediocre 0%

poor 0%

very good 14%

good 72%

8

For example, the students were asked whether the course was enjoyable, to what extent it was useful for their further studies, etc.

57

Chart 4

Please evaluate the following aspects of the course: Alternation between online learning and face-to-face instruction irrelevant 0%

unnecessary 3%

necessary 97%

None of the students evaluated learning with the online module as „poor“. More than 60% rated online learning as „good“ or „very good“. This indicates a very high acceptance of this learning method. Face-to-face learning was also evaluated positively: more than 80% found this learning method „good“ or „very good“. Nevertheless, 90% were of the opinion that an alternation between online learning and face-to-face instruction was „necessary“. All in all, the students regarded online learning as a positive and interesting experience. The largely positive attitude of the students to online learning is reected in the following comments: Online learning Pros: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Scope for dealing with interesting subject matter in detail Summarisation of all the important information Bibliographic information facilitates extensive further reading Borrowing books is not necessary Interesting method of learning Considerably extended information resources via links and videos Personal pace of learning Lively I don’t know whether I would have enjoyed reading the printed edition to the same extent Use of various media motivates and helps to clarify the course content Compilation of personal study materials Assignments demand an intensive analysis of the course material Online learning at home is interesting – a pleasant change from other subjects Online learning is a further step into the 21st century – face-to face instructions is nevertheless retained

Cons: • Research takes a long time, especially if the Internet connection is slow • Time-consuming and strenuous • I ﬁnd it more difﬁcult to retain information while sitting in front of a computer screen • Out of boredom you ﬁnd yourself quickly clicking or scrolling through the material • Greater self-motivation required • Risk of isolation Face-to-face instruction Pros: • • • • • • •

Informative (direct exchange of ideas via discussion) Face-to-face instruction deepens and reinforces the course content More intensive analysis of the text content (paper-based medium) Greater willingness to engage in discussions + enhancement of rhetorical skills Added motivation through fellow students and lecturer The lecturer’s personal experience is of great importance Opportunity to ask questions

Cons: • Constant concentration required 58

To accentuate the evaluation of the different learning methods the students were asked to state expli citly which method they prefer. This revealed a clear preference for an alternation between face-to-face in struction and online learning. Chart 5

If you had the choice, which learning method would you prefer? online learning 10%

face-to-face instruction 24%

a blend of the tw o methods 66%

It emerged that the students clearly prefer „blended learning“ – i. e. a mixture of online learning and faceto-face instruction – as opposed to a ‘pure’ form of e-learning. This outcome accords with numerous other sources which have also concluded that blended learning models offer considerable advantages over ‘pure’ e-learning models.

4 Summary and conclusions It can be concluded that the success of e-learning activities in Germany is more difﬁcult to achieve than many had predicted – especially at the beginning. A large number of past forecasts have proved to be false (cf. Kerres 2002, p. 132). Some press reports even refer to e-learning as a „patient“ and predict the „bursting of the e-learn ing bubble“ (Lippoth/Schweres 2004). In the meantime the „patient“ has recovered and has entered a new phase. In this phase the emphasis is on learning strategies (learning architecture) (cf. Glatt, 2002, p. 166) and the pos sibilities of lifelong learning. These strategies need to be embedded in a corresponding context – i. e. the place of work, the university or the library. It is important that librarians confront these issues, either by supporting the development of e-learning mod ules, by developing learning modules themselves and/or by using e-learning methods for their own further training. In an online seminar of the Association of College&Research Libraries, a division of the American Lib rary Association, delivered in April 2004, reference is made to the „blended librarian“: „A blended librarian is one who combines traditional library and information skills with instructional design and technology skills and knowledge of collections of instructional resources and current trends in developing and distributing instruction al resources. The blended librarian uses this combination, along with a heightened emphasis on pedagogy, to col laborate with faculty, information technologists, and instructional technologists/designers on the design of in formation literacy that is tightly integrated into the individual instructor’s courses and with broader programmat ic goals.“ (www.ala.org/ACRLPrinterTemplate.cfm?Section=acrlproftools&Template=/Co…, 2004-03-01). The blended librarian will hasten the development of e-learning in the library profession. Let’s get started!

References 

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BDB (2000). Berufsbild 2000. Bibliotheken und Bibliothekare im Wandel. Career Proﬁle 2000. The Changing Roles of Libraries and Librarians. Compiled by the working party Gemeinsames Berufsbild der BDB e.V. headed by Ute Krauss-Leichert. 2nd unchanged reprint of the German version together with the English version. Wiesbaden: Dinges & Frick 2000. Bertelsmann Stiftung / Bundesvereinigung Deutscher Bibliotheksverbände (Eds.) (2004). Bibliothek 2007. Strategiekonzept. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung 2004. Bildung online (2002). Die virtuelle Fachhochschule. Symposium on 23. April 2002 in Berlin. Glatt, Thomas (2002). Blended Learning: Top oder Flop? In: Schwuchow, Karlhein u.a. (Hrsg.): Jahrbuch Personalentwicklung und Weiterbildung 2003. Neuwied: Luchterhand 2002, pp. 165-172. Kerres, Michael (2002). Didaktische Konzepte für erfolgreiches E-Learning. In: Schwuchow, Karlheinz u.a. (Hrsg.): Jahrbuch Personalentwicklung und Weiterbildung 2003. Neuwied: Luchterhand 2002, pp. 131-139. Kerrinnes, Uwe (2002). Bessere Inhalte anstatt mehr Technik. In: Computerwoche. – München. – 29. 2002, 22. – pp. 36-37. Lippoth, Karl Ulrich / Schweres, Manfred (2004). E-Learning braucht Kontinuität. Mehr nicht? 19.02.2004. http://www.heise.de/bin/tp/issue/d…16782&rub_ordner=inhalt&mode=print. 59

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Merschitzka, Heike / Krauss-Leichert, Ute (2002). Lernen ohne Grenzen – ein Hybridseminar der Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften Hamburg und des Fachhochschul-Studienganges Informationsberufe Eisenstadt/Ö. ELearning-Erfahrungen zum Thema „Die Rolle der Frau in Bibliotheken und Informationseinrichtungen“. In: Information. Wissenschaft & Praxis 53(2002), Nr. 7, pp. 419-422. Reiss Michael (2003). Kunden erwarten Medienmix. In: Personalwirtschaft. – 2003, Heft: 8, pp. 39-41. Ruisz, Roland / Hummel, Sandra / Krcmar, Helmut (2003). Kollaboration als Motivationsfaktor im E-Learning : Blended Learning als Rettungsring? In: IM Die Fachzeitschrift für Information Management & Consulting, Nr. 1, 2003, pp. 23-28. Volkmer, Ralf (2003). Blended Learning : Synergieeffekte durch den richtigen Medien- und Methodenmix. In: Wissensmanagement, Heft: 1, 2003, pp. 19-21. www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de (2006-06-30). www.bibweb.de (2006-06-30). http://www.bui.haw-hamburg.de/pers/ute.krauss-leichert/Aktiv-fh/Glow/text/Frames.html (2006-06-30). www.ekz.de (2006-06-30). www.oncampus.de (2006-06-30).

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Usage patterns in Greek academic libraries’ catalogues: the case of the Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki 1

Aphrodite Malliari; 2Mersini Moreleli-Cacouris; 3Konstantinos Kapsalis Library and Dep. of Library Science&Information Systems, T.E.I. of Thessaloniki, Greece 1 [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract The present research is focused on the searches made by the patrons of the Library of the TEI of Thessaloniki in its online catalogue and on the fact that those data can bring out behavioral elements of the patrons and the capabilities of the system. The purpose of this research is to understand the patrons’ needs and search patterns and the system’s limitations, in order to improve the provided services. The data were collected from the transaction logs kept by the system’s software, in conjunc tion with an online questionnaire of four closed questions that was implemented in the OPAC’s web site. The data collected were processed and analysed statistically by using multivariate techniques.

Keywords academic libraries; multivariate statistics; user studies; OPAC

Introduction Continuously improving services, and satisﬁed patrons who must become independent information seekers, are among the main goals of libraries. This, along with the radical changes having occurred in the Greek lib rary scene in the last decade, and therefore, the need to assess developments, led the authors of this paper to design and implement a user study in the Library of TEI of Thessaloniki, and more speciﬁcally, a study of us age patterns of its OPAC. This library, established in 1973, developed considerably since 1996, when the European Union Framework of Support for Libraries was ﬁrst implemented and academic libraries received generous funding from the European Union. The Operational Program on Education and Initial Vocational Training (2000-2007) has as its main goal to enable Greece to face the challenges of the new information era and the development of information technologies, and facilitate the country’s development and improve the quality of life. Developments in the speciﬁc Library included the implementation of a fully integrated automa tion system, the provision of online information services, access to electronic journals and databases, and the offering of bibliographic instruction courses. Five schools and 26 departments, on the undergraduate level and in the areas of Applied, Natural and So cial Sciences, are served by this Library. There are also three programs at the postgraduate level. A student popu lation of 24.000 and 1500 faculty are the library’s potential patrons, who through its OPAC have access to a col lection of approximately 30.000 volumes, 307 current Greek and foreign print journal titles, audiovisual material and to a collection of electronic journals. The study is set out to examine patrons’ behavior when searching the Library’s online public access cata log (OPAC), to understand their needs, to study their search patterns and to identify the system’s limitations. While studying and analysing the patrons’ sessions, a series of questions have arisen, which determined the vari ables upon which the multivariate statistical analysis was based. These questions are: 1. Does the patrons’ academic level and their academic department inuence the types of their searches? 2. Do they use all or most of the system’s capabilities for searching? 3. Do they search at all? 4. Do they need further bibliographic instruction? This will be a longitudinal study, since it includes all sessions made during the mentioned period. The purpose of the research is the improvement of provided services and the development of bibliographic instruc tion programs that will best serve the speciﬁc patrons.

1 Methodology Literature review in the ﬁeld of librarianship has shown that data collected from libraries were mainly quantitative and were processed and analyzed statistically using univariate or even bivariate statistical techniques. The suggested multivariate statistical methods, the Methods of Data Analysis and in particular Multiple Correspond ence Analysis (MCA), having been used in the Social Sciences for many years, have proven to be useful to all 61

students, researchers and professionals who collect categorical data and are not necessarily statisticians. Library Science, as a Social Science, is interested not only in quantitative, but also and mainly in categorical data, that could be analysed statistically using the suggested multivariate statistics. MCA is an exploratory data analytic technique designed to analyze simple two-way and multi-way tables containing some measure of correspondence between the rows and columns. A great advantage of the MCA is the graphical representation of the variables’ relationships on a two dimensional plot by transforming a table of numerical information into a graphical display with each row and each column depicted as a point. The visualiz ation contributes to the understanding and explanation of the problem that is being studied and analysed. Another advantage of this method is the fact that the researcher studies the phenomenon in a more synthetic way, through a greater number of variables, either quantitative or categorical ones, and also by combining them. In MCA all associations amongst pairs of variables are analysed as well as each association between a variable and itself. Equally important is the fact that when using MCA the outcomes of the statistical analysis are objective, as the researcher does not inuence them with any kind of decisions during the statistical analysis. As opposed to tradi tional hypothesis testing designed to verify a priori hypotheses about relations between variables, exploratory data analysis is used to identify systematic relations between variables when there are no (or rather incomplete) a priori expectations as to the nature of those relations. Finally, the only strict data requirement for implementing the MCA is a rectangular data matrix with non-negative entries.

1.1 Data collection and analysis The data were gathered by using both the transaction logs of the system and an online questionnaire attached to the OPAC at the entry point. More speciﬁcally, the transaction logs ﬁles provided, in chronological order, in formation about every search type that the patrons have carried out on the system, and also the systems’ responses. The transaction logs as a method of collecting data has the advantage of providing unbiased information about the patron’s behavior when searching the OPAC, since patrons are not inuenced by the researcher’s presence. The information gathered reects the patrons’ reactions to the system, their knowledge but also their ignorance about the system’s capabilities, having at the same time secured their anonymity as patron identiﬁcation was not required for the use of OPAC. A very brief online questionnaire was implemented in the OPAC’s web site. The questionnaire consisted of four closed type questions and focused primarily on the patron’s afﬁliation and status in the TEI and the de partment he/she is enrolled or teaches at. This online questionnaire consisted of the following questions that the patrons had to answer before ac cessing the OPAC: 1. Gender (Male, Female) 2. Patron category (Student, Faculty, Administrative staff, Other) 3. Department (list of the 25 departments of TEI) 4. Semester of enrolment (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, …,), only for students. Data were collected from February to May 2006, a time span quite characteristic of various levels of usage in a Greek academic library, including examinations period, spring semester with assignments etc. and low use time, such as the Easter, two week holiday. The data were then studied and analysed statistically by using multivariate techniques. During the whole study period the transaction logs recorded 3903 sessions. 442 of these sessions contained no searches, as the patrons, even though they answered the questionnaire, were just visiting the site without having the intention to use the OPAC and therefore were excluded from the statistical analysis. The remaining 3009 ses sions made of patrons who had answered the questionnaire thus providing their proﬁle, were processed and ana lysed statistically. There was also a number of sessions (452), performed by patrons who, bypassing the question naire, connected to the OPAC. Their sessions were excluded from the present study, because by not answering the questionnaire their proﬁle was not supplied. It must be mentioned, at this point, that it was not possible to cover all possible ways of entering the OPAC without coming across the questionnaire, as for example a patron having book marked the catalog’s site in his/her computer, before the questionnaire was implemented. Therefore, the data table for the present study has 3009 rows (subjects) and 45 columns (variables). Sub jects were the sessions patrons had by accessing the OPAC, whether they were members of the speciﬁc academic community, or not.

1.2 Variables The 45 variables mentioned above as columns of the data table are all categorical and were used to describe the 3009 sessions in order to be processed and analysed with MCA. These 45 categorical variables are the fol lowing: 1) Gender of the patron, 2) Patron category, 3) Department of the TEI, 4) Semester of enrolment, 5) IP address of the terminal, 6) Boolean operators, 7-24) Searches type by keyword, 25-32) Searches type by scan, 33) Searches type by subject headings, 34) Reservescan, 35) Addcart, 36) Savecart, 37) Emailcart 38) Bibreg 62

(when the patron choose to see the MARC record or the full display of the record), 39-45) Filters (publication, publisher, language, format, etc).

1.3 Statistical processing The above data having been pre-processed statistically at a ﬁrst stage, lead us to exclude some of the variables before continuing any further, as they were not of statistical interest. The speciﬁc patrons under study made al most no use of some of the system’s speciﬁc capabilities. For example, only 0,5% of the sessions occurred by us ing the ISBN, 0,07% by using the ISSN and 1,3% by using the Publisher. Continuing with the statistical process the new data table with 3009 rows (subjects) and 20 columns (vari ables) was converted into the indicator or design matrix (0-1) with 3009 rows (subjects) and 57 columns (vari able attributes). The indicator matrix was then converted into the Burt table, since there was no interest in the subjects of the study, but only in their characteristics. The Burt table is a symmetric, square contingency table that contains the cross-tabulations amongst all pairs of variables. Furthermore, the Burt table is particularly help ful in analyzing cross-tabular data in the form of numerical frequencies. Finally, this is the data table most fre quently analysed with Multiple Correspondence Analysis. The result of the MCA is an optimal two dimensional plot that depicts the associations of all variable pairs. The researcher has to interpret the relative distances between these sets on the factorial map (Figure 1. Plot e1xe2).

1.3.1 Interpretation of the ﬁrst axis In Figure 1, we see that the ﬁrst principal axis is the best ﬁtting straight line and in the present study, it mainly opposes on the right the administrative staff and the „others“ to the students on the left, with no discrimination on the right between the administrative staff, the rest of the patrons („others“) and the variable attributes that refer to the lack of semester and department. Other variable attributes like use and no use of the search type „anywhere as keywords“ are very badly represented on the ﬁrst axis because of their central position. Therefore, the ﬁrst principal axis is clearly interpretable as a spatial patrons’ categories axis.

Figure 1. First and second factorial axis

1.3.2 Interpretation of the second axis Continuing with the interpretation, we see that the second principal axis, less easy to interpret, pulls apart on the right the use of different types of ﬁlters, the use of Boolean operators, the use of subject search type, title and au thor by keywords and also the use of cart from the rest of the variable attributes and while coming closer to the zero point and then at the left there are represented variables that show the lack of OPAC use. It can be said that this axis was created by these variable attributes that indicate further use of the online catalogue capabilities.

1.3.3 Interpretation of the factorial map 1x2 The factorial map (Figure 2) of the ﬁrst principal axis displayed horizontally (the e1-axis) and the second prin cipal axis displayed vertically (the e2-axis) shows the variable attributes as points in a two dimensional space. As we can see, there is a group of patrons, group A, on the upper level that consists of those who have the ability to explore the system’s capabilities as they search using the subject headings, they apply ﬁlters and Boolean opera63

tors to their searches, make use of their cart and prefer mainly the title and the author search type. It can be con cluded that these are the most experienced patrons but there is no information available about their proﬁle. An at tempt to provide an explanation for this lack of information will follow.

Figure 2. Factorial map e1xe2

It is obvious that the majority of the variable attributes, including those referring to the patrons’ proﬁle and to the search types, is mainly gathered at the beginning of the axis and forms group B. This means that the majority of the Library’s patrons have quite the same attitude towards the OPAC. Finally, there is one group that opposes group B and is located at the right block of the map. This group consists only of those patrons who belong to the administrative staff of the Institution, or to the patrons who are not members of the academic community, along with the variable attributes that depict the absence of de partment and semester.

2 Conclusions Having completed the statistical processing and data analysis, the results were formulated in order to give an swers to the questions stated at the beginning of the research. Does the patrons’ academic level and their academic department inuence the types of their searches? Even though the study was set out using the advantages of multivariate statistical analysis in order to reveal the different types of patrons, and to understand their possibly different needs for bibliographic instruction, the main result of the statistical analysis is the total lack of even basic user proﬁles. Contrary to any expectations, it is clearly indicated that all patrons of the Library of TEI of Thessaloniki, regardless of their status, share quite similar charac teristics when searching the OPAC. The design of new bibliographic instruction programmes, traditional or online ones, should take under serious consideration this conclusion. It should also be noted that this outcome underlines one of the main advantages of the speciﬁc statistical technique, the fact that data analysis identiﬁes systematic rela tions between variables without a priori expectations about relations between the variables. Do they use all or most of the system’s capabilities for searching? In analyzing the data gathered from the transaction logs it became obvious that patrons do not use all or most of the system’s capabilities while searching the OPAC. Speciﬁcally, only 0,5% of the sessions occurred by using the ISBN, 0,07% by using the ISSN. There are also strikingly low percentages, from 0,04% to 0,3% of pat rons who, during the process, have reﬁned their searches using different kinds of ﬁlters. Also, searches made us ing the option of the publisher’s name account to about 1,3%. It is evident that users do not know the system’s capabilities or they hesitate to use them. Do they search at all? As it was mentioned above, the Library’s potential patrons are about 25.500 in total (students and faculty), but those who search for information in the OPAC are about 2500. The low use of the Library’s catalogue reects the low demand for individually sought information, since teaching is relying on one text book, students in general 64

are not asked to consult other sources, and research has only recently been introduced as a requirement for academ ics. This low Library use by either faculty or students has also been indicated by previous research. Do they need further bibliographic instruction? The answer to this question is one of the most important and crucial conclusions of the research. Bibliograph ic instruction was introduced as part of the Library services to its users, apparently without the expected results. Therefore, the Library must review and interpret, as indicated by this study, current practices and amend its present bibliographic instruction programs, thus facilitating the development of more efﬁcient information searchers.

3 Suggestions The Library, on the basis of the mentioned observations must re-examine speciﬁc aspects of its services, its user education programs and update its software. More speciﬁcally it is suggested that: • Continuing information literacy programs accompanied by online bibliographic instruction, should be offered. • There must be a change of the default search strategy, so it becomes simpler and more user friendly for novice patrons; also remove options that are used rarely or almost not at all. • There must be an update of the online help, with examples on how to use the catalog. • There must be provision for automatic corrections, in the case of fault usage of the catalog’s capabilities. • A strategic plan must be developed and a marketing approach must be adopted by the Library, to make its services more widely known to the academic community. To sum up, by studying the patrons and their searching behavior, the Library could reformulate its tools. Continuous collection and analysis of the system’s transaction logs data will allow for changes in the setting of parameters and the upgrading of the system. Eventually, it will lead to a more complete utilization of the Library’s automation system and will improve the quality of retrieved data.

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LOMBARDO, Shawn V.; CONDIC, Kristine S. Empowering Users with a New Online Catalog, Library Hi Tech. 2000, vol 18, p. 130-141. MACEWAN, Bonnie. Understanding Users’ Needs and Making Collections Choices. Library Collections, Acquisitions and Technical Services. Autumn 1999, 23, p. 315- 320. MAHOUI, Malika; CUNNINGHAM, Sally Jo. A Comparative Transaction Log Analysis of Two Computing Collections. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 2000, vol 1293, p. 418-423. MALLIARI, Aphrodite. Information retrieval from academic libraries’ automated systems and statistical analysis (Doctoral Dissertation, Thessaloniki, University of Macedonia, Department of Applied Informatics, 2005). MCGLAMERY, Patrick. MAGIC Transaction Logs as Measures of Access, Use and Community. The Journal of academic librarianship. November 1997, vol 23, p. 505-510. MOUKDAD, Haidar; LARGE, Andrew. Users’ Perceptions of the Web as Revealed Transaction Log Analysis. Online Information Review. 2001, vol 25, n 6, p. 349-358. PETERS, Thomas A. When Smart People Fail: an analysis of the transaction log of an online public access catalog. The Journal of Academic Librarianship 15. November 1989, p. 267-273. PETERS. Using Transaction Logs Analysis for Library Management Information. Library administration and management. Winter 1996, vol 10, p. 20-25. SRIDHAR, M.S. OPAC vs Card Catalogue: a comparative study of user behaviour. The Electronic Library. 2004, vol 22, p. 175-183. WALLACE, Patricia M. How Do Patrons Search the Online Catalog When No One’s Looking?: transaction log analysis and implications for bibliographic instruction and system design. RQ, 1993, vol 33, n 2, p. 239-253. WYLY, Brendan J. From Access Points to Materials: a transaction log analysis of access point value for online catalog users. Library Resources & technical Services 40:3(1996, p. 211-236.

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Academic library and study process: are we on the right way? 1

Jurgita Rudžionienė; 2Irena Krivienė Institute of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Communication, Vilnius University, Universiteto str. 3, Vilnius, Lithuania [email protected] 2 Vilnius University Library, Universiteto str. 3, Vilnius, Lithuania [email protected] 1

Abstract The higher education context requires to acknowledge the fact that the library must be considered as an integral part of the study process. Academic libraries revise their roles in fullling their mission, goals and input in providing high quality ser vices. Academic librarians are traditionally commmited to providing services for students. However, academic librarians and teaching faculty have different priorities and areas of expertise. Academic libraries need to frame their partnerships within the context of their institution’s mission, and within expectations and assumptions of teaching, and target audiences (students, lecturers, librarians, study administrators). It is expected to develop much more intensive partnerships and collaboration among academic librarians, study administrators, and lecturers. The aim of the paper is to discuss a model of inte gration of an academic library into the study process in Lithuania. It will be based on a situation analysis of Lithuanian aca demic libraries(university and college libraries).This model is expected to improve the process of acquiring information lit eracy skills within the concept and context of lifelong learning. The core of the model consists of main stages and parts of the integration process and aspects that make an entity. The situation analysis is illustrated by results of investigation of Lithuanian academic libraries. The target groups are analysed and various aspects of collaboration between library and fac ulty in providing qualied academic programs are revealed. Information commons (described as integrated learning facili ties) as a new type of innovative library services to facilitate student learning and the role of the teaching librarian make the core part of the presented model.

Keywords academic libraries; study process; integration; collaboration; partnership; information literacy; information commons

Introduction Learning and teaching process is the core axis of human education. All organizational, managerial and contentrelated things are going around it. The expansion of universities has been one of the driving forces behind changes in study process. ‘Student-centered learning’ in universities put an emphasis on staff delivering lectures; ‘resource-based learning’ is marked by the leading idea that much learning can take place through direct contact between learners and resources (documentary material). Competence-based approaches are based on the idea that students should be able to demonstrate abilities to fulﬁl speciﬁc tasks and prove their competence in a ﬁeld. All governments around the world are concerned with the problem of how to build a society where all citizens could develop their full potential of the active and productive participation in the increasingly com petitive world economy. Providing the possibility for lifelong learning for everybody is one of the ways to achieve this goal (Brophy, 2000). „Separate but equal“, claims C. Asher about librarians and academics (Asher, 2003). Information literacy programs require a dramatic shift in librarian’s self-image. It starts with a shift from the conception of ‘lifelong learning’ to ‘information literacy’ and complex academic library services oriented to training students and aca demics. Librarians and academics in most universities and colleges in Lithuania still work individually in provid ing independent training and learning. It is necessary to implement a model of integration of academic library services and resources into the learning process.

1 Academic library is changing towards exible learning centre Electronic information explosion, rapid changes in development of ICT technologies, growing demand of high quality products and services have direct impact on academic libraries as active parts of the education process. One of the main features of academic libraries is the aim to perform such a role in the study process. Academic libraries are at the crossroads and have to rethink their workows, handle properly electronic information, access and use electronic information for teaching and learning, restructure public services and their role within the uni versity (Rader, 1998). The central task of universities is to create new knowledge and encourage and stimulate innovations. Universities as part of innovation systems attract the attention of policy makers and managers. The strategic role of joint ventures and alliances has been discussed in the management literature actively during the last decades. The idea is to combine the distinctive competences of an organization or a unit with those of the part 67

ner or to complement each other, as pointed out by Maija-Leena Huottari and Mirja Iivonen, citing theStuart’s idea (Huotari, Iivonen, 2005). In every case the higher education sector seems to be a core part of generating successful and effective fu ture society. Undoubtedly it is one of the reasons why it attracts much attention of both specialists at internation al level as well as specialists in every country in the last decades. Investigations of different aspects of the sub ject had been carried out. Universities and colleges make efforts to identify the need to analyze their information ows and process es and to develop more sophisticated models. There is not the one and only global leader inspiring new quality of academic support services, several prerequisites are important. It became obvious that investment into and man agement of the technological infrastructure is no longer efﬁcient when fragmented systems from different ser vices providers are used, as this leads to information being hoarded and not shared (Managing academic support services, 2005). The need of students and faculty for qualitative information skills causes that librarians are shift ed into the teaching sphere. Building strong collaborative relationships with faculty is another important condi tion for successful teaching and learning in higher education.

2 Integration of academic library resources and services into the study process The core of the model consists of main stages and parts of the integration process and aspects which make an en tity. An attempt to outline main stages or elements of the integration model is presented. The ﬁnal model will be further elaborated. The model is exible and could be applied according to local situation and speciﬁc features. The local situation analysis is illustrated by results of the survey of Lithuanian academic libraries. Situation analysis. It is strongly recommended to carry out this analysis. The aim of the analysis could be to analyze university and college libraries’ experience in the ﬁeld and the state of the art of the collaboration between faculty and academic library. Best practices could be identiﬁed and possible models could be created based on general requirements and local needs and special conditions (see section 3). Political, economical and social factors throughout the single country must be taken into the account. Institutional actions. Universities and colleges are institutions marked by different internal organizational culture models. Differences between organizational culture at the faculties and libraries are obvious. Some im portant and common actions make it possible to unify organizational culture traditions in both libraries and col leges aimed at reaching common tasks. The actions are as follows: • administrative (partnership and collaboration between library and faculty could be involved / must be reected in legal documents; administrative unit could be established, or group of specialists or at least one staff member must be appointed; instructions for staff prepared etc.), • necessary structural changes carried out on macro and micro level (redistribution of functions, commit ments and tasks, structural changes, reallocation of resources, facilities etc.), • content creation and management actions (design or redesign of training curricula, information services update, establishment of new services), • partnership building: collaboration between academic library and teaching faculty includes many aspects of the activity. It is dangerous to limit it by separate commonly prepared workshops, or web tutorials, or information literacy programs. Bruce identiﬁes ﬁve different dimensions of the faculty-academic partner ship: policy partnerships, research partnerships, curriculum partnerships, higher degree supervision, aca demic development partnerships (Bruce, 2001; Doskatsch, 2003). Information Commons. The Information Commons (IC) is an evolving concept. IC has emerged as an ef fective model of integrated library public services. The IC combines traditional, paper-print library services and resources with computer technologies and digital resources in a relatively seamless service environment. Most institutions move towards Information Commons step by step, and only ﬁnancially and culturally strong ones are able to establish IC entirely. Information literacy is the curriculum that information professionals teach within the IC framework. They both enable effective library work and high-quality education process (Duncan and Woods, 2004; Beatty and White, 2005; Juceviciene and Tautkeviciene, 2003). R. Bailey identiﬁes the most common elements of integrated services in an IC: • physical location (one or more oors of a library), • access to traditional library services (general information, library catalog access, reference service, circu lation, interlibrary loan, etc., • IC technology provided environment (remote access, networks, public access computers and other hightech equipment of various types), • resources integrated in terms of space, desk, staff, training, etc., into traditional library services, • virtual commons, • library-centric (basically integrates traditional library services with those of general and specialty com puter labs) (Bailey, 2005). 68

Librarian as an instructor and educator. It is important to diagnose and recognize the need and the fact of the new and miscellaneous role of a librarian in a new environment. This is the ﬁrst condition and require ment. The second one is that academic librarians need to frame their partnerships within the larger context of the institution’s mission, including the expectations and assumptions of teaching faculty and the library’s pro gramme. Successful collaboration with teaching faculty is based on mutual relationships (The successful aca demic librarian, 2005). A complex picture of the educating role of librarians could be observed in the literature of librarianship. Different variations according to local situations could be constructed. Academic librarians as educators need: understand the institution’s teaching and learning framework and strategy • understand students’ academic requirements • critical reection of a library-centred view of information literacy as training to use speciﬁc information tools with shift towards information literacy as holistic educational outcome • well-developed negotiation and conict resolution skills • abilities of different learning styles and familiarity with wide variety of teaching methods • experience in automated library systems, computers and networking technology, database searching, in ternet searching, resources in electronic formats etc. • competence to collaborate with faculty in planning and implementation of learning activities • promote student-centered learning and foster lifelong learning • capability to develop, deliver and evaluate information literacy programs • personal skills (Doskatsch, 2003; Peacock, 2001; Pinﬁeld, 2001; The successful academic librarian, 2005). Creation of an environment requires a range of coalitions (Doskatsch, 2003). According to D. Gillespie and M. Brooks (Doskatsch, 2003) coalition is based on a partnership, and all participants of this partnership must have strong institutional commitment to and support for the integration of library services into the curriculum (information literacy). Target groups. Different target groups participate in the process of the integration of academic library ser vices and resources into the study process. Main categories of the subjects include: • direct subjects (participants of the study process: learning personnel and students; service participants: service providers (librarians), service recipient (library users), • indirect subjects (study process administrators, library managers and administrators, university and col lege administrators, teaching faculty administrators, ICT specialists). Each category of the subjects has its own role and responsibilities. Direct subjects are committed to con tent creation, delivery and participation in the process of the content usage. Indirect subjects participate in main tenance of content and processes of delivery. Training and teaching content: curricula. For the integration of processes of training and teaching and content delivery different capabilities are needed. It is necessary to proceed through the following ﬁve stages of the process: • planning, • training content (curricula) creation, • choosing appropriate training methods, • training process or content delivery, • evaluation.

3 Integration of the Lithuanian academic libraries’ services into the study process (teaching users information literacy): analysis of the situation Object – experience of Lithuanian academic (university and college) libraries integrating their services into the study process. Aim – to determine the level of library collaboration with the faculty and integration of activities into the study process (teaching information literacy). Goals: • to carry out the analysis of Lithuanian academic libraries’ experience in teaching users information literacy; • to select Lithuanian academic libraries whose achievements are the highest in this sphere and to present the IL models that are applied in those libraries. Methods. Throughout the research the methods of analysis, comparative method, systems method, and a questionnaire have been applied. 69

In the ﬁrst stage of the investigation a questionnaire Experience of Lithuanian academic libraries – how to integrate teaching users’ information literacy was prepared and distributed to libraries. Nineteen questions were included in the questionnaire. Respondents had an option to present their own versions of answers (option Other). While answering a number of questions respondents could choose one or several answer variants. The questionnaire was distributed among all 15 Lithuanian university libraries. 12 Lithuanian college lib raries (from total 20) representing different administrative units throughout the country were selected as well. During the second stage the questionnaire data were processed and analysis of the libraries that had per formed most successfully in the ﬁeld of teaching users IL was made, and ﬁve models based on the Lithuanian academic libraries’ experience were identiﬁed.

3.1 Activities of Lithuanian academic libraries in training users IL Fifteen state university libraries (UL) (100% from total questionnaires distributed) and 10 college libraries (CL) (83 % from total questionnaires distributed) participated in the survey. (One UL claimed that such activities were not carried out at their library at all, and two CL did not ﬁll up the questionnaire). Therefore, the integration of IL and library services into the study process was analyzed based on the experience of 14 university and 10 college libraries. The most important ﬁndings are the following: Collaboration Ten UL conﬁrmed that collaboration between the library and faculties in training users IL existed, while one library replied negatively. Respondents from three UL were not able to answer unambiguously to the ques tion whether such collaboration is carried out, stating that such collaboration is not satisfactory and that it is suc cessfully realized only with certain faculties. With other faculties the collaboration is very weak or non existent although libraries remind faculties about their initiatives on information literacy from time to time. The question about evaluation of such collaboration was answered afﬁrmatively by 13 libraries (6 of them evaluated it as satis factory, 5 – as good and only 2 libraries – as very good). 8 CL stated that such collaboration exists and only one library pointed out that it is insufﬁcient. One library mentioned that there is no such collaboration, and one lib rary did not answer to this question at all. Half of those who answered (4) assessed it as good, one – very good and one – unsatisfactory. In the process of teaching users IL academic libraries collaborate with faculties and ad ministrative units (teaching personnel, faculty administration, university study administrators, others). Collaboration: ways of co-working between academic libraries and faculties Libraries of both types indicated that the most frequently used collaborative ways and forms are library presentations of information resources. Library representatives are fully free to prepare these presentations (UL 67%, CL 70%). 27% of UL discuss the content of courses together with faculty lecturers. In CL in 20% of cases the librarians are directed by lecturers what information should be introduced. Content of information literacy training at academic libraries The content of information literacy training at universities most often consists of the following ways (each one is supplied by 28% of answers): • training of how to use electronic information resources, • presentation of library electronic catalogue and information system. Presentations of traditional information resources, copyright, citation, general knowledge about IL were mentioned as well. CL most often present their information systems (42%), in the second place – library elec tronic catalogues (32%). The last position included the training of how to use electronic information resources (26%). Its smaller rating may be caused by the fact that at college libraries we can ﬁnd less subscribed databases. Collaboration: forms of training Most frequently used forms of IL training at universities are lectures (34%) and individual conversations with users (29%). Four libraries have prepared internet guides for independent study. One of them, a special homepage for university pedagogical and research personnel, was prepared in the form of the most frequently asked questions and answers. In contrast to this, the most popular form with CL was an individual conversation (69%). A student IL club was established in one college. However, the respondent indicated that students are not much willing to attend the club. Training: continuance The question about the continuance of IL training was answered by 9 respondents from UL and they stated that it is a one-time introduction (mostly for bachelors). One respondent mentioned that it lasted 2 aca demic hours. 6 libraries stated that they have prepared several training modules, ranging from 1 to 14 academic hours in lenghth. In one university a course of 160 hours is offered to students of the ﬁrst course of postgraduate studies and they have to prepare a paper. In 2 universities information literacy courses of 2 credits have been pre pared and delivered. In one university a 6 hour course for post graduates and one optional training course lasting 70

for 1 hour are provided each week. In 7 college libraries there is a one-time introductory course in duration of 24 academic hours. Other libraries do not have any settled system. Competence of users acquired throughout the period of training During the training libraries strive to teach the users how to ﬁnd necessary information in different in formation resources and to be able to integrate the selected information into the existing knowledge and system of values (UL 22% of answers, CL 17% of answers), to acquire knowledge how to use economic, legal and so cial information, how to use this knowledge ethically and legally (UL 20% of answers, CL 8% of answers), to determine the need and scope of necessary information (UL 16% of answers), how to achieve results using in formation efﬁciently while working individually and in groups (UL 11% of answers, CL 8% of answers). UL, which are involved in research work, stated that they link IL competence with the process of research work. The capabilities acquired by users during IL trainings indicated by subjects include: • to determine the demand for necessary information and its scope, • to ﬁnd necessary information in different information resources, • to assess critically information and its resources and be capable to integrate the selected information into the knowledge and value system on hand, • using information efﬁciently to achieve high-quality results working individually and in groups, • to acquire knowledge how to use economic, legal and social information, and use this information ethically and legally, • other. Responsibilities With half of the UL (50%) the responsibility for user IL lies upon separate subdivisions: as a rule it is a department providing information services to readers. Another half is divided between library administration and appointed individual ofﬁcers. Whereas with CL this responsibility is divided between library administration and individual workers (maybe this is determined by a smaller number of the staff in college libraries). In aca demic libraries courses of information literacy are conducted by an appointed library ofﬁcer (in 5 UL and in 7 CL), by permanent group of workers (in 8 UL). In rare cases courses are read by faculty lecturers as well (in 2 UL, in 1 CL) (in one UL courses were conducted both by librarians and lecturers). One CL has not provided any answer to this question, another answered that courses are conducted by invited lecturers. Specifying the number of staff conductomg IL courses UL noted that it ranges from 2 to 3 or from 8 to 9. Requirements for tutors of information literacy courses With regard to answers to the question about requirements that teachers of IL courses should fulﬁll, academ ic libraries pointed out perfect knowledge of library information resources and technology competency (UL – 45% of all answers, CL – 62% of all answers). In the second place good computer literacy skills have been mentioned (UL – 41% of all answers, CL – 23% of all answers). As for the pedagogical experience of course tutors, the an swers formed only a small part (UL – 14% of all answers, CL – 15% of all answers). One UL answered, that the course tutor should have completed international courses and have a certiﬁcate. Some of the UL underlined that it would be useful if the course tutors were communicative, with fast orientation, and sense of humour. IL training place Informational literacy courses are organized in a ﬁxed classroom in central library (UL – 40% of all an swers, CL – 67% of all answers), in a ﬁxed classroom in a faculty library (UL – 12% of all answers, CL – 11% of all answers), in a ﬁxed classroom in a faculty (UL – 16% of all answers, CL – 22% of all answers). Nevertheless, only 32% of UL answers showed that there is no ﬁxed place, training is being carried out in any classroom that is not occupied at the moment. The technical equipment level of premises might be higher. 41% of UL training premises have access to electronical resources, 33% is equippeded with multimedia software. Only 26% of an swers afﬁrmed that there is a necessary number of computers. 47% of CL answers stated that the number of com puters is sufﬁcient, however, most of all they lack multimedia software. Integration of IL courses into study plans of higher school There is no established order of organizing courses. Most often it is followed by demand (in 7 UL, in 4 CL). On the other hand in 6 UL and in 3 CL the information literacy training is included in the curriculum and compuls ory to all ﬁrst year students. Other UL stated that courses are mandatory or mandatory only for students of different study levels (in one – only for doctoral students), or integrated in study plans of certain faculties. In some libraries they are included as an optional subject. 3 UL and 5 CL indicated that courses have not been integrated in study plans and are not mandatory although, in their opinion, trainings might be much more effective if they were integ rated into curricula. Trainings are mostly prepared for target groups (in 12 UL and 6 CL), although in some academ ic libraries they are provided for all those who are interested or at the request of the faculty. Information about IL dissemination Information about trainings is placed at the library web site (UL – 24% of all answers, CL – 18% of all answers) or posted up on notice boards of higher schools and its subdivisions (UL – 32% of all answers, CL – 67% of all answers). Libraries mentioned messages by email as an effective means of dissemination news to uni 71

versity community (UL – 24% of all answers). Some of them print information leaets. In three UL and one CL this information is reected in the curriculum.

3.2 Most typical models of IL training at Lithuanian academic libraries Summarizing the data of the questionnaire we can see that there is no universal system, either among UL or among CL. IL training order varies much and it is difﬁcult to distinguish the most typical models of these activities. 4 university libraries and 1 college library have been chosen whose experience in user IL training may be considered as most successful. Evaluation of activities is divided into three parts: IL training module at the uni versity library, presenting its forms, continuance and content; library subdivisions and individuals responsible for IL and requirements for course tutors; premises of IL training and necessary technological equipment. Each model consists of several structural parts: model status, teaching forms, continuance of courses, con tent, responsible personnel, requirements for course tutors, place and necessary equipment. Each model is based on empirical data received from libraries. Model 1: • Status: Courses integrated in study plans and are compulsory to higher grade students (PhD students) (up to 2005 the courses were compulsory for ﬁrst year students) • Form: Lectures, seminars, independent learning, internet tutorials • Continuance: Training organized separately for target groups. Several training modules are prepared: 6 hours for doctoral students, 6 hours introductory trainings about library information system and elec tronic catalogue,1 hour voluntary training each week • Content: Electronic information and use of them; library electronic catalogue; library information system; presentation of new collections of traditional information resources; specialized topics (for example „Evidence Based Medicine“, researchers’ training aids „Reference Manager“) • Responsibility: Library administration and Department of scientiﬁc information • Requirements for course tutors: IL courses taught by a stable group of 3 specialists. They have to know well library information resources and how to use them, have good computer literacy skills, have a certiﬁcate in international librarians training, update their knowledge in seminars, courses, conferences • Place and equipment: Special classroom (located in the central library or faculty), technological equip ment: required number of computers, multimedia projector and the screen, access to library electronic re sources Model 2: • Status: Courses included in ﬁrst year study plans and compulsory to all ﬁrst year students. Attempts to in tegrate courses into study plans and make them optional for senior students or postgraduates • Form: Lectures, seminars, individual conversations, internet tutors for self-training, • special web site courses for university pedagogical and research staff in the form of most frequent ques tions and answers (ﬁrst of such type in Lithuania) • Continuance: One-time introduction course (2 academic hours) designated to each ﬁrst year group in the whole faculty. Courses of information literacy (6-10 hours), one-time seminars (1-2 hours) • Content: Electronic information resources and training how to use them; library electronic catalogue; lib rary information system; general information literacy (types of information resources, means of scientiﬁc communication, information searching and processing, etc.) • Responsibility: A responsible person is appointed. IL courses are lead by one appointed ofﬁcer and faculty lecturer/s (in some modules information literacy makes a part of the module) • Requirements for course tutors: Should have pedagogical experience; not only good computer literacy skills but also general informational literacy skills, as well; understand the usage patterns not only of lib rary but also of many other information resources and scientiﬁc communication. Tutors should deepen their knowledge in presentations of databases: traditional and electronic information, sharing experience with colleagues; reading literature on information literacy • Place and equipment: Training of the ﬁrst year students in a ﬁxed classroom in the central library. For others – in any classroom available at the training time. All necessary equipment is brought to classrooms. Model 3: • Status: Courses are not integrated in all study plans of the university but they are compulsory to the ﬁrst year postgraduates of one faculty, in another faculty courses are optional for bachelors • Form: Lectures and Internet tutorials for self-training • Continuance: One-time introduction (a lecture of 2 academic hours) for postgraduate students. Several training modules for ﬁrst year postgraduate students – 160 hours research work.Upon request presenta tions of library information system, services and databases are provided – 2 academic hours 72

•

• •

•

Content: Electronic information resources and training how to use them, library electronic catalogue, lib rary information system, presentations of new collections of traditional information resources, primary and secondary sources, searching process (for postgraduate students) Responsibility: Department of informational services at the library is responsible for the activities, courses are delivered by an appointed group of 3 library ofﬁcers Requirements for course tutors: Should have pedagogical experience (2 workers have pedagogical educa tion), computer literacy skills, knowledge of library information resources and their use. They deepen their knowledge in special training courses on presentations of databases, traditional and electronic in formation resources, share experience with colleagues Place and equipment: Training is provided in a ﬁxed classroom in the central library, in a ﬁxed classroom in the faculty or in any classroom available at the training time. Necessary number of computers, multi media projector and a screen, access to library electronic resources are provided in the classroom.

Model 4: • Status: Courses are included in the ﬁrst year curricula and compulsory to all ﬁrst year students, integrated in the study plans and compulsory to students of senior courses, lectures on databases use are provided on request • Form: Lectures, seminars, individual advisory conversations, assistance in the use of electronic cata logues and databases (PowerPoint) • Continuance: One-time introduction and several training modules • Content: Electronic information resources and training how to use them, library electronic catalogue, lib rary information system • Responsibility: Administration and readers’ service and Information Department are responsible for this activity at the library. IL courses are read by an appointed group of 10 persons. • Requirements for course tutors: Have to know well library information resources and their usage; have computer literacy skills. Workers deepen their competency in special training courses, with regard to data bases presentations, traditional and electronic information resources, they share experience with col leagues, participate in conferences in Lithuania and abroad. • Place and equipment: Information literacy training courses are provided: in a ﬁxed classroom in the cent ral or faculty library, in any classroom available at the training time. Classroom is equipped with neces sary number of computers, multimedia projector anda screen, access to library electronic resources is provided. Model 5: • Status: Courses are included in the ﬁrst course study plans and compulsory to all ﬁrst year students • Form: Lectures and individual conversations • Continuance: One-time introduction • Content: Electronic information resources and training how to use them, library electronic catalogue, lib rary information system • Responsibility: Library administration is responsible for this activity at the library, training course is read by an appointed ofﬁcer • Requirements for course tutors: They should have knowledg of library information resources and how to use them. The ofﬁcer deepens his competency in special courses and shares experience with colleagues • Place and equipment: Courses are read in a ﬁxed classroom at the faculty. Classroom provides necessary number of computers, multimedia projector and the screen, access to library electronic resources.

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ASHER, C. Separate but equal: librarians, academics and information literacy. Australian AcademicResearch Libraries, vol. 34, No 1, March 2003. http://alianet.alia.org.au/publishing/aarl/34.1/full.text/asher.html BAILEY, R. Information Commons services for learners and researchers: evolution in patron needs, digital resources and scholarly publishing. INFORUM 2005: 11th Conference on Professional Information Resources, Prague, May 24-26, 2005. http://www.inforum.cz/inforum2005/pdf/Bailey_Russell.pdf BEATTY, S., WHITE, P. Information Commons: Models for eLiteracy and the integration of learning. Journal of eLiteracy, vol. 2, 2005, p. 2-14. http://www.jelit.org/archive/00000052/01/JeLit_Paper_16.pdf BRUCE, Ch. Faculty-librarian partnerships in Australian higher education: critical dimensions [interaktyvus]. Reference Services Review, vol. 29, No 2, 2001, p. 106-115. http://www.emerald-library.com.ft BROPHY, P. The Academic Library. London: Facet Publishing, 2002. 214 p. Characteristics of Programs of Information Literacy that Illustrate Best Practices: A Guideline. ALA : The Asociation of College and research Libraries, 2003. http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/characteristics.htm DORNER, J. L., TAYLOR, S. E., HODSON-CARLTON, K. Faculty-librarian collaboration for nursing information literacy: a tiered approach. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet?Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/2 400290206.html 73

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DOSKATSCH, I. Perceptions and perplexities of the faculty-librarians partnership: an Australian perspective. In: Reference Services Review, vol. 31, No 2, 2003, p. 111-121. http://www.emeraldinsight.com DUNCAN, J., WOODS, L. Creating the Information Commons: Connection, Community, Collaboration. 2004, June 5. http://www.pace.edu/library/pages/ootul/infocommons/pacelib-creating_the_information_commons.pdf DUOBINIENĖ, G., TAUTKEVIČIENĖ, G. Akademinė biblioteka besimokančioje visuomenėje: mokymosi aplinkos raiška KTU bibliotekoje. Informacijos mokslai, 2002, nr 20, p. 193-200. GLOSIENĖ, A., KRIVIENĖ, I. Vilniaus universiteto fakultetų bibliotekų atnaujinimo strategija. Informacijos mokslai, 2005, 33, p. 52-67. Guidelines for Instruction Programs in Academic Libraries. ALA: The Asociation of College and research Libraries, 2003. http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/guidelinesinstruction.htm HUOTARI, M.-L., IIVONEN, M. Knowledge processes: A strategic foundation for the partnership between the university and its library. Library Management, vol. 26, No 6/7, 2005, p. 324-335. Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. ALA: The Asociation of College and research Libraries, 2000. http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/informationliteracycompetency.htm JUCEVIČIENĖ, P., TAUTKEVIČIENĖ, G. Academic library as a learning environment: how do students perceive it? Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Hamburg, 17-20 September, 2003. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00003274.htm KUMARESAN, S. C. Librarian to educator: teaching skills for librarians. In: SALIS E-Lib, vol. 1 (1), Jan-Jun 2003. http://autolib-india.net/sej_001.pdf LECKIE, G., FULLERTON, A. The roles of academic librarians in fostering a pedagogy for information literacy. ACRL Ninth NATIONAL Conference, April 8-11, 1999. http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlevents/leckie99.pdf Managing academic support services in universities: the convergence experience/ed. By Terry Hanson. Facet Publishing, 2005. 216 p. NUNAN, T.; RIGMOR G.; MCCAUSLAND, H. Rethinking the ways in which teaching and learning are supported: the exible learning centre at the university of South Australia. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, May 2000, vol. 22, Issue 1. OBERMAN, C., LINDAUER, B. G., WILSON, B. Integrating information literacy into the curriculum. C&RL News, May 1998, vol. 59, No.5. http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/crinews/backissues1998/may7/integratinginformation.htm Objectives for Information Literacy Instruction: A Model Statement for Academic Librarians. ALA: The Asociation of College and research Libraries, 2001. http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/objectivesinformation.htm PEACOCK, J. Teaching skills for teaching librarians: postcards from the edge of the educational paradigm. Australian Academic&Research Libraries, vol. 32, no1, May 2001. http://www.alia.org.au/publishing/aarl/32.1/full.text/jpeacock.html PINFIELD, S. The changing role of subject librarians in academic libraries. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 33 (1), March 2001, p. 32-38. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/archive/00000033/03/jolis.pdf RADER, H. B. Faculty-librarian collaboration in building the curriculum for the millenium: the US experience. IFLA Journal, 1998, no 25 (4), p. 209-212. Standards for Libraries in Higher Education. ALA: The Asociation of College and research Libraries, 2004. http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/standardslibraries.htm The successful academic librarian: winning strategies from library leaders/ ed. By Gwen Meyer Gregory. Medford, New Jersey: Information Today, Inc., 2005. 231 p.

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Memory institutions in Croatia: digital services and their users: state of the art report 1

Sanjica Faletar Tanacković; 2Maja Krtalić Information Sciences Department, Faculty of Philosophy, Osijek University, L. Jaegera 9, 31000 Osijek, Croatia 1 [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract The advent and development of information and communications technology (ICT), among other factors, has set the stage for the convergence of memory institutions (libraries, museums and archives) based upon their philosophies, content and services. However, it is still questionable how their services, especially value-added services supported by digital technolo gy, are perceived and used by users. The aim of this paper is to present current situation regarding the digitization of cultur al heritage material in Croatia and give a short overview of digital services offered by Croatian archives, libraries and mu seums. Small-scale research is planned to collect data regarding the (average) Croatian citizens’ knowledge and use of memory institutions’ (digital) services.

Keywords memory institutions; libraries; museums; archives; digitization; digital services; users

Introduction Archives, libraries and museums are cultural institutions whose main purpose is to select/collect, organize, pre serve and facilitate access to and use of different cultural and scientiﬁc material and information about the mater ial. Although their mission has always been to serve the users (or at least we tend to think so today), they have not always been (fully) open to the general public. It was not long ago when a director of a famous museum declared: „Users? Well, we don’t mind if they come to our exhibitions.“ (Šola, 2003, p. 48). Such attitudes should be carefully considered given the impact these institutions have on individuals but also on the cultural, educational, economic and democratic development of society in general. Widespread use of information and communications technology (ICT) in memory institutions, which in tensiﬁed in particular with advent of WWW in the last decade of the 20th century, has provided these institutions with unprecedented possibilities in curating and presenting or communicating their collections. Users of memory institutions, also under the inuence of ICT which has changed many aspects of their lives including industrial, shopping, education, and leisure activities, started to demand instant and free access to material and information.1 Since the late 1990s digitization, both as means of preservation and facilitation of access to information/material and popularization of culture and heritage in general, has become a buzz-word in the archiveslibrary-museum world. National and international professional associations and organizations, such as the European Commission on Preservation and Access (ECPA2), European Heritage Network (EHN3), Digital Cul tural Content Forum4, National Initiative for a Networked Cultural Heritage (NINCH5), etc., projects and co ordinating actions, such as MINERVA6 and CALIMERA7, initiatives and actions such as Lund Principles8 and NRG9, to mention a few, have emerged with the ultimate aim to promote and facilitate use of ICT in memory in stitutions. The most recent initiative has been one developed by European Commission to build the European Di 1 2

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The term ’one-stop-shopping’ was introduced into the cultural sector. ECPA, founded in 1994, is a non proﬁt foundation promoting and supporting collaboration of European archives, libraries, museums and related institutions in order to preserve published and documentation materials in all formats. More information is available at the URL: http://www.knaw.nl/ecpa/aims.html (2006-03-23). EHN, founded in 2001, is a permanent information system whose aim is to collect informaton on activities related to preservation of cultural heritage and lists all European digital heritage networks. More information is available at the URL. http://www.europeanheritage.net/sdx/herein/european_heritage_program/presentation.xsp (2006-03-23). The aims of the Digital Cultural Content Forum, among others, are to deﬁne common needs and strategies, create a framework for collaboration, and promote use of standards and best practices in creation, preservation, management, use and interoperability of digital content. More information is available at: Miller, P., Perkins, J. Towards a Digital Cultural Content Forum. // Cultivate Interactive. 7(2001). URL: http://www.cultivate-int.org/issue7/washington/ (2006-03-23). Members of NINCH, founded in the U.S. in 1996, are libraries, archives, museums, universities, professional associations, publishers etc, and their aim is to ensure a strong and informed cultural community in the digital environment. More information is available at the URL: http://www.ninch.org/about/mission.html (2006-03-23). More information about MINERVA – Ministerial Network for Valorizing Activities – in digitisation is available at the URL: http://www.minervaeurope.org/whatis/minervaplus.htm (2006-04-09). CALIMERA – Cultural Applications: Local Institutions Mediating Electronic Resource Access – is a coordination action under EU IST FP 6 whose aim is to encourage collaboration among local memory institutions and use of ICT in these institutions. More information is available at the URL: http://www.calimera.org (2006-04-20). Lund Principles were created in 2001 with the ultimate aim to contribute to the coordination and realization of added value to sustainable digitization projects. More information is available at the URL: http://www.cordis.lu/ist/directorate_e/digicult/lund_p_browse.htm (2006-03-08).

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gital Library whereby the importance of digitized material in education and economic development of the European information society has been emphasized10. In several European countries, e. g., UK11 and Norway12, national strategic bodies have been formed, at the initiative of the national government, to promote the collaboration of memory institutions and use of ICT in the cul tural sector. More and more countries are drafting cultural policies and digitization policies13 with professional par ticipation from different cultural sectors. Furthermore it is now clear that sufﬁcient ﬁnancial support must be provided not only for the start up of the digitization (pilot) project but also for its long-term maintenance. However, all these efforts seem not to have been, so far, sufﬁcient enough to provide a fruitful environ ment for successful digitization projects in practice. The piecemeal nature of digital content creation and varied approaches taken by different projects could bring about, as T. Kuny has put it, digital dark ages. According to him, it is up to knowledgeable and skilled heritage professionals „with some evidence of political will behind us, with a raft of new programs in their infancy, and with clear lessons to be learned from innovators, to initiate and actively participate in development of the next-generation of truly user-focused, interoperable services.“ (Miller&Perkins, 2001).

ICT and memory institutions in Croatia A detailed study of Croatian cultural policy and other strategic documents shows that Croatia has recognized the vital need for use of ICT in memory institutions and that collaboration among these institutions has been set as one of the most important strategic goals. The strategy for the development of ICT in Croatia, adopted in 2001, emphasizes the need for moderniza tion of archives, libraries and museums, in particular in relation to their management, material processing and services, through the use of modern technologies. (Hrvatska u 21. stoljeću: informacijska i komunikacijska tehnologija (Croatia in the 21st Century: Information and Communication Technology), 2001). It further points out that high-quality digital cultural and national content should be created on the basis of material held by archives, libraries and museums in order to satisfy the needs of all citizens, including students, researchers, etc. In order to achieve that, it states that the most important cultural and national treasures (manuscripts, books, magazines, museum artifacts, archives, maps, photographs, sound recordings, music sheets, etc.) should be digit ized and archived into digital libraries. Special attention should be given to the selection of material, standards, copyright and generation of income. Also, it notes that pilot projects should be initiated ﬁrst so as to gain initial experience in digitization, electronic publishing and digital library design and development. Although Aparac-Jelusic asked for the creation of national digitization strategy in 2000 as a prerequisite of rational and efﬁcient access to national digital material and preservation of Croatian digital heritage (AparacJelušić, 2000, p.114), it was only in 2004 that the initiative for the creation of national digitization programme of archival, library and museum material came from the National and University Library and Croatian Library Council. The digitization working group, consisting of 13 members from all three sectors, was formed and it pre pared a Draft of the National Program of Digitization of Archival, Library and Museum Material. (Križaj&Seit er-Šverko, 2005). This document tried to identify goals and content for a national digitization programme in cul tural institutions, describe preconditions for its introduction and implementation, assess possibilities and determ ine its speciﬁc activities and effects. It states that the national digitization programme „aims to encourage and fa cilitate systematic and balanced approach to digitization in cultural institutions, development of digital cultural content and services, preservation, processing and use of material. It is focused on creation of long-term digitiza tion policy and advancement of institutional, technological, professional and organizational capacities and infra structure which are prerequisite for programme implementation and development and management of individual digitization projects.“ (Prijedlog nacionalnog programa digitalizacije arhivske, knjižnične i muzejske građe, 2005). It further emphasizes that the national digitization programme is not envisioned as a single all-encom passing digitization project which will produce speciﬁc digital content, but as a set of activities geared towards the achievement of set goals. It could be said that this document offers a framework for the planning and organ ization of national, institutional and cooperative digital projects and is targeted at professionals undertaking such projects. It is also required reading for policy and decision makers and ﬁnanciers. Although the stage for successful digitization projects is only now being set by policy makers, as we have just shown in the previous paragraph, memory professionals made their ﬁrst efforts in this direction back in 1997. Thanks to the vision of Mirna Willer that year all three professional communities in Croatia realized 9

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Establishment of the National Representatives Group – NRG was initiated in Lund. It consists of representatives of European governments and heritage professionals. This strategic group monitors, implements and coordinates digitization programs and strategies in Europe. More information is available at URL: http://www.minervaeurope.org/structure/nrg.htm (2006-04-09). Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, i2010 – Digital Libraries, 2005. The Museums, Libraries and Archives Council – MLA, was founded in 2000. More information is available at URL: http://www.mla.gov.uk/ (2006-04-20). ABM-utvikling was founded in 2003. More information is available at the URL: http://www.abm-utvikling.no. (2006-04-20). More on this is available in the MINERVA Progress Report : Coordinating digitization in Europe, 2004. URL:http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/globalreport/globalrep2004.htm (2006-04-09).

that all three institutions, archives, libraries and museums, were facing similar problems, posed predominantly by new technology. Therefore, they initiated a series of seminars entitled Archives, Libraries, Museums – Pos sibilities for Co-operation within the Environment of the Global Information Infrastructure. The purpose of the seminar series, in the words of its initiator, was „to bring together experts who work with theoretical as sumptions and their application in the automated processing and usage of materials in archives, libraries and museums, to motivate the participants to exchange their ideas, knowledge and experience as well as to recog nize the ﬁelds and levels in which co-operation is possible in creating and approaching information.“ (Willer, 1997). The seminar series has been held annually for 10 years now and has attracted many participants from Croatia and abroad. Unfortunately, only several valuable, small-scale projects in which all three professional groups took part, were initiated.14 However, a survey of digital services offered by Croatian archives, libraries and museums shows that ICT is used but not evenly in memory institutions in Croatia, and that there are several very successful digitization pro jects. However, these projects, as it will be shown, have mainly been products of enthusiastic individuals, mainly librarians, and cannot be maintained if adequate support (professional, technical, ﬁnancial) is not provided. A feature, which is not unique only in Croatia, is that the library sector, due to the nature of their work and early adoption of new technology, is the most advanced in this area. Museums follow, and archives lag behind (e. g., archival information systems in Croatia have not yet been developed and a little over 50% of archives have their own web sites). According to the Croatian Library Association list, 31 public libraries, 56 academic libraries and 10 school libraries have their own web sites. Two main online public access catalogues involve 326 libraries (CROL IST-43 and Metel-283). Out of 226 museums in Croatia, 116 have a web site which is also somewhat over 50%, and their services are more developed than those of archives, as it will be shown below. A closer look at the archives’ web sites (a total of 11), through which digital services are to be offered, shows that the following information can be found there: general information (history of the institution, archives, working hours and contacts), list and description of exhibitions, list of publications, collection description, searchable cata logue15, selected digitized archival material16 and special services for users, e. g., digitization on demand (genealo gical data, etc.) which prove to be more and more popular (Figure 1). 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 general information

publishing activities

collection description

searchable catalogue

exhibitions

selected digitised archival material

digitisation on demand

Figure 1. Online information at archives’ web sites

Within the museum sector, the Museum Documentation Center (MDC) has played a major role through its project of informatization of museums, Croatian Museums on Internet (started in 1996). Unfortunately, a number of museum web sites which have been developed as part of that project have not been maintained. MDC has also de veloped a calendar of events in Croatian museums which has been regularly updated. Our survey of museums’ web sites (a total of 29 museums available through MDC web site) showed that the majority of museums offer the following online services: general information (history of the institution, contact in formation, working hours), more or less detailed description of the collections, selected digitized museum items, virtual tours17, information about exhibitions (some include images of selected exhibits), permanent exhibitions on line,18 and a list of publications (Figure 2).

14 15 16 17

18

For example, dictionary of Internet terms in Croatian was developed; a working group on interoperable metadata was formed etc. It can be searched by title, name of the creator, place, description, time period, clasiﬁcation, internal number. Here, a lack of (visible) selection criteria is noted. A virtual tour is a very interesting way of presenting museums and their collections. It is possible to select a desired room and take a look at the pictures of rooms and some items. However, what lacks is a guided tour, a contextual description of the exhibits and collections. Permanent exhibitions online offer images of exhibits and their discription as well as additional text about the exhibiton.

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35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 general information

exhibitions

publishing

collection description

selected digitised museum items

virtual tour

permanent exhibition online

multimedia database

Figure 2. Online information at museums’ web sites

As we have already said a number of museums has recognized the importance of providing users with highlights of their collections through their web site. Although selected items from museum collections have been digitized and made available through their web sites, these are not searchable or related to other museums’ services. However, a mention should be made that the Ivan Meštrović Foundation has created a searchable multi media database, on a CD-ROM, with data, images, sound and video recordings, together with catalogue records, on the life and work of one of the most important Croatian sculptors, Ivan Meštrović. An interesting digital ser vice is Arhimir – a portal of educational department of the Zagreb Archaeological Museum. It presents museum content in a way appropriate for children, parents and teachers. Although it is not multimedia, only text, it is im portant because they have recognized the necessity for this kind of user-centered services.19 One of the ﬁrst Croatian digital projects/data bases to be developed and made widely available was the di gital collection which focused on the popular Croatian 19th century poet, Silvije Strahimir Kranjčević.20 The idea for development of digital collection dedicated to the poet came from Daniel Mišćin, a research assistant at Zagreb University. With the help of students volunteers who researched and gathered the material and technical support provided by the Croatian academic and research network (CARNet) large and diverse body of archives, library and museum material was pooled from Croatian and Bosnian21 memory institutions and digitized. Thanks to digital images, texts, sound and video-recordings, access to Kranjčević’s life and work is made possible. We can read his poems in his original writing, examine his private and ofﬁcial correspondence (and that of his family members), listen to his poetry, watch videos on his life and work, see photographs of his family and from his family album, read what was written about him in his time, read critical commentaries of his literary work, or embark on a more serious research by reviewing exhaustive bibliography, etc. The collection can be either viewed according to thematic areas (biography, legacy, poetry, speeches, correspondence, study, etc.) or searched by simple input queries which can be limited to either the whole collection or to certain thematic areas. Another digital collection, which is a more recent endeavor, focuses on a different Croatian 19th century poet, Preradović. Petar Preradović on the Internet22 is, in the words of its enthusiastic authors (public librarians), a database on a local poet whose aim is to promote his work in an interesting and innovative way and bring it closer to Croatian citizens.23 It consists of short text ﬁles, photographs, autographs, sketches and illustrations, music sheets, audio and video recordings, critical commentary and bibliography of his work. All of the material has been obtained from the Bjelovar Public Library, National and University Library in Zagreb, and Preradović’s Memorial House – Museum in Grabrovnica. Although very similar to the Kranjčević project content-wise, this database is a more recent venture (constructed in 2004) and has been produced by a local commercial company. In their introduction, the creators of the web site emphasize that it is their wish that other local history depart ments in Croatian public libraries, inspired by their initiative, create similar content in order to develop one inte grated database on Croatian literary men and women accessible for educational and information purposes. Many other libraries in Croatia have also started small-scale digitization projects. For example, the Franjo Marković City Library from Križevci has started with the digitization of rare and old material from its local his tory collection Crisiensia (newspaper clippings, postcards, maps) in order to preserve it better. So far, only part

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More information is available at www.amz.hr/arhimir/arhimir.asp. Available online at http://www.sskranjcevic.hr. The poet was born in Croatia but worked for many years in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Available online at the URL: http://preradovic.bjelovar.com. Based on private conversation with creators.

of the material from Crisiensia has been digitized (postcards, old documents, newspaper clippings) and is avail able at their web site.24 Newspaper clippings can be searched by date and key word. A small section of the local history collection at Slavonski Brod Public Library25 was also digitized thanks to an enthusiastic librarian. This digital collection, as a stand-alone pilot-project, was based on the open-source, multilingual software Greenstone Digital Library (GDL).26 The main goal of this one-person pilot-project was the preservation of rare and fragile library material held in the local history collection. This digital collection com bines text and old postcards representing historical and cultural sights of Slavonski Brod and is fully searchable. As its creator states, this pilot-project, among others, has helped to gain experience for planning and implementa tion of similar future digital projects in Croatia and face the challenges posed, in particular those of a technical nature. It has also identiﬁed knowledge and skills needed by librarians and ICT specialists if they want to keep pace with current developments.27 In 2004 a consortium of 17 Croatian public libraries joined hands and started a collaborative digital ref erence service „Pitajte knjižničare“. Software was developed and a web site launched offering two kinds of services: value-added information services (a database of annotated and classiﬁed selected resources has been developed and is updated regularly) and communications services, i. e. mediation between information re sources and users (if users do not ﬁnd answers to their questions in the recommended resources, they can con tact librarians who will respond to their query within 48 hours). Questions submitted to the system are dis tributed to reference librarians according to their area of expertise and geographical location. Although this pi lot-project has been marketed only at the participating libraries’ web sites, because of the fear that the team is not ready, i. e., not large enough to go nationally, ﬁrst statistics show that the service has been well accepted and widely used.28 The most recent digital collection offered to Croatian citizens is Digitized Heritage, which is a result of the digitization project at the Croatian National and University Library (the project ended in 2005). It consists of 350 digitized items from the library’s most valuable collections, mostly manuscripts, rare book, maps, graphics, notes, audio material.29 What is especially important, the digitized material is presented in the context of other works by the same author, subject, time period, or is connected with other similar resources on the Internet. The digitized material can be browsed by subject, author or type of material. The collection is also searchable through the library catalogue.

Conclusion and suggestions for further research As it has been shown in this paper, there are several digitization projects in Croatian memory institutions. However, the majority of them emerged from the library sector. The reason is that libraries in Croatia, just as elsewhere, are in a far better position than archives and museums, in relation to public recognition, ﬁnances, ICT implementation, and professional development, etc. Also, projects described above show that in most cases the initiative comes from an individual. In interviews with project initiators it became evident that the lack of re sources (staff, knowledge, time, ﬁnances, technology) can be overcome by enthusiasm and good will. It is also symptomatic that the project creators/leaders emphasize that they want to encourage others to undertake similar projects, which would ultimately result with a comprehensive digital library of national signiﬁcance, and that they want to share their experiences with others colleagues in cultural heritage sector. Nevertheless, we should not forget that memory institutions exist for users. Therefore, in order to see if these institutions fulﬁll their mission, i. e., if offered services meet the needs and expectations of their users, studies of users of memory institutions, both in physical and online environments, should be undertaken. 30 We believe that strategic planning, both at local and national levels, can be successfully carried out only if user needs, habits and be havior are researched and taken into account. In that way, heritage professionals would not plan and develop their services, due to the lack of quantitative and qualitative indicators, solely on perception of users and visitors.

24 25 26

27

28

29 30

URL: http://www.knjiznica-krizevci.hr/hemeroteka/default_o_hemeroteci.asp. This collection is available at the URL: http://www.gksb.hr/web_digitalna.htm. Greenstone is produced by the New Zealand Digital Library Project at the University of Waikato, and developed and distributed in cooperation with UNESCO and the Human Info NGO. It is open-source software, available free of charge from http://greenstone.org under the terms of the GNU General Public License. Bosančić, B. Pilot-projekt oblikovanja digitalne zavičajne zbirke Gradske knjižnice Slavonski Brod pomoću Greenstone programskog paketa, 2004. (Pilot-project: development of digital local history collection at the Slavonski Brod public Library based on open source software Greenstone)/(in print). Statistics show that a large number of non-library members are using this service as well. More information about this project is available at the URL: http://public.carnet.hr/pitajte-knjiznicare/projekt/. More information about the project is available, in Croatian only, at the URL: http://www.nsk.hr/HeritageUnits.aspx?id=197. Interestingly, in Croatia user studies in libraries are rare, and almost non-existing in museums and archives domain. However, methodology for the study of users has been offered by Horvat, J. and S. Pavlinić, K. Petr etc., but only in the context of traditional uses.

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References 

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Aparac-Jelušiċ, T. (2000). Digitalna baština u nacionalnim programima zaštite baštine (Digital heritage in national preservation programs). In Arhivi, knjižnice, muzeji : mogućnosti suradnje u okruženju globalne informacijske infrastrukture : zbornik radova / uredile Mirna Willer i Tinka Katić. Zagreb: Hrvatsko muzejsko društvo, pp. 112-122. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, i2010 – Digital Libraries. (2005). Retrieved 2006-04-20 from: http://europa.eu.int/eur-ex/lex/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2005/com2005_0465en01.pdf. Hrvatska u 21. stoljeću : informacijska i komunikacijska tehnologija (Croatia In The 21st Century: Information And Communication Technology). (2001). Retrieved 2006-05-21 from: http://www.hrvatska21.hr/ict%2018_7_2001.pdf. Križaj, L.; Seiter-Šverko, D. Digitalization of cultural heritage in the Republic of Croatia : from the current situation assessment towards the national strategy. (2005). Retrieved 2006-05-20 from: http://www.minkulture.hr/bastina/skupovi_manifestacije/dokumenti/Digitization%20of%20Cultural%20Heritage%20in%20the%20R epublic%20of%20Croatia.doc. Miller, P., Dawson, D., & Perkins, J. (2005). Standing on the shoulders of giants: Efforts to leverage existing synergies in digital cultural content creation programmes world- wide. Cultivate Interactive. 1(5). Retrieved 2006-0524 from: http://www.cultivate-int.org/issue5/giants/. Prijedlog nacionalnog programa digitalizacije (Draft of National Digitization Program of Archival, Library and Museum Material), manuscript, 2005. Šola, T. (2003). Eseji o muzejima i njihovoj teoriji : prema kibernetičkom muzeju (Essays on Museums And Their Theory : Towards a Cyber Museum). Zagreb: Hrvatski nacionalni komitet ICOM. Miller, P., & Perkins, J. (2001). Towards a digital cultural content forum. Cultivate Interactive 2001(7). Retrieved 2006-04-21 from: http://www.cultivate-int.org/issue7/washington/. Willer, M. (1997). Archives, Libraries and Museums Seminar. Retrieved 2006-04-21 from: http://public.carnet.hr/akm/english/index.html.

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Strategy for digital access to and preservation of cultural, scientiﬁc and intellectual content in the Slovak Republic and coordination of digitisation Martin Katuščák Slovak National Library, Department of Information Technology, nám. J. C Hronského 1, 036 01 Martin, Slovakia [email protected]

Abstract The initiative to prepare common national strategy for digitisation has been launched by the Slovak National Library in ac cordance with the Strategic Framework for Implementing ICT in Culture established by the Ministry of Culture. It is a na tional mid-to-long term plan for preservation of and access to digital cultural, scientiﬁc and intellectual content (also techni cal etc.). The strategic document’s structure is partly based on the action areas of the Dynamic Action Plan for the coordina tion of EU cultural and scientiﬁc content. The strategy should identify major stakeholders, survey of users, identiﬁcation of content and types of materials to be digitised, selection criteria, digitisation project management and deﬁne common methodology and standards. Material part of the document will be a localization of the Dynamic Action Plan and MINER VA Knowledge Base guidelines, making use of the best practices of Europe and other parts of the world. A great emphasis must be laid on standards and interoperability and the existing systems must be revised for sustainability. For the purpose of completing the strategy the Slovak National Library prepares a data collection campaign from cultural, research and educa tional entities that are in any way dealing with digital content. This survey will help investigate the current situation of both digital and digitised content and analogue content to be digitised, and analyse the needs and requirements of the organisa tions and their users. The Strategy will include input from various policy makers, communities, experts and general public and its scope extends throughout many domains. It will be ofﬁcially adopted and promoted by the Board on Implementa tion of ICT in Culture, an advisory body of the Minister of Culture before the end of 2006. The online full version of the strategy is available for comments and further input at http://www.viks.sk/digitus/strategicky_plan_digitalizacie.htm.

Keywords national strategy for digitisation; coordination of digitisation; cultural and scientiﬁc content; digital libraries; digital access and preservation

Introduction Digital technologies applied in the environment of traditional cultural, scientiﬁc, research, educational and other miscellaneous entities can be regarded as a kind of relief for what used to be called the „information crisis“ some decades ago. People have seemingly accepted the fact that there is really extreme excess of information (or con tent) coming through variety of channels and alternating media. Rapid technological development can create situations that entertained people in science-ﬁction novels and movies from depth of the 20th century. Television, internet and mobile technologies enable instant access, hypothetically, to all of the content in the universe. While quantity and excess of content is taken as a fact, one has to think about the notorious quality of content and this is where traditional institutions come with their wealth. It is still hard to imagine that actually all of their content can be put into digital form but technological advances and innovation enable taking mass digitisation measures and almost all of the newly created content is in digital form. The globally interconnected community has to face the common problem of digital preservation, standards and interoperability, which requires further costs extend ing beyond life cycles of large number of separate activities. Users have the right of permanent access to the con tent collected and preserved by the various entities, especially to the public domain content and unwillingness to take necessary measures due to lack of funds cannot be accepted as an excuse for the future. The goals of presenting this document are to present a few ideas and observations concerning strategies for digitisation in Slovak circumstances, to promote the coordinated approach to digitisation, to mobilise Slovak professional communities’ members from all relevant areas and to manifest at international forum that the Slovak Republic is aware of the signiﬁcance of presentation and sustained and organised creation, collection and main tenance of digital content, recognizing the current research and development trends and retaining linkage with content including their storage and conservation of analogue media. One of the major tasks for Slovak libraries, galleries, museums and other important stakeholders is to deﬁne a common strategy for digital access to and pre servation of cultural, scientiﬁc, intellectual content in the Slovak Republic.

1 Digital access and preservation in general The world’s governments have allocated huge funds into research, development, operation and other activities related to digitisation policies, strategies, programs and projects. In Europe, digitisation of cultural heritage re sources is one of the priorities of the cultural policy. Formulating common concepts aimed at attaining the 81

highest quality of technical rendering is a guarantee of retaining information on cultural heritage resources with in European context. Creation of cooperation opportunities among governmental and professional institutions and the IT industry is a basis for the process of digitisation of the European cultural heritage. Multilingualism and cultural diversity is considered as an essential value of the European approach to digitisation. The European Commission’s strategic framework i2010 promotes open and competitive digital economy and highlights the role of information and communication technologies as an element that encourages inclusion of all groups of population to these areas and increases the quality of life. In involvement of citizens to the in formation society it promotes especially the digital libraries, aimed at enabling the use of multimedia resources and increasing their interactivity in connection with the rich European heritage in mutual linking of multicultural and multilingual environments with technological progress and new business models. Digitisation of cultural resources does not represent only a technological process. It includes especially the cultural and social areas. Making access to information on collection objects, monuments, historical tech niques, technologies, work processes of given periods, or on conservation and restoration methods to profession al and general public is mainly a tool for presentation of culture, cultural institutions and their collections, for support of research and scholarly activity. The European Commission intends to build the common European Digital Library, which should be based on the concept of the European Library being currently operated, whose aim is to enable searching in all national libraries of Europe including the Slovak National Library in Martin, that became its full member in July 2006 on the basis of the TEL-ME-MOR project of the European Commission’s 6th R&D Framework Programme. Digitisation, including its economic and technical advantages, is a means of enhancement of availability of the potential held in memory and heritage institutions (libraries, museums, galleries, archives and others). At present it is estimated based on CENL content survey that only a very small percentage of European libraries’ collections are accessible in digital form. There are a few countries like Spain, France, Czech Republic that have apparently invested a lot of resources into mass digitisation measures and have millions of items digitised and/or available online, but the situation in general is that most libraries have only a small quantity of content. Improv ing this situation will mean undoubted positive inuence on making available the information of heritage and memory institution to research and professional communities and also to the general public, by which one of the basic requirements of eEurope will be met. The CENL has announced its plan to make accessible 2 million digital objects by 2008 and 6 million by 2010 in the European Digital Library, which would give a room for contri bution of several ten thousands of digital objects from the Slovak Republic. It is also important to provide links to Slovak language versions of materials available from the European Digital Library. It should be noted, in association with „digital libraries“, that the concept of library is very well known to users from among other cultural entities and therefore the most feasible means to promote digitisation widely. Similar approach can be observed on European level, where the concept of (European Digital) library is prevail ing. In no way can this be seen as a dominance of libraries, however, as far as technology, level of organisation and innovation is concerned, libraries have been in general ahead of other heritage entities. In the opinion of the National Representatives Group, the Michael (project of multilingual inventory of cultural heritage of Europe) could play an important role for integrating museums and archives in the EDL. Both the NRG and the represent ative of TEL expressed interest to cooperate. The old EU member states have formulated in 2001, under the eEurope initiative the Lund Principles aimed at creating a coordination mechanism for digitisation programs. For the purpose of coordination of policies and programs the Lund action Plan was launched and the National Representatives Group was estab lished with nominations from cultural ministries from EU and other countries. The role of NRG’s Secretariat has been carried out by the MINERVA/MINERVA Plus projects [1], that provided for creation of specialized work groups, issued publications and methodological tools along with political documents called the Charter of Parma which supports and follows the Lund Principles. The continuation of the Lund Action Plan is the Dynamic Ac tion Plan for 2006-2007 whose proposal identiﬁed the following barriers: • Fragmented institutional approach • Immatureness of key technologies and standards • Fragmentation of national political approaches • Insufﬁcient integration of digitisation actions in the Europe’s knowledge economy • • • • •

The Plan establishes the following action areas: Users and Content Sustainability Technologies for digitisation Digital preservation Monitoring progress.

Beside the MINERVA projects there is a number of other past or ongoing projects concerned with re search and development of digital cultural and scientiﬁc content such as CALIMERA, ERPANET, TEL-ME82

MOR, DELOS, BRICKS, PRESTOSPACE etc. Of special importance is the DigiCULT forum with inspirational results such as technological development analyses. As a response to the global issue of preservation of digital and digitised content the UNESCO adopted in 2003 the Charter on Preservation of Digital Heritage. The political and ﬁnancial support for coordination of digitisation in Slovakia is not explicitly formulated in any political documents. In 2001 the National Council has adopted a Declaration on Protection of Cultural Heritage, which was followed by 2002 Government Resolution on measures to be taken in culture, where the long term strategy is to form and build a uniform information system for all parts of the cultural and natural her itage compatible with European and world systems. In November 2004 the government approved a strategic document, in which one of the policy goals is to provide for preservation and access to cultural heritage, its systematic digitisation and implementation of ICT to cultural infrastructure. The strategy explicates among others these priorities of the action plan that include digitisation: restoration of audio-visual cultural heritage and launch of the „Register of Culture“ [2], a cultural portal application creating a point of web access to cultural organisations, events and objects. The National Strategic Reference Framework for 2007-2013 has 3 basic strategic areas, (i) human re sources and education, (ii) infrastructure and (iii) innovation implementation and knowledge economy. Along with building quality infrastructure for digitisation of public services, it is necessary to pay special attention to digitisation of and digital access to data and knowledge in heritage and memory institutions, that form a signiﬁcant and in many cases critical content for majority of knowledge oriented processes in economy [3]. Presently, cultural and scientiﬁc digitisation in Slovakia is formally coordinated by the Ministry of Cul ture that is ﬁnancing projects with national signiﬁcance carried out by central institutions. Apart from compli ance to a general project scheme of the State Information Systems there are no further special requirements re garding interoperability and usability of the content and related services. There is no linkage between the content and its usage by the educational sector, Slovak Academy of Sciences, private and non-governmental sectors, where the institutions have no common strategy as well. Many uncoordinated efforts are based on enthusiasm of individuals. It is inevitable to perform a nation-wide survey of content and users and their needs, where the greatest needs can be anticipated in the area of culture, education, science, research and development, tourism and entertainment. This survey will enable determination of the total volume of digital content and to estimate its growth in order to plan resources with sustainable funding. A great investment must be made also in original re search and development in international networks. In Slovakia it is inevitable to formulate a common strategy for digital access and preservation of the cultural, scientiﬁc and intellectual heritage with clearly deﬁned competences and infrastructure for coopera tion, methodology for content selection, standards for processing and access, protection of intellectual rights, long-term preservation. Digitised cultural and scientiﬁc content is created for 2 main purposes – for access and preservation. This means long-term preservation and making the content accessible to the public over long periods of time, especially if that content has been produced using public resources and represents unique and valuable part of the nation’s heritage. The Internet and Web are currently global media accessible universally. It is crucial to issue for the entit ies in the Slovak Republic the relevant recommendations for processing and making access to the content over the Web and make them mandatory, especially in case of content produced from public resources. It is necessary to expose heritage collections to become harvestable by multiple search engines, metasearch engines by appro priate use of metadata. Data available over the Internet must comply with the WWW Consortium regarding Web accessibility (e. g. for disabled persons). Technological development greatly reduces digitisation costs and thus enables taking mass digitisation measures on one hand, however, the long term vision still needs to take into account that it will be necessary to store and enable access to the digital content in any changing ways, which is quite demanding and often not af fordable by small scattered entities. This leads straight to the statement that in each country there should be a na tional strategy for digital access and preservation with clear responsibilities and tasks, extending the scope of activity of the existing institutions. Content and digital objects will be available in the global virtual space all the time from all domains through any concept, in libraries, archives, museums, galleries, memory/heritage repositories, in the future „centres of all possibilities“ or any other entities expressed by concepts used at given domains in given time.

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2 Users and content 2.1 Statistics on potential users of cultural and scientiﬁc content (2004) The Slovak Republic has a population of 5.4 million inhabitants. In the educational domain, there were 108 608 university students in 24 universities, 260 796 students in various types of a total of 729 secondary schools, 53 217 students in 435 special schools and 555 335 pupils in 2342 elementary schools. In the cultural sector, there were 2677 public, 12 central scientiﬁc and 621 academic libraries with a total number of 833 000 registered users and over 28 million circulation transactions made annually. 3.7 million visitors have seen over 428 permanent and 1026 temporary exhibitions in 84 museums and over half a million visitors came to 83 permanent and 430 temporary exhibitions in 21 art galleries. In the research and development domain, there are 22 217 persons in Slovakia working in this area, from highly qualiﬁed researchers to support staff.

2.2 Overview of digital content If we look at the universe of content, we may use a series of terms to deﬁne the whole set. For instance, this might be a part of some global virtual space. This virtual space apparently reects the real global space together with its diverse and chaotic nature. Cultural, scientiﬁc or intellectual content, either archived or the most up-todate, is the most valuable kind of content in the global virtual space. Some years ago the cultural, scientiﬁc, intel lectual content was provided by traditional entities in traditional ways. With emergence of new technologies, the global virtual space has now a massive bulk of content from various domains, but its majority can be used for purposes of individual or social development. Content is represented by various concepts in various communities: cultural scientiﬁc natural social technical intellectual scholarly industrial heraldic genealogical …

digital analogue (and digital) written spoken acted recorded ﬁlmed live broadcast archived painted engraved sculptured imagined drawn animated photographed captured tapped shown welded baked blown played performed danced …

content heritage knowledge memory documents assets monuments masterpieces works (of art) events, performances …

Table 1. Variety of content

In 1996 the Slovak National Library initiated a wide questionnaire survey, whose basic objective was to create the reference information database of the most signiﬁcant documents and monuments of the endangered national documentary heritage, which can serve as a potential basis for digitisation projects and possible nomina tions for records to the lists of rare and endangered documentary heritage. The material containing recommended principles and selection criteria was addressed to almost 300 Slovak institutions – libraries, archives, museums, galleries, relevant institutes of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, faculties of universities and churches. This initi ative can be viewed as a massive information campaign for the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme, which brought signiﬁcant suggestions and stimuli for particular digitisation projects of rare documents of various content and form. A ten-year difference has shown that there were only a few documents digitised at relatively high costs, however, they have brought experience, cooperation links and high quality presentation of a few cul tural heritage objects. For the purpose of completing this Strategy, the Slovak National Library prepares a data collection campaign in 2006 from cultural, research and educational entities that are in any way dealing with di 84

gital content. This survey will help investigate the current situation of both digital and digitised content and ana logue content to be digitised, and analyse the needs and requirements of the organisations and their users. The collected data correspond to international initiatives (CENL, MINERVA). The Strategy will include input from professional community, experts and general public and its scope extends beyond the library domain. It will be ofﬁcially adopted and promoted by the Board on Implementation of ICT in Culture, an advisory body of the Minister of Culture before the end of 2006. Digital cultural and scientiﬁc content is created and maintained in the following main digitisation initiat ives and information systems under the respective entity: Libraries Building on its own rich research and experiments, as well as by learning from European and world’s best practices, the Slovak National Library in Martin is a key player in digitisation of cultural heritage in Slovakia and focuses on creating technological and organisational conditions for implementing projects of digital presentation of cultural and intellectual heritage of Slovakia so that Slovakia becomes an equal partner at international forum. Res ults of an audit of implementation of ICT in public domain in Slovakia [4] show that the online services of public libraries together with e-Taxes rank as the most developed areas from the aspect of building the information society. The Slovak National Library has developed several essential initiatives of implementing technology in the library domain. In addition to the Programme of Implementing ICT in Slovak Libraries, the Library manages project of establishing over 700 new public Internet access points in libraries and a project of creating the nation al information infrastructure and its nation-wide usage by the business sector. Programme of Implementation of ICT in Libraries (Slovak National Library), 2002 – Within this pro gramme, there are two mutually related projects in progress at present: KIS3G – Common Library and Information System; and VIKS – Virtual Library of Slovakia (a digital library). Programme of Implementation of ICT in Librar ies in Slovakia has a nation-wide impact and is aimed at creation of standard and interoperable uniform environ ment and using common information database for making access to cultural and scientiﬁc heritage resources and providing related library and information services. One part of the Library and Information System of the Third Generation project is building the central web catalogue, the „Slovak Library“, and the other part is building „Me moria slovaca“, a portal to digitised content. Both these collections are the Slovak input to the European Library. The Slovak Library (www.mycatalogue.sk) – Through this portal users have access to over 2 million bibli ographic records in one common database with holdings of multiple libraries (national library, research libraries, academic libraries, public libraries). At this time there are 30 libraries involved and in near future the project will extend to other 40+ libraries. Users registered at cooperating libraries can make use of a range of services. It contains the Slovak National Bibliography, Union Catalogue of Monographs and the Union Catalogue of Old Prints (1477-1830). This library can serve as a point of access to library materials that maintains links to physical forms and links to the associated digital objects in digital repositories of multiple content providers. Memoria slovaca (www.kis3g.sk) – This portal is initial result of the Virtual Library of Slovakia project. Currently it contains MARC 21 records and links to digital material pertaining to the Slovak National Literary Museum (including a gallery of about 15.000 art originals), Literature and Art Archives (photographs), historical postcards, full-text documents of digital libraries of Research Project of Stabilizing and Preservation of Tradi tional Media (Kniha_sk) and Research Project of History of the Book Culture (BDKK). Gradually more records and linked digitised material will be added from various heritage organisations. Slovak National Library has established the following digitisation priorities: Mass digitisation of books – Slovak National Library has elaborated, as a part of its strategic approach to digital preservation and access, the project of Slovak Digital Library. Its overall aim is to build infrastructure and management to implement a long term digital preservation and access system including mass digitisation, pro cessing and archiving of heritage material in a life cycle encompassing both digital and analogue conservation. According to calculations, the substantial volume of bound books of Slovak production is 350 000, which can be scanned and read into full text in 6 years using 4 mass digitisation production units to be deployed as soon as in 2008. By Q2/2006 the Slovak National Library has been given resources for 1 such production unit and it is ex pected that resources for full production performance will be available by 2008. The input processed and avail able by 2010 will be the Slovak input to the European Digital Library. The price for one digitised book converted to text at average number of 350 pages is about 300 SKK (8 €) per book and less than 1 SKK (2.6 cents) per page, including construction works, energies, staff, hardware and software plus maintenance. Mass digitisation of newspapers and journals on microforms – At present the Slovak National Library holds thousands of microﬁlms with majority of Slovak newspapers and journals. The plan is to outsource digit isation of as much as millions of frames per year, starting from 2006. The digital output will be ﬁrstly presented as images of pages that will be secondly processed into full text and made available at the Slovak Library. Digitisation of archival documents (Arts and Literature Archives) – in 1990s Slovak National Library, Arts and Literature Archives, have initiated digitisation of ﬁrst part of about 180 thousand photographs. The Archives also prepare digitised ﬁnding aids descriptions of collections. Except for text and images, there are a lot of printed and handwritten music documents. 85

Digitisation of bibliographic works – Slovak National Library builds the National Bibliography and has produced bibliographic works, that serve as a very helpful means in making selection of documents for digitisation. Digitisation of cartographic material Digitisation of sound recordings – Slovak National Library has digitised about 700 sound recordings, containing mainly interviews with writers (novelists, poets). Digitisation of images (photographs, paintings) – Slovak National Library, Slovak National Literary Mu seum, have digitised over 10 000 images (oil paintings, drawings, architectural drawings, book illustrations). Digitisation of historical books – Slovak National Library maintains a database of old printed books. Manuscripts and historical books of Slovak origin or pertaining to Slovakia are often scattered in many places. In this respect there is a huge potential already invested by historians and researchers in this ﬁeld who can easily provide location of individual rare documents, e. g. to create virtual collections. Language National corpus of the Slovak Language and the project of Implementation of ICT in Linguistic research in 2002 – 2006 (Slovak Academy of Sciences). Museums CEMUZ – Central register of museum objects (managed by the Slovak National Museum), approved in 2003. Central Register of Museum Collections (www.cemuz.sk) – this catalogue currently contains sample re cords. Nationwide cooperation of museums is underway to gradually process and make available over 8 million museum artifacts kept throughout Slovakia. Monuments AIS OP – Automated information system of preservation of monuments (Institute of Monuments) 2003, Geographic information system of monuments (Institute of Monuments), 2004 – The national collection of monuments contains 9 501 immovable national cultural monuments that are constituted by 13 122 objects of monuments, 14 392 movable national cultural monuments constituted by 30 230 monument objects. From typo logical point of view, this national stock comprises 7738 architectural monuments, 360 archaeological monu ments, 1386 historical monuments, 340 historical plants, 1833 folk architecture, 449 monuments of science and technology, 1005 ﬁne art monuments. Galleries CEDVU – Central Register of works of ﬁne arts (Slovak National Gallery), 2002 (www.sng.sk) – from this National Gallery’s web site the central catalogue of works of art (paintings, sculptures etc.) located in Slovak museums and galleries will be accessible with over 220 000 records. This catalogue has been built since 1990. Theatre THEISA – Theatrical information system for archives (Theatre Institute), 2002 Literature LINDA – Literary information database (Literary Information Centre), 2002 Music SNORKA – Music database (Music Centre), 2002 Design IS DIZAJN – Information system for Design (Slovak Centre of Design), 2004 Audiovisual heritage SKCINEMA – Film database (Slovak Film Institute), 2002 – Slovak Film Database (www.sfd.sfu.sk) – This is a portal to all Slovak movies (live action, documentary, cartoons) ﬁlmed from 1921. It also contains a list of ﬁlm creators, actors, directors, script writers and ﬁlm characters. It offers advanced search options. At the mo ment there are 2135 creators, 393 ﬁlms, 2685 characters and 344 photographs. Slovak Radio and Slovak Television are public law organisations and their role is to formulate their own access and preservation strategy. These organisations are responsible for preserving the public domain content. The experience from many countries, e. g. Hungary (National Audio Visual Archive), can demonstrate that largescale digital access to archived broadcast material on national level is a realistic vision. The strategy for digitisation of audiovisual heritage assumes 2 types of digitisation – the so called major and minor digitisation, where the emphasis is on minor digitisation that uses little resources in order to preserve large amount of audiovisual content that is on instable analogue carriers. Major digitisation presents the process of high quality digital reconstruction of materials and is planned for future periods. Archives The current legislation prescribes digital processing of archival records and Slovak archives. A rough es timate is as much as one billion pages of archival documents in all types of archives. The archival documents represent hundreds of millions of authentic, unique and trustworthy pieces of information on the history of Slov 86

aks, Slovakia and other nationalities living within its territory since the 11th century and have solid legal force and proving capabilities. In majority, these are of administrative origin, so called diplomatic materials arising from administrative, economic and other activity of their originators. Archival documents are a part of the na tional cultural heritage and wealth [5]. Schools and Research The educational institutions and Slovak Academy of Sciences possess huge amounts of scientiﬁc and re search information. In this regard schools and academic libraries have already started cooperation on building national repository of qualiﬁcation papers (Electronic Theses and Dissertation of Slovakia). The proposal of this strategy is that there is a common voice for the educational level at all its levels. Industrial intellectual property The content is maintained by the Ofﬁce for Industrial Property. The Nation’s Memory Institute Numerous pieces of evidence concerning the World War II and the Communist era are collected, pro cessed and made available by this public-law institution. In addition to the initiatives above, funded primarily from the state budget, there are numerous activities by cultural organisations, public associations and/or private entities: Museums’ Portal (www.muzeum.sk) – This resource contains a guide to the Slovak museums with struc tured information including web sites, opening hours and related images. It is maintained by a civic association. A Yahoo! discussion group „Knižnica“ (Library) was established to discuss digitisation of Slovak classic al literary works. Some output addressed to teachers is available at Classic Slovak Writers (www.klasici.sk), The Golden Thread of Slovak Writers (University Library), and work is being done under digitisation project of Slov ak literature by the daily newspaper SME. The civic association T2B (Text-to-Bytes) offers digitised content for the blind and visually impaired registered users.

3 Sustainability of content In November 2004 the government approved the Strategy of State Cultural Policy and the Action Plan for Intro ductory Phase of Implementing Cultural Policy. One of the goals of the proposal is to provide for preservation and access to cultural heritage, its systematic digitisation and implementation of ICT to cultural infrastructure. The strategy explicates among others these priorities of the action plan that include digitisation: restoration of audio-visual cultural heritage and launch of the „Register of Culture“ project. The Ministry of Culture prepared strategy of systematic digitisation of audiovisual materials according to which state institutions (Slovak Television, Slovak Film Institute and its part, National Film Archives) will pre serve audiovisual material held by these institutions and also private entities. In the cultural sector, it is the respective central national institution that manages digitisation projects. Un der Ministry of Culture these projects form a part of the State Information System (developed since 1995) and are reviewed by the Board on Implementation of ICT in the Cultural Sector. Digitisation is funded as a part of regular annual budget allocated from Ministry of Culture to state institutions or also to other entities (state, local, private) under some of the grant schemes offered by the Ministry of Culture in several annual programmes. In 2006 a new Board for Coordination of Implementation of ICT will be established by the Ministry of Culture, composed of mainly managers of cultural heritage institutions, which will approve strategic docu ments also on digitisation prepared by invited experts. The Board will also comprise participants from other domains such as education, science and economy. The Board has established two working groups, ﬁrst for maintaining digitisation standards and the second for solving interoperability issues in existing information systems. The Board will also discuss this strategy of preservation and access to cultural, scientiﬁc and intel lectual heritage and its implementation will be incorporated and approved within the Government Policy De claration after the 2006 parliamentary election. The matching funding and resources for digitisation and digital preservation shall be requested from the EU structural funds under the relevant programmes. Digital content is a matter to be dealt with mainly by the Ministries of Culture, Education, Interior and Economy and Regional development. Other stakeholders that must be involved, are municipalities and com munities, that can be represented by their Association. The common strategy should provide possibilities for mu tual linking of entities and objects, such as implementing global positioning systems data in cultural objects, linking practical disciplines such as medicine to provide ﬁrst-hand learning material, and almost inﬁnite series of combinations. It is important that the multiple communities and policy-makers in Slovakia be mobilised and that they start thinking very openly of the vast possibilities for cooperation, convergence and common approach.

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4 Technologies for digitisation Although almost each cultural organisation has some technology for digitisation, there are only few sites that can be considered a competence centre with high quality equipment that can produce content consistent with MINERVA quality recommendations. Examples are the Slovak National Library with hybrid camera for digitisation and microﬁlming. The plan for the future is building a technological park for complex treatment of cultural ma terial in a cycle including high capacity chemical stabilisation of traditional media and their digital processing and storage starting with mass digitisation of monographs and chemical treatment of paper. The National Library has also some experience with 3D digitisation of its museum objects in a pilot cooperation with the University of Žilina. A great expertise in digital technology and a large volume of digitised sound material is held and pro duced by the Slovak Library for the Blind and Visually Impaired in Levoča. Digitisation is associated with a number of existing and emerging technological areas: mass digitisation, digital content management software, video/voice communication over Internet, XML family of technologies, topical maps, Semantic Web – ontologies, taxonomies, Customer Relationships Systems, Radio-frequency identiﬁcation labels and tags, Virtual Reality and display technologies, visualisations, human interfaces, game tech nologies, Application Service Model, cultural agents and avatars, electronic programming and personalisation, mobile access to cultural information resources, rights management and payment technologies, mechanisms and technologies for cooperation, open source software, standards, natural language processing, information retriev al, localisation systems, telepresence, haptics, robotics, long term digital archiving technologies, Web archiving. Most of these technologies are explained in publications of DigiCULT forum [6]. The digitisation as such should be done and/or managed under national network of specialized compet ence centres, built within those institutions that have invested considerable capital into digitisation. In Slovakia some very small cultural organisations have neither Internet connection, nor PCs or server. Of those various types of organisations that have more technology there are several tens to hundreds that have digitisation equip ment, servers, databases, web sites. Effective centralisation and decentralisation of technical resources, manage ment and capacities on the respective appropriate levels can result in a sustainable situation, in which organisa tions can perform more useful activities than maintaining IT infrastructure, that can be done at much higher qual ity and quantity in a smaller number of designated sites. Such approach is the basis of the centralised library, mu seum and gallery systems, where there is a great extent of resource sharing and cooperation. Such kind of cent ralised model should be also implemented more extensively on national level with competence centres covering horizontally various subsets of Slovak cultural and scientiﬁc heritage. In many cases it is more effective to use an external service based on public-private partnerships.

5 Digital preservation Similarly as some heritage institutions strive to preserve, in addition to content and carrier of an object, the ori ginal contexts and aids for access (gramophones, tape recorders, viewing devices etc.), the access to digital re cord on a physical carrier also requires technologies such as reading equipment, adapters, display devices etc., that should also be preserved to a reasonable extent by the institutions. Preserving the original environment in the digital realm is referred to as emulation, which is an alternative to migration of content to more and more ad vanced systems. It is required to make early strategic decisions regarding the policy of ensuring accessibility of content either through emulation of original context or, rather, migration of the content to new changing environ ments. Migration means for instance „copying“ of content from one type of media to another regularly, e. g. every six years at quite high costs. As there is no common national digital preservation strategy in place currently, it is each institution’s responsibility to maintain its digital assets. Organisations usually have their internal strategy of preserving and migrating digital content, which is for the time being typically stored on ofine optical media as well as on server disk arrays. There is no web archiving activity in place currently and as for electronic publications, the Slovak law on legal deposit makes preference of printed copy of documents in case both digital and printed forms exist. The National Library has among its tasks for 2006 elaboration of the national strategy for digital archiving in accordance with UNESCO guidelines and relevant recommendations, and plans to acquire tech nologies for a high capacity digital archiving system. The digital content will be interoperable for enabling its use in various contexts maintaining the most up-to-date standards and formats by regular migration cam paigns. As well as in case of digitisation technologies, the general idea should be to implement a centralised model, in order to attain the goal of making long-term preservation affordable by many. This way entities will use a central service, ideally deﬁned in legislation, that should be ﬁnanced primarily from the state budget as a permanent cross-sectoral role.

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6 Implementation 6.1 Cooperation, communication, human resources It is necessary to compile a plan of trainings, workshops and conferences held under the auspices of the Ministry of Culture. The Ministry should initiate and establish effective communication in virtual space – e. g. discussion forum, e-conference, mailing lists. It is also inevitable to communicate with the media and publicly present common activities in culture, education, science.

6.2 Methodology An appropriate methodological tool for designing, implementation, operating and sustainability of activities on national level are the outputs of the MINERVA Project – the Good Practice Handbook, Quality Principles for Cultural Web sites, Technical Guidelines for Cultural Content Creation Programmes, Digitisation Cost Reduction handbook. Similar methodological tools for smaller cultural institutions were produced and translated to numer ous languages under the CALIMERA Project. The Ministry of Culture plans to publish and disseminate the MINERVA methodological tools and make them mandatory for cultural heritage organisations in Slovakia. As a methodology for long-term preservation of digital heritage, the Technical Guidelines have been elaborated and disseminated worldwide, being a supplement to the UNESCO Charter on the preservation of digital heritage. Some of the most important documents concerning coordination of digitisation and pointers to methodo logy and research related to digitisation of cultural and scientiﬁc heritage have been translated to Slovak and made available at www.viks.sk/digitus [7].

7 Conclusion The issues of digital access and preservation applied in Slovak settings give rise to proposing the following stra tegic and practical tasks: • complete this Strategy with decisive input from all stakeholders and using the world’s best practices • conduct a survey of content, users, technologies, capacities, research needs • make existing information systems interoperable • create national competence centres for cultural digitisation, whose programs and projects will be dis cussed and approved by the Board on Implementation of ICT in Culture • participate in the EU coordination of digitisation by taking part in the relevant NRG Action Groups • combine all subject lists, classiﬁcations and thesauri in cultural and scientiﬁc sector, translate these for en riching metadata in order to provide for multilingual subject access • maintain a common ontology for Slovak cultural and scientiﬁc heritage for Semantic Web use within global communities • elaborate and maintain list of standards and methodology for digital content – for collection description, metadata, preservation and presentation formats, searching facilities etc. • stimulate participation of organisations in research and development projects • participate in the European (Digital) Library and Michael Plus projects by connecting national collections to the central inventories/catalogues • take legislative measures to extend the legal deposit act to electronic publications • establish national infrastructure for long-term preservation of digital content as a new module of tradition al institutions, including the preservation of Slovak Web content with sustainable funding • organise workshops, conferences, trainings for people in the area of new technologies. This list of tasks is merely for the start and cannot be perceived as comprehensive, as well as the entire common strategy needs a lot of communication and cooperation. The online version of the entire text of the strategy for comments can be found at http://www.viks.sk/digitus/strategicky_plan_digitalizacie.htm. It is appar ent that the basic ideas above for the strategic plan are written under the inuence and experience of library background and the text deﬁnitely needs input from other domains. The library domain led by the Slovak Nation al Library is prepared to take on the roles and responsibilities arising from digital access and preservation. The issues extend far beyond libraries and therefore all relevant institutions, experts and entities are invited to add their contribution to the strategy.

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[1] Minerva Web site. Minerva Project, 2006. Available at: [http://www.minervaeurope.org/] [2] Uznesenie vlády Slovenskej republiky č. 1067 z 10. novembra 2004 k návrhu Stratégie štátnej kultúrnej politiky a Akčného plánu úvodnej fázy implementácie kultúrnej politiky [Slovak republic Government Resolution concerning the proposed Strategy for sstate cultural policy and the Action plan of the inntroductory phase of implementing cultural policy], Úrad vlády SR, 10. november 2004. Available at: [http://www.culture.gov.sk/main/index.php3?ida=1514] [3] Národný strategický referenčný rámec Slovenskej republiky na roky 2007-2013 – upravené nové znenie [National strategic reference framework of the Slovak republic for 2007-2013 / updated new wording] / Ministerstvo výstavby a regionálneho rozvoja Slovenskej republiky. Available at: [http://www.rokovania.sk/appl/material.nsf/0/1295B724B88E6A14C125716F0043AD95?OpenDocument] [4] Návrh cestovnej mapy zavádzania elektronických služieb verejnej správy [Proposal of a roadmap for implementing electronic services in public administration] / Úrad vlády SR, 2006. Available at: [http://www.rokovania.sk/appl/material.nsf/0/39B6556A5830F706C12570220038D505/$FILE/Zdroj.html] [5] Archívnictvo v Slovenskej republike [Archiving in the Slovak Republic] / Ministerstvo vnútra SR, sekcia verejnej správy. Available at: [http://www.civil.gov.sk/Z_files/ARCH.HTM] [6] Digicult Forum [web site], Available at: [http://www.digicult.info/] [7] Digitalizácia kultúrneho a vedeckého dedičstva [Digitisation of cultural and scientiﬁc heritage] (web site) / Slovenská národná knižnica, 2003-2006. Available at: [http://www.viks.sk/digitus/]

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

The long way to an efﬁcient information society – information literacy perceptions among Croatian librarians 1

Jadranka Lasić-Lazić; 2Sonja Špiranec; 3Mihaela Banek-Zorica Department of Information Sciences, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb, I. Lučića 3, Zagreb, Croatia 1 [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract Contemporary societies have devised clear strategies towards the development of information societies based on building of stable information and communication infrastructures. But providing access to technologies and making information available is not sufﬁcient. How to develop and utilize knowledge and skills or investigative methods to identify, access, re trieve, and apply relevant content are at the core of realizing the promises and premises of information societies. A crucial pillar for developing these capabilities is information literacy, which focuses on enabling for critical thinking, self-directed learning and the responsible consume of information, each of one necessary for intelligent existence in the information age. Libraries as a part of the educational-informational infrastructure can make a unique and speciﬁc contribution to the aspired information literacy agenda. Despite the relevance, potential and impact of information literacy activities on the wider so cial context, libraries in Croatia are lagging far behind the emerging global information literacy movement. To investigate reasons for this unfavourable constellation, the authors have conducted two surveys among Croatian school and academic librarians, which will be presented in the paper. The gathered results present an important contribution to the articulation of a necessary information literacy agenda.

Keywords information literacy; information society; educational reforms; school libraries; academic libraries

Introduction Metamorphosis, change, transformation – these are predominating determinations of different contemporary set tings: social, economical, technological, educational or informational, just to name a few. Libraries have always been an important segment of these contexts and have contributed to them, but today the philosophical foundation of their services has changed, implying transformations of the content offered, the media used, the audience referred to and the overall relevance for the society. The present context strengthens above all their educational function, which allows libraries to contribute to intended transformations in different settings and make the difference. Nev ertheless, a traditional approach to the educational function of libraries is not sufﬁcient for this aspirations, it should be implemented in its advanced and progressive form which is worldwide labelled as information literacy (IL). The role of libraries in developing users’ information literacy is well established, as well as the role of IL in contribution to the development towards information and knowledge-based societies and to the realization of new pedagogical models. In the case of Croatia this trend is less obvious, creating the need for analysing the role of IL in the social and educational context in this particular country. Despite the relevance, potential and impact of IL activities on the wider social and pedagogical context, libraries in Croatia are lagging far behind the emer ging global information literacy movement. To investigate reasons for this unfavourable constellation, the social and educational context in Croatia will be analysed and the results of two surveys conducted among Croatian school and academic librarians presented.

1 The socio-technological context in Croatia New, postindustrial or information age societies need multi-skilled workers capable of adapting to a rapidly changing external environment. This has shifted basic principles and strategies on which contemporary societies function upon. Emphasis has shifted towards empowerment of individuals to learn throughout their lives in an independent and self-directed manner, their preparation for critical thinking, creative problem-solving and de cision-making, which create the foundation for intelligent existence in contemporary complex settings. In the case of Croatia, the development of the information society has received signiﬁcant attention and support from political authorities. Until now, these efforts were mainly directed towards the building of a robust information and communication infrastructure. Technology is perceived as a vehicle that would directly transfer and transform Croatia into an information society. Although technology provides a crucial element, it is not the ultimate way to the information society. Some additional signposts and roadmaps are needed since providing ac cess to technologies and making information available is not sufﬁcient. At the core of realizing the promises and premises of information societies lies the move from a focus on connecting citizens by building networks or providing hardware toward a recognition that using the beneﬁts of available technologies and their content re 91

quires capabilities of developing and utilizing knowledge and skills or investigative methods to identify, access, retrieve, and apply relevant content. Therefore, the ability to use computers and technologies, which is still the main focus of policy articulations in Croatia, has to be upgraded by a clear information literacy orientation. In formation literacy is closely related to information technology skills, but has much broader implications. It ex tends from knowing how to use computers and access information to critical reection on the nature of informa tion itself, its technical infrastructure as well as its social, cultural context and impact.

2 The pedagogical context in Croatia Educational institutions struggle to redeﬁne themselves in terms of the requirements of the post-industrial era. This has changed the principles and aims of learning environments signiﬁcantly: rather than mastering a body of knowledge, students now need to prepare for a lifelong process of change in order to meet the needs of a trans forming knowledge-based economy. This has stimulated the shift towards a new, cognitive and constructive way of conceiving learning. It has become a process in which knowledge is constructed by the learner on the founda tions of existing knowledge. Constructive learning is guided by the following four principles (Cooperstein, Ko cevar-Weidinger, 2004, p.142): • learners construct their own meaning by manipulating, discovering and creating knowledge, • their learning builds on prior knowledge, • it is enhaned by social interaction • meaningful learning develops through authentic tasks. This means that educational institutions must provide circumstances in which learners are helped to con struct and represent their knowledge, link new information to old, achieve complex learning goals and build thinking strategies. According to Bundy (2003) the information-age school requires a shift in: • methodology from teacher-centered to student-centered • resource-based teaching to resource-based learning • assessment from solely product to include process. In the last decade, Croatian schools and universities were affected by the described societal and pedago gical shifts and underwent many changes in teaching and learning. This development gained its formal frame work by launching educational reforms in the year 2005. Their aim was to improve quality and efﬁciency of edu cation. The central principle of these efforts is to develop lifelong learners with intellectual abilities of reasoning, critical thinking, creative problem-solving, decision-making, independent learning and the responsible consume of information. The new educational objectives set in Croatia launched on the primary and secondary level of education are known as the Croatian National Educational Standard (CNES), while the reforms in tertiary educa tion have been introduced as the Bologna process. The aims of the CNES correspond to the objectives that dominate the educational sector in the EU and are directed at building a knowledge-based society in which the school system is primarily intended to prepare pu pils for lifelong learning. The Standard was generated as a result of the recognized problems of overloading pu pils, inadequate teaching methods and insufﬁcient monitoring and evaluation of the quality of education. In its essence, it acknowledges that it is important to relieve pupils from encyclopaedic content and direct them toward creativity, problem-solving abilities and lifelong learning. Reform aspirations in tertiary education that were in augurated by the Bologna agreement refer to employability, quality assurance, mobility, compatibility and imply lifelong learning as a core concept. These principles have stimulated universities to restructure their curricular offerings and bring them in line with societal needs that predominate the knowledge economy. However, the only literacy these educational reform recommendations refer to is computer literacy, not information literacy, as a precondition for realizing the described reform aspirations. Information literacy is not identiﬁed as a potential area that could have a positive effect on teaching and learning. Another important facet of the current educational landscape in Croatia is the massive introduction of electronic learning platforms. The skills required to work and learn in these new, Net or virtual environments are very different from those required in traditional classrooms. Above all, a high level of self-directed learning and the ability of consuming information independently is assumed, because the e-learner is involved in discovery of knowledge and learns from interactions with available resources. Since the basic component of education is information, the new pedagogical paradigms are based on the premise of constant interactions with the present complex information environment. A basic component of suc cess in this setting is information literacy, which prepares learners to connect, interact and utilize this accessible wealth of information (Todd, 2001), not just in periods of compulsory schooling and under the supervision of a teacher as an authoritative knowledge resource but independently throughout their lives by strategically gather ing, evaluating, synthesizing and presenting information.

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3 Libraries and information literacy Information becomes a resouce that knowledge workers, students and pupils interact with and use when solving problems. It is not possible to have meaningful social transformations or pedagogical change without a very strong focus on the informational context. Information literacy therefore should be perceived as an essential in gredient for implementing educational reforms and for realizing the transition to an information society. Libraries and librarians should be proactive participants in the evolution of the 21 st century paradigm by constructively participating in IL initiatives. The concern for education lies at the heart of every library. Some of them, like school and higher education libraries, directly support the process of education and affect the overall in stitutional quality of teaching. Despite this opportunity and potential, it is questionable whether they do articulate and seize this potential well enough, and whether they are assertive enough about their educational responsibilities. Having in mind the lack of information literacy in educational policies, school reform efforts and in formation strategies in Croatia as well as the contemporary IL research trends worldwide, two investigations were undertaken, which concentrated on libraries with explicit and strong educational missions, i. e. school and academic libraries.

4 The surveys Since the evolution and spreading of the IL concept ows parallel to IL perceptions of LIS professionals, investigations among this population seemed a logical step in the process of detecting reasons for the lack of IL in Croatia. Since there were no existing up-to-date insights on instructional practices or the state of IL in Croatian school and academic libraries on a national level, the questions had to be structured around several focuses, like the premise that the IL concept is not well understood and is possibly often confused with computer literacy, and that the current state of inuence of libraries on the creation of information strategies or constructivist learning environments is minimal. The speciﬁc aims of the study were: • to determine whether and what types of education and training activities do the school and academic lib raries in Croatia perform and what content and methods prevail • to investigate the perception and awareness about the concept of information literacy among school and academic librarians • to examine their views on differences between information literacy and information technology (com puter) literacy • to identify their attitudes regarding the impact of school libraries on educational reforms • to determine the self-perception of librarians regarding their role as teachers and their preparedness for performing IL activities. By investigating perceptions, views and attitudes, the results also serve as an indicator of the future infra structural position of libraries in the information society.

4.1 Methodology Data was gathered through a questionnaire, which combined open and close-ended questions. The ﬁrst survey was conducted in the year 2005 and included all academic libraries in Croatia (n=96). The overall response rate was 45%, with 43 questionnaires returned. The second survey was conducted over a four-week period in Janu ary-February 2006 among school librarians. Because of the modest timeline the coverage of the population of school librarians was not exhaustive (n=58), but gave an insight into the stated survey questions and revealed the main problems of positioning information literacy into the educational landscape.

4.2 Results The responses surfaced several critical aspects regarding information literacy which is conceptually rooted in user education: only 67% of school libraries offer user education on a regular basis, while the percentage of offered educational activities in academic libraries is even lower (44%). Only 24% of school libraries and only 16% of academic libraries have documented and published their user education programme. When it comes to information literacy as an integral part of user education or an articulated element of the published user educa tion programme, the number further declines to 18% for school libraries, and 10% for academic libraries. Academic libraries Regular user education Educational mission published IL as part of user education

44% 16% 10%

School libraries 67% 24% 18%

Table 1. Structure of user education offered in academic and school libraries

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The study also tried to determine what types of educational activities are libraries at Croatian schools per forming. The responses were distributed among several categories: • using information resources (encyclopaedias, catalogues…) • locating books in libraries • using the reference collection • computer literacy, using computers • user behaviour in libraries • borrowing books. • • • • • • •

The responses from academic librarians were structured as follows: use of OPAC use of electronic resources citing literature library tours evaluation of information sources using the reference collection computer literacy, using computers

Important dimensions of success in any information literacy agenda are forms of cooperation with the teaching staff and the support of educational environments in general. The results have shown that only 18% of the school librarians cooperate with teachers when educating pupils. The responses of academic librarians indicate a much higher percentage of cooperation between librarians and teaching staff (68%). This reects the better professional status and image of academic librarians compared with school librarians, who have still to improve their reputation and position in school environments they work in. The question of staff preparedness for user education and information literacy training is a critical one. When asked whether they are prepared to provide training, just 16% of academic library respondents gave a positive answer, while even 84% indicated they are not prepared for this function. This percentage showed a different distribution among school librarians: 75% of them felt prepared for IL training. 90

60

30

0

Academic libraries

School libraries

Chart 1. Preparedness for user education and IL training

The last open-ended question referred to the attitudes of librarians about the greatest challenges that will inuence their future work. The majority of school librarians stated that the lack of equipment, insufﬁcient ﬁnan cing and technology represent important challenges, while aspects crucial for information literacy like the educa tional role or cooperation with teachers acquired lower response rates. The perception of academic librarians re garding the main barriers for realising information literacy instruction referred to insufﬁcient room, space and equipment, the lack of stafﬁng and work overload. The situation of understafﬁng in Croatian libraries was conﬁrmed through the questionnaire results: the great majority of school libraries the respondents work in are staffed with one librarian (96%; n=54), while academic libraries are mostly staffed with 2 librarians. Having in mind the absence of information literacy and predominance of computer literacy in educational policies and strategies, perceptions among librarians regarding these two concepts were investigated. The major ity of surveyed school librarians (86%) stated that they were familiar with the concept of computer literacy and deﬁned it in similar ways, as the use of computers, the hardware, software and the Internet. When it comes to in formation literacy the respondents indicated that the rate of understanding the concept is considerably lower. Only 50% of the respondents claimed that they are familiar with information literacy and are able to deﬁne it correctly or relatively correctly, which is a considerably lower percent compared to computer literacy. It was in teresting to ﬁnd out that several respondents deﬁned information literacy as some kind of „advanced use of in formation and communication technologies“, or even understand these two as similar concepts. On the other 94

hand, academic librarians indicate a much higher level of understanding the information literacy concept (84%). Nevertheless, even 10% of these respondents deﬁned information literacy as a concept which refers to using technology, networks and/or electronic resources. 60

30

0

Academic libraries

School libraries

Chart 2. IL rate of understanding

Due to the fact that the second survey was conducted one year later, after the launching of educational re forms, it comprised additional questions regarding the impact of school libraries on educational reforms. Only 5% of the respondents believe the educational system has recognized the role of libraries in school reforms.

4.3 Discussion While libraries worldwide use educational activities and IL practices as a way of promoting their services and sup porting the global aspirations of building an infrastructure for lifelong learning, the library community in Croatia is not yet conscious enough about the importance of their educational function. According to the responses, user edu cation in general is still a peripheral rather then a central concern for academic and school libraries in Croatia. Most instruction in these libraries has been conducted on an ad hoc, informal or individual basis. The analysis of the responses regarding methodical, organizational features or the content of the provided educational activities surfaced the general lack of systematic procedure and sufﬁciency since this would imply the existence of written and published educational programmes and mission statements, which also would allow an ongoing evaluation and assessment of these practices. The questionnaire explored the kinds of instruction occurring in Croatia’s school and academic libraries. Regarding this, the literature review shows that IL is determined by the shift from a tool-based towards conceptbased user education (Tiefel, 1995). Similar tendencies are not visible in Croatia yet. Users of Croatian academic libraries are mainly still educated about the use of a speciﬁc tool or resource, like the OPAC or a database. The occurrence of integrated instruction with problem-based approach is still not the norm. The majority of libraries carry out only basic forms of introduction to the library and information resources, although a focus on know ledge construction and human understanding, the development and utilization of knowledge and skills that are comprised in the concept of information literacy are essential ingredients in implementing educational reforms and improving student learning. The question about the preparedness of librarians in providing IL training indicates a correlation between IL and education, either professional or continuing. Librarians from school libraries felt prepared for teaching IL, which could be explained through the fact that, during their professional university education, school librarians have had taken a course entitled „School libraries“, where they were taught about pedagogical and educational aspects of the library profession and information literacy principles. Nevertheless, probably the greatest challenge represents the prevailing confusion between information and computer literacy. Librarians still tend to treat computer and information literacy as one and the same concept, which could be explained as a reection of the wider Croatian information policy and educational context, where a similar qualiﬁcation predominates. Both settings are concentrated on providing equipment and infrastructure, while neglecting the question if citizens will have necessary capabilities to make beneﬁcial use of those investments. The absence of information literacy and user education programs in libraries is partly caused by the stated low cooperation rates between librarians and teachers and the general lack of support from the wider educational environment when it comes to educational activities in libraries. Therefore initiatives in informa tion literacy are almost exclusively left to the librarians alone, who are overburdened and do not have time to cope with the demanding tasks of planning and conducting training courses in information literacy.

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5 Conclusion The analysis of contemporary social and educational environments in Croatia has shown that IL remains out side the Information Society agenda. Even for libraries, for which IL has created new potentials to cope with current information age operational paradigms, IL is not a pervasive concern yet. To investigate reasons for this constellation, two studies were conducted to explore the nature and degree of the academic and school library’s current role in the development of an information literacy agenda in Croatia, as reected in the per spectives of librarians. The questionnaire evidence suggests that IL training is not a priority, neither in aca demic nor in school libraries. The investigation showed that too many librarians still don’t understand or im plement information literacy and sometimes confuse it with information technology literacy. A minor percent age of libraries offer user education services, but these efforts are uncoordinated and unsystematic, often based on individual initiatives without a proper support of the faculty/school administration. The studied fea tures of existing user education services have also shown that they are based on traditional patterns, are tooli. e. system oriented, without an indication of integrated process- or conceptual approaches that are intrinsic to successful information literacy programs around the world. The study indicates that, in order to create or raise the IL awareness, librarians need to gain a deeper un derstanding of the concept, through forms of professional as well as continuing education. The primary value of this phase of the research is to document current instructional practices in Croatian libraries with explicit educa tional functions, since these data have not been available to date. The results of this study have illuminated the lack of clear IL perceptions among library professionals and surfaced the general absence of information literacy conceptions in Croatian information society policy and educational reform articulations, despite the fact that neither the information society nor reconceptualizations of learning environments can be accomplished without recognizing information literacy as their integral element.

References 

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BUNDY, A. Changing the paradigm: libraries, education and networking. IATUL Proceedings (New Series)[online], vol. 13, 2003 [cited 2006-05-28]. Available from Internet: http://iatul.org/conference/proceedings/vol13/papers/BUNDY_fulltext.pdf COOPERSTEIN, S.E.; KOCEVAR-WEIDINGER, E. 2004. Beyond active learning: a constructivist approach. Reference Services Review, vol. 32, no. 2, 2004, p. 141-148. TIEFEL, V. 1995. Library user education: Examining its past, projecting its future. Library Trends, vol. 44, no. 2, p. 318-339. TODD, R. Transitions for preferred futures of school libraries: Knowledge space, not information place. Connections, not collections. Actions, not positions Evidence, not advocacy. Keynote paper [online]. 2001 [cited 2006-05-22]. Available from Internet: http://www.iasl-slo.org/virtualpaper2001.html.

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Problémy čitateľskej a informačnej gramotnosti detí: východiská, problémy a hypotézy výskumu 1

Ľudmila Hrdináková; 2Elena Sakálová Katedra knižničnej a informačnej vedy, Filozoﬁcká fakulta Univerzity Komenského, Gondova ul. 2, Bratislava, SR 1 hrdinakova@ fphil.uniba.sk; 2sakalova@ fphil.uniba.sk

Abstract Problems of children’s reading and information literacy: background, problems, and hypotheses of the research The complex of skills and competencies of information literacy plays a dominant role in the information and knowledge so ciety. These determine information behaviour of a man in the global information environment. Our research is focused on children’s reading and information competencies. In this connection we articulate the following essential questions which form the background of the research: What is the basic role of an information-literate man? What is the relation between the literate reader and the information-literate man? What is the role of „man-reader“ in the information society? Will the information society become a society without readers? A serious problem relates to the diminishing of reading skills and aptitudes in current young populations. The problem is that there seems to be a decrease in both the quantity and quality of reading material. Changes in relation towards reading, intentional literature, leisure time activities and traditional cultural artefacts are typical for present generation of children. This situation is affected by the negative aspects of social context. The detailed analysis of all the above mentioned problems is described in the partial research “Problems of children’s read ing and information literacy“. In the ﬁrst chapter we report on research in libraries among 110 nine-year and ten-year old readers. The research consists of three parts. First part studies the impacts of social environment on readers’ activities and preferences. It provides context indicators of reading literacy. This part is realized by means of standardized interview. The second part concentrates on the level of reading skills and reception of artistic text. Third one considers competence to un derstand, select and process factual information from the educational text. The second and third parts are realized by means of inquiry, interview and monitoring of children during the individual reading. The following parts shall focus on pupils of fourth class of elementary schools and pre-school readers. In the ﬁnal part of the research, on the basis of empirical re search results, we will concentrate on the creation of children’s reading and information literacy model and methodology of its formation in the Slovak context.

Keywords information literacy; children’s reading literacy; standards of reading literacy; research of reading literacy

1 Čítanie v kontexte rozvoja informačnej spoločnosti V súčasnej modernej spoločnosti hovoríme o nástupe éry informačnej a znalostnej spoločnosti. Do popredia vy stupuje pojem a zároveň komplex schopností informačnej gramotnosti, ktoré jednoznačne determinujú informač né správanie súčasného človeka. Z hľadiska nášho výskumu, ktorý je zameraný na čitateľské a informačné kompetencie detí, si kladieme zásadné otázky, ktoré vytvárajú jeho rámec: Aké sú principiálne úlohy informačne gramotného človeka? Aký je vzťah medzi gramotným čitateľom a informačne gramotným človekom? Aká je úloha „človeka-čitate ľa“ v informačnej spoločnosti? V tejto východiskovej štúdii načrtneme niektoré zásadné aspekty problému podpory detského čítania a vzdelávania školopovinnej mládeže z hľadiska rozvoja kultúry čítania a informačnej gramotnosti v kontexte prebiehajúcich spoločenských procesov rozvoja informačnej spoločnosti.

1.1 Rozvoj informačnej spoločnosti Rozvoj informačnej spoločnosti je úlohou budúcnosti, v ktorej bude žiť súčasná detská populácia. Výraznú a zre teľnú úlohu tu zohrávajú tí, na ktorých stojí rozvoj, zavádzanie a zdokonaľovanie informačno-komunikačných tech nológií, tí, ktorí dnes vytvárajú novú informačnú infraštruktúru (inžinieri, programátori, technológovia a pod.). Ale významnú zodpovednosť majú i učitelia a knihovníci, ktorí pripravujú informačne gramotného človeka. Je logické a zrejmé, že pri konštituovaní informačnej spoločnosti je dominantnou národná informačná politika, ktorá je koncipovaná vo forme plánov, stratégií a programov. Na ne sa v prvom rade upriamuje pozor nosť vládnych orgánov, ale i širokej verejnosti. Zásadnú úlohu v rozvoji informačnej spoločnosti majú informač no-komunikačné technológie. Je nepopierateľné, že nové technológie môžu principiálne zmeniť život človeka. V tomto zmysle môže každý človek zlepšiť kvalitu svojho života už len samotným prístupom k ohromnému in formačnému bohatstvu, k vzdelaniu a ku kultúrnemu bohatstvu. Jednako však celá podstata fungovania a kvality informačnej spoločnosti závisí od občanov. Inak informačná spoločnosť ostane iba nesplnenou politickou víziou. A v tomto zmysle je nevyhnutná zmena chápania a postoja ľudí v ponímaní nastupujúcich procesov. Zásadnými sa stávajú otázky: čo môže dať informačná spoločnosť človeku, ako môže, resp. by mal človek prispieť k jej konštituovaniu, rozvoju a zlepšovaniu. 97

Problematika informačnej spoločnosti neobchádza ani Slovensko a začína zaujímať mnohých sloven ských odborníkov a špecialistov. A dotýka sa i tých, ktorí pracujú s deťmi a informáciami. Práve od pedagógov, knihovníkov, tvorcov politických programov a stratégií v mnohom závisí, ako rýchlo bude na Slovensku pre biehať prechod k informačnej spoločnosti a nakoľko bude demokratická a humánna voči občanom SR. Formovanie a prechod k informačnej spoločnosti sa stalo globálnym strategickým cieľom. Tieto zmeny naštartoval americký projekt globálnej informačnej infraštruktúry, vzápätí sa v Kanade začal rozvíjať projekt in formačnej diaľnice. Reakciou na tieto iniciatívy bol akčný plán v Európskej únie e-Europe1 rozvíjaný od roku 1994, ktorý sa v súčasnosti prelína do vízie a iniciatívy „i2010“ (European Information society in 2010). Pre pri stupujúce krajiny do EÚ zásadnú strategickú líniu tvorí program e-Europe+, ktorého konkrétnym odrazom na Slovensku je „Akčný plán stratégie informatizácie spoločnosti v podmienkach SR“ 2. Základných pilierom všet kých týchto prebiehajúcich procesov je program UNESCO „Informácie pre všetkých“ (Information for All Prog ramme – IFAP)3 a „Projekt Globálnej informačnej spoločnosti“ (The Global Information Society Project [GISP] at WPI)4, ktoré načrtávajú globálny charakter zmien a otváranie sa nových a nebývalých dimenzií globálneho in formačného priestoru. Základnou devízou informačnej spoločnosti je rozšírenie hraníc medzi jednotlivými oblas ťami vo všetkých sférach ľudského života, rozšírenie možností spolupráce a kooperácie špecialistov v rozličných sférach vedy, techniky i praktického života. Hlavnými činiteľmi sú tu informácie a poznatky, ale a v prvom rade ľudia – ich kvality, kompetencie, zručnosti a schopnosti. Jedným z významných smerovaní UNESCO v posledných rokoch bol rozvoj myšlienky vytvorenia takej informačnej spoločnosti, v ktorej bude prekonaný rozdiel medzi „informačne chudobnými“ a „informačne bohatými“ krajinami, spoločnosti, ktorá bude každému človeku garantovať slobodný prístup k informačným zdrojom, k zdrojom poznatkov a kultúrnych výdobytkov. Riešenie tohto problému je naznačené práve v prog rame „Information for All“. Jedným z hlavných aspektov programu je rozpracovanie základných nástrojov a prv kov pre vytvorenie globálnej informačnej a znalostnej spoločnosti. Samotný názov programu vyjadruje myšlienku, že globálna informačná spoločnosť prekonáva skutočnú evolúciu v chápaní samotnej podstaty problému informačnej spoločnosti: V technologicky vyspelom svete je v rámci rozvoja informačnej spoločnosti prekonaná 1. etapa – teda etapa technická a technologická, v centre pozornosti ktorej bola logicky technika a technológie. V rámci druhej etapy chápania a stratégie rozvoja informačnej spoločnosti je pozornosť sústredená na organizáciu, spoločenský systém a v prvom rade na aspekt človeka – smerovanie 2. etapy má teda jednoznačne humánny, sociálny a politický charakter (Shaping, 2003). Okrem toho, že ľudia majú k dispozícii technológie, mali by vedieť: ako so zdrojom pracovať, ako ho využiť a spracovať, ako využiť devízy, ktoré mu ponúka globálne informačné pro stredie. Práve takéto chápanie umožní skutočne eliminovať bariéry medzi informačne bohatými a informačne chudobnými krajinami.

1.2 Vzťah informačnej a čitateľskej gramotnosti Elsa Ramirez sa vo svojej štúdii „Čítanie, informačná spoločnosť a informačná kultúra“ zamýšľa nad otázkou, či je možná informačná kultúra bez čitateľa (Ramirez, 2002, s.7). Túto otázku a závažný problém dáva do súvis losti s klesajúcou úrovňou čitateľských zručností a schopností, a tým i schopností populácie nadobúdať nevy hnutné predpoklady pre základný rámec formálneho vzdelávania na primárnom a sekundárnom stupni, ale i ďalej na univerzitách a vysokých školách. Autorka konštatuje, že tento problém spočíva v znižovaní kvantity a kvality čítania, a týka sa tak rozvojových, ako i vyspelých krajín. Otázku čítania charakterizuje ako implicitný, ale zároveň ako kritický, naliehavý a prvoradý problém pre rozvoj informačnej spoločnosti. Iba prostredníctvom rozvinutej aktívnej a funkčnej čitateľskej gramotnosti môžu vznikať nové myšlienky, nápady, riešenia a projekty. Úroveň čitateľských schopností (teda schopnosť porozumieť prečítanému) vytvára významné meradlo schopnos tí rozvoja krajiny a rozvoja pracovných kapacít krajiny, prostredníctvom ktorých je možné získavať konkurencie schopné príležitosti v globálnej ekonomike. To má pre krajinu nielen priamy ekonomický, ale v konečnom dô sledku aj politický a sociálny dopad (Ramirez, 2002, s. 7). V tomto zmysle sa čitateľské zručnosti chápu ako univerzálne zručnosti a schopnosti, ktoré sú človek po trebuje v rozličných, resp. vo všetkých sférach činnosti. Na rozvoj informačnej gramotnosti a rozvoj schopnosti celoživotného vzdelávania si treba osvojiť rozličné prístupy a spôsoby učenia sa a vzdelávania sa, ale kľúčovým je v konečnom dôsledku dokonalé zvládnutie práce s textom. Preto s deﬁnovaním čitateľskej gramotnosti a vy medzením jej parametrov sa vymedzujú aj základy informačnej gramotnosti človeka. Vedieť nájsť informáciu v danom texte, osvojiť si ju, zaradiť do poznatkovej bázy, nájsť a selektovať príbuzné texty a logicky integrovať informácie do vlastnej poznatkovej bázy, hľadať zdroje v príbuzných oblastiach a selektovať z nich potrebné in formácie, hľadať a vedieť rozlíšiť, ale aj využiť medziodborové súvislosti a vzťahy sú jednoznačne kompeten ciami čitateľskej gramotnosti. 1 2 3

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eEurope – An Information Society for all: . Akčný plán stratégie informatizácie spoločnosti v podmienkach: . UNESCO program „Information for All Programme (IFAP)“: . „The Global Information Society Project (GISP) at WPI“: .

1.3 Podpora čitateľskej a informačnej gramotnosti na Slovensku a v zahraničí V súčasnosti veľa krajín nastúpilo cestu prechodu k informačnej spoločnosti a vynakladá značné ﬁnančné pros triedky na konštituovanie informačnej spoločnosti a toto sa postupne premieta i do vzdelávania. V systéme vzdelá vania SR sa realizoval od roku 1998 projekt Infovek5, ktorý mal zabezpečiť vybavenie základných a stredných škôl informačnými technológiami a ich funkčné integrovanie do vzdelávania. Súčasťou projektu bola príprava pedagó gov na prácu s IKT vo vyučovacom procese a zároveň príprava projektov, vyučovacích softwarov a kvalitných in formačných zdrojov pre jednotlivé predmety. Hodnotenie výsledkov projektu v komplexnej podobe zatiaľ nie je známe a čiastkové hodnotenia sa dotýkajú predovšetkým využívania internetu vo vyučovaní. Podľa správy štatistického prieskumu Eurobarometer zameraného na využitie internetu deťmi, ktorého vý sledky boli zverejnené v máji 2006 (Bella, 2006), stúpol počet detí mladších ako 18 rokov využívajúcich internet v SR z 30 na 46% a takmer dosiahol úroveň európskeho priemeru (50%). Žiadna iná krajina takýto rýchly rast nezaznamenala. Podľa Eurobarometra sa dnes na Slovensku učí s internetom pracovať viac detí, ako napríklad v Taliansku, Portugalsku, Írsku, Maďarsku či Estónsku. Okrem Infoveku k tomuto rýchlemu rastu prispel projekt Po čítače pre školy, v rámci ktorého Deutsche Telecom v roku 2004 dodal na slovenské školy 22-tisíc počítačov. Správa Eurobarometra zároveň konštatuje, že Slovensko je európskou anomáliou z hľadiska využívania počítačov deťmi: počet detí využívajúcich internet rástol na Slovensku za posledné dva roky rýchlejšie, než v ktorejkoľvek inej európskej krajine, slovenské školy sú na pomery nášho regiónu internetom vybavené veľmi dobre, ale v prístupe na web z domácnosti sme stále takmer poslední (má ho len 15% detí). Náš vzdelávací sys tém je v dostatočnej miere saturovaný IKT, avšak technokratické chápanie práce s informačnými technológiami nezohľadňuje fakt, že schopnosť práce s informáciami sa u žiaka môže rozvíjať až po dosiahnutí určitého stupňa čitateľskej gramotnosti. Na túto skutočnosť upozorňujú všetky známe zahraničné výskumy a práce (Reading, 2002, Kapišnikova, 2002, Programe, 2006). OECD štúdia pozerá na čitateľskú gramotnosť z funkčného hľadiska politiky vzdelanosti (Programme, 2006). Čo sa týka vzdelávacích procesov, tie by sa mali sústreďovať na formovanie predpokladov, t. j. zručností a schopností samostatného celoživotného vzdelávania. Vzhľadom na prácu v jednotlivých predmetoch na vyučo vaní, ide o formovanie schopností: • hľadať informácie a hodnotiť ich relevantnosť pre daný predmet (tému) • pracovať s informáciami, kriticky ich hodnotiť, analyzovať a syntetizovať ich • využívať informácie z iných predmetov a budovať medzipredmetové súvislosti a vzťahy. Principiálnou podstatou čitateľskej gramotnosti jednotlivca je procesuálne hľadisko – teda hľadisko zvládnutia výkonov a procesov pri práci s textom, nakoľko práve ono charakterizuje a determinuje intelektuál ne schopnosti a zručnosti jednotlivca pracovať s informáciami. V tomto zmysle, napriek pokroku v technolo gickom vybavení, sa javia deti a mládež na Slovensku ako informačne chudobné (Rankov, 2005). Na to po ukázala aj OECD vo svojich výskumoch PISA zameraných na medzinárodné porovnávanie znalostí a schopností pätnásťročných žiakov v čitateľskej, matematickej a prírodovednej gramotnosti v súlade so schopnosťou riešiť problémy (Programme, 2006). Takúto koncepciu akceptoval projekt Milénium (Koncepcia, 2006), ktorý vznikol takmer súbežne s Info vekom. Predpokladal prestavbu celého vzdelávacieho systému v SR. V projekte išlo predovšetkým o zmenu ob sahu a metód vzdelávania. Rozhodujúcou sa mala stať metodologická zložka vzdelávania, ktorá by rozvíjala schopnosti jedinca samostatne sa učiť. Do všeobecného vzdelania sa mala zaradiť schopnosť práce s informá ciami vrátane využívania IKT. Projekt však nebol schválený a v SR doposiaľ nemáme koncepciu moderného školstva, ktorú predpokladá i návrh nového školského zákona (Čaplovič, 2005). Podľa miery rozvoja informačnej spoločnosti narastá objem prístupných informačných zdrojov a rozširuje sa informačný priestor človeka. Zároveň tým narastajú možnosti výberu a získavania informácií. Tým viac sa vy ostruje problém nárokov na človeka informačnej spoločnosti. Zvyšujú sa totiž nároky na jeho znalosti, zručnosti, schopnosti – t. j. na informačné kompetencie. Ide o to, aby mal schopnosť vyhľadať a selektovať informácie pre dané úlohy, schopnosť analyzovať, hodnotiť, zovšeobecňovať, schopnosť orientovať sa v globálnom informač nom priestore. A to už zďaleka nie je problém zvládnutia práce s výpočtovou technikou – teda problém tech nologický – ale metodologický, a problém čitateľskej gramotnosti. Jednou z hlavných úloh dneška je pripraviť žiakov na život v globálnej informačnej spoločnosti v budúcnosti a vzdelávať ich k novým druhom gramotnosti v celej šírke kultúry osobnosti ako takej – hlavne čitateľskej a informačnej. Preto by sa logicky práve pred špecialistami na informačnú gramotnosť a kultúru mali objaviť otázky: Sú v takýchto intenciách vzdelávaní a na takéto úlohy pripravovaní aj naši žiaci – budúci členovia informačnej spoločnosti? Nakoľko ich na život v informačnej spoločnosti môže pripraviť dnešná škola? Ako a kde sa vytvá rajú podmienky na to, aby si mohli žiaci osvojiť komplex vedomostí, znalostí, zručností a plnohodnotne a efek tívne pracovať s informáciou? 5

Bližšie informácie na stránke: www.infovek.sk.

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Tieto otázky si kladieme na základe štúdia výsledkov medzinárodných výskumov, ktoré sledujú úroveň čitateľskej a informačnej gramotnosti detí. Ide o: • PIRLS6 (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study), • PISA7 (Programme for International Student Assessment). Tieto rozsiahle výskumy čitateľskej kompetencie, ktoré sa od roku 2000 uskutočňujú vo vyspelých kraji nách poukázali na posuny v kultúrnych hodnotách, v kultúre životného štýlu, na posuny k materiálnemu spôsobu života a v konečnom dôsledku i na zmeny psychologických mechanizmov čítania. Uvedené výskumy opakovane upozornili na priamu súvislosť medzi poklesom predaja detskej literatúry a paralelným nárastom počtu detí so špeciﬁckými poruchami učenia. Túto súvislosť potvrdzujú i psychológovia, ktorých výskumy dokladujú, že dieťa, ktoré od útleho veku číta so svojimi rodičmi, má lepšie výsledky počas štúdia a aj neskôr v zamestnaní (Valček, 2003). Do týchto prieskumov sa v rokoch 2003 a 2004 zapojila aj SR. Výsledky čitateľskej gramotnosti slovenských žiakov a študentov sú pod požadovaným priemerom. Na Slovensku vznikol veľmi významný dlhodobý projekt Literárneho informačného centra v spolupráci s Ústavom výskumu kultúry a verejnej mienky „Výskum súčasného stavu a úrovne čítania v SR“, ktorého záme rom je priebežne sledovať štandardné sociologické atribúty čítania ako ľudskej kultúrnej aktivity. Prieskum hod notí množstvo relačných ukazovateľov čítania detí na Slovensku, ale nehodnotí základné ukazovatele, teda úro veň čitateľských zručností a schopností pri samotnej práci s informáciou. Aj jeho výsledky jednoznačne pouka zujú na nedostatky čitateľskej a informačnej kultúry slovenských detí. Zaujímavé sú i výsledky výskumu spoločnosti TNS SK, ktorý realizovala v júli a auguste 2005 medzi rodičmi detí na tému „Deti a médiá“ (Deti, 2005). Do výskumu sa zapojilo 360 rodičov, ktorí majú celkovo 451 detí vo vekovej kategórii 4–15 rokov. Hoci sa výskum primárne zameriaval na médium televízia, zaujímavé z nášho hľadiska je porovnanie priemerného času, ktorý dieťa počas týždňa trávi čítaním kníh a detských časopi sov, s priemerným časom, ktorý dieťa trávi sledovaním TV. Výpovede rodičov ukázali, že televízii je venované troj násobne viac času ako čítaniu. To jednoznačne svedčí o nedostatkoch sociálneho kontextu čítania detí a mládeže. Pri podrobnej analýze týchto i podobných výskumov musíme konštatovať, že deti a mládež SR na rolu členov informačnej spoločnosti nie sú dostatočne pripravené. Napriek všetkým predchádzajúcim argumentom sa v Slovenskej republike venovala otázkam čitateľ skej a informačnej gramotnosti doposiaľ minimálna pozornosť, hoci v celosvetovom kontexte sa dlhodobo vy víjajú na základe spomenutých výskumov a monitoringov čítania v mnohých krajinách tendencie a iniciatívy na podporu čítania a nadobúdania čitateľskej gramotnosti detí, ako i rozličné stratégie riešení v školskom aj mimoškolskom prostredí. V školskom prostredí sa v zahraničí sústreďuje pozornosť na: • zmeny koncepcie vzdelávania • prípravu kvalitných učiteľov na nové stratégie čítania • vnášanie problematiky čitateľských kompetencií do kurikula školského vzdelávania – do školských osnov všetkých predmetov • koncepciu a organizáciu školy: vznikajú projekty celodenných a alternatívnych škôl (Nemecko, Rusko), projekty typu „School where literacy thrives“ (Škola, 2006), projekty stmeľovania rodinného a školského prostredia (podľa fínskeho vzoru) • stmeľovanie škôl, školských knižníc a informačných centier školy (School, 2006) • rozvoj podporných stratégií výučby čítania, napr.:  Viem – chcem sa dozvedieť – dozvedel som sa  Pyramída faktov  Mapa poznania  Mapa príbehu  Spojnica: otázky a odpovede. Informačne gramotný čitateľ by mal nielen zvládnuť prácu s IKT, ale i ovládať stratégie analýzy zadania a inštrukcií, mal by vedieť narábať s graﬁckou informáciou, plánovať a organizovať svoju činnosť, kontrolovať a hodnotiť nielen svoj výsledok, ale aj proces práce. Preto znalosť a výučba stratégií a spôsobov intelektuálneho spracovania informácie a umeleckého textu by mala byť obsiahnutá vo všetkých predmetoch. V mimoškolskom prostredí sa strategické zámery orientujú na podporu čítania v rodine, kultúrnych in štitúciách a rozličných komunitách. Sú rozpracované na národnej, regionálnej aj inštitucionálnej úrovni. Medzi najvýraznejšie aktivity a iniciatívy tohto druhu patria: • programy podpory čítania (národné programy podpory čítania) • aktivizovanie a organizovanie lídrov a patrónov čítania 6

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PIRLS (9-10 roční žiaci) zastrešovaný IEA – Medzinárodnou asociáciou pre hodnotenie výsledkov vzdelávania: , . PISA (15 roční študenti) cyklicky realizovaný v krajinách OECD a partnerských krajinách pod záštitou OECD: , .

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podpora čitateľských zručností od najútlejšieho veku: čitateľské vzdelávanie v predškolských za riadeniach v predčitateľskom veku podpora rodičovského čítania, rodinného čítania a čítania v rodine.

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Programy na podporu čítania vychádzajú z politickej línie a sú podporované vládou a štátnymi rezortmi. V krátkom prehľade uvádzame najvýraznejšie z nich: • Reading is fundamental v USA (Reading, 2006) • Reading is fundamental v Anglicku (Reading, 2006) • National Reading Campaign v Anglicku (National, 2006) • Literacy for all: the challenge for Australian schools v Austrálii (Literacy, 2006) • Action for Family Literacy Ontario (Action, 2004) a Centre for Family Literacy (Centre, 2006) v Kanade • Pod záštitou Stiftung Lesen sa v Nemecku rozvíjajú programy „Wir lesen vor!“ (Wir, 2006) a EU READ: Task Force for Literacy and Reading Promotion (EU, 2006) • CLAC je nadnárodný program pre frankofónne oblasti (CLAC, 2006) a pod. V anglofónnom prostredí je väčšina projektov na podporu čítania podporovaná vládou a za ich realizáciu je zodpovedný rezort školstva a vzdelávacie inštitúcie. Táto situácia vychádza z problematiky technického nácviku čítania anglických textov. Projekty sú zamerané na vzdelávanie pedagógov, lektorov, vychovávateľov a rodičov v oblasti nácviku techniky čítania a metodiky učenia, ale aj na realizáciu aktivít knižníc, školských, kultúrnych a iných zariadení s rodinou a komunitným prostredím, orientovaných na podporu čítania a samostatného učenia. Často sú sponzorované známymi ﬁrmami, podporované politikmi, umelcami a ďalšími osobnosťami a zazname návajú i značnú pozornosť médií. Väčšinou sa orientujú na predškolský a raný školský vek a vychádzajú z premisy, že dieťa sa začína učiť čítať nadobúdaním postojov k textom, čiže základy čitateľskej výchovy sú v rodine. Mnohé inštitúcie a združenia (napr. IRA,CIERA, PISA, NWRCC, NICHD 8) sa venujú tvorbe rozličných metodík a inštruktážnych materiálov pre rodičov, učiteľov a vychovávateľov, zameraných na vznik a rozvoj návykov čítania a čitateľskej gramotnosti a metodiku samostatného učenia: • Standards for Reading Professionals (Standards, 1996–2006) • The Reading and Writing for Critical Thinking Project (Reading, 2005) • A Child Becomes a Reader Birth through Preschool (Child, 2006) • Helping Your Child Become a Reader (Helping, 2005) • On the Road to Reading : A Guide for Community Partners (On the Road, 2006). V európskom prostredí sa aktivity na podporu čítania odlišujú predovšetkým v tom, že sú zamerané na podporu rozvoja čitateľskej gramotnosti detí. Ich zacielenie je zámerne orientované na rodičovskú, pedagogickú, kultúrnu a širšiu verejnosť. Na Slovensku je v tomto smere situácia odlišná. Podobné aktivity na podporu čitateľskej a informačnej gramotnosti – s výnimkou snáh verejných knižníc a združenia ORAVA – absentujú. Pojem čitateľská gramotnosť sa ešte doposiaľ často zamieňa so zastaralým chápaním pojmu gramotnosť – schopnosť čítať a písať. I výskumy čítania detí majú skôr parciálny charakter (PIRLS, výskum čítania LIC). Výsledky týchto výskumov poukázali na značné rezervy v rodinnom, školskom i kultúrnom prostredí, ktoré je potrebné zaplniť primeranými aktivitami, zameranými na zvýšenie čitateľskej gramotnosti detí.

1.4 Čítanie, knižnica a informačná spoločnosť Informačným a zdrojovým centrom celoživotného vzdelávania je často knižnica. Kľúčové úlohy a postavenie knižníc v informačnej spoločnosti sú podporované i na medzinárodnej úrovni – jednoznačne to vyjadruje „Manifest IFLA a UNESCO o školských knižniciach“ (School 2006), ako aj Svetový summit o informačnej spoločnosti v roku 2005, v rámci ktorého sa konala pred-konferencia v Alexandrii pod názvom „Libraries – the Information Society in Action“.9 Prostredníctvom knižnice sa realizuje spojenie medzi školskou a mimoškolskou činnosťou, knižnica vy tvára prostredie v rámci hesla: „za hranicou školskej učebnice“. Vychádza to z reálnej situácie, kde žiaci v školách dostávajú také úlohy, ktoré nevyhnutne vyžadujú prácu s knihovnícko-bibliograﬁckým aparátom a sa mostatnú prácu s informačnými zdrojmi – úloha sa začína v škole a pokračuje v knižnici. Knižnica je miestom mimoškolského čítania, literárnych hier, sviatkov, čitateľských konferencií, čitateľských klubov s rodičmi, je to miesto diskusií a besied o knihách. Prostredníctvom knižnice sa realizuje spojenie s okolitými knižnicami. V knižniciach a v škole pracujú „lídri čítania“, žiaci, ktorí prejavujú osobitý záujem o knihu a čítanie. 8

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IRA – International Reading Association: http://www.ira.org/; CIERA – Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, University of Michigan School of Education: ; NWRCC – The Northern Wisconsin Regional Council of Carpenters: ; NICHD – National Institute of Child Health and Human Development: . Libraries – the Information Society in Action: .

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Verejné i školské knižnice, majú na svojich www stránkach špeciálne linky pre rodičov a pedagógov, obsahujúce konkrétne rady, návody a odporúčané zdroje, ako pomôcť dieťaťu naučiť sa čítať a učiť sa. Jednoducho, knižnica je jedným z ústredných miest, ktoré pomáhajú formovať čitateľskú a informačnú gramotnosť detí a mládeže.

2 Čitateľská a informačná gramotnosť 9–10 ročných detí 2.1 Východiská výskumu Súčasná generácia detí je charakteristická zmenami vzťahu k čítaniu, k intencionálnej literatúre, zmenami vo voľnočasových aktivitách a prístupom k ostatným tradičným kultúrnym artefaktom. Príčinami sú negatívne problémy užšieho i širšieho sociálneho prostredia. Keďže je čitateľská gramotnosť kľúčovou kompetenciou a zá kladom informačnej gramotnosti, pre vypracovanie štandardov a metodík je potrebné deﬁnovať základné problé my a východiská. Všetky spomenuté výskumy a monitoringy pri konštatovaní nedostatočnej úrovne čitateľskej gramotnosti v podstate formulujú dve hlavné otázky a úlohy: • ako zvýšiť kvalitu čitateľských schopností a zručností, • ako zvýšiť záujem o knihy, literatúru a čítanie. Možnosti hľadania metód a prostriedkov na splnenie týchto úloh predpokladajú vymedziť pojem čitateľ ská gramotnosť a určiť jej štandardy pre jednotlivé vekové stupne. Čitateľská gramotnosť – „reading literacy“ v zmysle chápania spôsobilosti čítať, je v súčasnosti hodnotená ako základná kompetencia, bez ktorej nemožno dosiahnuť všetky ďalšie kompetencie. Stala sa súčasťou funkčnej gramotnosti človeka ako komplexu kompeten cií pre akékoľvek uplatnenie sa človeka v súčasnej spoločnosti (tab. 1). Hlavná pozornosť rozšíreného chápania pojmu sa orientuje na: poznanie, znalosti, informácie, ale i porozumenie, chápanie, návyky, efektívne fungovanie a plnohodnotné uplatnenie sa v spoločnosti. Elementárna gramotnosť zvládnutie a ovládanie elementárnych zručností čítania, písania a počítania nezahŕňajúca zložitejšie úlohy

Funkčná gramotnosť ovládanie znalostí a zručností nevyhnutných pre efektívnu praktickú činnosť, ktorá je realizovaná v dlhšom časovom období, ovládanie znalostí a zručností, ktoré umožňujú porozumieť a využívať rozličné inštrukcie a informácie, citlivo a exibilne reagovať na systematicky meniace sa informačné a technologické prostredie mať vybudovanú nevyhnutnú a stálu motiváciu a návyky na permanentné sebavzdelávanie

Čitateľská gramotnosť schopnosť človeka využívať písomnú informáciu pre osobné ciele v širokom diapazóne situácií, ktoré si vyžadujú jej efektívne využívanie

Tab. 1. Vzťah elementárnej, funkčnej a čitateľskej gramotnosti (Razrabotka, 2005-2006)

Medzi funkčnou gramotnosťou a funkčnou negramotnosťou je veľmi dynamická hranica. Názory a pries kumy odborníkov dokladujú, že ak nebude človek permanentne dopĺňať svoje znalosti, schopnosti, zručnosti, môže sa v súčasnosti stať za 5-10 rokov funkčne negramotným. V tomto zmysle má veľkú zodpovednosť systém vzdelávania, ktorý by mal vybudovať u žiakov neustálu motiváciu a návyk permanentného osobného rastu v zmysle sebavzdelávania. Čitateľská gramotnosť je univerzálna kultúrna technika a umožňuje podieľať sa na sociálnom a kultúrnom živote modernej spoločnosti. V súlade s ďalšou odbornou literatúrou sa PISA pozerá na čítanie ako na aktívnu prácu s textom. Školská a mimoškolská podpora čitateľskej gramotnosti by mala byť zameraná na dva body: na zlepšenie práce s informáciou pri čítaní prostredníctvom čitateľských stratégií a regulačných techník a na dlhodobé posilňovanie radosti z čítania a rozvoj dlhodobého záujmu o literatúru (Programme, 2006). Čitateľská gramotnosť je deﬁnovaná nielen ako porozumenie textu, ale aj ako schopnosť práce s textom zameraná na jeho praktickú aplikáciu čitateľom (anglosaské chápanie), alebo ako sociálny mechanizmus rozvoja osobnosti (škan dinávske chápanie). Z hľadiska plnohodnotného formovania čitateľskej gramotnosti vo všetkých jej aspektoch je nevyhnutné charakterizovať jej základné štrukturálne prvky. Štrukturálny model informačnej gramotnosti ju cha rakterizuje z hľadiska jej vnútorných komponentov, medzi ktoré patria: • literárne vedomosti, prehľad literárnych diel, ich autorov, poznatky z oblasti teórie literatúry, umenovedy a jazykovedy; • čitateľské schopnosti a zručnosti: technické zručnosti a intelektuálne schopnosti, ktoré realizujú recepciu a percepciu diela; • motivácia čítania; • čitateľské návyky; 102

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čitateľské záujmy: ich súčasťou sú čitateľské potreby, čitateľské preferencie a ich štruktúra – tieto špeciﬁkujú literárny materiál, či už umelecký alebo odborný, ktorý čitateľ uprednostňuje (z hľadiska žánru, au torov, formy a formátu a pod.); hodnotové postoje čitateľa (k literatúre, k jednotlivým dielam, k čítaniu vôbec atď.) (Hrdináková, 2005, s. 130, Sakálová, 1999, s. 27).

Čítanie zahŕňa nielen zvládnutie techniky čítania, ale aj rozmýšľanie nad ním a intelektuálne spracovanie informácií. Čitateľské schopnosti a zručnosti (kompetencie) sú zložitým komplexom intelektuálnych činností a procesov a zahŕňajú: • techniku čítania ako proces identiﬁkácie písmen a technickej syntézy do slov a viet, • schopnosť a proces chápania textu, • schopnosť identiﬁkovať informácie uvedené v texte (čitateľ vyhľadáva informácie explicitne uvedené v texte) – sústredenie sa a nadobudnutie potrebnej informácie, identiﬁkácia relevantnej informácie ako cieľa čítania, hľadanie špeciﬁckej myšlienky, deﬁnícií, alebo faktov, hľadanie hlavnej myšlienky, • schopnosť vytvárať úsudky a charakteristiky prečítaného, čo je výsledkom metakognitívnych procesov a stratégií, • schopnosť zapamätať si myšlienky uvedené v texte, • schopnosť reprodukovať text, • schopnosť dedukovať na základe textu (čitateľ vyvodzuje myšlienky, informácie a súvislosti medzi nimi, ktoré nie sú explicitne formulované v texte; z textu vyplývajú, alebo s ním súvisia), • schopnosť tvoriť priamy úsudok – hľadať skryté významy a súvislosti, • schopnosť logicky spájať do súvislostí (javy, deje), • schopnosť hodnotiť – čitateľ hodnotí:  postavy, javy, deje – vyjadruje a formuje svoje sociálne postoje,  hodnotí a analyzuje text – z hľadiska obsahu, ale aj foriem, t. j. reektovanie štruktúry textu, jazykových prostriedkov literárnych • schopnosť vyvodiť hlavnú myšlienku, rozpoznať tvrdenia v texte a ich väzbu, • schopnosť vyvodiť poučenie, záver, poslanie, • schopnosť integrovať myšlienky – čitateľ konštruuje význam nad rámec textu, • schopnosť interpretovať myšlienky a informácie – čitateľ pri interpretácii dáva do súvislostí myšlienky textu, integruje informácie textu s predchádzajúcimi poznatkami a vedomosťami; interpretovanie a integ rácia myšlienok a informácií vyžaduje začlenenie informácií a myšlienok do osobného poznatkového sys tému, rozpoznanie hlavnej myšlienky, charakteristík, porovnanie protikladov informácií v texte, posúdenie nálady textu, interpretáciu hlavnej myšlienky pre prax (Obrancová, 2004, Lesňák, 1991). S ohľadom na individuálny vývojový aspekt a individuálne dispozície možno rozlišovať tieto úrovne funkčnej čitateľskej gramotnosti: • úroveň adaptácie – pasívne zvládanie techniky čítania, čítania s porozumením, základných čitateľských zručností, prispôsobovanie sa nárokom na čitateľskú gramotnosť („survival literacy“), je to základná úro veň zvládnutia nevyhnutných čitateľských zručností s fundamentálnou (minimálnou) škálou kompetencií a vedomostí; • čitateľská gramotnosť ako sebarozvojová aktivita – predstavuje aktívne vzdelávanie na základe čitateľ ských schopností a zručností, samostatné vzdelávanie sa a práca s informáciami, s odbornými textami, schopnosť hodnotenia v rámci čitateľskej gramotnosti; • literárna gramotnosť ako aktívna tvorba a produkcia textov – literárnych útvarov (Hrdináková, 2005, 132). Pri konfrontácii kontinua vývinu jednotlivca a jednotlivých zložiek procesu čítania (resp. jednotlivých schopností), konštatujeme nasledujúce etapy vývoja čitateľskej gramotnosti: • Predškolský vek: väčšinu z uvedených schopností možno formovať v predškolskom veku – období, kedy tvoríme základy pre neskoršie schopnosti samostatného čítania, hovoríme obdobie ranej gramotnosti (pre gramotnosti). V tomto období je dieťa viazané na čítanie iným človekom, preto je nevyhnutné zdôrazňo vať potrebu čítania v domácom prostredí a v predškolských zariadeniach. Čítanie v tomto období má vplyv na určité fyziologické a psychologické funkcie človeka: fonetické spracovanie textu, obrazové spracovanie textu – imaginácia, tvorba reprezentačno-kognitívnych rečových štruktúr, formovanie emócií a postojov. • Raný školský vek (6-10 rokov): techniku čítania sa začína dieťa učiť v 1. ročníku základnej školy. Zvlád nutie techniky čítania je individuálne, no vo všeobecnosti sa predpokladá, že 9-10 ročné dieťa by malo byť schopné samostatne čítať s porozumením – človek sa v tejto etape stáva gramotným v tradičnom zmysle slova. • Starší školský vek (10-14 rokov): upevňovanie nadobudnutých zručností a schopností a vznik základov schopnosti aktívneho uplatňovania čitateľskej a funkčnej gramotnosti jednotlivca. Žiak rozumie umelec 103

kému i odbornému textu primeranému jeho veku, vie pracovať s textom na úrovni hodnotenia, dedukcie, integrácie myšlienok textu, ako i tvorby súdov a názorov. Tvoria sa základy schopnosti koncipovať texty, t. j. aktívnej tvorivej čitateľskej gramotnosti. Adolescencia (14 a vyššie): 14 ročný človek vie čítať s porozumením, vie analyzovať a hodnotiť texty a informácie, vie si vybrať relevantné informácie. V tomto období sa formuje a zdokonaľuje aktívna gramotnosť, ako aktívna tvorba a produkcia. Okrem toho sa rozvíja i funkčný aspekt gramotnosti – funkč ná gramotnosť, teda sociálne relevantné a samostatné uplatňovanie čítania v istom kultúrnom prostredí, v odbore, pri štúdiu a pod. Funkčná gramotnosť je schopnosť efektívne sa zapájať a participovať na roz ličných skupinových a spoločenských aktivitách, vyžadujúcich používanie gramotnosti (čítania a písania), ako aj samostatné využívanie gramotnosti v prospech vlastného individuálneho rozvoja i rozvoja spoloč nosti10 (Zápotočná, 2004).

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Čitateľská gramotnosť je podľa PISA integrovaná charakteristika (schopnosť, kompetencia), ktorá má tri parametre: • schopnosť rozoznávať a zároveň realizovať všetky typy čitateľských úloh – procesuálny parameter, • schopnosť rozoznávať a spracovávať všetky typy textov – obsahový parameter – t. j. schopnosť spracová vať neštruktúrované texty, ktoré sú členené maximálne na odseky, ako aj štruktúrované texty spracované do tabuliek, grafov, máp a pod.; neštruktúrovaný text zahŕňa opisy, rozprávania, súdy, vývody, inštrukcie a pod., k štruktúrovaným textom patria ankety, dotazníky, reklamné texty, schémy a diagramy, grafy, dia gramy, tabuľkové texty, matrice a pod. • schopnosť tvoriť a realizovať proces čítania v súlade s predpokladaným využívaním textu – kontextuálny parameter:  texty, ktoré čitateľ číta pre osobné účely (umelecká literatúra, texty slúžiace na pestovanie záľub,  texty na všeobecné využitie: oﬁciálne dokumenty, informácie o spoločenských udalostiach,  texty pre profesionálne využitie a texty za účelom sebavzdelávania a celoživotného vzdelávania. Podstatou čitateľskej gramotnosti jednotlivca je procesuálne hľadisko, ktoré je základom štandardov in formačnej gramotnosti. Tento procesuálny parameter, ktorý je spätý s typmi čitateľských úloh, formuluje a pred kladá 3 škály hodnotenia čitateľskej kompetencie: • škála stupeň získavania, selekcie a vyťaženia informácie – opisuje schopnosť žiakov nachádzať infor mácie v texte, • škála stupeň interpretácie – schopnosť žiakov konštruovať zmysel textu a interpretovať text, vytvárať lo gické intelektuálne vývody na základe informácie, ktorá je obsiahnutá v texte, • škála stupeň kritického hodnotenia textu – schopnosť žiaka integrovať texty do vlastnej poznatkovej štruktúry, myšlienok a skúsenosti (Programme, 2006).

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Pre účely hodnotenia bolo podrobne formulovaných 5 úrovní čitateľskej kompetencie (Programme, 2006): 5. úroveň – žiaci sú schopní realizovať také zložité čitateľské úlohy ako: práca s neznámym textom, hľadanie nezreteľných a ťažko rozlíšiteľných, identiﬁkovateľných, selektova teľných informácií v texte a ich porozumenie, hlboké a podrobné porozumenie neznámych náročných textov, selektovanie informácií z nich, selektovanie takých informácií, ktoré majú bezprostredný vzťah k úlohe, kritické hodnotenie informácií, formulovanie hypotéz a špecializovaných záverov, formulovanie protireči vých myšlienok – buď bežne známych alebo pravdepodobných a možných, ak text nezodpovedá očakávaniu čitateľa, dokáže ho kriticky posúdiť s ohľadom na svoje vlastné vedomosti.

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4. úroveň – žiaci sú schopní realizovať také zložité čitateľské úlohy ako: hľadanie nejakej informácie, ktorá je obsiahnutá v texte, konštruovanie významu – obsahu textu, myšlienok, na základe jazykových nuáns a ekvivalentov, kritické hodnotenie textu.

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3. úroveň – žiaci sú schopní realizovať čitateľské úlohy strednej zložitosti: hľadanie takej informácie v texte, ktorá sa vzťahuje k rozličným objektom, stanovenie vzťahu medzi rozličnými časťami textu, spájanie obsahu textu so štruktúrou všeobecných poznatkov o svete.

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Opakom takto charakterizovanej funkčnej gramotnosti je „funkčná negramotnost“ (resp. „nefunkčná gramotnost“) – človek disponuje schopnosťou čítať i písať, ale tieto zručnosti nevyužíva, resp. nie je schopný ich uplatniť v praktickom či pracovnom živote.

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2. úroveň – žiaci sú schopní realizovať základné čitateľské úlohy strednej zložitosti: hľadanie zreteľnej informácie v texte, odvodenie jednoduchých intelektuálnych a logických záverov z textov rozličného typu, porozumenie určitej časti textu s akceptovaním (využitím) určitých vlastných základných poznatkov. 1. úroveň – žiaci sú schopní realizovať najjednoduchšie čitateľské úlohy: hľadanie zreteľných a explicitných informácií v texte, konkrétnych informácií bez vedľajších informácií (príp. iba s niekoľkými vedľajšími informáciami), určenie hlavnej myšlienky, určenie hlavnej intencie autora, nájdenie jednoduchého spojenia a súvislosti textu, resp. informácií z textu so všeobecne známymi poznat kami bežnými v každodennom živote.

2.2 Ciele výskumu Čiastkový výskum Čitateľská a informačná gramotnosti 9-10 ročných detí, ktorý je realizovaný v rámci projektu Využívanie informácií pri informačnom správaní vo vzdelávaní a vede si stanovuje nasledujúci základný cieľ: overiť úroveň čitateľských kompetencií detí raného školského veku v kontexte s čitateľskými kompetenciami detí predškolského veku a na základe výsledkov výskumu a medzinárodných odporúčaní formulovať základné predpoklady pre vytvorenie štandardov čitateľskej a informačnej gramotnosti žiakov základnej školy. Pre výskum sme formulovali nasledujúce hypotézy: •

O štruktúre čitateľov a používateľov žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ Zastúpenie detskej populácie jednotlivých vekových stupňov v knižniciach nie je dostačujúce. Z hľadiska štruktúry čitateľskej gramotnosti predpokladáme dostatočné zvládnutie techniky čítania, ale nedostatočné zvlád nutie ostatných kompetencií vyššej úrovne. Práve v tomto veku by deti mali zvládnuť procesuálne hľadisko práce s textom. Súčasne je to vek, v ktorom by dieťa malo mať ukončenú etapu čitateľského vývinu vo vzťahu k intencionálnej detskej literatúre. •

O motívoch čítania Motivácia čítania detí pochádza tak z rodinného, ako aj širšieho sociálneho prostredia, pričom kvalita motivácie z rodinného prostredia nie je na dostatočnej úrovni. Sociálny kontext čítania detí a mládeže preukazuje vážne nedostatky a medzery. •

O stimuloch čítania Deti čítajú tak pre zábavu, ako aj z potreby získavania informácií. Čítanie pre zábavu je menej zastúpené, než čítanie pre potrebu informácií (nedostatočné čitateľské návyky, konkurencia elektronických a iných médií). •

O výbere a orientácii na určité zdroje žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ Žiaci poznajú obmedzenú škálu zdrojov, nevedia sa dostatočne orientovať v primeranej škále zdrojov (do kumentových, inštitucionálnych) a nepoznajú metódy ich hodnotenia. Výber zdrojov je determinovaný ne správnymi metódami výučby využívania zdrojov (hlavne v prípade náučnej literatúry) a vzájomným ovplyvňo vaním sa detí (v prípade beletristickej a umeleckej literatúry). •

O zručnostiach pri výbere, vyhľadávaní informačných zdrojov, príp. iných zručnostiach realizovaných v knižnici Žiaci nie sú vedení k správnej metodike orientácie v informačných zdrojoch a vyhľadávania relevant ných informácií. •

O uplatnení a využívaní informácií a informačných zdrojov Žiaci nie sú schopní dostatočnej recepcie a percepcie prečítaného textu na úrovni zodpovedajúcej veku. Žiaci sú schopní memorovať ale nie sú schopní samostatne interpretovať, prezentovať, odvodzovať z textu záve ry a myšlienky, vytvárať nové myšlienkové celky na základe prečítaného. •

O pragmatickom aspekte zdokonaľovania schopností a zručností vyhľadávania informácií v informač ných zdrojoch • O pragmatickom aspekte zdokonaľovania čitateľských zručností a návykov žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ V súvislosti s deﬁnovanými úrovňami funkčnosti čitateľskej gramotnosti predpokladáme, že naši žiaci dosahujú 1. úroveň, t. j. úroveň adaptácie čitateľskej gramotnosti, no nie sú schopní dosiahnuť vyššiu úroveň, t. j. čitateľskú gramotnosť ako rozvojovú aktivitu a čitateľskú gramotnosť na tvorivej úrovni.

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2.2.1 Čiastkové ciele a orientácie výskumu Dotazníkový prieskum poskytne empirické údaje o informačnom správaní žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa základných škôl. Konkrétne pôjde o sledovanie nasledujúcich štruktúr (komponentov): • kategorizácia a analýza žiakov-čitateľov na základe  veku,  pohlavia,  čitateľskej aktivity,  čitateľských návykov,  záujmov • všeobecné údaje o zdrojoch informácií u žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ • podrobné informácie o motívoch čitateľských aktivít žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ • údaje o stimuloch a príčinách čitateľských aktivít žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ • údaje o orientácii na čitateľské a informačné zdroje • údaje o výbere a preferenciách z hľadiska  typu zdrojov (knihy, časopisy, EZ, AVD a pod.),  obsahu zdrojov (beletria, vecná literatúra, hry, žánre, a pod.),  obtiažnosti textov,  sprievodného (ilustračného) aparátu zdrojov,  lokácie zdrojov, príp. iného • údaje o kvalite informačných zdrojov využívaných žiakmi 1. a 2. stupňa základných škôl • údaje o účeloch a pragmatických aspektoch využívania informačných zdrojov a literatúry • údaje o efektoch čitateľských aktivít žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ • údaje o čitateľských kompetenciách (orientácia v informačných zdrojoch a iných zručnostiach realizova ných v knižnici) • údaje o kooperatívnom informačnom správaní žiakov 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ • údaje o kvalite čitateľských návykov. Pre poznanie základných problémov v prvej etape realizujeme výskum medzi 110 čitateľmi verejných kniž níc v SR a v druhej etape medzi 60 žiakmi 4. ročníkov na základných školách. Výskum má tri časti. Prvá časť skúma vplyvy širšieho a užšieho prostredia na čitateľské aktivity a preferencie. Je realizovaná formou štandardizo vaného rozhovoru. Druhá časť sa zaoberá úrovňou recepcie umeleckého textu. Tretia časť skúma schopnosť pocho piť a selektovať vecné informácie z náučného textu. Obe časti zamerané na úroveň čitateľských schopností sú reali zované metódami štandardizovaného rozhovoru, dotazníka a pozorovania pri individuálnom čítaní. V analytickej časti výskumu budeme zo skúmaných štruktúr a komponentov odvodzovať: • Základné indikátory vytvárajúce základný proﬁl znalostí, zručností a schopností podstatných pre aktívnu a funkčnú čitateľskú gramotnosť, ktoré sú základom pre ďalšie celoživotné vzdelávanie. Testujú a charak terizujú úroveň a stupeň čitateľskej zručnosti: pochopenie testu, selektovanie informácií z textu, identiﬁkovanie informácií v texte, a to zreteľne vyjadrených i zakódovaných v texte, tvorbu textových celkov a pod. • Kontextové indikátory: popisujú demograﬁcký, sociálny a ekonomický kontext čitateľskej gramotnosti a podávajú informácie o jeho statuse. Poskytujú také charakteristiky ako: geograﬁcká charakteristika čita teľa, vek čitateľa, knižničné aktivity čitateľa, voľnočasové aktivity čitateľa, rodinný a komunitný kontext čitateľa, školské čitateľské motivácie, stimuly čítania a pod. • Relačné indikátory: ozrejmujú súvislosti medzi individuálnymi znakmi a typmi čitateľov (nečitateľov) na strane jednej a ich výslednou výkonnosťou na strane druhej. Relačnými indikátormi budeme sledovať: sú vislosť čítania s rodičovským zázemím, s vekovými charakteristikami detí, s pohlavím, s voľnočasovými aktivitami detí, súvislosť čítania s motiváciou zo strany školy a školských povinností, súvislosť čítania s počítačovými aktivitami detí a pod.

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Na základe podrobnej analýzy uvedených aspektov a indikátorov bude výstupom výskumu: vytvorenie modelu priemerného čitateľa-žiaka 1. a 2. stupňa ZŠ, porovnanie modelu s hypotézami, tvorba štandardov čitateľskej kultúry, tvorba štandardov informačnej gramotnosti, tvorba metodických postupov na ich dosahovanie v prostredí školského a mimoškolského vzdelávania žiakov základnej školy.

Výstupy z výskumu považujeme za príspevok k zmene spoločenského chápania problematiky čítania a čita teľskej gramotnosti vo vzťahu k informačnej gramotnosti každého jednotlivca. Okrem toho tieto výstupy považu jeme za dôležité predpoklady zmien v obsahu a metódach vzdelávania v školskom i mimoškolskom prostredí. 106

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Action for Family Literacy Ontario : AFLO [online]. 2004. Ontario Literacy Coalition, 2004 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . BELLA, T. 2006. Deti sa vrhli na internet, rodičia nestíhajú. In: Počítače SME, 24. 5. 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . Centre for Family Literacy [online]. 2006. Centre for Family Literacy, [2006] [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . Les CLAC francophones : Centres de lecture et d’animation culturelle [online]. 2006. Organisation Internationale de la Francophone, Centre de documentation et d’information de l’Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (Cifdi), 2006 [cit. 2006-06-12]. Dostupné na internete: . A Child Becomes a Reader Birth through Preschool : The Partnership for Reading [online]. 2006. National Institute for Literacy, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . ČAPLOVIČ, D. 2005. Návrh princípov a obsahového zamerania zákona o výchove a vzdelávaní v školách a v školských zariadeniach : školský zákon [online]. SMER – sociálna demokracia, 2005 [cit. 2005-08-30]. Dostupné na internete: . DANKERT, B. 2006. „Impérium vrací úder“ – knihovny po studii PISA [online]. SKIP, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . EU READ : Task Force for Literacy and Reading Promotion [online]. 2006. Mainz : Stiftung Lesen, 2006 [cit. 200607-1]. Dostupné na internete: . FOGERTY, Robin & Associates. Literacy Matters [online]. [cit. 2006-07-03]. Charleston : Department of Education, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . Deti a médiá [online]. 2005. Bratislava : TNS SK, 2005 [cit. 2006-05-12]. Dostupné na internete: . Helping Your Child Become a Reader [online]. 2005. Washington, DC : U.S. Department of Education, Last Modiﬁed: 08/26/2005 [cit. 2006-07-2]. Dostupné na internete: . HRDINÁKOVÁ, Ľ. 2005. Informačná gramotnosť a informačné vzdelávanie. In: Informačné a komunikačné technológie vo vzdelávaní [online]. Bratislava : Stimul, 2005. 153 s. ISBN 80-88982-97-9 KAPIŠNIKOVA, A. P. 2002. Detskaja biblioteka, čtenije : problemy, novyje podchody, perspektivy razvitija. In: Analitičeskij vestnik Soveta Federaciji [online] 2002, No 32 (188) [cit. 2006-07-2]. Dostupné na internete: . Koncepcia rozvoja výchovy a vzdelávania v Slovenskej republike na najbližších 15 – 20 rokov : projekt „MILÉNIUM“. Bratislava : Rada mládeže Slovenska, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-07]. Dostupné na internete: . LESŇÁK, R.1991. Horizonty čitateľskej kultúry. Bratislava : Slovenský spisovateľ, 1991. 232 s. Literacy for all: the challenge for Australian schools [online]. 2006. Australian Government, Department of Education, Science and Training, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-07]. Dostupné na internete: . The National Literacy Strategy : England [online]. 2006. London : National Literacy Trust, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . National Reading Campaign [online]. 2006. London : National Literacy Trust, 2006 Dostupné na internete: . On the Road to Reading : A Guide for Community Partners [online]. 2006. Scotts Valley : The Resource Center, [2006] [cit. 2006-03-12]. Dostupné na in ternete: . Dostupné aj na . OBRANCOVÁ, E. – HELDOVÁ, D. – LUKAČKOVÁ, Z. – SKLENÁROVÁ, I. 2004. Čitateľská gramotnosť žiakov 4. ročníka ZŠ : Výsledky medzinárodnej štúdie PIRLS 2001. Bratislava : Štátny pedagogický ústav, 2004. 57 s. PISA SK 2003 : Národná správa. 2004. Bratislava : Štátny pedagogický ústav, 2004. 38 s. PIRLS, 2001 [online]. TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, 2005 [cit. 2006-07-2]. Dostupné na internete: . Programme for International Student Assessment : PISA 2000 [online]. 2006. Berlin : Max-Plank-Institut fűr Bildungsforschung, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . RAMIREZ, Elsa. 2002. Reading, Information Literacy, and Information Culture. Washington, DC : NCLIS–National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, 2002 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . RANKOV, P. 2005. Len sporadické využívanie knižnice : Pozeranie televízie deťmi u nás prevyšuje ostatné zdroje informácií [online]. In: Verejná správa, 2005, č. 10. Razrabotka zanjatij po RKMČP. 2005-2006. In: PEDSOVET.ORG [online], 2005-2006 [cit. 2006-07-12]. Dostupné na internete: . Reading, Information Literacy, and Information Culture [online]. 2006. NCLIS, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . 107

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Reading is fundamental [online]. 2006. RIF, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . Reading is fundamental, UK [online]. 2006. London : National Literacy Trust, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . SAKÁLOVÁ, E. – MATTHAEIDESOVÁ, M. 1999. Práca s informáciami na základných a stredných školách. Metodická príručka. In: Školské knižnice, č. 132 – 133. Bratislavan : ÚIPŠ, 1999. „Shaping Information Societies for Human Needs“ : Civil Society Declaration to the World Summit on the Information Society [online]. Geneva : WSIS Civil Society Plenary, 2003 [cit. 2006-07-2]. Dostupné na internete: . School Libraries and Resource Centers Section : IFLA/UNESCO School Library Manifesto : The School Library in Teaching and Learning for All [online]. 2006. IFLA, Latest Revision: March 28, 2006 [cit. 2006-04-12]. Dostupné na internete: . Standards for Reading Professionals [online]. 1996–2006. International Reading Association, 1996–2006 2004 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . Škola, gde procvetajet gramotnosť [online]. 2006. Škola “Nadežda“, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-03]. Dostupné na internete: . ZÁPOTOČNÁ, O. 2004. Kultúrna gramotnosť v sociálnopsychologických súvislostiach. Bratislava : ALBUM, 2004. 122 s. ISBN 80-968667-3-7. VALČEK, P. – RANKOV, P. 2004. Čítanie 2004 : Výskum súčasného stavu a úrovne čítania v SR. Bratislava : Literárne informačné centrum, 2004. 69 s. VALČEK, P. – RANKOV, P. 2003. Čítanie 2003 : Výskum súčasného stavu a úrovne čítania v SR [online]. Bratislava : Literárne informačné centrum, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-1]. Dostupné na internete: . „Wir lesen vor!“ [online]. 2006. Mainz : Stiftung Lesen, 2006 [cit. 2006-07-12]. Dostupné na internete: .

Poďakovanie Príspevok bol spracovaný v rámci vedeckého grantového projektu VEGA 1/2481/05 Využívanie informá cií pri informačnom správaní vo vzdelávaní a vede.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Analýza faktorov vplývajúcich na nájditeľnosť webových sídiel Soňa Makulová Katedra knižničnej a informačnej vedy, Filozocká fakulta Univerzity Komenského, Bratislava [email protected]

Abstract Analysis of factors inuencing the ndability of web sites There is a growing tendency to get better visibility of the web sites in search engines because there are several billions of web sites and their number is continuously growing. It is common endeavour because according to the statistics 30% of search engine users nd the information on the web by the means of search engines and 80% of the users click on the result only on the rst page. The basic assumption of the ndability of the web sites is conrming to the standards of the World Wide Web Consortium and to the recommendations of the information architects. There is a new emerging eld search en gine optimization (SEO). In our study we will dene concept of SEO, its relation to the search engine marketing and spam and we will analyse factors that determine ranking of the found documents in the result page. On the basis of the case study TOP WebLib 2005 we analyse the most common mistakes within the web sites of the libraries that cause low ndability. The result of the study is a set of recommendations for the creators of the web sites but on the basis of respecting the ethics of SEO optimisation.

Keywords ndability; SEO; search engine optimisation; information architecture

Úvod Cieľom štúdie je analyzovať faktory vplývajúce na nájditeľnosť webových stránok. Ide o komplikovanú oblasť, na ktorú vplýva množstvo faktorov. K najzávažnejším patria: • enormné a neustále narastajúce množstvo webových sídiel a digitálnych dokumentov (Lyman–Varian, 2004), • nízka úroveň informačnej gramotnosti u používateľov informácií internetu, • nedodržiavanie štandardov World Wide Web konzorcia (ďalej W3C) a zásad informačnej architektúry pri tvorbe webového sídla. Kombináciou uvedených faktorov sa stáva, že často cenné informácie sú pre používateľov nenávratne stratené, pretože percento ich nájditeľnosti je veľmi nízke. Jednotlivé faktory si stručne analyzujeme.

1 Nárast webových sídiel a informácií v internete O náraste webových sídiel a informácií sa už toho popísalo veľa. K najznámejším projektom monitorujúcim nárast informácií v digitálnej forme patrí projekt How Much information? (Lyman–Varian, 2004), ktorý sa rieši od roku 2000 na School of Information Management&Systems v University of California, Berkeley. Výsledky sú publikované v známej štúdii Petra Lymana a Hala Variana How Much information 2003. Podľa štúdie sa v roku 2003 vyprodukovalo v digitálnej forme 5 exabytov novej informácie. Pre porovnanie, Kongresová knižnica v digitálnej forme by obsahovala asi 136 terabytov informácií, čiže v roku 2003 sa publikovalo množstvo informá cií, ktoré zodpovedá 37 000 novým knižniciam o veľkosti Kongresovej knižnice. Informačné preťaženie používateľov nekvalitnými, neselektovanými informáciami môžeme právom po važovať za jeden z najvážnejších problémov súčasnej doby.

2 Nízka úroveň informačnej gramotnosti Používatelia internetu sú pri vyhľadávaní informácií konfrontovaní s viacerými problémami, ktoré by sme mohli zhrnúť nasledovne (Makulová, 2005a): • používatelia nevedia správne formulovať svoju informačnú požiadavku a hodnotiť nájdené záznamy, • informačný prieskum na webe je iný ako v databázových centrách a digitálnych knižniciach, • množstvo vyhľadávacích nástrojov, • informácie sú rozptýlené v hĺbkovom a povrchovom webe.

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Aj keď za najzávažnejší problém pokladáme nízku úroveň informačnej gramotnosti, treba brať do úvahy aj to, že informačný prieskum na webe je iný ako v databázových centrách a digitálnych knižniciach, o čom svedčia aj výsledky štúdie Jansena a Poocha (2000). Ako zdôrazňujú, vyhľadávanie v databázových centrách vy užívajú väčšinou informační profesionáli, experti vo vyhľadávaní, čomu zodpovedá aj vyšší počet požiadaviek s boolovskými operátormi, väčší počet termínov v požiadavke a vyšší priemerný počet požiadaviek na jednu reláciu. Požiadavky s boolovskými operátormi sa najmenej využívajú pri vyhľadávaní v online katalógoch kniž níc a najviac v databázových centrách. Výsledky štúdií správania používateľov treba zohľadniť pri návrhu interfejsu pre vyhľadávanie tak, aby sa zohľadnilo správanie všetkých skupín používateľov (nováčikov, expertov a pod.). Veľa podnetných infor mácií týkajúcich sa používateľského rozhrania a problematiky vyhľadávania informácií je v prácach Richarda Papíka (2001). Prieskumy používateľov pri vyhľadávaní informácií v internete ukazujú, že používatelia okrem toho, že nepoznajú vyhľadávacie nástroje internetu, nevedia správne formulovať rešeršnú požiadavku a hodnotiť nájdené záznamy. Jeden z najkompletnejších prieskumov týkajúci sa správania používateľov uskutočnili Amanda Spink, Dietmar Wolfram, Tefko Saracevic a Bernard Jansen v rokoch 1997 až 2001 (Spink–Jansen–Wolfram–Saracevic, 2002). Pri prieskume vychádzali z analýzy transakčných logov na vyhľadávacích serveroch Excite, AlltheWeb a Ask Jeeves, neskôr aj z AltaVista. Cieľom výskumov bolo zistiť správanie používateľov tak, aby sa výsledky dali využiť pri zdokonaľovaní vyhľadávacích nástrojov, interfejsu a služieb. Výsledky výskumu poukazujú na niektoré zaujímavé skutočnosti: • väčšina požiadaviek má v priemere 2,8 termínov, v roku 1996 to bolo iba 1,5 termínov, vo všeobecnosti je ale počet termínov veľmi malý, • jednotlivé termíny nevystihujú obsah toho, čo chce používateľ nájsť, • používatelia nevedia používať boolovské operátory (80% prieskumov je bez boolovských operátorov), • v roku 2001 si iba tretina používateľov pozrela záznamy na ďalšej obrazovke, • používatelia neformulujú svoju požiadavku formou otázky, aj keď to vyhľadávací nástroj umožňuje (v prípade Ask Jeeves je to iba 50% požiadaviek), • 78% požiadaviek sa ďalej nemodikuje, nevyužíva sa možnosť spätnej väzby • 22% používateľov hľadá určitú stránku, • 24% používateľov si chce z internetu niečo stiahnuť, • 10% používateľov na internete nakupuje, • veľa používateľov nevyhľadáva, ale iba sleduje spojenia. Jansen (2000) skúmal ďalej, akým spôsobom ovplyvní štruktúra rešeršnej požiadavky využívajúca možnosti zdokonaleného vyhľadávania výsledky rešerše. Pri analýze nájdených 2768 výsledkov sa zistilo, že rozdiel pri jednoduchom vyhľadávaní a zdokonalenom vyhľadávaní bol iba v 2,7 rozdielnych záznamoch. Znamená to, že v priemere až 7,3 záznamov, ktoré sa našli pri jednoduchom vyhľadávaní boli aj vo výsled koch rešerše pri zložitom vyhľadávaní. Je potom otázne, či má význam využívať zdokonalené vyhľadávanie iba pri tak malej odchýlke. Navyše používanie boolovských operátorov zvyšuje riziko chybovosti. Riešenie vidíme predovšetkým v návrhu používateľského interfejsu, ktorý minimalizuje chybovosť a umožňuje ďalej modikovať a meniť rešeršnú požiadavku. To zároveň vysvetľuje, prečo je veľa používateľov spokojných iba s výsledkami pri jednoduchom vy hľadávaní a svoju požiadavku ďalej nemodikuje. Podobne sa dá predpokladať, že algoritmus radenia nájdených záznamov vychádza zo správania sa používateľov a ako prvé sú umiestnené tie záznamy, ktoré obsahujú všetky hľadané termíny a hľadané termíny sa vyskytujú vedľa seba. K zaujímavým zisteniam patrí aj posun vo vyhľadávaných témach. Zatiaľ čo v roku 1997 sa predovšet kým hľadali stránky týkajúce sa zábavy a sexu, v roku 2001 to boli stránky so zameraním na obchod, zamest nanie, ekonomiku, ľudí a cestovanie. Súvisí to aj s celkovou orientáciou webu smerom k obchodu (Spink, Jan sen, Wolfram, Saracevic, 2002).

3 Niektoré najnovšie výsledky prieskumov Podľa posledných výskumov uskutočnených v januári 2006 spoločnosťou iProspect v spolupráci s Jupiter Research venovaných správaniu používateľov pri používaní prieskumových strojov sa ukázali niektoré nové skutočnosti. Výsledky boli publikované v apríli 2006 v štúdii iProspect Search Engine User Behaviour Study a majú veľký význam pre samotné vyhľadávacie nástroje, pre tvorcov webových sídiel a marketingových pracovníkov, pretože naznačujú trendy v správaní používateľov pri vyhľadávaní informácií na základe porov návania výsledkov výskumov posledných štyroch rokov. Prieskum sa vykonal na základe 1 649 odpovedí použí vateľov prieskumových strojov v USA. Z prieskumu vyšlo najavo, že väčšina používateľov pri vyhľadávaní oča káva nájdenie vhodnej informácie hneď na prvej stránke ponúkaných výsledkov. Spomínaný americký prieskum bol realizovaný na vzorke 2 369 respondentov s využitím on-line panelov. Ku kľúčovým zisteniam patrí, že 62% používateľov vyhľadávacích nástrojov klikne na prvú stranu výsledkov 110

vyhľadávania a 90% používateľov (81% v porovnaní s rokom 2002) si pozrie záznamy na prvých troch stranách obrazovky. Z toho vyplýva aj nutnosť pre rmy ponúkajúce prostredníctvom internetu predaj produktov alebo služieb, aby sa pre požadované kľúčové slová umiestnili v rámci prvých troch strán výsledkov vo vyhľadávaní, najlepšie na prvej strane. Dôležitosť výskytu na prvých stranách sa zvyšuje, výsledky výskumov ukazuje, že až 62% používate ľov klikne na prvú stranu v roku 2006 oproti 60% používateľov v roku 2004 a 48% v roku 2002. K ďalším dô ležitým zisteniam patrí, že až 41% používateľov, ktorí nenájdu hľadaný produkt alebo službu na prvej strane, zmenia vyhľadávací nástroj alebo reformulujú svoju požiadavku podľa iných kľúčových slov a 88% používa teľov to urobí, ak nenájdu to, čo hľadajú na prvých troch stranách. Podobne až 82% používateľov, ktorí nie sú spokojní s výsledkami nájdených záznamov, reformulujú svoju požiadavku prostredníctvom nových slov, sy nonymných termínov a pod., pričom ostávajú verní svojmu vyhľadávaču. Vyplýva z toho aj nutnosť optimali zovať stránky nielen na úzke špecické termíny, ale aj širšie frázy, pričom by sa malo vychádzať z pries kumov, ako formulujú používatelia svoju požiadavku pri vyhľadávaní informácií v internete. Našťastie už dnes existujú mnohé automatizované nástroje ponúkajúce tieto služby a záleží len od šikovnosti tvorcov we bových sídiel ako ich dokážu využiť. No podľa nás je ešte zaujímavejšie, že až 90 percent (81 percent v porovnaní s rokom 2002) respondentov neprejde pri listovaní vo výsledkoch cez tretiu ponúkanú stranu, v roku 2006 to bolo 10% používateľov oproti 13% v roku 2004 a 19% v roku 2002. To znamená, že rma (obchod, stránka, zdroj informácií) umiestnená na šiestej – siedmej strane vo vyhľadávaní je v značnej nevýhode voči vyššie a lepšie umiestneným. Druhé dôležité zistenie prieskumu sa týka ďalšieho konania užívateľov, ak nenájdu, čo od vyhľadávača požadovali. Prieskum ukázal, že v podstate polovica respondentov (presne 41 percent) pri neúspechu využije iný vyhľadávač, ak nenašli požadovaný výsledok hneď na prvej stránke. Plných 88 percent k výmene pristúpi, ak nenašli pre nich nič zaujímavé na prvých troch stránkach portálu. Zaujímavé tiež je, že pokiaľ bol úvodný pokus o vyhľadanie neúspešný, 88 percent respondentov opätov ne spustí vyhľadávanie s rovnakým vyhľadávačom, ale pridá ďalšie kľúčové slová do poľa pre vyhľadávanie. Byť na poprednom mieste vo vyhľadávaní však neznamená len byť nájdený. Z hľadiska psychologické ho efektu je dôležité, že takmer 36% respondentov verí, že stránky na prvých miestach vyhľadávania patria spoločnostiam, ktoré sú lídrami v danom odbore, 39% zastáva negatívne stanovisko a 25% nepovažuje prvé miesta automaticky za záruku lídra trhu. To je tiež jedným z dôvodov, prečo aj odkazy kontextových reklamných odkazov sú situované hneď hore na prvej stránke (eTarget, Google AdWords). Byť umiestnený na nižších pozíciách sa môže u mnohých používateľov rovnať neviditeľnosti. Aké sú trendy vo vyhľadávanie informácií u slovenských používateľov sa skúmalo v rámci v rámci ve deckého grantového projektu VEGA 1/9236/02 Interakcia človeka s informačným prostredím a podrobné vý sledky sú publikované v štúdii Informačné správanie používateľov pri vyhľadávaní informácií v internete (Makulová, 2003). Výsledky výskumu ukazujú, že iba veľmi málo používateľov slovenského internetu využíva zdokonalené vyhľadávanie. Príčinou je nedostatočný používateľský interfejs, žiaden z najznámejších slovenských vyhľadáva cích nástrojov neponúka na formuláciu rozšíreného vyhľadávania preddenovaný formulár. Podobne sa nedodr žiavajú odporúčania informačných architektov týkajúce sa vyhľadávania na webových stránkach. Aj keď počet výskumov správania sa používateľov narastá, ešte stále vieme iba veľmi málo o infor mačných potrebách používateľov pri vyhľadávaní informácií. V súčasnosti využíva internet skoro jedna miliarda používateľov a je zrejmé, že informačné potreby sú rozdielne od tých, na aké sme boli zvyknutí pri vyhľadávaní v komerčných databázových centrách, kde väčšinou išlo o získanie informácií k predmetu vý skumu, prípadne v digitálnych knižniciach. Na túto skutočnosť poukazuje Andrei Broder (2002). Na základe výskumu transakčných logov v Alta Viste zistil, že informačná potreba nemusí byť vždy iba informačná, ale môže byť aj navigačná (hľadáme URL niektorej stránky), prípadne transakčná (z internetu chceme niečo stiahnuť, kúpiť a pod.). Informačné typy požiadaviek sa najviac približujú ku klasickým typom požiadaviek, na aké sme boli zvyknutí v databázo vých centrách. Čo je ale zaujímavé, väčšinou na našu požiadavku získame zoznam relevantných ďalších spojení a nie jeden relevantný dokument.

4 Nedodržiavanie štandardov W3C a zásad informačnej architektúry O význame dodržiavania štandardov W3C sme hovorili v článku Prečo je potrebné dodržiavať štandardy World Wide Web konzorcia (Makulová 2005). W3C od svojho vzniku v roku 1994 vydalo celý rad špecikácií a smer níc, ktoré podporujú rozvoj celého webu a prispievajú k vzájomnému prepájaniu webových technológií. Vydané dokumenty, ktoré sú k dispozícii bezplatne na stránkach konzorcia predstavujú významný normalizačný nástroj. Najvyššie a záväzné sú tzv. W3C Recommendations (odporúčania), ktoré sú výsledkom všeobecného konsenzu a záväzné pre všetkých členov konzorcia. Štandardy vydávané konzorciom sa týkajú HTML, CSS, XML, 111

XHTML, DOM a mnohých ďalších oblastí. Vytváranie webových sídiel pomocou štandardov umožňuje znižo vať náklady na ich tvorbu a zároveň zjednodušuje dostupnosť uvedených stránok. K najvýznamnejším štandardom W3C patria štruktúrované jazyky, ako napríklad HTML, XHTML alebo XML, prezentačné jazyky, ako CSS, objektové modely, ako W3C DOM, prípadne skriptovacie jazyky ako EC MAScript a pod. Uvedené technológie vytvárané expertmi predstavujú nesmierny prínos pre všetkých používate ľov webu. Uvádzame niektoré najnovšie štandardy. Ich úplné texty sú na stránkach W3C. • Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Core Specication • Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1. • XHTML™ 1.0 The Extensible HyperText Markup Language (Second Edition) • HTML 4.01 Specication • Cascading Style Sheets, level 2 (CSS2) Specication Treba brať do úvahy že, rozvoj webu bol ďaleko rýchlejší ako akéhokoľvek iného média v histórii ľudstva. Komerčný úspech webu predbehol vývoj štandardov až nastala situácia, že sa vytvárali stránky, ktoré bolo potrebné meniť pri každej inovácii prehliadačov a zariadení. V súčasnosti veľká väčšina stránok funguje dobre na starších ty poch prehliadačov, ktoré končia číslami 4 a 5. V novších prehliadačoch, ktoré nie sú tolerantné k chybám prestávajú fungovať kvalitne a do tvorby stránok sa musia investovať ďalšie peniaze. V niektorých menej známych prehliada čoch, prípadne v prehliadačoch pre znevýhodnených ľudí, tieto stránky nefungujú vôbec. Webové štandardy predstavujú nástroje umožňujúce vytvárať stránky, ktoré budú vyzerať dobre a fun govať správne dnes aj v budúcnosti. Medzi prehliadače, ktoré podporujú webové štandardy patria produkty ako Mozilla, Nestcape 6+, MSIE5+/Mac, MSIE6+/Win a Opera 7+. Uvedené prehliadače podporujú XHTML, CSS, ECMASCript a DOM. Moderné prehliadače podporujúce štandardy nie sú iba novou verziou svojich predchodcov, väčšina z nich sa od nich líši výrazným spôsobom. Sú vytvárané tak, aby maximálne spolupra covali s webovými štandardmi. Prehliadače rokov deväťdesiatych väčšinou podporovali iba technológie riem Microsoft a Netscape a štandardy buď ignorovali, alebo im pripisovali iba malý význam. Vývojári a dizajnéri tak museli neustále bojovať s nekompatibilitou stránok na rôznych typoch zariadení a v rôznych prehliada čoch. Bolo potrebné vytvárať upravené verzie pre rôzne prehliadače. V súčasnosti už tento problém neexis tuje, pretože moderné prehliadače podporujú rovnaké otvorené štandardy. Štandardy vytvárané W3C sú už konečne podporované prehliadačmi spoločnosti Netscape, Microsoft, Opera, atď. Podporované technológie majú nasledovné schopnosti (Zeldman 2004, s. 54): • Zaručujú kvalitnejšiu správu rozvrhnutia, rozmiestnenia a sadzby v grackých prehliadačoch a umožňujú používateľskú modikáciu prezentácie. • Zahrňujú dômyselné funkcie nezávislé od použitých prehliadačov a platformy. • Spĺňajú pravidlá a smernice prístupného webu. • Umožňujú veľmi jednoduchú nančne nenáročnú zmenu stránky. • Podporujú rôzne prehliadače, nie je nutné vytvárať nové verzie stránky pre rôzne prehliadače. • Podporujú aj netradičné zariadenia, ako sú bezdrôtové prístroje, mobilné telefóny, Braillove písmo a pod. • Oddeľujú štýl od štruktúry a funkcií. • Uľahčujú prechod zo štandardu HTML, jazyka minulosti do značkovacieho jazyka budúcnosti XML. • Zabezpečujú, že súčasné kompatibilné webové stránky budú pracovať spoľahlivo v súčasných aj prijateľ ne starších prehliadačoch. Táto schopnosť zabezpečuje spätnú kompatibilitu webových stránok. • Zabezpečujú, že súčasné kompatibilné webové stránky budú zobraziteľné i v budúcich prehliadačoch a zariadeniach, vrátane tých, ktorých existenciu si v súčasnosti ani nevieme predstaviť. Táto schopnosť zabezpečuje potrebnú kompatibilitu webových stránok. Webové štandardy rozdeľujú stránku na tri rozdielne komponenty: 1. Štruktúra (HTML, XHTML, XML) 2. Prezentácia (CSS1, CSS2) 3. Správanie (ECMAScript, DOM) Ako spĺňajú tieto kritériá webové sídla hodnotených knižníc v rámci súťaže TOP WebLib z hľadiska štruktúry a prezentácie, budeme hovoriť v závere práce.

5 Nájditeľnosť a jej vzťah k SEO Prezentácia rmy alebo spoločnosti v internete nie je samoúčelná. Jedným zo základných cieľov je jej prezentá cia smerom navonok, preto je veľmi dôležité, aby sme boli nájditeľní. Nájditeľnosť (ndability) webového sídla patrí k mimoriadne dôležitým atribútom, pretože až 30% návštevníkov prichádza na stránky z vyhľadávačov, ale čo je ešte vážnejšie, že až 90 percent (81 percent v porovnaní s rokom 2002) respondentov neprejde pri listovaní vo výsledkoch cez tretiu ponúkanú stranu. To znamená, že rma (obchod, knižnica, zdroj informácií) umiestnená 112

na štvrtej a ďalších stranách je v značnej nevýhode voči vyššie a lepšie umiestneným a jej šanca na nájditeľnosť je veľmi malá (iProspect Search Engine User Behavior Study 2006). O tom, že na nájditeľnosť stránky má veľký vplyv informačná architektúra sme hovorili vo viacerých príspevkoch (Makulová 2005b). Nájditeľnosť je kvalitatívny atribút webových stránok. Nájditeľnosť sa vzťahuje na kvalitu, že sme lokalizovateľní. Okrem informačnej architektúry má veľký vplyv na nájditeľnosť aj optimali zácia webových stránok pre prieskumové stroje (ďalej SEO – search engine optimization), čiže vylepšenie pozí cie vo výsledkoch vyhľadávania fulltextových vyhľadávačov, Zviditeľnenie webového sídla vo vyhľadávačoch úzko súvisí s marketingom prieskumových strojov (Search Engine Marketing – SEM). Tento sa skladá z dvoch častí: • z platenej, kedy platíte rovno vyhľadávaču za tzv. platené umiestnenie za určité kľúčové slovo (skupinu slov, frázu). Priekopníkom v oblasti platenej reklamy je systém Overture, ktorý nedávno vytvoril alianciu s Yahoo!, Google AdWords a u nás systém ETARGET. • z optimalizácie samotného webového sídla pre vyhľadávače tak, aby získal čo najvyššie umiestnenie a tým sa aj zároveň zvýšila jeho návštevnosť. V praxi sa používa názov SEO (Search Engine Optimizati on – optimalizácia pre prieskumové stroje). V odbornej literatúre sa stretávame s viacerými prístupmi k denovaniu SEO. Podľa Ramosa a Cotovej je SEO súbor metód použitých k získaniu vyššieho umiestnenia u vyhľadávacích nástrojov (Ramos–Cota, 2004, s. 11). Vzhľadom na mnohé nekalé techniky spammerov vyhľadávacie nástroje, respektíve ich tvorcovia majú mnohé námietky voči SEO. K prvým historickým technikám spamu, ktoré sa dnes už považujú za primitívne a vyhľadávacie nástroje ich rýchlo odhalia, patrilo vkladanie populárnych kľúčových slov do metaprvkov, aj keď tieto neodrážali obsah stránky, ďalej časté opakovanie rovnakých kľúčových slov v metaprvkoch, prípadne vkladanie tých istých kľúčových slov tej istej farby, ako bolo pozadie stránky. Kľúčové slová tak boli neviditeľné pre bežného používateľa, ale viditeľné pre vyhľadávacie stroje. Na spamovanie vyhľadávacích nástrojov sa používa termín spamdexing, ide o úmyselné manipulovanie vyhľadávacích nástrojov tak, aby sa zvýšili šance webového sídla na vyššie zaradenie vo výsledkoch vyhľadáva nia alebo ovplyvnila kategória do ktorej stránka spadá. Názov spamdexing vzniká spojením spammingu s in dexingom. Bližšie informácie o metódách a technikách spamu nájdeme vo Wikipedii (Spamdexing 2006) a v prehľadovej štúdii Web Spam Taxonomy (Gyongyi – Garcia–Molina, 2004). Thurow v publikácii Search Engine Visibility denuje SEO ako proces dizajnu, písania, kódovania (HTML), programovania a skriptovania webového sídla s cieľom získať vysoký ranking pre dané kľúčové slová v prieskumových strojoch a pomôcť potenciálnym zákazníkom nájsť webové sídlo (Thurow, 2003, s. 18). Podľa nášho názoru sa nedá SEO chápať iba v úzkom poňatí, ale SEO chápeme ako vedu a umenie záro veň, ktorej cieľom je získať vyššie umiestnenie pre denované kľúčové slová a frázy. Zdôrazňujeme predovšet kým etické princípy SEO optimalizácie, ktoré umožňujú budovanie kvalitného obsahu a dodržiavanie štandardov W3C a zásad informačnej architektúry. Získanie vyššieho umiestnenia vyžaduje integrovaný prístup, pričom sa využívajú aj automatizované nástroje analyzujúce spôsob formulácie termínov používateľmi internetu (napr. Wordtracker ETARGET a pod.), správanie používateľov pri vyhľadávaní informácií, analyzujú sa transakčné lo gy. Mimoriadny dôraz sa kladie na čistý HTML kód stránky, ktorý prejde validátormi, a na princípy informačné ho dizajnu oproti dizajnu grackému. Súčasťou optimalizácie webového sídla je ďalej predovšetkým striktné dodržiavanie štandardov World Wide Web konzorcia a zásad informačnej architektúry webového sídla (Makulová, 2005c). Ak sa pri tvorbe webového sídla dodržiavajú konvencie informačnej architektúry, významne sa zvýši aj nájditeľnosť webových stránok. Treba zdôrazniť, že v našom článku sa budeme zaoberať hodnotením aspektov, ktoré vplývajú na nájdi teľnosť stránky pri dodržiavaní zásad etiky SEO. Naším cieľom je teda budovať hodnotný obsah a nedosahovať vysoké umiestnenie použitím spamu a ďalších nekalých techník. Podrobná analýza taxonómie spamu je v publi kácii (Gyongyi – Garcia–Molina, 2004).

6 Analýza faktorov vplývajúcich na nájditeľnosť stránky Na to, aké umiestnenie získa náš dokument vo vyhľadávacích nástrojoch vplýva celý rad faktorov. Môžeme ich rozdeliť do 4 veľkých skupín. Sú to predovšetkým 1. Faktory v dokumente (na stránke) ovplyvňujúce jeho umiestnenie  Titul dokumentu  Text kotvy spojení  Kľúčové slová používané v texte dokumentu  Prístupnosť dokumentu  Spojenia vedúce na dokument zo samotného sídla  Externé spojenia vedúce na sídlo  Téma sídla 113

Popularita sídla v rámci určitej komunity Globálna popularita sídla Spam kľúčových slov 2. Faktory ovplyvňujúce hodnotu odkazu 3. URL, technické, hosťovské a serverové vedľajšie faktory 4. Škodlivé faktory vplývajúce na pozíciu dokumentu   

6.1 Faktory v dokumente (na stránke) ovplyvňujúce jeho umiestnenie 6.1.1 Ako používali hodnotené knižnice titul na stránkach Za jeden z najvýznamnejších faktorov je považovaný názov dokumentu Title. Značka Title patrí k najdôležitej ším a najvýznamovejším prvkom pre optimalizáciu webového sídla pre všetky prieskumové stroje. Prvok Title sa vkladá do hlavičky html dokumentu a vidíme ho ako popis stránky nad prehliadačom. Vyhľadávače berú Title ako kľúčový zdroj o obsahu stránky a preto by mal byť dostatočne výstižný. Informácia vložená v značke sa ukladá aj ako informácia v obľúbených položkách internetového prehliadača. Preto je veľmi dôležité, aby bol názov dostatočne zmysluplný a výstižný a jasne hovoril, o čom stránka pojednáva. Preto aj rozdielne stránky webového sídla by mali mať rozdielne názvy. Veľmi dôležité je umiestniť dô ležité slovo na začiatok názvu, ideálne je začínať slovom, ktoré najviac vystihuje obsah stránky. Veľkou chybou, ktorú často nájdeme na slovenskom internete, je názov Vitajte na stránkach XY! Podobne v prípade viacjazyčných verzií by nadpis nemal začínať určitým a neurčitým členom („A“, „An“, „The“, „Die“, „Der“, „Das“ a pod.). Názvy dokumentov sa líšia od písania názvov pre papierové médiá predovšetkým v dvoch hlavných roz dieloch (Nielsen, 2002, s. 128): • Online názvy sa často zobrazujú mimo kontext ako súčasť zoznamov vo vyhľadávaní, v systéme obľúbe ných záložiek a v iných navigačných pomôckach. • Aj keď sa názov zobrazí v kontexte, treba brať do úvahy, že monitor neposkytuje také možnosti čítania ako klasické papierové médium. Preto by sme pri písaní názvov dokumentov mali dodržiavať podľa Nielsena nasledovné zásady (2002, s. 128–129): • Jasne povedať, o čom webová stránka pojednáva pomocou zrozumiteľných výrazov. • Používať jednoduchý jazyk a nie sostikované názvy. • Vyhýbať sa názvom začínajúcim neurčitým členom, prvé slovo, prípadne skupina slov by mala byť do statočne informačne bohatá. • Nezačínať názvy všetkých stránok rovnakým slovom a nepoužívať rovnaké názvy na všetkých stranách webového sídla.<br /> <br /> • • • • •<br /> <br /> Príklady nesprávneho použitia v hodnotených knižniciach: prvok Title obsahuje iba sémanticky nič nehovoriacu URL adresu sídla <title>www.hnk-vk.sk prípad Hontiansko-novohradskej knižnice A. H. Škultétyho vo Veľkom Krtíši, alebo slovo Untitled Document prípad Podduklianskej knižnice vo Svidníku, prípadne slovo prípad Oravskej knižnice Antona Habovštiaka, slovo Knižnica – Privítanie prípad Knižnice Mateja Hrebendu v Rimavskej Sobote slovo 80. výročie vzniku knižnice prípad Mestskej knižnice v Piešťanoch.

Pri správnom použití by mal prvok Title vždy odrážať obsah stránky webového sídla, ako napríklad: Mestská knižnica v Bratislave – Úvodná stránka – titul pre úvodnú stránku Mestská knižnica v Bratislave – Výpožičný čas – titul pre výpožičný čas a pod. Mestská knižnica v Bratislave – Verejné knižnice v Bratislave titul pre časť o verejných knižniciach a pod. Prvok Title bol odlišný pre jednotlivé časti sídla iba v deviatich prípadoch. Za vážnu chybu považujeme, ak sa v prvku vôbec nevyskytuje názov knižnice, ako napríklad v prípade Mestskej knižnice v Piešťanoch a v prípade Knižnice Mateja Hrebendu v Rimavskej Sobote. Podobne sa neodporúča používať v prvku iba skrat ky, ako to bolo v prípade Okresnej knižnice v Poprade (OK Poprad) a Hontiansko-novohradskej knižnice A. H. Škultétyho vo Veľkom Krtíši (www.hnk-vk.sk). Treba si uvedomiť, že robot vyhľadávacieho nástroja berie časť Title ako sémanticky mimoriadne závaž nú časť stránky a preto musia byť vždy informácie viazané ku konkrétnej knižnici. Vo väčšine prípadov, aj keď bol prvok Title na úvodnej stránke správny, sa ďalej už nemodikoval pre ďalšie sekcie sídla (Štátna vedecká knižnica Košice, Staromestská knižnica, VKMK – Verejná knižnica Mikuláša Kováča v Banskej Bystrici a pod.).

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Príkladom správneho prvku Title vo všetkých sekciách webového sídla môže slúžiť Slovenská knižnica pre nevidiacich Mateja Hrebendu v Levoči (ďalej SKN), kde sa vyskytoval správny a podrobný titul aj pre podsekcie sídla, ako napr. Slovenská knižnica pre nevidiacich Mateja Hrebendu v Levoči, Formulár objednávky papiera na slepeckú tlač Slovenská knižnica pre nevidiacich Mateja Hrebendu v Levoči, Ponuka na rok 2006 Slovenská knižnica pre nevidiacich Mateja Hrebendu v Levoči, Formulár objednávky na vypožiča nie kníh v Braillovom písme a vo zvuku.

6.1.2 Ako používali hodnotené knižnice metadáta na stránkach Pri tvorbe informačnej architektúry má veľký význam tvorba metadát. Termín metadáta je výstižný na zvýrazne nie veľkého rozdielu medzi udržiavaním katalógov kníh v tradičných knižniciach a aktivitami, ktoré sa realizujú v záujme sprístupnenia týchto katalógov prostredníctvom internetu. Metadáta používame na pomenovanie infor mácií o nejakom zdroji, ktorý nám umožní identikovať, lokalizovať a žiadať daný informačný zdroj. Metadáta môžu byť: opisné (autor, titul…), predmetové (kľúčové slová, opisy…), prístupové (opis HW a SW požiadaviek na použitie zdroja), administratívne metadáta (opis samotných metadát – kedy a kým boli vy tvorené…), informácie o pravidlách a podmienkach použitia (Ukropová – Strapcová, 2001). Podľa nášho názoru je to predovšetkým tvorba metadát, kde môžu knižniční a informační pracovníci významne pomôcť pri objavo vaní a popise zdrojov v internete a využiť svoje know-how z organizácie poznania. Svedčí o tom aj množstvo úspešných projektov, z ktorých k najvýznamnejším patrí Dublin Core. Začlenením Dublin Core metadát do hlavičky HTML je možné zlepšiť presnosť vo vyhľadávaní. Napriek tomu, že na seminári „Dizajn webového sídla knižnice. Problémy, východiská, riešenia,“ v decembri 2005 v Nitre sme venovali metadátam veľkú pozornosť, je situácia stále neuspokojivá. Prakticky až 13 z hodnotených knižníc nepoužíva na svojich stránkach metadáta, respektíve používa iba metadáta generované editorom HTML kódu. Žiaľ, uvedený stav je aj na stránkach odborných knižníc, ako napríklad Slovenská národná knižnica v Martine, Centrum VTI SR v Bratislave, Univerzitná knižnica Univerzity Mateja Bela v Ban skej Bystrici, Akademická knižnica AOS v Liptovskom Mikuláši a ďalšie verejné knižnice. Väčšina verejných knižníc, ktoré využívajú technológiu rámcov, ani nepoužívajú metadáta, ako napríklad Oravská knižnica Antona Habovštiaka, Kysucká knižnica v Čadci, Knižnica Jána Kollára v Kremnici a pod. Dobré je, ak metadáta podobne ako prvok Title odrážajú vždy obsah každej stránky a nie sú rovnaké na všetkých stránkach sídla, prípadne sa na ďalších stránkach vôbec nenachádzajú. Príkladom správnych metadát môže byť Slovenská knižnica pre nevidiacich Mateja Hrebendu v Levoči: . K ďalším knižniciam, ktoré mali pekne spracované metadáta na sídle, patria Mestská knižnica v Brati slave, Knižnica Ružinov v Bratislave, Žilinská knižnica, Verejná knižnica Mikuláša Kováča v Banskej Bystrici, Staromestská knižnica v Bratislave a pod. Osobitne by som chcela zdôrazniť význam metadát typu description (abstrakt) a keywords (kľúčové slová). Abstrakty stránok by mali byť zrozumiteľné a krátke, pretože ak sa na stránke nachádzajú, tak sa objavia aj ako popis pri výsledku vo vyhľadávaní. Príklad metadát typu description Mestskej knižnice v Bratislave. .

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Obr. 1. Zobrazenie metadát typu abstrakt vo výsledkoch vyhľadávania v Google

Veľkú pozornosť by sme mali venovať aj metadátam typu kľúčové slová. Vhodné je použiť aj synonymné výrazy, prípadne kľúčové slová, ktoré používatelia používajú často pri vyhľadávaní. V súčasnosti existuje celý rad nástrojov, ktoré nám pomôžu zistiť, z ktorých vyhľadávačov používatelia najčastejšie navštevujú naše strán ky a ktoré slovné spojenia používajú. Na Slovensku patrí k najznámejším systém NAJ.SK.

6.1.3 Ako optimalizovali hodnotené knižnice text spojení na stránkach Je dokázané, že rating webového sídla u vyhľadávacích nástrojov dokáže významne zvýšiť aj text spojení. Text spojení má pre robot vyhľadávacieho nástroja veľký význam, pretože pomáha nájsť ďalšie stránky na webovom sídle. Všetky spojenia vytvárajú dôležitú súčasť navigačnej štruktúry. Často vyhľadávací nástroj nasmeruje po užívateľa podľa textu spojenia na relevantnú stránku, aj keď táto neobsahuje dané kľúčové slovo. Podobne v prípade veľkého počtu záznamov na výstupe je možné zúžiť výsledok rešerše tak, že hľadáme určité kľúčové slová iba v textoch spojení. Na nasledujúcom obrázku vidíme, že pri zadaní textu spojenia časo pisy, kalendáre v Google sme získali 4 záznamy. Na prvom mieste bola SKN v Levoči. Veľmi častou chybou je vytváranie textu spojení typu „klikni sem“ alebo „tu nájdeš viac informácií“.

Obr. 2. Vyhľadávanie podľa textu spojení

7 Návrh doménového mena a zmena URL adresy pri navigácii na sídle Z praktického aspektu je doména kľúčom k identite na internete, je to vlastne online značka podľa ktorej si po užívatelia zapamätajú meno knižnice (rmy) a nájdu jej webové sídlo. Vzhľadom na to, že dve knižnice nemôžu mať tú istú doménu alebo webovú adresu, internetová identita je jedinečná. Z technického aspektu je doména IP adresa, ktorá pomôže nájsť a lokalizovať počítač v sieti internet. Doména identikuje počítač alebo sieť počíta čov v internete. Všetky domény sa končia buď typom organizácie alebo dvojčíselným znakom kódu krajiny (.gov, .edu, .com, .sk, .cz a pod.). 116

K základným pravidlám patrí, že doménové meno by malo čo najviac korešpondovať s menom rmy alebo menom produktov a služieb, ktoré chcete na internete ponúkať. Malo by byť čo najkratšie. Malo by byť pokiaľ možno zapamätateľné po prvom vyslovení. Prednosť by mali dostať slová, ktoré neobsahujú diakritické znaky – dĺžne a mäkčene. Z hľadiska nájditeľnosti je výhodné, ak sa v meniacej URL adrese pre jednotlivé časti webového sídla na chádzajú kľúčové slová. Významne sa tým zvyšuje rating stránky. Z hodnotených knižníc túto možnosť využíva lo pomerne málo knižníc. Príklad Staromestskej knižnice: http://www.starlib.sk/sk/spravy-o-cinnosti/ http://www.starlib.sk/sk/partneri-kniznice/ http://www.starlib.sk/sk/prirastky-novych-knih/

8 Tvorba mapy sídla Mapa sídla predstavuje významný prvok systému navigácie na stránke. Podrobné informácie o mapách sídla sú v príspevku Soni Makulovej Systém navigácie na www stránkach (Makulová, 2006). Mapa sídla je vo vše obecnosti prehľadne zoradený zoznam všetkých stránok, ktoré na sídle môžeme nájsť. Často nepredstavuje len jednoduchý súpis stránok, ale vyjadruje predovšetkým vzťahy medzi nimi a prináša metainformácie o týchto stránkach. V prípade sostikovanejších máp sídiel sú jednotlivé stránky sídla zgrupované do tematických kategórií, môžu byť odlišované aj farebne. Ich cieľom je, aby sa používateľ v sídle rýchlo orientoval a pocho pil štruktúru sídla. Dobrá mapa sídla by mala byť predovšetkým prehľadná, kompletná, nie príliš rozsiahla, rýchlo načítateľ ná a pravidelne aktualizovaná. Mapa má veľký význam pre roboty prieskumových strojov. Niektoré roboty môžu mať napríklad naprogramovanú hĺbku indexovania sídla iba na dve úrovne z hlavnej stránky. Teda stránky od tretej úrovne by neboli vôbec zindexované. Mapa stránky takto môže nasmerovať robota aj na hlbšie umiestnené stránky. Z hodnotených knižníc malo mapu sídla 11 knižníc, z toho 3 odborné a 8 verejných. Dobré redakčné systémy by mali automaticky generovať mapu sídla po každej aktualizácii.

9 Záver Nájditeľnosť stránok je mimoriadne dôležitým faktorom, ktoré treba brať do úvahy pri tvorbe webového sídla. Prax ukazuje, že iba veľmi málo webových sídiel chápe uvedený problém komplexne a venuje mu náležitú pozornosť. Ako ukázali aj výsledky analýzy webových sídiel prihlásených do súťaže TOP WebLib 2005, iba veľmi málo knižníc spĺňa základné predpoklady pre nájditeľnosť. Aj keď sa kvalita webových sídiel v porov naní s predchádzajúcim ročníkom súťaže zlepšila, ešte treba prekonať veľký kus cesty, aby webové prezentá cie knižníc zodpovedali súčasným štandardom a trendom internetu. Pre zvýšenie nájditeľnosti je potrebné predovšetkým dodržiavať štandardy W3C a odporúčania informačných architektov, pri návrhu používateľské ho interfejsu vychádzať z výsledkov výskumu správania používateľov a brať do úvahy všetky faktory, ktoré vplývajú na umiestnenie dokumentov vo vyhľadávaní. Za najdôležitejšie odporúčania na zvýšenie nájditeľ nosti webových sídiel knižníc považujeme: • Sídla registrovať v systéme NAJ.sk tarifa platinum, kde sa získajú podrobné štatistiky ako sa správajú návštevníci pri návšteve webového sídla. • Registrovať sídla v adresároch internetu, predovšetkým v adresári Open Directory Project (http://www. dmoz.org,). V prípade akceptácie stránky sa stránka ďalej registruje v AOL Search, Google, Netscape Search, Yahoo! Search a v ďalších partnerských nástrojoch ako Hotbot, Lycos, Teoma, Wisenut, Gigablast a pod • Zlepšiť metaprvky na stránkach, titul stránky a text spojení na stránke. Metaprvky aj titul stránky by mal byť odlišný pre každú stránku webového sídla. • Zlepšiť štruktúru interných liniek v rámci stránky ako aj počet externých liniek, ktoré by mali viesť na webové sídla s vyšším Google Page Rankom • Zlepšiť celkový štýl písania na webových sídlach z hľadiska hustoty optimálnych kľúčových slov. • Vytvárať štruktúrovaný obsah s použitím nadpisov a podnadpisov. • Na gracký layout stránky nepoužívať tabuľky, ale využívať externé kaskádové štýly. • Na stránku dať mapu sídla, ktorá významne zvyšuje nájditeľnosť. • Prepracovať stránky tak, aby boli striktne valídne z pohľadu validátorov na www.w3c.org. • Prepracovať stránky aby spĺňali zásady prístupného webu podľa odporúčaní WAI.

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BRODER, A. 2002. A taxonomy of Web Search [online]. In ACM Sigir Forum, 2002, vol. 36, no. 2, 2002 [cit. 200604-10]. Dostupné na internete: . GYONGYI, H., GARCIA-MOLINA, H. 2004. Web Spam Taxonomy. Technical Report [online], Stanford University, March 2004. [cit. 2006-05-21]. Dostupné na internete: http://dbpubs.stanford.edu:8090/pub/showDoc.Fulltext?lang=en&doc=200425&format=pdf&compression=&name=2004-25.pdf iProspect Search Engine User Behavior Study. April 2006. [cit. 2006-04-01]. Dostupné na internete: LYMAN, P., VARIAN, H. R. 2004. How Much Information 2003? School of Information Management and Systems at the University of California at Berkeley. [cit. 2006-04-01]. Dostupné na internete:< http://www.sims.berkeley.edu:8000/research/projects/how-much-info-2003/>. JANSEN, B. J., POOCH, U. 2000. Web user studies: A review and framework for future work. In Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 2000, vol. 52, no. 3, p. 235-246. JANSEN, BERNARD, J. 2000. The effect of query complexity on Web searching results. In Information Research, 2000, vol. 6, no.1 [cit. 2004-04-10]. Dostupné na internete: MAKULOVÁ, S. 2005a. Návrh riešenia problémov pri vyhľadávaní informácií v internete alebo od kvantity ku kvalite. In: Knihovna. 2005. Roč.16, č. 1, s. 23 – 43. MAKULOVÁ, S. 2005b. Hodnotenie webových stránok. In Ikaros [online]. 2005, č. 11 [cit. 2006-04-01]. Dostupné na internete:. ISSN 1212-5075. MAKULOVÁ, S. 2005c. Prečo je potrebné dodržiavať štandardy World Wide Web konzorcia. In ITLib. roč. 9 (2005), č. 3, s. 54-55. [cit. 2006-04-01]. Dostupné na internete: MAKULOVÁ, S. 2006. Systém navigácie na WWW stránkach. In ITLib. roč. 10 (2006), č. 2, s. 37-41. [cit. 2006-0701]. Dostupné na internete: < http://www.cvtisr.sk/itlib/itlib062/makulova2.htm > NIELSEN, J. Web.Design. Průvodce od Jakoba Nielsena. Praha : SoftPress, 2002, 382 s. PAPÍK, R. 2001. Vyhledávání informací I. Umění či věda? In Národní knihovna, 2001, roč.12, č.1, s. 18-25. [cit. 2006-04-10]. Dostupné na internete: . PAPÍK, R. 2001. Vyhledávání informací II. Uživatelské rozhraní a vlivy oboru „human-computer interaction“. In Národní knihovna, 2001, roč.12, č.2, s. 81-90. [cit. 2006-04-10]. Dostupné na internete: . RAMOS, A., COTA, S., 2004. Insider’s Guide to SEO. How to Get Your web site to the Top of the Search Engines. California : Jain Publishing Company, 2004. 114 s. Spamdexing [online]. Wikipedia : The Free Encyclopedia. 21. máj 2006 [cit. 2006-05-21]. Dostupné na internete: . THUROW, Shari. 2003. Search Engine Visibility. Berkeley : New Riders Publishing, 2003. 297 s. TKAČÍKOVÁ, D. 2004. Kvalitní dokument jako základ účinného vyhledávání informací. In Informace na dlani 2004. Inforum 2004 : 10. konference o profesionálních informačních zdrojích 25.-27. května 2004, Vysoká škola ekonomická Praha. [CD-ROM]. Praha : Albertina icome, 2004. ISSN 1214-1429 ZELDMAN, J. 2004. Tvorba webu podle standardu XHTML, CSS, DOM, ECMAScript a dalších. Brno : Computer Press, 2004, 410 s.

Poďakovanie Príspevok bol spracovaný v rámci vedeckého grantového projektu VEGA 1/2481/05 Využívanie informá cií pri informačnom správaní vo vzdelávaní a vede.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Vývojové změny rešeršních strategií. Body zvratu a omezení Richard Papík Ústav informačních studií a knihovnictví, Filosocká fakulta, Univerzita Karlova v Praze, U Kříže 8, 158 00 Praha 5, Česká republika [email protected]

Abstract Developmental changes in search strategies. Turning points and constraints Online retrieval systems usually offer basic retrieval interfaces and advanced retrieval techniques interfaces. Methods of freetext searching and vocabulary-based searching styles are becoming a must. Full-textual technologies have changed search tac tics, they have also opened up a problem of Boolean model crisis. Proximity operators, fuzzy searching, weighted searching, special text mining technologies can help solve this problem. Search techniques can be based on two philosophies – either ori ented towards end-users, or on moderated information brokering, which is and will be still an important service for nal users. Better understanding of such categories as a formal and content relevance, recall and precision becomes important for the users. User (friendly) interfaces models (moving from system and technology driven to user centered and learner centered) have changed searching styles and information behaviour. The inuence of information, computer and cognitive sciences can lead information retrieval designers to the development of new generations of retrieval systems, approached from new, user/intuitive dimensions. The internet will also play an important role in the development of new retrieval tools, especially in commercial area, in the form of new generation of search engines based on linguistic principles.

Keywords information retrieval; online retrieval systems; analytical searching; intuitive searching; user interface

„Změna těší.“ Marcus Tullius Cicero

1 Uživatel a generační změny informačních (rešeršních) systémů Koncový uživatel, člověk v komunikaci s informačním systémem či informační službou přímou či zprostřed kovanou informační institucí nebo informačním specialistou, je středem, kolem kterého se odehrávají procesy spojené s vyhledáváním informací v informačních a počítačových systémech. Uživatel vyhledává v informačních systémech s využitím analytických nástrojů (např. typické je používá ní logických operátorů a dotazovacího jazyka), anebo s využitím „nadstandardně přátelsky koncipovaného uživa telského rozhraní“, kde pohyb v informačním systému může být spíše intuitivní a nemusí se nutně odvíjet od analytických rešeršních schopností koncového uživatele. V současnosti dochází v rešeršních strategiích k symbióze analytických postupů vedení rešerše (např. po mocí dotazovacích jazyků) s prvky intuitivních postupů. Otázka dnes však nestojí, které metody vedení rešeršní strategie – zda analytické či intuitivní – jsou výhodnější. Můžeme i bez dokazování a odkrývání podrobných historických dat konstatovat, že první počítačové (či informační systémy), v kterých se realizovaly rozmanité rešeršní strategie, byly především orientovány na analy tický způsob vedení rešerše a ladění rešeršních strategií nebylo uživatelsky příliš přívětivé. Jak to vypadalo v jednotlivých desetiletích, kdy se začaly prosazovat výpočetní systémy? V 50. letech uživateli výpočetních systémů byli především matematici, případně specializovaní vědci, v 60. letech počítačoví a informační specialisté, v 70. letech – již v éře minipočítačů – odborníci ne vždy a nutně počítačově orientovaní, v 80. letech v podstatě každý a v 90. letech a na přelomu 20. a 21. století může být uživate lem prakticky kdokoliv a navíc může být účastníkem mobilní komunikace s rešeršními systémy v libovolnou dobu a na rozmanitých místech. Míra interaktivity se systémy je vysoká a s využitím pokročilé multimediality. V podstatě až do konce 60. let a počátku 70. let se informační systémy využívaly na úrovni tzv. off line zpracování rešerší (dávkový způsob), kdy míra interaktivity s informačními systémy byla poměrně nízká. Např. zadávání příkazů v rešeršní strategii se vedlo převážně přes vstupní/výstupní periférní zařízení tzv. konzolu, pří padně jednoduchý jednobarevný terminál s ovládáním v podstatě jen příkazového řádku. Přístup k datům v sys témech byl pak často sekvenční, čemuž odpovídala delší doba zpracování. S rozvojem prvních grackých uživatelských rozhraní (GUI) v 80. letech se objevují možnosti tzv. přímé manipulace, které pro koncipování rešeršního dotazu začínají být rovněž využívány. Sekvenční přístup k datové základně je už v podstatě vytlačen přímými přístupy k datům na velkokapacitních diskových systémech. Důležité 119

je, že rychlost počítačů (měřena v operacích za sekundu) se stále zvyšuje. V 80. letech se objevují pokročilé ter minálové stanice, stejně tak první osobní počítače, které plní roli vícefunkčních terminálů. Osobní počítač se stá vá klientským prostředím, na které bude možno nasadit více tzv. klientských softwarových instalací, které pod porují efektivní rešeršní strategii (za všechny systémy např. od 90. let po dnešek pro využívání databázové sítě STN International je nápomocný komunikační software STN Express v jedné své funkci podporující efektivní vyhledávání ve složitých chemických systémech pokročilým rešeršním stylem tzv. structure searching, tj. využití grackých vyjádření strukturních vzorců k zadání rešeršní úlohy). Rozmanité využívání architektury klient-host, resp. ve spojení s internetem klient-server je v současnosti v podstatě nejběžnější informační architekturou. 80.léta jsou také typická pro nástup prvních rutinních rozsáh lých plnotextových informačních zdrojů (ty první plnotextové systémy ze 60.let byly spíše ojedinělé a experi mentální než běžně rozšířené k využívání, experimenty se děly např. na právních textech). Uživatel se dnes v re šeršní strategii běžně rozhoduje mezi možností pracovat metodou vyhledávání ve volném textu (free-text sear ching) nebo s využitím řízených slovníků a tezaurů (vocabulary-based searching), anebo v kombinacích. Typické pro 80. léta jsou objevivší se zdroje na optických discích, které v konci 80.let mají doslova kon junkturní využití. Svým způsobem se zdroje na optických discích staly na chvíli konkurenty klasických dialogo vých informačních systémů. Důležité ale je, že se tu rešeršní strategie promítá do změněného modelu platby za online služby, kdy se kromě modelu platby závislého na době strávené v rešeršních systémech, případně na počtu zobrazených dokumentů, tzv. pay-as-you-go, a která nutí k úsporné, rychlé a levnější strategii, hojně rozmáhá model platby ve formě předplatného. Uživatel pracující s rešeršními systémy na optických discích není stresován vzdáleným na platbách založeném informačním systémem, ale umožňuje mu to řadu experimentů. Dřívější re šeršní strategie orientované na přesnost (precision), se mění bez nančních následků na rešeršní strategie za měřené častěji na úplnost (recall). Uživatel si může ukládat i řadu mezivýsledků a snadněji s nimi pracovat v bu doucnu. Umístění vyhledávacího softwaru na klientskou stanici uživatele má výhody, že se více pracuje s grackými přílohami, které byly pro účely dialogové komunikace kapacitně náročné na přenosy. 90. léta a současná léta počátku 21. století jsou ve znamení rozmachu tzv. distribuovaných informačních systémů, k jejichž rozvoji podstatně nahrává rozvinutí a přátelské využívání internetu, a to zejména jeho hyper textově orientované formy WWW (za všechny rešeršní systémy stačí zmínit katalogové systémy tzv. OPAC). Gracká uživatelská rozhraní (GUI) jsou velmi pokročilá, pracují s pokročilou multimedialitou, vyhledávání se přesouvá z textového prostoru do prostoru dalších multimediálních forem (obraz, zvuk) [Maybury, 1997]. Prosa zuje se tzv. paralelní prohledávání, kdy je možno prohledávat více informačních systémů (zdrojů) a data nemusí být nutně heterogenní a přísně strukturovaná, jak se pro dosavadní hledání v polích striktně požadovalo. Prosazu jí se další formátové a metadatové standardy, vyhledávání je ovlivněno novými značkovacími jazyky, probíhá vývoj tzv. inteligentních vyhledávacích prostředků. Z hlediska uživatele přichází velmi zajímavá technika vy hledávání informací, tzv. prohlížení (browsing). Strategie tzv. browsingu jsou možné a využívané zejména díky technologii hypertextu. Tato technika se pojí často spíše k intuitivnímu způsobu vyhledávání. Její velkou výhodu je především vnímání kontextu a získání přehledu o souvislostech. Nevýhodou však může být i přehlcení psychi ky z nadmíry podnětů, neboť „hypertextový odskok je tak snadný“. Ale i jistá míra dezorientace uživatele ne může zavrhnout úžasnou technologii hypertextu. Internet přivádí i nové termíny, které s hledáním souvisí, ale jde spíše o prohlížení navštívených stránek, např. termín surng. Internet a jeho komerční dimenze pak mají a budou mít hlavní slovo ve vývoji nových vyhledávacích prostředků a určitě přelomová záležitost druhé poloviny 90. let, vyhledávač Google, nebude poslední fází. Google a jeho principy a rozsáhlost indexovaných dokumentů interne tového prostoru je tak úžasným fenoménem, že se někdy kriticky hovoří o době „před Googlem“ a „po Googlu“. Rozhodně Google jako komerční subjekt ve spolupráci např. s knihovnami a výzkumnými centry začal zpřístup ňovat dokumenty, které byly dosud výsadou spíše tzv. neviditelného webu. V současnosti jsou typické tzv. hybridní způsoby interakce při vedení rešeršní strategie (spojení GUI s dotazovacími jazyky a např. s formulářovým rozhraním) [Chu, 2003]. Propojení bibliogracké informace, která je výsledkem tzv. bibliogracké rešerše, s primárním dokumen tem se stává častým standardem a tímto směrem jde tzv. dialogová informační obsluha. Pokud neexistuje plnotextový informační zdroj, jsou zde k dispozici tzv. document delivery services či electronic delivery ser vices, které uživateli zajistí primární dokument. Praktické rešeršní strategie v plnotextových informačních systémech však odhalují slabiny logických sys témů dosud používaných (např. se hovoří o krizi booleovského modelu). Technologicky jsou tedy vyvíjeny infor mační systémy s účinnější lingvistickou podporou, na principech metod tzv. text-mining. Aspoň některé nedokonalosti jsou zmírňovány nasazením nových typů operátorů – tzv. proximitních neboli vzdálenostních (na př. with, near, same), bez jejichž použití jsou rešerše jistě formálně relevantní, ale ne pertinentní. Podobně jako jsou specika rešeršních strategií v plnotextových systémech, jsou i ve faktograckých sys témech. Už práce s numerickými údaji umožňuje celou řadu speciálních ladících způsobů rešerší, stejně tak zís kání výstupů, které se mohou promítat do tabulkových a grafových záležitostí. Faktogracké informační systémy jsou v současnosti na vzestupu a jejich uplatnění je především v exaktněji orientovaných oborech (chemie, fyzi ka, ekonomie apod.). Faktogracké informační systémy rovněž potřebují využívat škálu nejen klasických boole 120

ovských operátorů, ale zároveň speciálních proximitních a numerických. Ty pak ovlivňují přesnost rešeršního dotazu, o který ve faktograckých informačních systémech jde především. Kognitivní styly vyhledávání, vedení rešeršní strategie, nejen tedy počítačově a technicky orientované záležitosti, jsou v centru současného informačního dění a výzkumu. Přístupy k problematice vyhledávání infor mací jsou mnohostranné a lze se na ně dívat jako na mezioborovou disciplínu. Informační věda se velmi inten zivně zabývá problematikou vyhledávání informací. T. Saracevic [1997, s. 175-190] se spoluautorem P. Kanto rem a spoluautorkami A. Chamis, D. Trivison zmiňují několik základních směrů výzkumu vyhledávání informací (každý z nich zasluhuje dlouhý a speciální rozbor, pro který v tomto příspěvku není místo): • interakce s informačními systémy (Belkin, Vickery) • informační potřeby a užití informací (Dervin, Niles) • psychologický výzkum v oboru human-computer interaction (Borgman) • projektování systémů, např. založených na řízených menu (Shneiderman) • online vyhledávání v databázích (Fenichel, Bellardo).

2 Vztahy vyhledávání s vývojovými modely uživatelského rozhraní Můžeme vydělit 2 základní složky uživatelského rozhraní: • fyzickou (vstupní/výstupní zařízení, nástroje selekce a zpětné vazby) • konceptuální (dotazovací, resp. příkazové jazyky, menu, prostředky přímé manipulace, systémy pracující s ikonami, formulářové rozhraní, prvky inteligentního rozhraní). Komunikace s objekty (např. s dialogovými informačními systémy) má 2 základní přístupy, které rozdělu jeme a posuzujeme na základě: • předchozích zkušeností • očekávání, jak systém bude pracovat při jeho užití. Uživatelské rozhraní můžeme velmi jednoduše denovat jako komunikační kanál mezi uživatelem a systé mem [Marchinoni, 1998]. Optimální uživatelské rozhraní by mělo umožnit uživateli vyhledávat v dialogovém sys tému i bez znalosti informační problematiky, resp. také výpočetní techniky [Mueck– Spannabauer, 1989, s. 33-37]. Stanovení principu tzv. přátelskosti je však vágním vyjádřením a neexistují přesné specikace, co „je ješ tě přátelské“ a co „už není“. Teprve po rozšíření dialogových systémů je možno lépe rozumět termínu userfriendliness [Trenner, 1987, s. 99-107]. V současnosti se s nástupem webových rozhraní informačních systémů hovoří o pojmu tzv. užitečnosti (usability, resp. web usability). Zejména s transformací informačních systémů do portálových řešení se problematika „usability“ stává nejen populární, ale zároveň nezbytnou pro přežití ve velké konkurenci portálů a vortálů. Systém přátelský k uživateli musí být schopný vyhovět všem kategoriím uživatelů a rychle a efektivně plnit jejich požadavky, musí mít exibilní a adaptabilní rozhraní, lze je i kvantikovat, a to vyjádřením počtu minimálních kroků vedoucích k řešení a k získání relevantních informací. Dialogový informační systém s dobře navrženým uživatelským rozhraním vyžaduje minimální přípravu uživatele k využívání [Rowley, 1990, s. 9293]. Dnes se u systému předpokládá kontextuální nápověda a učící funkce (viz dále learner-centered). Jedno pojetí uživatelských modelů pak můžeme chápat, že jde o: 1. systémy, kterým se člověk musel přizpůsobit a je jimi řízen, tzv. „system and technology driven“, a to od začátku 50. let přibližně do začátku 80. let 2. systémy, které již respektují uživatele („user-centered“) a jsou k němu proto i více uživatelsky oriento vané a přátelské, 3. systémy, které jsou schopny se učit a uživatel je vyučován v procesu vyhledávání, je veden („learner-centered“) Body 2. a 3. jsou typické pro současné informační systémy. V současnosti lze konstatovat, že informační systémy jsou orientovány na člověka („human-centered“) [JACOBSON, 1999, s. 64-98], tedy model, který je velmi úzce zakomponován do teorie i praxe nové disciplíny zvané human-computer interaction, která vývoj rešeršních strategií ovlivňuje. Výstižný je výrok experta v oblasti uživatelského rozhraní D. Normana [cit. dle Mandel, 1997], který v roce 1995 prohlásil, že: „K vytváření technologií, které budou vyhovovat lidem, je nutno studovat člověka. Nyní studujeme technologie. A lidé se přizpůsobují technologiím. Nastal čas obrátit tento trend a př izpůsobit technologie lidem.“

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3 Strategie koncového uživatele versus strategie zprostředkování Zprostředkovaná i přímá informační obsluha se posouvá kvalitativně a kvantitativně do jiných rovin. Existuje současná (konkurenční) orientace výrobců systémů a producentů dat a šiřitelů dat (např. databázová centra, tzv. vendors) na koncového uživatele přes přátelská rozhraní (user-friendly interface, human-centered interface). Infor mační prostředník (information broker) a jeho role se posouvá do nových směrů [Rugge – Glossbrenner, 1994]. V síťové struktuře dnešních systémů jsou běžně uplatnitelné hypertextově orientované struktury, které nově ovlivnily vyhledávací metody a rovněž chování uživatelů při vyhledávání informací (např. již zmíněné „browsing“ vs. „analytické“ způsoby vyhledávání). V budoucnu se dá předvídat širší uplatnění i dalších tech nologií, jako jsou např. neuronové sítě aplikované do informačních sítí a prostředků vyhledávání. To umožní koncovému uživateli pracovat s informačními systémy ještě samostatněji a cíleněji. Hovoříme o způsobu inteli gentního vyhledávání. Koncovým uživatelem dialogového systému je možno označit uživatele, který se systémem komunikuje samostatně, bez pomoci zprostředkovatele a pravděpodobně bude informace samostatně získané interaktivním režimem z informačního systému i dále zpracovávat a aplikovat do svých výzkumů či jiných činností. Za jistých okolností můžeme považovat za koncového uživatele také informačního pracovníka (například rešeršéra, „online retrieval specialist“, „online searching specialist“ apod.), který je uživatelem systému za účelem informační ob sluhy „konečného“ (nálního) uživatele a získané informační výstupy mu předává. Informační specialista – zprostředkovatel (information broker) se tak stává partnerem experta, pro kterého je výstup určen. V tomto pří padě „konečný uživatel“ nemusí být zatěžován znalostí informačního systému a vedením dialogu s ním, ale stačí mu pouze zformulovat informační požadavek vyplývající z jeho informačních potřeb. Informační požadavek zp racuje pak v realizaci informační pracovník, a to samostatně, nebo za přítomnosti konečného uživatele. R. Vlasák cituje [1999, s.155-157] Carlose Cuadra, který doporučuje, aby konečný uživatel byl u zpracování pří tomen. Pro naplnění relevantního výstupu ve smyslu pertinence (obsahové relevance) je to žádoucí. R. Vlasák [1999] rozebírá celkem 3 způsoby, jak uživatel (vědecký pracovník, pedagog, manažer aj.) par ticipuje na dialogovém zpracování rešerše a jak může zasahovat do procesu vyhledávání informací a být součástí interakce: • Uživatel zadá požadavek pouze verbálně, komunikuje při zadání se zpracovatelem a realizátorem (rma, informační instituce, informační kancelář, knihovna) jeho požadavku písemně nebo osobně, případně te lefonicky, faxem, dnes i elektronickou poštou, ale není u vlastního zpracování požadavku. • Konečný uživatel je přítomen s rešeršním specialistou u terminálu a rešeršní dotazy může usměrňovat v průběhu vyhledávacího dialogu, aby realizovaná rešerše byla především obsahově relevantní (pertinent ní). Technologii komunikace provádí však informační specialista a uživatel jí nemusí být zatěžován. • Uživatel si požadavek zpracovává samostatně bez asistence informačního experta, což mu dnes v případě neznalosti dotazovacího jazyka umožňují systémy řízených menu, anebo gracky orientovaná rozhraní, často dnes na bázi hypertextu, s prvky intuitivního ovládání apod.

4 Rešeršní proces v užším významu a v širším významu Rešeršní (vyhledávací) proces v užším pojetí může být složen z následujících kroků [Goldmann, 1992, s. 75] – vztaženo např. k vyhledávání v sostikovanějších systémech, např. v komerčních databázových centrech: • připojení (spolu s tzv. „logon“ procedurou) • volba báze dat • provedení rešerše • tisk (resp. download) výsledků • odpojení se od systému (tzv. „logoff“ procedura). Širší model vyhledávání klade důraz i na analytický výběr zdroje, neboť součástí rešeršní strategie je schopnost zvolit adekvátní informační zdroj (např. bázi dat, databázové centrum, agregátora dat, digitální knihovnu apod.). Již výběr databáze a hostitelského centra (hosta) na základě zkušeností či speciálních metod výběru je jeden z nejpodstatnějších postupů rešeršní strategie mající prvky analytického zpracování rešeršního požadavku. Také softwary databázových center mají celou řadu nadstavbových analytických nástrojů vyhledávání, ale i pro třídění dat a informací. Existují speciální systémy tzv. textového vytěžování (text mining) obohacené o vizualizované výstupy podporující efektivní rozhodování.

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5 Příklad intuitivně koncipovaného uživatelského rozhraní a analyticky vedeného postupu vyhledávání Pro demonstrování toho, jak vypadá základní analytické vyhledávání, byl použit systém OVID (http://www.ovid.com).

Obr. 1. Uživatel se může rozhodnout, který způsob vyhledávání zvolí – základní nebo pokročilý

Uživateli se běžně nabízí možnost základního vyhledávání a pokročilého vyhledávání. V základním vy hledávání je možno se pohybovat bez znalosti dotazovacího jazyka. Pokročilý způsob vyhledávání bývá již v na prosté míře případů analytický. Analytický způsob vyhledávání (např. pomocí booleovských operátorů) je mož no použít i v základním vyhledávacím režimu (basic search). Formulářové vyhledávání, za které bývá někdy označováno i pokročilé vyhledávání, se může ukázat jako omezující pro rešeršní strategii. Formulářová rozhraní bývají už řazena do analytického způsobu vyhledávání.

Obr. 2. Vyhledávání informačního požadavku virologického zaměření – „Hepsera“ (mj. původem objev českého vědce Ant. Holého) pomocí konstrukce rešeršního dotazu analytickým stylem – použití operátorů OR mezi obchodním a chemickým názvem a kódem Chemical Abstracts Service (RN CAS Number)

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Obr. 3. Rozdíl v odezvě (počet dokumentů – hity) je výrazný, 6 versus 387. Použití obchodního názvu HEPSERA nestačí, je nutné zvolit další postupy pro získání relevantních výstupů (chemický název, kód chemické látky apod.)

6 Závěr Vyhledávání informací intuitivními metodami je velmi pozitivním výsledkem dynamického rozvoje uživatel ského rozhraní ve vztahu k rešeršním systémům na přelomu 20. a 21. století. Pokud je třeba dosáhnout vysoce přesných nebo úplných výsledků vyhledávání, je lepší upřednostnit analytické styly vyhledávání, např. s po mocí dotazovacích jazyků a logických operací. Rozhodně není nutné odmítat intuitivní chování uživatelů, kte ré je podporováno dnešními uživatelskými rozhraními, jako povrchní. Analytický styl je žádoucí spíše pro „in formační brokery“, informační profesionály, ale i uživatele, např. z řad vědecké sféry, kteří mají důvod si analytické rešerše provádět samostatně. Jsou tu však i omezení, na straně systémů je reálným faktem tzv. krize booleovského modelu. Na straně uživatele je pak celá řada dalších bariér a omezení, kdy uživatelé z nejrůznějších příčin nevyužívají všechny atributy informačních systémů a jejich analytických nástrojů, takže se v komerčním důsledku koncipují systémy jen v tzv. jednoduchém vyhledávání. Tvůrci pak nemají zájem vyvíjet výkonné analytické vyhledávací prostřed ky za každou cenu a omezují se ve vyhledávacích funkcích, které zůstávají nevyužité. Zkoumáním přirozeného jazyka a tzv. lingvistických aspektů vyhledávání [např. zmiňuje J. Steinerová, 1996, s. 195-219] se objevují nové obzory vyhledávání, kdy se rešeršní strategie bude formulovat nikoliv jen for malizovanými jazyky (např. dotazovacími), ale bude se více využívat přirozeného jazyka při koncipování rešerš ních strategií. Stejně tak rozpracování témat přirozeného jazyka má za následek vývoj účinných plnotextových vyhledávacích prostředků. Tato oblast pak velmi souvisí s tzv. inteligentními prostředky vyhledávání. Kromě sostikovaných metod vyhledávání v databázový centrech, v bázích dat a digitálních knihov nách roste zájem zejména o jednoduché, a částečně i pokročilé, metody vyhledávání na internetu [rozebírá na př. Makulová, 2002]. Internet vůbec se stane prostředím pro testování nových vyhledávacích prostředků. Zkoumání informačního chování uživatelů internetu je proto dnes v centru pozornosti (information behaviour, information seeking behaviour). Informační chování je předmětem interdisciplinárního zkoumání [Wilson, 1997]. Informační chování a styly vyhledávání informací jsou tedy zejména v druhé polovině 90. let v centru pozornosti. Inspirace se nabízejí i z pohledu souboru kognitivních věd. Můžeme hovořit o reálném průniku in formační vědy, počítačové vědy a kognitivních věd v této specializaci. Vývoj dalších generací vyhledávacích prostředků bude souviset spíše s motivacemi spojenými s komercionalizací internetu. Současně poběží vývoj rešeršních systémů pro aplikace v databázových systémech jako jsou databázová centra, rozsáhlé databáze, digitální knihovny a archívy. Toto je v současnosti děleno jakousi hranicí, o které se můžeme vyjádřit jako o hranici mezi tzv. viditelným webem a neviditelným webem, i když není možno zjednodušit vše jen do we bového prostoru jako technologického prostoru. Dění kolem zdokonalování uživatelského vyhledávání informací není nutné chápat jen jako důsledek „hu manizace“ přiblížení výpočetní techniky a informačních systémů člověku, ale je to zejména důsledek silného konkurenčního prostředí v oblasti vývoje a provozování počítačových a informačních systémů. 124

Seznam bibliograckých odkazů                 

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FAULKNER, Ch. The essence of human-computer interaction. New York : Prentice Hall, 1998. xvi, 196 s. GOLDMANN, N. Online information hunting. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992. xi, 227 s. ISBN 0-8306-3945-4. JACOBSON, R.E. Information design. Cambridge : The MIT Press, 1999. xvi, 357 s. CHU, H. Information representation and retrieval in the digital age. Medford : Information Today, 2003. xiv, 248 s. KESSELMAN, M., WATSTEIN, S. B. End-user searching : Services and providers. Chicago: American Library Association, 1988. ix,230 s. MAKULOVÁ, S. Vyhľadávanie informácií v internete. Problémy, východiská, postupy. Bratislava : EL&T, 2002. 376 s. MANDEL, T. The elements of user interface design. New York : John Wiley and Sons, 1997. xxii, 440 s. MARCHIONINI, G. Psychological dimension of user-computer interfaces. Syracuse : ERIC Digest ; ERIC Clearinghouse 1991. 10 s. MARCHIONINI, G. Information seeking in electronic environments. New York ; Cambridge : Univ. Press, 1998. xi, 224 s. MAYBURY, M.T. Intelligent Multimedia Information Retrieval. Cambridge : The MIT Press, 1997. xxxiii, 478 s. MÜCK, G.H., SPANNBAUER, G. Benutzeroptimale Schnittstellenkonzepte für Faktenrecherchen in einer Werkstoffdatnebank. Nachrichten Dokumentation, 1989, roč. 40, č. 1, s. 33-37. PAPÍK, R., MICHALÍK, P., MICHALÍK, P., NOVÁČEK, L. Internet – ekonomické, marketingové a nanční aplikace : strategie vyhledávání a prezentace. Praha : EKOPRESS, 1998. 220 s. PAPÍK, R. Dialogové vyhledávání a služby v kontextu „člověk-počítač“ : disertační práce. Praha : Univerzita Karlova, 2000. 117 s., přílohová část 400 s., strojopis. POYNDER, R. Online host to Sci-Tech portals. Online & CD-ROM Review, 1999, vol. 23, no. 3, p. 143-146. ROWLEY, J.E. The basics of systems analysis and design for information managers. London : Clive Bingley, 1992. 158 s. RUGGE, S., GLOSSBRENNER, A. The information broker’s handbook. New York : McGraw-Hill, 1995. xxiii, 453 s. SARACEVIC, T., KANTOR, P., CHAMIS, A.Y. and TRIVISON, D. A study of information seeking and retrieving : Background and methodology. In: Readings in information retrieval. San Francisco : Morgan Kaufman Publ., 1997, p. 175-190. STEINEROVÁ, J. Teória informačného prieskumu. Bratislava : Slovenská technická knižnica, 1996. 262 s. TRENNER, L. How to win friends and inuence people : denitions of user-friendliness in interactive computer systems. In: Journal of Information Science, 1987, roč. 13, č. 2, s. 99-107. VLASÁK, R. Světový informační průmysl. Praha : Karolinum, 1999. 341 s. WILSON, T.D. Information behaviour: an interdisciplinary perspective. Inform. Process. & Mgmt., 1997, roč. 33, č. 4, s. 551-572.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Nadstavbové riešenia pre správu a sprístupňovanie elektronických informačných zdrojov Ladislav Svršek Albertina icome Bratislava, s.r.o., Cukrová 14, 813 39 Bratislava [email protected]

Abstract Extension tools for management of and access to electronic information resources The age of large amounts of information and of wide range of formats and forms of electronic information resources and their interfaces brings some new questions within institutions: Do users use offered resources equally? Actually, how are these resources used? Is our offer sufcient and does it cover all needed subjects? How can we help our users get more ori ented in the variety of electronic information resources? Good and accurate marketing with the continuous education of users are important but extension tools for management and accessing of electronic information resources can help solve some issues as well. This article describes and compares mentioned tools grouped as: • Linking tools for making connection between bibliographic and/or abstract databases and full-text collections available within an institution. • Federated search (metasearch) to cover all available electronic information resources with one search interface. • Management tools to control full lifetime cycle of electronic information resources. • Personal bibliographies and remote access as value-added services.

Keywords information resource; library service; linking tool; link resolver; federated search; metasearch; unied search; bibliography manager; remote access

Úvod Knižnice i ďalšie inštitúcie ponúkajú svojim používateľom elektronické informačné zdroje (interné aj externé) rôznej kvality, hĺbky spracovania i formátov. Tieto i ďalšie parametre elektronických informačných zdrojov sú na strane komerčných vydavateľstiev „zbraňami“ v boji o zákazníka – používateľa – ktorý sa však od knižníc od vracia, stráca sa v rozmanitosti ponuky (nech už je akokoľvek kvalitná) a čoraz častejšie siaha po systémoch typu Google. „Googlovanie“ sa stalo fenoménom, ktorý donútil knižnice viac sledovať informačné správanie sa používateľov v elektronickom prostredí a prispôsobovať sa ich potrebám. Z mnohých analýz a prieskumov vy užívania elektronických informačných zdrojov vyplynulo niekoľko základných potrieb používateľov: • Jednoduchá dostupnosť vyhľadávacieho prostredia (jedna webová adresa – portál – s ľahko zapamäta teľným názvom). • Jednoduché vyhľadávanie naraz vo všetkých zdrojoch. • Prehľadne zoradené relevantné výsledky. • Úplný text na jedno kliknutie. • Katalóg knižnice obsahujúci aj dostupné elektronické informačné zdroje. • Jednoduchý systém na „odkladanie“ všetkých nájdených informácií (platených i neplatených). • Všetky služby dostupné odkiaľkoľvek, kedykoľvek a bezplatne. • •

Z pohľadu knihovníkov treba k týmto požiadavkám pridať ešte: Možnosť kontrolovať celý životný cyklus informačného zdroja v rámci inštitúcie z jedného miesta. Poskytovať používateľom služby s pridanou hodnotou tak, aby sa používatelia naučili orientovať sa v ponuke informačných zdrojov a využívali (virtuálnu) knižnicu ako ich spoľahlivý zdroj.

V súčasnej dobe existuje dostatok nástrojov, ktoré môžu knižniciam pomôcť naplniť očakávania použí vateľov. Typy týchto nástrojov a ich miesto vo svete elektronických informačných zdrojov zobrazuje nasledu júca schéma:

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Obr. 1. Elektronické informačné zdroje a ich prepojenie s nadstavbovými nástrojmi

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Na pozadí je inštitúcia/knižnica a elektronické informačné zdroje: dostupné len pre registrovaných používateľov (ako napr. licencované bibliogracké, abstraktové či plnotextové databázy, ale aj interný inštitucionálny repozitár); všeobecne dostupné v prostredí internetu (súborné katalógy, webové stránky a pod.).

Okrem toho môžu mať používatelia k dispozícii medziknižničnú výpožičnú službu a/alebo služby document delivery. Nástroje pre manažment elektronických informačných zdrojov ponúkajú prostredníctvom administrátor ského rozhrania knihovníkom a informačným pracovníkom dostatok informácií pre rozhodovanie o akvizícii i priebežné hodnotenie databáz a fondov úplných textov dokumentov. Používateľ ich navonok vníma ako in formačné brány, prostredníctvom ktorých sa dostane k obľúbeným zdrojom alebo sa s výstupmi môže stretnúť v lokálnom katalógu. Linkovacie nástroje sú nástroje, ktoré umožňujú v bibliograckých (teda neplnotextových) databázach zo braziť odkaz, ktorý používateľa privedie k úplnému textu. Centralizované vyhľadávanie umožňuje používateľovi v rámci jedného vyhľadávania prejsť rôznorodé in formačné zdroje a získať tak štruktúrovaný prehľad o dostupných relevantných dokumentoch. Systémy na vytváranie osobných bibliograckých databáz pomáhajú používateľom integrovať a ďalej pracovať s vyhľadanými informáciami nezávisle od dostupnosti pôvodného informačného zdroja. Nástroje pre správu vzdialeného prístupu majú používateľom slúžiť pre jednoduché pripojenie sa k licen covaným elektronickým informačným zdrojom vrátane možností práce z domu či iných počítačov.

1 Manažment elektronických informačných zdrojov Nástroje tohto typu využívajú jednu a tú istú sadu údajov pre vytvorenie výstupov nielen pre koncových po užívateľov, ale aj pre knihovníkov samotných. Používatelia ich vnímajú len ako brány k elektronickým časo pisom či iným druhom dokumentov. Princípom dobrých nástrojov či služieb tohto typu je rozsiahla, kvalitná a neustále aktualizovaná znalost ná databáza o dostupnosti elektronických dokumentov v prostredí internetu. Z týchto údajov je potom možné po skytovať dve základné skupiny výstupov: • Pre používateľov zoznamy dostupných elektronických dokumentov formou portálu, kde môžu byť radené rôznymi spôsobmi (abecedne, podľa odborov, podľa vydavateľstiev a pod.). • Pre knihovníkov sú to nástroje pre porovnávanie fondov, hľadanie konkrétnych titulov, vyhodnocova nie skúšobných prístupov ale i samotného využívania platených zdrojov. V niektorých prípadoch sú po 128

užiteľné aj pre ďalšiu administratívu týkajúcu sa celého životného cyklu elektronických informačných zdrojov v inštitúcii.

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Funkcie týchto systémov zodpovedajú tej-ktorej skupine používateľov: Portál elektronických dokumentov (zvyčajne periodických) s rôznymi spôsobmi radenia a vyhľadáva nia titulov. Možnosti prispôsobenia vzhľadu portálu dizajnu inštitúcie, prípadne i ďalšia integrácia. Štandardizované bibliogracké záznamy (MARC/UNIMARC/MARC21) pre import do lokálneho kataló gu, prípadne i systém ich ďalšej aktualizácie. Pre administrátorov široké možnosti špecikovať existujúce fondy elektronických dokumentov pre zo brazovanie na portáli a pre získavanie bibliograckých záznamov. Analytické nástroje vychádzajúce zo znalostnej databázy ako vyhľadanie konkrétneho titulu vo všetkých dostupných kolekciách a službách, vzájomné porovnávanie fondov a služieb, analýza prekrytia na rôz nych úrovniach niekedy aj možnosť porovnania fondov s podobnými inštitúciami. Pokročilejšie systémy môžu ponúkať ďalšie funkcie týkajúce sa procesu hodnotenia a nákupu elektronic kých informačných zdrojov vrátane spravovania súvisiacich dokumentov (evidencia dodávateľov, licenč né zmluvy, faktúry a pod.). Štatistické údaje využívania portálu, počítanie prístupov k jednotlivým titulom.

Vzhľadom na to, že tieto nástroje a funkcie sú závislé od kvalitnej znalostnej databázy, prevádzkovate lia ich zásadne poskytujú ako službu. Na strane inštitúcie teda nevznikajú žiadne požiadavky na hardware a správu servera.

2 Linkovacie nástroje Z popisovaných nadstavbových nástrojov patria medzi najstaršie. V chronológii vývoja odborných bibliograckých a abstraktových databáz sa producenti a vydavateľstvá dostali pred niekoľkými rokmi na križovatku. Vy davateľstvá bibliograckých databáz mali dve možnosti: • integrovať do svojich databáz úplné texty a vytvárať agregované plnotextové databázy; • využiť existenciu úplných textov v službách e-časopisov a do abstraktových databáz pridať len odkazy. Vydavateľstvá, ktoré sa rozhodli pre druhú možnosť, začali vytvárať prvé linkovacie nástroje a služby. Systémy linkovania sa postupom času zlepšovali a v súčasnej dobe už poskytujú možnosti veľmi jemného na stavenia a prepojenia nielen na plnotextové databázy či e-časopisecké servery, ale aj na ďalšie katalógy knižníc a na služby dodávky primárnych dokumentov či na systém medziknižničnej výpožičnej služby. V súčasnej dobe sa pre linkovacie nástroje využívajú najčastejšie nasledujúce štandardy: • OpenURL: denuje otvorenú štruktúru webového odkazu tak, aby bolo možné pomocou vložených pre menných odkazovať na hľadaný dokument prípadne odovzdať cieľovému serveru ďalšie údaje. • The Digital Object Identier System (DOI): prostredníctvom autorizovaných agentúr prideľuje každému elektronickému dokumentu unikátne identikačné číslo, na základe ktorého je možné dokument nájsť.

• • •

K funkciám linkovacích nástrojov patria: Možnosť výberu z predpripravených cieľových zdrojov a možnosť denície vlastných. Základné či pokročilé možnosti nastavenia pre vybrané cieľové zdroje (vrátane volieb dostupného obsahu až na konkrétne časopisecké tituly, možností autorizácie pre prístup a pod.). Nastavenia pre zobrazenie odkazov (vrátane možností voľby uprednostňovaného cieľa).

Súčasné systémy linkovacích nástrojov je možné rozdeliť do troch kategórií: 1. Linkovacie nástroje, ktoré sú súčasťou konkrétnej on-line služby jedného vydavateľstva a umožňuje lin kovanie len z databáz tohto vydavateľstva. Výhodou je, že ich vydavateľstvá poskytujú ako súčasť online služby bezplatne. Nevýhodou je, že v prípade využívania on-line služieb viacerých vydavateľstiev je potrebné každý takýto nástroj nastaviť a udržiavať samostatne. Rovnako kvalita týchto nástrojov je rôzna. 2. Univerzálne linkovacie nástroje ako sieťová aplikácia: takýto software si inštitúcia inštaluje na vlastný ser ver a sama sa stará o jeho nastavenie a prevádzku. Výhodou je, že sa všetky parametre linkovania nastavujú na jednom mieste. Nevýhodou je potreba vlastnej techniky, školeného administrátora (niekedy až programá tora) a v neposlednom rade aj nutnosť sledovať dostupné plnotextové služby a v prípade potreby nastavenia aktualizovať (predovšetkým v prípade OpenURL, ak sa webová stránka poskytovateľa úplného textu zmení). Prípadné vylepšenia takýchto aplikácií bývajú dodávané ako samostatne platené aktualizácie. 3. Univerzálne linkovacie nástroje ako služba (outsourcing): v tomto prípade je systém umiestnený na serve roch prevádzkovateľa, ktorý sa stará o celú údržbu vrátane aktualizácií odkazov. Základné parametre lin kovania si zákazník nastavuje sám cez WWW administrátorské rozhranie. Výhodou je tiež to, že prevádz 129

kovatelia majú pripravenú väčšinu služieb najpoužívanejších poskytovateľov úplných textov, takže ich aktivácia je veľmi jednoduchá. V prípade potreby zaradenia menej známych alebo lokálnych služieb je čas implementácie dlhší. Vylepšenia funkcií systému sú častejšie, ako v predošlej kategórii a ich cena je zvyčajne zahrnutá v pravidelných poplatkoch za celú službu.

3 Centralizované vyhľadávanie Myšlienka metavyhľadávania v prostredí internetu je pomerne stará, a preto je pochopiteľné, že presiakla aj do oblastí bibliograckých a plnotextových odborných databáz. To, čo bolo len veľmi ťažko predstaviteľné pri data bázach na off-line médiách (diskety, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM a pod.), sa v prostredí on-line služieb dá (s istými obmedzeniami) realizovať. Aktivity, ktoré vedú k vytváraniu nástrojov jednotného či centralizovaného vyhľadá vania, však majú svoje limity a neohrozujú snahy vydavateľstiev neustále zdokonaľovať svoje vlastné vyhľadá vacie systémy a ich funkcie. Základnou výhodou centralizovaného vyhľadávania je odstránenie nutnosti prechá dzania a vyhľadávania v dostupných informačných zdrojoch jeden po druhom. Centralizované vyhľadávanie do káže požadované slová vyhľadať postupne vo vybraných databázach a používateľovi poskytne ako výsledok stránku, na ktorej sú vyhľadané dokumenty roztriedené podľa databáz. Nevýhodou takéhoto vyhľadávania je menšia možnosť precízneho vyhľadávania a nemožnosť použiť špecické tezaury, ktoré sú spravidla v každej odbornej databáze iné. Z pohľadu prirodzeného jazyka je rovnako zbytočné prehľadávať naraz databázy, ktorých dáta sú v rozličných jazykoch (napr. anglické s nemeckými a slovenskými), pokiaľ v nich neexistuje aspoň jedno rovnaké pole využívajúce na popis jeden spoločný jazyk. Firmy, ktoré vyvíjajú riešenia pre centralizované vyhľadávanie, ponúkajú nielen vyhľadávanie v bibliogra ckých databázach, ale v podstate možnosť prehľadávať všetky služby vrátane voľných webových vyhľadáva čov, katalógov riem, ponúk elektronických obchodov a podobne. Podstata nástrojov centralizovaného vyhľadá vania je komplikovanejšia než linkovanie, pretože vyžaduje obojsmernú aktívnu komunikáciu medzi serverami: prehľadávaný server (služba) musí rozumieť zaslanej požiadavke a zároveň musí byť schopný odpovedať takou sadou dát, aby ich server centralizovaného vyhľadávania dokázal spracovať a zobraziť vo svojom vlastnom pro stredí. Z pohľadu knihovníckej praxe takéto systémy stoja predovšetkým na protokole Z39.50. Tento protokol sa neustále zdokonaľuje a pripravovaná verzia ZING (Z39.50 International: Next Generation) má byť vrátane súčastí CQL (Common Query Language) a SRW (Search/Retrieve WebService) širšou verziou použiteľnou v prostredí internetu. Kombinácia protokolov na výmenu dát s dostupnými technológiami XML, SOAP, HTTP a pod. je základom pre systémy centralizovaného vyhľadávania, ktoré mávajú nasledujúce funkcie: • Jednoduché i pokročilejšie vyhľadávanie vo vybraných elektronických informačných zdrojoch. • Možnosť voľby konkrétnych databáz alebo ich skupín, pričom skupiny môžu byť zadenované rôznymi spôsobmi (tematicky, jazykovo a pod.). • Agregované zobrazenie výsledkov s možnosťami deduplikácie. • Nástroje pre ďalšie upresňovanie vyhľadávania vrátane priebežnej indexácie výsledkov v reálnom čase (clustering). • Nástroje pre ďalšiu prácu s výsledkami (zobrazovanie, tlač, export a pod.). Podobne ako v prípade linkovacích nástrojov aj systémy centralizovaného vyhľadávania poskytujú výrob covia a prevádzkovatelia v rôznych podobách: 1. Riešenia centralizovaného vyhľadávania ako sieťovej aplikácie: podobne, ako v prípade linkovacích ná strojov aj pri týchto riešeniach si inštalácia vyžaduje vlastný server a programátorov, ktorí sú schopní celý systém nastaviť a udržiavať. Výhody aj nevýhody týchto riešení sú tiež podobné linkovacím nástrojom rovnakej kategórie. 2. Riešenia centralizovaného vyhľadávania ako služby: celý systém je umiestnený na serveroch prevádzkova teľa, ktorý zabezpečuje jeho nastavenie a údržbu. Vyhľadávacie rozhranie sa dá čiastočne prispôsobiť gra ckým požiadavkám inštitúcie. Výhody i nevýhody sú podobné linkovacím nástrojom v tejto skupine.

4 Systémy osobných bibliograckých databáz K výskumnej a vedeckej práci nepochybne patrí aj evidencia zaujímavých a užitočných informačných zdrojov a ich triedenie. Tieto informácie sú neskôr dôležité pre správne uvádzanie citovanej, použitej či odporúčanej lite ratúry. Okrem možnosti vytvárať si takéto databázy svojpomocne sú na trhu dostupné komerčné produkty, ktoré môžu ponúkať množstvo zaujímavých funkcií: • Priamy import vyhľadaných údajov zo svetových databáz. • Možnosť prepojenia a vyhľadávania v ďalších zdrojoch prostredníctvom protokolov spomínaných v časti o centralizovanom vyhľadávaní (nenahradzuje však centralizované vyhľadávanie – jednotlivé zdroje ne prehľadáva súčasne). • Ďalšie možnosti importu údajov v závislosti od vzájomnej spolupráce a štandardov (RSS kanály, vedecké internetové vyhľadávače a pod.). 130

• • • • •

Manuálne zadávanie údajov pre všetky typy dokumentov. Nástroje pre hromadnú úpravu údajov prípadne aj pre vyhľadávanie duplikácií. Triedenie záznamov a vyhľadávanie v záznamoch. Možnosť zdieľania celej alebo častí databázy s ostatnými používateľmi, export údajov. Vytváranie zoznamov citovanej/použitej/odporúčanej literatúry v rôznych formátoch, niekedy i nástroje pre priame vkladanie citácií do písaného textu.

Ako už z názvu týchto nástrojov vyplýva, neslúžia tieto systémy na ukladanie úplných textov či vytvára nie archívov dokumentov – systémy pracujú so sekundárnymi informáciami, ktorých súčasťou však môže byť aj odkaz na úplný text (umiestnený na internete alebo v inom systéme). Rovnako tieto systémy nedokážu nahradiť nástroje na evidenciu citácií – umožňujú, pochopiteľne, evidovať práce používateľa, ale nestretol som sa so sys témom, ktorý by ponúkal aj možnosť vytvárania vzájomných prepojení na úrovni citovania. K svetovým štandardom v tejto oblasti patria dva typy systémov: 1. Osobná bibliogracká databáza ako samostatný software pre inštaláciu na jednom počítači: obyčajne ide o aplikácie určené pre operačné systémy Windows a/alebo MacIntosh. Pre inštaláciu a vytváranie databá zy je potrebný dostatočný diskový priestor a údržba celého systému je na samotnom používateľovi. Nevý hodou takéhoto riešenia je, že používateľ má svoju databázu (a súvisiace nástroje) k dispozícii len vtedy, ak pracuje na svojom počítači. 2. Osobná bibliogracká databáza ako služba (outsourcing): tieto služby môžu byť poskytované celým in štitúciám ale aj jednotlivcom. Celý systém je v takomto prípade umiestnený na serveroch poskytovateľa, a tak má každý používateľ prístup k svojim dátam cez internet v podstate odkiaľkoľvek 24 hodín denne. Na lokálny počítač sa v prípade potreby inštalujú iba zásuvné moduly pre textové editory s nástrojmi na vytváranie citácií a zoznamov.

5 Správa vzdialeného prístupu Väčšina elektronických informačných zdrojov i nástrojov, ktoré sú uvedené v tomto článku, sú dostupné na základe licenčných podmienok len oprávneným používateľom. V prostredí on-line elektronických informačných zdrojov je uprednostňovaná autorizácia na základe overenia IP adresy počítača, na ktorom používateľ pracuje. Prístup k týmto zdrojom a službám sa však skomplikuje, ak k nim chce oprávnený používateľ pristupovať z domu prípadne v čase, keď je budova inštitúcie uzavretá. Ešte výraznejšie sa tento nedostatok prejavuje v prípade elektronických infor mačných zdrojov na off-line médiách. Pokiaľ inštitúcia nemá dostatočné kapacity na to, aby zriaďovala a spravova la pre svojich používateľov špeciálne sieťové služby pre prístup do intranetu aj mimo lokálnej siete, je možné pre prístup k niektorým službám využiť špecializované aplikácie. V prípade mnohých on-line služieb existuje aj mož nosť pridelenia samostatných mien a hesiel pre vzdialený prístup, avšak takáto forma autorizácie nie je bezpečná ani pohodlná. Systémy pre správu vzdialeného prístupu dokážu na rôznej úrovni riešiť nasledujúce úlohy: • Prístup do všetkých zdrojov a služieb z jedného miesta bez ohľadu na to, na akom počítači používateľ pracuje, vrátane možností vytvárania dynamických portálov. • Mimo lokálnej siete inštitúcie prihlásenie sa len jedným menom a heslom pre všetky zdroje a služby s možnosťami využiť niektorý z existujúcich autorizačných systémov v inštitúcii. • Pre jedného používateľa jediné meno a heslo pre väčší komfort a bezpečnosť. • V prípade použitia ďalších nástrojov možnosť sieťového sprístupnenia off-line zdrojov (CD/DVD a pod.). • V spolupráci s aplikačným serverom možnosť prístupu k akejkoľvek aplikácii podľa nastavenia používa teľského účtu. • Podrobné štatistiky využívania systému i jednotlivých zdrojov a služieb. Aplikácie takéhoto typu sú zvyčajne určené pre inštaláciu na serveri inštitúcie a vyžadujú správcu, ktorý sa o jeho prevádzku bude starať. V niektorých prípadoch sú dodávatelia týchto systémov schopní poskytovať niektoré služby formou outsourcingu.

6 Záver Využitie a kombinácia popísaných nadstavbových riešení pomáha inštitúciám poskytovať pre svojich zamestnan cov a používateľov komplexné služby súvisiace s uspokojovaním ich informačných potrieb. Princípy nasadenia a prípadného spoplatnenia týchto služieb sú vecou každej inštitúcie, úspech je závislý aj od zvolenej formy propagácie a marketingu. Pretože cieľom všetkých týchto riešení je pomôcť používateľovi dostať sa k informá ciám, ktoré hľadá, ich aplikácia zvyšuje aj využívanosť samotných elektronických informačných zdrojov a po máha zefektívniť vynakladanie prostriedkov na ich nákup.

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ALBERTINA icome Bratislava, s.r.o. Produkty a Služby – Softwarové riešenia. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . BELL, S. J. The Infodiet: How Libraries can Offer an Appetizing Alternative to Google. In The Chronicle of Higher Education. ISSN 00095982, 2004, 50 (24), pp B.15. Dostupné na internete pre autorizovaných používateľov: . BJORNSHAUGE, L. Opinion Paper: From Interlending and Document Delivery to Co-Operative Collections and Document Access. In Interlending & Document Supply. ISSN 02641615, 1999, 27 (1), pp 30. Dostupné na internete pre autorizovaných používateľov: . BORGMAN, C. L., et al. Comparing Faculty Information Seeking in Teaching and Research: Implications for the Design of Digital Libraries. In Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. ISSN 15322882, 2005, 56 (6), pp 636. Dostupné na internete pre autorizovaných používateľov: . BURKE, J. – S. MCCRACKEN. White Paper: The New Paradigm of E-Serials. [on-line]. 2004 [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . CSA. Ulrich’s Resource Linker. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . CSA. MultiSearch. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . EX Libris Ltd. MetaLib: The library portal. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . EX Libris Ltd. S.F.X.: Contents Sensitive linking. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . H+H Software GmbH. HAN: Hidden Automatic Navigator. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . H+H Software GmbH. NetMan. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . H+H Software GmbH. Virtual CD. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . HOLLAND, M. Exploring the Contexts of Information Behaviour: Preceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Research in Information Needs, Seeking and use in… In The Electronic Library. ISSN 02640473, 2000, 18 (3), pp 226. Dostupné na internete pre autorizovaných používateľov: . INFO Technology Supply, Ltd. IRIS X7: Ultimate CD/DVD-Rom and Windows Application Networking. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . INFO Technology Supply, Ltd. Onelog X7: Electronic Resource Management. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . INTERNATIONAL DOI Foundation (The). The Digital Object Identier System. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . LIBRARY of Congress (The). Z39.50 Maintenance Agency Page. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . MUSE Global Inc. Muse: The Metasearch Company. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . NATIONAL Information Standards Organization. MetaSearch Initiative. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . NATIONAL Information Standards Organization. The OpenURL Framework for Context-Sensitive Services. [online]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . NATIONAL Information Standards Organization. Z39.50 Resource Page. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . OVID Technologies, Inc. Ovid LinkSolver. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . OVID Technologies, Inc. Ovid SearchSolver. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . REFWORKS LLC. RefWorks: Your online research, writing and collaboration tool. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . SERIALS Solutions. Access and Management Suite. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . SERIALS Solutions. Article Linker. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . SERIALS Solutions. Central Search. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: .

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SERIALS Solutions. Electronic Resource Management System. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . SERIALS Solutions. Full MARC Record service. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . SINGH, R. Developing Relationship Marketing with Customers: A Scandinavian Perspective. In Library Management. ISSN 01435124, 2003, 24 (1/2), pp 34. Dostupné na internete pre autorizovaných používateľov: . THOMSON Corporation (The). EndNote: Bibliographies Made Easy. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . THOMSON Corporation (The). ProCite: Your Information Toolbox. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: . THOMSON Corporation (The). Reference Manager. [on-line]. [cit. 03. 07. 2006]. Dostupné na internete: .

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Rozpoznávání a řešení drobných problémů uživatele při práci s aplikacemi v internetu Otakar Pinkas Fakulta informatiky a statistiky VŠE Praha, nám. W. Churchilla 4, 130 67 Praha 3 [email protected]

Abstract Recognition and xing of minor user problems in working with internet applications The paper focuses on the identication of minor problems faced by users of SMTP or HTTP based applications, and possi ble solutions. Many practical examples show how these protocols work internally, and how users can make manual simula tions when xing these problems. Being based on the textual form of e-mail means that it is possible to identify useful vari ables, such as the size of an attached le and the sender’s identity. The display of the HTTP headers allows a better under standing of the management of HTTP state sessions. With UNICODE and UTF-8 encoding, the analysis of catalogue searching can reveal some peculiarities.

Keywords minor problems solutions; SMTP dialogue; HTTP session management; OPAC; UNICODE/UTF-8

Úvod Uživatel služeb internetu, který má zájem lépe pochopit jejich fungování a který je ochoten rozpoznávat, studo vat a řešit drobné problémy při práci v internetu, má k dispozici nástroje, které se často nazývají utility TCP/IP. Jsou součástí operačního systému a mají rozhraní příkazového řádku. Kromě nich jsou volně šiřitelné i jejich ek vivalenty s grackým rozhraním. Existují webová místa, která soustřeďují na jedné stránce odkazy na tyto služby rozptýlené po celém světě. V operačním systému Windows jsou k dispozici v příkazovém režimu utility ipcong, ping, tracert, ns lookup, netstat a další. Součástí je také telnet, který se může stát nástrojem k napodobování a ověřování ap likačních protokolů. Obdobná situace je v jiných operačních systémech. Význam, syntaxe a ukázky použití řádkových utilit jsou uváděny v různých nápovědách; programy samy vypisují omezenou nápovědu, zadáme-li při spouštění vhodný přepínač. Velmi pěknou stránku odkazů na síťové utility představuje stránka RodentNet: ad hoc IP Tools – http://www.tatumweb.com/iptools.htm. Užitečná je též stránka Web Based Network Tools – http://home.planet.nl /~houwe135/wbnt1/. K zobrazování hlaviček HTTP výborně slouží stránka View HTTP Request and Response Header – http://web-sniffer.net/.

1 DNS Systém doménových jmen a mechanismus jejich překladů se užívá v sítích TCP/IP téměř ve všech aplikačních protokolech. Obsahuje veřejně přístupné informace, které se běžně nezobrazují. V příkladu klientský program „nslookup“ získává dostupné údaje z DNS serveru vse470.vse.cz o serveru vse.vse.cz. Výsledkem jsou záznamy typu MX o poštovních serverech a překlady doménových jmen. Hlavní poštovní server pro doménu vse.cz je po čítač s názvem vse.vse.cz. C:\>nslookup Výchozí server: vse470.vse.cz Address: 146.102.16.1 > set type=all Výchozí server: vse470.vse.cz Address: 146.102.16.1 > vse.vse.cz Server: vse470.vse.cz Address: 146.102.16.1 vse.vse.cz vse.vse.cz vse.vse.cz vse.vse.cz

internet address = 146.102.16.2 MX preference = 100, mail exchanger = mx1.vse.cz MX preference = 50, mail exchanger = vse.vse.cz AAAA IPv6 address = 2001:718:1e02::2

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vse.cz nameserver = vse.cz nameserver = vse.cz nameserver = vse.vse.cz AAAA mx1.vse.cz ns.ces.net vse470.vse.cz

vse470.vse.cz ns.ces.net vse.vse.cz IPv6 address = 2001:718:1e02::2

internet address = 193.179.39.12 internet address = 195.113.144.233 internet address = 146.102.16.1

2 Elektronická pošta Poštovní protokoly SMTP, IMAP a POP3 jsou textově orientované a k přenosu využívají protokol TCP. Tato skutečnost není patrná, když se používají poštovní klienti s grackým rozhraním. Volně přístupné webové poš tovní systémy mívají prostředky pro zobrazení dopisu v textové formě: jejich ikony nebývají zvýrazněné a návo dy je příliš nezdůrazňují. Protokol SMTP pro odesílání pošty neobsahuje přísná pravidla chránící poštovní zprávy před zneužitím a fal šováním. Textový tvar dopisu obsahuje hlavičky „received“, které dovolují uživateli vystopovat cestu dopisu, poznat IP adresy a názvy předávajících serverů, atp. Tento tvar dopisu je užitečný hlavně v problémových situacích. Ukážeme průběh SMTP komunikace, která se v dopise neobjevuje; nazývá se obálka nebo také SMTP dialog. Pomocí klientského programu telnet lze takový dialog uskutečnit. Další příklady SMTP komunikace při nášejí ukázky zjišťování maximální faktické velikosti dopisu, ověřování mail relay a odesilatele na základě dota zů na seznam oprávněných poštovních serverů určité domény. Náš přístup k poštovním protokolům a zprávám má ovšem jedno zásadní omezení. Jakmile se zavede šifrování zpráv a autentikace uživatele, pak již nejsme schopni ručně dopisy odesílat.

2.1 Textový tvar dopisu Zkrácená ukázka představuje textový tvar dopisu odeslaného z webového rozhraní www.quick.cz na poštovní server veverka.vse.cz. Hlavičky „received“ čtené zdola nahoru ukazují cestu dopisu od počátku do cíle. Návrato vá cesta je nastavena na účet z domény quick.cz. Return-Path: Received: from vse.vse.cz ([146.102.16.2] veried) by vse.cz (CommuniGate Pro SMTP 4.1.8) with ESMTP id 21914077 for [email protected]; Sat, 27 May 2006 11:46:18 +0200 ... Received: from iol.cz (ims-2.iol.cz [194.228.2.89]) by smtp-out2.iol.cz (Internet on Line ESMTP server) with ESMTP id A3A5733E67; Sat, 27 May 2006 11:46:17 +0200 (CEST) Received: from [192.168.30.65] (Forwarded-For: [146.102.64.219]) by ims-2.iol.cz (mshttpd); Sat, 27 May 2006 11:46:17 +0200 From: To: [email protected] Message-ID: Date: Sat, 27 May 2006 11:46:17 +0200 X-Mailer: iPlanet Messenger Express 5.2 HotFix 1.21 (built Sep 8 2003) MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Language: cs Subject: =?iso-8859-2?Q?p=F8=EDm=E9_spojen=ED?= Priority: normal Content-Type: text/plain; charset=iso-8859-2 Content-Disposition: inline Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Test p=F8=EDm=E9ho spojen=ED=3A webmail quick a veverka resp=2E kotelna=2E

2.2 Záznam ruční komunikace mezi SMTP klientem a SMTP serverem Pomocí programu telnet jsme napodobili komunikaci mezi odesílajícím a příjímajícím SMTP serverem. Příkazy odesílajícího serveru (ručně) jsou psány verzálkami a odpovědi přijímajícího serveru začínají číselným kódem. Vlastní zpráva obsahuje jen jeden řádek a je ukončena tečkou na samostatném řádku. Byla serverem přijata a zařazena do vstupní fronty. Příkaz QUIT vyvolá ukončení spojení přijímajícím počítačem. 220 vse.vse.cz ESMTP Postfix HELO gama.vse.cz 250 vse.vse.cz MAIL FROM: [email protected] 250 Ok RCPT TO: [email protected]

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250 Ok DATA 354 End data with . from: [email protected] to: [email protected] subject: gama to vse rucne Posilam rucne zpravu pres gama.vse.cz. Dobre. O.P. . 250 Ok: queued as 52001134B7 QUIT 221 Bye Connection closed by foreign host.

2.3 Velikost přílohy: SMTP dialog – le size Návody pro uživatele někdy neobsahují aktualizované informace. Např. v poštovním návodu najdeme, že maxi mální velikost přílohy je 1,5 MB, ale někomu se prý podařilo odeslat větší soubor. Platnost údaje ověříme pomo cí ruční komunikace. Poštovní server po příkazu EHLO sdělí klientovi SMTP své možnosti, včetně maximální velikosti přijímaného dopisu v parametru SIZE. V příkladu máme hodnotu asi 9 MB. Návod není aktuální. Jaká je maximální velikost přílohy? Příloha je soubor se známou velikostí. Je-li to obrázek, je pro přenos převeden pomocí kódování base64 do tvaru, který obsahuje jen znaky z první poloviny ASCII tabulky. Kódování base64 zvětšuje velikost souboru o jednu třetinu. Poštovní servery na cestě připisují hlavičky „received“, a tím se celková délka dopisu mírně prodlouží. Maximální přípustná velikost přílohy před překódováním je asi 6,5 MB. V ukázce (zkráceno) se ověřuje překročení maximální hodnoty parametru SIZE. Stačí jeden byte navíc, server hodnotu odmítne a spojení ukončí. EHLO n412h02.vse.cz 250-vse.cz is pleased to meet you ... 250-SIZE 9437184 ... MAIL FROM: [email protected] size=9437185 552 message exceeds the fixed maximum message size

2.4 Mail Relay, černé a bílé listiny Následující test zjišťuje zprostředkovávání poštovních zpráv. Skript „relaytest“ je spouštěn z domény abuse.net, ale příjemce dopisu není z vse.vse.cz, nýbrž z abuse.net. Testy (většina vypuštěna) obsahují změny jak v MAIL FROM:, tak RCPT TO:. Server vse.vse.cz nepovoluje neomezené zprostředkování zpráv. Nemůže být tedy uveden na černé listině serverů, které bez kontroly rozesílají nevyžádané zprávy. Naopak, může být zapsán do bílé listiny důvěryhodných serverů. Příkaz RSET umožňuje na jednom spojení zahájit a nastavit další poštovní transakci. URL: http://www.abuse.net/cgi-bin/relaytest Mail relay testing Connecting to vse.vse.cz for anonymous test … <<< 220 vse.vse.cz ESMTP Postfix >>> HELO www.abuse.net <<< 250 vse.vse.cz Relay test 1 >>> RSET <<< 250 Ok >>> MAIL FROM: <<< 250 Ok >>> RCPT TO: <<< 554 : Recipient address rejected: Relay access denied ... Relay test 11 >>> RSET <<< 250 Ok >>> MAIL FROM: <<< 250 Ok >>> RCPT TO:<“[email protected]“@vse.vse.cz> <<< 554 : Recipient address rejected: Relay access denied

Obdobný test lze provést i ručně. Z počítače z místní sítě vse.cz žádáme CommuniGate o zprostředkování zprávy pro uživatele z cizí domény – quick.cz. Zpráva 571 sděluje zákaz zprostředkování. Všimněme si ne 137

správně uvedené adresy v řádku RCPT TO:. Přesto byla správně rozpoznána. SMTP servery jsou vůči syntaktic kým chybám shovívavé a snaží se dospět k správnému údaji. =~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~= PuTTY log 2006.04.05 12:02:40=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~= 220 vse.cz ESMTP CommuniGate Pro 4.1.8 ... HELO n412h02.vse.cz 250 vse.cz is pleased to meet you MAIL FROM: [email protected] 250 [email protected] sender accepted RCPT TO: opinkas@quy ick.cz 571 [email protected] prohibited. We do not relay QUIT

2.5 Nesprávné údaje v obálce a identita odesílatele Poštovní protokol (E)SMTP přesně nevymezuje hodnoty v příkazech HELO/EHLO a v příkazu MAIL FROM [1]. Odvozeně ani v hlavičce Return-Path. Dopis lze úspěšně odeslat s příkazem HELO bez úplného doménové ho jména odesílajícího počítače. Server rozpoznal a oznámil nesprávnou formu jména počítače, ale dopis na konec odeslal. 220 vse.cz ESMTP CommuniGate Pro 4.1.8 HELO s105h18 250 vse.cz domain name should be qualified s105h18

Obdobně lze úspěšně odeslat a přijmout dopis s chybným určením domény počítače, z něhož se dopis odesílá, v příkazu MAIL FROM. Odeslání 220 vse.cz ESMTP CommuniGate Pro 4.1.8 EHLO nb413h02.vse.cz 250-vse.cz host name is unknown nb413h02.vse.cz ... MAIL FROM: [email protected] 250 [email protected] sender accepted ...

Příjem Return-Path: Received: from [146.102.64.219] (HELO nb413h02.vse.cz) by vse.cz (CommuniGate Pro SMTP 4.1.8) with ESMTP id 22240720 for [email protected]; Thu, 29 Jun 2006 11:25:16 +0200 ...

Jednou z možností kontroly identity odesílajícího počítače a nepřímo identity odesilatele, je specikace pro udílení oprávnění k využívání domén v elektronické poště – SPF: sender policy framework. Specikace [3] má zajistit, aby určitá doména měla možnost stanovit využívání svého jména jen pro vý slovně uvedenou skupinu počítačů. Přijímající strana pak má možnost ověřit, zda doménové jméno nebylo zne užito. Využívá systému DNS a hledá speciální textovou položku „spf1“, jak ukazuje příklad pro doménu iol.cz. Name Server: dns.iol.cz Query: quick.cz Type of Search: ALL – All records Protocol: TCP Verbose: Yes Recursion Desired: Yes – Name=quick.cz Type=TXT, Class=1, TTL=3600 (1 Hour), RDLENGTH=106 TXT=v=spf1 ip4:194.228.0.0/16 ip4:80.188.0.0/16 ip4:83.208.0.0/16 ip4:85.70.0.0/15 ip4:160.218.43.22

Význam symbolů: v – verze SPF, v příkladu spf1; ip4 – typ ověřovacího mechanismu – verze 4 protokolu IP. Hodnota za dvojtečkou udává rozsah IP adres, z nichž je povoleno právoplatné odesílání dopisů v rámci domény quick.cz. Kombinace IP adresy a čísla (oddělená lomítkem) určuje počet bitových jedniček zleva a slouží k určení síťové části adresy a rozsahu IP adres, které jsou v rámci sítě možné. Pomocí online kalkulátoru zjistíme rozsah IP adres a jejich počet pro první položku ip4 v záznamu spf1. Výsledek: 194.228.0.1–194.228.255.254, tj. rozsah 65534 adres; síťová adresa: 194.228.0.0. Adresa 194.228.2.87, symbolicky smtp-out2.iol.cz, leží ve zjištěném rozsahu, tj. počítač má oprávnění k odesílání po šty z domény quick.cz.

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Přijímající server může v SMTP dialogu vyhodnotit identikaci počítače za příkazem HELO/EHLO a doménovou část v RCPT TO, když se obrátí na příslušný DNS server nabízející záznam typu spf1. Dialog může již v tomto bodě ukončit, není-li ověření spf1 úspěšné. Ověření bylo úspěšné a dopis z iol.cz byl přijat. To tožnost odesilatele nebyla zpochybněna, přijímající SMTP server komunikoval s oprávněným SMTP serverem z domény quick.cz. Received: from smtp-out2.iol.cz (smtp-out2.iol.cz [194.228.2.87]) by vse.vse.cz (Postfix) with ESMTP id DB35713436 for ; Sat, 27 May 2006 11:46:19 +0200 (CEST)

3 Protokol HTTP, webové stránky a aplikace 3.1 Obecně Prakticky každá webová aplikace využívá protokol HTTP nebo HTTPS. Protokol HTTP je jednoduchý textový protokol. Specikace verze 1.1 je rozsáhlá (cca 170 stran textu) a proto náročná na aktivní zvládnutí. Verze 1.1 [4] podporuje celou řadu funkcí: přesměrování, podmíněné získávání a volbu jazykové varianty dokumentu, trvalé udržování spojení, proxy servery a virtuální www servery, atp. Pomocí hlaviček požadavku klienta a hlaviček odpovědi serveru lze v aplikacích dosáhnout zvláštních účinků. Hlavičky většina prohlížečů nezobrazuje, ale existují jejich programové doplňky, samostatné programy pro místní počítač a online služby. Ekvivalenty hlaviček HTTP mohou být navíc zapsány do META elementů v záhlaví html stránky. Právě znalost hlaviček a jejich používání je užitečná v některých problémových situacích. Začněme tím nejjednodušším příkladem. Uživatelé běžně zadávají v URL cestu k adresáři bez ukončujícího lomítka. Server upozorní klientský program stránkou obsahující správné umístění. V hlavičce Location je správná adresa. Liší se od zadané pouze koncovým lomítkem. Klient znovu naváže spojení a požadavek přesměruje na správné místo. Stejného výsledku dosáhneme využitím telnetu. HTTP Status Code: HTTP/1.1 301 Moved Permanently Date:.Wed, 28 Jun 2006 10:19:44 GMT Server: Apache Location: http://www.vse.cz/oeconomica/

Řádky s „date“, „server“ a „location“ jsou hlavičky odpovědi serveru. Jsou součástí protokolu, přenášejí se ke klientskému programu a běžně nejsou zobrazovány. Nyní víme, jakou reakci způsobilo vynechání konco vého lomítka na cestě k adresáři „oeconomica“.

3.2 Analýza on-line katalogu Univerzitní knihovny ve Washingtonu (UW) Uvedeme složitý příklad práce s knihovní aplikací, v níž kromě hlaviček protokolu HTTP hrají důležitou roli co okies a relace, znakové sady a jejich kódování.

3.2.1 Vyhledávání bez kódování UNICODE Získali jsme menu katalogu knihovny UW, využíváme port 80 se standardním kódováním. Bloky řádek vyjadřují HTTP hlavičku požadavku klienta a odpovědi serveru; jsou odděleny prázdnou řádkou. Prohlížeč FireFox (klient) preferuje češtinu, kódování ISO a UTF-8. Server oznamuje typ stránky „text/html“ (bez znakové sady), zakazuje uložení stránky a nastavuje cookie. Hlavičkou „Set-Cookie“ zahajuje relaci (session) mezi serverem a klientem. Klient udržuje relaci zasláním hlavičky „Cookie“ se shodným identikátorem relace a hodnotou. Stavové informace se předávají pomocí cookies. http://catalog.lib.washington.edu/search/ GET /search/ HTTP/1.1 Host: catalog.lib.washington.edu User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows; U; Win98; cs-CZ; rv:1.7.12) Gecko/20050919 Firefox/1.0.7 Accept: text/xml,application/xml,application/xhtml+xml,text/html;q=0.9,text/plain;q=0.8,im age/png,*/*;q=0.5 Accept-Language: cs,en;q=0.5 Accept-Encoding: gzip,deflate Accept-Charset: ISO-8859-2,utf-8;q=0.7,*;q=0.7 ... HTTP/1.0 200 OK Server: III 100 Pragma: no-cache, no-cache

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Expires: 0, -1 Date: Mon, 2 Feb 1987 04:06:56 GMT MIME-version: 1.0 Set-Cookie: SESSION_ID=1151312120.78712; path=/ Content-Type: text/html Cache-Control: no-cache

Vyhledáváme-li bez UNICODE slovo „capek“ v poli klíčová slova v celém katalogu, dostaneme přes 250 záznamů. V nich se budou objevovat česká písmena s diakritikou, až na pár výjimek, bez rozlišovacích znamének. URL dotazu: http://catalog.lib.washington.edu/search/Xcapek&searchscope=6&SORT=D/Xcapek&search scope=6&SORT=D&extended=0

Zadáme-li v základním vyhledávání bez UNICODE „Čapek“, nic není nalezeno a jsme přesměrováni na rozšířené vyhledávání. Při zadání stejného slova s diakritikou v rozšířeném vyhledávání obdržíme negativní od pověď.

3.2.3 Vyhledávání s kódováním UNICODE Zvolíme-li na základní stránce vyhledávání s „UNICODE…“, jsme přesměrováni na stránku s portem 1087; port 1087 znamená kódování v UNICODE. V jednoduchém formuláři zadáme řetězec „Čapek“ v poli „klíčová slova“ a ostatní pole neměníme. Písmeno „Č“ je v URL kódováno v UTF-8 jako C48C (hexadecimálně); vrácená html stránka má kódování stejné. Výsledek zahrnuje cca 250 záznamů a česká písmena s diakritikou se většinou správně zobrazují (až na datové chyby). http://catalog.lib.washington.edu:1087/search/?searchtype=X&searcharg=%C4%8Capek&s earchscope=6&SORT=D

Hlavičky požadavku a odpovědi: GET /search/?searchtype=X&searcharg=%C4%8Capek&searchscope=6&SORT=D HTTP/1.1 Host: catalog.lib.washington.edu:1087 User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows; U; Win98; cs-CZ; rv:1.7.12) Gecko/20050919 Firefox/1.0.7 Accept: text/xml,application/xml,application/xhtml+xml,text/html;q=0.9,text/plain;q=0.8, image/png,*/*;q=0.5 Accept-Language: cs,en;q=0.5 Accept-Encoding: gzip,deflate Accept-Charset: ISO-8859-2,utf-8;q=0.7,*;q=0.7 Keep-Alive: 300 Connection: keep-alive Referer: http://catalog.lib.washington.edu:1087/search/ Cookie: SESSION_ID=1151312120.78712 HTTP/1.0 200 OK Server: III 100 Pragma: no-cache Expires: 0 Date: Mon, 2 Feb 1987 04:06:24 GMT MIME-version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8

Co nám zobrazení hlaviček protokolu HTTP přineslo? Z požadavku klienta vyčteme, že zahájená relace trvá, neboť session_id má stejnou hodnotu. Server odpovídá kladně a předá stránku, oznámí kódování UTF-8 a vyžádá neukládání stránky. Vidíme, jak bylo zakódováno písmeno „Č“. Klient nyní ví, jakou kódovací tabul ku použít. V příkladu bez UNICODE se klient z hlavičky sice dozvěděl typ stránky, ale ne její kódování. Ze specikace HTTP protokolu plyne, že bez parametru „charset“ v „Content-Type“ se předpokládá kódování v ISO-8859-1.

3.2.4 Selhání vyhledávání bez kódování UNICODE V základním resp. rozšířeném vyhledávání bez UNICODE (viz výše) jsme nedostali žádnou odpověď na slovo „Čapek“ v poli „klíčové slovo“. Co se stalo a proč? Využijeme URL a výsek z požadavku klienta. http://catalog.lib.washington.edu/search/X?%28%u010Dapek%29&searchscope=6&SORT=D&D a=&Db= GET /search/X?%28%u010Dapek%29&searchscope=6&SORT=D&Da=&Db= HTTP/1.1

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Host: catalog.lib.washington.edu Referer:http://catalog.lib.washington.edu/search/?searchtype=X&searcharg=%26%23268 %3Bapek &searchscope=6&SORT=D Cookie: SESSION_ID=1151312120.78712

Ve formuláři byl skutečně zapsán řetězec „čapek“. Písmeno „č“ bylo převedeno na „u010D“ [5], a to (bez u) znamená v UNICODE „č“. V URL se speciální znak kóduje jako posloupnosti %xx, kde x je hexadecimální číslice. Knihovní server UW neumí %u0 přeložit, protože „u“ není hexadecimální číslice. Ze jména zbude jen ře tězec „10Dapek“, jemuž v knihovní databázi neodpovídají žádné klíče. Hlavička „Referer“ označuje stránku, z níž se přešlo na stránku aktuálního dotazu. Parametr „searcharg“ obsahuje kódovaný úsek, který můžeme zapsat jako „Č“. Znamená odkaz na znakovou html entitu, která na html stránce v rozšířeném kódu ISO-8859-1 znamená „Č“ [6]. Odpověď na otázku „proč k chybě došlo“ je obtížnější. Formulář bez UNICODE určitě není určen pro zápis písmen s diakritickým znaménkem „háček“ (angl. „caron“). Písmena s háčky se v kódování ISO-8859-1 nevyskytují. Diakritice se lze vyhnout: místo písmene s diakritikou stačí v dotazu zapsat podobné písmeno latinské abecedy bez diakritického znaménka. Záznamy najdeme, avšak odpovědi nebudou obsahovat, až na výjimky, diakritická písmena.

3.2.5 Porovnání online katalogu UW s katalogem NKC Vyhledávání v katalogu NKC (ALEPH 500) s online katalogy knihovny UW je dost podobné: formuláře jsou ob sluhovány skripty, kódování je v UTF-8, existují relace klient – server, atp. Jsou mezi nimi i rozdíly, a to jak ve funkcích, tak v jejich realizaci. Relace nejsou v ALEPH 500 udržovány pomocí cookies, ale vkládáním session identikátorů. Ty jsou součástí odkazů na vyhledané záznamy. Systém ALEPH zabezpečí automatické ukončení relace po delší nečin nosti klientského programu. Nerozlišují se vyhledávací formuláře pro vyhledávání s kódem UNICODE a bez něho. Kódování UTF-8 je sdělováno v HTTP hlavičkách a v záhlaví HTML stránky. Ještě zkusíme s UNICODE v porovnávaných katalozích vyhledat záznamy se slovem „Hotel“ s „o“ se stříškou a bez ní. Malé „o“ se stříškou patří do znakové sady Windows-1250; vložíme je jako Alt+0244. Oba sys témy provedou převod na C3B4 (hexa) a záznamy se vyhledají (sid symbolizuje dlouhý řetězec). V UW: http://catalog.lib.washington.edu:1087/search/XH%C3%B4tel&searchscope=6...

V NKC: http://sigma.nkp.cz/F/sid?func=find-&find_code=WRD&request=H%C3%B4tel...

Zadáme-li „o“ bez diakritiky, dostaneme v UW mnohem více záznamů než s „o“ se stříškou: malé „o“ se stříškou a bez něho nejsou pro vyhledávání ekvivalentní. Naproti tomu v NKC se vyhledá v obou případech stej ný počet záznamů, „o“ se stříškou a bez ní jsou pro vyhledávání ekvivalentní.

Seznam bibliograckých odkazů      

1. RFC 2821. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. Dostupné z WWW: . 2. RFC 2822. Internet Message Format. Dostupné z WWW: . 3. RFC 4408. Sender Policy Framework (SPF) for Authorizing Use of Domains in E-Mail, V. 1. Dostupné z WWW: . 4. RFC 2616. Hypertext Transfer Protocol – HTTP/1.1. Dostupné z WWW: . 5. The Unicode Standard, Version 4.1. Latin Extended-A. Range 0100-017F. Dostupné z WWW: . 6. Zvon Character Search. Dostupné z WWW: .

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Využívanie informácií v centrálnej banke 1

Zita Mušutová; 2Eva Mihalíková Národná banka Slovenska, Imricha Karvaša 1, 813 25 Bratislava 1 [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract Information use in the central bank In our paper we tried to characterize the central bank as an institution where the majority of working activities are based on the utilization and processing of specialized information, on creation of new knowledge, evaluation and analyses, and on providing creative cognitive performance. In the institution with such a high level of theoretical and intellectual work, it is necessary to ensure rst-rate and systematic supplying of the employees with information through the library and its infor mation databases and services. In the second part of our paper we focused both on the substantial activities of libraries of central banks in the world and of the National Bank of Slovakia’s Central Library.

Keywords library activities; central banks; internal communication; nancial literacy; economic databases

Úvod Menové vzťahy a peniaze majú v ekonomike špecické postavenie, sú jedným z najdôležitejších nástrojov, ktoré má štát k dispozícii na ovplyvňovanie ekonomiky. Mimoriadny význam týchto nástrojov si vyžaduje, aby ich za bezpečovala inštitúcia, ktorá preferuje celospoločenské záujmy pred záujmami individuálnymi či skupinovými. Takýmito inštitúciami sú v krajinách s vyspelými trhovými ekonomikami centrálne banky. Väčšina trhových ekonomík má dvojstupňový bankový systém a v tomto systéme je centrálne bankovníctvo oddelené od komerč ného, oba stupne sú však navzájom veľmi úzko prepojené. Postavanie centrálnej banky a jej úlohy sú v mnohých smeroch zásadne odlišné od postavenia a činnosti ostatných bank. Kým cieľom komerčných bánk je dosahovanie či maximalizácia zisku, hlavným cieľom centrálnej banky je cenová stabilita (menová stabilita), bezpečnosť, dô veryhodnosť a efektívnosť bankového systému ako celku. Centrálna banka je v zásade nezastupiteľná v troch ob lastiach: v menovej politike, regulácii bankového sektora, vo vydávaní bankoviek a mincí. Možno tiež špecikovať činnosti, ktoré centrálna banka väčšinou nerobí: neriadi priamo činnosť komerčných bank, neposkytuje úvery podnikateľskému sektoru a občanom. Hlavnou úlohou centrálnych bank je vytváranie prostredia s nízkou ináciou v ekonomike danej krajiny. Táto úloha sa v poslednom období nezmenila, zmenili sa len spôsoby jej za bezpečovania. Centrálne banky ako menové autority od začiatkov svojho vzniku väčšinou vystupovali ako sostikované, verejnosťou uznávané inštitúcie. Tak z hľadiska napĺňania svojich cieľov, ako aj zverených im funkcií boli a sú popri vláde danej krajiny najdôležitejším subjektom v krajine.

1 Knižnično-informačné pracoviská centrálnych bánk Centrálne banky v rámci svojich aktivít kladú dôležitý význam informačnej, komunikačnej a knižničnej činnosti. Knižnice ako informačné strediská sú samozrejmou súčasťou organizačných štruktúr centrálnych bánk a v mnohých krajinách je knižnica centrálnej banky verejnou knižnicou v postavení vedúcej národnej ekonomic kej knižnice. V ďalších prípadoch majú knižnice centrálnych bánk síce štatút špecializovaných interných knižníc, ale vždy s určitou mierou otvorenosti odbornej verejnosti. Organizačné začlenenie knižníc v rámci jednotlivých úsekov centrálnych bank je rôzne a vyplýva najmä z historického vývoja a tradície v jednotlivých centrálnych bankách. Vo väčšine prípadov je knižnica začlenená pod výskumné úseky alebo úseky komunikácie. Ale knižni ce sa v rámci organizačných štruktúr nachádzajú aj pod úsekmi ľudských zdrojov, úsekom vzdelávania, úsekom informatiky, či pod úsekom hospodárskych služieb. Priemerne v knižnici centrálnej banky pracuje 5 až 7 pracov níkov približne k celkovému počtu 700-1000 pracovníkov centrálnej banky. Centrálne banky sa v rámci svojich komunikačných aktivít v poslednom období otvárajú širokej verejnosti. Jednou z týchto aktivít je organizovanie a poskytovanie vzdelávacích programov ekonomickej, nančnej gramot nosti. Pri organizovaní ekonomického vzdelávania centrálne banky vychádzajú zo štúdie OECD z roku 2005, ktorá podčiarkuje význam nančného vzdelávania širokých vrstiev obyvateľov. Odporúča vládam alebo iným o ciálnym inštitúciám, aby svojim občanom vysvetľovali, že nančné vzdelávanie nie je určené len pre ekonomic kých odborníkov a investorov, ale pre každú rodinu, ktorá chce zaplatiť bývanie, vzdelanie pre deti a dôchodky pre rodičov. Ľudia v rozličných fázach života potrebujú rozdielne typy nančných produktov a tomu musia zod povedať aj vzdelávacie programy. Programy sa sústreďujú predovšetkým na základné otázky, ako sú sporenie, pô žičky, poistenie, dôchodkové zabezpečenie, investovanie. Programy nančného vzdelávania sú skutočne určené pre 143

masy, využívajú formy národnej kampane, špeciálne webstránky, bezplatné informačné služby a bezplatný prístup k špeciálnym elektronickým dokumentom a príručkám cez digitálne či virtuálne knižnice. Úroveň poskytovania vzdelávacích programov pre širokú verejnosť v centrálnych bankách je rôzna a mô žeme ju rozdeliť do štyroch úrovní: • Poskytovanie prednášok o činnosti centrálnej banky, o menovej politike na vyžiadanie – Prednášky väčši nou zabezpečujú odbory komunikácie, súčasťou tohto typu vzdelávania sú nančné hry, testy z ekonomickej a nančnej gramotnosti a pod. Túto formu vzdelávania využívajú najmä stredné školy. V rámci tohto typu vzdelávania knižnice centrálnych bank zabezpečujú exkurzie do knižnice a prednášky o informačných zdrojoch v oblasti menovej politiky a centrálneho bankovníctva. • Poskytovanie vzdelávacích aktivít cez múzeá mincí a medailí, ktoré sú vo väčšine prípadov organizačnou súčasťou centrálnych bánk – Múzeá ponúkajú prehliadky expozícií s výkladom, videoprojekcie, ale aj online učebne (learning centres) s množstvom počítačových hier (čo by si si mohol kúpiť za jednu marku pred sto rokmi) a kvízov týkajúcich sa vývoja peňazí, virtuálne prehliadky expozícií, vedomostné testy napr. na post guvernéra (Veľká Británia, Belgicko, Fínsko, Litva, Nemecko, Španielsko, Portugalsko, Ra kúsko, Austrália, Kanada). Knižnice v tomto prípade sú integrálnou súčasťou vzdelávacích aktivít a ponú kajú záujemcom možnosť ďalšieho štúdia a prehlbovania poznatkov z oblasti peňažníctva. • Návštevnícke centrá – visitor centers – Táto forma vhodne skĺbila do jedného centra všetky aktivity ban ky pre jednotlivé segmenty širokej verejnosti. Naviac na vysokej sostikovanej úrovni ponúkajú rôzne ekonomické vzdelávacie programy v maximálnej miere využívajúc počítačovú a multimediálnu techniku. Okrem toho sú návštevnícke centrá moderne a netradične riešené aj po architektonickej a dizajnovej stránke (Holandsko, Lotyšsko, Maďarsko). Súčasťou návštevníckych centier sú aj informačné služby knižnice centrálnej banky. • Programy ekonomického vzdelávania, nančného vzdelávania, nančnej gramotnosti – Centrálne banky Poľska, Japonska, Úrad pre nančný trh Veľkej Británie majú spracované rozsiahle programy ekonomic kého a nančného vzdelávania pre širokú verejnosť, pričom pri ich navrhovaní vychádzali z projektu a štúdie OECD o nančnej gramotnosti. Niektoré ďalšie centrálne banky aj keď nemajú samostatný prog ram nančnej gramotnosti, odkazujú na svojich webových stránkach na národné inštitúcie, ktoré v krajine zastrešujú túto problematiku a centrálne banky ich v tejto činnosti významne podporujú. Zo všetkých do stupných materiálov o programoch nančnej gramotnosti najviac rezonuje Program ekonomického vzdelávania v Národnej banke Poľska. NBP sa v Poľsku stala národnou inštitúciou, ktorá jednak poskytu je, nancuje ale aj koordinuje a podporuje ekonomické vzdelávanie širokej verejnosti na rôznych úrov niach. NBP pripravila samostatné vzdelávacie programy pre novinárov, médiá, základné školy, študentov stredných škôl, učiteľov, študentov univerzít, študentov bohosloveckých fakúlt, pripravila národnostný vedomostný test z ekonomických oblastí. Do ekonomického vzdelávania Národná banka Poľska zapojila 150 regionálnych knižníc, pripravila samostatný portál k ekonomickému vzdelávaniu, súčasťou ktorého je aj virtuálna knižnica.

1.1 Centrálna knižnica NBS Centrálna knižnica NBS vznikla v roku 2000 zlúčením dokumentačného strediska výskumného odboru a knižnice komunikačného odboru. Zlúčením sa dosiahla racionalizácia knižničných a dokumentačných činností v novej bu dove NBS v rovine obsahovej, technického a priestorového zabezpečenia ako i v personálnej oblasti. Banková rada NBS rozhodla, že zlúčená centrálna knižnica vzhľadom ku svojim činnostiam a významu v oblasti informačného zabezpečovania NBS bude mať päť zamestnancov a organizačne bude súčasťou komunikačného odboru. Centrálna knižnica obsahovo buduje a zabezpečuje pre riadiacich, výskumných, analytických a odbor ných zamestnancov NBS informačnú základňu publikácií, informácií a znalostí najmä z oblasti menovej politiky, emisnej politiky, peňažného obehu, platobného styku a nančného riadenia, bankových obchodov a riadenia rizika, bankového a nančného dohľadu, centrálneho bankovníctva, bankových systémov, ban kových činností, práva, makroekonómie, ekonómie a príbuzných oblastí. Okrem týchto hlavných oblastí za bezpečuje základnými informáciami aj ďalšie odborné činnosti v banke ako je informatika, bezpečnosť a ochrana, ľudské zdroje a podobne. Za desať rokov svojej činnosti vybudovala knižnica kvalitnú poznatkovú a dokumentačnú základňu ekonomických informácií zo zahraničnej a domácej proveniencie, doplnenú o dokumenty a materiály vlastnej in štitúcie a publikačnú činnosť a poznatky vlastných zamestnancov. Na základe informačných požiadaviek riadiacich a odborných zamestnancov NBS, knižnica je schopná im v krátkom časovom úseku poskytnúť relevantné informácie z ich úzko zameraných ekonomických tém z pohľadu riešenia danej problematiky v za hraničí, v slovenských podmienkach ako aj v podmienkach NBS. Väčšina pracovných náplní v NBS je založená na využívaní odborných informácií a na ich základe na vy tváraní nových poznatkov, hodnotení a metodík, na podávaní tvorivých kognitívnych výkonov. V inštitúcii s tak vysokou mierou teoretickej a intelektuálnej práce je potrebné kvalitné a systematické zabezpečovanie informá ciami prostredníctvom knižnice a jej informačných databáz a služieb. Základným poslaním knižnice je, okrem poskytovania odborných informácií, najmä šetrenie času riadiacich a tvorivých zamestnancov pri vyhľadávaní 144

informácií a aktívna informačná politika, ktorú knižnica realizuje najmä formou elektronického sprístupňovania dokumentov a informácií cez komunikačnú sieť NBS.

1.2 Komunikácia odborných informácií v NBS a centrálna knižnica Jednou z predností začlenenia knižnice do odboru komunikácie je najmä profesionálna príbuznosť s odborníkmi z masmediálnej komunikácie a edičných činností. Knižniční špecialisti tu nachádzajú zázemie i pochopenie pre účinnejšie presadzovanie informačných služieb a informačných výstupov cez rôzne formy internej a externej komunikácie, ktoré sú doménou tohto odboru. Knižnice majú možnosť spolupodieľať sa na informačnej a komu nikačnej politike banky a ľahšie implementovať do svojej činnosti nové komunikačné techniky a formy manažo vania informácií. V prostredí vnútornej komunikačnej siete Národnej banky Slovenska odbor komunikácie vy tvoril informačný portál spoločný pre tlačové, edičné a knižničné informácie. Portál pod názvom Informačný servis v prostredí Lotus Notes poskytuje pracovníkom NBS online prístup k aktuálnym článkom z oblasti ekonomickej politiky z domácej i zahraničnej tlače, výber správ z elektronických médií a spravodajských agen túr. V časti Knižnica portál ponúka zamestnancom NBS tieto služby: • Knižničný fond – elektronický prístup k publikáciám a periodikám knižnice • Databázy – zoznam a zároveň aj prístup k špecializovaným databázam • Centrálne banky – prístup k periodikám a výročným správam centrálnych bánk • Preklady – prístup k interným prekladom NBS • Publikačná činnosť NBS – prístup k elektronickým publikáciám NBS • Internetové zdroje z oblasti ekonómie – výber najčastejšie využívaných voľne prístupných zdrojov • Žiadosť o rešerš – elektronická žiadosť o rešerš alebo inú službu z knižnice. Centrálna knižnica okrem klasických foriem zabezpečovania a sprístupňovania informácií, medzi ktoré môžeme zaradiť výpožičky, cirkulačnú výpožičnú službu periodík, konzultácie a školenia z knižničných a in formačných služieb, zabezpečuje pre odborné útvary NBS špecializované databázy a elektronické služby. Od borné útvary využívajú špecializované databázy pri riešení nosných úloh Národnej banky Slovenska v štvrť ročných predikciách makroekonomických ukazovateľov, pri makroekonomickom modelovaní, pri správach o nančnej stabilite, pri poskytovaní štatistických a analytických správach pre Európsku centrálnu banku, pri príprave dohliadok v komerčných bankách, pri kontrole dodržiavania medzinárodných účtovných štandardov, ale tiež pri riešení jednorázových aktuálnych úloh. Z celkového počtu približne tridsiatich databáz a elektro nických služieb sme vybrali štyri, ktoré pôvodne vznikli z klasických tlačených dokumentov a vyvinuli sa na vysoko špecializované databázy. BANKERSalmanac.com Online databáza obsahuje najnovšie informácie o bankách a medzinárodných nančných inštitúciách z celého sveta, ich nančné informácie za posledných 5 rokov, údaje pre medzinárodný platobný styk, informá cie o fúziách a akviziciách bánk, personálne kontaktné údaje ako aj množstvo ďalších informácií o bankových i nebankových inštitúciách z 200 krajín, o korešpondenčných bankách, domácich a zahraničných pobočkách. Súčasťou databázy sú tiež informácie o zmene názvov a likvidáciách bánk. Pôvodne databáza vznikla z tlačenej formy medzinárodného adresára bánk, ktorý vychádzal 2x do roka, neskôr vychádzal na CD nosičoch v mesač nej a štvrťročnej aktualizácii až sa pretransformoval na online databázu s dennou aktualizácou. Databázu využí va úsek bankového dohľadu pri kontrole a overovaní údajov o subjektoch, ktoré chcú pôsobiť na slovenskom bankovom trhu, obchodno-devízový úsek pri vysporiadaní bankových obchodov, overovaní údajov pri platbách do zahraničia, vyhľadávaní podľa SWIFT a BIC kódov, odbor sekretariátu guvernéra pri overovaní personálnych a kontaktných údajov a centrálna knižnica pri rešeršnej činnosti. COBIT Online – Control Objectives for Information and Related Technology Podobne ako BANKERSalmanac sa databáza vyvinula z tlačených manuálov určených pre špecialistov z interného auditu, ktoré vydávala ISACA – Information Systems Audit and Control Association. Okrem návo dov, postupov a programov pre auditorov, ponúka databáza ďalšie pridané hodnoty vo forme možností vyhľadá vania informácií podľa približne 60 hľadísk, využitia interaktívneho benchmarkingu, teda porovnania a násled ného vyhodnotenia jednotlivých informačných procesov v organizácii, ďalej ponúka školenia, semináre a certikované skúšky pre interných auditorov. V NBS databázu využíva najmä odbor interného auditu, ale aj odbor in formatiky a centrálna knižnica pri spracovávaní špeciálnych rešerší ako i pri online objednávaní literatúry a štan dardov z oblasti kontroly a auditu. IASB Comprehensive Subscription V súvislosti so slobodným pohybom kapitálu, tovarov a služieb sa vytvoril oveľa väčší tlak na transparen tnosť a štandardizáciu účtovníctva v medzinárodnom meradle. Od roku 2005 musia všetky spoločnosti obchodo vané na burzách cenných papierov v Európskej únii predkladať konsolidované nančné výkazy v súlade z Medzinárodnými štandardami pre nančné výkazníctvo – IFRS. Táto povinnosť sa týka všetkých slovenských spoločností a teda i bánk a nančných inštitúcií. Štandardy vydáva International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) a pre odbory NBS sme najskôr zabezpečovali ich tlačenú verziu, ktorá vychádzala raz do roka. Pretože 145

štandardy sú často aktualizované a dopĺňané, zabezpečili sme pre špecialistov v NBS ich sprístupnenie na CDROM so štvrťročnou aktualizáciou. So vstupom medzinárodných štandardov do platnosti i v SR a zároveň s požiadavkou a potrebou NBS vstupovať do tvorby medzinárodných štandardov ešte pred prijatím ich záväznej podoby, knižnica zabezpečila online prístup, ktorý umožňuje NBS vyjadrovať sa k návrhom štandardov. Databá zu aktívne využívajú pracovníci dohľadu nad bankovníctvom a obchodníkmi s cennými papiermi, odboru meto diky riadenia rizík, odbor dohliadací, pracovníci nančného riadenia a platobného styku ako aj dohľadu nad kapitálovým trhom, poisťovníctvom a dôchodkovým sporením. CentralBankNews.com Databáza vznikla vo vydavateľstve Central Banking Publications a opäť sme mali najskôr skúsenosti s tlačenými publikáciami tohto renomovaného vydavateľstva. V roku 2000 vydavateľstvo najskôr ponúkalo den né spravodajstvo z oblasti centrálnych bánk a centrálneho bankovníctva bez možnosti vyhľadávania informácií. V súčasnosti už poskytuje štandardné vyhľadávacie techniky a poskytuje: • News – denné spravodajstvo o dianí v centrálnych bankách • Reports – sumárne správy a informácie o udalostiach v centrálnych bankách • Comments – nezávislé komentáre tímu CentralBankNews a linky na významné články k aktuálnym témam • Speeches – prednášky popredných predstaviteľov centrálnych bánk • People – personálne zmeny a novinky na významných postoch v centrálnych bankách • Topics – nové publikácie, články z problematiky centrálneho bankovníctva. Súčasťou databázy je denné zasielanie spravodajstva na emaily vybraných používateľov. Databáza má v NBS široké spektrum využitia vrátane knižnice. Okrem uvedených špecializovaných databáz centrálna knižnica NBS zabezpečuje pre informačné potreby úsekov NBS rad ďalších databáz, ktoré jednak využívajú zamestnanci NBS samostatne a jednak ich využíva cen trálna knižnica pri spracovávaní rešerší, konzultácií a špecických dotazov zo všetkých oblastí činnosti Národnej banky Slovenska. Pre ilustráciu uvádzame v prílohe 1 prehľad vybraných tém, ku ktorým knižnica na požiadanie spracovala rešerše a informačné výstupy.

2 Záver Cieľom nášho príspevku bolo charakterizovať centrálnu banku z hľadiska využívania odborných informácií pro stredníctvom knižnice a prezentovať rôznorodosť úloh, ktoré knižnice centrálnych bánk plnia v podmienkach in formačnej spoločnosti.

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Národná banka Slovenska : Desať rokov Národnej banky Slovenska 1993-2003. (Publikácia o základných funkciách.). Bratislava, Národná banka Slovenska 2003. 41 s. REVENDA, Zbyněk: Centrální bankovnictví. 2. rozšír.vyd. Praha, Management Press 2001. 782 s. POLAK, Marcin: Economic Education Programs of the National Bank of Poland. Prednáška v Národnej banke Slovenska, máj 2006. www.nbportal.pl MIHALÍKOVÁ, Eva: Nové formy získavania informácií v Národnej banke Slovenska. Interný materiál. Bratislava, Národná banka Slovenska 2006. 5 s. MUŠUTOVÁ, Zita: Centrálna knižnica NBS. Analýza súčasného stavu. Interný materiál. Bratislava, Národná banka Slovenska 2005. 11 s.

Príloha 1 – Produkt: rešerše Menový úsek – prehľad vybraných tém Ázijská nančná kríza Rozširovanie eurozóny Výmenné kurzy ázijských krajín Riadenie úverového rizika Ceny priemyselných výrobcov Ekonomické modelovanie Malé a stredné podnikanie Keynesiánska, neokeynesiánska teória Nezamestnanosť v SR Menová politika – komunikácia Občiansky zákonník Zákon o rodine – novely Kalmanov lter Makroekonomické prognózovanie Policy mix Reálne mzdy v EÚ Sociálno-ekonomický rozvoj SR Poľnohospodárstvo SR – vývoj Burzové indexy Medzibankové obchody Teória bohatstva Teória spotreby CCAPM – spotrebný model oceňovania Pracovné sily Fiškálna politika – menová politika Krajiny EÚ – ekonomické prognózy Menové výbory – rozhodovanie Výmenné kurzy – dlhodobé predikcie Daňová reforma v SR Zamestnanosť – krajiny OECD Trh nehnuteľností Pracovné sily – modely Fiškálna politika a inácia Fiškálny okruh Zahraničný platobný styk Optimálna menová politika Ceny ropy Spotrebiteľské ceny – harmonizovaný index

Pracovné trhy – krajiny EÚ12 ERM 2 Klein-Goldberger model Nebankové nančné inštitúcie v SR Výmenné kurzy – modelovanie Nehnuteľnosti – prenájom Medzinárodné podnikanie Slovenská republika – ekonomické vízie Bankové účtovníctvo Vlastníctvo bytov – právo, legislatíva Bytová politika Opčné obchody Time Series Models Stochastické modely Nezamestnanosť v EÚ Chudoba Slovenské stavebníctvo- vývoj Zelená kniha SR Stavebné podniky – nančné ukazovatele Priemysel SR – vývoj Nástroje nančného trhu Centrálne banky – transparentnosť Obyvateľstvo SR – prognóza vývoja Environmentálne riziká Reálne výmenné kurzy Výmenné kurzy – prognózovanie Finančný trh Úrokové sadzby krajín eurozóny Ekonometrické metódy Finančná analýza Fiškálne ukazovatele – prognózovanie Fiškálna politika a ekonomický rast Fiškálna konsolidácia Retailové bankovníctvo Menová politika – transmisný kanál Produkčná medzera Regulované ceny Cenové deátory

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Príloha 2 – Produkt: rešerše Úsek bankového dohľadu – prehľad vybraných tém Hospodárske cykly Transformácia bankového sektora Ekonomická pozícia bankového sektora v SR Strategický marketing Corporate governance bánk Manažment bánk Poisťovníctvo – kapitálová primeranosť Poisťovníctvo – kapitálová primeranosť Internetové zdroje o rmách v EÚ Privatizácia v SR Slovenské indexy kapitálového trhu Obchody s cennými papiermi Úrokové sadzby – časová štruktúra Matematické modely Riadenie rizika Finančné inžinierstvo Účtová osnova pre banky Stress Testing Domácnosti SR – príjmy a výdavky Úverové riziko – modelovanie Operačné riziko Audit sampling Poistné trhy v ČR Riadenie úverového rizika Veriteľ poslednej inštancie Poistenie vkladov Riadenie likvidity Modely merania rizika Finančné deriváty Dôchodková reforma a bankový sektor Komoditné deriváty Zdaňovanie príjmov Bankové produkty Medzinárodné štandardy účtov. výkazníctva ISO normy v štatistike Strategické plánovanie Cenné papiere – právo, legislatíva Firmy SR v likvidácii a v konkurze Terorizmus – nancovanie Príjmy z trestnej činnosti – legalizácia Účtovná závierka – položky Riadenie nančného rizika Simulácie Monte Carlo Bankové služby – poplatky Burzové poplatky Bankoví klienti Lamfalussy proces Úverový rating Účtovanie derivátov Modelovanie úverového rizika Neparametrická regresia Finančná analýza podnikov Štatistické metódy Interpolačné metódy RADOC – Risk Adjusted Return on capital Kontrola kvality Fúzie a akvizície Riziko zlyhania Obozretný bankový dohľad Centrálne banky – riadenie rizika Bankový dohľad – komunikačná stratégia ESCB Európske bankové smernice – implementácia Korporácie Maximum likelihood method Generalized method of moments Extreme value theory metóda ABC – Activity Based Costing Kalkulácia nákladov Projektové nancovanie Družstevné bankovníctvo ERM2 Basel II a medzinárodné štandardy Poisťovníctvo – štatistické modely Povoľovacia činnosť Terorizmus – organizovaný zločin

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Data mining v knihovní a informační vědě Beáta Sedláčková Slezská univerzita Opava, Filozocko-přírodovědecká fakulta, Ústav informatiky, Bezručovo nám. 13, 746 01 Opava [email protected]

Abstrakt Data mining in library and information science Over the past few years data mining has moved from corporations to other organizations and institutions. Many researchers consider data mining a way from the data to the knowledge. It seems that it is one of the most perspective activities in the future. The article deals with data mining as a new tool of information processing and lists some myths and misconceptions about data mining and corrects them. The denitions and methodology of data mining are mentioned. Data mining relies on four essential methods: classication, categorization, estimation and visualization and is, for example, a powerful tool for bibliomining. Through data mining we could understand information needs and information behaviour and to predict library services. In an educational setting data mining offers a comprehensive characteristics analysis of students, the likelihood of a variety of outcomes, such as transferability, persistence, retention and course success.

Keywords data-mining; bibliomining; libray and information science

Úvod Pojem data-mining různí autoři denují různě. Jednou z nejjednodušších a nejkratších může být denice: datamining je hledání hodnotných informací ve velkých objemech dat. O něco složitěji zní denice: data mining je netriviální proces zjišťování platných, neznámých, potenciálně užitečných a snadno pochopitelných závislostí v datech (Vítek, 2002). Přestože vystihuje nosnou myšlenku pojmu data mining, tak člověk neznalý problemati ky si pravděpodobně jen stěží dokáže představit, co se během této činnosti děje, popřípadě proč vlastně tato nová vědní disciplína vznikla, když při tom statistika dělá to samé. Význam českého slova „dolování“ řada lidí vnímá jinak, než odpovídá anglickému originálu mining. Vhodnější je možná termín „vytěžování“ než dolování, jelikož podstatnou částí procesu data miningu je datové modelování. Jde více o to „dolovat z dat“ než o „dolování dat“. Z praktického hlediska lze říct, že data mining je obecná metodologie, která se používá k řešení různých problémů, k redukci neurčitosti predikcí neznámého, a to odhalováním efektů, nepříznivých jevů, závad, sledo váním proudu dat, monitorováním procesu s predikcí vývoje, selhání procesu, či jiných jevů, odhadem budoucí ho chování individuálních případů, odhalením neurčitých cílů apod. Jedná se o systematickou činnost, o metodu průzkumu v datech, která umožňuje dělat věci lépe. Data mining umožňuje získat vhled do věcného problému, tento vhled je užitečný už samotný, ale také přináší další výhody jako například schopnost předvídaní. Příspěvek zmiňuje některé mýty a nesprávné představy o data miningu a jak tyto představy a přístupy vedou uživatele metody data miningu k určitým nesprávným závěrům a rizikům. Další část příspěvku je věnovaná možnostem aplikace této metody v oblasti knihovní a informační vědy.

1 Mýty a mylné představy o data miningu Existuje mnoho mýtů a mylných představ o data miningu a setrvání v těchto mylných představách vede uživatele této metody k určitým rizikům (Khabaza, 2002). Příspěvek se zaměřuje na ty nejrozšířenější, které zcela zásad ním způsobem vedou k nepochopení podstaty data miningu. První mýtus zní: data mining je celý o algoritmech. Běžný zájemce o tuto činnost navštěvující běžné data miningové konference, který čte příspěvky z těchto konferencí nebo dokonce čte jenom stránku s obsahem těch to příspěvků, by mohl nabít dojmu, že data mining jsou pokročilé algoritmy analýzy dat. Tato mylná představa se dá shrnout slovy – všechno, co potřebuješ pro data mining je dobrý algoritmus, čím lepší algoritmus, tím lepší data mining. A závěr, který z toho vyplývá je, že pokročilost v umění data miningu znamená pokročilou znalost algoritmů. Přijetí tohoto přístupu znamená nepochopení data miningové činnosti kompletně, protože jak už bylo zmiňováno, data mining je soubor přístupů, postupů a prostředků k transformaci datových zdrojů na informaci, znalost a její přeměnu v akční znalost a akci, a to modelováním datových vztahů a odkrytím latentních datových struktur. Setrvání v této mylné představě má v extrémní formě za následky to, že se objevují velmi omezené, pří liš akademické projekty, které postrádají v praxi využitelné výsledky. V jakémkoli projektu, kde je požadavek pro praktické využití výsledků, data miner, který se drží této mylné představy, je časem přinucený toto stanovis ko alespoň částečně opustit a postavit se vstřícně k širšímu pohledu na data miningový proces. Samozřejmě, al goritmus hraje klíčovou roli a nový nebo vylepšený algoritmus je způsob, kterým se umění data miningu rozvíjí. 149

Problém nastává, když se zaměříme hlavně nebo výhradně na algoritmus a ignorujeme dalších 90-95% data miningového procesu. Druhý mýtus zní: data mining je celý o predikční analýze. Pokud odmítneme představu, že data mining je celý o modelování algoritmů, jak ale v určité části data miningového procesu můžeme posoudit kvalitu algorit mu. Přečtení odborné literatury věnované data miningu nás může vést k předpokladu, že hlavní kritérium pro vy hodnocení algoritmu vytváří predikční analýza. Tento pohled zcela chybně prezentuje úlohu algoritmu v data miningu. Je pravdou, že k tomu, aby byl užitečný a použitelný prediktivní model je potřeba určitý stupeň přes nosti, protože ta vyjadřuje, jestli algoritmus nebo model skutečně odkrývá vztahy v datech. Ovšem uvážíme-li jiné vlastnosti než prediktivní analýzu, které data miningové zpracování požaduje od algoritmu, pravděpodobně se nám objeví důsledek tohoto mylného přístupu a to, že se vyprodukují algoritmy které mohou používat jenom IT experti. Takové algoritmy sehrávají pouze limitovanou úlohu v procesu věcného zpracování problému. Třetí mýtus zní: data mining vyžaduje datový sklad. Jedná se o rozšířenou představu v mnoha organiza cích, že nejsou připraveni pro data mining, protože nemají datový sklad, z čehož vyplývá, že datový sklad je nez bytný předpokladem pro data mining. Názor vychází z mylné představy o vztahu mezi datovým skladem a data miningem. Pravdou je, že je výhodou pro data mining, když je k dispozici dobře organizovaný, relativně čistý datový sklad s lehkým přístupem. Tyto výhody vzrůstají pokud byl datový sklad vybudovaný s myšlenku na data mining a se znalostmi požadavků předpokládanými pro data mining. Pokud tomu tak není, datový sklad může být méně využitelný pro data mining ve srovnání se zdrojem provozních dat nebo v nejhorším případě může být zcela nepoužitelný, například v případě, že jsou v něm jenom sumarizační údaje. Vyhnout se tomuto riziku znamená udělat pilotní data miningové projekty využívající provozní data, aby se stanovil nejvhodnější obsah a organizace datového skladu. Je mylné tvrzení, že data mining vyžaduje datový sklad, nabízí se mnohem přes nější vyjádření vztahu – pro data mining je výhodou datový sklad, ale vybudování takového datového skladu často vyžaduje data mining. Čtvrtý mýtus zní: data mining je celý o kvantitě dat. Rozsáhlost datových zdrojů zajistí vhodný základ data miningu, ale zároveň jemně zkresluje jeho podstatu. Data mining se stává prospěšným, když data jsou příliš rozsáhlé nebo příliš složité pro analýzu „odhadem“, co je cokoliv větší než několik desítek příkladů a pár stovek charakteristik. Mnoho užitečných data miningových projektů je zpracovaných z malých nebo středně rozsáhlých datových sad, které obsahují například jenom stovky a tisícky záznamů. Asociaci data miningu s rozsáhlými datovými soubory vyvolává také důraz na výkon a skalabilitu data miningových nástrojů. Toto úsilí rozšířit do sah data miningových nástrojů na velké datové soubory je zcela pochopitelné, protože existuje mnoho velkých datových souborů, ze kterých je výhodné vytěžovat. Ovšem bylo by mylné si myslet, že tyto velké datové soubory jsou výhradním cílem data miningu. Setrvávání v této chybné domněnce by mohlo vést k vytváření ná strojů, které se vzdávají využitelnosti v prospěch skalability, zatímco ve skutečnosti oba aspekty jsou nezbytné. Či už jsou datové soubory velké nebo malé, důležitá je optimalizace časových možností a k tomu jsou nápomoc né jak skalablita, tak i využitelnost. Pátý mýtus zní: data mining by měl dělat IT expert. Data miningová technologie, zejména techniky modelování, nepatří k rozšířeným a známým v IT komunitě. Mohlo by se nabízet tvrzení, že to znamená, že mohou být používány jenom experty na informační technologie, kteří rozumí jejich činnosti. Ve skutečnosti opak je pravdou, protože rozhodující v data miningu je znalost problematiky. Když je prováděn bez znalosti prob lematiky, data mining obvykle produkuje nesmyslné nebo nepoužitelné výsledky. Proto je nezbytné, aby data mining prováděl někdo s rozsáhlými znalostmi problematiky, co se ovšem velmi zřídka kombinuje se znalostmi technologie. Je povinností poskytovatelů data miningových nástrojů zajistit, aby byly přijatelné a srozumitelné více pro odborníky než experty na technologie. Je na místě, aby data miningové společnosti objasnily potenciál ním uživatelům, že data mining poskytuje spíše vhled a prospěšná řešení než matematickou jistotu. Šestý mýtus zní: neuronové sítě jsou neprůhledné a tudíž nepoužitelné – příliš zjednodušující pohled na data mining. Tento mýtus je poměrně specická mylná představa o jedné skupině modelovacích technik (těmi jsou neuronové sítě), která vznikla z obecného nepochopení data miningového procesu. Tento mylný přístup po važuje data mining za poněkud jednoduchý proces – vzít data, aplikovat modelovací techniku a použít výsledky. Tento návod opomíjí opakovaný charakter data miningového procesu a způsobu jakým jsou mnohé techniky po užívané dohromady pro dosažení výsledku. Neuronové sítě jsou používány různými způsoby v data miningovém projektu, jedná se o využití, které není ovlivněno neprůhlednosti modelů. Data miningové příslušenství vytváří „sadu nástrojů“, které se používají různými a často překvapivými způsoby pro vyřešení problému.

2 Metodologie a techniky data miningu Data miningový projekt je proces, který vyžaduje značné množství zdrojů, od lidských, přes hmotné a datové až po softwarové, co vyžaduje značné peněžní prostředky. Jedním ze způsobů, jak šetřit nanční prostředky, je provádět projekty standardizovaným způsobem. Takové řešení nabízí souhrnná data miningová metodologie CRISP-DM (Cross Industry Standard Process for Data Mining), která obsahuje návody krok po kroku, úkoly a cíle pro každou část celého procesu a tím umožňuje provádět rozsáhlé data miningové projekty rychleji, efek tivněji s menšími náklady prostřednictvím osvědčených postupů, co umožňuje vyhnout se běžným chybám 150

(Clementine, 2006). Vývoj metodologie CRISP-DM byl zahájen jako projekt Evropské komise denující model standardního postupu při vytváření data miningových projektů. Tato metodologie je majetkem partnerů CRISPDM konsorcia: NCR Systems Engineering Copenhagen (Dánsko, USA) DaimlerChrysler AG (Německo), SPSS Inc. (USA) a OHRA Verzekeringen en Bank Groep B.V. (Holandsko).

Obr. 1. Metodologie CRISP-DM umožňuje efektivní implementaci data miningových projektů

Metodologie CRISP-DM rozděluje celý proces data miningového projektu do šesti základních etap, v rámci nichž rozlišuje další kroky. Těmito etapami jsou: • Denování cílů • Porozumění datům • Příprava dat • Modelování • Hodnocení výsledků • Implementace vytvořeného modelu Vstupní etapa je zaměřená na denování cílů projektu a požadavků, poté na převedení znalostí na denici data mining problému a předběžné navržení plánu, jak dosáhnout cíl. Při denování cíle je rovněž zapotřebí denovat kritéria pro hodnocení úspěšnosti nebo užitečnosti výstupu projektu. Tato kritéria mohou mít dvě odlišné formy, mohou být objektivně měřitelná nebo subjektivně vnímatelná. Před započetím projektu by měly být známy všechny vstupy, které budou nutné či dostupné. Tyto vstupy zahrnují jak časové, nanční a hmotné pros tředky, tak i lidské a datové zdroje. Důležitým dokumentem, který se v této etapě vypracovává, je analýza pří nosů a nákladů. Nutnou součástí je také sestavení plánu projektu, ve kterém je popsán způsob dosažení data mining cílů, to znamená, že je nutné stanovit kroky, které musí být vykonány společně s jejich trváním, požado vanými zdroji, vstupy, výstupy a závislostmi. Projektový plán obsahuje detailní plán pro každou fázi a je dy namický, což znamená, že na konci každé fáze je kontrolován a aktualizován. V druhé etapě získáváme data nebo přístup k datům, která jsou uvedená ve zdrojích. Tento výchozí sběr za hrnuje případně i nahrání dat, pokud je to nutné pro jejich pochopení. Všechny tyto operace by měly být popsány společně s metodami užitými k získání dat. Zaznamenány by rovněž měli být i problémy vzniklé během tohoto procesu a způsoby řešení pro případné použití v budoucnosti. Popsáním charakteristik dat by měla být zodpovězená otázka, zda-li data uspokojují podstatné požadavky. Provádí se zběžný průzkum dat, analýza se zaměřuje na data miningové otázky, které mají být zodpovězeny použitím dotazů, vizualizací a reporty. Analýzy se mohou zaměřit přímo na cíl data miningového projektu a posloužit pro formulaci hypotéz, nebo pouze přispívat k popisu dat. Příprava dat je obvykle jednou z nejnáročnějších, neboť data bývají často v různých formátech, v různých tabulkách, chybí v nich požadované hodnoty atd. Kritériem pro rozhodnutí, která data budou použitá pro analýzu jsou: souvislost s cíli data miningu, kvalita a technické podmínky. V procesu výběru je nutné vybírat jak atributy (sloupečky), tak i záznamy (řádky) v tabulce. Někdy vybraný nástroj nebo analytická technika vyžaduje, aby data měla určitou kvalitu a tak je zapotřebí vyčistit data, což může znamenat např. vložení standardních hodnot nebo náročnější techniky (určení chybějících dat modelováním). Většina organizací obvykle neshromažďuje data s myšlenkou, že bude s nimi následně proveden tento typ analýz, a tak informace potřebné pro analýzu mohou být uložený v několika tabulkách. S tímto způsobem uložení však nedokáže většina data mining nástrojů praco vat, a tak je zapotřebí sloučit data z několika tabulek do jediné. Sloučením se rozumí spojení dvou či více tabu lek, které obsahují rozdílné informace o stejném objektu. Sloučená data mohou rovněž zahrnovat agregace. Ag regací se mají na mysli operace, kde se nová hodnota počítá sumarizací informací z několika záznamů a/anebo tabulek. Posledním krokem v přípravě dat je jejich naformátování. Formátovací transakce se týkají v prvé řadě 151

syntaktických změn prováděných na datech, které nemění jejich význam. Některé nástroje mají požadavky na pořadí atributů, může být nutná i změna pořadí záznamů v datové sadě. Před vlastním sestavením modelu potřebujeme vytvořit postup nebo mechanismus, který bude testovat kvalitu a správnost modelu, proto metodologie CRISP v úvodním kroku etapy modelování doporučuje vybrat konkrétní algoritmus či algoritmy, kterých bude použito pro analýzu. Obvykle rozdělujeme datovou sadu na učící a testovou. Model je vytvářen na učící datové sadě a jeho kvalita je určována na testové sadě dat. V průběhu samotného modelování je vytvářen jeden nebo více modelů. V používaných nástrojích bývá často množství parametrů, které mohou být různě měněny, a proto je nutné vždy důkladně zaznamenat všechny na stavené hodnoty. Dle CRISP bychom měli zaznamenat rovněž zdůvodnění, proč jsme vybrali zrovna tuto kombi naci nastavení. Zapisováni všech nastavení, SQL dotazů apod. usnadňuje orientaci v datech nebo zabraňuje opa kování některých operací. Nezbytnou součástí této etapy je ocenění modelů podle hledisek, kterými jsou v prvé řadě kritéria pro přesnost denovaná v první fázi. Ve fázi hodnocení výsledků sledujeme úroveň s jakou model dosahuje cílů a snažíme se určit, zda-li je přítomen nějaký důvod, proč je tento model nedostatečný. Model je možné ohodnotit způsobem, že jej použi jeme na reálné situace a sledujeme jeho kvalitu. Pokud je model označený jako schopný, následuje důkladná revize celé data miningové úlohy, která rovněž zahrnuje ujištění o správném sestavení modelu, o použití atributů, které budou dostupné i pro budoucí analýzy. S ohledem na výsledky hodnocení a revizi procesu se rozhodne, jak pokračovat dále, jestli ukončit projekt a přesunout do fáze implementace, zda zahájit opakování některých fází nebo začít zcela nový data miningový proces. V poslední fázi nasazujeme data miningové modely do příslušné činnosti. Během zavádění modelů vytvá říme plány pro kontrolu a údržbu. Jejich význam roste, pokud se výsledky data miningových analýz mají stát součástí každodenních aktivit organizace. Závěrečná zpráva z projektu může mít podobu buďto stručného shrnutí nebo může jít o závěrečné a vyčerpávající prezentování všech výsledků, jichž bylo dosaženo během celého procesu. Závěrečným vypracovávaným dokumentem, který CRISP uvádí, je revize projektu. Pracovníci mají zhodnotit, co šlo dobře a co špatně, co bylo uděláno dobře a co je potřeba zlepšit. Shrnují důležité zkušenosti zís kané během projektu, upozorňují na nebezpečná místa v analýze, na zavádějící přístupy nebo ukazatele pro vý běr nejvhodnějších data miningových technik. Zvláštní pozornost si zaslouží techniky využívající vizualizaci pro data mining, které dovolují provádět pozorování bez předešlé představy. To znamená, že nemusíme vědět, co hledáme, místo toho necháváme data, aby nám ukázala, co je v nich důležitého a zajímavého. Během vizualizační techniky můžeme rychle vidět zají mavou strukturu a různé datové závislosti. Tyto techniky umožňují získat mnohem lepší pochopení dat, než jaké ho by bylo dosaženo uplatněním výpočetního způsobu analýzy, protože tato vrací na svém konci pouze číselné hodnoty a ty jsou mnohdy těžko interpretovatelné. Právě použití vizualizační techniky umožňuje objevení zají mavého vzoru nebo trendu, který by jinak zůstal nepovšimnut. Výhodou grackého zobrazení je také objem dat, který můžeme najednou zpracovat ve srovnání s tradičním způsobem. Vizualizaci můžeme rovněž použít pro „what-if“ analýzu a zkoumat, jak měněné parametry ovlivňují model. Výhody vizualizace tkví v kognitivní schopnosti mozku. Zatímco při tradiční analýze jsou vyšší nároky kladeny na pozornost a paměť analytika, při vizualizaci se využívají poznávací schopnosti. Mozek je schopný během několika milisekund rozeznat v obrázku či grafu důležité znaky, zatímco ve sloupci čísel by mu to trvalo mnohem déle, protože by každou jednotlivou položku musel zpracovávat samostatně.

3 Datový sklad v knihovnách a bibliomining Zatímco v ČR je prozatím trendem využívat data miningové projekty v oblasti marketingu v souvislosti s ob chodními cíli, v zahraničních odborných časopisech se objevují první zmínky a případové studie o aplikaci data miningu v našem oboru, např. Nicholson (2006) zvažuje smysl a účel datového skladu v knihovnách, denuje pojem bibliomining, který chápe jako kombinaci bibliometrie a data miningových technik pro výzkum a porozu mění optimálního fungování knihoven a jejich služeb a nastiňuje koncepci bibliominingu. Tak jako jiné instituce a organizace bankovním sektorem počínaje, i knihovna si buduje svoji vlastní provozní databázi, která podchycuje veškeré knihovní aktivity, co způsobuje v současnosti, kdy je celospolečen ským trendem vyspělé části světa úsilí o ochranu osobních údajů ze všech provozních databází, které existují v různých organizacích a institucích a představují institucionální paměť, určitý problém. A stejně tak jako ostatní instituce i knihovny musí hledat rovnováhu mezi ochranou soukromí svých čte nářů na jedné straně a zachováním historie knihovních transakcí, které jsou důležité pro zmapování a vyhod nocení činnosti knihovny a zdůvodnění jednotlivých informačních služeb. Prozatím mnoho knihovníků neuvažu je o tom, že takové data mohou být velmi užitečná pro potřebu rozhodování. Tradiční vyhodnocování celkové činnosti a služeb knihovny je zaměřeno na obecné shrnutí a průměry s předpokladem, že jednou tyto souhrny bu dou zpracovány do souboru, a že zásadní provozní data mohou být vymazány. Ovšem odlišné skupiny uživatelů vykazují různé vzory chování, která jsou zcela ukrytá v souhrnných měřeních, co může být rizikem pro úplné porozumění a využití provozu knihoven. V současném tržně orientovaném prostředí knihovníci na řídící a rozho dující úrovni musí rozumět více tomu jak jejich služby a zdroje jsou využívány, aby mohli úspěšně konkurovat 152

dalším poskytovatelům informačních služeb. Navíc, tyto nástroje dovolí odpovědným pracovníkům knihoven mít k dispozici rozsáhle údaje pro zdůvodnění a získání nančních prostředků. Nic z toho ale není možné, pokud knihovny nebudou uchovávat veškeré provozní data, která tvoří její paměť. Nabízí se zde možnost, která dovolu je knihovníkům uchovávat informace důležité pro tvorbu rozhodnutí a zároveň je v souladu se zákonem o ochraně osobních údajů a touto možností je datový sklad. Provozní údaje jsou nechvalně známé jako špinavé a nevhodné pro analýzu a proto prvním krokem je vy táhnout data z provozního systému a vyčistit je. Datový sklad je tedy databáze oddělená od provozního systému, která obsahuje vyčištěnou verzi provozních údajů, upravených pro analýzu. Toto vytěžování a následný čistící proces je klíčem k osobní ochraně uživatelů, protože osobní identikační údaje jsou pryč nebo nahrazeny kódy. Když je datový sklad vytvořený, originální data mohou být smazána. Cílem je vytvoření datového zdroje, který obsahuje informace nutné pro rozhodování, ale který neumožňuje tvorbu původních provozních záznamů. Vy tvořením datového skladu se zachovává databáze paměti knihovny využitelná pro provoz knihovny. Jedna bezprostřední výhoda datového skladu je, že zaměstnanci knihovny mohou zpracovávat ad-hoc zprávy mnohem snadněji. Datový sklad se může stát také mocným zdrojem manažerského informačního sys tému v knihovně. Pro řídící pracovníky poslouží zprávy vyhotoveny na základě těchto dat jako klíč k variabi litě, kterou je možné identikovat a monitorovat chod a puls knihovny. Konečně, datový sklad může být vy užitý pro biblio-mining, který umožňuje řídím pracovníkům odhalit vzory informačního chování pro vyhod nocení a opodstatnění jednotlivých typů knihovních služeb. Knihovny, které likvidují svoji institucionální pa měť ztratí schopnost dělat rozhodnutí založené na doložených modelech a evidenci z minulých let. V době napnutých rozpočtů a společenské konkurence, likvidace těchto základních informací nutných pro tvorbu roz hodnutí se jeví jako trvalá ztráta a závažná chyba. Oddělení informační vědy Ústavu informatiky na Slezské univerzitě rozpracovává v současné době dva výzkumné a jeden studijní záměr. Jedním z nich je data miningový projekt zaměřený na výzkum informačních potřeb a informačního chování uživatelů jednotlivých typů knihoven. Jako data miningový nástroj použijeme software Clementine se zabudovanou metodologii CRISP-DM. Předpokládáme, že data miningové zpracování a modely datových vztahů umožní lépe pochopit současný společenský informační proces a denovat poža davky na nové systémy a služby. Dalším předpokládaným záměrem je spolupráce s knihovnami při tvorbě datového skladu a v oblasti bibliominingu. Výsledky budou postupně publikovány formou případových studií. Jak už bylo dříve zmíněno, data mining není záležitostí expertů na technologie, ale měl by je dělat odborník na problematiku, proto našim záměrem je vybudovat data miningovou učebnu, aby studenti v rámci knihov nicko-informačního studia zvládli techniku data miningu, naučili se pracovat s daty, odkrývat vztahy mezi nimi, nacházet řešení a nakonec zvládnout i umění předvídat.

Literatura     

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CHUI-Cheng Chen. Using Data Mining Techniques to Discover Personalized Book Recommendation for Library. Journal of Educational Media and Library Sciences, 2005, Vol. 43, Issue (No) 1, p. 87-107. CLEMENTINE 8.5 – specikace. [online] Praha: SPSS, 2006. [cit.10-07-2006]. Dostupné z: http://www.spss.cz/files/programy/clementine85.pdf KHABAZA, Tom. Hard Hats for Data Miners: Myth and pitfalls of data mining. SPSS Advanced Data Mining Group, May 2002. LUAN, Jing. Data mining application in higher education. Knowledge Discovery Laboratory, 2005. NICHOLSON, Scott. The basis for bibliomining: Frameworks for bringing together usage-based data mining and bibliometrics through data warehousing in digital library services. Information Processing and Management, May 2006, Vol. 42, Issue 3, p. 785-804. NICHOLSON, Scott. On My Mind. American Libraries, Oct2003, Vol. 34, Issue 9, p. 36. RUD, Olivia Parr. Data Mining: praktický průvodce dolováním dat pro efektivní prodej, cílený marketing a podporu zákazníků. Praha: Computer Press, 2001. VÍTEK, M. Data mining. [online] Praha: Fakulta informačních technologií VUT, 2002. [cit.05-06-2006]. Dostupné z: http://datamining.xf.cz/cisloclanku=2002102702.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Information literacy and collaborative information behavior of medical students studying in the problem-based and traditional curriculum Eeva-Liisa Eskola Åbo Akademi University, Finland [email protected]

Abstract This paper reports on part of a research project on the relationships between learning methods and students’ information be havior in Finland. The focuses of this paper are on information literacy as part of information behavior and on collaborative aspect in information behavior. In this qualitative study theme interviews were conducted at the Tampere University medi cal school, which applied the problem-based learning (PBL) curriculum and at the Turku University Medical School, in which the traditional curriculum with an early patient contact program was implemented. Three different types of informa tion literacy skills emerged in the analysis: 1. Undeveloped information literacy skills, 2. Simple information literacy skills, and 3. Developed information literacy skills. The developed skills tended to appear more in the problem-based learning en vironment and in connection with real information needs, such as thesis writing. Collaborative information seeking was ap proached through learning situations, students’ conceptions of learning and collaborative information seeking and retrieval actions. The problem-based learning environment offered more possibilities for collaboration. However, there were found factors which prohibited the students in the both curricula to gain from collaboration in their information seeking and learn ing processes. The conception of learning as cooperation was held more often by the pbl-students, and the collaborative infor mation sharing strategies varied in the two curricula.

Keywords medical students; problem-based learning; information literacy; collaboration

Introduction In medicine the implementation of alternative methods in education (e. g. problem-based learning (PBL) approach and programs with early patient contacts) has been done due to following reasons: rapidly growing medical inform ation, need for integration of knowledge in basic sciences and clinical practice, unmotivated students on the preclinical period, and medical doctors’ poor skills in communication with patients (Vainiomäki 1995, 40-50; Barrows 1996, 2; Boud&Feletti 1997, 2). Contemporary problem-based learning (PBL) medical programs usually employ three fundamental prin ciples: basic sciences are learned in the process of problem-solving by analyzing typical cases, learning is motiv ated by student curiosity and self-direction and small-group tutorial meetings serve as the center of learning while the role of the teacher becomes one of guide, facilitator, and resource (Barrows 1996, 5-6.) In analyzing a case, the students come to a point where more information is needed to continue. This results in the generation of an „issue“. An issue species an item of information that must be learned to complete the case. Once an issue has been identied, it becomes a learning goal for the next meeting. Each student then must independently nd an answer to this question and be prepared to share it with other students. Thus, PBL employs student initiative as a driving force. The students generate the issues, provide the answers and teach fellow students (Schmidt 1983; Donner&Bickley 1993; Silén et al. 1995; Engel 1997, 19-23). Medical educational programs called early patient contact and early community exposure have been developed in order to better meet the needs of the patients and the community already in the 1960s and 1970s. The goals of the programs are to let the students to become acquainted with practitioners’ work and the pa tients in the early stage of the education, learn interaction skills, motivate basic science studies, and combine theory and practice (Vainiomäki,1995). The movement from teacher-centered to student-centered methods in higher education supposes inde pendent information seeking. Students have to learn to locate and gather information for their studies, and use and evaluate information critically, i. e. they need to be information literate (Fridén 1996). According to research the need to use different information sources and channels increases in problem-based learning (e. g. Rankin 1992; Fridén&Oker-Blom 1995). On the other hand the research results show that students have undeveloped skills in information literacy i. e. in seeking and managing information (e. g. Dunn 2002). Information seeking and information behavior are often treated as individual behavior in research. During the last decade interest in exploring the social and collaborative dimensions of information behaviour in the con text of work has been growing (e. g. Solomon 1997; Sonnenwald&Lievrouw 1997; Limberg 1999; Fidel et al. 2000, 2004; Prekop 2002; Talja 2002). One reason for this can be found in the increase of collaboration in form of teamwork in work places (cf. Fidel et al 2000). Another area where the focus nowadays is in social interaction 155

is learning and education, which manifests in the application of collaborative modes of learning and teaching such as problem-based learning. The aim of this study is on the one hand to explore the role of the curricula in students’ information literacy. Information literacy is understood as part of information behavior. On the other hand the goal is to examine the collaborative aspect in students’ information behavior. The collaborative aspect is explored through the dif ferent learning situations in the two curricula. The individual dimension in collaboration is approached by ex ploration of students’ conceptions of learning. Additionally the collaborative aspect in information behavior is examined through the actual situations where collaborative information seeking or retrieval took place.

1 Information literacy In the information literacy competency standards for higher education of the Association of College&Research Libraries (2000) it is concluded that an information literate individual is able to: „Determine the extent of in formation needed, access the needed information effectively and efciently, evaluate information and its sources critically, incorporate selected information into one’s knowledge base, use information effectively to accomplish a specic purpose, understand the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information, and ac cess and use information ethically and legally.“ (Association of College&Research Libraries 2000) Webber and Johnston (2000) pay attention to the way the denitions listing skills reduce the complex set of skills and knowledge to small, discrete units that fragment the eld of knowledge and may encourage surface learning instead of deep learning. As an alternative to that kind of approaches to information literacy Bruce (1997) presents her relational approach, which bases on hermeneutic and phenomenological thinking and de scribes information literacy through people’s own conceptions not their characteristics. In the relational approach information literacy is described through a combination of individuals’ different ways to experience and under stand the phenomenon (Bruce 1997). Bruce (1997) identied seven different categories or ways that educators in higher education experienced information literacy. The seven different ways of understanding information literacy, also called the ’seven faces of information literacy’ are: 1. Using information technology, 2. Finding information, 3. Executing a process i. e., recognizing a need for information and using the accessed information to meet the original need, 4. Controlling information, 5. Building up a personal knowledge base, 6. Working with knowledge and personal perspectives in such a way that novel insights are gained, and 7. Using information wisely for the benet of others. The seven categories can be seen as hierarchically related to each other so that the topmost conceptions ve, six, and seven are more complex and powerful regarding information use than the lower conceptions (Bruce 1997). Empirical studies in information literacy have established the essential factors in successful development and instruction in information literacy: the knowledge of students’ perceptions of information literacy (Webber &Johnston, 2000; Julien&Boon, 2004), the pedagogically appropriate teaching and learning methods (Webber &Johnston, 2000), integration into curricula (Schilling et al, 1995; Minchow, 1995; Saarti&MacDonald, 2003), and timely and continuing instruction (McGowen, 1995; Kasesniemi&Talja, 1997). Co-operation between fac ulty and the persons responsible for information literacy instruction, usually librarians, in planning the courses is considered important (e. g., Schilling et al 1995). While in the present study information literacy is approached partly through examination of students’ own perceptions the study of Bruce (1997) form a relevant theoretical framework for reecting the results.

2 Collaborative information seeking Collaborative information seeking and collaborative information retrieval (CIR) has been dened broadly in the literature. Koschmann&Stahl (1998) argue that collaborative information seeking is not simply a process of information retrieval. According to them collaborative information seeking has to be understood as situated in a larger activity system, which includes the circumstances under which the information need arise, the means of information seeking and the use of information. Fidel et al. (2000) understand CIR to be „any activ ity that collectively resolves an information problem taken by members of a work team regardless of the nature of the actual retrieval of information.“ They include in information retrieval problem identication, analysis of information need, query formulation, retrieval interactions, evaluation and presentation of results, and application of results to resolve an information problem. Also in the present study a broad view of collab orative information seeking and retrieval is employed. The social and collaborative dimension in information seeking and behavior can be approached from dif ferent points of view, for example by exploring the different roles, which people adapt while engaging in collab orative information behavior (Sonnenwald and Lievrouw 1997; Prekop 2002), or by exploring how the ap proaches to group work and information seeking interact (Limberg 1998). Solomon (1997) has studied the social elements of information behavior in sense making of participants in the annual work planning process of a public agency. In the study the roles of various communicative events were explored in order to understand and de scribe the way the people develop „common ground and shared meaning through their information behavior“. 156

Talja (2002) developed a conceptual framework for the description of types and levels of information sharing in relation to document retrieval in academic communities and groups. In an empirical study four different strategies of information sharing were established: 1) Strategic sharing which means that information sharing is a conscious strategy which has a goal to maximize efciency in a research group, 2) Paradigmatic sharing in which information sharing is seen as a means of, for example, establishing a novel research approach, 3) Direct ive sharing occurs between teachers and students and benets both parts, 4) Social sharing where information sharing is not usually meaning the sharing of the contents of the documents, but sharing information of poten tially relevant documents as a relationship- and community-building activity.

2.1 Learning situations as communicative events Communicative events can be seen as social structures that people use in making sense individually and collect ively (Solomon 1997). Solomon uses Eilon’s classication of communicative events which bases on kinds of messages, area of activity, message importance, and intent and impact on messages, in order to identify different communicative events in the work planning process (Eilon 1965 in Solomon 1997). Communicative events, such as meetings, conversations and written messages, inuence on information behavior in sense making positively through providing situations for development of a common understanding and meaning from discrete and scattered information. On the other hand communicative events can prohibit knowledge creation in organizations when people for example avoid meetings which they experience useless (Solomon 1997). In the educational set tings different learning situations can be seen as the same kind of social structures as communicative events. In the present study the following classication of learning situations and modes is based on the idea of communicative events and categorization of modes of teaching and learning presented by Engeström (1982, 123125) and in Tynjälä (1999, 158-167): • Performing modes such as lectures and students’ presentations in which the type of interaction or commu nication is to a great extent one-dimensional. • Task-oriented modes such as reading tasks, independently performed exercises and exams where there has not to be direct contact or communication with other persons. • Collaborative modes such as inquiry learning, discussion, seminars, and practical assignments conducted together with others including tutors and teachers. In these situations type of interaction or communica tion is to a great extent two-dimensional or multidimensional. Tynjälä (1999) lists the following learning situations and modes as collaborative: seminars, reading circles, research groups, inquiry learning, prob lem-based learning and project learning. Collaborative and cooperative learning in groups inuence learning by extending the available know ledge and supporting various problem approaches. When learners get to know alternative points of views their own initial understandings are challenged and group members, when monitoring individual thinking, help in clarifying difcult points. Teachers’ and tutors’ support in collaborative groups enhances learning without simplifying the learning task (Glaser, 1991).

3 Conceptions of learning In order to enhance understanding of the phenomenon of learning, research has been conducted on how people conceive learning and what kind of beliefs they have of knowledge. Conceptions of learning and knowledge are referred to individuals’ ways of thinking about what learning and knowledge is, i. e. how they dene them, their ideas about how knowledge is created and evaluated and how knowing occurs. In general, conceptions of learning and knowledge direct how people experience and interpret learning situations, the conceptions also affect the learning process and study behavior including the outcomes of learning (Hofer 2002; LindblomYlänne et al. 2003; Entwistle&Peterson 2004). Säljö (1979) distinguished ve qualitatively different conceptions of learning among adults: 1. learning as increase of knowledge; 2. learning as memorizing; 3. learning as acquisition of facts or procedures which can be retained and/or utilized in practice; 4. learning as abstraction of meaning; 5. learning as an interpretative process aiming at the understanding of reality. While the focus of this paper is on collaboration Vermunt’s&Rijswijk’s (1988) work provides an additional conception of learning. Vermunt&van Rijswijk (1988) identied ve differ ent conceptions of learning: intake of knowledge, construction of knowledge, use of knowledge, stimulating edu cation, and cooperation with fellow students. Cooperative learning conception lays stress to learning in coopera tion with other students and to sharing the tasks of learning with them. The research results indicate that teaching methods based on interaction between the students and the teachers enhance development of students’ conceptions of learning (Martin and Ramsden 1987), and that the conceptions are to some extent contextually dependent (Eklund-Myrskog 1996) and domain-specic (Lonka& Lindblom-Ylänne 1996). Lonka&Lindblom-Ylänne (1996) found that constructivist conceptions of learning were most typical of advanced psychology students, while learning was seen as intake of knowledge more often by traditional medical students than psychology students. 157

Conceptions of learning and conceptions of knowledge i. e. epistemological beliefs are intertwined; be liefs about learning and teaching are closely related to beliefs about how knowledge is acquired (Lonka 1997, Hofer&Pintrich 1997). In the area of information seeking research Whitmere (2003) found that students’ epi stemological beliefs affected the following stages in Kuhlthau’s (1993) information search process (ISP): topic selection, prefocus formulation, focus formulation and collection. In another study by Whitmere (2004) it was found that students at higher stages of epistemological development could handle conicting information sources and recognize authoritative sources better than the students at lower stages, who rejected information sources that were opposite to their own views and asked faculty for help to determine the authority of sources instead of doing the judgment themselves. Limberg (1998) studied the interaction between information seeking and learn ing through students’ conceptions. She found that the different conceptions of information seeking and use inter acted closely with students’ conceptions of the content of information. In the present study information behavior is considered as related to students’ study behavior and study practices, which are inuenced by conceptions of learning. The conceptions held by the students may affect their information behavior and thus the differences in the conceptions may explain the possible differences in students’ information behavior.

4 Material and methods The study subjects were sixteen second-year medical students in the problem-based learning education at the University of Tampere Medical School and fteen second-year medical students at the Turku University Medical School studying according to the traditional curriculum, complemented by an early patient contact program. Qualitative methods were used for the collection and analysis of the data. The methods for collecting data were theme interviews (with open-ended questions), students’ diaries, observation and relevant documents, the interview transcriptions forming the main source of information. The data were analyzed following the principles of qualitative analysis for nding differences related to the research questions in the interviews and building cat egories that formed the basis for the analysis (cf., Alasuutari 1994). In the rst phase of analysis the different em pirical categories were established on the basis of variations and differences in the interviews. During the second phase of the analysis the meaning of these initial categories was interpreted in the light of the existing research literature. Thereafter, the categories were synthesized and new main categories were developed.

5 Results 5.1 Information literacy Following the analysis procedure described earlier the medical students’ information literacy was built up from the following initial categories: 1. Students’ conceptions of the instruction in the use of databases organized by the library and of information searching; 2. Students’ actual use of databases; 3. Students’ conceptions of how in struction in critical judgment of information appears in the medical education generally; 4. Students’ use of dif ferent information sources; 5. Students’ evaluation of information. The analysis of information literacy proceeded in two parts. The rst part considered the two rst ini tial categories: 1. Students’ ideas of the instruction in the use of databases organized by the library and of in formation searching and 2. Students’ actual use of databases. The second part implied the initial empirical cat egories three, four and ve. Finally, to get an overall understanding of students’ information literacy the ana lysis of the both parts was synthesized and as a result three combination categories describing the medical stu dents’ information literacy emerged. Those combination categories are: 1. Undeveloped information literacy skills; 2. Simple information literacy skills; and 3. Developed information literacy skills. In the following the results are given through descriptions of these combination categories. The detailed descriptions of the initial categories are presented in Eskola (2005). 1. Undeveloped information literacy skills Students’ use of different information sources in their studies was slight. They seldom consulted sources oth er than those mentioned in the study guides and did use electronic sources practically not at all. In connection with course papers, printed sources other than text books were consulted. In these cases they often got tips about the re sources needed from the faculty member who had given the assignment. Compared to the students in the two fol lowing categories the students in this category evaluated information and sources least. They considered that either critical judgment was not needed, or they did not master how to judge information and sources critically. When the students referred to the judgment of information and sources they were likely to mention the type of source. In this category the majority of the students came from the traditional curriculum and no one had star ted to write the thesis.

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2. Simple information literacy skills This was the largest combination category and consisted primarily of students whose use of information sources can be characterized as simplied, with the nuance of straightforwardness. Students consulted mainly the resources mentioned in study guides and handbooks. Occasionally, other sources could be selected, for example, in connection with writing course papers. Electronic sources were seldom used. Students did not usually question the information they read in textbooks or heard in lectures. They did not ponder very much over the reliability of information and sources and, when they did, they paid attention to type of source and age of information in addi tion to the common remarks on the reliability of information in mass media and/or on the internet versus text books and the fast-aging and changing character of information. Students came from both curricula and one student had started to write the thesis. 3. Developed information literacy skills This category included the students whose use of information sources can be characterized as wide and rich. Students tended to consult many different sources in various situations. In addition to the use in connection with thesis preparation and course papers, the different sources were also consulted during the on-going course or phase of study. Their approach to the critical judgment of information can be characterized as awake and con scious. In the critical judgment of information they used more advanced criteria. They referred to the topical rel evance of information in choosing information and sources in addition to bringing up issues concerning the type of document and its age. Typical for these students was that they did not only consider the information in text books or from authorities as unchanging facts but also highlighted the inuence of situation and time. The stu dents also wanted grounds for the claims appearing in the information sources they found. The majority of the students came from the problem-based learning curriculum and had started to work on their thesis.

5.2 Students’ conceptions of learning In order to get knowledge about the medical students’ conceptions of learning all students were asked to explain what they mean by learning (cf. Säljö 1979), and how the students knew they had learnt something (cf. EklundMyrskog 1996). The analysis of students’ utterances concerning learning resulted in four different categories of conceptions: • Learning as an intake of knowledge and/or memorizing. Two students from the problem-based learning (PBL) group and six from the traditional learning group held this conception. • Learning as an application of knowledge in practice. Two students from the problem-based learning (PBL) group and three from the traditional learning group held this conception. • Learning as a (constructive) activity aimed at understanding and/or learning as cooperation. Ten students from the problem-based learning group and two from the traditional learning group held this conception. • Learning as a formulation of a conception of one’s own. Two students, both from the traditional learning program held this conception. Ten of the sixteen PBL-students saw learning in terms of understanding and/or learning as cooperation. In the traditional group the division of the students in the categories of conceptions was more even, although six of totally fteen students experienced learning as intake of knowledge and/or memorizing. This result is consistent with results of Lonka&Lindblom-Ylänne (1996) according to which the traditional medical students tend to view learning as intake of knowledge, and those of Martin&Ramsden (1987) according to which the student-centered learning methods enhance the development of conceptions of learning.

5.3 Collaborative learning situations in the traditional curriculum The traditional learning program included the following collaborative modes of learning: reading circles in the elective studies, group discussions, assignments in a laboratory, preparing of written assignments or presenta tions together with another student. The problem-based learning curriculum included the following collaborative modes: tutorials, special seminars, exercises in clinical skills, assignments in a laboratory, preparing of written assignments/seminar pa pers or presentations together with another student. It’s natural that the collaborative teaching modes were more used in the problem-based learning approach than in the traditional learning approach because one of the basic ideas in problem-based learning and in the tu torials is the very same collaboration. While a learning situation is theoretically classied as collaborative it does not have to be it in reality because of, for example, unsuccessful application of the learning method. The students may also not favor the collaborative learning situations for different reasons in which case these situations may not inuence positively the learning process (cf. Glaser, 1991). In the interviews following reasons were men tioned which may prohibit the students to gain from the collaboration: too big size of the group, the interaction and communication in the group is not working well enough, PBL-problems which don’t trigger discussion and 159

exchange of thoughts, the tutor’s or group work instructor’s lacking skills in tutoring the group, students’ personal learning styles and students’ unsatisfactory preparation for the learning situations. Most of the problem-based learning students found that the discussion in the tutorials enhanced their learning, though there were pbl-students who preferred other modes of learning than tutorials, such as independent study and lectures. It was clear that the tutor’s role was important to the success of the learning situation as a whole but the group members interplay and the well-constructed and meaningful learning issues meant much as well. Those pbl-students who experienced that they don’t gain from the tutorials admitted that the reason is poor preparation. In the traditional curriculum, in which the main mode of instruction, i. e. lecturing, is categor ized as a performing mode (Engeström, 1982), collaborative learning modes were used in elective studies in small groups (e. g. reading circles) and in compulsory studies in bigger groups (e. g. laboratory works). The stu dents experienced the smaller groups more positively. The skills of the group work leader were also among the traditional students estimated as meaningful to success of the learning situation.

5.4 Concrete situations and actions in which collaborative information seeking or retrieval took place The students were seeking or retrieving information together in the following situations: 1. When the students conducted literature seeking for their thesis or research in research groups. 2. When the students’ skills in information seeking and retrieval were poor. 3. When the students prepared written assignments or presentations together with another student. 4. Information sharing in form of copies of lecture notes and titles of books. To seek information together was relatively usual among the students. Those students who were involved in thesis writing or research basically knew how to search for information and use databases, but needed never theless occasional assistance from more experienced information seekers or researchers when the topics required more advanced knowledge. Characteristic of the students was that they experienced information searching as something which should be learned in connection with real information needs. Those students’ reference group was Developed information literacy skills. It was common that the students referred to lacking skills in informa tion seeking and retrieval in the interviews. Typical for the students was that they emphasized that they did not have any need to use databases and they have forgotten how to use them and they trusted their fellow students when retrieving information for assignments. The information literacy reference group of these students was Un developed or Simple information literacy skills. In both curricula the students had to write assignments or short course papers in connection with a few courses. Often those assignments were done in pairs and then also the students searched the literature needed to those papers in pairs. They could perform joint searches working in one terminal (cf. Twidale et al, 1997) and then gather the documents together or individually. In both curricula the students had a system for copying and delivering the lecturers’ course material or hand-outs to the students. In the traditional curriculum the system was more systematic than in the problembased curriculum when also lecturing was the main mode of teaching in the traditional curriculum. One stu dent at time was responsible to ask for the material, copy it and deliver it to the other students. The copies could include the students’ own notes. This kind of activity resembles of Talja’s (2002) strategic sharing which aims to maximize efciency in a research group. „The copy system“, as the students referred to the sys tem, can be seen as a strategy to maximize efciency in studying. The PBL-students shared in the tutorials not only the content of the information their gathered for the learning issues but they shared also information of the possible relevant documents. This kind of social information sharing dened by Talja (2002) as a relation ship- or community-building activity, did not appear among the traditional students. Although medical stu dents tend to buy core text books (Eskola 2005), there is always need for more text books in the libraries. When the pbl-students were not as bound to the given titles than the traditional students, it was natural to them to tell the fellow students about their information sources.

6 Discussion and conclusions In the study three categories describing the information literacy of the medical students have been found: 1. Un developed information literacy skills; 2. Simple information literacy; 3. Developed information literacy skills. When the categories are examined in relation to Bruce’s seven faces of information literacy (Bruce 1997) it is observed that Categories 1. Undeveloped information literacy skills and 2. Simple information literacy skills are related to Bruce’s faces 1 to 4, i. e., using information technology, nding information, executing a process and controlling information. Category 3. Developed information literacy skills comes near to Bruce’s conceptions, 5. Building up a personal knowledge base and 6. Working with knowledge and personal perspectives in such a way that novel insights are gained. In those categories, critical analysis of information and subjective or trans formational conception of information is present. Bruce (1997) underlines, that none of the conceptions is wrong but simply a different way of understanding information literacy, which can be used appropriately in different 160

situations. The reection of the categories in this study and Bruce’s seven faces of information literacy supports the idea that there are relationships between the different learning environments and development of students’ in formation literacy. While the topmost conceptions ve, six, and seven are according to Bruce (1997) more com plex and powerful regarding information use than the lower conceptions, the inuence on the learning process and results can exist. The results show also that real information needs, such as nding information for a thes is, is an important trigger for development of information literacy in addition to the educational context. Collaboration in students’ information behavior was approached through exploration of collaborative learn ing situations, students’ conceptions of learning, and the concrete collaborative information seeking or retrieval situ ations. Collaborative aspect was stronger in the pbl-curriculum, while the collaboration was expressed as collabor ative learning situations, which is natural considering the basic ideas of the pbl-approach. Irrespective of the fact that the pbl-students experienced learning as understanding and/or cooperation with other students more often than the students in the traditional curriculum, it was not self-evident that all the pbl-students could gain from those situ ations in their information seeking and learning process. The reasons and situations when collaboration was utilized in concrete information seeking and retrieval activities varied among the students so that the students having de veloped information literacy skills collaborated more often with more experienced information seekers or research ers in advanced information seeking tasks while the students having undeveloped or simple information literacy skills trusted their fellow students when retrieving information for assignments. Information sharing strategies (Talja 2002) varied across the curricula so that the pbl-students utilized social sharing more than the traditional stu dents who again used strategic sharing more effectively than the pbl-students. Although the scope of the study is restricted the ndings conrmed that in order to enhance the students’ information literacy skills special effort and resources should be allocated to integration of information literacy education with real information needs and learning goals (cf. Schilling et al, 1995; Minchow, 1995; Saarti& MacDonald, 2003). A rough comparison of the categories in this study against Bruce’s categories supports the idea of organizing information literacy education according to students’ different conceptions. Results regarding collaboration suggest that support in information seeking is needed throughout the whole education (cf. McGowen, 1995; Kasesniemi&Talja, 1997). When the students are keen on relying upon their fellow students in information seeking and retrieval problems, educating some students as information seeking tutors could guaran tee the quality of students’ instruction. The fact that students conduct information searches together should be taken into consideration when designing work stations for information seeking in learning centers and libraries where the terminals are usually designed for performing searches alone. Careful planning and development in or ganizing and tutoring of collaborative learning situations is needed so that the students can gain from the positive impact of collaboration in their information seeking and knowledge creation.

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Bulletin of the Medical Library association 80, 36-43. SAARTI, J. & MACDONALD, E. (2003). Farmasian verkkotiedonlähteiden arviointi osana farmasian verkkoopetusta. [Evaluating pharmacy web resources as a part of pharmacy web teaching.] Informaatiotutkimus. [Information research.] 22, 42-51. SCHILLING, K., GINN, D., MICKELSON, P., ROTH, L. (1995). Integration of information-seeking skills and activities into problem-based curriculum. Bulletin of the Medical Library association 83, 176-183. SCHMIDT, H.G. (1983). Problem-based learning: rationale and description. Medical Education 17, 11-16. SILÉN C. & NORMANN, S. & SANDÉN, I. (1995). Problembaserad inlärning – en beskrivning av ideologi och pedagogisk referensram. [Problem-based learning – a description of ideology and pedagogical framework.] Linköping: Hälsouniversitet, Vårdhögskolan i Östergötland. SOLOMON, P. (1997). Discovering Information behavior in Sense Making. II. The Social. 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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

One size ts all in archaeological information work? Isto Huvila Information Studies, Åbo Akademi University, Tavastgatan 13, FIN-20300 Åbo, Finland [email protected]

Abstract Digitalisation has changed both the production and the use of information. The changes are a potential threat to the functioning of the information processes in a case when the producers of information base their expectations about information use patterns on outdated or erroneous assumptions. The purpose of this contribution is to investigate how the prevailing implicit assump tions on the information use patterns match to the practices of working with the information in the changing information use environment. The discussion is based on a qualitative study of the work and information behaviour of altogether 25 Finnish and Swedish archaeology professionals. The study showed a clear individual and work duties related divergence of the information behaviours in the work with the digital information repositories. The analysis indicated that the current translations and trans formations of the information processes have resulted, or are on a verge of resulting, in severe incompatibilities between the patterns of using and producing information. The older strategies of information use have been adapted to serve as a basis for the new strategies of producing digital information without a clear enough catering for the concurrent changes in the patterns of information use.

Keywords information behaviour; digitalisation; information use; information resources; information provision

Introduction Information behaviour of individuals and communities depend not only on their needs and preferences of using information. The actual behaviour is equally dependent on the available information resources and their t to the different contexts of use. Changes in the technical production procedures as well as in the assumptions made on the use of the resources affect this t. The present article explores the effects of the digitalisation of information production and use in the interface between the resources and their users. The emphasis of this contribution is to investigate how the prevailing implicit assumptions on the information use patterns match to the practices of working with the information in the changing information use environment. The discussion is based on an empir ical study of the work and information behaviour of Finnish and Swedish archaeology professionals. The empirical investigation was implemented by conducting thematic interviews of altogether 25 inform ants. The discussion on the information production and use were guided by a framework constructed on the basis of the Cool and Belkin [1] faceted classication of the information interactions and the characteristics of inform ation needs introduced by Line [4] and further elaborated by Nicholas and Martin [5]. The study showed a clear individual and work duties related divergence of the information behaviours in the work with the digital information repositories. The analysis indicated that the current translations and trans formations of the information processes have resulted, or are on a verge of resulting, in severe incompatibilities between the patterns of using and producing information. The older strategies of information use have been ad apted to serve as a basis for the new strategies of producing digital information without a clear enough catering for the concurrent changes in the patterns of information use.

1 Information activity in archaeology Archaeology is an information intensive scholarly discipline and profession aimed at explicating the past human activity on the basis of its material remains (referred as ‘archaeological material’). Broadly speaking, the archae ological work may be structured to seven major categories: 1. eld work (conducting excavations and surveys), 2. collection management (maintaining present collections of archaeological nds and artefacts), 3. academic research, 4. academic teaching, 5. public dissemination (popular publishing and e. g. production of museum exhibitions), 6. cultural heritage administration (management and maintenance of the cultural heritage sites), and 7. infrastructural development (methodological and technical development of tools, e. g. information systems). The basic objective of the archaeological information process is to preserve and manage known and pro spective sites and areas of archaeological interest, to investigate them and to maintain the acquired information for present and future use e. g. for the purposes of research and public interest. The frame of archaeology incor 165

porates both academic research and professional activity often in a manner, where their distinguishing becomes difcult. Gardin describes the archaeologists’ intellectual process as an iterative cycle of observation, elaboration and publication. It is typical that the intellectual reasoning and all the three phases of the cycle are visible basic ally in all of the mentioned categories of archaeological work, both in the ’more’ professional and in the ’more’ academic ones. The scope and the extent of the process vary between different individuals and dissimilar cat egories of work. Fieldworkers produce and use eld work information while public disseminators work with popular information, making the interfaces between the various categories rather narrow. The primary source of archaeological information for all archaeology professionals is the archaeological material and rst hand reports describing the material and the process of their discovery. ’Archaeological materi al’ consists of a variety of material objects being capable of shedding light to the past human activity, comprising individual objects (e. g. shards of pottery, tools and relevant natural objects), buildings, different kinds of struc tures such as elds, roads and their remains. During a eldwork project, the archaeologists investigate a site by excavating or surveying, document the ndings and during a post-investigation phase write up and draft the nal archivable versions of the sketches and notes. The remains are used as building blocks in a process of constructing an understanding of the past human activity. The process combines information from the archaeological remains with secondary information, which has been published earlier. The nature of archaeologically relevant information varies signicantly and comprises both quantitative scientic information, and qualitative and comparative inferences. Due to the heterogeneity of the information and the distance between the archaeology professional of the present and the past human beings, the processes of information seeking, use and production are highly iterative and place a special emphasis on the contexts of the study and of the studied past.

2 Information behaviour of the archaeology professionals Broadly speaking, both the academic and non-academic archaeologists resemble other humanities researchers by their information behaviour [8][9]1 The special aspects of the archaeological information process are, however, closely reected in the typical characteristics of the information behaviour of the archaeology pro fessionals. According to the ndings of the present study, the focal characteristics may be summarised in fol lowing notions: 1. Information activity is focused on objects and sites: the information activity of the archaeology profes sionals is typically focused or conned to a material object, a category of objects or a site even if the ob jective of the action would grasp abstract notions. 2. Low condence in secondary information: archaeologists value primary information and try to reach it, whenever it is feasible. Of the secondary information the closest ones to the primary observation (i. e. the original report) are considered the most trustworthy. 3. Reliance on the social verication of information: of the secondary information, the archaeology profes sionals tend to be most condent with information, which is provided or veried by a personally known and trusted person. These characteristics show the complexity of the information process and the wide extents of the informa tion activity in archaeology. The behaviour is focused on survival strategies how to cope with the diversity. The strategies are at their best remarkably elaborate, but their sheer existence indicates the existence of a problem of t between the different users and producers of archaeological information. The problem of reaching a series of propitious ts in archaeology is a question of nding appropriate means to communicate between different stakeholders operating in signicantly different contexts and refer ring to strikingly different conceptions of work. The notion covers not only the gap between the past human beings and the present community of the archaeologists, which is a scholarly issue of archaeology, but also the information management issue of bridging the gap between different categories of work and notions of work within the community of archaeologists. The essential characteristic of the archaeological information process relates to the way how the cus tomer and participant behaviours relate to the process of information work: how the problems are solved and how the information interactions work within the process. Fit requires sensibility both from the part of the user and the provider. Almost all interactions in archaeology require a similar sense of knowing beforehand where to go to make an appropriate move, as the submarine chasers possess according to the description of O’Connor [6]. The hunch or an instinct and the subsequent behaviour is based on a complex pre-understand ing of the work horizon and the related information horizons. The difference between the submarine chasing scenario and the community of archaeologists is the need of the latter to act as if the submarine would deliber ately decide to get caught by the chaser. Individual information processes varied considerably due to a number of facts ranging from personal preferences to organizational conventions. The core of any archaeological information process can, however, be 1

166

Typically in Europe, in Finland and in Sweden archaeology is included in the humanities (unlike e. g. in North America [2][3]).

reduced to the activity of elaboration based on an entity of archaeological material. Fundamentally the process attempts to create meaning for the material discussed by a complex process of conceiving, nurturing and perfect ing a network of relations. Relations function through comparative arguments and parallels, which support a scholarly claim. Assertions on the value and the relevance of the construed argument are strongly dependent on the (social) context of archaeology. The outlook of the work of mapping the parallels, correlates similarly with the generic information source behaviour of the individuals.

3 Digitalisation and archaeology The origins of digitalisation of the archaeological information date back to the late 1960’s, although the penetra tion of digital information and work procedures was extremely low until the mid-1990’s. The principal benets of archaeological computing and digital archaeological information compare with the general expectations of di gitalisation and computerization, e. g. (ref. [7]) • Ubiquitous availability unrelated to the place and time of access (easy accessibility through a network connection) • Efciency of storage space (a shelfful of books ts on a small memory chip) • Ease of use, manipulation and reuse (enhanced search functions, editability and re-usability) The observation of the general enthusiasm among the interviewed on the emerging possibilities offered by digitalisation, is clearly consequential. Even if the informants’ tendency to satisfy the interviewer might explain part of the optimism, the trend is still quite clear. The consequential implication indicates an immanent need to empower archaeological information management and may be taken as a basically positive and receptive attitude towards new implementations, if the implementations might be expected to actually empower the work of indi viduals from their personal point of view. The frequent critique towards the already existing new systems indicate, however, that each individual denes his/her precise understanding of the archaeological information work and the means how to reach the common goals. The type of systems developed was graded highest, which was situated closest to the community of the informants, and was carried out by someone the informants knew per sonally before. The large information systems maintained and implemented by national and foreign organiza tions were subjected to the heaviest critique.

4 Towards a tting ’size’ A signicant issue of archaeological information management may be traced to the inconsistency of informa tion organization and its subsequent usage patterns. The basic units of information processing comprise indi vidual relatively independent entities, which are hierarchically related to each other on the basis of their phys ical characteristics. This relative self-sufciency of individual information objects covers both the archaeolo gical materials and the observations made on the materials. The entities can be brought together in secondary publications, but at the information repository level (the level they are stored in the rst place) they remain rather isolated of each other. The same notion of ’atomism’ applies to the archaeological investigation report. The report is a printed document, which explicates and summarises the results of a research project and describes the research process. A standard report consists of an introduction, description of the research process, account of the major ndings and conclusions. The appendices of the report comprise lists of nds, samples (e. g. soil samples), photographs, drawings, maps, plans and a list of used literature. In practise the reports tend to be rather brief, and by them selves, almost equally atomistic compared with the entities, which are described. The introduction and conclu sions chapters of the reports are explicitly supposed to bring the information together. The introduction is expec ted to be a short, but extensive contextualising narrative of the site, project and major ndings, while the conclu sions is expected to present an interpretation of the site and its signicance. The scope and comprehensiveness of these chapters is obviously dependent on their authors, on the availability of time, and the extents of the project. In practise, there are only seldom any possibilities for them to be signicantly elaborate. The overall archaeological information process is formed relatively well to serve the purposes of docu mentation, archival, and to a degree, the primary administrative needs of the cultural heritage management bod ies. The architecture and contents of the resulting records supports, however, relatively poorly the practical needs of the secondary users of the information, because the documentation tends to be focused on technical details rather than capturing contextual information and providing efcient means to address any cross-entity (e. g. sites or categories of nds) issues. Gardin pointed out this peculiarity already in the era of printed catalogues long be fore the present debate [3]. The principle of organizing the information repositories according to the origin of the material and the essentially cataloguing (rather than use) oriented viewpoint to the entering of the data, constrain the practical possibilities of performing intersite analyses and studying the data according to some other organiz ation principle than the one of site and spatial location. 167

According to the informants the documentation process is broadly motivated by the prospective efciency of eld documentation and the recording of absolutely necessary details on the location and the extents of the sites. It is, however, important to notice that the notion of efciency does actually reect an efciency in terms of a completely manual work process. The entire process of investigations, post-investigation work and reporting with the information resources use and production springs from the era of physical information and print docu ments instead of digital information. At the present it is evident, that the subsequent utilisation of the documenta tion is based in many instances on a previously acquired personal familiarity with the site and the project, social contacts and personal communication with the colleagues, accidental discovery of contextual and comparative information, and in any event, on a comprehensive effort and use of time.

5 Discussion In archaeology, the archaeological material and the printed investigation report are a ’size’, which is supposed to t basically all professional users of archaeological information. The ’one size’ meant to t all does not t any one as such, but due to the variety of needs and requirements, a ’one size’ is needed in a community of informa tion users to function as a common basis for the specialised information sources. It is a common assumption of the least common denominator shared by an entire community. In the present case, a working understanding of the archaeological material, its treatment and description in a standard form is elementary for the functioning of the practical work and intellectual discourse in archaeology. In practise, the assumed common denominator or the ’one size’ ts all purposes only with a considerable effort. Because of this effort, the assumption needs to be close enough to the actual patterns of information use among the members of the community to be effective. The effort should not be disproportionate to the comparat ive efforts of acquiring ’sufcient’ information (even if of inferior perceived quality) by some other means. A de gree of persistence is rationalised by the sustainability requirements of the information process, but this persist ence should not be allowed to exceed the usability of the resource. In the bulk of their information activity, the archaeology professionals need to take a laborious journey back to the physical repository of the reports and the primary material to make a personal inference of its signicance for the assignment currently in hand. When it comes to the archaeological material, an occasional physical contact is understandably un-substitutable due the nature of the material as the principal object of archaeology. With respect of the reports, however, the necessity of the physical contact is much more difcult to justify. In the world of the physical information repositories this journey was an inevitable, but at the present the digitalisation of information processing has reduced the need of the physical contacts. In most cases an adequate piece of in formation may be reached without a physical visit. The reliance on physical forms of information and the simultaneous digitalisation of the information activity in and around archaeology has caused two distinct, yet largely intertwined problems. 1. The persistence of the assumption of the form of the printed report as the second common denominator of the archaeological information work has effectively diminished its use and usability. The informants em phasised the importance of the reports and told that they were consulted whenever necessary. The discus sion also revealed, however, that the use of the reports was in a signicant decline alongside with other printed material in all situations where they were not absolutely irreplaceable with another more easily ac cessible, but perhaps less relevant and less reliable, information resource. The problem of this trend is the weakening of the shared tting ’one size’ and the subsequent loosening of the community. Some institu tions have begun to publish their research data on the internet as pdf-formatted reports. In some cases also the complete investigation databases incorporating the report, nds, maps, plans, drawings, photographs and notes, have been put online. Both, but especially the latter ones were commended by the informants, which readily underlines the observation on the signicance of the accessibility. 2. the assumption based on the print form does not match anymore the precision, forms nor the quantities of the information production. The present and emerging techniques for capturing and analysing in formation from the archaeological contexts exceed the practical possibilities of storage and reproduc tion offered by the assumptions based on the form of a printed report. The measuring precision and di mensionality of total stations used on excavations and surveys cannot be reproduced on two-dimen sional maps. Similarly the possibilities of using digital cameras and video in an extensive manner to document the project and its progress fail to become exploited as long as the paradigmatic assumption guiding the documentation is based on the print form. This mismatch has lead to the emergence of semi-ofcial personal and institutional repositories, which contain the extra data, which does not t in the ofcial records. It is needless to say that the standardisation and coherence of these ad hoc deposit ories is seldom satisfactory.

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6 Conclusions The ndings of the present study show that a community of information users, such as the archaeology profes sionals, needs an information resource, which ts all in a workable manner. From the usability point of view it is important to ensure that the common denominator of the information activity is not the physical layout of an information resource, because it is subject to change when the media forms and technologies change like in the verge of digitalisation. The mismatch leads to distancing between the patterns of information use and the capabilities of the information resources to match them. This variation may be illustrated in a diagram (Figure 1) where the magnitude of the mismatch is measured as an area (A) dened by the two curves depicting the use patterns and the assumed usage patterns.

Figure 1. Magnitude (area A) of the mismatch between the actual and assumed information use patterns

In the digital environment the information does not become available through a standard set of tables and lists carefully and arduously organized to be as usable as possible in the printed form. Much of this mechanical work can be handled automatically both during the production and use of the information. The effort placed on producing a awless physical layout might be shifted to producing a more powerful digital layout or to the less technical work of elaborating the information itself. All of this can be done without affecting the precision and comprehensiveness of the information resource. Due to the legacy assumptions, the information activity may follow the formal requirements of document ation and reporting, but to be simultaneously lacking usability. In archaeology, the present work ows follow largely the assumption that besides the archaeological material the ’one size’, or an assumed common denomin ator, of the archaeological information activity is a printed report supplemented with printed photographs, plans and drawings. The ndings of the present study indicate clearly that updating the assumptions on the required qualities of the common denominator (the elementary ’one size’) are needed in order to empower both the in formation production and information use. Adhering to the design assumptions based on the print form impedes to incorporate the available dimensions and precision and the practicable amount of data to the information sys tems. Simultaneously the legacy form diverts the users of the information to the more powerful and easily ac cessible information resources, which eradicates not only the possibilities of efcient information management, but also the functioning of the entire community of the users of the particular information.

References    

[1] Colleen Cool and Nicholas Belkin. A classication of interactions with information. In Emerging Frameworks and Methods: CoLIS 4, pages 1–15. Libraries Unlimited, Greenwood Village, Colorado, 2002. [2] Timothy Darvill. Archaeology. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology, 2002. [3] Jean-Claude Gardin. Archaeological constructs : an aspect of theoretical archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 1980. [4] Maurice B. Line. Information requirements in the social sciences: Some preliminary considerations. Journal of Librarianship, 1(1):1–19, 1969. 169

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[5] David Nicholas and Helen Martin. Assessing information needs: a case study of journalists. Aslib Proceedings, 49(2):43–52, 1997. [6] Brian O’Connor, Copeland, H., and Jodi L. Kearns. Hunting and Gathering on the Information Savanna. 2003. [7] Abby Smith. Why Digitize? Council on Library and Information Resources, Washington D.C., February 1999. [8] Helen R. Tibbo. Indexing for the humanities. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45(8):607–619, 1994. [9] Helen R. Tibbo. How historians locate primary resource materials: Educating and serving the next generation of scholars. In ACRL. 11th National Conference Papers. American Library Association, 2003.

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

The language of primary sources: the challenge of digital archives Andrea Johnson University College Cork, Computer Science Department, Cork, Ireland [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract A recent domain analysis by the author has shown that the „gap“ between archivists and users is intricately bound up in do main vocabulary. To date there has been similar investigations into the digital library sector [1], but no such investigation has been made in the digital archival sector. This paper reports on research in progress that examines the use of primary sources and the affect of stakeholders discourses. To date the archival sector has run a poor second to the digital library sec tor in investigating its users and supporting their use through the development of models and theories. It is hoped that this research will provide an example of how contrasting metatheories can all aid in the development of the digital archival sector.

Keywords digital archives; discourse analysis; contextual interaction; user modelling

Introduction In the face of a growing body of evidence that traditional cataloguing and dissemination practices leave many users unable to locate or effectively use the vast amount of archival online resources now available, researchers have begun to examine and re-frame the problem domain of digital archive access. This paper examines the urgent requirement for conceptual models of both users and the contextual use of digital archives. It highlights the importance of an analysis of the domain discourses which will provide a prac tical insight into how these can affect the initial information need, the information seeking process and the result ing use of primary resources.

1 The domain analysis A detailed study of the digital archive environment was undertaken, over a period of two years, in order to gain a „snapshot“ of the domain. Areas of study focused on: • Who uses digital archives and why? [2] • How do digital users express their needs? Do they require „archival intelligence“ to develop search strategies and explore research questions within the archive domain? [3] • How does this information seeking t into wider information retrieval and seeking models and theories that exist? [4] • What conditions need to exist to support interaction such as context, equity, usability etc? During this study it became evident that areas such as the physical arrangement of the archive, the hier archical catalogue structures and the archival expertise of the archivist play a key role in supporting archive users. These tools of the analogue culture do not easily transfer into a digital environment, where the problem is compounded by deep data structures and discrete relationships with other data entities. It also became apparent that users often employ a strategy of „data transformation“. This process is one of translation, where the context of the information in the digital archive is identied by the user who then distils and transforms this into a format that „makes sense“ to them and their specic information need. During this pro cess they actively seek out sources of expertise to aid them in translating the information they discover during their search. In effect the transformation of data is an explicit contextualisation of data intended to meet a dened and articulated individual information need. The level of expertise required to support the contextualisation of data has a direct correlation to the perceived complexity of the information seeking task by the user. This transformation of data is apparent at the National Archives in UK who have reported that 98% of their onsite users who accessed onsite archive assistance nd information that was useful to them [5]. This stat istic is in stark contrast to the research previously discussed that supports the view of many users being unable to effectively use archival online resources. From the results of the study into the archive environment it is obvious that there is a distinct lack of fun damental concepts and models regarding users and how users interact with the digital archive. Most importantly there is very little research being undertaken to discover how users employ this strategy of „data transformation“ 171

and how the user could be supported in the process of data transformation in order to meet their own information need. Language and the diverse discourses within the domain are central to this research.

2 A research agenda Four research questions lie at the heart of the author’s doctoral study. They are: • The User: Who uses digital archives and for what purpose? • The Information Seeking&Retrieval Process: How do users currently seek and retrieve information within a dynamic digital environment? • A Model of Contextual Interaction: How to model the interaction between the user and the digital archive, capturing the multidimensional context that exists in each interaction? • Diverse Discourses: How the two main stakeholders; the users and the archivists construct the need and the primary use of digital archives? These four questions lead to three related areas of development; User Modelling, Discourse Analysis and a Model of Contextual Interaction.

2.1 User modelling A small number of studies have been undertaken to examine digital archive users and their information seeking behaviours [6]. A greater focus on the user could generate a superior user model that considers such factors as the users’ background and type, the context of the specic information seeking task and the effect of the users discourse. The application of user modelling affords: • Better understanding of the various user groups • Development of a taxonomy of users • Recommendations on metrics that support shared data-gathering and data sets • Development of guidelines for interface design • Better understanding of the effect of novice/expert knowledge gap • Creation of evaluation methodology that extracts information about the user experience and the context of the information seeking task. User modelling will provide the foundations for the model of contextual interaction as there is a direct correlation between the two.

2.2 Discourse analysis The analysis of discourses in the archival domain would provide a practical insight into how discourses can af fect the initial information need, the information seeking process and the resulting use of archival resources. There are two main questions to consider: • How do diverse stakeholders construct the need for digital archival resources? • How do diverse stakeholders construct the primary use of digital archival resources? To date there has been similar investigations into the digital library sector [1], but no such investigation has been made in the archival sector. The domain analysis has shown that the „gap“ between archivists and users is bound up in domain vocabulary. If this can be investigated and empirically examined, the results of this could be applied in various ways e. g. interface design. The stakeholders which are to be examined are: • Archivists: academic, local authority, heritage etc. • Users: separated into variety of sub-groups • Funding bodies • Other heritage/information professionals. The results of the empirical study of discourses are to be applied to both the user model and the model of contextual interaction. The aim of the discourse analysis will be to answer the following: • How is each group classied and what are the implications of this classication? • What characteristics are unique to each group, and what are common to each group? • What themes are present in the domain and how do they apply/affect each group? • What discourses can be found and what are their characteristics? • How these discourses highlight and can aid in the development of a contextual interaction model?

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2.3 Model of contextual Interaction The creation of a model of contextual interaction is pivotal to this doctoral research. Context in the digital archive environment is multidimensional, therefore a model of contextual interaction will have to incorporate the following dimensions: • Archival context e. g. the requirement of „Archival Intelligence“ by the user in the contextualisation of the digital object and the relationship it has with other objects. • Discourse context e. g. the effect the discourses of the various stakeholders have on the formation of the users’ initial information need and the subsequent searching techniques and patterns. • Formation context e. g. the initial information need or gap in knowledge and how this is articulated by the user. • Previous experience context e. g. the user’s previous experience and knowledge, whether expert/novice. • Searching context e. g. information seeking behaviours and patterns the user employs in seeking and transforming information to meet their information need. • Social/Cultural context e. g. effect of social/cultural inuences on the user. • Task context e. g. the processes that make up the task and the identication of the larger task context that the task is embedded in, with its associated aims and constraints. • Technological context e. g. ICT literacy level&ICT setting. Contextual inquiry has been identied as a technique that can facilitate the classication of contextual factors in the domain and support the development process through various tools and models [7].

3 Methodology&experiments A series of qualitative research methods are planned, some of which are currently underway, which will provide a rich picture of the digital archive environment and identify the principles and constraints within the domain. These include: • User studies: both existing&newly commissioned • User panel: consisting of all major stake-holders • Usability testing to include thinking aloud observation: as per previous research which resulted in „re vealing“ data • Interviews: both semi-structured, and time-line • Contextual inquiry: classify contextual factors within the domain and aid in understanding of domain- and mental models • Task analysis: to produce hierarchical task analysis • Usability testing of a prototype application, with another PhD student, that supports contextual interaction in a digital domain [8]. Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) has been selected as a tool through which the constraints of specic in stances of information seeking and retrieval can be identied. A CWA framework has been adopted to support a comprehensive design and evaluation process [9]. The use of this formative approach is seen as the way in which to identify and represent the essential elements of the domain, from which human-information interaction will materialise.

3.1 Discourse analysis Discourse Analysis lends itself to meta-theoretical examination, one of the main criticisms of discourse analysis or any constructionist approach is its lack of wide-ranging empirical research. This study will examine recent publications with reference to each group and apply a reading scheme analysis similar to Hedemark et al [10]. 1 Designations Classication of each group found in the text 3 Themes Themes&contexts within which the group are discussed and how it is done

2 Categories Meanings/characteristics attributed to the various classications of each group 4 Discourses Conceptions and meanings as a whole

Table 1. Proposed reading scheme analysis

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4 Topics for discussion at the Doctoral forum Topics for discussion are highly focused on the methodological aspects of the discourse analysis research and will include: • To discuss how to ensure an empirical examination of the domain when using discourse analysis. • To discuss the pros and cons of the proposed reading scheme analysis as described in Section 3.1. Following discussion and feedback to devise a methodological schema in order to take the domain analysis forward. • How best to ensure that all the dimensions of context, as discussed in Section 2.3., are captured and in cluded in the model of contextual interaction. • General feedback on research to date and recommendations for the future.

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[1] Talja, S. (2005) „Users’ Library Discourses“. In: Johannsen, C.G. & Kajberg, L. New Frontiers in Public Library Research, P 307-327, Oxford: Scarecrow Press, Inc. [2] Examples include: Johnson, A. (2006) „The Big Experiment: A Multifaceted Approach to Evaluation“ Forum for Archives & Record Management Education & Research (FARMER 2006). http://www.aber.ac.uk/visitors/farmer/ Harley, D. et al (2006) „Use and Users of Digital Resources: A Focus on Undergraduate Education in Humanities and Social Sciences“. http://cshe.berkeley.edu/research/digitalresourcestudy/report/ Education for Change, (2006) „The Fund’s ICT Content Programmes“. http://www.biglotteryfund.org.uk/assets/er_digi_final_rep.pdf [3] Yakel, E. Torres, D.A. (2003) „AI: Archival Intelligence and User Expertise“. In: The American Archivist. Vol. 66 (1) Spring/Summer p 51-78 [4] Duff, W. (2002) „Understanding the information-seeking behaviour of archival researchers in a digital age: paths, processes and preferences“ Proceedings of the DLM Forum. http://europa.eu.int/historical_archives/dlm_forum/doc/dlm-proceed2002.pdf [5] The National Archives U.K. (2002) „Measuring Impact“. [6] Examples include: Duff, W. Craig, B. Cherry, J. (2004) „Historians Use of Archival Sources: Promises and Pitfalls of a Digital age“. In: The Public Historian Vol. 26 (2) Spring Duff, W. Johnson, C. (2002) „Accidentally Found on Purpose: Information seeking behaviour of Historians in Archives“. In: Library Quarterly Vol. 42 (4) [7] Beyer, H. Holzblatt, K. (1998) „Contextual Design: Dening Customer-Centred Systems“. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann [8] Hoare, C. Johnson, A. Pitt, I. Sorensen, H. (2006) „A Model of Contextual Information Seeking“. InSciT2006 [in Press] [9] Rasmussen, J. Pejtersen, A.M. & Goodstein, L. (1994) „Cognitive Systems Engineering“. [10] Hedemark, A. Hedman, J. Sundin,O. (2005) „Speaking of users: On user discourse in the eld of Public Libraries“ In: Information Research 10 (2) New York: Wiley.

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

The role of school libraries and school librarians in student’s acquiring information literacy skills Katalin Lovász Eötvös Lóránd University, Hungary [email protected]

Abstract What is the main purpose of schools? To teach students as much information as they can acquire and prepare them for school examinations, or prepare them for life? I think the answer is the latter, but in this case one cannot forget about infor mation literacy, which is, in my opinion, one of the key factors of successful life. An information literate person can deter mine his/her information needs, access, evaluate and use this information effectively and understand the ethical and legal issues of using information. This set of skills is essentially important in our information society. The Hungarian Core and Framework Curriculum emphasizes on the importance of the effective usage of information, and gives possibilities of teaching these skills in primary and secondary schools, but unfortunately there is a gap between theory and the practice. School libraries and librarians can help students in acquiring information literacy by complying with the following two roles: (1) providers of information resources, (2) teachers of information literacy, to help students use effectively these sources. The development of both roles is subject to a number of factors, including overall national strategies and reforms on ICT-integration and e-inclusion.

Keywords information literacy; school libraries; school librarians

Introduction The information gap is increasing between those who can have access to information and those who cannot have the opportunity to do that. There are number of studies and researches worldwide and in Hungary pointing out to this problem [Integration 2003, doc. electr.]. Lots of children are born with social, cultural and economical disad vantages, and unfortunately these disadvantages are often increasing in schools. In 2001 and 2004 Hungarians were shocked by the results of the PISA researches [Nagy 2004, doc. electr.]. The Hungarian students’ perform ance was below the average and what was even more striking that the difference between the results of the high school students and those who attend vocational schools was identied as crucial [PISA 2003, doc. electr.]. In schools students coming from all strata of society can be reached. That is why schools and their librar ies can/should be the places where the gap can/might be reduced. The Law on Education issued in 1993 states that schools should provide library services. School libraries are always on hand, their usage is free, and both tra ditional and new resources of information are available. Students’ needs and interests for information should be aroused, and appreciate the value and importance of information. School libraries and librarians can contribute to bridging the gap by complying with the following two roles. (1) act as providers of information resources, (2) act as teachers of information literacy, to help students to use effectively these sources. The development of both roles is subject to a number of factors, including overall national strategies and reforms on ICT-integration and e-inclusion.

1 Hungarian strategies and programmes on ICT-development and e-inclusion The comprehensive government level ICT policy is an issue of the whole society, and is based on the emerging in formation society strategies and related operative programmes in Hungary. The most important ones are: the Hun garian Information Society Strategy, the National Development Plan(s) and the National Broadband Strategy. The Hungarian Information Society Strategy (HISS, issued in 2003), was basically developed by the Min istry of Informatics and Communications, incorporating problem statement, future vision and action plan e-Hun gary for 2004-2006. The summary of the HISS strategy’s action plan [http://en.ihm.gov.hu/strategy] gives insight into major ideas and areas to be implemented by the Government’s National Development Plan. The National Development Plan was formulated rst for 2004-2006, with programmes to make use of Structural Funds assistance, in harmony with the European Union’s e-Europe Programme [National Develop ment Plan. 2003, doc. electr.]. The elaboration of the 2nd National Development Plan (Europe Plan) is reaching its nal phase for the planning period 2007 and 2013, with a great opportunity for funds for social and economic cohesion efforts, as well as for lifelong learning and innovation, closely connected to e-inclusion efforts [Developing, 2004, doc. electr.] 175

The National Broadband Strategy focuses specically on developing broadband access, and is issued by the Ministry of Informatics and Communication, based on the „ve pillars“ of access, contents, motivation, skills and safety. The Human Resources Development Operational Programme is a very important programme of the 1st National Development Plan (HRD OP, Humánerőforrás-fejlesztés Operatív Program) for the period of 2004-2006, aimed at training for information society skills, e-learning skills considered as key factors of competition, as well as important precondition of employability, and adaptability [The Human Resources Development Operational Programme 2004, doc. electr.]. The Hungarian Work programme on Education and Training is a part of the EU work programme on edu cation and training. It is coordinated by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Hungary. A report produced in May 2005 gives a thorough analysis of reforms of the key areas, and by the development strategy of the coher ent and comprehensive lifelong learning [Report of the Ministry of Education, 2005, doc. electr.]. The mid-term public education development strategy was elaborated by the Ministry of Education. Budapest, April 2004 [Az Oktatási Minisztérium középtávú közoktatás-fejlesztési stratégiája, 2004. doc. electr.]. The Educational Information Technology Strategy (2004–2006) issued by the Ministry of Education, rep resents the most detailed strategy for ICT in the educational sector [Oktatási Informatikai Stratégia, 2004, doc. electr.]. Based on an honest identication of major problems and barriers of ICT integration into public educa tion, it provides and claries the main strategic objectives as regards e-learning and ICT development. The development strategy of the school libraries was elaborated by Krisztina Dán through the research project „School library as information resource centre“ at the Programme and Curriculum Development Centre of the National Institute of Public Education in 2003 [ Dán, 2003, doc. electr.]. Many of the above strategies and more were presented to the Education and Training 2010 Conferences [Education and training, 2004, doc. electr.]. In addition to strategies, a number of programs have been carried to improve ICT-integration and e-in clusion. Some examples are: • The Sulinet Express Program was launched in 1996 in order to provide schools with infrastructure and re lated trainings. From 2003 the Sulinet Program Ofce has focused on facilitating networking, broadband access projects, integrating digital pedagogy into teacher trainings, as well as coordinating massive digital content development project, referred to as Sulinet Digital Knowledge Base (SDT). See more details in Chapter 5: School librarians as service providers). • Public Net (Közháló) program (coordinated by the Ministry of Informatics and Communications) plays also a major role in offering the infrastructure development for e-inclusion. It is carried out in the frames of the eHungary program (2004-2006) and is aimed at establishing community internet access points in various institutions (telecottages, libraries, cultural homes, and schools) in remote areas, with the ambi tious aim that by the end of 2006 all municipalities have broadband access to internet. It is combined with the Schoolnet – Public Utility Internet Network [Schoolnet, 2005, doc. electr.]. In addition, the e-learning projects reported to the EU by Andrea Kárpáti are also worth having a look at [Kárpáti, doc.electr.].

2 Changing curricula In Hungary the general national curriculum framework is based on the law on public education, its amendments, and subsequent regulations. The Hungarian law on public education was issued in 1993 about every aspect of the educational system. The content regulation comes with National Core Curriculum (NCC, Nemzeti Alaptanterv, NAT; in Hungarian), elaborated in 1996 and amended in 2003. A three level structure comprises the National Core Curriculum (1995), the Frame Curricula (2000) and local curricula (institutional level) to provide the recent regulatory framework for teachers to develop syllabi. Based on a central denition of each discipline, the schools and the local teaching staff can dene and adopt loc al curricula and syllabi for each class and each subject. The 2002 School Subject Observation survey on the state of general school subjects revealed that teach ing practices were not adjusted to the social, economic and labour market changes: there was a very strong em phasis on teaching, and providing factual information and theoretical knowledge as opposed to learning, skills development, and practical orientation. As a reaction, the National Core Curriculum was revised in 2003, and has been implemented from Septem ber 2004 step by step. It puts emphasis on developing „life skills, convertible skills, developing more intensive rela tions to social and business communities. It focuses on key competences needed in the labour market, such as the knowledge of foreign languages, ICT, learning skills, and interpersonal skills“ [Education, 2006, doc. electr.]. Despite these efforts, there are still several barriers of effective ICT integration and e-inclusion into school practice effectively (nancial, technological (with big differences in internet access, availability of PCs, 176

other computer equipment, belonging to local area network etc.) contents, methodological, skills, and motiva tional barriers, time constraints, and also regional and social problems. Children from disadvantaged segments of society have much less access to ICT tools at home and little at schools, or classes. As regards skills problems, many students have a latent illiteracy, with lacking reading skills, lack ing ICT application skills, foreign language skills. They seemingly can read, but do not understand what they read. These barriers are identied in a number of policy papers and reports [Report of the Ministry of Educa tion, 2005, doc.electr.], as well as in the Educational information strategy that emphasizes that we should put more emphasis on providing equity in chances, access to information, developing for lifelong learning, as well as developing foreign language and ICT skills and competencies, too [Oktatási informatikai stratégia p. 10,16, 2004]. It is promising that students are well motivated, and have the basic skills of using ICT, which grow year by year thanks to a well thought-over National Core Curriculum. The cases indicate that disadvantaged students react very positively to pioneering projects in ICT implementation, which can considerably contribute to their catching up. This process can and should be adequately supported with special measures used in disadvantaged regions, and for disadvantaged children, as for example the EMILE Project shows [Kárpáti, Fehér, Report, 2003]. The primary school teachers should be motivated to use ICT [Kőrös-Mikis, doc. electr.].

3 School librarians as teachers of information literacy It takes much time and effort to change the paradigm from preparing the students just for upper level school studies, instead of preparing them for life. The exams are still largely knowledge-based and not skills-based. That is the reason why the Hungarian students performed badly in PISA examination which concentrates rather on the usage of knowledge. One of the tools can be information literacy which could help students to overcome their disadvantages. It can be acquired with the help of teachers, and school librarians during the lessons and in the school libraries using the traditional information sources and the new information and communication technologies. Key competencies (literacy, communication and problem solving skills, digital and information literacy etc.) can help students, the po tential employees, nd proper workplace on the labour market. Involved in user education, students can acquire the skills of dening their information needs, of using information sources, tools and searching methods. Information literacy is a set of skills that can be transferred only by practice. The Hungarian Core Cur riculum emphasizes the importance of using information effectively. It offers many ways for that. Schools by law have to organize „library lessons“ integrated into the Information technology and the Hungarian literature (usu ally six lessons per year) to help students acquire skills of using both traditional and new, ICT-based sources. Teachers of other subjects give special tasks that need information research and use. The Information technology subject has been enriched recently, and now integrates seven major develop ment areas, taught over subsequent years to ensure that students receive fundamental training in: 1. application of ICT tools; 2. application of related skills, e. g. searching databases, etc; 3. info technology, solving problems with ICT tools and methods, algorithms, modelling etc; 4. mobile communication; 5. media informatics; 6. information society; 7. library and information sources, services and technology [NAT 2003, doc. electr.]. In many schools librarians are responsible for the 7th development area. But in several schools there is a big gap between theory and practice. School librarians have to „ght“ for the library lessons, and teachers – with some exceptions – do not use the library and its sources. Despite curricular reforms mentioned above, prob lem solving, critical thinking, and information literacy are not adequately emphasized. Teachers, who think that these skills can be important for the student, do not consider the school library to be the place where these skills can be taught, learned and used. This attitude must change by using marketing and public relations techniques in school libraries, by making them aware of the two roles of the school librarians, and by helping them acquire di gital pedagogy skills.

4 School librarians as service providers The new ICTs have spread in Hungarian school libraries from the mid-1990s. The Sulinet („Schoolnet“ in Eng lish) programme, mentioned earlier has provided free internet access for schools, as well as its web sites with learning and teaching materials for students and teachers. By 2005 2385 schools – 99% of secondary and 20% of primary schools – have joined this programme and were equipped by computers and broadband internet connec tions [Sulinet 2005, doc. electr.]. In Hungary public education suffers serious problems, with nancial sources decreasing, and it is usually the school library which feels the budget cuts rst. It cannot keep up with the rising prices of books and other 177

materials and can acquire less and less documents. Luckily, information is a resource that is not consumed when used, so online services come to their help. Virtual learning environments and networks at various levels (nation al, regional, local) are being now adapted to Hungarian public education. At the national level the most comprehensive central service is the Sulinet (Schoolnet; www.sulinet.hu), which contains seven subportals. On these different subportals everybody, from teachers to students and their parents, can nd interesting and important resources. One and the biggest of these subportals is the Education Subportal. The structural backbone of this portal rests on eleven curricular sections and on other two sections covering knowledge areas in a wider sense. The curricular sections include biology, physics, geography, literat ure, informatics, chemistry, mathematics, media, arts, history and languages (English, French, German, and Spanish). Articles related to the directives of the National Core Curriculum support the students to prepare for classes and for entrance examinations to universities. The methodological guidance attached to the articles serves the preparation of teachers. The Educational Forum allows a dialogue between students and teachers. The Sulinet Digital Knowledge Base (Sulinet Digitális Tudásbázis) was established in the frames of the Sulinet content development programme, and is open from September 2004. It offers wide range of information sources, including 6000 tested digital learning objects, growing number of compulsory and recommended literat ure, dictionaries, encyclopedias, maps, paintings and musical resources and all the required material for the everyday purposes of teaching and learning in schools for the levels 7-12 (age 12-18) [Digital, doc. electr.; Schoolnet – content, doc. electr.]. Besides Sulinet there are different full text databases at service: • Hungarian Electronic Library (www.mek.oszk.hu/), provides encyclopaedias, special literature, ction, poems, and novels. There are virtual exhibitions, talking books for blind people. It is a useful source for teachers as well as students. • Electronic Periodicals Archive&Database (EPA, www.epa.hu), online full text free access databases of important journals. • Neumann House (www.neumann-haz.hu), a text database of Hungarian belles-lettres. We may nd here writings of classical and contemporary writers, biographies with photos, musical illustration and virtual exhibitions. Its Digital Literary Academy (www.irodalmiakademia.hu) contains works of contemporary Hungarian writers. The service It is good to read! (www.olvasnijo.hu) is a database of children’s literature. In addition it has Catalogue of Hungarian Internet Sources (www.webkat.hu). • The National Audiovisual Archive (NAVA, www.nava.hu) constitutes the legal deposit archive of Hungarian broadcast. Its scope of collection comprises the programmes of the national terrestrial television and radios, produced in Hungary. It can be a help of teaching media literacy and communication in schools. There are number of other internet sources – serving their visitors with lots of materials connected to teaching and learning methods and activities: • National Educational Library and Museum (www.opkm.hu) is the information centre for educational science, public education and the history of education, collecting, cataloguing, organizing and providing related resources, compiling and publishing special bibliographies as well as databases. In addition, it is a methodical and coordinating centre for educational and school libraries in Hungary. • National Institute for Public Education (www.oki.hu) is involved in research, development and services in the eld of public education, with responsibilities determined by the ever changing needs of a diverse, multi-player system of public education. • Webpage of Hungarian Science (www.scientia.hu) offers interesting learning materials and links to useful internet sites and electronic scientic journals. These online information resources are unfortunately unknown by many teachers and students, and some times even by school librarians. To cope with this problem, the homepage of the school or the school library should provide links and web guides to them, to facilitate and help their use by both teachers and students. In addition to the above mentioned resources at national level, it is important to refer to the intensive devel opment of local level networking in schools, bringing PCs scattered in different premises (in classrooms, in teach ing staff ofces, library etc.) into an integrated network. This offers the opportunity for intranet services and internal communication. Still in infancy in primary schools, local networking has become a common issue in most second ary schools, also providing intranet services at various levels [Oktatási, 2004, doc. electr.]. This offers a lot of chance for the school library as well in publishing web sites, sources, and disseminating local contents, news etc.

5 Summary of systematic development actions In order to arrive at the highest efciency of school library development, now we have to do the following: • follow national strategies, policies and programmes (embedded into EU actions), as they can be major drivers of e-inclusion in schools • initiate and participate in related projects in the frames of the 2nd national development plan (2007-2013) 178

• • • • •

• •

be involved in international, especially EU-projects, for a regular and systematic sharing of methods and best practises make use of best practises appearing in English of either international or national priority projects [Best practises, 2004, doc. electr.; Hungarian, doc. electr.] intensify research and publication, e. g. through the channels of National Institute for Public Education (OKI; http://www.oki.hu) improve specialisations in the frames of the Library and Information Science programme, and facilitate related staff research publications and student theses prepare papers for conferences and workshops organized at national, regional, and local level for digital pedagogy, for methodological support of school libraries, e. g. by the Association of School Librarians, Info Savaria, etc. pay attention to a more intensive integration of school library and resource centres into virtual learning environments at various levels, and facilitate their networking and nally foster the activities of the School Librarians’ Association Hungary, celebrating its 10 years of foundation, through synthesising the above activities.

References 

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Cognitive foundations of information science Mirka Grešková Dept. of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University, Gondova 2, 818 01 Bratislava, Slovakia [email protected]

Abstract The paper is focused on the rise and the source conceptions of the cognitive paradigm of information science. It is based on conceptual analysis, which is dedicated to the denition of fundamental terms. A conceptual graph describes relations (and their types) between single concepts. The paper characterizes conceptions inuenced by cognitive sciences not only in evo lutionary, but also in thematic frameworks. From this point of view, the most important elds are information behaviour, re trieval interaction models and their applications to interface design. Information behaviour represents a signicant theoreti cal and research line in the eld of information science. It is mostly described as user-oriented including components of user behaviour in the interaction with information environment. Retrieval interaction models are abstractions of particular situation, when user interacts with information (mediatory role of technologies is emphasized). From the information sys tems design viewpoint the bridging of information behaviour research and cognitive work analysis is presented. The main aim is to connect cognitive paradigmatic conceptions with applications, which support people in information work, and take advantages of giving attention to their information behaviour. Concluding part is dedicated to the introduction of doc toral research project oriented towards the human-agent interaction.

Keywords cognitive paradigm; conceptual analysis; information behaviour; interactive information retrieval; information systems design; methodology

Introduction Information science studies relations between people, technologies and information (knowledge, wisdom) at the interdisciplinary level. Cognitive paradigm research is interested in user and his/her interaction with the informa tion environment. Technological tools have been developed and are improving to ease information search and re trieval. The question is what level of user adaptation is necessary to retrieve information with aid of search tools? Outputs from information behaviour research and interactive information retrieval introduced many models and conceptions (some of them are described below). Human-agent interaction will be applied in our research project and will analyse this phenomenon from a wider perspective with the use of qualitative approach.

1 Conceptual analysis Conceptual analysis is concerned with fundamental concepts in information science and cognitive science. The analysis have resulted in a conceptual graph (graph 1.) representing relations between single concepts. The graph features concepts in the context of categorial differentiation at the levels of discipline, general cat egory, process and tool.

Graph 1. Cognitive foundations of information science – conceptual graph

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2 Rise and criticism of the cognitive view Cognitive sciences have been applied in information science since 1980s of 20th century. De Mey introduced cognit ive view in the Workshop on Cognitive Viewpoint (Ingwersen, 1992). Since then, many researchers were inspired by cognitive sciences, especially by philosophy, cognitive psychology and articial intelligence. Information sci ence’s objective was extended from information to knowledge, understanding and meaning. Ingwersen (1982, 1984, 1996, Järvelin, 2005), Dervin (1983, 1992), Allen (1991, Kim, 2001), Kuhlthau (1991, 1993), Saracevic (1997) and many others stand out in the cognitive area of studies. Cognitive view enthusiasm was (and still is) criticized using many arguments. First of all, criticism of in dividualism is well known and spread by Hjørland (1992, Albrechtsen, 1995, 1997, 2002) who points out that so ciological orientation is more appropriate to the study of information processes and in consequence he proposed domain analysis as the solution. Hjørland’s criticism joined other authors as Frohmann (1990, 1992), Ellis (1989), Palermiti, Polity (1995) and Talja (1997). Another argument against cognitive view is human-machine analogy. Ellis (1992) describes problem of inaccuracy and ineligibility of elimination of human cognitive processes to machine formalisms. Constructs of mentalistic vocabulary (e.g. mental representation, cognitive structure) are sometimes too abstract and more or less empirically unprovable. Finally, programmer’s mental model is reected in an application he/she developed. Testing user beha viour in interaction with interface or incorporating more cognitive aspects in the functional architecture could help in solution of this problem.

3 Cognitive foundations of information science Cognitive view synthesizes trichotomous conceptual model consisted of information saved in information sys tems, mediators and users (Limberg, 2000). Allen (1991) contributed to cognitive basis by analysis of cognitive abilities, cognitive processes and cog nitive styles. He mentioned that cognitive paradigm underline qualitative aspects of information transfer and use. Ingwersen (1992) stresses that cognitive view is focused on users in information environment, who process in formation and create their mental representations. Research is focused on user contexts and technologies (intelligent systems, digital libraries etc.). Cog nitive paradigm is represented by conceptions of information behaviour, interactive approach and design ap plications described below.

3.1 Information behaviour Information behaviour refers to the interaction of user with information environment in the social context. It rises in the adaptation process, when user reacts to the problem-solving situations. Kuhlthau (1993) describes inform ation behaviour as „seeking of the meaning“ and Dervin (1983) understands it as „sense-making“. Dervin details how user in actual situation bridges the gap by the means of „sense-making“ and achieves outputs in time-space frame. Information behaviour foundations are embedded in models of information seeking introduced by Ellis (1989), Kuhlthau (1991), Wilson and Walsh (1996) and Foster (2005). Nahl (2001) distinguishes ACS (Affective → Cognitive → Sensomotoric) as the unit of the information behaviour and characterizes it on the level of adaptation, interaction and personalization. Current research on information behaviour in the context of digital environment is represented by CIBER (2005), concerned with various user groups, sources and digital health. Research outcomes aimed at information search behaviour in digital space were reported by Bates (1989), Nicholas et al. (2004, 2005) and Spink with Jansen (2004).

3.2 Interactive information retrieval Models of information retrieval interaction reect interaction that relate user to the system and analyse conjunction between them. Models identify layers or dimensions in interaction. Episodic interaction model introduced by Belkin (1995), Saracevic’s stratied model (1997) or feedback model (Spink, 1997) range among the best-known. Ingwersen and Järvelin (2004) in their general analytical model show that processes of cognitive trans formation and inuence or interactive communication of cognitive structures between information objects, in formation systems, interfaces, cognitive actor(s) and organizational, social and cultural contexts are realized. In comparison to this model previously described models were multilayered. Ingwersen and Järvelin’s model did not specify cognitive actors in detail. Even though, interactive models are relevant for applications to interface design and providing outlets for better understanding of human-machine interaction.

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3.3 Information systems design applications Cognitive aspects are applied to the most recent systems of digital libraries, intelligent agents, information re commender systems and areas of human-agent/computer interaction, adaptive information retrieval, multime dia retrieval etc. Johnstone et al. (2004) presents synthesis of system modelling and information behaviour in the form of a model and conception with applications to the information systems design and implementation. Rasmussen developed considerable direction of cognitive system engineering. Fidel and Pejtersen (2004) used Rasmussen’s framework of cognitive work analysis, which explains information retrieval interaction by work activities of people. Information behaviour in the workplace, contexts and reasons of their activities condi tion the development of system design. The described approaches are examples of synthesis of cognitive view and system development. Lack of synthesis of applications and theory was criticised since 1980s (Dervin, 1983) and is problematic up to the present day. Nevertheless, we believe information science can offer its conceptions to engineering disciplines, which have started to acknowledge the conclusive importance of human and social dimension of technologies.

4 Research project proposal Goals and methods of research are based on analysis of theoretical and research tendencies of the cognitive paradigm. The project synthesizes information behaviour, interactive information retrieval and their applications to information systems‘ design. Analytical outputs of the research will be applied to the model of human-agent interaction and draft specifying tools for efciency improvement of system.

4.1 Characteristics of scientic goals Research project is aimed at exploration of human-agent interaction, denition and modelling of unique pro cesses constructed in this interaction. Research will support interdisciplinary knowledge interchange and em phasize the importance of human (user) aspects of human-agent interaction. Partial research aims are described as: • Characteristics of an agent • User analysis and task designation • Identication of processes in the human-agent interaction • Usability evaluation of agent by user • New solutions (application of results to the draft specifying possible system improvement).

4.2 Methodological proposal Qualitative methods inspired by phenomenology will be applied to the research. Realization phase will consist of processes of data collection, analysis, reduction and synthesis and will be divided into two blocks: • Presentation of the agent and pattern analysis of internet search • Examining of the human-agent interaction and problem and failure identication. Methods applied to particular blocks are following (chart 1): Block Presentation of the agent

Method Presentation

Pattern analysis of internet information search Human-agent interaction examination

Description

Interaction problems and failure identication

Semi-structured interview (Focus group)

Initializing interview – think-aloud protocols – Semi-structured interview

Chart 1. Methods applied to the research project

4.3 Research outcomes Summarization of qualitative research will derive: • Description of information search in common situations (procedures, tools), • Human-agent interaction model, • Conceptual proposal of interchanges of agent interface and functional parameters on the basis of interac tion problems and failures, • Generalization (prediction) of evolutionary trends of human-agent interaction dimensions. 183

5 Conclusion Theoretical and methodological syntheses will result in new perspectives for information science. Applications should be aimed at the area of information search and retrieval and provide inspiring insights for developers of systems. Final consequences will interfere with more effective user-system interaction and simplied search in the digital environment.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Znalostní mapy a služby centra CBK v Ernst&Young Břetislav Šimral Ernst&Young Tax&Transactions, s.r.o., člen koncernu, Karlovo nám. 10, 120 00 Praha [email protected]

Abstract Knowledge maps and services of Centre for Business Knowledge in Ernst&Young How to best distribute knowledge in the „Big 4“ environment? How to make sure that all have necessary information in the right time, the requested format and the highest possible quality? How to successfully promote and use the portfolio of globally provided information sources and which external databases should be added on a local level? And where to nd the time for your holiday? The answer is simple – train your „clients“ to use all the available information sources in the right way. Study their information behaviour and create „Knowledge Maps!“ You will realize how quickly and effectively will these interactive knowledge crossroads guide your users to the right piece of information. An article evaluating weak nesses and strengths of Knowledge Management, Knowledge Maps and other services of the Centre for Business Knowledge in Ernst&Young will try to answer not only these questions. The article shall briey describe the sources and tools used for the processing of all types of external and internal client questions and outline the ways leading to successful infor mation education of internal clientele.

Keywords knowledge maps; information behaviour; external information sources; center for business knowledge

Úvod – Něco málo o společnosti Ernst&Young Společnost Ernst&Young, jejíž pobočky můžeme nyní najít ve 140 zemích po celém světě, je poradenská společ nost s dlouhou a bohatou historií. Jejím cílem je pomáhat klientům, mezi něž patří jak začínající podnikatelé, tak i významné nadnárodní korporace, řešit širokou škálu podnikatelských problémů. Více jak 100 tisíc zaměstnanců (z toho cca 400 v ČR v kancelářích v Praze, Brně, Ostravě a Pardubicích) usiluje o co nejlepší kvalitu a profesi onální přístup při poskytování poradenských služeb, které se dělí na 3 primární části – jde o oblast účetnictví a uditu, daňového poradenství (včetně zpracování daňového přiznání) a transakčního poradenství. V některých zemích (pokud to umožňuje tamní legislativa) poskytujeme také právní služby. Naše služby se zaměřují na sedm hlavních ekonomických odvětví, mezi něž patří nanční služby, tech nologie, komunikace a zábavní průmysl, energetika, plynárenský, chemický a vodárenský průmysl, zpracova telský průmysl, maloobchod a spotřební zboží, zdravotnictví, nemovitosti, pohostinství a stavebnictví. Abychom dokázali zajistit stejně vysokou kvalitu našich služeb i do budoucna, zavedli jsme v celo světovém měřítku řadu opatření zaměřujících se na profesní rozvoj našich zaměstnanců i mechanismy zajišťu jící kontrolu kvality a dodržování příslušných standardů a norem. Ty se samozřejmě promítají i do oblasti Knowledge Managementu, který je na globální úrovni hodnocen velmi kladně. Ostatně o tom svědčí například i ocenění „Best Management of Knowledge“ udělené v říjnu 2005 organizací Managing Partners’ Forum.

Obecné principy knowledge managementu v E&Y Dnešní podnikatelské prostředí je extrémně dynamické – neustále je nutné sledovat a vycházet z nesmírně rychle se měnících podmínek nančních trhů, změn v právní oblasti, nových technologií, konsolidací a priva tizací, vznikajících a zanikajících obchodních aliancí, průlomových strategií a řešení. Každá změna ve výše uvedených i dalších oblastech ovlivňuje naše klienty a naši oblast podnikání téměř v reálném čase. S tím sa mozřejmě roste i potřeba urychlit jednotlivé procesy a propojit veškeré naše know-how do takové sítě, která by umožnila jednotlivé znalosti zachycovat, ukládat, transformovat a v příhodný okamžik z nich vytvářet hod noty oceňované našimi klienty. Úkolem Knowledge Managementu v E&Y je tak „dodat správné informace, správným lidem a ve správný čas“. V dnešním turbulentním podnikatelském prostředí je efektivně zvládnutý Knowledge Manage ment jedním ze zásadních pilířů, který odlišuje naši společnost od konkurence.

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Obr. 1. Úloha center CBK ve znalostním managementu společnosti

Technologie používané pro zajištění všech nezbytných procesů KM nám umožňují sledovat informace ovlivňující naše klienty „v přímém přenosu“ a okamžitě zaznamenávat všechny změny, které mohou mít (a mají) vliv na jejich podnikání. Umožňují nám shromažďovat a využívat nejlepší myšlenky a postupy vytvářené našimi týmy na globální i lokální úrovni, podporují práci ve virtuálních týmech bez jakéhokoliv omezení a podporují dosažení maximální produktivity, ziskovosti a konkurenční výhody.

Center for Business Knowledge Jako u většiny rem orientujících se na služby, jsou i v Ernst&Young hlavní hodnotou lidé. Abychom dokázali udržet naši vedoucí pozici na trhu a ukazovali našim klientům směr v dnešní znalostní ekonomice, musíme neus tále hledat a rozvíjet nové cesty vedoucí ke zdokonalování procesů a výstupů znalostního managementu, který je ve rmě uplatňován. Propojení znalostních bází a sdílení znalostí v nich dostupných mezi všemi E&Y profesi onály z celého světa je tak základním úkolem Knowledge Managementu, potažmo pak i oddělení, které se nazý vá Center for Business Knowledge (dále jen CBK). Aby se zajistil optimální rozvoj Knowledge Managementu na všech úrovních řízení a aby se tato činnost koordinovala i na úrovni globální, vzniklo v roce 1993 oddělení CBK, které se začalo starat o duševní kapitál společnosti. Počáteční idea byla jednoduchá – pomoci klientům (respektive interním uživatelům) učit se z „kolek tivních zkušeností a znalostí“ společnosti. CBK se postupně vyvinulo (a bylo s tímto cílem i zakládáno) v jedinečnou celosvětovou síť informačních (znalostních) profesionálů, kteří se starají o všechny aspekty znalostního managementu společnosti (především jde o přístup k informačním zdrojům, jejich obsah, sdílení informací na všech úrovních apod.) a umožňují tak dalším zaměstnancům přístup k nejaktuálnějším informacím o společnostech, odvětvovým analýzám, benchmar kingovým studiím a dalším cenným informacím a znalostem. Rozvoj sítě CBK a jednotlivých procesů je zajišťován neustálým sledováním a prohlubováním znalostí o informačním chování naší interní i externí klientely. Snažíme se především zjistit: • Jak se naši uživatelé vzdělávají. • Kdy, jak a proč hledají určité znalosti a jak přispívají k know-how sdílenému v rámci celé společnosti. • Jaký druh znalostí / informací nejvíce oceňují a jaký užitek jim přináší.

Obr. 2. Zodpovědnosti a procesy v CBK

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CBK – Local is Global Stejně jako jsou například datová centra společnosti DHL rozmístěna po světě tak, aby dokázala zajistit plynu lý provoz po celých 24 hodin s pouze 8 hodinovou pracovní dobou každého z těchto center, jsou i centra CBK rozmístěna tak, aby byla zajištěna nepřetržitá informační podpora. Tato „globálnost“ pak umožňuje například rešeršérovi v Austrálii pracovat na Real Estate analýze ve spolupráci s informačním profesionálem v Cleve landu, sdílet navzájem své schopnosti, zkušenosti, čas a pracovat tak na projektu téměř 24 hodin denně. Nej větší CBK centra jsou rozmístěna následovně:

Obr. 3. Největší CBK centra

CBK tak integruje znalostní management do každodenních povinností všech zaměstnanců E&Y a díky podchycení, transformaci a dalšímu využívání znalostí z celého světa zajišťuje našim klientům co možná nejvyš ší kvalitu našich služeb dodávaných s výraznou přidanou hodnotou. V současné době mají CBK centra do hromady asi 300 stálých zaměstnanců, z nichž asi polovina působí v Clevelandu, dalších cca 50 v Severní Ame rice a zbytek je rozmístěn v dalších centrech po celém světě (London, Rotterdam, Sydney atd.). Může být trochu matoucí, proč je i přes neustálé zdůrazňování jisté „virtuality“ našeho znalostního pros tředí tolik „fyzických“ CBK center po celém světě. Je to způsobeno především tím, že při zakládání CBK center v roce 1993 existovalo velké množství fyzických knihoven, které byly využívány profesionály z celého světa, a tak byly výtahy z těchto knihoven denně faxovány a rozesílány na všechny kontinenty. S postupujícím roz vojem digitalizace informací byly některé z největších knihoven na každém kontinentu zachovány a v podstatě transformovány na CBK centra. Další výhodou geograckého rozprostření těchto center je bezesporu znalost lo kálního prostředí rešeršéry v příslušných CBK centrech a naši klienti si cení i možnosti vždy zastihnout příslušného specialistu telefonicky, což by v případě jediného CBK centra vzhledem k časovým posunům nebylo vždy možné.

Obr. 4. Zpracování znalostí v rámci center CBK

Informace generované centry CBK jsou ve většině případů dodávány prostřednictvím remního In tranetu – tzv. KnowledgeWeb – a následně uchovávány pomocí mnoha nástrojů v prostředí tohoto Kwebu. Zde může více než 100.000 zaměstnanců z celého světa nalézt informace ve více než 1.000 znalostních bází, včetně případových studií a „Best Practices“, aktualit z jednotlivých odvětví, uskutečněných projektů nebo článků z více než 6.000 publikací…

Knowledge maps Snaha „odlehčit“ našim informačním specialistům (rešeršérům) a umožnit jim věnovat se pouze „obtížnějším“ požadavkům a rešerším s větší přidanou hodnotu, nás vedla k myšlence „znalostních map“. Ty by měly být ku prospěchu jak pracovníků CBK centra, kterým tak ušetří práci na „triviálních“ dotazech, tak především interních uživatelů, kteří budou moci (s patřičnou podporou) dospět k požadované informaci vlastními silami, tj. v pod 189

statě v mnohem kratší době a snadněji, než by bylo možné při zadávání jednoduchého dotazu do Research Requ est databáze a čekání ve „frontě požadavků“. Znalostní mapa je tak (nejen) z našeho pohledu rozcestníkem k určitým znalostem, aniž by tyto znalosti sama obsahovala – a je jedno, zda jde o mapu ve formě jakýchsi „žlutých stránek“, skutečnou „mapu“ ve formě diagramu či chytře konstruovanou databázi zdrojů, kterou v našem případě nazýváme „Resource Navigator“.1 Abychom sestavili plně funkční, snadno aktualizovatelné a co nejvíce „soběstačné“ mapy, které by samot né vyhledávání spíše podněcovaly než „ukončovaly“, sestavili jsme si pro vlastní potřeby tabulku, která sumari zuje naše základní představy a nástroje, kterými bychom chtěli vytčeného cíle dosáhnout. Předpoklad Znalostní mapa je cíleně vytvářené a stále upravované komunikační médium mezi tvůrcem mapy a jejím uživatelem. Tvůrci znalostních map a jejich uživatelé musí sdílet společné symboly a reprezentace využívané při tvorbě posloupností a pravidel v mapách. Znalostní mapy musí, pokud opravdu mají uživatele vést k „objevování znalostí“, podporovat kroky vedoucí k učení a samostudiu. Znalostní mapy musí iniciovat proces hledání informací, ne ho ukončovat.

Důsledek Pro minimalizace nedorozumění a informačních šumů musí autoři znalostních map přistupovat k jejich tvorbě tak, že umožní a usnadní uživatelům poskytnout zpětnou vazbu týkající se možných zlepšení těchto map. Aby uživatelé jasně porozuměli a využívali symboly používané ve znalostních mapách, musí tyto mapy obsahovat jasný klíč (legendu) vysvětlující novým uživatelům základní symboly používané v mapách.

Praktická aplikace Jednoduše dostupný formulář, díky kterému by mohli uživatelé přidávat komentáře k jednotlivým částem znalostních map, případně možnost přímo opravovat jednotlivé záznamy, které by se po kontrole supervizorem promítly do celého systému. Srozumitelná legenda včetně stručné instruktáže, která je jak dostupná v jednotlivých mapách, tak je i obsahem znalostních tréninků.

K zajištění rozvoje samotných map i znalostí uživatelů, musí mapy pomoci vytvářet představy dalších kroků, které získané informace dále rozvedou a přemění ve znalosti. Aby nebyly tyto mapy ochuzeny o přidanou hodnotu, musí předcházet vytváření „závislostí“ na jejich obsahu a podporovat kritické a inovativní myšlení.

I když se jedná o tématicky jasně denovanou a vymezenou rešerši (například v rámci jednoho odvětví), musí se mapy chovat „interdisciplinárně“ a umožnit nahlédnout i do příbuzných oblastí (odvětví). Místo modelu „jedna otázka – jedna odpověď“, musí mapy nabízet více alternativních řešení (například v podobě více relevantních zdrojů či odkazů na zdroje, které nejsou běžně přístupné v rámci společnosti).

CBK a jeho úloha při tvorbě znalostních map Znalosti využívané a udržované CBK centry tvoří kompletní intelektuální kapitál společnosti. Skládají se jak z kapitálu lidského (know-how našich zaměstnanců, know-who a know-what), obsahu uloženého v dokumen tech, databázích, nástrojích a procesech a intelektuálního kapitálu vztahujícího se k našim klientům (sdílené představy, vztahy a důvěra mezi námi a klientem). Úkolem CBK center je tak už zcela přirozeně udržování a zajišťování přístupu ke zdrojům interním i externím a k jejich „zmapování“ pak chybí již jen malý krůček. Jako ve většině podobných organizací, kde je dodání potřebné informace v co možná nejkratším termínu zcela zásadní otázkou, má tvorba znalostních map usnadňovat orientaci uživatelů ve znalostním prostředí rmy a umožnit jim provádět základní rešerše vlastními silami. Tím, že dokážeme uživatele poměrně jednoduše a na základě mnoha hledisek nasměrovat na relevantní zdroj využitelný pro zodpovězení jeho dotazu, urychlíme nejen informační procesy ve společnosti, ale z hlediska CBK oddělení získáme i více času pro tvorbu náročněj ších analýz s výraznější přidanou hodnotou. V zásadě se architektura našeho znalostního Intranetu – v rámci něhož jsou znalostní mapy dostupné – skládá z následujících prvků, které dohromady vytvářejí komplexní prostředí pro uchovávání a sdílení remních (i externích) informací a znalostí: • EY Home Page – Intranet • ey.com – veřejně přístupné stránky (internet) • Ernst&Young Online – zabezpečený portál pro komunikaci a sdílení informací mezi společností a klienty • Community HomeSpaces (a další standardizované databáze) – nástroj pro ukládání a sdílení informací týkajících se určité komunity • Externí zdroje a rozcestník k těmto zdrojům přístupný prostřednictvím KnowledgeWebu • KnowledgeWeb Search Engine. Všechny tyto prvky je nutné brát v potaz, pokud budeme chtít vytvářet znalostní mapy, které uživatele při hledání odpovědi na jeho dotaz nasměrují dle situace do jednoho z výše uvedených zdrojů či k jednomu z ná strojů. Ve většině případů skončí takové hledání v jednom z interních či externích zdrojů. Pod zdroji interními pak myslíme informační bohatství, které je vytvářeno v rámci společnosti a je do stupné prostřednictvím několika základní nástrojů a databází, mezi něž patří například:

1

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Pro bližší studium problematiky znalostních map doporučuji využívat díla autorů jako je T. Davenport či L. Prusak

Obr. 5. Ukázka z široké škály interních zdrojů

Výše zobrazené databáze jsou jen některé z mnoha nástrojů, které vytváří přidanou hodnotu díky tvorbě virtuálních týmů a sdílení znalostí v rámci těchto skupin. Jsou to nástroje, které umožňují sdružování profesionálů orientujících se na stejný segment trhu (nebo stejné služby v rámci širšího segmentu), jsou to zdroje kompi lující nabídky klientům, prezentace, informace o uskutečněných projektech, specializované nástroje a řady dal ších relevantních remních zdrojů. Pokud je uživatel při zodpovídání svého dotazu odkázán na zdroj externí, dostává se do prostředí poměr ně neznámého, a pokud se nejedná o databázi, se kterou pracuje dnes a denně, je nutné mu poskytnout i odpoví dající podporu při vkládání rešeršního dotazu. Tyto databáze dělíme v první fázi na zdroje poskytované globálně (bez možnosti výrazně ovlivňovat rozsah, dostupnost a výběr). Company OneSource Dun&Bradstreet Thomson Research Credit Suisse First Boston MI Factiva

Industry OneSource World Market Securities MI

Special Der Betrieb online Haufe OfceLine Worldwide Tax Treaties Get Abstracts IDC Net Computer Economics

Tab. 1. Výběr několika nejdůležitějších externích databází

Mezi další hojně používané zdroje, které nejsou ve výše uvedeném přehledu zmíněny (přístup je omezen jen na určité části či jsou dostupné jen pro některé pobočky), patří zejména produkty Bureau van Dijk či Compa ny InfoGator. Aby se uživatelům usnadnila orientace v jednotlivých externích zdrojích, jsou v rámci jednotlivých znalostních map podrobně popsány a charakterizovány. Uživatel může také získat jak potřebné informace pro první přihlášení, tak zažádat o on-line/tele training apod. Úkolem jednotlivých CBK je pak doplnit výše uvedené portfolium zdrojů (v případě potřeby a smyslu plnosti takového kroku) o zdroje poskytující přístup k lokálním a specickým informacím, které nejsou dosa žitelné pomocí globálně zpřístupněných databází. V ČR to pak znamená především obohatit dostupné infor mační báze o zdroje typu: • Magnus (Čekia) • Newton (monitoring tisku) • Albertina Firemní Monitor • Amadeus (BvD) • Zephyr (BvD). Znalostní mapy pak neodkazují samozřejmě pouze na externí zdroje v podobě komerčních databázových center, ale podněcují uživatele i k využívání volně dostupných databází a informací v prostředí internetu. Mezi takovéto zdroje spadají například: • www stránky profesních asociací • www stránky vládních orgánů a organizací • diskuzní skupiny • vyhledávací nástroje (i oborově zaměřené) • adresáře a katalogy • zdroje dostupné v tzv. „hlubokém webu“ • šedá literatura – konferenční materiály, patenty apod.

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V současné době probíhá tvorba a revize znalostních map pouze pro několik klíčových odvětví, v nichž jsou naši „interní klienti“ nejvíce angažováni. Jedná se tak o znalostní mapy pro Finanční služby (Global Finan cial Services), Health Sciences, Public Sector a Energy&Utilities. Každou znalostní mapu, která je vytvářena jako dynamický objekt za použití moderních aplikačních ře šení, doplňuje i stručnější „factsheet“, který v podstatě převádí dynamické prostředí znalostních map do podoby umožňující tisk. Uživatelé tak mají po ruce další nástroj pro rychlou „konzultaci“ a v mnoha případech je tato pomůcka oblíbenější, než samotné znalostní mapy (pro bližší statistiky využívání jednotlivých nástrojů a po můcek vycházejících ze znalostních map není v současné době dostatek informací). Každá znalostní mapa pro jednotlivá odvětví, respektive výtah z těchto map transformovaný do tištěné podoby, pak obsahuje několik částí (vždy ve stejné struktuře), z nichž velká část poskytuje uživateli stejné informace a zodpovídá stejný dotaz, vždy ale z jiného úhlu pohledu. Využití externích zdrojů se dá například přiblížit formou výčtu těchto zdrojů a charakteristik jednotlivého zdroje i se stručnou případovou studií, tudíž ukázkou možného využití takového zdroje, ale i formou přehledné tabulky, která k problému přistupuje v podstatě opačně: Where to nd information on

Public Companies

Private Companies

Wall St. News/ Finan- Exec Analysis Overview cials Bios

News/ FinanOverview cial

Business Industries Countries/ Legal/ &Mgmt Regions Codes &Regs

Exec Bios 

Computer Economics Credit Suisse First Boston

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D&B Milion Dollar Database

Info Technology

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EY/Excel Linl Factiva.com

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GetAbstracts.com

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IDCNet 

Internet Securities

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OneSource Global Business Browser (US Edition)

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S&P Market Insight

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Thomson Research including Investext

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World Markets Research Centre

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Yankee Group

Tab. 2. Rozdělení externích zdrojů dle možností využití

Podobný výsledek nám může zajistit i následující „pohled“ na znalostní mapu, tj. tabulka zodpovídající dotaz uživatele na základě jeho přesně dané informační potřeby. Tento přehled se pak neomezuje pouze na zdroje externí, ale bere v potaz veškeré (nebo přinejmenším většinu) informační bohatství uložené v rámci i vně společ nosti, které se nějakým způsobem váže k danému odvětví (dotazu): What do I need?

CID

CR

EEX

FEX

Company Prole

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Industry Prolre

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Client News Synopsis

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IR

LR

MR

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NET

NEX

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Benchmark Analysis (Financial)

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Benchmark Analysis (Process) Market Share Information

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E&Y Competitor Information

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E&Y Qualications

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Educational Information 

Financial iformation&Analysis

Target Company Analysis

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Tab. 3. Rozdělení externích i interních zdrojů dle informační potřeby

192

SAD

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Rates&Prices, Economic Data

Sales&Marketing Collateral

PP

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• • • • • • • • • • •

CID Competitive intelligence databases such as Global Market Facts&Figures, National Sales SDL CR Company research resources such as CanCorp, FP Investor Suite, Primark Global Access, OneSource EEX Economic external resources such as Conference board of Canada, Canadian Rates&Prices database FEX Financial statements sources such as Sedar, CanCorp Compact D, FP Analyst IR Industry sources such as OneSource, AABS Online, S&P Market Insight, GRAD LR Firm learning resources MR Salesmarketing collateral databases NET Company, government and industry association web sites NEX External sources such as Factiva, NewScan, Infomart PP PowerPacks focusing on an industry, discipline or process SAD Sales tracking databases such as PMS, STARS+, Maximizer.

Stejně tak je u každé znalostní mapy sledováno nejčastější použití, respektive nejčastější zdroje, ke kterým je uživatel při zpracovávání svého dotazu zaveden. Na základě těchto statistik (které jsou však ještě sbírány nahodile na základě zpětných vazeb od uživatelů) sledujeme pro každé odvětví TOP zdroje, které po tom strukturujeme do přehledné tabulky, jakési „esence“ nejoblíbenějších a nejvyužívanějších zdrojů pro tokteré odvětví. Top resources External News General: Factiva, Infomart.ca, Lotus Notes Browsables Energy: Energycentral News (Cybertech) FSI: Factiva IP: Statistics Canada Monthly Survey of Manufacturers RCP: Canadian Retailer, Food in Canada TCE: Silicon Valley North, Angus Telemanagement

PowerPacks Energy: Americas ECU PowerPack, Australian Minerals and Energy PowerPack, Global Energy Chemicals&Utilities Powerpack FSI: Canadian FSI Knowledge IP: IP PowerPack TCE: TCE PowerPack RCP: RCP Industry PowerPack

External Research General: Factiva, Infomart.ca, Lotus Notes Browsables Energy: Oil&Gas Journal, Oil&Gas Investor, Daily Oil Bulletin, Utility Spotlight FSI: Bloomberg, OneSource IP: AMR RCP: Investext via Primark, Directory of Retail, Restaurant and Fast Food Chains in Canada TCE IDC, Investext via Primark, Market Insight, Gartner, Yankee

Industry Knowledge Energy: CBK Research&Analysis, AABS Online (KLA) FSI: AABS Online, GFS CHS IP: Investext via Primark, Factiva, OneSource RCP: Investext via Primark, Factiva, OneSource, AABS Online TCE: AABS Online

Analysis Tools Energy: John S. Herold, AABS Online, GRAD FSI: A. M. Best, S&P Market Insight IP: Investext via Primark, Statistics Canada, AABS Online RCP: Investext via Primark, Statistics Canada, AABS Online TCE: EY/Excel Link

E&Y Newsletters Energy: ECU Connection, Energy Smart (E&Y Clients only), EEI Daily Energy News FSI: FSI Insider via GFS CHS IP: IP Global Newsletter, IP NewsFlash RCP: RCP Community News, Retail News TCE: TCE Weekly News Flash, TCE News

Tab. 4. Přehled nejpoužívanějších zdrojů

I přes stálé zlepšování funkcí a možností Kwebu a dalších interních databází, které vždy umožňují ať již jednoduché, tak sostikované vyhledávání s použitím různých operátorů, zůstávají znalostní mapy poměrně jednoduchým a přitom vysoce účinným prostředkem, který zajistí uživatelům nejen nalezení odpovědi na často kladené a „jednoduché“ dotazy, jejichž zpracování nevyžaduje profesionální rešeršní znalosti a zkušenosti. Záro veň jsou tyto mapy vynikající průvodci (pokud jsou dostatečně srozumitelné a udržované co se týče míry úplnos ti a aktuálnosti) uživatelům, kteří se často cítí zahlceni množstvím rozličných nástrojů a databází, které se jim jevily jako relevantní vůči aktuálnímu požadavku. Problémy uživatelů při interakci s prostředím remního in tranetu (Kwebu) se dají nejsnáze charakterizovat následujícími výroky, přičemž naší snahou je samozřejmě do stat se v průběhu času na úroveň charakterizovanou body 4 a 5:

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Obr. 6. Základní stupně vývoje znalostního prostředí (kultury) a potažmo funkcí Kwebu

Využívání (a potažmo i tvorba) znalostních map je sice teprve v počátcích, neobáváme se však, že by si tito „průvodci“ znalostmi uloženými v rámci i vně společnosti nenašli své uživatele. Až čas však ukáže, do jaké míry byl první návrh jejich struktury úspěšný a jak hodně se budou muset přizpůsobit odlišným před stavám uživatelů…

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Knihovna: katalyzátor využívání informačních zdrojů Hana Landová Ústav informačních studií a knihovnictví, Filosocká fakulta, Univerzita Karlova v Praze, U Kříže 8, 158 00, Praha 5 [email protected]

Abstract Library: the catalyst of information resources use Information institutions, including libraries, play a key role in the area of providing access to various types and formats of information resources. Thanks to new information and communication technologies many high quality information re sources are accessible. And so, usage of these resources becomes the topic of these days. Using information effectively in order to solve problems not only related to school, work or research is a prerequisite for successful life in today’s informa tion or knowledge society. How can citizens learn necessary skills and knowledge related to information literacy – ability to recognize information need, choose information resource, search for the information and use the information effectively? How to increase the level of information literacy systematically? What kind of role should libraries and other information institutions play in this effort? This article is focusing on the role of libraries in both formal and informal education. It de nes the position of librarians as key players in the eld of information literacy. On the other hand it stresses the importance of librarian–teacher cooperation. This concept should lead to the higher level of effective information resources usage.

Keywords information literacy; information education; academic libraries; teaching librarian; cultural institutions

Úvod Významné změny, které souvisejí s přeměnou společnosti na společnost informační, mají za následek zvyšování nároků, které jsou kladeny na její občany. Současná společnost klade velké nároky na schopnost orientovat se ve stále rostoucím množství informací, tyto informace hodnotit a využívat je při řešení rozmanitých úkolů. To pod miňuje i odpovídající změny v tak významné struktuře, jakou je vzdělávací soustava každého státu. Právě vzdělávání zajišťuje přípravu člověka na plnohodnotný život v dané společnosti. Co však ve skutečnosti tvoří zmíněnou vzdělávací soustavu státu? Jedná se pouze o jednotlivé typy škol, nebo sem patří i jiné instituce? Bylo by možné zařadit sem i knihovny? Právě v souvislosti s knihovnami se i v českém prostředí, a to nejen v posled ních letech, objevují pojmy jako informační gramotnost či informační vzdělávání a vedou se četné debaty, zda by se knihovny měly vzdělávací činnosti věnovat, případně do jaké míry a jakou formou. Tyto debaty probíhají stále v naprosté většině pouze uvnitř knihovnické komunity. Vzácně se objevují snahy vyvolat mezioborovou diskuzi. Jsem však přesvědčena, že právě tato je nezbytná. Pokud se jedná o tak významnou oblast života společnosti jakou výchova a vzdělávání bezpochyby jsou, není možné, aby její problémy řešil jeden obor. A nebo spíše více oborů, ale každý odděleně. Je třeba spolupráce, vzájemné vysvětlení a pochopení základních pojmů a témat. Uvědomění si přesahů a prolínání jednotlivých oborů. A jakých oborů se tato problematika týká především? Z našeho pohledu se jedná zejména o informační vědu, pedagogiku, andragogiku a psychologii. Zajímavý a ins pirativní je i pohled očima lozofů výchovy a vzdělávání. Stále výrazněji si uvědomuji možné průniky těchto oborů a jejich význam a chtěla bych je v tomto přís pěvku naznačit. Zároveň se pokusím klást takové otázky, odpovědi na něž nás snad dovedou k požadovanému závěru, tedy k rozhodnutí zda mají knihovny a jiné informační instituce své místo v procesu výchovy a vzdělává ní. Jakou pozici by měl ve výchově každého občana zastávat knihovník – pedagog?1 Existuje vůbec taková pozi ce jako knihovník – pedagog? Nebo bychom knihovníka, který se podílí na výuce uživatelů měli označovat úpl ně jiným termínem? A jaká by měla být jeho kvalikace? Jedná se o problematiku, v jejímž rámci se velkou měrou prolínají teoretické a praktické aspekty. Je zřejmé, že uspokojivé řešení není možné hledat pouze v kni hovnách či naopak výhradně v pracovnách teoretiků informační vědy a knihovnictví. Tyto dva, často velmi od dělené světy by se při řešení otázek, jimiž se zabývá tato práce, měly spojit a hledat řešení společně. To totiž musí být uplatnitelné v praxi, ale zároveň by mělo být postaveno na pevných teoretických základech. Sama se snažím skloubit své praktické zkušenosti z práce v pozici vysokoškolského knihovníka, který se intenzivně věnu je výuce a přípravě výukových materiálů, a své zkušenosti z práce na teoretickém zázemí této problematiky. Zde předkládám některé své úvahy a náměty.

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V anglicky psané odborné literatuře se již dlouhou dobu používá termín „teaching librarian“, viz např Peacock (2001).

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1 Knihovna jako prostředí pro učení a poznávání nového Před nedávnou dobou mě velmi zaujaly některé práce Davida Carra2 [Carr 1983, 1986, 1992], věnované úloze kulturních institucí ve vzdělávání zejména dospělých návštěvníků a uživatelů. Mezi kulturní instituce řadí vedle knihoven a muzeí, které považuje za jedny z nejtypičtějších představitelů, i zoologické zahrady, akvária, botanic ké zahrady, či dokonce náměstí a veřejné parky. A o těchto institucích doslova říká: „kulturní instituce jsou cenné nástroje v životech a myslích těch, kteří se chtějí učit něčemu novému, protože vynášejí na světlo možnosti úvah, reexí a otázek.“ [Carr 1992] „Pokud na muzea a knihovny budeme nazírat jako na kognitivní nástroje“, pokračuje Carr, „zna mená to, že jim přiznáme jejich potenciál míst, kde pozornost, aktivní učení a kritické myšlení mohou vést ke změnám ve znalostním fondu učícího se jedince.“ Kulturní instituce, a mezi nimi tedy i knihovny, jsou prostředími, které nabízejí uspořádané báze znalostí. Jsou také prostředím motivujícím k rozvíjení úvah, získávání nových informací a jejich uvádění do kontextu do savadních znalostí daného člověka, který tak poznává hranice svých znalostí, různé formy učení a učí se odlišo vat relevantní informace od ostatních. Pokud bychom se spolu s Carrem zaměřili na problematiku učících se do spělých návštěvníků a uživatelů kulturních institucí, je třeba si uvědomit, že ani oni, i když většinou již dávno ukončili „formální„ etapu svého vzdělávání, nejsou na konci procesu poznávání nového a konfrontace nově zís kaných poznatků se svými dosavadními znalostmi a zkušenostmi. Nenacházejí se již ale v situaci, kdy na ně působí silná autorita rodičů či učitelů. Jejich učení a vzdělávání se probíhá daleko častěji formou spolupráce či rozhovorů s kolegy, jejichž znalosti v daném oboru jsou na vyšší úrovni než znalosti jich samotných. Těmito kolegy či partnery mohou být například kurátoři výstav, odborníci v muzeích, průvodci po historických památ kách či knihovníci. Stejně tak ale může být přínosná komunikace s ostatními návštěvníky či uživateli a vzájemná výměna zkušeností a sdílení úspěchů či neúspěchů. Z pohledu informační vědy je, dle mého názoru, velmi zajímavý detailní pohled na úlohu těch, kteří vy tvářejí prostředí, které bude téměř samo vybízet k poznávání nového. Těch, kteří sbírky, fondy a informace uspořádají tak, aby příchozí měli rozmanité možnosti, jak do nich vstupovat, jak v nich hledat a nacházet to, co odpovídá jejich potřebám. Těch, kteří svou přítomností a svými aktivitami podněcují zájem, zmírňují nejistotu a pomáhají řešit úkoly a problémy. Věřím, že kvalikace těchto lidí, v našem případě tedy např. knihovníků, by měla sahat daleko za hranice jejich oboru, tj. knihovní a informační vědy. Měli by znát důkladně proces, který nazýváme učení, měli by vědět jakými způsoby k učení a poznávání může docházet, měli by být schopni odhad nout, které situace jsou nejvhodnější pro to, aby podněcovaly zájem a motivovaly k získávání nových poznatků, a především tyto situace systematicky vytvářet. Mají tedy knihovny své místo ve vzdělávacím procesu? Je zřejmé, že jsou ideálním místem pro neformál ní vzdělávání, tj. pro vzdělávání mimo struktury tradičních vzdělávacích institucí. Jsou místem, kde se „student-samouk“ může ztratit mezi regály plnými vědění nebo se ponořit do pomyslného oceánu elektronických zdrojů. O tom není pochyb. Ale můžeme knihovny považovat za legitimní součást i toho formálního procesu vzdělávání? Jaká je pozice školních knihoven na základních a středních školách? A knihoven vysokoškolských v rámci univerzit a vysokých škol? Ráda bych se teď věnovala vzdělávacím aktivitám, které mnohé knihovny již v současnosti zajišťují, kritériím kvality těchto aktivit a také kvalikaci, kterou by měl mít knihovník, který se v rámci své práce vzdělávací činnosti věnuje. Vzhledem k své dosavadní praxi se budu věnovat zejména prostře dí vysokoškolského vzdělávání.

2 Vysokoškolské knihovny a jejich zapojení do výuky Knihovníci přijali v posledních desetiletích problematiku informační gramotnosti, respektive informačního vzdělávání za jedno z klíčových témat své práce. Velmi intenzivně se do iniciativ tohoto typu zapojili především představitelé vysokoškolských knihoven, kteří si v této souvislosti uvědomují jedinečnost a význam svého půso bení, jak je patrné i z následujícího výroku: „Společnost tvořená informačně gramotnými jedinci je hlavním cílem snažení knihovníků a aktivity související se zvyšováním informační gramotnosti jsou postaveny na hluboko do minu losti sahajících a bohatých tradicích knihovnictví.“ [Reichel 1991]. Zapojení vysokoškolských knihovníků do výuky tedy není nic nového. Na většině vysokých škol nejen v zahraničí, ale i u nás knihovny poskytují služby v oblasti vzdělávání svých uživatelů, studentů a pedagogů. V jaké formě a v jakém rozsahu knihovny tento typ služeb poskytují? Pod pojmem informační vzdělávání si asi většinou představíme některou z „tradičních„ forem vzdělávacích aktivit, tj. semináře, přednášky či celé kurzy, které knihovny pro své uživatele organizují. Pro přehlednost je můžeme rozdělit na několik základních kategorií: 2

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David Carr je v současné době docentem na School of Information and Library Science, University of North Carolina v Chapel Hill

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Exkurze – prohlídka budovy knihovny, studoven a čítáren se stručným výkladem o možnostech využívání služeb, které knihovna poskytuje. Jednorázové instruktáže – úvodní seznámení s informačními službami v rámci dané vysoké školy, ale i se službami ostatních knihoven a informačních center ve městě (regionu); instrukce související s využíváním informačního systému školy – jedná se pouze o nezbytný úvod, na který je třeba navázat další výukou. Cyklus přednášek (jako jedna ze služeb knihovny) – cyklus monotematických přednášek, který pořádá knihovna pro zájemce (vyučující, studenty, zaměstnance); může být věnován např. práci s databázemi dostupnými v knihovně (knihovnách) dané vysoké školy – tato forma by neměla být základem, ale pouze doplňkem informačního vzdělávání na dané VŠ; je založena na dobrovolnosti a měla by být určena spíše pro zaměstnance a vyučující, kteří nemají možnost navštěvovat řádnou výuku. Přednášky v rámci jiných předmětů – dle posledních poznatků patrně nejvhodnější forma informačního vzdělávání, která klade důraz na uplatnění získaných znalostí a dovedností v oblasti práce s informacemi v praxi – tj. při studiu a řešení úkolů se studiem spojených; tato forma informačního vzdělávání je velmi náročná na schopnost spolupráce dvojice vyučující – knihovník. Její uplatnění je vhodné především ve vyšších ročnících, poté, co studenti získali teoretické základy práce s informacemi a seznámili se s některými obecnými zákonitostmi této činnosti v rámci základního uceleného kurzu. Kurzy zařazené do osnov – základní semestrální kurz informačního vzdělávání by měl být zařazen v počátku studia (nejlépe ve druhém semestru) jako součást studijního plánu všech studentů bez ohledu na studovaný obor. Na získané znalosti a dovednosti by mělo navazovat postupné seznamování se speciky informační práce u jednotlivých oborů v rámci výuky odborných předmětů.

Neměli bychom ale zapomínat, že existuje i alternativa k těmto formám výuky. Abychom mohli mluvit o vzdělávání, není přeci vždy nutné, aby knihovník stál před učebnou plnou studentů a přednášel. Ráda bych proto zmínila prvky, které jsou nezbytnou součástí systému informačního vzdělávání a bez nichž by tento nebyl nikdy úplný. Jedná se o následující: • Kvalitní referenční služby • Tvorba tištěných i elektronických výukových pomůcek a manuálů • Komplexní webová prezentace knihovny. Právě kvalitní referenční služby a tvorba online pomůcek a manuálů, které se stanou součástí přehledné a obsažné webové prezentace knihovny, jsou obecně považovány za jedny z možných cest, jak rozšířit paletu služeb a nástrojů zaměřených na zvyšování informační gramotnosti. A zdaleka s nejedná o nový trend. Podobné materiály – samozřejmě v tištěné podobě byly využívány již před několika desítkami let. Jeane Galvin [2005] se ve svém článku zabývá mimo jiné právě tvorbou různých průvodců a rozcestníků, jakožto alternativou k tradiční výuce. Uvádí, že jejich využití je dokumentováno v odborné literatuře již v 70. letech. Již v té době byly uskuteč něny četné průzkumy, které prokázaly, že studenti, kteří se z jakýchkoliv důvodů ostýchali oslovit s daným dota zem knihovníka, se velmi rádi obraceli právě k těmto materiálům a využívali je při zpracování seminárních prací. Jako jeden z hlavních důvodů je uváděna skutečnost, že při práci s těmito materiály studenti, a ostatně nejen oni, mohou postupovat svým tempem, vracet se k tomu, čemu neporozuměli apod. Často se objevují diskuze na téma, zda jsou vhodnější tištěné či elektronické verze výukových materiálů. Odpověď není jednoznačná. Například ve vysokoškolských knihovnách v USA ani v době internetu knihovny nezanevřely na tištěné materiály, které jsou dostupné v referenční oblasti knihovny. A studenti je opravdu využí vají. Stejně tak začínají i do „tradičních„ forem informačního vzdělávání – tj. přednášek a seminářů – pronikat prvky e-learningu. Jedna forma ale v žádném případě nevytlačuje druhou. Cílem je vytvořit komplexní systém informačního vzdělávání, síť, kterou nepropadnou ani studenti distančních studijních programů. A právě využití různých forem výuky, které doplňují jedna druhou je, dle mého názoru, tou nejlepší cestou k tomuto cíli. Za pod mínky, že jsou splněna kritéria kvality. Která to jsou?

3 Kritéria kvality informačního vzdělávání Možná bude pro někoho překvapením, že v této části věnované kriteriím kvality informačního vzdělávání nebudu rozlišovat jednotlivé formy a formáty výuky, tak jak jsme o nich mluvili v předchozí kapitole. Je zřej mé, že se tradiční formy výuky liší od nových forem elektronických. Jak uvádí Dewald [1999], liší se jejich účel a prostředí, ve kterém se odehrávají, jiné je i publikum, formy komunikace a výstupy. Tradiční výuka, která probíhá v učebnách, se uskutečňuje buď na základě požadavku pedagoga nebo je součástí nabídky kni hovny a je zaměřena na konkrétní skupinu studentů, která je v danou chvíli přítomna. Odehrává se v knihov ně, počítačové či jiné učebně a publikem je skupina studentů, kteří komunikují nejen spolu navzájem, ale i s vyučujícím. Výstupem je skupina studentů, která se naučila něčemu, co využije pro daný kurz a v ideálním případě i pro řešení úkolů v dalších kurzech. Oproti tomu online formy výuky jsou zaměřeny na studenty, kte ří z jakéhokoliv důvodu nejsou přítomni při běžné výuce, a kteří často preferují samostudium (vlastním tem pem ve vyhovující době). Publikem je tedy mnohem častěji jednotlivec, který je doma, ve své kanceláři, 197

v knihovně či třeba na koleji. K interakci dochází mezi studentem a počítačem a výstupem je student, který se naučil dovednostem ve chvíli, kdy je potřeboval pro zpracování nějakého úkolu. Výuka prostřednictvím inter netu může doplnit či nahradit běžnou výuku tím, že rozšiřuje možnosti, které knihovníci mají při předávání znalostí a zároveň rozšiřuje možnosti studentů – časové i prostorové. Dewald však v tomtéž článku zdůrazňuje, že je nutné i na tyto online dostupné formy informačního vzdělávání aplikovat kritéria kvality, dle nichž hodnotíme tradiční výuku. Co je tedy znakem kvalitního infor mačního zdělávání? Dewald uvádí sedm základních kritérií: • Výuka se vztahuje ke konkrétnímu kurzu, či ještě lépe ke konkrétnímu zadání práce nebo projektu (semi nární, ročníkové aj.). • Výuková jednotka (tradiční či online) obsahuje prvky tzv. aktivního učení, tj. nejedná se o pouhý výklad či souvislý text, ale jsou zařazena cvičení a příklady, na kterých je probírané téma ilustrováno. • Zařazení prvků spolupráce při učení (tzv. collaborative learning) může studentům pomoci jednotlivé problémy lépe pochopit. Když se studenti ve skupinkách společně učí pracovat např. s katalogem nebo databází, navzájem si problémy vysvětlují a diskutují o nich, to vše přispívá k lepšímu pochopení daného tématu. Toto kritérium je u většiny online dostupných materiálů těžko dosažitelné. Aplikovat by se dalo snad jen u rozsáhlejších kurzů uskutečňovaných formou e-learningu, která knihovníkovi v pozici lektora umožňuje vedení virtuálních diskuzí. • Je důležité dbát na to, aby byly výukové materiály dostupné v různých formátech na různých médiích. Je tak respektována skutečnost, že se každý učí jiným způsobem. Někomu vyhovuje o dané problematice slyšet, jiný má lepší vizuální paměť a další se nejvíc naučí pokud si může všechno sám vyzkoušet (tzv. learning by doing). Pokud zvážíme jaké různé druhy formátů jsou v současné době v prostředí internetu podporovány, toto kritérium by nemělo být problematické. • Každá výuková jednotka – seminář, přednáška, semestrální kurz, online manuál aj. – by měla mít jasně stanovené cíle. Tyto cíle by měly být zřejmé nejen přednášejícímu, resp. tvůrci výukového materiálu, ale i studentům. Pokud studenti předem vědí, kam daná lekce či celý kurz, případně konkrétní materiál směřuje, snáze se v něm orientují. Toto lze u elektronických kurzů vyřešit podrobným obsahem v úvodu dokumentu a pomocí map či interaktivního menu, které studentům umožní snadnou navigaci celým materiálem. • Cílem informačního vzdělávání je seznámit studenty s obecnými zásadami a principy a ne naučit je mechanickému chování. • Žádný prvek informačního vzdělávání by neměl končit ve chvíli, kdy knihovník opustí učebnu, resp. kdy student dojde na poslední stránku nějakého výukového materiálu, ale měla by kdykoliv v budoucnu exis tovat možnost obrátit se na knihovníka s dotazem. Je otázkou, zda budeme se všemi uvedenými kritérii souhlasit. Možná by mnohé z vás napadla i další krité ria, která jsou specická pro elektronické materiály – např. jejich gracké řešení, které musí splňovat určité zásady, aby bylo pro uživatele stravitelné. A jistě by jich bylo více. Kritéria, která uvádí Dewald, považuji za zajímavá pře devším proto, že nám dávají do souvislosti tradiční a online formy výuky a ukazují, že se jedná o velmi podobné aktivity pouze se odehrávající v odlišném prostředí. Neměli bychom proto zapomínat, že i materiály, které studen tům vystavujeme na webových stránkách knihovny, by měly být pečlivě promyšlené a připravené, stejně jako si mnozí z nás pečlivě připravují své prezentace v okamžiku, když mají před studenty předstoupit osobně.

4 Místo závěru aneb nevzdávejme se velké šance Vždy si znovu a znovu uvědomuji, o jak široké a komplexní téma se jedná, a že být úspěšným advokátem prob lematiky informační gramotnosti a jejího významu v kontextu současné společnosti představuje boj hned na několika frontách zároveň. A navíc, k řešení takových problémů potřebujeme často znalosti a dovednosti, které zasahují do oblastí, kterých jsme se při studiu na knihovnických školách často dotkli jen velmi okrajově či vůbec a tedy se na první pohled jeví jako by byly nad rámec naší kvalikace. Tím mám na mysli například teorii vzdělávání, andragogiku a psychologii. Zároveň ale cítíme, že jsou to úkoly, které by měla řešit právě knihovna a nechceme se jich vzdát, často proto, že je málo pravděpodobné, že by se jich ujal někdo jiný. Jak z této situace ven? Domnívám se, že bychom s neměli vzdát této šance. Měli bychom připustit, že dochází k posunu ve fungo vání knihoven. Přestávají být shromaždištěm knih, časopisů a jiných druhů dokumentů. Dokonce už nejsou ani jediným výchozím bodem pro práci s elektronickými informačními zdroji. V tuto chvíli by se někteří knihovníci měli zhostit úlohy pedagogů, průvodců světem informací či konzultantů.

Seznam bibliograckých odkazů    198

CARR, David. 1983. Adult Learning and Library Helping. Library Trends. 1983, Spring, p. 569-583. CARR, David. 1986. The Meaning of the Adult Independent Library Learning Project. Library Trends. 1986, vol. 35, no. 2, p. 327-345. CARR, David. 1992. Cultural Institutions as Structures for Cognitive Change. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 1992, no. 53, p. 21-35.

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DEWALD, Nancy H. 1999. Transporting good library instruction practices into the web environment: an analysis of online tutorials. The Journal of Academic Librarianship. 1999, vol. 25, no. 1, p. 26-32. GALVIN, Jeane. 2005. Alternative strategie for promoting information literacy. The Journal of Academic Librarianship. 2005, vol. 31, no. 4, p. 352-357. PEACOCK, Judith. 2001. Teaching Skills for Teaching Librarians: Postcards from the Edge of the Educational Paradigm. Australian Academic & Research Libraries [online]. May 2001, vol. 32, no.1. [cit. 2005-08-10]. Dostupné z . REICHEL, M. 1991. Library literacy. RQ. 1991, vol. 31, no. 1, p. 25.

Poděkování Tento příspěvek byl podpořen z grantu Grantové agentury Akademie věd ČR „Interakce člověk – počítač v humanitních vědách“ (reg. č. A701010606).

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Optimalizácia webových stránok pre vyhľadávacie stroje ako súčasť informačnej architektúry webových stránok Peter Búci Dept. of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia [email protected]

Abstract Search engine optimization as part of web site information architecture In the past decade we have recognized a rapid growth of web sites and increasing amount of published content on internet. Presently, internet search engines are trying to index and cover as much content as possible to provide a user with high standard service. These statements do not guarantee visibility and ndability of web pages by user. Based on relatively newly born problems connected with searching on internet, a new discipline has emerged: „Information Architecture“. In formation Architecture is based on the value of content, its meaning and usability. According to Garry McGovern, „IA“ is built up on four pillars: metadata and classication, navigation, searching, and design. The methodology, Search Engine Optimization (SEO), has been developing together with „IA“ and other new technologies. SEO uses methods, which direct ly inuence the results of search engines. SEO is cross-connected with particular „IA’s“ pillars and it is closely related to methodology – Search Engine Marketing (SEM). These days it is essential to implement all these approaches into web page developing, while we are forced to be ndable and visible by search engine and, moreover, by users.

Keywords internet; searching; optimization; SEO; search engines; libraries

Úvod Optimalizácia webových stránok pre vyhľadávače (SEO) svojimi postupmi a technikami zabezpečuje nájditeľ nosť publikovaného obsahu vo vyhľadávacích nástrojoch. Vzniká ako reakcia na potreby používateľov nájsť relevantný obsah na základe svojich požiadaviek. Implementovaním prvkov SEO sa stránky dostavajú bližšie k používateľovi a zároveň sa zvyšuje návštevnosť a adresnosť obsahu publikovaného na stránkach.

1 Historický vývoj Význam internetu ako publikačného média narastá spolu s rozvojom používaných informačných technológií. Jednou z primárnych charakteristických čŕt webu je schopnosť prepojiť jeden HTML súbor s iným. To umožňuje prepojiť dve časti súvisiacich informácií, aj keď sa nachádzajú na rozličných miestach (webových serveroch) sveta. Teda internet ako hypertextové médium vstupuje medzi konkurenciu dovtedy dostupných publikačných médií. Webové stránky poznáme od roku 1991, kedy bol vytvorený World Wide Web. Krátko predtým sa vytvo rili štandardy, ktoré umožňovali elektronickú komunikáciu medzi počítačmi. Jeden z najvýznamnejších štandar dov je štandard HTML. HTML štandard stojaci za každou webovou stránkou riadi zobrazenie textu a graky. HTML bol prevratný v tom, že zrazu mal každý možnosť cez vytvorenú stránku publikovať informácie, ktoré považoval za dôležité, a sprístupniť ich všetkým na svete. Prakticky cez noc prežilo publikovanie na webe prud ký rozmach (Boiko, 2002, s. 67). Ďalšou inovatívnou novinkou popri HTML sa stali webové prehliadače, ktoré umožňujú interpretovať HTML súbory a rozhodovať o tom, ako ich zobraziť. Multimediálne vlastnosti prehliadačov umožnili premenu statického štandardu HTML na pestré, interaktívne stránky, zahŕňajúce rôzne farby, obrázky, multimédiá. Dnešná doba je stále viac poznačená internetom a nárastom informácií v digitálnej forme. Internet svojim globálnym charakterom ovplyvnil život a prácu ľudí na celej planéte, v súčasnosti ho využíva viac ako miliarda používateľov na celom svete. Význam internetu ako publikačného média narastá spolu s rozvojom používaných informačných technológií. Spolu so šírením internetu narastá i množstvo publikovaných informácií, informačných zdrojov a zároveň s vývojom technológií narastá i rôznorodosť formátov obsahu (McGovern, 2002, s.35). Internet sa počas svojej existencie stal nevyčerpateľným zdrojom informácií, v ktorom sa máme problém orientovať, nájsť relevantný obsah, a máme tendenciu zablúdiť v spletitom hypertextovom prostredí. S vývojom internetu sa vyvíjali i mechanizmy, ktoré nám napomáhajú vyhľadávať informácie. Už pred vý vojom služby World Wide Web existoval vyhľadávač, ktorý vedel prehľadávať FTP servery. S nástupom WWW sa objavujú prvé indexovacie nástroje, kde sa za priekopníka považuje nástroj WWW Wanderer. V roku 1995 nastáva boom v oblasti vyhľadávačov a na scénu vychádzajú Metacrawler, Excite, Altavista, AskJeeves (Šmička, 2005). 201

Vyhľadávacie nástroje sa postupom času vyprolovali do dvoch kategórií: web katalógy, fulltextové vy hľadávače. Vyhľadávacie nástroje sa snažia pokryť čo najväčšie percento celého webu a preto najmä u fulltexto vých vyhľadávačov pozorujeme najväčší pokrok vo vyhľadávaní informácií. Postupom času sa menil pohľad na vyhľadávanie informácií. Kým na počiatku bolo cieľom ponúknuť po užívateľovi čo najviac odkazov, v súčasnosti sa presadzuje trend vyhľadávania kvalitného, dôveryhodného a relevantného obsahu. Vyhľadávacie mechanizmy dnes indexujú a pracujú so zložitými logaritmami, aby ponúkli čo najadresnejšie výsledky. Problém však nestojí len na strane používateľa a jeho schopnosti nájsť relevantné informácie, ale i na strane poskytovateľov, autorov obsahu, ktorí by sa mali snažiť o nájditeľnosť ich webových stránok. Viaceré štatistiky poukazujú na správanie sa používateľov pri práci s vyhľadávacím nástrojmi. Používatelia pracujú len s prvými 20. až 30. odkazmi, ktoré im na základe ich požiadavky ponúkne vyhľadávač. Ostatné výsledky použí vatelia považujú za menej relevantné.

2 Súčasný stav Užívatelia hľadajúci obsah na internete využívajúc vyhľadávacie nástroje sú ovplyvnení práve radením výsledkov samotných vyhľadávačov. Čím vyššie umiestnenie stránka dosahuje, tým sa zvyšuje pravdepodobnosť jej návštev nosti, tým je jej obsah kvalitnejšie napísaný a zároveň relevantnejší v rámci danej oblasti záujmu používateľa. Cieľom súčasných web developerov, či dizajnérov nie je len kvalitný a atraktívny web plný interaktív nych prvkov, ale do popredia kladú validitu HTML kódu so štandardmi W3C, snažia sa o aplikovanie prvkov prístupnosti stránok pre znevýhodnených používateľov a využívajú prvky informačnej architektúry. Hlavnou čr tou nových webov je relevantný a kvalitný obsah, adresné denovanie názvov stránok a podstránok, precízne denovanie kľúčových slov. Tieto ale i mnohé ďalšie prvky patria medzi techniky optimalizácie webových sídiel pre vyhľadávače. Optimalizácia stránok pre vyhľadávače (ďalej SEO), vzniká ako reakcia na nastupujúce trendy v oblasti vyhľadávania. Autori publikovaného obsahu sa potrebujú dostať bližšie k používateľovi, ktorý vo väč šej miere využíva vyhľadávače ako vstupnú bránu pre obsah, ktorý hľadá. Popísaná skutočnosť v súčasnej dobe prebieha vo väčšej miere v komerčnom prostredí, kde obchodné spoločnosti využívajú služby SEO poskytované web developermi. Problémovým sektorom ako vo väčšine prípa dov je verejný sektor, v našom prípade oblasť knižníc a informačných pracovísk, ktoré nedisponujú dostatočný mi nančnými, technologickými či personálnymi zdrojmi. Kvalitatívna úroveň webov našich knižníc je na nižšej úrovni a výrazne zaostávajú za aktuálnym trendom.

2.1 Súčasný stav v podmienkach knižníc Knižnice sa v oblasti komunikácie prostredníctvom internetu spoliehajú na tzv. „low cost„ riešenia, ktoré v nie ktorých prípadoch nepostačujú ani na poskytovanie akýchsi základných virtuálnych služieb. Cieľom knižníc v západných krajinách je stať sa informačnou bránou pre svojich používateľov. Snažia sa o poskytovanie čo najväčšieho spektra informácií. Ich weby sú pestré, aktualizované, dizajnované a vyvíjané podľa najnovších odporúčaní. Stránky ich webov sú optimalizované pre vyhľadávače a používatelia po zadaní požiadavky nachádzajú vo vyhľadávačoch práve odkazy na stránky daných knižníc. Stránky našich knižníc nezohľadňujú najnovšie kritéria a nenasledujú štandardy W3C konzorcia. Ich weby sú budované prežitými metódami a ich dizajn neobnáša základné prvky informačnej architektúry.

3 Search Engine Optimization U nás tento termín prekladáme ako „optimalizácia webových stránok pre vyhľadávače“. Cieľom SEO je svojimi postupmi postúpiť stránky webu na vyššie priečky v rámci nájdených výsledkov vyhľadávačmi. SEO denujeme ako metódu, ktorá rieši využiteľnosť informácií na webe pri vstupe na stránky z vyhľadávačov (Prokop, 2004). Využitie metód SEO je pri budovaní stránok nevyhnutné, pretože: „Stránka, ktorá nie je indexovaná vyhľadáva čom, prakticky neexistuje“ (Švihla, 2005). Tvorba stránok by však mala byť orientovaná vždy na používateľa, pretože čo je dobré pre neho, je dobré i pre vyhľadávače. Pri metóde SEO sa stretávame s legálnymi a nelegálnymi technikami vyznačujúcimi sa ON-page a OFFpage faktormi. Medzi legálne techniky patrí: • štruktúra obsahu: title, nadpisy, zvýraznenie, členenie textu • meta tagy: kľúčové slová, Dublin Core • každá stránka by mala byť dostupná (mŕtve odkazy) • nepoužívať odkazy typu „tu kliknúť“! • nenahradzovať text obrázkami, vyplnené title a alt atribúty • sitemap (do 100 odkazov) • robots.txt • registrovať stránky vo vyhľadávačoch. 202

• • • • • • •

Medzi nelegálne techniky patrí: skryté texty a odkazy, nerelevantné texty cloaking (iný obsah pre ľudí a pre vyhľadávanie) door-way stránky (mnoho kľúčových slov na vstupnej stránke) link-farms tajné presmerovania odkazy v príspevkoch do diskusií na webe automatické programy (Švihla, 2003).

SEO napomáha k zviditeľneniu sa, ale nie je jedinou samostatnou metódou zabezpečujúcou úspech stránok. Vývoj internetu teda smeruje k vyhľadaniu relevantného obsahu pre užívateľa a adresnému publikovaniu autorov a iných poskytovateľov webových prezentácií. Indexovacie mechanizmy vyhľadávačov sú momentálne sostikovanejšie a svoje výsledky sa snažia očis tiť od nerelevantného obsahu alebo „spamu“. V súčasnosti medzi vyhľadávacími mechanizmami jednoznačne dominuje vyhľadávač GOOGLE. Jeho indexovací robot monitoruje najväčšie percento webu a zároveň indexuje obsah stránok do hĺbky, čím sa pokúša radiť svoje výsledky na základe relevantnosti s ohľadom na požiadavku používateľa. Indexovacie pravidlá vyhľadávačov sa zdokonaľujú a dávajú dôraz na denovanie kľúčových slov, na množstvo kľúčových slov v obsahu stránky, na popisné tagy HTML kódu, na odkazy vedúce na stránku resp. na aké iné stránky daná stránka referuje a mnohé ďalšie.

Zoznam bibliograckých odkazov   

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BOIKO, Bob. 2002. Content Management Bible. Indianapolis : Wiley Publishing, 2002, 925 s. ISBN 0-7645-4862-X. MAKULOVÁ, Soňa. 2004. Informačná architektúra [online]. In IKAROS [online]. [cit. 2005-10-10]. Dostupné na internete: < http://www.ikaros.cz/node/2007>. MAKULOVÁ, Soňa. 2003. Návrh riešenia problémov pri vyhľadávaní informácií v internete alebo Od kvantity ku kvalite. In Knihovna plus [online]. [cit. 2005-10-10]. Dostupné na internete: . MCGOVERN, Gerry, NORTON, Rob. 2002. Content Critical. London : Pearson Education Limited, 2002, 241 s. ISBN 0 273 65604 X. PROKOP, Marek. 2004. Role informační architektury a optimalizace pro vyhledavače v online publikování. In Inforum [online]. [cit. 2006-02-20]. Dostupné na internete: . ŠMIČKA, Radim. 2002. Optimalizace pro vyhledávače – SEO [online]. [cit. 2006-14-02]. Dostupné na internete: . ŠVIHLA, M. 2003. Vyhľadávanie a sémantický web [online]. [cit. 2006-02-20]. Dostupné na internete: .

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Svobodný přístup k informacím versus autorské právo Věra Jurmanová Volemanová Kabinet knihovnictví; Ústřední knihovna Filosocké fakulty Masarykovy univerzity, Arne Nováka 1, Brno 602 00, ČR [email protected]

Abstrakt Free access to information versus copyright Right to education and information and also copyright are declared in national and international legislative documents. There is a relationship between copyright and right to education and information. This relationship is not well-balanced now and it brings complications for both sides – authors (or copyright holders) and users of information. The problem lies in illegal behaviour of users and very strong position of copyright holders who can permit (or not) every use of their works. The solution of this situation could be found in Creative Commons – a non prot organization for reduction and closer specication of copyright. Taking of this chance depends on individuals and their will to accept a compromise and personal responsibility to keep the rules.

Keywords copyright; right to education; right to information; Creative Commons; electronic environment

Úvod V posledních deseti až patnácti letech můžeme zaznamenat stále hlubší prorůstání informačních a komunikač ních technologií do společnosti. Významným jevem jsou počítačové sítě, které umožňují, ve srovnání s tradičním neelektronickým prostředím, poměrně snadno a rychle zveřejňovat data a informace; a jejich objem velmi rychle narůstá. Dalo by se tedy na první pohled říci, že poptávka po informačních zdrojích je plně uspokojována. Avšak ne všechny informace jsou dostupné v elektronické podobě. Řada autorů se této formě zveřejnění brání a nutno říci, že povětšinou jde o autory relevantních a důvěryhodných dokumentů, tedy těch, které nejvíce mají pro vzdělávání jednotlivců i rozvoj celé společnosti význam. Elektronické prostředí tak přináší možnosti, ale i nedůvěru a obavy a působí jako třecí plocha či katalyzátor dvou lidských práv, práva na ochranu majetku ne hmotné povahy a práva na přístup k produktům lidského vědění a ke vzdělání. V následujícím textu bude věnována pozornost oběma těmto právům, jejich střetu, příčině tohoto koniktu a možnému řešení.

1 Právo na vzdělání a na informace Právo na vzdělání lze zařadit do lidských práv tzv. třetí generace – tedy práv sociálních, hospodářských a kul turních. Tato práva zaznamenala největší rozvoj po II. světové válce 1, i když první známky snah o jejich deklaraci se objevily už dříve. Právo na vzdělání a zejména na informace je tedy poměrně mladým právem. Je vyjádřeno v mnoha národních i mezinárodních dokumentech. Nejvýznamnějšími z nich jsou Všeobecná deklarace lidských práv a Mezinárodní pakt o občanských a politických právech na mezinárodní úrovni a Lis tina základních práv a svobod na české národní úrovni. Všeobecná deklarace lidských práv2 se právu na vzdělání, resp. „právu vyhledávat, přijímat a rozšiřovat informace a myšlenky jakýmikoli prostředky a bez ohledu na hranice“, věnuje v článku 19 a právu na vzdělání v článku 26: „Každý má právo na vzdělání. Vzdělání nechť je bezplatné, alespoň v počátcích a základních stup ních. Základní vzdělání má být povinné. Technické a odborné vzdělání budiž obecně přístupné a rovněž vyšší vzdělání má být stejně přístupné všem podle schopností.“ Mezinárodní pakt o občanských a politických právech3 se věnuje v článku 19 právu „vyhledávat, přijímat a rozšiřovat informace a myšlenky všeho druhu, bez ohledu na hranice, (…) jakýmikoli prostředky“. Listina základních práv a svobod4 stanovuje právo na informace v článku 17 a právo na vzdělání v článku 33, přičemž pojetí přebírá z Všeobecné deklarace lidských práv. Právo na vzdělání a na informace je tedy zcela nepopiratelné. Ale i právo autorské, kterému bude věnován prostor na právě následujících řádcích, je zcela neomylně a jednoznačně zakotveno v několika dokumentech. 1

2

3

4

Čerpáno z: GERLOCH, Aleš. Teorie práva. 2. rozš. vyd. Dobrá Voda : Vydavatelství a nakladatelství Aleš Čeněk, 2001. 299 s. ISBN 80-86473-04-X. Všeobecná deklarace lidských práv [online]. 2005 [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . Mezinárodní pakt o občanských a politických právech [online]. [1976] [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . Listina základních práv a svobod [online]. [1998] [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: .

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2 Právo autorské Právo autorské je samozřejmě zakotveno v zákonech většiny zemí světa, nicméně v tomto textu se podíváme nejprve opět do výše uvedených lidskoprávních dokumentů a velmi stručně do legislativních dokumentů EU (Evropské unie), které nám naznačí směr posledního vývoje. Všeobecná deklarace lidských práv v článku 27 stanovuje, že: „Každý má právo na ochranu morálních a materiálních zájmů vyplývajících z každé vědecké, literární nebo umělecké činnosti, jejímž autorem je.“ Listina základních práv a svobod se právu autorskému věnuje v článku 34: „Práva k výsledkům tvůrčí duševní činnosti jsou chráněna zákonem. Právo přístupu ke kulturnímu bohatství je zaručeno za podmínek stanovených zákonem.“ Je zřejmé, že dokumenty o lidských právech neopomíjejí ani práva autorská. Nyní přejdeme k výše avizo vaným dokumentům EU. Směrnice 92/100/EEC o právu na pronájem a půjčování a o některých právech souvisejících s autorským právem na poli duševního vlastnictví přináší změnu zejména v oblasti tzv. distribution right. Jde o právo autora kontrolovat a vyžadovat odměnu za půjčování a pronájem díla. Tradičně bylo toto právo vyčerpáno po prvním prodeji konkrétní rozmnoženiny díla. Tato směrnice ruší vyčerpání po prvním prodeji a autorovi tak zůstává jeho právo dál. To znemožňuje užití díla v elektronické podobě bez souhlasu autora (což bylo také cílem) a stanovuje přísnější pravidla pro půjčování ve veřejných knihovnách. Směrnice 93/98/EEC o harmonizaci pojmu ochrany práv autorských a některých práv souvisejících s právem autorským prodlužuje dobu ochrany děl o 20 let z původních 50 na 70 let po autorově smrti. Oddaluje se tak doba volného užití díla. Směrnice 2001/29/EC o harmonizaci některých aspektů autorského práva a práv souvisejících v infor mační společnosti umožňuje autorům ještě lepší kontrolu nad rozmnožováním děl a jejich komunikací v elektro nickém i tradičním fyzickém prostředí. Cílem výše uvedeného přehledu lidskoprávních i legislativních dokumentů je naznačit, že lidská práva (včetně práva na vzdělání a informace) byla před více než 50 lety stanovena a nejsou měněna či aktualizována, zatímco ochrana práv autorských je prostřednictvím legislativy (národní i mezinárodní) zvláště v posledních letech posilována a může se tak měnit rovnováha mezi autorem a uživatelem. Neboť každému autorovi náleží duševní vlastnictví a s vlastnictvím obecně může vlastník nakládat dle svého uvážení a vyžadovat za něj od měnu. Avšak nehmotné, tedy duševní, vlastnictví je svou podstatou věci zvláštní povahy a navíc přispívá (resp. může přispívat) k rozvoji společnosti. Tento fakt by měl být impulsem k opětovnému hledání rovnováhy. Je tedy zřejmé, že může docházet či dochází ke střetu autorského práva s právem na přístup k informacím a ke vzdělání, jehož důsledkem je nerovnováha mezi autory a uživateli. Spouštěčem této nerovnováhy je proces digitalizace společnosti. Není však její příčinou. Příčiny jsou, dle mého názoru, dvě a leží jinde. První spočívá v nezodpovědném až nelegálním chování běžného uživatele díla. Toto chování může být způsobeno neznalostí, nezájmem, ale i složitostí a nesrozumitelností autorskoprávních předpisů. Druhou příčinou je změna motivace autorů (a osob podílejících se na zveřejnění díla) pro tvůrčí činnost. Prvotním důvodem vzniku autorskoprávní ochrany na konci 19. století5 bylo nedopustit, aby docházelo k plagiátorství a k demotivaci autorů pro další tvorbu. Cílem publikování tedy nebyl primárně zisk. Toto však nelze konstatovat o současnosti. Díla jsou už tvořena se záměrem zisku a snad jedinou oblastí, kde komerce ne zvítězila, je oblast odborných publikací. Tyto dvě příčiny jsou spolu úzce provázány a fungují jako začarovaný kruh – negativní změna v jedné způsobí opět negativní změnu v druhé. Jedinou šancí je vystoupit z tohoto kruhu a pokusit se o změnu.

3 Creative Commons S myšlenkou na změnu přišel v roce 2001 (ještě s několika kolegy) profesor práva na Stanford Law School La wrence Lessig. Založil neziskovou organizaci s názvem Creative Commons, jejímž cílem je představit alternati vu k tradičnímu autorskému právu, které je příliš přísné a nepružné a vyžaduje souhlas autora ke každému užití díla, vyjma zákonných licencí. Autor má sám možnost zvolit úroveň ochrany svého díla. K tomu slouží celkem 11 licencí Creative Commons, které vznikají kombinací čtyřech základních: Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works, Share Alike. • Attribution umožňuje užít dílo jakýmkoliv způsobem (včetně vytváření děl odvozených a vycházejících z originálu), ale vždy musí být při užití uveden autor. • Noncommercial umožňuje, tak jako Attribution, užít dílo jakýmkoliv způsobem pod podmínkou uvedení autora, ale jen pro nekomerční účely. • No Derivative Works umožňuje užít dílo, ovšem jen v původním znění, bez možnosti vytvářet díla odvozená. 5

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Jako první relevantní událost v oblasti autorskoprávní ochrany je brána v potaz Bernská úmluva z roku 1886.

•

Share Alike umožňuje vytvářet a dále šířit díla odvozená, ale pouze za stejných podmínek jaké platí pro původní dílo.

Problém, se kterým se Creative Commons potýkají, je legislativa. Byly vytvořeny v USA a tudíž v origi nální podobě zapadají do tamního právního řádu. Při rozšiřování do dalších zemí světa se musejí přizpůsobovat místní legislativě, která na tuto myšlenku není připravená. Touto činností se zabývá projekt iCommons. Mimo to vznikají další odnože Creative Commons, jako např. Science Commons pro oblast odborné vědecké komunikace či CC Mixter pro oblast hudby. Změna, kterou Creative Commons přinášejí, spočívá v návratu k původnímu účelu a smyslu autorského práva. Tím je podpora tvorby pro rozvoj společnosti a ocenění autorů směřující k motivaci k další tvorbě. Všudy přítomným elementem by měl být kompromis a rovnováha mezi oběma stranami. Domnívám se, že projekty jako je Creative Commons jsou jedinou cestou ze začarovaného kruhu zneuží vání autorských práv a posilování pozice držitelů autorských práv. Velmi se zde zvyšuje naděje na přiblížení se k ideálnímu stavu uspokojení poptávky po informacích a zároveň přiměřeného odškodnění. Úspěch Creative Commons však bude záviset na jednotlivcích a jejich ochotě přistoupit na kompromis a dodržovat dohodnutá pravidla. Další vývoj bude také ukazatelem vyspělosti současné společnosti, neboť tu lze mimo jiné poměřovat tím, zda řád je dodržován přirozeně a samozřejmě nebo pouze pod neustálou výhrůžkou.

4 Závěr Lidská i autorská práva jsou poměrně citlivou oblastí. Je zde mimořádně důležité dbát na jejich dodržování a na vytvoření rovnováhy a vyváženosti mezi poskytovatelem a příjemcem. Mezi právem na vzdělání a informace a právem autorským byla tato rovnováha narušena a důsledky negativně postihly všechny zúčastněné. Nový po hled na věc a alternativní přístup ve formě Creative Commons přines naději na napravení nevyhovujícího stavu. Čas však ukáže, zda tato šance nebude promarněna a přinese kýžené ovoce všem.

Seznam bibliograckých odkazů           

CCMixter : Download, Sample, Cut-up, Share [online]. [2005] [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . Creative Commons [online]. [2002] [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . ČINČERA, Jan. Informační etika. 1. vyd. Brno : Masarykova univerzita, 2002. 82 s. ISBN 80-210-2981-1. GERLOCH, Aleš. Teorie práva. 2. rozš. vyd. Dobrá Voda : Vydavatelství a nakladatelství Aleš Čeněk, 2001. 299 s. ISBN 80-86473-04-X. KREJČÍ, Richard. Creative Commons : netradiční využití autorských práv. Graka On-line [online]. 2006 [cit. 200606-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . ISSN 1212-9569. Listina základních práv a svobod [online]. [1998] [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . Mezinárodní pakt o občanských a politických právech [online]. [1976] [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . Science Commons [online]. [2005] [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . SOKOL, Jan. Jsou lidská práva přirozená? [online]. 2003 [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . Všeobecná deklarace lidských práv [online]. 2005 [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . ZEMAN, Mirek. Creative Commons – budoucnost copyrightu?. Lupa.cz : server o českém Internetu [online]. 2004 [cit. 2006-06-29]. Dostupný z WWW: . ISSN 1213-0702.

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Výskum najnovších dejín verejných knižníc v rokoch 1951 – 2000 Milan Gonda Oravská knižnica Antona Habovštiaka v Dolnom Kubíne, Ul. S. Nováka 1763/2, 026 01 Dolný Kubín [email protected]

Abstract Investigation of the most recent history of public libraries in Slovakia in the years 1951-2000 The paper analyzes the activities of public libraries in Slovakia after 1950 (eventually 1945). The analysis is based on the documents published before 1985 and evaluates them in a critical way. Taking the current criteria into consideration, the paper also tries to continue the work done on the research task carried out in the late 1980s whose goal was to summarize the history of the socialist librarianship in Slovakia. It attempts to describe the development of public libraries in the 1990s taking into consideration the fact that many phenomena and activities are still in progress and inuence today’s processes. Therefore, it is necessary to consider to what extent they can be evaluated in detail.

Keywords public libraries; history; evaluation

Skúmaniu histórie slovenských verejných knižníc v 2. polovici 20. storočia bola doteraz venovaná primeraná pozor nosť, ale aj napriek tomu stále ostáva dosť nespracovaných čiastkových tém z tejto oblasti. Skúmaná problematika môže priniesť zaujímavé pohľady na výsledky jednotlivých knižničných činností za posledné polstoročie ako i poznat ky o celkovom vývoji knižníc. Tieto poznatky môžu poslúžiť ako analógia pri posudzovaní a riešení súčasných prob lémov verejných knižníc. Spracovaním by sme chceli nadviazať na staršie syntetizujúce diela o vývoji knižníc na Slovensku v predchádzajúcom období a na neukončené výskumné práce, ktoré sa taktiež začali zaoberať časťou skúmaného obdobia, ktoré je vytýčené pre túto prácu. Záverečný časový úsek skúmaného obdobia nebol doteraz analyzovaný v celej svojej šírke a pokus o jeho prípadnú hodnotiacu syntézu bude vykonaný po prvýkrát. Dynamický rozvoj činnosti verejných knižníc na Slovensku od roku 1945 (potvrdzuje to aj prudký kvantita tívny nárast hlavných štatistických ukazovateľov činnosti hlavne v prvých dvoch desaťročiach skúmaného obdobia) približne po rok 1985 bol podrobne spracovaný a výsledky boli publikované časopisecky, v monograách alebo v zborníkoch. Zavŕšením týchto aktivít mal byť výskum realizovaný v druhej polovici 80-tych rokov, ktorého súčasťou bola osobitná čiastková úloha Dejiny socialistického knihovníctva na Slovensku. V rámci uvedenej úlohy síce vznikli dôležité priebežné správy vo forme samostatných publikácií, no celkove nebol výskum ukončený. Práce na ňom prerušili politické zmeny v spoločnosti a organizačné zmeny v Matici slovenskej – Slovenskej národnej knižnici. Celková koncepcia predmetnej čiastkovej úlohy nám zatiaľ nie je známa. Podľa publikovaných výstupov výskumu dejín socialistického knihovníctva možno čiastočne zrekonštruovať ciele uvedenej výskumnej úlohy. Nespracovanými okruhmi z tohto obdobia zostali napr. otázka podriadenosti činnosti knižníc ociálnej ide ológii a skutočný prínos knižníc pre rozvoj spoločnosti, vývoj knižničnej teórie a výskumu, význam a prínos kni hovníckych osobností pre rozvoj svojho odboru, pripravenosť knižníc na črtajúci sa nástup automatizácie a infor matizácie ich činnosti. Pri niektorých tematických okruhoch to bolo z politických príčin (aj keď po roku 1990 vznikli pre riešiteľov uvedenej úlohy priaznivé podmienky, nevrátili sa k nim), niektorým otázkam sa ešte na konci 80-tych rokov neprikladal patričný význam. Ucelený pohľad na vývoj verejných knižníc v 90-tych rokoch nebol zatiaľ spracovaný ani v čiastkových prís pevkoch o jednotlivých činnostiach. Pritom toto desaťročie bolo pre ne obdobím závažných zmien. Knižnice si osvojovali nové chápanie dostupnosti informácií, postupne sa uskutočňovalo zavádzanie automatizácie knižničných procesov, začal nástup internetizácie, prebiehalo hľadanie nových organizačných foriem, niekoľkokrát sa za uvedené obdobie zmenil zriaďovateľ verejných knižníc, skomplikovali sa ekonomické podmienky pre ich činnosť, citeľne začal dopadať vplyv trhových mechanizmov na činnosť knižníc, čiastočne sa menila pozícia verejných knižníc v komunite. Časové obdobie (1951 – 2000) vytýčené pre výskumnú prácu zahŕňa v sebe dve odlišné etapy vývoja slovenského verejného knihovníctva. Prvá je obdobím budovania socialistického knihovníctva, v druhej (po roku 1990) sa verejné knižnice rozvíjali v pluralitnej spoločnosti. Prvú vyššie uvedenú etapu možno považovať za his toricky uzavretú, hoci niektoré procesy, ktoré začali počas jej trvania, prebiehajú dodnes. Druhá etapa úzko súvisí so súčasnosťou, aj keď pozostáva z čiastkových, dá sa povedať až epizodických procesov, ktoré ale v danom čase mali značný vplyv na fungovanie verejných knižníc. Boli krátkodobé, časovo obmedzené, čiže je ich už možno skúmať ako historické procesy. Samozrejme naznačená periodizácia je len pomocná a celkový vývoj knižníc vní mame kontinuálne. Vytýčené obdobie budeme skúmať z historického hľadiska ako uzavretý proces bez tendencií dávať ho do súvislosti so súčasným, aktuálnym dianím v knihovníctve. Časový a vecný rozsah skúmanej témy je značný. Keď vezmeme do úvahy, že skutočný rozvoj verejného 209

knihovníctva na Slovensku súvisí so vznikom krajských a okresných ľudových knižníc (teda od roku 1951), naša práca sa zaoberá – ako sme už uviedli – najdynamickejším obdobím existencie uvedeného typu knižníc. Vývojom knižníc sa zaoberáme v celej šírke, teda počnúc elementárnymi činnosťami, ktoré determinujú knižnicu (získavanie dokumentov, ich spracovávanie a sprístupňovanie) až po analýzu a hodnotenie činností, ktorými sa v širšej miere zúčastňovali na živote spoločnosti (podieľanie sa na vzdelávaní občanov, účasť na ideologickom pôsobení vládnu cich štruktúr, podieľanie sa na raste kultúrnej úrovne obyvateľstva) a skúmame aj činnosti, ktorými zdokonaľovali samy seba (budovanie systému verejných knižníc, vzdelávanie pracovníkov, rozvíjanie odboru a knihovníckej te órie a v neposlednom rade zavádzanie automatizácie a informatizácie). Pri skúmaní jednotlivých vyššie uvedených činností bude priebežne potrebné ešte stanoviť prioritu záujmu venovanú jednotlivým činnostiam, ktorá sa bude pravde podobne určovať podľa toho, ktorá činnosť ako bola dote raz spracovaná. V konečnej fáze sa pokúsime vytvoriť ucelený obraz. Pre náš výskum je relatívny dostatok informačných zdrojov. Sú to hlavne zborníky k jubileám. Obsahujú fak togracky bohaté príspevky sumarizujúce dosiahnuté výsledky za uzavreté obdobie desaťročí. Je možné čerpať aj z odborných knihovníckych periodík, zborníkov a spravodajcov, pretože publikačná aktivita odborných pracovníkov bola pred rokom 1989 veľká. Dôležitým jednotiacim prvkom celého skúmaného obdobia sú štatistické údaje. Ilustrujú – v rámci svojich možností – exaktným spôsobom vývoj, jeho stúpajúce aj klesajúce trendy. Jednoznačné porovnanie dosiahnutého stavu v jednotlivých činnostiach do roku 1989 a po ňom ale asi nebude možné vykonať vzhľadom na zmenu východiskových podmienok a priorít. Napriek tomu by to bolo potrebné urobiť aspoň orientačne. Bude zaujímavé skúsiť porovnať vývoj a výsledky niektorých vybraných činností realizovaných vo verej ných knižniciach v socialistickom období a v čase fungovania pluralitnej spoločnosti. Máme na mysli činnosti, ktoré sa pokúsime vyhodnocovať a porovnávať nielen kvantitatívne, ale aj kvalitatívne, napr. vzdelávanie knihovní kov, edičnú činnosť, teoretickú činnosť a rozvoj odboru a pod. Cieľom porovnania (ak sa bude dať uskutočniť) by mohlo byť zodpovedanie otázky, či knižnice dostatočne využili rozšírené možnosti pre svoj rozvoj, ktoré nastali zmenou politicko-spoločenských pomerov. Aby sa mohlo uplatniť všeobecne známe krédo: Historia magistra vitae, je potrebné priebežne oboznamovať pravidelným publikovaním knihovnícku verejnosť – zvlášť z verejných knižníc – s výsledkami výskumu dejín ve rejných knižníc. Niektoré problémy sa totiž akoby cyklicky opakovali, napr. vyraďovanie ideologicky nevhodnej li teratúry z knižničných fondov, nedostatočný záujem o čítanie, ovplyvňovanie činnosti knižníc záujmami mocen ských štruktúr. Z niektorých skúseností by sa dalo poučiť, lebo sa udiali relatívne iba nedávno a ich ignorovanie je priam očividné, napr. nejednotnosť knižníc pri výbere spoločného knižničného softvéru. V neposlednom rade by mohli byť výsledky predmetnej výskumnej práce inšpirujúcimi a pomôcť regionálnym knižniciam pri zostavovaní alebo doplnení publikácií o ich vlastných dejinách. Výsledky uvedenej práce môžu poslúžiť verejným knižniciam – ale aj širokej knihovníckej verejnosti – pri skúmaní vlastnej identity na historickom pozadí vývoja knižníc. Sumarizujúci pohľad na vývoj jedného knižničného podsystému v časovo nie veľmi vzdialenom období a analyzovanie výsledkov práce ešte žijúcich účastníkov týchto procesov, si obzvlášť vyžadujú plnú zodpovednosť pri konkrétnych hodnoteniach, pretože sa dotýkajú historického vedomia príslušnej profesijnej society. Pokúsime sa preto vynaložiť maximálnu snahu o uplatňovanie nestrannosti, no sme si vedomí, že aj my podliehame konkrétnym vonkajším vplyvom, pretože: „Pri hodnotení úlohy historika ako poznávacieho subjektu treba mať na zreteli, že je produktom svojej doby, svojej epochy, že má isté vzdelanie, svetonázor, pochádza z určitého sociálneho prostredia, pohybuje sa v istej spoločnosti a tým je duchovne determinovaný.“ (Bartl, 1997).

Zoznam bibliograckých odkazov             210

BARTL, Július. Úvod do štúdia dejepisu. Bratislava : Univerzita Komenského, 1997. 130 s. ISBN 80-223-1249-5. ČIPKA, Vladimír. Postavenie a úlohy okresnej knižnice v knižničnom a informačnom systéme regiónu v etape budovania rozvinutej socialistickej spoločnosti : záverečná výskumná štúdia. Martin : Matica slovenská, 1985. 182 s. GONDA, Milan. Polstoročie Oravskej knižnice : 1951 – 2001. Dolný Kubín : Oravská knižnica, 2001. 64 s. ISBN 80968243-8-4. HALIENA, Ján. Dejiny socialistického knihovníctva na Slovensku : bibliograa k rezortnej výskumnej úlohe 534-31-17-05. Matica slovenská : Martin, 1987. 106 s. HALIENA, Ján. Kalendárium slovenského socialistického knihovníctva. Matica slovenská : Martin, 1988. 168 s. HALIENA, Ján. Osobnosti slovenského knihovníctva : heslár k tematickej výskumnej úlohe. Matica slovenská : Martin, 1988. 138 s. HALIENA, Ján. Spomienky : zborník. Martin : Matica slovenská, 1965. 168 s. LIPOVSKÝ, Jaroslav. O súčasnom stave a činnosti ľudových knižníc v Československej republike (1). In Čitateľ, 1958, roč. 7, č. 4, s. 126 – 132. LIPOVSKÝ, Jaroslav. O súčasnom stave a činnosti ľudových knižníc v Československej republike (2). In Čitateľ, 1958, roč. 7, č. 5, s. 169 – 178. PASIAR, Štefan. Dejiny slovenských ľudových knižníc. Martin : Osveta 1957. 234 s. REPČÁK, Jozef. Od roku 1959 po dnešok. In Čitateľ, 1979, roč. 28, č. 4, 126 – 127. Štyridsať rokov budovania socialistického knihovníctva v ČSSR a jeho rozvoj do roku 2000. Zost. Margita Buociková a Zdena Blechová. Martin : Matica slovenská, 1987. 150 s.

Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia, October 10-11, 2006

Informačný a vedomostný manažment Kvetoslava Rešetová Materiálovotechnologická fakulta STU, Paulínska 16, 917 24 Trnava [email protected]

Abstract Information management and knowledge management The contribution deals with interconnections between information and knowledge management. Purposefulness and usefulness of the design process and management of knowledge potential in educational process determines or species activities of sections (departments) of universities (faculties) in the eld of information management.

Keywords information management; knowledge management; education; academic library

Úvod Informačný manažment je denovaný súborom vhodných aktivít ako využiť moderné prostriedky a metódy infor mačných technológií a systémových prístupov k účelnej a účinnej podpore manažérskych úloh. V náväznosti na systémové prístupy v informačnom manažmente sa dá povedať, že práve vedomosti (poznatky) poskytujú predpo klady k pochopeniu systému súvislostí a možností významu informačného manažmentu. Vedomosti tak poskytujú individuálne kompetencie pracovať s informáciami a vyhľadávať vhodné zdroje informácií a využívať ich [5].

Vzťahy informačného a vedomostného manažmentu V poslednom období sa v odbornej literatúre stretávame s pojmom vedomostný (poznatkový, znalostný) manaž ment a často sa stáva, že je spájaný s informačným manažmentom. Medzi vedomostným a informačným manaž mentom však musí byť rozlíšenosť (hranica), pretože ak má vzniknúť informácia, resp. vznikla informácia, to ešte neznamená, že je to poznatok. Tento poznatok bude informáciou, až keď sa dostane do určitého informačné ho kanála. Informácia je poznatkom až vtedy, keď si ju osvojíme a prakticky využijeme. Informácia môže mať určitú hodnotu, ale tá ešte nemusí byť využiteľná. Znalosti sú predpokladom a súčasťou tvorby informácií a ich spracovania, súčasťou ich využívania a súčasne súčasťou ich obsahu. V širšom poňatí sa dá vedomostný manažment denovať ako proces podporujúci a umožňujúci integrova ný prístup a využitie všetkých informačných aktivít a zdrojov pri riadení všetkých fáz informačného procesu a to v súčinnosti s využívaním vedomostí (znalostí) i skúseností zo vzdelávacieho procesu a za využívania mimo zmyslového vnímania (intuícia, kvalikovaný odhad a pod.) [6]. A. Rosický denuje základný koncept manažmentu ako aplikáciu manažérskych princípov na získavanie, organizáciu, riadenie, rozširovanie a využívanie informácií relevantných pre efektívne fungovanie organizácií všet kého druhu. Vymedzuje dva základné smery informačného manažmentu (ako spôsobu nakladania s informáciami): • denuje informačný manažment z hľadiska sprostredkovania informácií, pričom je viazaný na informačné technológie a je založený na práci s dátami, • chápe úlohu informačného manažmentu menej spojenú s technologickými špecikami a viac orientovanú na porozumenie a vysvetlenie informácie. Informačný manažment musí mať schopnosť vytvárať zreteľne formulovaný rámec pre interpretáciu významu prostredia, na ktorom sú organizácie a ich členovia najviac závislí. Musí byť schopný porozumieť organizácii prostredníctvom znalostného rámca. Prestáva platiť tradičné delenie na manažment a zbytok orga nizácie a stredobodom záujmu sa stávajú informačné procesy celej organizácie, ktorá je chápaná ako kom plexný a samoorganizujúci sa systém. V takejto organizácii sa kladie hlavný dôraz na kultúru, individuálny rozvoj ľudí a na komunikáciu [1]. Autor tvrdí, že manažment nemožno oddeliť od zvyšku organizácie. Z toho by vyplýval záver, že považu je poznatky v určitom znalostnom rámci za transformovateľné na nové informácie až vtedy, keď si ich užívatelia osvoja a prakticky využijú. Znalosti sú teda skutočne predpokladom a súčasťou tvorby informácií a ich spraco vania, využívania a súčasťou ich obsahu. Pre tvorbu a šírenie vedomostí (poznatkov) sú dôležité informačné a komunikačné technológie. Pri denovaní ako vznikajú a ako sa denujú vedomosti, vychádzajú viacerí autori z hierarchickej pyramídy vedo mostí, ktorej základňou sú dáta. Dáta ešte nie sú informáciou, sú však nevyhnutnou podmienkou pre ich tvor 211

bu a šírenie. So súčasným tempom rozvoja informačných a komunikačných technológií by sa zdalo, že sa do sahuje špica hierarchickej pyramídy vedomostí. Je to však vedomostný manažment, ktorý napomáha rozvoju tzv. intelektuálneho manažmentu [4]. Informačný manažment je chápaný nielen ako nástroj získavania informácií, ale súčasne musí spoluroz hodovať o formách komunikácie, voľbe techniky pre riadenie informácií, ktoré majú byť prospešné k dosia hnutiu cieľov vzdelávacej inštitúcie. Úlohou informačného manažmentu je jednak oslobodenie iných organizač ných útvarov od práce s informáciami, úprava vlastnej štruktúry a vytvorenie racionalizačného vzoru. Informačný manažment sa denuje tiež ako podmienka pre zabezpečenie kvality vysokoškolského vzdelávania s dôrazom na: • meranie a analýzu výkonnosti vysokej školy (zhromažďovanie údajov, využívanie informácií a ich posky tovanie akademickej komunite, analýzy pre vrcholový manažment vysokej školy), • manažérstvo informácií (kvalita a dostupnosť pre pracovníkov, študentov a zainteresovaných účastníkov, spoľahlivosť, dôvernosť, korelácia so vzdelávaním) [3].

• • •

Tieto podmienky by mali byť doplnené o: poznanie stavu riadeného systému (škola, fakulta) vo všetkých jeho zložkách v reálnom čase (výkony, straty, analýzy príčin), t. j. zber a úprava informácií o skutočnom stave riadeného systému, tvorbu rozhodnutí, t. j. formulácia postupov na korekciu priebehu aktivít, resp. parametrov procesov pre biehajúcich v riadenom objekte (systéme) tak, aby sa dosiahol žiadúci stav (plánovaný priebeh procesov), realizácia aktivít manažérstva organizácie (fakulty, školy), t. j. vydávanie príkazov na realizáciu konkrét nych aktivít výkonnej zložky riadeného systému.

Toto doplnenie, resp. takto rozšírená charakteristika informačného manažmentu potom nemusí platiť len pre vysoké školy, ale dá sa uplatniť pre iné organizácie, ktoré majú nehmotné výstupy svojej činnosti (teda nevyrábajú). Sústava poznatkov, ktorá vzniká využívaním zo štúdia a skúseností nadobudnutých informácií (ich agre gáciou, selekciou, či vzájomným prepojovaním) tvorí podstatu tzv. poznatkového potenciálu organizácie – zá klad transformácie informačnej spoločnosti na spoločnosť poznatkovú. Poznatkový potenciál je potrebné rovnako ako informácie nielen získať, ale aj • účelne využívať • dynamicky a trvale rozvíjať • efektívne distribuovať (odovzdávať) • dôsledne chrániť a uchovávať. Súbor aktivít spojených so získavaním, inováciou, distribúciou a ochranou poznatkov tvorí podstatu po znatkového manažmentu. Cestou (podmienkou, predpokladom) tvorby a využívania poznatkového potenciálu je vzdelávanie – čo je základnou úlohou univerzít. K základným aktivitám manažmentu poznatkov v podmienkach akademického prostredia patrí najmä: • získavanie, triedenie, úprava, popis poznatkov • odovzdávanie (distribúcia) poznatkov (výučba) • osvojovanie a využívanie poznatkov • inovácia a reprodukcia poznatkov • tvorba súboru poznatkov – poznatkového potenciálu. Keďže je to práve akademická knižnica, ktorá realizuje v danom prostredí aktivity manažérstva poznat kov, je kvalita poznatkového potenciálu organizácie a intenzita jej rozvoja úzko spojená s manažmentom infor mácií (informačným manažmentom) akademickej knižnice. Účelnosť a efektívnosť poznatkového manažmentu musí byť potvrdená množstvom a kvalitou jej výstupov. Toto je zároveň poznatok potvrdzujúci známe tvrdenie, že učiť a rozvíjať treba to, čo život a prax potrebuje. A kvalita univerzitného vzdelávania si bude vždy vyžado vať kvalitné informačné zabezpečenie vzdelávacieho a vedeckovýskumného procesu. Manažment poznatkov potom vnímame ako súčasť informačného procesu, ktorého funkciou je zmyslupl né využívanie informácií a organizácia informačných štruktúr. Potvrdzuje sa nástup manažmentu poznatkov ako vyústenie praktickej aj teoretickej zmeny paradigmy služieb akademických knižníc v informačnom prostredí [2]. Súvislosť informačného manažmentu a manažmentu poznatkov je možné vidieť v organizačnom aspekte interakcie človeka s informačným prostredím. Znamená to prirodzený pohyb človeka v rôznych rolách medzi in formačnými zdrojmi, médiami a technológiami v danom prostredí. Organizačný aspekt tejto interakcie súvisí s informačným manažmentom a manažmentom poznatkov v inštitúciách (a teda i univerzitách). V rámci nich zo hrávajú podstatnú úlohu efektívnejšie nástroje organizácie poznania, hľadanie nových štruktúr poznatkov a uplatňovanie poznatkov o správaní používateľov pri produktívnom využívaní informácií [2].

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Zoznam bibliograckých odkazov    

 

[1] ROSICKÝ, Antonín. Koncepce informace a znalosti v informačním managementu. In Knižničná a informačná veda : Library and Information Science. Bratislava : UK, 2002. ISBN 80-223-1728-4, Zv. 19, s. 161- 194. [2] STEINEROVÁ, Jela. Informačné správanie. Pohľady informačnej vedy. Bratislava : Centrum VTI SR, 2005.189 s. ISBN80-85165-90-2 [3] ŠALGOVIČOVÁ, Jarmila – BÍLÝ, Matej. Model systému manažérstva kvality na vysokej škole. In Jakost 2003. Ostrava : DT, 2003. ISBN 80-02-01558-4, s. I-1/4. [4] ŠUJANOVÁ, Jana. Informačné a komunikačné technológie vo vedomostnom manažmente. In Zborník prednášok z 10. národnej vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou Akademická Dubnica 2004. Bratislava : UK, 2002. ISBN 80-227-2076-3, Zv.2, s. 553 – 556. [5] VODÁČEK, Leo. Information management : conceptions, tasks, applications. In Knižničná a informačná veda : Library and Information Science. Bratislava : UK, 2002. ISBN 80-223-1728-4, Zv.19, s. 147- 160. [6] VYMĚTAL, Jan – DIAČIKOVÁ, Anna – VÁCHOVÁ, Miriam. Informační a znalostní management v praxi. Praha : LexisNexis CZ, 2006, s. 207. ISBN 80-86920-01-1.

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Information Use in Information Society International Conference Bratislava, Slovakia October 10-11, 2006

Možnosti využitia poznatkov z manažmentu znalostí v kontexte knižničnej a informačnej vedy Marcela Katuščáková Žilinská univerzita, Fakulta prírodných vied, Katedra knižničných a informačných vied a didaktiky informatiky [email protected]

Abstract Potential of knowledge management use in the context of library and information science Problems with proper understanding of the concept of knowledge management can be sought in ambiguous perception of the concept of knowledge, and often also in no differentiation between information and knowledge and in no awareness of all forms of knowledge’s existence. Especially understanding the tacit and implicit components of knowledge is a prerequi site for proper understanding of the entire scope of knowledge management and the novelty of this concept in connection with the problem of interchanging this concept with the concept of information management. It is frequently possible to ob serve that not only computer science experts but also library and information science experts do not understand the difference between information management and knowledge management, which results in their inability to early identify op portunities for application of their long-term experience in this area. Collaboratories present one of the areas associated with knowledge management in which librarians may exercise their experience and knowledge.

Keywords knowledge; piece of knowledge; tacit knowledge; implicit knowledge; knowledge management; collaboratory

1 Od informácie ku znalosti Často pozorovateľný sémantický posun od informácie ku znalosti možno pozorovať na viacerých miestach sú visiacich s manažmentom znalostí, napr. posun informačná spoločnosť – znalostná spoločnosť, informačný manažment – manažment znalostí. Nejde pritom len o nové pomenovanie starých vecí, ako sa domnievajú aj nie ktorí odborníci z oblasti knižnično-informačnej vedy a hlavne z oblasti ekonomických a manažérskych vied, ale o významný sémantický posun [1]. Kogut a Zaner [2] denujú informáciu ako „znalosť, ktorú možno odovzdávať bez straty jej integrity“, čím zdôrazňujú, že informácia je určitá forma znalosti. Podobné pohľady boli typické pri prvých textoch venova ných manažmentu znalostí (KM), ktoré nedostatočne oddeľovali informáciu od znalosti. Za podobnú nedbanli vosť bol často kritizovaný aj Nonaka. Správne však tvrdil, že aj znalosť aj informácia sú o význame, teda, že obe sú závislé na kontexte a vzťahoch. Kým informácia je viac faktická, znalosť je o presvedčení a subjektívnom názore. Navyše znalosť je vždy spojená s činnosťou, musí byť použitá [3]. Autor

Údaj

Informácia

Znalosť/poznatok

Wiig 1993 [31]

―

fakty organizované za účelom popisu situácie alebo podmienky

pravdy a presvedčenia, perspektívy a koncepty, úsudky a očakávania, metodológie a know-how

Nonaka a Takeuchi 1995 [3]

―

tok zmysluplných správ

presvedčenia a názory vytvorené na základe týchto správ

Spek a Spijkervet 1997 [32]

dosiaľ neinterpretované symboly

údaje dávajúce zmysel

schopnosť dať (informáciám) zmysel

Davenport 1997 [33]

jednoduché pozorovania

relevantné údaje s nejakým účelom

hodnotné informácie z ľudskej mysle

Davenport a Prusak 1998 [8]

skupina nespojitých údajov

správa, ktorá zmení príjemcove odskúšané, zhodnotené informácie chápanie/vnímanie v kontexte

Quigley a Debons 1999 [5]

text, ktorý nedáva odpoveď na konkrétny problém

text, ktorý odpovedá na otázky kto, kedy, čo alebo kde

text, ktorý odpovedá na otázky prečo a ako

údaje dávajúce význam

oprávnené, pravdivé presvedčenie

Choo, Detlor a Turnbull fakty a správy 2000 [9]

Tab. 1. Denície pojmov „údaj – informácia – znalosť/poznatok“ [4]

215

Denície uvedené v tabuľke sa viac menej zhodujú a vzájomne si neodporujú. Za netradičné a výstižné považujeme denície autorov Quigley a Debons [5], ktorí predstavujú odlišnosť týchto pojmov na základe typu otázok, na ktoré sú tieto pojmy schopné dať odpoveď. Ak údaje nie sú schopné odpovedať na konkrétny prob lém, informácia už dáva odpoveď na otázky kto, kedy, čo, kde. Na základe ich denícií najvyššiu výpovednú hodnotu majú odpovede na otázky prečo a ako, pretože tieto odpovede možno považovať za znalosti/poznatky. V literatúre sa často nachádza zjednodušený obrázok, ktorý má znázorňovať rozdiel medzi údajom, infor máciou a znalosťou/poznatkom. Tento nákres v rôznych prevedeniach často používajú známi autori ako Ackoff [6], Bellinger [7], Davenport a Prusak [8] a Choo [9]. Nákres naznačuje, že vzťah medzi údajmi, informáciami a znalosťami je lineárny a že vzdialenosť medzi údajom, informáciou a znalosťou je rovnaká.

Obr. 1. Zjednodušený pohľad na vzťah medzi údajmi, informáciami a znalosťami/poznatkami [4]

Obrázok naznačuje, že načrtnutý vzťah je asymetrický – údaje možno zmeniť na informácie, tie potom na znalosti, ale naznačuje, že nie je možné ísť opačným smerom. Tento názor nemožno považovať za úplne správny, pretože ak sa zamyslíme, zistíme, že na odvodenie informácie a tvorbu údajov z nich sme museli použiť našu znalosť/poznatok, takže istá znalosť je nevyhnutnou podmienkou začatia tohto procesu. Ako píše Nonaka a Ta keuchi [3], údaje aj informácie na svoju interpretáciu vyžadujú znalosť, ale rovnako údaje a informácie sú vý znamné stavebné kocky pri tvorbe novej znalosti.

2 Nejednotnosť v prístupe k pojmu „znalosť“ 2.1 Denovanie pojmu „knowledge“ V angličtine rovnako ako v slovenčine existujú rôzne jazykové interpretácie pojmu „knowledge“. Knowledge sa používa za účelom vyjadrenia: 1. stavu vedenia (niečoho), na základe čoho sme s niečím oboznámení, je nám to známe t. j. „vedieť o (niečom)“. 2. toho, čo P. Senge nazýva „spôsobilosť k akcii“, teda pochopenie faktov, princípov, metód adekvátne na ich aplikovanie, t. j. „know-how“. 3. kodikovaných, zachytených a nahromadených faktov, metód, princípov a pod., t. j. znalosť vyjadrená a zachytená vo forme kníh, formulárov, manuálov, počítačových kódov a pod [10]. Aj významní autori manažmentu znalostí denujú pojem znalosť. Davenport a Prusak [8] sa pokúsili zadenovať znalosť v kontexte skúseností, hodnôt, procesov a noriem ako „prelievajúcu sa“ zmes rámcových skúseností, hodnôt, kontextových informácií a expertných náhľadov, ktoré poskytujú rámec na ohodnotenie a zahrnutie nových skúseností a informácií. Pochádza a je aplikovaná v mysli jej vlastníka. V organizáciách sa často nachádza nielen v dokumentoch a skladoch, ale v bežnej praxi, v procesoch, praktikách a normách organizácie. Z tejto denície ale nie je úplne jasné, či autor považuje znalosť za niečo sídliace výsostne v mysli človeka, keď píše, že sa „nachádza nie len v dokumentoch a skladoch“, skôr priznáva možnosť jej explicitného vyjadrenia. O dva roky neskôr autor naznačil posun v chápaní tohto pojmu, keď stanovil, že „znalosť je informácia v ľudskej mysli, bez vedomia a sebavedomia jednotlivca znalosť neexis tuje. Značná hodnota znalosti spočíva v ľudskej schopnosti vytvárať nové koncepty, nové myšlienky a interpretá cie vzťahujúce sa priamo k informáciám používaným pri rozhodovaní.“ Davenport, T., Marchant, D. [11]. Elliott a O’Dell [12] denujú znalosti ako informácie v akcii. Táto denícia je stručná, napriek tomu obsahuje v sebe pomerne veľa významných vlastností znalosti ako napr., že znalosť možno vnímať aj ako predpoklad mys lenia, aj ako jeho výsledok, pričom sa zároveň zdôrazňuje aspekt aktívnosti, t. j. využitia znalosti v praxi. Za významný a pomerne radikálny možno považovať názor Al-Hawamdeha [13] – znalosti vznikajú a sú použiteľné v ľudskej mysli a preto sú často viazané k jednej osobe. Znalosti uchovávané v dokumentoch nemožno premeniť na užitočné a využiteľné znalosti, ak nie sú prečítané, zhrnuté, ak sa s nimi nepracuje a ak nie sú komu nikované ďalej. Inými slovami, znalosť sa môže nachádzať jedine v mysli človeka, akonáhle je mimo jeho mysle, stáva sa informáciou. Ak sa zamyslíme nad tým, že doposiaľ neexistujú spôsoby dokonalej reprezentácie znalos tí a vzťahov medzi nimi, potom si dovolíme súhlasiť s týmto tvrdením, pretože možno pozorovať značný 216

kvalitatívny rozdiel medzi komplexnou znalosťou nachádzajúcou sa v mysli človeka a medzi reprezentovanou alebo vyjadrenou znalosťou napr. v expertných systémoch.

2.2 Nejednotnosť v preklade pojmu „knowledge“ Slovenčina pozná viacero ekvivalentov anglického výrazu „knowledge“ a preto sa niektorí autori rozhodli rozli šovať medzi slovenskými ekvivalentmi ako sú poznatok, znalosť a vedomosť. Za významný pohľad na denovanie týchto pojmov možno považovať pohľad lozocký, keďže lozoa predstavuje oblasť, ktorá sa zameriava na vyjadrenie najvšeobecnejších princípov bytia. Podľa otvorenej lozockej encyklopédie Filit [14] možno poznatok a znalosť denovať nasledovne: Znalosť je významový útvar tvorený systémom poznatkov; vzájomne previazaná (meniteľná, doplniteľná) štruktúra súvisiacich poznatkov, ktorú možno použiť v interakcii so svetom. Znalosť niečoho znamená vlastniť jemu zodpovedajúcu reprezentáciu v podobe dostatočne verného a presného kognitívneho modelu, vrátane spô sobilosti vykonávať s tým, čo je reprezentované, rôzne kognitívne operácie. Poznatok je kognitívny významový útvar, ktorý je výsledkom poznávacieho procesu, napr. v rámci vedeckého výskumu. Poznatok je produkt po znávacej činnosti, realizáciou jej cieľa, spracovaným predmetom poznania. Jeho komunikovateľnosť, t. j. jeho vyjadriteľnosť v istej (aj umelej) jazykovej podobe, je jeho charakteristickou vlastnosťou. V podobnom duchu sú tieto pojmy zadenované aj v prácach J. Steinerovej, ktorá denuje poznatok aj ako „výsledky poznávacej činnosti človeka všeobecne“ [15] a znalosť ako „informácie a poznatky v kontexte“ [15]. Niekedy sa stretávame aj s rozlišovaním na úrovni znalosti a vedomosti. Autori knihy „Informační a znalostní management v praxi“ [16] denujú vedomosť ako „súhrn už dávnejšie overených zapamätateľných faktov, resp. jasne daných vzťahov medzi nimi. Používaním vedomostí v praxi a hodnotením výsledkov tohto po užívania sa postupne formujú individuálne skúsenosti, ktoré možno zovšeobecniť do znalostí, resp. poznatkov.“ Ak sa pokúsime zhrnúť tieto jazykové nezrovnalosti porovnaním s pôvodnými výrazmi, môžeme to zjed nodušene urobiť takto: knowledge možno preložiť ako znalosť a piece of knowledge ako poznatok alebo vedomosť. Autori z ekonomického ale aj technického prostredia väčšinou nevyužívajú možnosť rozlišovať medzi po znatkom, znalosťou a vedomosťou a používajú tieto výrazy ako úplné synonymá, napr. [17], [18]. Po analýze viacerých aspektov pojmu znalosť by sme sa mali zamyslieť aj nad tým, aký má vlastne vý znam, ak rozlišujeme medzi informáciou a znalosťou? Niektorí autori (Allavi a Leidner [19] Earl [20]) argu mentujú, že rozlišovanie medzi znalosťou a informáciou má malý praktický význam. Naproti tomu napr. Vy mětal a kol. [16] sa domnievajú, že nerozlišovaním týchto dvoch pojmov sa môže znížiť hodnota znalosti a píšu, že „znalosti sa odlišujú od informácií rovnako ako pojem mačka sa odlišuje od pojmu zviera“. Rozdiel medzi informáciou a znalosťou priznávali aj autori ako Huber [21], Nonaka [22] a známi experti manažmentu znalostí ako T. H. Davenport, L. Prusak a S. Zuboff [23]. Sme presvedčení, že k úplnému porozumeniu celej šírky pojmu znalosť a následne manažmentu znalostí je potrebné zadenovať si tie charakteristické podoby znalosti, ktoré ju jednoznačne oddelili od pojmu informácia (t. j. implicitná – tacitná znalosť) a stali sa ťažis kom teórie manažmentu znalostí.

3 Typológia znalostí v kontexte KM 3.1 Explicitná znalosť Tento druh znalostí je pomerne jednotne denovaný ako znalosti, ktoré sú kodikované, resp. štruktúrované. Je možné ich ľahko vyjadriť písmenami, slovami, číslami, alebo znakmi, sú ľahko komunikovateľné a zdieľané vo formálnom jazyku. Jediným nedoriešeným problémom explicitných znalostí ostáva, či hovoríme o znalosti alebo o informácii. Väčšina autorov označuje explicitnú znalosť ako informáciu. Existuje vôbec nejaká explicitná znalosť a ak áno, je medzi ňou a informáciou nejaký rozdiel? Choo [9] priznáva, že pri explicitnej znalosti prijímajúca strana nemusí byť schopná správne ohodnotiť hodnotu znalosti vzhľadom k odlišnému jazyku, rôznej úrovni vzdelania, alebo nedostatkom požadovaných schopností. Môžeme ale v takomto prípade ešte hovoriť o znalosti? Podľa Dick Stenmarka [24] už nejde o znalosť ale o informáciu. Všeobecne možno povedať, že ľudia s rovnakou tradíciou a kultúrou majú viac spoločných tacitných znalostí ako ľudia z rôznych tradícií. Autor zastáva podobný názor ako A. Hawamdeh [13] a tvrdí, že informáciu možno zmeniť na znalosť, ak je spracovávaná v mysli jednotlivca, a znalosť sa spätne môže stať informáciou, ak ju vyjadríme. Fakt, že manuály, pravidlá a knihy sú dôležité, ich ešte nerobí znalosťa mi. Potrebujú znalosť minimálne k tomu, aby boli dekódované.

3.2 Tacitná a implicitná znalosť Prvú zmienku o tacitnej znalosti možno hľadať v diele lozofa M. Polanyiho [25], ktorého vo svojej práci cituje Nonaka [22] a neskôr spoločne Nonaka a Takeuchi [3]. Polanyi píše: „môžeme vedieť viac ako sme schopný vy sloviť“ [25]. Nanešťastie Nonaka používa Polanyiho termín iným spôsobom ako samotný Polanyi. Vzhľadom na silný vplyv Nonakovej odbornej tvorby k diskusii o KM bola táto mylná predstava všeobecne prijatá. Zatiaľ čo 217

Polanyi hovorí o tacitných znalostiach ako o pozadí, na základe ktorého sa chápu všetky činnosti, Nonaka použí va tento pojem na označenie konkrétnych znalostí, ktoré je ťažké vyjadriť. Snáď by vzniklo menej zmätku, keby Nonaka uprednostnil použitie termínu implicitná znalosť [24]. Všeobecne možno povedať, že tacitné znalosti sú skrytým druhom znalosti, ktoré bežne získavame so cializáciou s okolím. Manažment znalostí ale pozná aj implicitné znalosti, ktoré denuje ako znalosti, ktoré zís kavame vzdelávaním sa, učením a tréningom [13]. V publikáciách o manažmente znalostí sa často stretávame s tým, že tieto dva pojmy sa používajú ako sy nonymá, alebo sa používa len jedno vybrané (väčšinou implicitné znalosti) chápané ako akési opozitum explicit ných znalostí, ktoré je možné ľahko vyjadriť, prenášať, uchovávať a pod.

Obr. 2. Explicitná, implicitná a tacitná znalosť [10]

4 Manažment znalostí 4.1 Kontext KM Až donedávna hrali hlavnú úlohu pri narábaní s organizačnými dokumentmi a explicitnými znalosťami v organi zácii informační špecialisti. Potom, ako si odborníci neskoršieho KM začali uvedomovať význam implicitných/ tacitných znalostí, zmenil sa aj prístup k riadeniu – manažment informácií sa rozšíril na manažment znalostí. In formačný manažment sa zameriava na to, ako ľudia v organizácii využívajú informácie, na optimalizáciu ich vy užívania a na dosiahnutie výsledného správania, pričom rieši otázky: kto, kde, kedy, ako a v akej forme má infor mácie v organizácii dostávať [16]. Manažment znalostí (KM) nadväzuje na spomínaný informačný manažment. Ako sme si ukázali, niektorí významní autori manažmentu znalostí sa domnievajú, že znalosť je niečo osobné, čo sídli jedine v mysliach ľudí. Ak by tomu bolo tak, potom riadenie znalostí spôsobom, akým sa riadili informácie, je nielen nelogické ale aj nepraktické. Kým informačný manažment je dôležitý a potreba riadiť digitálne infor mácie je väčšia ako kedykoľvek predtým, informačný manažment je len malou časťou KM [13]. Riadenie znalostí bude teda spočívať predovšetkým v optimalizácii riadenia ľudí, ktorí znalosti vlastnia. Dominantnú úlo hu v tejto časti potom prevezmú odbory ako sú personalistika, psychológia, sociológia, komunikácia a pod.

Obr. 3. Pyramída – manažment znalostí v kontexte informačného manažmentu [13]

Obrázok 3 nám môže pomôcť pochopiť nie len vzťah informačného manažmentu a KM, ale aj interdisciplinár nosť KM. Najspodnejšiu časť pyramídy KM tvoria informačné systémy a infraštruktúra – túto oblasť zastrešuje oblasť informačných technológií. Získavanie informácií a manažment obsahu podľa Hawamdeha zabezpečuje 218

knižničná a informačná veda. Zdieľaniu informácií a znalostí sa venuje teória komunikácie a kognitívna veda. Najvyšší bod pyramídy – využívanie znalostí (v organizácii) by malo spadať pod obchodné vedy a manažment. Podľa iného známeho autora, L. Prusaka [26], sú za interdisciplinárnosť KM zodpovedné tieto vedné disciplíny – ekonomické vedy, sociológia, lozoa a psychológia. E. Davenport [1] sleduje prelínanie a záujem o KM v rámci oblastí knižnično-informačná veda, obchodná veda a teória organizácie. Možno teda jednoznačne pove dať, že KM má interdisciplinárny charakter. Jednotná denícia KM neexistuje, ako zaujímavú možno vybrať deníciu od autorov Davenport a Prusak, ktorí ho denujú ako oblasť, ktorá sa zaoberá rozvojom a zúžitkovaním znalostného bohatstva organizácie za účelom podporovania organizačných cieľov [8]. Karl Sveiby, expert na meranie nehmotných aktív, denuje KM ako umenie vytvárať hodnoty z nehmotných aktív organizácie [27], rovnako zaujímavo denuje KM Truneček [28], ktorý píše, že „znalostný manažment zahŕňa efektívne prepojenie tých, čo vedia s tými, čo vedieť potrebujú a premenu osobných znalostí na znalosti organizácie.“

4.2 Knižnično-informačná veda a KM Činnosti vykonávané knihovníkmi v organizácii spadajú do oblasti informačného manažmentu. Ide o riešenie otázok kto, kde, kedy, ako a v akej forme má informácie v organizácii dostávať. Hovoríme o explicitných znalostiach – informáciách, s ktorými majú knihovníci dlhodobé skúsenosti. E. Davenport [1] skúma KM v kontexte troch domén – knižnično-informačná veda, procesné inžinierstvo a organizačná teória, pričom pri KIV zdôrazňuje, že z pohľadu tejto domény je KM vnímaný predovšetkým ako Informačný manažment (manažment interných a externých publikácií), len pod iným názvom. Doslova píše: „V rámci komunity KIV je KM jednoducho prípadom starého vína v novej fľaši.“ [1] Ďalšia autorka, J. Steinerová [15] vychádzajúca z prostredia knižnično-informačnej vedy píše, že „…profesionálna knižnično-informačná činnosť má dobré predpoklady pre manažment poznatkov práve v doterajších skúsenostiach z organizácie a reprezentácie poznania v knižnično-informačných systémoch.“ Ako vidieť, autorka zrejme schválne používa pojem „manažment poznatkov“ a nie KM, pretože pravdepodob ne má na mysli riadenie explicitných znalostí. Ako sme si už spomínali, autorka poznatky denuje ako „vý sledky poznávacej činnosti človeka všeobecne“ pričom zdôrazňuje, že poznatky musia byť vyjadriteľné, pre pojiteľné s ostatnými poznatkami a použiteľné na špecické účely. Je možné sa domnievať, že manažment po znatkov vníma ako niečo medzi informačným manažmentom a KM, čo by predstavovalo ideálny priestor pre využitie skúseností knižnično-informačných pracovníkov. O tom, že knihovníci sa o oblasť KM zaujímajú už dávno, svedčia napr. konferencie IFLA, ktoré sa od roku 1998 každoročne venujú aj oblasti KM. V roku 2005 sa na konferencii IFLA konanej v nórskom Oslo pre zentoval aj príspevok od M. E. D. Koeniga [29], ktorý píše, že KM sa posunulo na ďalšiu úroveň, na ktorej roz poznalo význam začlenených informácií a znalostí externých pre organizáciu, ktoré boli odjakživa sférou pôsob nosti knihovníkov, a preto KM predstavuje významnú príležitosť pre oblasť knihovníctva. Podľa autora rozo znávame 4 úrovne KM: 1. úroveň – Informačné technológie, Intelektuálny kapitál a internet, 2. úroveň – Com munities of Practice (odborné pracovné komunity), Učiaca sa organizácia, Organizačná kultúra, Tacitné znalosti, 3. úroveň – Štruktúrovaný obsah a pridávanie deskriptorov, 4. úroveň – význam externých informácií a znalostí pre organizáciu [24]. Pre knihovníkov sú zaujímavé úrovne 3 a 4. Úroveň 3. – je charakteristická uvedomením si dôležitosti obsahu a špeciálne uvedomením si dôležitosti vyhľadateľnosti a tým aj usporiadania, popisu a štruktúrovania obsahu. Autor uvádza, že v tomto prípade kni hovníci premeškali možnosť ukázať svoje schopnosti. KM komunita sa pokúša znovuobjaviť doménu taxonómií, presne to, čo knihovníci už dávno poznajú, študujú a rozvíjajú ako klasikáciu. Neuvedomuje si, že už existuje množstvo špecialistov na taxonómie/klasikácie. Často sa potom uberajú zlým smerom. Taxonómie sú medzi odborníkmi KM ponímané ako niečo, čo vychádza z prírodných vied (klasikácia rastlín a zvierat), nie z kniž ničnej a informačnej vedy. Bohužiaľ, len málokto z komunity KM vie, že taxonómie a klasikačné štruktúry typu MESH sú pôvodnou doménou knižničnej a informačnej vedy. Úroveň 4. – vyjadruje, že väčšina kľúčových informácií potrebných ku kritickým rozhodnutiam sa nachá dza mimo organizácie a že ideálny systém KM by mal poskytovať primerané prepojenie na tento svet. Ide teda o ďalšiu šancu pre oblasť knihovníctva, keďže externé informácie boli vždy doménou knihovníkov. Autor zdôraz ňuje, aké by mohlo byť nebezpečné, keby si organizácie mysleli, že môžu prijať akýsi fenomén Google, teda že každý môže byť knihovníkom, a že vo svete online informácií je prístup k externým informáciám taký jednodu chý, že komunita KM môže odignorovať tradičnú knižnicu ako takú. Vo svete, kde si používateľ stále viac vyhľadáva informácie sám, je dizajn, štruktúra, aktualizácia a údrž ba systémov oblasťou, kde knihovníci môžu použiť svoje znalosti o externých informáciách. Napr. o tom, ktoré externé informácie sú dostupné, ako ich štruktúrovať, aký vytvoriť dizajn a ako stavať organizačné portály, ktoré by čo najefektívnejšie pomáhali používateľom pri vyhľadávaní externých informácií [29]. Otázka teraz ale znie, či aj odborníci KM majú záujem o skúsenosti knižnično-informačných pracovníkov a či skutočne uznávajú, že táto oblasť im môže nemalou mierou napomôcť pri tvorbe KM.

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5 Aplikácia poznatkov KM pri realizácii výskumného projektu 5.1 Zameranie projektu Projekt je zameraný na zdieľanie znalostí vo vedecko-výskumnom tíme na úrovni tzv. kolaboratória. Kolabora tóriá sú dnes viditeľnejšie vďaka tomu, že používanie tohto slova je čoraz rozšírenejšie. Denície v niekoľkých slovníkoch a taktiež aj osobnosti, ktorým sa pripisuje prvé použitie tohto slova, poukazujú na pôvod vo vede. William Wulf pracoval pre Národnú vedeckú nadáciu v USA, keď po prvýkrát opísal kolaboratórium ako cen trum bez stien, kde môžu výskumníci príslušného národa realizovať svoj výskum bez ohľadu na ich zemepisnú polohu – pričom sú v interakcii s kolegami, majú prístup k vybaveniu, delia sa o údaje a výpočtové zdroje, pri stupujú k informáciám v digitálnych knižniciach [30]. Zjednodušená forma denície popisuje kolaboratórium ako prostredie, v ktorom zúčastnení využívajú počítačové a komunikačné technológie za účelom získania prístupu k zdieľaným nástrojom a údajom, rovnako ako aj za účelom vzájomnej komunikácie. Za hlavné atribúty kolaboratória možno považovať: • Spoločné bádanie – zúčastnení majú nielen spoločné ciele, ale delia sa aj o spoločnú množinu problémov alebo otázok. • Zámernosť – má tendenciu byť uznávané zúčastnenými ako spoločný podnik; existuje zdieľané uvedomo vanie si statusu sídla ako vzájomného projektu. Toto uvedomovanie si môže spôsobiť, že sa vytvorí gene ratívny priestor, v ktorom účastník zjavne získava toľko, koľko dáva. • Aktívna účasť a prispievanie – existuje do takej miery, do akej ho jeho členovia využívajú, a čo je dôleži tejšie, do akej do neho pridávajú zdroje. • Prístup ku spoločným zdrojom – poskytuje jedinečné informácie (údaje, linky, zistenia výskumu) a ná stroje, ktoré zúčastnení potrebujú. • Technológie – obsahujú technológie (vedecké nástroje zdieľané roztrúsenými komunitami, jedinečné sú stavy symbolov používané účastníkmi alebo informačné technológie potrebné na komunikáciu). Obvykle je založené na Webe. • Prekračovanie hraníc – premosťujú priepasti dané a) geogracky, tým, že poskytujú medzinárodné sprístupnenie cez internet; b) časom, tým že ponúkajú synchrónne a asynchrónne komunikačné technológie; c) inštitucionálne, tým, že skupinám sprístupňujú nástroje a materiály pre spoločné záujmy; d) disciplinárne, tým, že umožňujú účastníkom rozhodovať, aké zdroje sú pre nejakú tému najrelevan tnejšie, bez ohľadu na tradičné chápanie náplne konkrétnej disciplíny [30]. Všetky uvedené atribúty kolaboratória by malo spĺňať aj existujúce konzorcium Kniha SK, ktoré sa má stať predmetom praktického výskumu spomínaného projektu. Vedecký a technologický potenciál pracovísk (SNK, STU, SNA, SAV) bol spojený do konzistentného výskumno-vzdelávacieho systému a združenia „Konzor cium Kniha SK“ za účelom vytvorenia perspektívnych jadier dlhodobých interdisciplinárnych tímov, ktoré budú aj v budúcnosti zárukou trvalého zvyšovania kvality riešení v oblasti záchrany, stabilizácie a konzervovania tradičných nosičov informácií v SR.

5.2 Ciele, metódy a fázy projektu Hlavným cieľom projektu je analýza zdieľania znalostí v konkrétnom kolaboratóriu a vlastný návrh modelu zdieľania znalostí v podobných kolaboratóriách. Za čiastkové ciele možno považovať: • Analýza metód a foriem vedeckej komunikácie v rámci daného kolaboratória • Identikácia algoritmov vzniku, zaznamenania, uchovávania, šírenia, sprístupňovania a využívania po znatkov v danom kolaboratóriu • Analýza správania členov kolaboratória pri procesoch tvorby, sprístupňovania a využívania znalostí, t. j.  spôsoby získavania, spracovania, uchovávania a sprístupňovania explicitných znalostí – informácií  aktuálny stav a návrh nových spôsobov externalizácie implicitných znalostí členov kolaboratória  aktuálny stav a návrh nových spôsobov zdieľania tacitných znalostí medzi členmi kolaboratória • Diagnostikovanie efektívnosti využívania existujúcich technologických nástrojov na zdieľanie znalostí v rámci daného kolaboratória • Generalizácia poznatkov a vlastný návrh modelu zdieľania znalostí v kolaboratóriu všeobecne.

Metódy a fázy výskumného projektu: Analýza stavu – v komunikácii a zdieľaní znalostí v danom kolaboratóriu. Analyzované budú problémy ako – sú členovia kolaboratória motivovaní k zdieľaniu znalostí, rozumejú významu zdieľania znalostí naprieč inštitú ciami zúčastňujúcimi sa na výskume v kolaboratóriu, alebo pretrváva podvedomá konkurencia medzi inštitú ciami? Využívajú členovia kolaboratória technologické nástroje na tvorbu a využívanie „zdieľaného vedomost ného priestoru“ a pod. V tejto fáze bude použitá metóda dotazníka a pološtruktúrovaného rozhovoru. V prípade 220

rozhovoru si bude potrebné uvedomiť, že použitím tejto metódy nezistíme objektívne aspekty skúmaného javu, ale len ich odraz vo vedomí ľudí. Pri formulovaní otázok bude potrebné brať do úvahy emotívnu, kognitívnu a aktívnu zložku skúmaných objektov – členov kolaboratória. Diagnostikovanie stavu – na základe teoretických poznatkov o zdieľaní znalostí v kolaboratóriu budú hodnotené výsledky analýzy, ktorých výstupom bude diagnostikovanie stavu zdieľania znalostí a systému zdieľaného vedomostného a komunikačného priestoru, jeho silné a slabé stránky, prípadne nevyužité možnosti. Ako riešenie diagnostikovaného stavu bude vytvorený – Návrh zlepšenia. Mimoriadnu pozornosť bude potrebné venovať fáze Implementácie návrhu zlepšenia od ktorej závisí prijatie alebo odmietnutie celej myšlienky využitia poznatkov manažmentu znalostí pri zdieľaní znalostí v danom kolaboratóriu. Predposlednou fázou bude – Vyhodnotenie užitočnosti zmeny. Ak sa potvrdia pozitívne výsledky – bude to dôkaz o zmysluplnosti využívania teoretických poznatkov manažmentu znalostí pri riešení zdieľania znalostí v kolaboratóriu. Záverečnou fázou výskumu by mal byť vlastný Návrh modelu zdieľania znalostí v (podobných) kola boratóriách.

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[17] KOKAVCOVÁ, D. 2006. Znalostný manažment a jeho miesto v súčasnej etape rozvoja spoločnosti postavenej na vedomostiach. [online]. [citované 8.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [18] LAVRIN, A. – ZELKO, M. 2000. Cez informačnú gramotnosť k manažmentu znalostí. [online]. [citované 8.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: < http://si.vse.cz/archiv/clanky/2000/lavrin.pdf>. [19] ALAVI, M. and LEIDNER, D. E. 2001. „Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations and Research issues“. In: Management Information Systems Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 107-136. Podľa Stenmark, D. : Explicit Knowledge: There is no such thing (KM page7). 2002. [online]. [citované 12.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [20] EARL, M. 2001. Knowledge management strategies: Toward a taxonomy. Journal of Management Information Systems, 18, 215-233. Podľa Bartol, K.M. – Srivastava, A. : Encouraging knowledge sharing: the role of organizational reward systems. [online]. [citované 2.2.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [21] HUBER, G. P. 1991. Organizational learning: The contributing processes and the literature. In: Organization Science, 2, p. 88-115. Podľa Bartol, K.M.– Srivastava, A. : Encouraging knowledge sharing: the role of organizational reward systems. [online]. [citované 2.2.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [22] NONAKA, I. 1994. A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation. In: Organization Science, 5, 14-37. Podľa Bartol, K.M.– Srivastava, A. : Encouraging knowledge sharing: the role of organizational reward systems. [online]. [citované 2.2.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [23] ZUBOFF, S. 1998. In the Age of the Smart Machine – The Future of Work and Power. Basic Books Inc, New York, 1998. Podľa Vodáček, L. Information Management: Conceptions, Tasks, Applications In: Zborník Filozockej Fakulty Univertzity Komenského Knižničná a informačná veda, roč. XIX. Univerzita Komenského: Bratislava, 2002. ISBN 80-223-1728-4. [24] STENMARK, D. 2002. Explicit Knowledge: There is no such thing (KM page7). [online]. [citované 12.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [25] POLANYI, M. 1966/1997. The Tacit Dimension, in Prusak, L. (Ed.) Knowledge in Organizations, ButterworthHeinemann, Newton, MA, pp. 135-146. Podľa Stenmark, D. Tacit Knowledge: the fundament for knowing (KM page6). [online]. [citované 2.2.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [26] PRUSAK, L. 2001. Where did knowledge management come from? In: Knowledge Management, Vol. 40, Numer 4, 2001. ISSN 0018-8670. [online]. [citované 18.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [27] SVEIBY, K.: What is Knowledge Management? [online]. [citované 18.4.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [28] TRUNEČEK, J. 2001. Znalosti v roce 2001. In: Moderní řízení, č. 11/2001 s. 39-43 Podľa Kokavcová, D.: Znalostný manažment a jeho miesto v súčasnej etape rozvoja spoločnosti postavenej na vedomostiach [online]. [citované 8.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [29] KOENIG, M. E. D. 2005. KM moves beyond the organization: the opportunity for librarians. IFLA: Libraries – A Voyage of discovery. Oslo, 2005. [online]. [citované 10.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [30] LUNSFORD, K.J.– BRUCE, B.C. 2001. Collaboratories : Working Together on the Web. [online]. [citované 16.7.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [31] WIIG, K. M. 1993. Knowledge Management Foundations: Thinking About Thinking – How People and Organizations Create, Represent, and Use Knowledge. Schema Press, Arlington, TX. Podľa Stenmark, Dick : Data, information, and knowledge (KM page3). 2002. [online]. [citované 12.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [32] SPEK, R. v.d. and SPIJKERVET, A. 1997. Knowledge Management: Dealing Intelligently with Knowledge, CIBIT, Utrecht. Podľa Stenmark, Dick : Data, information, and knowledge (KM page3). 2002. [online]. [citované 12.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: . [33] DAVENPORT, T. H. 1997. Information Ecology, Oxford University Press, New York, NY. Podľa Stenmark, Dick : Data, information, and knowledge (KM page3). 2002. [online]. [citované 12.5.2006]. Dostupné na internete: .

About the authors O autoroch Axelsson, Ann-Soe Ann-So[email protected]

Ann-Soe Axelsson is postdoc researcher at the Center for Collaborative Innovation, Swedish School of Library and Inform ation Science. She previously worked at Chalmers Institute of Technology where she earned her Ph.D. in 2004 on social in teraction in shared virtual environments. She is the editor of the book, Avatars at Work And Play: Collaboration And Interac tion in Shared Virtual Environments (with Ralph Schroeder.).

Banek-Zorica, Mihaela [email protected]

Mihaela Banek Zorica is a PhD student and research and teaching assistant at the Department of Information Sciences in Zagreb, Croatia. She published a book on school libraries and several journal and conference papers. Her main interest areas are knowledge organization, information retrieval, school libraries and education.

Búci, Peter [email protected]

Peter Búci graduated from Dept. of LIS, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University in 2005. He is an external PhD. student at the same department. The topic of his thesis is „Search Engine Optimization as part of web page information architecture“. The thesis will incude a research project on adoption of SEO techniques in library web pages. He presently works as project manager at AT&T.

Eskola, Eeva-Liisa [email protected]

Eeva-Liisa Eskola is a Ph.D. student at Åbo Akademi University in Finland. She has been working as a research assistant, re searcher and assistant lecturer at the Department of Information studies, Åbo Akademi University 1997-2002. Her present po sition is at the library of Turku University of Applied Sciences where she works as an information specialist. Her research in terest is information behavior in educational contexts.

Faletar Tanacković, Sanjica [email protected]

Sanjica Faletar Tanacković is Research Assistant at the Information Sciences Department, Faculty of Philosophy, Osijek Uni versity, Croatia. She is a president of Croatian Reading Association. Her research interests are: inuence of ICT on memory institutions, reading and reading habits, library services for socially excluded persons, volunteers in memory institutions. Cur rently she has just nished her master thesis on collaboration of memory institutions and is preparing a PhD which will focus on user aspect of memory institutions, in traditional and digital environment.

Gonda, Milan [email protected]

Milan Gonda is former long time employee of Matica slovenská and Slovak National Library in Martin, Slovakia (he worked as methodologist for libraries, later on he was engaged in the education of librarians). Since 2000 he has been director of Oravská knižnica Antona Habovštiaka in Dolný Kubín. He edited a book on 50 years of activity of this regional library and has published articles on public libraries. Among his interests are community activities of public libraries.

Grešková, Mirka [email protected]

Mirka Greskova, M.S. is internal doctoral student at the Department of Library and Information Science at the Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia. Her current research project is oriented towards the problems of cog nitive foundations of information science. It is aimed at human-agent interaction from the perspective of phenomenological methodology. She also cooperated in a team project aimed at qualitative research on information relevancy. She lectures on ICT in education and information search.

Hrdináková, Ľudmila hrdinakova@ fphil.uniba.sk

Ľudmila Hrdináková is an assistant professor at the Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia. She has been involved in the research projects on readers’ and information literacy of children, the inuence of ction on development of personality and creativity of the pre-school child, and literary educa tion in the pre-school age. She has been long interested in childrens’ reading literacy, and in socio-psychological aspects of children’s literature. At the Department of LIS she teaches the subjects of Literature for children, Methodology of library work with children and youth and ICT in education. She is a member of the working group on Information literacy at the Slovak Pedagogical Library.

Huvila, Isto [email protected]

Isto Huvila is currently nishing his doctoral dissertation on the management of information work at the Department of In formation Studies at Åbo Akademi University, Finland. Huvila received his MA in Cultural history at the University of Turku in Finland. His interests cover information management, work studies, knowledge organization, information architecture and cultural heritage informatics.

223

Johnson, Andrea [email protected]

Andrea Johnson is a PhD Computer Science Student at University College Cork, Ireland. Her research interests include the use of digital archives, the information seeking patterns of digital archive users, user modelling, contextual inquiry, evalu ation methodology and discourse analysis. Andrea is a member of Ax-SNET the international research partnership; the IDEAS research group University College Cork and an active member of the Society of Archivists, Ireland.

Johnson, Ian [email protected]

Ian Johnson is Associate Dean of the Aberdeen Business School at the Robert Gordon University (UK), responsible for the development of teaching and learning policy and the School’s human, nancial and technical resources. As Head of the Uni versity’s former School of Librarianship and Information Studies, he led the development of a wide range of courses and re search in library and information sciences, and publishing studies. He has been Chairman of British, European and Interna tional groups concerned with education and training for Librarianship and Information Studies, and of the Professional Board of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). His interests have focused on professional de velopment in Eastern Europe, Latin America and the Arab world, where he has undertaken numerous projects concerned with development of the information sector. He is currently joint editor of Libri: international journal of libraries and information services, and a member of the Editorial Board of Education for Information.

Jurmanová Volemanová, Věra [email protected]

The author is PhD student of Library and Information Science at the Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratis lava, Slovakia. At the same time she works in the Division of Library Studies and the Central library of the Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic. Her long-time interests are focused on authors’ rights and copyright in library and information studies.

Kapsalis, Konstantinos [email protected]

Konstantinos Kapsalis (UC in Electronics and Computer Science, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden and BA in Electrical Engineering, Technological Educational Institute, Larissa, Greece). He is currently responsible for the System Administration of the Library of the Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, and an adjunct lecturer at the De partment of Library and Information Studies. He has extended work experience in the private and public sector as Developer, Designer, Analyst and Project Manager and his main elds of interest are RDBMS and library automation.

Katuščák, Martin [email protected]

Martin Katuščák graduated from the Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia, Faculty of Philosophy, in 2002 (Master degree in English and American Studies and Library and Information Science, specialisation in Information Technologies). Since 2003 he has been responsible for coordination of digitization and digital library management in the Slovak National Library in Martin, Information Technology Department. Externally he is involved in the 5th and 6th EU RTD Framework Programmes, in projects MINERVA and MINERVA Plus. Member of the National Representatives Group for the EU coordination of digitization of cultural and scientic content. Participant in 6th FP project TEL-MEMOR and eContentPlus project MINERVA-EC for supporting the European (Digital) Library.

Katuščáková, Marcela [email protected]

Marcela Katuščáková graduated from the Department of Library and Information Science in Bratislava, Slovakia. Today she teaches at the Department of Library and Information Sciences and Didactics of Informatics at Žilina University, while at the same time she is external PhD student at the Department of Library and Information Science, Comenius Uni versity in Bratislava. She has been interested in the topic of Knowledge Management in the context of Library and In formation Science.

Korobili, Stella [email protected]

Stella Korobili, Ph.D is Associate Professor at the Department of Library and Information Systems at the Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki, Greece. She was the manager of the „Modernization of the Central Library of TEI of Thessaloniki“ project and taught at various seminars and workshops for professional librarians. She lectures on online information retrieval and computer applications. She has contributed to the development of many research studies in Lib rary and Information Science and has published many articles. Her main interests include information retrieval, informa tion literacy, learning theories and information behavior.

Krauss-Leichert, Ute [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Ute Krauss-Leichert is Vice Dean of the Faculty of Design, Media and Information at Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany, Head of the Department of „Information“, Chairperson of the Commission of Education and Training in the Professional Association of Information and Library (BIB = Berufsverband Information Bibliothek). She is on Board of Directors of the Conference of Information and Librarian Educational Facilities (KIBA), DBV Section 7 and Member of the Academic Advisory Board of the inter-university study course Master of Science (MSc) Library and In formation. She has given numerous lectures and workshops abroad at the invitation of the Goethe Institute (New Delhi, Thessaloniki, Belgrade, Tokyo, Istanbul etc.).

224

Krivienė, Irena [email protected]

Irena Krivienė is deputy director at Vilnius University library and doctoral student at the Institute of Library and Information Science (Faculty of Communication, Vilnius University, Lithuania). Her research interests are academic library management, information services and resources in the context of research communication. Pedagogical experience: teaching at the Faculty of Communication for students seeking bachelor degree, master degree in communication and information.

Krtalić, Maja [email protected]

Maja Krtalić is Research Assistant at the Information Sciences Department, Faculty of Philosophy, Osijek University, Croa tia. Her research interest is: preservation of library material, digital preservation of newspapers, digital services in libraries, museums and archives, library services for persons with special needs and reading interests of children and young adults. Currently she is writing a master thesis on preservation of newspapers.

Landová, Hana [email protected]

PhDr. Hana Landová is PhD student at the Institute of Information Studies and Librarianship, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, Charles University Prague, Czech Republic. She focuses on the information institutions’ tasks in education. As an employee of the Study and Information Centre of the Czech University of Agriculture she takes part in introducing new forms of in formation education to students and teachers. In 2004/2005 she was awarded the Fulbright Commission scholarship and com pleted an internship with the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill.

Lasić-Lazić, Jadranka [email protected]

Jadranka Lasic-Lazic is a Professor of Information Science and the Head of Information Science Department at the University of Zagreb, Croatia. She is also the former head of a public library in Zagreb and has fteen years of teaching experience in the eld of information and library science. She is the author of several researches and publications on information infrastructure, know ledge organization, science classication, general and technological education of librarians and information professionals.

Lovász, Katalin [email protected]

Katalin Lovász, university degree in Library and Information Science (1999) at Eötvös University, BA degree in English Lan guage studies (1995), PhD course in Library and Information Science Eötvös Lóránd University, Budapest (from 2005 on). As sistant lecturer at the Department of Library and Information Science, Berzsenyi College Szombathely, Hungary, since 2003.

Makulová, Soňa [email protected]

Prof. PhDr. Soňa Makulová, PhD. is Professor at the Department of Library and Information Science at the Faculty of Philo sophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia. She specializes in theoretical and methodological aspects of the imple mentation of the new information technology in library and information systems, information retrieval in global information networks, external information resources and information architecture. In years 2002 and 2004 she was responsible research er for Slovakia in International EU project ACTeN – Anticipating Content Technology Needs: Business Monitor&Know How Transfer within Information Society Technologies Programme.

Malliari, Aphrodite [email protected]

Aphrodite Malliari (BA in Archives and Library Science, Ionian University, PhD in „Information retrieval from automated catalogues of academic libraries and statistical analysis“, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece) is a Reference Lib rarian in the Library of TEI of Thessaloniki, responsible for online bibliographic instruction, and an adjunct lecturer at the Department of Library and Information Systems of the Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki. Among her in terests are: patron needs, information retrieval, multivariate statistical analysis and academic libraries.

Mihalíková, Eva [email protected]

Eva Mihalíková graduated from the Department of Libary and Information Science, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia. She worked as researcher and manager in libraries in the Slovak Academy of Sciences, and Anti-monopoly Ofce of SR. For more than ten years she is working as information analytical and searching special ist in the National Bank of Slovakia.

Moreleli-Cacouris, Mersini [email protected]

Mersini Moreleli-Cacouris (BA in Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, Aristotle Univ. of Thessaloniki, MLS in Library Service, Rutgers University, USA) is Assistant Professor at the Department of Library and Information Systems of the Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki, Greece, and project manager of the EU funded program for the modernization of the institution’s Library. She has worked in special and academic libraries, taught at seminars and work shops for professional librarians, and acted as a consultant for the planning and development of academic and children’s libraries. She has published articles in journals and in collections of essays. Her research interests include library educa tion, management and reference services and sources.

Mušutová, Zita [email protected],

PhDr. Zita Mušutová graduated from Dept. of LIS, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia. During her professional career she worked in advisory and managerial positions in the libraries of the Slovak Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Slovak Republic. For more than ten years she has been working as director of the Cent ral Library of the National Bank of Slovakia. 225

Papík, Richard [email protected]

Richard Papík has been a university teacher since 1994. Since October 2002 he has been director od the Institute of Informa tion Studies and Librarianship, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, Charles University Prague, Czech Republic. Until 1994 he has worked in the information practice of scientic, technical, and economic information. Professionally he is specialized in dialogue information systems and searching methods. He has also been involved in research projects in academic and com mercial practice, currently in 4 ongoing projects, in 2 of them as the main researcher.

Pinkas, Otakar [email protected]

Otakar Pinkas is assistant professor at the Department of information and knowledge engineering at the Faculty of inform atics and statistics, Economic University Prague, Czech Republic. He has been teaching subjects of Information and Com munication Systems, and Information Collections Processing. He has been a supervisor of the new accredited elective subject of Digital Libraries.

Rešetová, Kvetoslava [email protected]

Kvetoslava Rešetová has been working in the academic library since 1986. At present she works at the Central library and study information centre, Material and technological faculty of the Slovak technical university in Trnava. She graduated from Department of LIS, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia, in 1982. Her further professional education includes the PhDr. examination at Charles University, Prague in 2001. At present she has been a PhD. student at Department of LIS, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, since 2003.

Rudžionienė, Jurgita [email protected]

Dr. Jurgita Rudžionienė, dr. of Hum. Sciences, lecturer at the Institute of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Communication, Vilnius University, Lithuania. She gained her diploma in library science and bibliography from Vilnius University (1983). Her research and pedagogical interests are library and information services’ quality, library performance statistics and measurement, continuing education and lifelong learning of library and information specialists. Ex perience of participation in projects: TEMPUS S_JEP Education for Information Management in Lithuania (1995-1996), EU program PubliCA (1999), CULTIVATE (2001), Open Society Institute (Budapest) Information Program Training Centres Iniciative (1999-2003), PHARE 2001 project „Bibliotemlink: Continuing Education of Librarians for the Compet ence of the Information Society“, 2003-2004.

Sakálová, Elena [email protected]

Elena Sakálová is assistant professor at the Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia. She has been implementing the research project Problems of reading and information literacy of children. She has been long involved with the issues of school libraries, children-readers, bibliopaedagogics. At DLIS, Comenius University, she has been teaching courses on Information education, Methodology of library work with children and youth, Readers and Users, and Organization and management of libraries.

Sedláčková, Beáta [email protected]

Beáta Sedláčková graduated from the Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University in Bratislava, in librarianship and scientic information. In the years of 1985-1990 she worked in the Silesian Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in Opava, as an information specialist. Since 1991 she has been an assistant professor at the Faculty of Philosophy and Natural Sciences of the Silesian University in Opava. In 1995 she has completed a 2-months study stay at the Royal School of Lib rary and Information Science in Copenhagen. In 2001 she has completed her PhD studies at the Faculty of Philosophy, Charles University, Prague. At present she is the head of the Department of information science at the Institute of informatics, Silesian University, Opava, Czech Republic.

Sonnenwald, Diane [email protected]

Dr. Diane H. Sonnenwald is a Professor at the Swedish School of Library and Information Science at Göteborg University and University College of Borås, and the director of the Center for Collaborative Innovation. She is also an adjunct professor at the University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill). She conducts research on social aspects of collaboration and how techno logy may facilitate or impede collaboration in a variety of contexts.

Spante, Maria [email protected]

Maria Spante is PhD student at the Technology Management and Economics department at Chalmers Institute of Technology, Sweden. Her dissertation research focuses on technology and social interaction over time in shared virtual environments. Pre viously she worked as an adjunct at Mid Sweden University.

Steinerová, Jela [email protected]

Jela Steinerová is associate professor in Library and Information Science and head of the research project on Information Use at Information Behaviour in Education and Science at the Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Philo sophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia. She specialises in human information behaviour. Her teaching activities in clude subjects of Information Seeking and Retrieval, Information Products Development, Semiotics, Knowledge Manage ment. She is the author of three monographs, lectured at many national and international conferences. She has managed sev eral research projects and conferences. She has been awarded a number of international grants and study stays (e.g. Oxford, Brussels, Washington). Lately she has been engaged in international projects on information literacy policy recommenda tions, EUCLID international LIS curriculum and a collaboratory in LIS. 226

Svršek, Ladislav [email protected]

Ladislav Svršek graduated from Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia and in 1996 was involved in the establishment of Albertina icome Bratislava, s.r.o, Slovakia. At present he is working with this company as head of sales and marketing. He is interested in the use of electronic information resources from the viewpoint of practice – lectures, trainings, and discussions with librarians and users.

Szaloki, Gabriella [email protected]

Gabriella Szalóki works currently for the National Széchényi Library in Budapest, Hungary. She graduated at the University of Debrecen, and studied and earned degrees in the following elds: library and information sciences, cultural management, linguistics and literature. In 2000/2001 she studied and worked in the United States. As librarian she participated in the MIN ERVA Plus project as a work package leader for the working group for multilingual web sites and thesauri. She is also in volved in the TEL ME MOR project in the working group for multilingual issues. She wrote her thesis on online communit ies with the collaboration of the researchers of the University of Maryland in 2004.

Šimral, Břetislav [email protected]

In the course and after nishing his studies at the the Faculty of Philosophy, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic, the author worked as an independent information consultant in business specialising in the issues of qualitative research and Competitive Intelligence. Currently he is PhD student at Comenius University in Bratislava and also works in the Center for Business Knowledge in Ernst&Young’s CESSA region. His lectures at Masaryk university primarily cover the information industry topics and the EIZ (electronic information resources).

Špiranec, Sonja [email protected]

Sonja Špiranec, M.Sc., is a research and teaching Assistant at the Department of Information Sciences in Zagreb, Croatia. For several years she was a librarian at the Croatian National- and University library where she has been actively involved in cre ating a user education program and information literacy tutorial.

Šušol, Jaroslav [email protected]

Jaroslav Šušol is associate professor at Department of Library and Information Science at Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia. He specializes in electronic communication and electronic publishing in information science. He has taken part in several important projects in library and information science (VEGA, DELOS, CELIP, CECUP), lectured at international conferences (e. g. Budapest, Darmstadt, Helsinki), published in inland and foreign sources. He has completed several fellow ships (Brussels, Washington), has authored two monographs and many papers and managed international conferences and seminars (1999, 2001, 2003). He is member of editorial boards, professional societies and commissions. Since 2002 he has been appointed vice-dean of Faculty of Philosophy, Comenius University in Bratislava.

Wilson, Tom D. http://informationr.net/tdw/

T.D. Wilson is an internationally well-known professor in LIS. Over a number of years his research interests have centred on information seeking behaviour, and information needs. He has also carried out work in the areas of ofce automation, inform ation systems strategies, information service evaluation, and other aspects of the impact of information technology on organ izations. He is also interested in, and have written on, electronic scholarly publishing and digital libraries and their impact on the traditional academic library, business and the World Wide Web. Since retirement his research has been concerned with: mobile computing in a Police Force, information overload, and phenomenology and information research. He is editor of the international electronic journal Information Research.

227

Index of Authors Autorský register Axelsson, Ann-Soe ..................................................................................................................................................5, 223 Banek-Zorica, Mihaela ..............................................................................................................................................91, 223 Búci, Peter ..................................................................................................................................................................201, 223 Eskola, Eeva-Liisa .....................................................................................................................................................155, 223 Faletar Tanacković, Sanjica .......................................................................................................................................75, 223 Gonda, Milan .............................................................................................................................................................209, 223 Grešková, Mirka ........................................................................................................................................................29, 181, 223 Hrdináková, Ľudmila .................................................................................................................................................97, 223 Huvila, Isto ................................................................................................................................................................165, 223 Johnson, Andrea .........................................................................................................................................................171, 224 Johnson, Ian ...............................................................................................................................................................13, 224 Jurmanová Volemanová, Věra ...................................................................................................................................205, 224 Kapsalis, Konstantinos ..............................................................................................................................................61, 224 Katuščák, Martin ........................................................................................................................................................81, 224 Katuščáková, Marcela ................................................................................................................................................215, 224 Korobili, Stella ...........................................................................................................................................................49, 224 Krauss-Leichert, Ute ..................................................................................................................................................53, 224 Krivienė, Irena ...........................................................................................................................................................67, 225 Krtalić, Maja ..............................................................................................................................................................75, 225 Landová, Hana ...........................................................................................................................................................195, 225 Lasić-Lazić, Jadranka ................................................................................................................................................91, 225 Lovász, Katalin ..........................................................................................................................................................175, 225 Makulová, Soňa .........................................................................................................................................................109, 225 Mihalíková, Eva .........................................................................................................................................................143, 225 Malliari, Aphrodite ....................................................................................................................................................61, 225 Moreleli-Cacouris, Mersini ........................................................................................................................................61, 225 Mušutová, Zita ...........................................................................................................................................................143, 225 Papík, Richard ............................................................................................................................................................119, 226 Pinkas, Otakar ............................................................................................................................................................135, 226 Rešetová, Kvetoslava .................................................................................................................................................211, 226 Rudžionienė, Jurgita ..................................................................................................................................................67, 226 Sakálová, Elena ..........................................................................................................................................................97, 226 Sedláčková, Beata ......................................................................................................................................................149, 226 Sonnenwald, Diane ....................................................................................................................................................5, 226 Spante, Maria .............................................................................................................................................................5, 226 Steinerová, Jela ..........................................................................................................................................................29, 227 Svršek, Ladislav .........................................................................................................................................................127, 227 Szalóki, Gabriella ......................................................................................................................................................41, 227 Šimral, Břetislav ........................................................................................................................................................187, 227 Špiranec, Sonja ..........................................................................................................................................................91, 227 Šušol, Jaroslav ...........................................................................................................................................................29, 227 Wilson, Tom D. ..........................................................................................................................................................21, 227

228

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4 jediný vyhledávací bod pro všechny informace 4 bohatá nabídka vyhledávacích nástrojů 4 bibliografické informace poskládané z více zdrojů 4 vyhledávání vždy završeno dodáním dokumentu 4 podpora nasazení v portálu 4 navazující funkce vedoucí uživatele dále

TVORBA KOMPLETNÍCH INFORMACÍ Z MNOHA INFORMAČNÍCH ZDROJŮ

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Využívanie informácií v informačnej spoločnosti Zborník z medzinárodnej konferencie Bratislava, Slovenská republika, 10. – 11. októbra 2006 Informat...

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