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Unit 6 Graphic Organizer 1,578 views Share Like Download ...
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- “ In order for language to fulfill its communicative function, utterances must also convey a message, they must ha... Post
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Unit 6 Graphic Organizer 1. 1. Created by Eric Hoopengardner & Julie Howell 2. 3. - “ In order for language to fulfill its communicative function, utterances must also convey a message, they must have content”
- (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.203).
- Semantics - is the study of meaning in human language. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.203)
- The study of semantics can be broken into 4 major areas:
- Properties of the conceptual system underlying meaning
- Contributions of syntactic structure to the interpretation of sentences
- The role of non-grammatical factors in the understanding of utterances
- Synonyms - are words that have the same meaning in some or all context. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.204)
3. 4. - “ Contributions to semantics have come from a diverse group of scholars, ranging from Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece to Bertrand Russell in the twentieth century” (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.204).
- “ Words and phrases can enter into a variety of semantic relations with each other, synonyms, antonyms, polysemy, and homophones” (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.204).
4. 5. - Synonyms - are words that have the same meaning in some or all context. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.204)
- ( Automobile, Car) : (Purchase, Buy ) : ( Big, Large )
- Antonyms - are words or phrases that are opposite with respects to some components of meaning. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.204)
- ( Dark, Light ) : ( Hot, Cold ) : ( In, Out )
- Polysemy - occur where a word has two or more related meanings. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.205)
- (Light ‘shining’ or intelligent)
- (deposit ‘minerals in the earth’ or money in the bank)
- Homophones - exist where a single form has 2 or more entirely distinct meanings. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.206)
- (Club ‘social organization’ or ‘blunt weapon’)
- (Pen ‘writing instrument’ or ‘enclosure’)
5. 6. - Paraphrase - 2 sentences that have the same meaning
- I gave the summons to Erin.
- I gave Erin the summons. (O’Grady et al., 2010, 207)
- Entailment - When the truth of one sentence grantees the truth of another sentence. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.208)
- The park wardens killed the bear.
- Contradiction - is when one sentence is true than another must be false. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.208)
6. 7. - “ Underlying the use of words and sentences to express meaning in human language is a conceptual system capable of organizing and classifying every imaginable aspect of our experience, from inner feelings and perceptions, to culture and social phenomena, to the physical world that surrounds us” (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.213).
- Fuzzy Concepts, Metaphors, Lexicalization, and Grammatical Concepts all make up the conceptual system. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.213)
7. 8. - Fuzzy Concepts - do not have clear-cut boundaries that distinguish them from other concepts. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.213)
- (Tall : Old : Strong : Clean)
- Metaphor - The understanding of one concept in terms of another. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.214)
- ( Cindy was such a mule . We couldn’t get her to change her mind.)
- Lexicalization - The process whereby concepts are encoded in the words of a language. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.216)
- Grammatical Concepts - They are used to express the grammatical contrasts that are expresses as affixes and non-lexical categories. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.219)
- Affix : Past = ed : More than one = s
- Non-lexical obligation = must : negation = not : conjunction = and
8. 9. - There are four major aspects associated with syntax and sentence structure interpretation.
- Interpretation of Pronouns
- Paraphrase - 2 sentences that have the same meaning
- I gave the summons to Erin.
- Constructional Meaning - is associated with a structural pattern above and beyond the meaning of its component words. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.221)
- Most sentences consist of the structural pattern of (NP, V, NP, PP) and causes X causes Y to go somewhere. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.221)
- Structural Ambiguity - is a property of phrases or sentences whose component words can be combined in more than one way. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.223)
- I know a man with a dog who has fleas
- The man has a dog with fleas. or A man with a dog has fleas.
10. 11. - Thematic Roles - The part played by a particular entity in an event. There are five distinct roles. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.224)
- Agent- Entity that performs an action.
- Theme- Entity undergoing an action or movement.
- Source- Starting point for the movement.
- Goal- The end point for a movement.
- Location- The place where an action occurs.
- Not every role is used in each sentence.
- Interpretation of Pronouns - The play an important role in the interpretation of pronouns, including pronominals (he, him, she, her) and reflexive pronouns (himself, herself). (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.229)
11. 12. - “ Syntactic structure only provides some of the information needed to interpret a sentence. Other necessary information comes from pragmatics, which includes the background attitudes and beliefs of the speaker and addressee, their understanding of the context in which a sentence is uttered, and their knowledge of how language can be used to inform, to persuade, or mislead” (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.232).
12. 13. - Role of Beliefs and Attitudes
- This is a crucial factor in semantics, because it involves our beliefs about people in our society and their likely characteristics and behaviors. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.233)
- The judge denied the prisoner’s request because he was cautious.
- The judge denied the prisoner’s request because he was dangerous.
- In the first sentence we assume the judge is cautious and in the second sentence we assume to prisoner is dangerous. In society we think of a judge being cautious and we think of a prisoner as dangerous.
- All languages have forms whose use and interpretation depend on the location of the speaker and/or hearer within a particular setting. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.233)
- Without an understanding of how the setting in which a sentence is uttered can influence the choice of words such as this and that, it would be impossible for speakers of English to use or interpret these forms correctly. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.234)
13. 14. - Disclosure- is the connected series of utterances produced during a conversation, a lecture, a story, or other speech act.
- Individual sentences commonly include elements whose interpretations can only be determined with the help of information in preceding utterances. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.234)
14. 15. - Maxim of Relevance- Gives listeners a bottom line for inferring the intent of other speakers.
- Failure to respect the Maxim of Relevance creates a particular effect, it signals that you want to change the topic of conversation. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.237)
- (p1) How are you today (p2) Did you
- “ Underlying the use of words and sentences to express meaning in human language is a conceptual system capable of... see the ballgame last night.
- Notice how p2 changed the subject.
- Maxim of Quality- requires that the statement used in conversation have some factual basis. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.237)
- Only when achieving sarcasm or irony , is it sometimes possible to abandon this maxim. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.237)
15. 16. - Maxim of Quantity- introduces some very subtle guidelines into conversation.
- The nature of the response will depend in large part on how much information a person believes to be appropriate for the conversation. (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.237)
- Maxim of Manner- is though to underlie the efficient use of language and is formulated as: (O’Grady et al., 2010, p.238)
- Avoid ambiguity and obscurity
16. 17. “ Orthography is a more general term used to refer to all aspects of writing, including the spelling, the punctuation, the spacing, and special features, such as boldface and italics” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.98). 17. 18. - Started with Sumerian Cuneiform
- Pictographs were used to represent ideas.
- Sumerian Cuneiform impacted Egyptian Hieroglyphics
- Pictures and marks stood for different sounds.
- These led to Early Alphabets
- Phoenicians used letters to represent consonant sounds, but the alphabet did not include vowels.
- (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.99-100)
18. 19. - Some early alphabets included the Greek and Latin alphabets
- Consisted of consonants and vowels
- Each sound was represented by a letter
- The Roman Alphabet is based on the Greek alphabet, and is the most widely used in the world.
- (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.100-101)
19. 20. - Slavic sounds; used in Russia
- The Arabic and Hebrew Alphabet
- Diacritics used for vowels and consonants
- One syllabic writing system
- (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.101)
- “ English language learners whose first language is written in a non-Roman alphabet need to learn the roman system as used by English speakers” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p. 101).
20. 21. - Was introduced and used between 450 and 1100 AD
- Was influenced by the Roman Alphabet
- Did not use the letters j, k, v, w and rarely used q and z
- Used some letters to represent sounds
- Some of our current spellings can be explained because of the sounds made during this time period.
- (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.102)
21. 22. - Words were added from French and Latin to the English language
- Changes in spelling occurred.
- Fuzzy Concepts - do not have clear-cut boundaries that distinguish them from other concepts. (O’Grady et al., 2010... For example cw was replaced with qu (cuen becomes queen)
- U and v were interchangeable until the late eighteenth century
- Some letters representing sounds were replaced with letters
- (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.103)
22. 23. - First printing press stabilized spelling
- Dutch printers introduced and incorporated Dutch spellings in English (h in ghost)
- Spelling reformers called for consistency
- Books were produced with consistent spelling establishing the norm of English spelling
- Greek and Latin words were added to English
- Conventional spellings were established by the end of the 18 th century
- (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.104)
- “ The series of changes in pronunciation came after spelling was fixed. As a result, some current spellings do not match well with pronunciations ” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.104).
23. 24. - “ The Great Vowel Shift was gradual, and by the time it was completed, many spellings of vowel sounds no longer corresponded to their pronunciation” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.105).
- During the Great Vowel Shift
- Changes occurred in the pronunciation of vowels
- Consonant sounds were simplified
- “ Combinations of letters formerly pronounced as blends were simplified to single sounds” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.105).
- “ All of these reasons led to a split between sounds and spelling” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.105).
24. 25. - Noah Webster attempted to Americanize English
- He wanted to reform spelling by simplifying it, but not all of his reforms were accepted.
- He changed American spelling to differ from British spelling.
- He created the widely used American Spelling Book; the first spelling textbook published in America which influenced and set a norm for spelling.
- (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.105-106)
- “ Noah Webster wanted the spellings to reflect American English pronunciation in words” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.105).
25. 26. - “ The history of the development of writing and the development of English spelling explains why American English spelling does not correspond to the pronunciation of some words. After conventional spellings were established, pronunciation continued to change” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.106).
26. 27. - Writing systems serve two types of people: readers and writers.
- “ Changes that would make writing easier would make reading more difficult, and changes that would make reading easier would make writing harder” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.106).
- Writing systems that don’t spell words they way they sound “reflect the fact that written language is designed to convey meanings, not just sounds” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.106).
27. 28. - The American English spelling system has different demands which describe why we have the spelling system we use.
- “ Figure 5-1. Forces that shape English spelling” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.109).
Force Demand Example Phonetic Spell words the way they sound Sit Semantic Spell words alike that share the same meaning/root word Hymn Hymnal Etymological Spell words to reflect their origins One (Old English) - There are four major aspects associated with syntax and sentence structure interpretation.
- ... 28. 29.
- Is knowledge of possible combinations of letters in a language
- Subconsciously acquired through extensive reading and writing
- Helps us determine words that have been scrambled
- (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.111)
- “ Word games help students become aware of graphotactics”(Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.111).
29. 30. - “ To help students investigate how the spelling system works, teachers can involve them in activities in which they collect words and try to make generalizations about the spellings… Even if students don’t come up with a rule that works every time, the process of collecting words, looking for spelling patterns, and trying to state generalizations helps students become more conscious of correct spellings” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.112).
30. 31. - Example: Investigating Vowels
- Have students look through books with a partner and create a list of words that contain a vowel sound such as /ey/.
- Create a class list of words with the /ey/ sound that students found
- Divide this list into different spellings used for the /ey/ sound. The final outcome should be similar to the table below.
- Have students analyze the pattern and identify a rule that explains the pattern.
Figure 5-3. Spellings of /ey/ (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p. 113 ) a Consonant e ai ea a ay rate air steak mayor day plane rail great agent away 31. 32. - Try a study of word histories
- This could help your students make sense of many spellings (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.109).
- Involve students in linguistic investigations into the spelling system
- Take a scientific approach to teaching spelling rules. (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.111)
- Examples of investigating vowels, investigating consonants, and investigating spelling rules can be found on pages 112 – 127 in Essential Linguistics by Freeman and Freeman.
- “ When teachers talk with students about spelling and help students understand how the system works, students become better spellers” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p.110).
32. 33. Summary of The Language Instinct Chapter 6 33. 34. - Language is what we perceive; not actual sounds.
- “ When we listen to speech the actual sounds go in one ear and out the others; what we perceive is language” (Pinker, 1994, p.154).
- We subconsciously create word boundaries even though they don’t exist in speech.
- “ This becomes apparent when we listen to speech in a foreign language: it is impossible to tell where one word ends and the next begins” (Pinker, 1994, p.155).
34. 35. - A great example of the seamlessness of speech is found in oronyms. (Pinker, 1994, p.155)
- “ Oronyms: strings of sound that can be carved into words in two different ways” (Pinker, 1994, p.155).
- The good can decay many ways.
- The good candy came many ways.
- Think of the game Mad Gab.
35. 36. - “ The talker encodes strings of discreet symbols into a continuous stream of sound, and analog-to-digital conversion when the listener decodes continuous speech back
- Constructional Meaning - is associated with a structural pattern above and beyond the meaning of its component wor... into discrete symbols” (Pinker, 1994, p.157).
36. 37. - “ To understand speech sounds track a glob of air through the vocal tract into the world, starting with the lungs” (Pinker, 1994, p.159).
- “ Sounds are produced by moving five speech organs around in the mouth to change the shapes and lengths of the resonant cavities that the sound passes through” (Pinker, 1994, p.162).
- The tongue is the most important speech organ because of its parts: the body, the tip, and the root. (Pinker, 1994, p.162)
37. 38. - Different vowels are produced
- Based on the position of the tongue. (Pinker, 1994, p.162-163)
- Because “the air has clear passage from the larynx to the world” (Pinker, 1994, p.165).
38. 39. - When some barrier is put in the way, between the air passage from the larynx to the world. (Pinker, 1994, p.165)
- Fricative – friction of moving air that produces a sound (Example: sssss )
- Stop – the tip of the tongue gets in the way of the airstream; stopping the air flow. (Example: t )
- Can also be formed by the lips, the body of the tongue pressed against the palate, and by the larynx (Pinker, 1994, p.166)
- Voicing – lips are sealed and your soft palate is open allowing air to escape through your nose. (Example: m )
39. 40. - “ First, one of the six speech organs is chosen as the major articulator: the larynx, soft palate, tongue body, tongue tip, tongue root, or lips. Second, a manner of moving that articulator is selected: fricative, stop, or vowel. Third, configurations of the other speech organs can be specified: for the soft palate, nasal or not; for the larynx, voiced or not; for the tongue root, tense, or lax; for the lips rounded or unrounded. Each manner or configuration is a symbol for a set of commands to the speech muscles, and such symbols are called features. To articulate a phoneme, the commands must be executed with precise timing” (Pinker, 1994, p.167).
40. 41. - “ An inventory of phonemes is one of the things that gives a language its characteristic sound pattern” (Pinker, 1994, p.168).
- “ Speakers must have tacit knowledge about how phonemes are strung together in their language” (Pinker, 1994, p.168).
- “ Rules to generate syllables define legal and illegal kinds of words in a language” (Pinker, 1994, p.170).
41. 42. - Written language is not an instinct (Pinker, 1994, p.186).
- “ Symbols used in writing designate three kinds of linguistic structure: the morpheme, the syllable, and the phoneme” (Pinker, 1994, p.186).
- We don’t change the alphabet to represent every phoneme because “the actual sounds are different in different contexts” (Pinker, 1994, p.187).
- For example we would have different symbols for the vowels in write and ride and different consonants in write and writing; etc. There would be too many letters in the alphabet. (Pinker, 1994, p.187)
42. 43. - We use phonemes to create morphemes representing meaning; so as long as meaning is understood then we do not need to be concerned about representing actual sounds based on how we decode sound.
- Thematic Roles - The part played by a particular entity in an event. There are five distinct roles. (O’Grady et a... 43. 44.
- Freeman, D., & Freeman, Y. (2004). Essential Linguistics What You Need to Know to Teach Reading, ESL, Spelling, Phonics, and Grammar . Portsmouth, NH, USA: Heinemann.
- McKee, C. INDV 101 – Introduction to Language [The Language Instinct Chapter 6 Outline]. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona. http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~ indv101/tli6.html
- O’Grady, W., Archibald, J., Aronoff, M., and Rees-Miller, J. (2010). Contemporary Linguistics An Introduction (6 th ed.) . Boston, MA, USA: Bedford/St.Martin’s.
- Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York, NY, USA: HarperCollins Publisher.
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- “ The history of the development of writing and the development of English spelling explains why American English ...
- Writing systems serve two types of people: readers and writers.
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- The American English spelling system has different demands which describe why we have the spelling system we use. ...
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- “ To help students investigate how the spelling system works, teachers can involve them in activities in which the...
- Example: Investigating Vowels
- Have students look through books with a partner and create a l...
- Try a study of word histories
- This could help your students make sense of many spellings (F...
Summary of The Language Instinct Chapter 6
- Language is what we perceive; not actual sounds.
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- A great example of the seamlessness of speech is found in oronyms. (Pinker, 1994, p.155)
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- Based on the position of the tongue. (Pinker, 1994, p.162-163)...
- When some barrier is put in the way, between the air passage from th...
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