European Integration Studies, Miskolc, Volume 4. Number 2. (2005) pp. 61-72.
THE TRANSLATOR'S CULTURAL COMPETENCE SAROLTA SIMIGNÉ FENYŐ
Department of Applied Linguistics, University of Miskolc 3515 Miskolc-Egyetemváros, Hungary
[email protected]
Abstract: Translation renders mankind a great service by playing a central role in communication between people speaking different languages and sharing different cultures. In the modem world exchange of information depends heavily on translation, an activity consisting of the transference of words through the dividing borders of languages on the one hand, and the transplanting of emotional and cultural situations on the other. The objective of the present study is to describe the various areas of cultural knowledge contributing to the translator's competence. Field of research: translation studies 1.
The translator's knowledge base
This section of the study is dedicated to a consideration of knowledge and skills the translator needs and makes an attempt to specify the translator's competence. If we agree with Peter Newmark, a contemporary translation scholar who states that "any old fool can learn a language but it takes an intelligent person to become a translator" it is important to investigate what this "intelligence" consists of. What is it that translators need to know in order to translate? According to Bell "The translator must, as a communicator, possess the knowledge and skills that are common to all communicators but, in two languages" (Bell 1991: 35- 36). If it were true, it would mean that translators would have to possess communicative competence, based on source and target language knowledge, text-type knowledge, area- and contrastive knowledge, which would contribute to the following four areas of knowledge and skills: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence in two languages. But the present study maintains that the knowledge and the skills mentioned above are not enough. Translators are rather bilingual mediators than bilingual communicators who, in addition to decoding and coding the source text, have to possess the ability to transcode it in the way the target readers should not get misinformation or lack information incorporated in the source text. Since translators mediate not only between languages but also between cultures, the knowledge of the source and that of the target culture is also of vital importance. All this has to be supplemented by the translator's ability to use modem technology, the Internet and the word processor. These facts are supported by the following view on translation: The profession of a translator is based on knowledge and experience and it "has the longest apprenticeship of any profession" Nobody is useful as a translator until thirty and nobody starts to be in their prime until fifty. The first stage of the career-pyramid Lana Castellano recommends is the apprenticeship stage. It is the time for "investing in ourselves by acquiring knowledge and experience of life". The life path proposed is like this:
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grandparents of different nationalities, a good school education in which you leam to read, write, spell, construe and love your own language. Then roam the world, make friends, see life. Go back to education, but to take a technical or commercial degree, not a language degree. Spend the rest of your twenties and your early thirties in the countries whose languages you speak, working in industry or commerce but not directly in languages. Never marry into your own nationality. Have your children. Then back to a postgraduate translation course. A staff job as a translator, and then go freelance. By which time you are forty and ready to begin (In : Baker 1991 : 3). Although Lana Castellano is attacked for representing and propagating such an elitist view on translation, the fact has to be recognized that what we call the translator's competence is provided by intelligence bilingual communicators often lack. The translator's competence consists of the sum and the creative use of linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge and skills, the ability to make decisions and to use modem technology. It has to be emphasized that no translation is possible without the translator's cultural knowledge, including knowledge about the European Union. 2.
The importance of cultural knowledge
Since language is an integral part of culture, and since literary texts are embedded in the source culture, translators need not only proficiency in two languages, but they must be at home in two cultures. In other words, they must be bicultural as well as bilingual. Translators have to render into another language what the language with the original message means in their culture. As a rule, literary text contain a number of realia, that is, cultural terms, names of culture-specific items and historic events, characteristic of the source culture but often unknown in the target culture. The term realia itself has two meanings. It is either used to denote objects, ideas, symbols or habits (a number of them connected with eating and drinking), specific to a given language community, or it may be used to name these things or concepts. Thus, for instance tarhonya may be an item of Hungarian realia, in the sense of egg barley, described as "a hard dough kneaded from flour, egg, a little water and salt, then is rolled until it falls apart into barley-size pieces; these are put out in the sun to dry; and are eaten cooked in water (sometimes having been turned in some hot lard first)" (Bart 1999: 173). On the other hand, tarhonya may be a Hungarian word which stands for this special kind of barley. Dusan Tellinger, a translation researcher in Slovakia emphasizes how important it is for a future translator to study and leam the second language in the target country. In his study he refers to Márkus Bieler, a Swiss translator, who translated one of Krúdy's novels, entitled Szindbád hazatér (Szindbád returns home) into German. The translator either caused misunderstanding or made errors in conveying cultural information because he started to study Hungarian when he was an adult. He did not go to a Hungarian school, neither did he study our history, nor was he as a child exposed to the Hungarian way of life, which, in turn, led to the lack of cultural knowledge. For example, in the Hungarian text the phrase Világos után refers to a disreputable historic period, but, instead of nach Világos, the translation says hinter Világos, which gives the impression that the reference is made to a toponym. In another place the name of the wine Arács környéki olasz rizling is not given
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appropriately. The equivalent that appears in the translation is Aracs-kornyeker Italiener Riesling, where the Hungarian word is supplied with a German suffix, and this makes this brand name difficult to understand. As Tellinger points out, it would have been much better to translate it as Italiener-Riesling aus der Aracs-Umgebung, or simply use a more general but shorter phrase, Aracser Ta/elwein (Tellinger in Simigne-Bodnar 2005: 114). So that they should improve communication across cultures, translators have to find the various ways of how to translate realia. This is a culture-specific problem which has to be solved by linguistic means. 3. The type of cultural problems translators have to solve Translation can be considered as cross-cultural communication and is associated with two cultural contexts in which the cultural content is conveyed in two different languages. In the following parts we intend to describe the problem of translating the untranslatable, the various ways of translating realia and the cultural knowledge necessary to translate for the countries of the European Union. 3.1. Translating the untranslatable There are a great number of lexical items, first of all realia, in the vocabulary of one language which have no equivalents in a different language. This idea suggests that translation is impossible. The adherents of the impossibility of translation, called translation pessimists, give condemning definitions of translation. One of the representatives of this extreme view is Laurence Venuti, who states that "Translation is the forcible replacement of the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text with a text that will be intelligible to the target language reader" (Venuti in Neubert and Shreve 1992: 2). Venuti claims that translation reconstitutes and cheapens foreign texts and excludes foreign cultures. What he proposes as a possible solution is resistive translation, which highlights the foreignness of the source language text. Venuti's criticism is source-centred and emphasizes what is lost. Putting the emphasis on the impossibilities of translation, the American linguist W. Winter also shares the ideas of the translation pessimists. By translation he means doing the ultimately impossible. But in spite of being pessimistic, his words suggest a kind of dignity. He says that translators know from the outset that they are doomed to fail, but they fail in the manner which has its own promise. Winter compares the work of a translator with the work of an artist, who is asked to create an exact replica of a marble statue, but who cannot secure any marble. If he is a good craftsman, whatever material he uses, let it be stone, wood, clay or bronze, his work may be as great as even to surpass the original, but it will never become the exact replica of the original. It follows from this that there is no completely exact translation, but we need not be pessimistic about it. If there is loss in translation, there may be gain, which is a paradox of translation. We have to support the view that even if the translation cannot transfer everything that is included in the source text, some of the information content is transferred and it still brings benefit to the target reader. This idea is supported by Roman Jakobson who states that "All cognitive experience and its classification is conveyable in any existing
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language. Whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and amplified by loan-words or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions" (Jakobson in Venuti 2000: 115). He refers to the newborn literary language of the Northeast Siberian Chukchees, which, for example, had no words for screw, steel, chalk or watch. The appropriate lexical items were found as a result of circumlocutions, thus screw was rendered as rotating nail, steel as hard iron, chalk as writing soap and watch as hammering heart. That is, Jakobson proves that everything is translatable, meaning and sense can be transposed from the source language into the target one. The present study supports this idea. The background knowledge about the two cultures concerned makes it possible for translators to try to do the impossible: translate the untranslatable. As pointed out by Snell-Hornby, "Literary texts, especially those embedded in a culture of the distant past, tend to be less easily translatable than those texts dealing with the 'universals' of modem life" which she testifies by the following: "while a report on atomic reactors is fully translatable among languages of societies that participate in modem technology, it is far less so if the envisaged target language is Tamil or Swahili" (SnellHomby 1988/95: 41-42). This example shows that the problems do not depend on the source text itself, but on the significance of the translated text for its readers as members of a certain culture. It frequently occurs that readers are ready to receive knowledge but the target language lacks the necessary linguistic means to express it. In such cases they can get knowledge as a result of explanations, that is, circumlocutions. 3.2. Translation of realia The translational equivalents (which are not dictionary equivalents) illustrating translation of realia were taken from the following books: two Hungarian novels, one by Géza Gárdonyi entitled Egri csillagok (Eclipse of the Crescent Moon), the other by Ferenc Molnár entitled A Pál utcai fiúk (The Paul Street Boys), and their English translations; and a textbook on translation by Kinga Klaudy - Sarolta Simigné Fenyő: Angol-magyar fordítástechnika (English and Hungarian Translation Techniques) published in 1996 in Budapest. When translating the abovementioned Hungarian novels neither translator could find word-for-word equivalents to a number of culture specific terms. That is why they had to resort to omissions, additions, generalization and transliteration. Translators usually develop their own individual strategies to overcome difficulties that result from the differences between the languages they work with. It is part of their professional competence "to move freely between the two languages, to be able to move from the thought to the linguistic form and from the linguistic form to the thought in two different ways" (Klaudy 2003: 174). They know both cultures, so they can compare the geographical, historical, social and cultural aspects of the language communities concerned. Translators use certain transfer operations and thus they can bridge the gap between different cultures. Literary texts usually contain culture-specific terms that are evident for the source-language readers, but might not be well known for the target language community. When translators
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find culture-specific terms in the original that exist in the source culture but are missing in the target-language culture, they find they have to give explanations. The most typical examples of this kind are circumlocutions and additions. 3.2.1. Omission of meaning By lexical omission we mean dropping meaningful lexical elements of the source language text. The term omission means " the relatively smaller quantity of expression forms required in one language for conveying the same content which is expressed by more words in another language (Klaudy 2003: 236). This means that certain meanings are lost in the translation, that is why omissions are not used as frequently as additions. It is brand names for food, beverages and clothing that may be significant because of indicating social prestige. When a brand name, name of a person or an address form do not convey important information for the target readers and neither do they indicate social prestige they are omitted. For example Promontor pezsgő simply becomes champagne; instead of Viatorisznál, a fűszeresnél at the grocer's appears in the translated text; Venetian blind becomes zsalufüggöny; and address forms like méltóságod, kapitány úr, hadnagy uram are dropped. Another reason for avoiding omission of realia is that the references to them in the target language may be important for a number of reasons. Realia may have a poetic function in the description of characters and situations; they may have an atmosphere-creating function in describing "local colour"; they may have an informative function, that is giving information about the way of life of the source-language community, and a culturetransmitting function. This last one may bring the two communities closer to each other and help people to overcome communication difficulties between the two cultures (Klaudy 2003. 248). 3.2.2. Circumlocutions By circumlocutions we mean explanation, the use of many words to say something that could be said in one word or in a few words. As demonstrated by Jakobson, it is often necessary (especially in the case of untranslatable lexical items) to give a more detailed description of an entity in the target language. In this case circumlocutions supply background knowledge about the source culture for the target readers. When we open a bilingual dictionary, we find that it contains not only one-to-one equivalences but, especially in the case of realia, provide explanations, so that participants of the target culture could imagine what that particular linguistic item means. For example in the English-Hungarian dictionary we came upon English—»Hungarian equivalents like this: barrister: angol ügyvéd, bíróság előtti felszólalási joggal (in English law) lawyer who has the right to speak and argue as an advocate in court). Basic English: 850 szóra redukált angol nyelv (English language reduced to 850 words), battels: oktatási ellátási költségek jegyzéke (oxfordi egyetemen), (the list of educational expenses at Oxford University). Crookes glass: Crookes szemüveg ultraibolya sugárzás ellen (Crookes glasses that protect
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from ultra violet rays). egg-and-spoon-race: játék, melyben az nyer, aki elsőnek ér be anélkül, hogy a futás közben a kanálban maga elé tartott tojást elejtette volna (a game, in which the participants hold an egg in a spoon while running, and the winner is the first to reach the goal without dropping the egg), environmentalist: környezetvédő (olyan személy, aki szerint a környezetnek elsődleges hatása van egy egyénre vagy csoportra)(a person who thinks the environment has primary impact on an individual or a group). It would have been better to give a different explanation like this: a person who is concerned about and wants to improve or protect the environment. (Norman) Conquest: Anglia meghódítása a normanok által 1066-ban (the conquest of Britain by the Normans in 1066) Hallowe'en: mindenszentek előestéje (október 31-e)(31 October, the eve of All Saints' Day). passpenny: a halott szájába tett pénzdarab a túlvilági utazás menetdíjául(a coin put into the mouth of the dead to pay the fare of the journey to the next world), passenger seat: vezető melleti utasülés, 'anyósülés '(the seat next to the driver's seat in a motor vehicle). Thanksgiving Day: Hálaadás napja (az USA-ban november harmadik csütörtöké, Kanadában október második hétfője) (holiday for giving thanks to God, in the USA on the fourth Thursday in November and Canada on the second Monday in October). Union Jack: Nagy-Britannia zászlaja/lobogója, a brit zászló (the national flag of the United Kingdom). Explanations of this type familiarize Hungarians with elements of Anglo-Saxon culture and provide the necessary background knowledge about Great Britain and the United States. Explanations can also be found in the Hungarian-English dictionary. For instance: aszúbor: fine sweet Hungarian wine made by adding choice grapes dried on the vine to the ordinary must ballagás: ceremonial farewell of graduating students to their alma mater boglyakemence: large earthenware oven/stove in peasant houses shaped like a rick bográcsgulyás: goulash cooked in a stew-pot on an open fire grund: empty building site honfoglalás: conquest, original settlement (as of Magyars in Hungary in the last years of the 9th century), Árpád 's conquest of Hungary kiegyezés: the Compromise of 1867 kocsonya: meat-jelly, cold pork in aspic matyó: Hungarian peasant living in or near Mezőkövesd a mohácsi vész: the Mohács, the Rout at Mohács (in 1526, marking the beginning of the 160-year-long Turkish rule in Hungary muri: a big and lively party must: grape juice szalagavató: school-leavers' ball
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szűrőállomás: medical examination centre tabló: group photograph tarhonya: granulated dried pasta made offlour and eggs, egg barley Vérmező': ancient parade ground, now a park in Budapest Of course, it is not only realia, that are explained in dictionaries. When new notions appear in a society, it is easy to give them a name in one language, but it may be difficult or even impossible in another. For example gender gap, a term widely used in English has the following equivalent in the dictionary: politikai kérdések megközelítésében mutatkozó különbség nők és férfiak között (difference between men and women in the way they approach questions of politics). 3.2.3. Additions By lexical addition we mean a transfer operation whereby new meaningful elements, which cannot be found in the original, appear in the translation. As a result, there is an increase in the number of words in the target text. The reason for adding new meanings is that there is a difference in the background knowledge of the source-language and the target-language readers. Thus the purpose of this operation is to give additional information, to supply background knowledge for the target-language readers. While omissions mean losses, additions cause gains. We can state that in the source language texts and their published translations additions were most frequently used when translators found brand names, toponyms, institutional names and historical realia in the original text. As a result of additions, new meanings appeared in the translated text. The following examples are worth mentioning: Earl Grey —* Earl Grey tea; Mecsek—* Mecsek Hills; Balaton—* Lake Balaton; Sziget —» Margaret Island;, Rózsadomb—> a fashionable area in Buda, a certain area near the palace on top of the Várhegy; Black Bull—» Fekete Ökör fogadó; Vörös Újság —> Vörös Újság, the Communists' official organ. 3.2.4. Generalization of realia Generalization means broadening of meaning whereby the source-language unit of a more specific meaning is replaced by a target-language unit of a more general meaning. This transfer operation can be explained by the differences in the conceptual mapping of the world resulting in the differences in the lexical systems of languages. "If the source language is characterised by a more detailed segmentation, and there is no dictionary equivalent in the target language, generalisation is unavoidable" (Klaudy 2003: 2001). This can be demonstrated on the basis of the following examples: Cipellő—<• boots, csöcsös korsó —* round pitcher, dalia —• warrior, köpönyeg—* cloak, kulacs—»bottle, tornyos süveg—'Turkish cap, tarsoly—*purse. Gárdonyi's novel contains a number of terms like cipellő, csöcsös korsó, dalia, köpönyeg, tornyos süveg, etc. They have no word-for-word dictionary equivalents. The Hungarian word cipellő becomes boots in the translation. In Hungarian the word cipellő is generally
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used in faiiy tales. This term refers to elegant and decorated shoes worn at dances or balls. The English word boots does not mean elegant shoes. The meaning of the Hungarian word is generalised and the atmosphere suggesting elegance created by the Hungarian word is lost in the translation. Csöcsös korsó is translated as a round pitcher, although the object mentioned in the original is a special type of pitcher, which is not only round, but its shape reminds one of the breast of a woman. This meaning is lost in the translation. The word dalia means a young and a brave warrior, who appears in novels, tales and poems, but in the translation it becomes warrior. This term lacks the connotation expressed in the original. The noun köpönyeg is not used in standard Hungarian, but it occurs in folk tales and songs. Its meaning can be expressed by the translated word cloak, but the atmosphere the Hungarian word creates is lost again. Kulacs is an item of Hungarian realia, a special type of flask, mainly used by soldiers, made of aluminium for holding water. For the readers of the translated text it becomes simply bottle, denoting an object made of glass. Töröksüveg is a special tall cap worn by the Turks. It is translated as Turkish cap, and as a result, the idea of being tall is lost. Tarsoly, a flat, ornamented leather bag with a long strap carried on the shoulder is equal to purse in the translated text, the latter meaning a small bag for holding money, formerly closed by drawing strings together and now usually with a clasp. It is made of leather or plastic, but is not the same thing denoted by the Hungarian term tarsoly. 3.2.5. Total transformation of meaning By total transformation we mean "a standard lexical transfer operation whereby meanings of the SL text are replaced by other meanings in the TL text, which do not seem to show any logical relation with the SL meaning (KJaudy 2003: 282). In literary texts total transformation is required more frequently than in translating scientific texts. "The more a SL text is tied to time, place or culture, the greater the need for total transformation" (Klaudy 2003: 300). The following examples taken from Gárdonyi's novel and its English translation illustrate total transformation of meaning: Egri csillagok—» (Sterne von Eger, 3eé3dbt Bzepa) —•Eclipse of the Crescent Moon; krajcár—• penny; ha szorul a csizma —>ifyou are in trouble. Gárdonyi's novel entitled Egri csillagok is tied to the 16th century, the time of the Turkish invasion. It described the siege of Eger, the heroic deeds of the Hungarians. In 1552 the defenders of the castle of Eger defeated the Turkish army. This achievement was remarkable. Everybody knows it in our country, but English readers might not be familiar with this historic event. Although the German translation of the title is Sterne von Eger, and the Russian translation is 3eibdbi 3iepa, the translator of the English version decided not to use a word for word translation, but to transform it, because English readers might not know anything about the history of the town of Eger. The title of the English translation is Eclipse of the Crescent Moon, which suggests that the action of the novel takes place in the time of the wars with the Turks. Of course, this is not the only example illustrating total transformation of meaning. The Hungarian small change of the time, krajcár is replaced by penny, idiomatic expressions also have equivalents that are totally transformed. For example the phrase ha szorul a csizma (when the boots are very tight) cannot be broken
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down to its constituents, because it has nothing to do with boots, so it is replaced by a phrase expressing the same idea: if you are in trouble. In other sources we can find examples of total transformation like this: Bed and breakfast—• Szoba kiadó; petrezselymet árul—» wallflower, szabadságharc —* the war in 1848. 3.2.6. Division or distribution of meaning The translators of the Hungarian novels often used division or distribution of meaning. It is a "standard transfer operation whereby the complex lexical meaning of a SL word is distributed over several words in the TL" (Klaudy 2003: 223). This operation is explained by the different segmentation of reality. It can be illustrated by the following examples, proving that the meaning of cultural terms is often divided, when the direction of translation is Hungarian—»English. One word in the source language has equivalents consisting of more than one word in the translated text, for instance alföld—»open country; alföldi (diákok) —> country (lads) of the wide open spaces; bugyogós—* in baggy trousers; félszeme—* one of his eyes; kendő—>cloth bandage; csuhai monk's habit; keresztes végű bot—*big stick that ended in a cross; örömanya —> the bride's mother, etc. 3.2.7. Transliteration In some cases source language graphological units are replaced by target language gTaphological units. This operation is called transliteration. The source and the target language units are not translation equivalents. In the case of akindzsik—*akindjis; aszabok—>asabs the names of the Turkish warriors are transliterated and the readers are supposed to know them. The situation is the same with dervis—»dervish; a term that denotes a Muslim religious order. In the novel entitled A Pál utcai fiúk /The Paul Street Boys the writer transliterates the word einstand, because the original text gives a detailed explanation of what einstand means. Of course, this explanation is also part of the translated text, so the understanding of what it means is not at all difficult. The meaning of the noun grund is also explained in the original and as a consequence, transliteration does not hinder the understanding of the translation. But there is an example demonstrating that transliteration is not always the best solution. The Hungarian word for secondary grammar schools is gimnázium. As a result of transliteration it becomes gymnasium in the English translation, which is misleading, because gymnasium in English means the room where P.E. lessons take place. 3.3. Translating for the EU Translation plays a great part in the activities of the European institutions. Translators are involved in translating EU legal documents into as many languages as there are member states. They have to bring national law in line with EU law. In addition, they have to translate texts informing the EU citizens about how the different committees and institutions work and how people live and work in the different member states. In order to translate legal documents translators have to know all the EU institutions and the way they work and interact. For instance, they have to know that the Commission
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proposes, the Parliament and the Council decide. The two Committees The Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions advise. The Court of Justice issues rulings on the interpretation and application of European Community law. The Court of Auditors checks how the EU budget is spent (Wagner - Bech - Martinez 2002: 11-13). When translating for the EU citizens translators find that even the most ordinary words cause problems, because they have different connotations in different countries. Translators are often faced with "translating the untranslatable" because some concepts are specific to certain countries but non-existent in others. The Mediterranean countries, for instance, have a rich vocabulary of terms referring to olive growing. The Nordic countries including Finland, Sweden and Denmark have no climatic chance of growing olives nor do they have a tradition of trade in olives. In spite of this, EU directives and reports on olive growing have to be translated into Finnish, Swedish or Danish. Farmers in the Nordic countries have to be informed, for instance, about the subsidies and bonuses people in the Mediterranean countries get under EU agricultural policy. The same considerations apply, for example, to fishing in the Baltic. Activities like olive growing in Greece, fishing in the Baltic, coalmining in Germany have to be mentioned in the reports and surveys. When at work, translators have to find the best way of translating seemingly untranslatable terms. In connection with navigation on inland waterways even archaic terms are used. The equivalent of the French bàtaliers is boatmen, an antiquated lexical unit. It does not sound very well, but it had to be produced, because no other term to denote what bàtaliers means exists. The six Member States, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands originally had much legislation relating to navigation on inland waterways, because many of these countries were connected by the Rhine and other major canals. But when new countries that never used inland waterways for international transport (for instance the UK, Greece and Spain) joined, it became necessary to find words to denote objects and concepts relating to international water transport. In other cases Latin words had to be introduced into the national language. When legislation referring to Atlantic fish species had to be translated into Greek, this solution was chosen, since Greek has no terms for non-Mediterranean fish species. In some cases the most ordinary words, for example colour terms have different connotations in different countries. The word green can be translated into European languages without difficulty. But the problem is that its symbolic meaning varies. The literal translation of green Europe means different things for different nationalities: agriculture for the French and Spanish, environment protection for the German, gardening or politics for the British. It is the translator's task to specify the exact meaning and explain it to the readers. Similar problems arise when translating texts about the Member States' institutions. The French Chambre des députés can be translated neither by House of Commons nor Bundestag. But if they translate it the French lower house, the meaning may be unclear. The best solution seems to be the French equivalent of the House of Commons or to leave it in French (Wagner - Bech - Martinez 2002: 62-67).
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Conclusion Translators are bilingual mediators who mediate not only between languages but also between cultures. Since the translation process involves cross-cultural transfer, cultural knowledge is an essential part of the translator's competence. Cultural knowledge supplemented by knowledge about the EU is also an essential part of the translator's competence. In addition, translators need the ability to use modem technology as well as transcoding knowledge, which consists of the ability to find the necessary ways of transmitting cultural information from the source text to the target language. The examples taken from published translators convince us that translators need more knowledge and more skills than bilingual communicators.
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