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THE PROFESSIONAL FUNCTIONS AND COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS A Thesis Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum) Degree in English Language Studies
By
Theresia Laksmi Widyarini Student Number: 046332013
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM (S2) IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY 2008
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else’s ideas, or phrases, or sentences without a proper reference.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am taking a great pleasure of expressing my deepest gratitude by dedicating this page to those who have been giving me support of any kind. First of all, I would like to thank Father Who Arts in Heaven, for being the Best Friend, ever; The gratitude also goes to, 1. Dr. FX. Mukarto, M.S., my supervisor, for having spared his unbelievably busy time for consultation and guidance; 2. dr. Bondan Agus S, SE, MA., the Chairman of Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office, and his distinguished staff: Dra Siti Munawaroh, Apt. M.Kes, Drg Yuli Kusumastuti, M.Kes, late dr Nanis Budiningsih, M.Kes, dr RA. Arida Utami, M.Kes, and Dra Dyah Ayu P, Apt, M.Kes, for being my research partners; 3. dr. Choirul Anwar, M.Kes., the Chairman of Yogyakarta Municipal Health Office, and his outstanding staff: Taslim Sudiyanto, SKM., Darra Irawati, SE., and Agung Setiawan, SIP, for having provided me with valuable inputs in preparing and finalizing this research; 4. Prof. dr. Laksono Trisnantoro, MSc., Ph.D., the Director of the Center for Health Service Management, Medical Faculty, UGM and the secretaries: Nenggih Wahyuni, SIP., and Sealvy Kristianingsih, A.Md, , for having facilitated me so far; 5. Drs. RY. Suharyo and S. Suratmi, A.Ma, my dearest parents, I can never thank you enough for the endless love, prayers and faith; 6. A. Edy Purnomo, SE., and Y. Alvendi Agung B, my dearest husband and my lovely son, thanks for always being there for me; 7. V. Woro Hapsari, SE, Akt., and B. Ida Tri Ambarwati, A.Md, my dearest sisters; Y.P. Marbun, A.P., and Ali Wasono, my dearest brothers-in-law; also Yonatan Marbun and Octavia Widya, my lovely nephew and niece, thanks for the love, care and prayers; 8. Pak Singgih, Bu Rin, Pak Setyo, Bu Siti, Ansel, mbak Rus, Dian, Linda, Listy, Shierly, Dini and Dona, my wonderful friends of Batch 2004; Guys, thanks for cheering me up. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to those who cannot be stated here by name. May God bless them all.
Theresia Laksmi Widyarini
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TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………………..i APPROVAL PAGE …………………………………………...………………ii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ……………………………...………….. iv LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI …………………………………… v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………...vi TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………...vii LISTS OF FIGURES & TABLES…………………………………………..... ix ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………... x ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………………. xi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………….. 1 A. Background …………………………………………………………… 1 B. Problem Identification …………………………………………………4 C. Problem Limitation …………………………………………………….5 D. Problem Formulation …………………………………………………..6 E. Research Objectives ………………………………………………….. 7 F. Research Benefits …………………………………………………….. 7 G. Operational Definition ……………………………………………….. .8 CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW & FRAMEWORK …………….. 11 A. Theoretical Review …………………………………………………...12 1. Professional Functions …………………………………………….12 2. Communicative Competences ………………………………….....14 a. Development of Communicative Competence...……………..14 b. Elements of Communicative Competences ………………….17 1) Discourse Competence ...………………………………...18 2) Actional Competence ..…………………………………..18 3) Linguistic Competence ...………………………………...19 4) Sociocultural/ Sociolinguistic Competence …………….. 20 5) Strategic Competence …………………………………… 20 c. Communicative Competences in Adult Learning …………....22 1) Adult Learning Characteristics…………………………...22 2) Adult Learning Style ……………………………………..23 3) Adult Learning Strategies ……………………………….. 26 3. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) …………………………….. 28 a. Development of ESP…... ……………………………………. 28 b. ESP Categories ………………………………………………. 30 c. English for Health Officials……………………………………31 4. Syllabus Design ………………………………………………….. 31 a. Competence- based Syllabus Design ………………………….. 33 b. Needs Analysis …………………………………………………34 1) Approaches to Needs Analysis..……………………………. 35 2) Interview and Questionnaire..………………………………. 38 c. Syllabus Development ……………………………………..….. 41 B. Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………. 43
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CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY …………………………………………..47 A. Methods ………………………………………………………………47 B. Nature of Data ………... ……………………………………………..48 C. Data Setting and Source…...……………….…………………………49 D. Data Gathering Instrument ……………….. ………………………... 49 1. Interview……………….. ….……………...…………………… .50 2. Questionnaire... ……………...........…….………………………..51 E. Data Collection ……………………………………………………... 54 F. Data Analysis …………………………………………………………54 G. Data Triangulation……………………………………………………..54
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULT …. …………... ……………………. 56 A. Result of Professional Function Identification ……… ………............57 B. Result of Communicative Competence Identification …………….….77 C. Result of Syllabus Development ……………………………………. 90 1. Assessing Learners’ Needs ………………………………………91 2. Developing Goals and Objectives ………………………………..92 3. Deciding Syllabus Type ………………………………………….92 4. Specifying Contents ………………………………………...……93 5. Planning Syllabus ……………………………………..…………95 6. Selecting teaching Approaches and Materials ………………….105 7. Assessment procedures and Criteria ……………………………105 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion …………………………………………………………..106 B. Implication …………………………………………………………..108 C. Recommendation ……………………………………………………109 BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………..111 APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………112 Appendix 1. Interview Sheet …………………………………………… 113 Appendix 2. Interview Result/Transcription …………………………… 114 Appendix 3. Questionnaire Sheet ………………………………………. 125 Appendix 4. Questionnaire Result ……………………………………… 133 Appendix 5. Research Statement Completion ………………………….. 140
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
FIGURES Figure 2.1. Communicative Competence Model Figure 2.2. The Classification of ESP Categories
TABLES Table 2.1. Learning Style Taxonomy for the L2 Classroom Table 2.2. Learning Strategies for L2 Learners Table 2.3. Strengths and weaknesses of Different Interview Types Table 3.1. Interview Blueprint Table 3.2. Topics and related Specific Information Table 3.3. List of Questionnaire Questions Table 4.1. Guest Reception Function Table 4.2. International Negation Function Table 4.3. Program/ Activity Reporting Function Table 4.4. International Correspondence Function Table 4.5. Seminar Presentation Function Table 4.6. Program Proposal Function Table 4.7. Fund Raising Function Table 4.8. Official Travel Function Table 4.9. Interpreting Function Table 4.10.Fellowship/Short Course/Comparative Study/Benchmarking Function Table 4.11. Communicative Competence in Guest Reception Table 4.12. Communicative Competence in International Negation Table 4.13. Communicative Competence in Program/ Activity Reporting Table 4.14. Communicative Competence in International Correspondence Table 4.15. Communicative Competence in Seminar Participation Table 4.16. Communicative Competence in Program Proposal Table 4.17. Communicative Competence in Fund Raising Table 4.18. Communicative Competence in Official Travel Table 4.19. Communicative Competence in Information Seeking Table 4.20. Communicative Competence in Interpreting Table 4.21. Communicative Competence in Fellowship/Short Course/Comparative Study/Benchmarking Table 4.22. Communicative Competence in Translating Table 4.23. Specifying Contents Table 4.24. The Plan of the Syllabus Design
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ABSTRACT Theresia Laksmi Widyarini. (2008). Professional Functions and Communicative Competence in English for Health Officials. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. The competence-based approach has been the current approach of education in Indonesia since 2003. This approach has been referred to develop learners’ competences in performing the language successfully. Therefore, supplying the underlying competences helps learners in engaging successfully in a class and facilitates them in performing their international relation in their field of professions. Furthermore, the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is also contributed by the development in educational theories. The development emphasizes the central importance of learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners have been considered to have different needs and interest which would have an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. This provides support to the development of courses which is relevant to learners’ needs and interest. There were three problems formulated in the research. The first problem investigated the professional functions mostly performed in English by the health officials in terms of their international relation. The second problem concerned with the most required communicative competences in order to perform those professional functions successfully. And the third problem which would become the technological by-product of this research aimed at designing a syllabus by integrating the professional functions mostly performed in English and the most required communicative competences of the language. The research investigated that the health officials performed a number of professional functions mostly performed in English and they required some communicative competences in order to perform the professional functions successfully. In investigating the professional functions mostly performed in English and the required communicative competence, the researcher conducted a need analysis. The professional functions the health officials performed in English mostly were guest reception, international negotiation, program/activity reporting, international correspondence, seminar participation, program proposal, fund raising, official travel, information seeking, interpreting, fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking and translating, The communicative competence mostly required by the health officials to perform their professional functions successfully concerned with the proper use of the discourse, the functions of language, the grammar, the social and contextual factors, and the strategy. The result of the professional function identification and the required communicative competence to perform the functions successfully served as the bases of designing the syllabus. The type of syllabus chosen was competence-based which were equipped with competence standards and basic competence along with the indicators.
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ABSTRAK Theresia Laksmi Widyarini. (2008). Professional Functions and Communicative Competence in English for Health Officials. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. Pendekatan berbasis kompetensi merupakan pendekatan dalam pendidikan yang telah dilaksananakan di Indonesia sejak tahun 2003. Pendekatan ini ditujukan untuk meningkatkan kompetensi pembelajar dalam menggunakan bahasa dengan baik. Oleh karenanya, memberikan landasan kompetensi dapat membantu pembelajar dalam berinteraksi di kelas dan membantu mereka dalam melaksanakan hubungan internasional dalam bidang pekerjaan mereka. Disamping itu, perkembangan pembelajaran English for Specific Purposes (ESP) juga didukung oleh perkembangan teori-teori pendidikan. Perkembangan tersebut menekankan pada kepentingan pokok dari pembelajar dan perilaku mereka terhadap pembelajaran. Pembelajar dinilai memiliki kebutuhan dan ketertarikan yang akan mempengaruhi motivasi dalam pembelajaran dan pada keberhasilan pembelajaran mereka. Hal tersebut memberikan dukungan pada perkembangan pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan ketertarikan pembelajar. Penelitian ini merumuskan tiga masalah penelitian. Masalah pertama mengenai fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilakukan oleh staf kesehatan dengan menggunakan B. Inggris dalam hubungan internasional mereka. Masalah kedua mengenai kompetensi berkomunikasi yang diperlukan untuk melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan tersebut. Masalah yang ketiga mengenai penyususunan rancangan silabus yang memadukan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan dan kemampuan berkomunikasi tersebut dimana rancangan silabus ini merupakan technological by-product dari penelitian ini. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa staf kesehatan melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilakukan dalam B. Inggris dan mereka memerlukan kompetensi berkomunikasi agar dapat melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan tersebut dengan baik. Penelitian ini melaksanakan suatu analisa kebutuhan dengan menggunakan wawancara dan angket. Fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilaksanakan dalam B. Inggris adalah: menerima tamu, negosiasi dengan kolega internasional, pelaporan program/kegiatan, surat menyurat dengan kolega internasional, seminar, pengusulan program/kegiatan, penggalangan dana, perjalanan dinas, pencarian informasi, interpreting, fellowship/ short course/ studi banding/ benchmarking dan translating, Kompetensi berkomunikasi yang diperlukan dalam melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan itu adalah kompetensi wacana, kompetensi tindak bahasa, kompetensi kebahasaan, kompetensi sosiokultural, dan kompetensi strategi Kemudian, hasil dari pengidentifikasian fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan dan kompetensi komunikatif digunakan sebagai dasar penysusunan silabus. Jenis silabus yang digunakan adalah silabus berbasis kompetensi yang meliputi kompetensi standar, kompetensi dasar dan indikator.
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter is intended to introduce the research and justify the necessity to conduct it. A brief description of the occupational context where the research is conducted is provided with an emphasis on the needs of learning English. Finally, the chapter is concluded with some definitions of terms
I. BACKGROUND This research, aims at describing the professional functions performed by the health officials in terms of their international relation as well as the required competences in order to perform those professional functions successfully. And the technological by-product of this research will be in a form of syllabus design which integrates the professional functions and the required communicative competences of the language. The competence-based approach has been the current approach of education in Indonesia since 2003 (Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum 2004, 2003). Current curricula of formal schools in Indonesia have been referred to develop learners’ competences in performing the language successfully. Naturally, considering the health officials who are experts in their field of profession, it is strongly argued that the role of an English instructor should not be to teach content but to provide necessary skills to be able to cope with content (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Therefore, supplying the underlying competences will help learners in engaging successfully in a class and facilitate them in
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performing their international relation in their field of professions (Swales in Master, 1998). The development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is also contributed by the development in education. The development emphasizes the central importance of learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners have been considered to have different needs and interest which would have an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. This provides support to the development of courses which is relevant to learners’ needs and interest. Master (1998) and Jordan (1997) have mentioned some courses intended for English Medical Purposes. At least, they proposed English for Aphasics, English for Nursing Professionals, English for Pharmacy Students, English for Physiotherapy. Likewise, this research concerns with health professionals with different medical expertise backgrounds. These health officials (the research participants) do not directly serve patients in hospitals or clinics, but they serve the public in general and they represent government agents who deal with the management of public health. As far as the research concerns, this area has not gained sufficient attention in English for Specific Purposes. The Indonesian government has undergone major changes since the reform movement in 1998, especially in authority division among government agencies. The authority changes in the government agencies were initiated with the stipulation of decentralization (local autonomy) policy. Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO (Dinas Kesehatan Provinsi D.I. Yogyakarta) is one of the Indonesian government agencies dealing with public health sector.
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Decentralization represents the main issue in Indonesian health reform (Trisnantoro, 2005). It also represents the main issue to respond to the economic and political change pressures. The decentralization concept intends to improve the public participation in the decision making, so that they can provide healthcare appropriate with the local needs and aspiration, accommodate social, economic, environmental diversities, as well as improve the distribution of public resource. Besides the decision making, the concept provides more room for the local management and strengthens the government (health sector) accountability towards the society The international donor agencies take their parts in encouraging
better
distribution of qualified and effective public healthcare. These agencies offer financial aids in a specific condition that the aids are utilized to improve the healthcare efficiency and quality (Trisnantoro, 2005). A way to improve the healthcare efficiency and quality is through the development of health human resource. Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO is one of government’s agencies in public health services. PHO also has experienced some major organizational changes as well as authority changes and it has been playing important role in the implementation of the decentralization/ autonomy policy in health sector. As a government agency in provincial level, PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs, not to mention its official relation with the foreign donors in which PHO also serves as the foreign donor coordinator. Since PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs as well as its foreign official relation with the foreign donors, the human resource of PHO is
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demanded to obtain good quality and capability in performing their professional functions especially those related with the international donors. The May 27 earthquake that struck D.I. Yogyakarta Province and Klaten, Central Java have made the two provinces points of attention. Quite a number of international NGOs have come to the two provinces, especially D.I. Yogyakarta Province, to give aids during the emergency phase as well as the recovery and reconstruction phases. PHO as the government agency in provincial level has been coordinating all the aids and hosting regular coordination meetings. Most of the NGOs members do not speak Indonesian. They are accompanied by their interpreters, but during the meetings at PHO, where they are hosted by PHO staffs, it is PHO’s responsibility to make the meetings as well as communication run smoothly. One main constraint in dealing with those foreigners is then the language. It is quite unpractical both for the foreigners and PHO staffs when they communicate via interpreters. This is not to mention some misunderstanding which often happens since the interpreters do not always know about specific terminologies in health. It would have been a good and smooth communication if PHO staffs obtain good capability in the language. Therefore, a research which investigates the PHO staff’s need to improve their communicative competence in English so that they are able to perform their professional functions with their international colleagues is quite urgent.
B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office consists of several divisions and sub- divisions. As a government agency in provincial level, PHO organizes and
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coordinates most of the health programs. The health programs are not established by the Ministry of Health, RI, but also those established by the province as well as the districts/ municipality. In the official relation with international agencies, PHO also serves as the coordinator and facilitator. Since PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs as well as its international official relation with the international agencies, the human resource of PHO is demanded to obtain adequate quality and capability in performing their official activities especially those related with the international agencies. However, the most common constraint encountered by the health officials in maintaining their international relation is that of the language, especially English. Some of the officials of the international agencies do speak Indonesian, but many others do not. This language constraint impedes the smooth running and well established communication because then many items being communicated are not exchanged well and results in misunderstanding and miscommunication quite often. For that reason, the staffs need to improve their communication ability in English so that they are able to perform their professional functions in their international relation and communication successfully. Furthermore, the language constraints occur due to lack of grammar knowledge, including when to use certain structures, lack of competence in communication using the language and lack of essential vocabularies/ technical terms in English for each division.
C. PROBLEM LIMITATION Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO is one of government’s agencies in public health services. Some of its functions are organizing and
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coordinating most of the health programs as well as foreign official relation with the foreign agencies. The established organizational structure of PHO consists of the leader of the office, the leaders of divisions, the leaders of sub- divisions and staff. Among those organizational elements, the leader of the office and the leaders of divisions hold the major role in dealing with the international relation. Therefore, the research will limit its discussion on the professional functions in international relation performed by the division leaders and their core staff as well as the competences which are required to perform the international relation and communication successfully. In the following discussion the term “health officials” is employed to address the leaders of the divisions and their core staffs who serve as the research participants.
D. PROBLEM FORMULATION The research will deal with the professional functions in international relation and communication of the health officials. The research problems are formulated as follows: 1. What are the professional functions mostly performed in English by the health officials in their international relation and communication? 2. What are the most required communicative competences of the language? 3. How would a syllabus design integrating these professional functions performed in English and the required communicative competences of the language look like?
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E. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The research is conducted to serve some objectives, namely: 1. To obtain qualitative description on the professional functions mostly performed in English by these health officials in their international relation and communication 2. To obtain qualitative description on the most required communicative competences of the language to perform the professional functions successfully 3. To design a syllabus integrating the professional functions and the required communicative competences of the language as the technological by-product of the research.
F. RESEARCH BENEFITS It is hoped that by focusing on the health official’s current and future knowledge and skills of the language, the research helps them in developing their ability in English and later in performing the professional functions successfully. It is also expected that the research assists the health officials in developing their communicative competence of the language and facilitates them to become more autonomous and independent officials. Finally, the results of the research are expected to bring worth contribution to future teachers, next researchers, and anybody who are interested in English for Specific Purposes.
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G. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
1. Professional Functions Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office is a government agent for serving public health. Such office deals mostly with public health management rather than medical health. The office maintain different jobs and functions for different divisions and sub-divisions (Struktur Organisasi Dinas Kesehatan Prop. DIY, 2004).
Professional functions themselves refer to all the work activities (or
functions) that are embraced within occupations (http://www. archaeologist.net). The research itself has set its limit of study on the professional functions the health officials perform in their international relation and communication.
2. Communicative Competences Communicative competence refers to the ability to produce situationally acceptable, and more especially socially acceptable, utterances in a particular language (Brown et al, 1996). The most recent model of communicative competences in language education literatures is that proposed by Celce-Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell (1995) which is compatible with theoretical view stating that language is communication, not just a set of rules. The elements of communicative competence are those of discourse competence, actional competence, linguistic competence, sociocultural/ sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence.
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3. English for Specific Purposes English for Specific Purpose is a program which teaches typical English for a special purpose. The typical English is of a particular context of use and which the learners are more likely to meet in the target situation. Such a course is based on a need analysis. The need analysis aims at specifying as closely as possible what exactly the learners have to do through the medium of English. By conducting a need analysis, the learners’ needs to perform successfully in the target situation may be resolved. Concerning the learners, it is often assumed that ESP learners will not be purely beginners but will have already studied General English for some years. 4. Syllabus Development Syllabus is a statement of content which is used as the basis for planning courses of various kinds (Nunan, 2001). Therefore, the syllabus here does not solely concern with the selection and grading of content but it also concerns with the attempts to specify and grade learning tasks and activities. Furthermore, a syllabus provides practical basis for the division of assessment, textbooks and learning time. It also tells the teacher and the learner not only what is to be learnt, but implicitly, why it is to be learnt. Then, a syllabus also provides a set of criteria for material selection and/or writing (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). 5. Health Officials The health officials are the staff of Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office and they hold degree in health. Since they serve in a provincial health office, they perform their jobs in public health management instead of medical/ clinical. They post strategic position in their division or sub- division which, as the consequence,
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require them to maintain relation and communication with international institutions. Therefore, considering their post, they are also required to perform their jobs in dealing with international relation and communication professionally and successfully.
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CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW & FRAMEWORK
The chapter reviews some theories that become the bases for the discussion. The discussion will be divided into two main parts, namely, theoretical review and theoretical framework. The theoretical review discusses four major points. They are professional functions, communicative competence, English for Specific Purpose (ESP) and syllabus design. The discussion starts with the professional functions and precedes to the communicative competences which will become the bases for designing a syllabus. The discussion on communicative competences comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in adult learning. The next discussion is on the program for learners having specific purpose in learning English. The program to be discussed in the English for Specific Purpose Program (ESP). ESP also serves as the background of this research since the English for Health Officials is part of it. The discussion on ESP talks about the ESP development, categories and components. The last part discusses syllabus design within which the competencebased syllabus design, needs analysis and the steps in syllabus development are reviewed. Finally, all the discussion reviewed will be compiled within a framework provided in the second subchapter.
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A. Theoretical Review This sub- chapter elaborates theories of the professional functions, the communicative competence, the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and the syllabus design. 1. Professional Functions Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office (PHO) as a public health office organization serves a number of functions on public health management. As a provincial office, PHO coordinates and manages health programs and activities performed by PHO itself as well as by the districts. As the main functions of PHO are coordinating and managing, PHO maintains health resource management. In line with the research’s objectives which involves health officials, the health resource management concerns with the human resource management. Syakdiah (2001) mentions that the important asset owned by an organization and mostly concerned about by the management is that of the human resource of the organization. People (human) represent elements which always exist in every organization. These people formulate, innovate and attain the objectives of the organization. She continues that viewed from the perspective of organization, these people are the resources. They are not the inanimate resources as capital, land, or factories, but they are the human resources. The health officials as the human resource of PHO mobilize other relevant resources in the PHO organization. They represent the most important resource in the organization due to two reasons (Syakdiah, 2001). First, the
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human resource affects the efficiency and efficacy of the organization. The health officials in their organization design and produce health services, control the quality, promote the health products and services, allocate the financial resource, and determine the overall objectives of the organization. Second, human resource represents the main outcome of the organization. In general, according to Syakdiah (2001) the human resource management includes: Planning Planning refers to determining programs which contribute to the objective attainment as set up by the organization. Organizing After a series of actions set up by the organization, the organization needs to organize the attainment process. The organization represents the tool to attain the objectives, organizing means designing the structure of various relation among jobs, personnel and other physical factors. Directing and motivating This motivating function is important. This function attempts to mobilize people to work together effectively. Controlling This managerial function is related with organizing the activities so the activities run as planned. Procuring This function attempts to gain proper personnel in order to attain the organization’s objectives.
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Training and development This function improves the capability of the human resource. Compensating This function is formulated as rewards for the human resource for their contribution in the attainment of the organization’s objectives. Integrating Integrating concerns with the adjustment of individual’s interests with those of the organization Maintaining This function maintains and improves the existing condition Separating This function is to terminate the occupational relation of a staff with the organization. As the research concerns, the health officials as the human resource of PHO also perform the above functions in their general occupational activities. However, the research limits its study on the professional functions performed by the health officials in their international relation and communication. 2. Communicative Competences The discussion on communicative competences comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in adult learning. a. Development of Communicative Competences When one uses language to communicate, he/ she use signs in the forms of sounds and letters. Likewise, the health officials communicate and maintain their international relationship through language, both written and spoken. The
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signs are not uttered or written randomly; there are rules to govern so that the signs are understood by others. The rules are called grammar. Sounds and letters which are used governed by rules are used by society in the same cultural context. Hence, language represents a system of social semiotic (Holliday, 2002). Language is used by the society as an social interaction tool. The implication is that a person who lives alone will not be able to use language; being able to use language requires the presence of other persons. Different view of language is as presented by Chomsky (1978) in which he views language as a set of rules. Linguistics developed by Chomsky and his followers is the idealized linguistics; therefore, competence and performance are considered different. Competence, in its real meaning, refers to language which still exists in its ideal form in a person’s brain, and performance refers to a form of language which is full of errors in the grammar, vocabularies, repetition, hesitation, etc. According to Chomsky (1965), competence consists of the mental representation of linguistic rules which constitute the speaker-hearer’s internalized grammar. Performance consists of the comprehension and production of language. Because the rules the learner has internalized are not open to direct inspection, it has been necessary to examine how the learner performs, mainly in production (Ellis, 1990). The shift of interest away from linguistic competence and towards communicative competence occurred at a time when theoretical studies of semantics had not really been much applied to the teaching of languages. By 1980, attitudes towards teaching vocabulary were not at all that different from what they had been twenty years earlier, and were largely dominated by ideas
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inherited from the 1930s (Brown et al. 1996) . The 1960s saw a shift away from vocabulary, and the adoption of a general assumption that most learners could get by adequately with a very limited vocabulary (Brown et al., 1996). Lyons in Brown et al (1996) offers a more or less uncontroversial, nontechnical definition of linguistic competence: Linguistic competence is the knowledge of particular languages, by virtue of which knowledge those who have it are able to produce and understand utterance in those languages.
‘Competence’ definitely and unequivocally refers to something in an individual’s mind or brain. Where as ‘performance’, according to him refers to the production and understanding of utterances (in particular languages). When ‘performance’ is defined by linguists in relation to competence, it is usually defined in its process sense. Dell Hymes in Brown et al. (1996) coins the term ‘communicative competence’ to label the ability to produce situationally acceptable, and more especially socially acceptable, utterances. Hymes proposes to use “competence” as the most general term for the capabilities of a person. He adds that it is dependent on ‘tacit knowledge’ and ‘ability for use’ and the inclusion of ability for use as part of competence allows in not only cognitive factors, but also noncognitive factors as motivation. By ‘performance’ is meant actual use and actual events. So communicative competence is what enables a person to perform appropriately in speech events. It includes not only grammatical competence, which allows a person to judge whether and to what degree something is formally possible, but also the competence to judge feasibility, appropriateness, and whether something is in fact done.
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Selinker points out that the performance of L2 speakers varies in complex ways, both between individuals and from the performance of L1 speakers. What is less clear is how far, if at all, this variation in performance allows for any claims to be made about the nature of the grammars known by L2 speakers. Interlanguage competence is said to be of three types: fossilized, functional and transitional competence (Brown et al., 1996) b. Elements of Communicative Competences The most recent model of communicative competences in language education literatures is that proposed by Celce-Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell (1995) which is compatible with theoretical view stating that language is communication, not just a set of rules. The implication is that the communicative competence formulated is to prepare learners to communicate using language in order to participate in the language community. This model is formulated as Communicative Competence represented in Celce-Murcia et al. (1995) as follows:
SocioCultural Competence
Discourse Competence
Linguistic Competence
Actional Competence Strategic Competence
Figure 2.1 . Communicative competence model (Celce-Murcia et al. 1995)
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1) Discourse Competence Learners must develop discourse competence which is concerned with intersentential relationship (Shumin in Richards & Renandya, 2002). In discourse, whether formal or informal, the rules of cohesion and coherence apply, which aid in holding the communication together in a meaningful way. In communication, both the production and comprehension of a language require one’s ability to perceive and process stretches of discourse, and to formulate representation of meaning from referents in both previous sentences and following sentences. Therefore, effective speakers should acquire a large repertoire of structures and discourse markers to express ideas, show relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast, and emphasis. Whereas according to Canale & Swain in Richards & Rodgers (2001) discourse competence concerns with the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Moreover Savignon in Celce-Murcia (2001) refers the interconnectedness as to series of
utterances, written words,
and /or phrases to form a text, a meaningful whole, bottom – up processing and top down processing, coherence and cohesion, global meaning and structural links. 2) Actional Competence Yalden (1987) accentuates that learning a language should not be the end in itself, it should account how it is used in real communication. This is in line with Finocchiaro (as cited in Brown, 1987) who mentions that language is the means used by people to communicate and interact.
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Similarly, the competence is referred as to actional competence because when someone says something, he/ she actually do something. He/ she may ask for services, give compliment, ask for information, etc (Landasan Filosofis Teoritis Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, 2004). In brief, when someone uses language, spoken or written, every utterance that he/ she make could be labeled as actional language. 3) Linguistic Competence Linguistic competence includes tacit, subconscious knowledge of language structures, not normally available for spontaneous report, but implicitly in what the ideal speaker can say. It is dependent on innate structure, and acquired independently of sociocultural feature except for the mere presence of speech in the environment. Linguistic performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, but under the idealization quoted by Lyons performance cannot directly reflect competence and nor can it have any major effect on it (Brown et al.,1996). Linguistic competence is an umbrella concept that includes increasing expertise in grammar (morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics. Mechanics refer to basic sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation and stress. Linguistic competence enables speakers to use and understand English language structures accurately and unhesitatingly, which contributes to their fluency (Richards & Renandya, 2002). Hymes proposes to use “competence” as “the most general term for the capabilities of a person”. It is dependent on “tacit knowledge” and “ability for use” and the inclusion of ability for use as part of competence allows in not only
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cognitive factors, but also noncognitive factors such as motivation. By “performance” is meant actual use and actual events. So, communicative competence is what enables a person to perform appropriately in speech events (Brown et al. 1996).
It includes not only grammatical competence, which
allows a person to judge whether and to what degree something is formally possible, but also the competence to judge feasibility, appropriateness, and “whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done. 4) Sociocultural/ sociolinguistic Competence Knowledge of language alone does not adequately prepare learners for effective and appropriate use of the target language (Shumin in Richards & Renandya, 2002). Learners must have competence which involves knowing what is expected socially and culturally by users of the target language; that is, learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts. Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps learners know what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction, and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk. Also, it helps learners know the social context in which communication takes place, i.e. the roles relationships, the shared information of the participants and the communicative purpose for their interaction (Canale & Swain in Richards & Rodgers, 2001). 5) Strategic Competence Strategic competence is the way learners manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals (Shumin in Richards & Renandya, 2002). It is the ability to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and
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discourse rules. With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know when and how to take the floor, how to keep a conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems. Communication strategies occur when the speaker is not able to communicate his original communicative goal in the way he planned to, and so is forced to reduce the goal or to locate alternative means to express it. Communication strategies, then, are the result of an initial failure to implement a production plan (Ellis, 1990). Where as Savignon (Celce-Murcia, 2001) adds that strategic competence is the coping strategies that are used in unfamiliar contexts. The constraints that often impeded communication are due to imperfect knowledge of rules or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue or distraction. Canale and Swain identify ‘strategic competence’, defined as ‘how to cope in an authentic communicative situation and how to keep the communicative channel open’, as an integral part of the language user’s overall communicative competence (Ellis, 1990). Communication strategies can be defined as follows: Communication strategies are psycholinguistic plans which exist as part of the language user’s communicative competence. They are potentially conscious and serve as substitutes for production plans which the learner is unable to implement (Ellis, 1990)
Further, the effects of different variables on the use of communication strategies are upon the proficiency level, the problem-source, the personality, and the learning situation 21
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c. Communicative Competences in Adult Learning 1) Adult Learning Characteristics Although many of the “rules” for teaching children can apply in some ways to teaching adults, the latter age group poses some different, special considerations for the classroom teacher (Brown, 2001). Adults have superior cognitive abilities that can render them more successful in certain classroom endeavors. Their need for sensory input can rely a little more on their imaginations. Their level of shyness can be equal to or greater than that of children, but adults usually have acquired a self- confidence not found in children. And, because adults’ cognitive abilities, they can at least occasionally deal with language that isn’t embedded in a” here and now” context (Brown, 2001). Adults differ from “typical” or “traditional” K-12 students in that they bring a great deal of life experience and cognitive maturity to the classroom (Hilles and Sutton in Celce-Murcia, 2001). Adult students have a maturity and an understanding of priorities that many younger students do not. According to them, a prime characteristic of adultness is the need and capacity to be self directing. In other words, adults will, to some extent, “direct” their own learning agendas. If the learning environment does not to some degree match cultural expectations and perceived needs, the self- direction may take the form of challenging the teacher or syllabus in class, of filtering out what they perceive as nonessential, of simply leaving the class and seeking some other way of learning, or of abandoning the enterprise altogether.
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In addition to being mature and self- directed, adult learners are often, of necessity, more focused. McIntire (1988) points out that “because time is such valuable commodity, participating in educational program is often personal sacrifice. Typically, adults can devote only limited time to their educational endeavors, which often translates into their being dedicated students who take learning seriously”. Another characteristic that seems to set apart adult learners, according to Hilles and Sutton (in Celce-Murcia, 2001) is the enormous variability that they display in their goals and reasons for tackling a second language. Adults have numerous reasons for studying a second or foreign language (L2), and this variety of reasons presents its own challenges to the teacher. Adult learners are most often voluntary learners. Adult learners are in school because they want to be, a desire which is almost inconvenient and often interrupted by family and job responsibilities and commitments (Hilles and Sutton in Celce- Murcia, 2001). As a result, adult learners tend to have little patience with classes which they perceive are not furthering their own educational agendas.
2) Adult Learning Styles Learning styles refer to an individual’s natural habitual, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Christison in Nunan, 2003). The main application of style to language learning has been through the concept of analytic and holistic (Skehan, 1998). In the field of language learning
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, the analytic style could manifest itself by an ability to analyze the linguistic material one is exposed to, identify its components, and then, explore relationships between these components. Separating the essential from the inessential could involve an ability to focus on that data which would be most helpful at whatever level of interlanguage development one has reached, and to promote learning and development with maximum efficiency. According to Skehan (1998), it is also possible to relate the analytic style of learning to an input- processing dimension. In the case of auditory material, the learner has to extract what is important from the stream of incoming sound. This sound will contain a great deal of irrelevant information, and it will be advantageous to devote attention to features which help meaning to be recovered. In this respect, the analytic style would relate to the attentional capacities described earlier, with analytic individuals having greater capacity to channel attention selectively and notice important aspects of language. They may then be more able to reflect upon the ways in which they have exploited their attentional system. The holistic people, in contrast, are likely to be less analytic, to perceive situation as wholes, rather than being analyzable into components, and more likely to depend on external frames of reference for making judgment (rely on other people’s opinions) (Skehan, 1998). To the extent that language development is aided by high- quality interaction, such people are more likely to be naturally drawn through their personal orientation and their comfort in interaction situations to maximize encounters in which they are likely to receive good quality, relevant input, and have opportunities to use language to express meanings. As a result, their interlanguage systems should be stretched by the
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demands to communicate. This raises the possibility that such greater exposure could overcome the problem of a lack of an analytic orientation (Skehan, 1998). Learning styles in Jordan’s opinion (1997) concerns with the particular approach by which a student tries to learn. Major influences which condition or shape the way learners think and study are: the educational system, the sociocultural background and personality variables. Oxford (Richards & Renandya, 2002) has identified language learning style as another key determiner of second language strategy choice. She considers that when the students are allowed to learn in their favorite way, unpressured by learning environment or other factors, students often use strategies that directly reflect their preferred learning. According to her, students with an analytic learning style prefer strategies such as contrastive analysis, rule learning, and dissecting words and phrases, where as students with a global style use strategies that help them find the big picture (i.e. guessing, scanning, predicting) and assist them in conversing without knowing all the words (i.e. paraphrasing, gesturing). Visually oriented students use strategies such as listing, word grouping, and so on, whereas those with an auditory preference like work with tapes and practice aloud. Students whose style includes tolerance for ambiguity use significantly different learning strategies in some instances from those used by students who are intolerant of ambiguity. Table 2.1 . Learning style taxonomy for the L2 classroom. Learning Style Taxonomy for the Adult L2 Classroom Type 1: Cognitive Styles
Type 2: Sensory Styles
Field Dependent – learns best when information is presented in context. They
Perceptual: Visual – learns best when there is visual
Type 3: Personality Styles Tolerance of Ambiguity: refers to how comfortable a learner is with
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are often more fluent language learners. Field independent – learns most effectively step-by-step and with sequential instruction. They are often more accurate language learners.
Analytic – works more effectively alone and at his/her own pace. Global – works more effectively in groups
reinforcement such as charts, pictures, graphs, etc. Auditory – learns more effectively by listening to information Tactile – learns more effectively when there is an opportunity to use manipulative resources. Kinesthetic – learns more effectively when there is movement associated with learning Environmental: Physical – sensitive to learning environment, such as light, temperature, furniture Sociological – sensitive to relationships within the learning environment
uncertainty; some learners do well in situations where there are several possible answers; others prefer one correct answer
Right and Left Hemisphere Dominance Left-brain dominant learners tend to be more visual, analytical, reflective, and self- reliant Right-brain dominant learners tend to be more auditory, global, impulsive, and interactive
Reflective – learns more effectively when they have time to consider new information before responding Impulsive – learns more effectively when they can respond to new information immediately; as language learners, they are risk takers.
The above table clarifies the learning styles of adults Christison (in Nunan, 2003) provides in learning style taxonomy for the second language classroom. 3) Adult Learning Strategies Learning strategies refer to characteristics we want to stimulate in students to enable them to become more proficient language learners (Christison in Nunan, 2003). 26
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Skehan mentions three useful types of strategies. Social- affective strategies concern how learners engage in social interactions more effectively, use their fellow learners and interlocutors to help them solve problems, deal with affective problems; give themselves encouragement; and deal with anxiety. Cognitive strategies are concerned with the direct activities that are engaged in to promote learning. They would include such things as memorization techniques, inferencing, and so on. They represent what learners actually do to process the material that needs to be learned, and would correspond to direct learning strategies. Finally, Skehan elaborates the metacognitive learning strategies, such as goal setting, planning, monitoring, evaluating, channeling attention, and so on. Metacognitive strategies are broader in application that the more direct repertoire of cognitive strategies, and may subsume them. Above all, they are concerned with two things, reflection and flexibility. Reflection represents the learner developing some degree of self- awareness in learning, and shows how a given learner may appreciate his or her strengths and weaknesses. Flexibility arising from effective metacognitive strategy use organizes and gives purpose to the way cognitive and social- affective strategies are used, and increases the likelihood of appropriateness of strategy choice. Skehan continues that rather then engage in activity for its own sake, the good learner is more able, through metacognitive awareness, to select strategies appropriate to a particular problem. Table 2.2. Learning strategies for Adult L2 Adult learners Learning strategy Metacognitive strategies Planning
Definition of strategy Previewing main ideas Making plans to accomplish a task Playing attention to key information Seeking out and arranging for conditions to promote successful learning
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Monitoring Evaluating Cognitive strategies Summarizing Induction Imagery Auditory representation Making inferences Using resources Grouping Note-taking Elaboration of prior knowledge Social/Affective strategies Cooperating
Clarifying
Self-talk
Self-checking ones comprehension Developing the ability to determine how well one has accomplished the task Saying or writing the main ideas Figuring out the rules from samples of language Being able to visualize a picture and use it to learn new information Mentally replaying a word, phrase, or piece of information Using information in the text to guess the meaning Developing the ability to use reference materials Classifying words, terminology, quantities, or concepts Writing down key words and concepts in verbal, graphic, or numerical form Relating new to known information and making personal associations Learning how to work with colleague – completing a task, pooling information, solving a problem, and obtaining feedback Learning how to ask questions to get additional explanation or verification from the teacher or someone else who might know the answer Reducing anxiety by talking positively to oneself
Christison as she adopts from Chamot and O’Melly (1994) provides general learning strategies for second language learners as the table above shows. 3. English For Specific Purposes (ESP) This section elaborates the development of ESP, ESP categories and English for Health Officials. a. The Development of ESP The concept of English for a special purpose arose in the early 1960s partly in response to the recognized need for improved communication between
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the developed and the developing countries of the world (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). The first focus of ESP was on the lexis. The idea was that normal ESL materials would be used but that subject-specific lexical items would be substituted for more general terms . this was originally labeled “register” for want of a better term, and it led to a useful analysis of several sub-branches of science and technology. For science, the grammatical differences from “general English” were fewer than imagined, but what was clear was that simple lexical substitution would be insufficient (Master, 1998). With the shift away from linguistics at the sentence level and an increasing focus on discourse materials, ESP started to look at “doing science” rather that just describing it. In other words, the view of language as communication opened the way for a more global approach to scientific language, including investigation of the reasoning and conceptual processes scientists applied. The idea that the described rhetorical and discourse structures might be true across languages led to a new concept: that second language learners would learn English by practicing scientific tasks that were already familiar to them in their native languages. The focus on the needs of the learner as opposed to the inculcation of linguistic facts led to a general shift away from teacher-centeredness to learnercenteredness. ESP practitioners were encouraged to find and use realistic materials (not invented ones) in trying to best meet the needs of their students (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).
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Johns & Machado (in Celce-Murcia, 2001) specify that ESP is a movement based on the proposition that all language teaching should be tailored to the specific learning an language use needs of identified groups of students. And it is sensitive to the socio cultural context in which these students will be using English b. ESP Categories The main interests of the ESP movement can be categorized in a number of ways (Johns & Machado in Celce-Murcia, 2001). Based on their current importance, some of these categories will be highlighted as follows: English for Occupational Purposes and English for Academic Purposes. The classification of ESP categories is described in the next figure in the following page.
English for Specific Purposes
English for Academic Purposes
English for Science and Technology (Academics)
English for Business and Economics (Academics)
English for Occupational Purposes
English for Medical Purposes (Academics)
English for the Law (Academics)
English for Professional Purposes
English for Medical Purposes
English for Business Purposes
Pre-employment VESL
Chester VESL
Vocational ESL
Occupational Specific VESL
Workplace VESL
Figure 2.2. The classification of ESP categories
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Considering the figure, English for Health Officials is categorized under English for Professional Purposes and it is equal with English for Medical Purposes and English for Business Purposes. c. English for Health Officials Peter Strevens as quoted by Johns & Machado in Celce-Murcia (2001) provides the following overview of ESP and its features. The claims for ESP are that it is focused on the learners needs and wastes no time; it is relevant to the learner; it is successful in imparting learning; and it is more cost-effective than “General English.”. English for Health Officials is an English program which is held for health officials. The main objective of the program is to improve the competence of the health officials in performing and maintaining their international relationship. The program deals with the use of English in public health management area. The suggested material is focused on the needs area of the study. The activities in the program fit to the real action in the field. The learners are asked to practice their English in the situation which is designed as similar as the real situation. 4. Syllabus Design A syllabus is defined as a document which says what will be learned. The main function of syllabus is to break down the mass knowledge to be learnt into manageable units (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Richards, 2001; Feez, 2001). There are numbers of syllabuses approaches, such content or product, skills, and method or process (see Nunan, 1998; Jordan, 1997; Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
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Richards (2001) underlines that in choosing a particular syllabus framework of a course, planners are usually influenced by the factors of (1) knowledge and belief about the subject area, (2) research and theory, (3) common practice, and (4) trends. There are a number of syllabus designs, those are among others: grammatical syllabus, notional – functional syllabus, content – based syllabus, task- based syllabus and situational syllabus. Grammatical syllabus Nunan (2001) describes that the point of departure for designing a grammatical syllabus is to select and sequence lists of grammatical items and then integrate these with lists of vocabulary items. Lists of phonological items have sometimes been thrown in for good measure. The assumption under lying this syllabus is that language consists of a finite set of rules which can be combined in various ways to make meaning. The task for the language learner is to master each rule in the order presented by the syllabus before moving on to the next. Notional- functional syllabus Nunan (2001) also concerns with notional- functional syllabus in which he considers notions as the general conceptual meanings such as time, cause and duration, while functions are the communicative purposes that are achieved through language such as apologizing, advising, and expressing preferences. Content- based syllabus Content- based syllabus presents language indirectly via the content of other subjects (Nunan, 2001). Learners acquire the target language in the course
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of doing other things. The approach draws strongly on the experiential view of learning. That is, that active engagement in communicating in the language is the most effective means of acquiring it. Task- based syllabus Instead of beginning the design process with lists of grammatical, functional-notional, and other time, the designer of this syllabus type conducts needs analysis which yields a list of the communicative tasks that the learners for whom the syllabus is intended will need to carry out (Nunan, 2001). Situational syllabus Situational syllabus is centered around context or situation in which the learner is likely to engage in. Such syllabus lists the situations or contexts in which the language will be used, and analyses the language needed for those situations (Jordan, 1997). a. Competence- based Syllabus Design The features of Competence – based syllabus design according to Nunan (in Celce-Murcia 2001) are that it is:
focusing on what learners should be able to do at the end of course of instruction
is concerned with the attainment of specified standards
criterion – rather than norm-referenced Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum, 2004, (Depdiknas, 2003) adds that the
design consists of : (1) competency standards; (2) basic competency; (3) indicators; (4) teaching materials; (5) learning experience; (6) time allocation; (7) resource and media; and (8) assessment. Further, Finney (Richards & Renandya,
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2002) specifies that the design covers the content and the ordering of what to be taught . Nunan (Celce-Murcia, 2001) completes the design with the selection, sequencing, and justification of the content of the curriculum. Content selection refers to selecting linguistic features such items of grammar,
pronunciation,
and vocabulary as well as experiential content such as topics and themes. b. Needs Analysis Needs analysis is the starting point for devising syllables, courses, materials and the kind of teaching and learning that takes place (Jordan, 1997). Under the umbrella of needs analysis, other approaches have been incorporated. These include: target-situation analysis, present-situation analysis, deficiency analysis, strategy analysis, means analysis, and language audit. Implicit in needs analysis is the requirement for fact-finding or the collection of data. The starting point is to pose some fundamental questions which can help us to see the appropriate type of analysis and the data needed. The fundamental questions are as follows: -
Why is the analysis being taken? The question is to determine the type of syllabus and content, materials, teaching/ learning; for placement on an appropriate course; etc)
-
Whose needs are to analyzed? (the student’s; the sponsor’s – institution or country; the specialist department, etc)
-
Who performs the analysis? Who decides what the language needs are? (sponsor; teacher; student; research/ consultant; etc)
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-
What is to be analyzed? (target situation; present situation; deficiencies; strategies; means; constraints; necessities; lacks; wants; etc)
-
How is the analysis to be conducted? (tests; questionnaires; interviews; documentation; ect)
-
When is the analysis to be undertaken? (before the course/ tuition; at the start of the course; during the course; at the end of the course; etc)
-
Where is the course to be held? (in the target country, e.g. UK; in the student’s own country; in a third country; etc) (Jordan 1997: 22- 23).
1) Approaches to Needs Analysis a) Target- situation Analysis The best known framework for target-situation analysis is the rigorous model devised by Munby (1978). Munby’s approach focuses on the students’ needs at the end of a language course, and target-level performance. Munby is concerned with communicative syllabus design, and his procedures are very detailed. Target-situation analysis obtains some benefits as follows: o It is seen as the logical starting point for the development of a language program which is responsive to the learner and learning needs (Finney in Richards & Renandya, 2002) o It guides the selection process (Nunan in Celce-Murcia, 2001) o It provides the syllabus designer with a basis both for content specification and for the setting of goals and objectives (Nunan in CelceMurcia, 2001) The methods of assessing learner needs in this analysis are as follows:
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Questionnaires and surveys ; interviews of experts ,students, and stakeholders; observation; job-shadowing, and analysis; multiple intelligence and learning style surveys of the learners; modes of working; spoken or written reflection by the learner-or their supervisors - before, during, or the instruction (Nunan in Celce-Murcia 2001). b) Present-situation analysis Jordan (1997) proposes a present- situation analysis which ascertains the learners’ state of language development at the beginning of the language course. The sources of information are: the learners themselves, the teaching establishment, and the “user institution”, e.g. place of work, sponsoring body, etc. The methods of collection of data are surveys, questionnaires and interviews. Information is sought on levels of ability resources and views on language teaching/ learning. Essentially, the learner is at the centre of the system, which includes the surrounding society and culture. c) Deficiency analysis Hutchinson and Waters (1987) sub- divide target needs into ‘necessities’, ‘lacks’ and ‘wants’. By ‘necessities’ they mean what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation (this would involve obtaining information about the situations in which the language will be used, e.g. lectures, seminars, etc., and the discourse components and linguistic features commonly used in them, e.g. functions, structures, vocabulary, etc). ‘Lacks’ represent the gap between the target proficiency and what the learner knows already. The necessities that the learner lacks can form the basis of the language syllabus: this is referred to as deficiency analysis (Jordan, 1997).
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d) Strategy analysis Jordan (1997) describes that in the 1980s the focus of needs analysis turned more towards the methodology employed to implement language programs. According to him this involved not only methods of teaching, but also methods of learning. In other words, observing the preferred learning styles and strategies of learners. Related areas in a strategy analysis are preferences in group size, correction procedures and methods of assessment. e) Means analysis An important strand in the development of needs analysis is the attempt to adapt language courses to local situation (Jordan, 1997). In other words, ‘means analysis’ is to accommodate what are frequently seen to be ‘constraints’, e.g. cultural attitudes, resources, materials, equipment, methods; Also, it involves a study of the local situation, i.e. the teachers, teaching methods, students, facilities, etc. to see how a language course may be implemented. ‘Means analysis’ starts from a positive premise, i.e. what might be achieved with certain, given factors. It allows sensitivity to situations in any country and discourages the imposition of alien models ( of teaching, methodology, learning, etc.). The purpose of the analysis is to prevent alienation caused by imported teaching methods that may be culturally inappropriate (Jordan, 1997). f) Language Audit Language audit are large scale exercises in defining language needs carried out for companies, regions or countries (Jordan, 1997). They provide data and may propose training or educational policies to be implemented over a period of time.
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2) Interview and Questionnaire a) Interview Kvale (1996) regards an interview as an interchange of views between two or more people on a topic of mutual interest, sees the centrality of human interaction for knowledge production, and emphasizes the social situatedness of research data. Knowledge itself should be as constructed between participants, therefore, the interview is not exclusively either subjective or objective, it is intersubjective. Interviews enable participants to discuss their interpretations of the world in which they live, and to express how they regard situations from their own point of view. Hence, the interview is not simply concerned with collecting data about life: it is part of life itself, its human embeddedness is inescapable. Cohen et al. (2000) suggests the purposes of the interview as to evaluate or assess a person in some respect, to select or promote an employee, to effect therapeutic change, as in the psychiatric interview, to test or develop hypotheses, to gather data, as in surveys or experimental situations, to sample respondents’ opinions, as in doorstep interview. Further, Cohen et al. (2000) lays out the strengths and weaknesses of different types of interview. Table. 2.3. Strengths and weaknesses of different interview types (Cohen et al., 2000).
1
Type of Interview Informal conversational interview
Characteristics Questions emerge from the immediate context and are asked in the natural course of things; there is no predetermination of question topics or wording.
Strengths Increases the salience and relevance of questions; interviews are built on and emerge from observation; the interview can be matched to individuals and circumstances.
Weaknesses Different information collected from different people with different questions. Less systematic and comprehensive if certain questions don’t arise “naturally”. Data
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2
Interview guide approach
Topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance, in outline form; interviewer decides sequence and working of questions in the course of the interview.
3
Standardized open-ended interviews
The exact wording and sequence of questions are determined in advance. All interviews are asked the same basic questions in the same order.
4
Closed quantitative interviews
Questions and response categories are determined in advance. Responses are fixed; respondent chooses from among these fixed responses
The outline increases the comprehensiveness of the data and makes data collection somewhat systematic for each respondent. Logical gaps in data can be anticipated and closed. Interviews remain fairly conversational and situational. Respondents answer the same questions, thus increasing comparability of responses; data are complete for each person on the topics addressed in the interview. Reduces interviewer effects and bias when several interviewers are used. Permits decision-makers to see and review the instrumentation used in the evaluation. Facilitates organization and analysis of the data. Data analysis is simple; responses can be directly compared and easily aggregated; many short questions can be asked in a short time.
organization and analysis can be quite difficult. Important and salient topics may be inadvertently omitted. Interviewer flexibility in sequencing and wording questions can result in substantially different responses, thus reducing the comparability of responses. Little flexibility in relating the interview to particular individuals and circumstances; standardized wording of questions may constrain and limit naturalness and relevance of questions and answers.
Respondents must fit their experiences and feelings into the researcher’s categories; may be perceived as impersonal, irrelevant, and mechanistic. Can distort what respondents really mean or experienced by so
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completely limiting their response choices.
Kvale (1996) sets out seven stages of an interview investigation: o Thematizing. Formulate the purpose of an investigation and describe the concept of the topic to be investigated before the interviews start. The why and what of the investigation should be clarified before the question of how – method – is posed. o Designing. Plan the design of the study, taking into account consideration all stages of the investigation, before the interviewing starts. o Interviewing. Conduct the interviews based on an interview guide and with a reflective approach to the knowledge sought and the interpersonal relation of the interview situation o Transcribing. Prepare the interview material for analysis, which commonly includes a transcription from oral speech to written text. o Analysing. Decide, on the basis of the purpose and topic of the investigation, and on the nature of the interview material, which methods of analysis are appropriate for the interviews o Verifying. Ascertain the generalizability, reliability, and validity of the interview findings. o Reporting. Communicate the findings of the study and the methods applied in a form that lives up to scientific criteria, takes the ethical aspects of the investigation into consideration, and that results in a reliable product.
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b) Questionnaire Johns and Price-Machado in Celce-Murcia (2001) state that questionnaire can be given to the students themselves, their employers or supervisors, or the audiences to whom they will be writing or speaking. Cohen further presents that concerning operationalizing a questionnaire, the process is to take a general purpose or set of purpose and turn these into concrete, researchable fields about which actual data can be gathered. A questionnaire’s general purposes must be clarified and then translated into a specific, concrete aim or set of aims. Then, the planning involves the identification and itemizing of subsidiary topics that relate to its central purpose. Next, it continues with the identification and itemization of subsidiary topics and involves formulating specific information requirements relating to each of these issues.
c. Syllabus Development The process of syllabus development in language teaching involve assessing the needs of learners in a language program, developing goals and objectives, planning a syllabus, selecting teaching approaches and materials, and deciding on assessment procedures and criteria (Richards & Renandya, 2002). Syllabus is curriculum in its narrowest sense. Syllabus specifies the content and the ordering of what is to be taught. The purposes of the program are to transmit knowledge of the language system to the learners and to ensure that they master the grammar rules and vocabulary of the language; the content or the syllabus is a selection and sequencing of individual grammar points and lexis;
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the teaching procedures and learning experiences will include drilling of grammatically correct sentences, explanations of theory and memorization of lists of vocabulary; and assessment is based on the learner’s ability to produce grammatically accurate language.
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B. Theoretical Framework
The health officials communicate and maintain their international relation and communication though some professional functions performed in English. The professional functions successfully performed in English contribute to the attainment
of
their
job
description
in international
relationship
and
communication. Nevertheless, weaknesses in performing such international relation and communication impede the successful attainment of the health officials’ job description. As far as the research concerns, the weaknesses are mostly related with those of the language (English). Hence, the necessity to establish a language course specific to the needs of the health officials is quite urgent. In relation to successfully perform the professional functions in English, the health officials need to improve their communicative competence in English by joining a language course as mentioned above. Following Hymes (Brown et al., 1996) communicative competence labels the ability to produce situationally and socially acceptable utterances in a particular language, thus English. This communicative competence, in Celce-Murcia’s view (Celce-Murcia et al., 1995) consists of: Discourse competence, Actional competence, Linguistic competence, Sociocultural/ sociolinguistic competence and Strategic competence. These elements of communicative competence need to be improved so that the health officials are able to successfully perform their professional functions in order to maintain their international relationship and communication.
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The professional functions performed in English and the communicative competence will be integrated in a syllabus design which is also specific to the learners’ (the health officials’) needs. The features of such syllabus design are: first, focusing on what learners should be able to do at the end of course of instruction; second, it is concerned with the attainment of specific standards; theird, it is criterion- rather than norm- referenced. Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum, 2004, (Depdiknas, 2003) adds that the design consists of : (1) competency standards; (2) basic competency; (3) indicators; (4) teaching materials; (5) learning experience; (6) time allocation; (7) resource and media; and (8) assessment. Further, Finney (Richards & Renandya, 2002) specifies that the design covers the content and the ordering of what to be taught . Prior to designing the syllabus, a need analysis which also addresses the professional functions and the communicative competence will be conducted. Under the need analysis, the research will applies target- situation analysis for it focuses on the learners’ needs at the end of a language course and target level performance. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) elaborate the framework of such target situation analysis. The framework includes: why is the language need?(for study; for work; for training; for combination of these; or for some other purpose, e.g. status, examination, promotion); how will the language be used? (medium: speaking, writing, reading, etc; channel: e.g. telephone, face to face; types of text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversations, technical manuals, catalogues); what will the content areas be? (subjects: e.g. medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, engineering; level: e.g. technician, craftsman, postgraduate, secondary school); who will the learner use
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the language with? (native speakers or non- native? level of knowledge or receiver: e.g. expert, layman, student; relationship: e.g. colleague, teacher, customer, superior, subordinate); where will the language be used? (physical setting: e.g. office, lecture theatre, hotel, workshop, library; human context: e.g. alone, meetings, demonstrations, on telephone; linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad); when will the language be used? (concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently; frequently, seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks). In addition to the target situation analysis framework, they provide framework for analyzing learning needs. The framework includes: why are the learners taking the course? (compulsory or optional; apparent need or not; are status, money, promotion involved?; what do learners think they will achieve?; what is their attitude towards the ESP course? Do they want to improve their English or do they resent the time they have to spend on it?); how do the learners learn? (what is their learning background? what is their concept of teaching and learning? what methodology will appeal to them? what sort of techniques are likely to bore/alienate them?);
what resources are available? (number and
professional competence of teachers; attitude of teachers to ESP; teacher’s knowledge of and attitude to the subject contents; materials; aids; opportunities for out-of-class activities); who are the learners? (age/sex/nationality; what do they know already about English? what subject knowledge do they have? what are their interests? what is their socio-cultural background? what teaching styles are they used to? what is their attitude to English or to the cultures of the English speaking world?); where will the ESP course take place? (are the surroundings pleasant, dull, noisy, cold, etc?); when will the ESP course take place? (time of
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day; every day/ once a week; full-time/ part time; concurrent with need or preneed). The result of the needs analysis serves as the basis of the syllabus design. The process of syllabus development in language teaching involve assessing the needs of learners in a language program, developing goals and objectives, planning a syllabus, selecting teaching approaches and materials, and deciding on assessment procedures and criteria (Richards & Renandya, 2002).
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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
The research problems emphasize the need to investigate the professional functions and the required communicative competences of English in the health officials’ international relation and communication. Chapter I has outlain this research, and Chapter II has provided the theoretical foundation of the research. This chapter discusses the research design and the methodology of the research employed to address the research problems. The technological by-product of this research is a syllabus design incorporating the professional functions and the required communicative competences of the language. Data were collected by means of interview and questionnaire.
Besides elaborating the research
method, this chapter will also outlay the nature of the research data, the data setting and sources, the data gathering instrument, the data collection and analysis as well as the data triangulation.
A. Methods The research was descriptive-qualitative because considering the research questions and objectives, the research aimed at obtaining qualitative data. Based on the need analysis conducted, the researcher described the professional functions the health officials performed in their international relation
and
communication as well as the communicative competence which needed to be improved in order to perform them well. The identified professional functions
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and communicative competence were then analyzed and used to develop a syllabus design of English program for the health officials. The data analysis done in this research was not statistical analysis but inductive interpretation based on related theories and the results of interview and questionnaire. The quantitative data in this research were limited to the data from the questionnaire analysis. This research concerned about the professional functions the health officials performed in their international relation and communication as well as the communicative competence which needed to be improved in order to perform them well. The identified professional functions and communicative competence would serve as the basis in designing the syllabus. In designing the syllabus, the researcher chose the competence-based syllabus and employed some important considerations in the design of an ESP syllabus (see Chapter II). For steps in developing the syllabus, the researcher followed Richards & Renandya (2002) with respect to the steps’ simplicity and practicability (see Chapter II).
B. Nature of Data The nature of the research data of the research question 1 & 2 was qualitative data. The data were descriptive because the obtained data described the professional functions performed in English by these health officials in their international relationship and communication, as well as the required competences of the language to perform the professional functions successfully.
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The data were investigated and generated from the participants’ answers on the questionnaires and interviews. The nature of the research data of the research question 3 was also descriptive. So were the data because then after the data of research question 1 & 2 were obtained, the data were interpreted and integrated to compile a syllabus design which integrates the professional functions and the required communicative competence.
C. Data Setting and Sources The research was carried out at Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO in March – September 2006. In accordance to the result of the preliminary interview with the PHO leader during the research preparation, the office was selected because there had been some needs/ necessities of the officials to improve their communicative competences. Besides, the researcher has been working at the office for quite some time so she knew well the officials’ competences in performing the language. The sources of the data (the research participants) were structural officials occupying the position of division leaders and their core staff. The number of the research participants was 30 officials.
D. Data Gathering Instrument The research employed two instruments in gathering the data, namely: interview and questionnaire. Some necessary information obtained from the
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interview was intended to improve the questionnaire, therefore the interview was carried out prior to the distribution of questionnaire. 1. Interview Cohen (2000) states that interviews enable participants (either the interviewers or interviewees) to discuss interpretations of their ideas, and to express how they regard situations from their own points of view. In this respect, they were adopted because they might reveal unpredicted needs as they functioned to sample the respondents’ opinions in learning English (Cohen, 2000). Some necessary preparation had been completed before the interview was conducted. The preparation was related to the seven stages of an interview investigation set out by Kvale (1996) which covers thematizing and designing the interview. The next stages were related to data collection and analysis, i.e. interviewing and transcribing. The result of these first four stages is elaborated as follows. Thematizing The main purposes of the interview investigation were to investigate professional functions performed by the health officials in their international relation and communication and the required communicative competences. Other purposes of the interview investigation were to gather necessary information for the basis of the research background and other supporting data for the design of the syllabus afterward. The following blueprint had been set out on the bases of the purposes.
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Table 3.1. Interview Blueprint Theme Information for completing the research background Information concerning the health officials’ official activities Information concerning the background for learning the language Information concerning the health officials’ strength and weakness in the communicative competences Information concerning the preferred material & approach in learning the language
Construct Eliciting information from the health officials for completing the research background Eliciting information from the health officials concerning their official activities Eliciting information from the health officials concerning the background for learning the language Eliciting information from the health officials concerning their strength and weakness in the language and communicative competences Eliciting information from the health officials concerning the preferred material & approach in learning the language
Question. No. 1, 2, 3
4, 5, 13
9, 10, 14, 15 6, 7, 8
11, 12
Designing Designing the interview was carried out after the purposes were established. The design of the interview was based on the above blueprint which had been set out on the bases of the purposes. The interview would be conducted in English. The complete design of the interview is attached in Appendix 1. 2. Questionnaire Another instrument was questionnaire. The questionnaire employed in this research was semi- structured. It was semi- structured because it contained of choices and open questions. Some necessary preparation had been completed before the questionnaire was distributed. The preparation was related to the stages of a questionnaire investigation set out by Cohen (2000) which covers first, setting the purposes of
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the questionnaire; second, identifying and itemizing topics related to the central purpose; third, formulating specific information related to the issues; and fourth, formulating the questions. The result of these stages is elaborated as follows. 1. Setting the purposes of the questionnaire The main purposes of the questionnaire distribution were to investigate official activities performed by the health officials in their international relationship and communication and the required communicative competences. Other purposes of the questionnaire distribution were to gather necessary information for the basis of the research background and other supporting data for the design of the syllabus afterward. 2. Identifying and itemizing topics related to the central purpose Some topics of the questionnaire were identified as follows. First topic concerned with the health officials’ personal and official background. Second topic concerned with the learning English background of the health officials. Third topic concerned with the English input knowledge and capability of the health officials. Fourth topic concerned with the health officials’ official activities in which English is required along with the frequency of performing the activity. Fifth topic concerned with the required communicative competences of the language in performing the official activity successfully. Sixth topic concerned with the health officials’ learning styles and strategies. And last topic concerned with necessary information for compiling the most appropriate syllabus design.
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3. Formulating specific information related to the topics Specific information related to the topics was presented in the following table. Table 3.2. Topics and Related Specific Information No 1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
Topic Health official’s personal and official background Health official’s learning English background Health official’s input knowledge and capability of English Health official’s official activities in which English is required along with the frequency of performing the activity Health official’s learning styles and strategies Necessary information for compiling the most appropriate syllabus design
Specific Information Name, age, educational degree, last position English courses, English proficiency test, motivation to learn English English areas Official activities requiring English (present and future)
Learning/teaching styles & strategies Formal/informal English, learning duration, place/venue
4. Formulating the questions The questions in the questionnaire were in Indonesian and the number of the questions addressed was presented in the following table. Table 3.3. List of Questionnaire Questions Construct Eliciting information concerning the research participant’s personal and official background Eliciting information concerning the research participant’s learning English background Eliciting information concerning the research participant’s input knowledge and capability of English Eliciting information concerning the research participant’s official activities in which English is required along with the frequency of performing the activity Eliciting necessary information for compiling the most appropriate syllabus design
Question. No. 1, 2, 3, 4 5, 6, 7 8, 9 10, 11, 12
13, 14, 15, 16
The complete formulation of the questionnaire is attached in Appendix 3.
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E. Data Collection The data were collected in March – September 2006 at Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO (Dinas Kesehatan Provinsi D.I. Yogyakarta). The data collection employed interview and questionnaire. This was in accordance to Bassey (1999) who mentioned that there are three fundamental types of data collection method: “asking questions (and listening intently to the answers), observing events (and noting carefully what happens) and reading documents. The researcher wanted to find out what the official activities performed by the health officials in their international relationship and communication are, and what the required competences of the language are.
F. Data Analysis Following Kvale (1996) who suggested interviewing and transcribing after designing the interview, after the interview was completed, the recorded interview was transcribed in written. The data obtained from the interview were qualitative data based on the verbal answers provided by the health officials. These qualitative data were then narrated to serve as the bases of research result later. Data obtained from the questionnaire were summarized in tables and would also be used as the bases of the research result.
G. Data Triangulation To triangulate the data obtained from the interview with the five division leaders and the questionnaire, the researcher conducted post-interviews with the
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leader of Provincial Health Office, one leader of a district health office, one outstanding lecturer in a health polytechnic, and one leader in a health management service center. The type of the interview was informal and conversational with regard to the availability of the interviewees’ time.
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CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULT
This research aims at investigating the professional functions and the required communicative competences of English in the research participants’ international relation and designing a syllabus integrating the official activities and the required communicative competences as the technological-by product of the research. Chapter I and II have provided the research background and the theoretical foundation of the research. Chapter III has elaborated the research design and the methodology of the research employed in order to address the research problems. This chapter presents the results of the research instruments in gathering data as well as analyzes the data in order to answer the research problems. The research instruments in gathering data were interview and questionnaire. The interview and the questionnaire distribution were conducted in March – September 2006 at Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO (Dinas Kesehatan Provinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta). The research participants were 5 chairpersons of the office’s divisions who, according to the information provided by the PHO chairman, deal most with the international institutions and therefore, performed their jobs mostly in English. The five interview participants were Bu Diana, Bu Maria, Bu Yasmin, Bu Anita, and Pak Kresno. Some necessary preparation had been completed before the interview and the questionnaire were distributed. The preparation was related to the seven
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
stages of an interview investigation set out by Kvale (1996) which covers thematizing and designing the interview. Next stages were interviewing and transcribing. The result of the interview preparation stages has been elaborated in Chapter III. The questionnaire was distributed after the interview was done. Some information obtained from the interview was applied in improving the questionnaire items. The questionnaire was distributed in June – September 2006 at Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO. The research participants in this questionnaire investigation were 30 staffs, five of them have also participated in the interview investigation. Some necessary preparation had been completed before the questionnaire was distributed. The preparation was related to the stages of a questionnaire investigation set out by Cohen (2000) which covers first, setting the purposes of the questionnaire; second, identifying and itemizing topics related to the central purpose; third, formulating specific information related to the issues; and fourth, formulating the questions. The result of the questionnaire preparation stages has been elaborated in Chapter III. A. Result of Professional Function Identification This sub- chapter outlays the identification result of the professional functions mostly performed in English . The data on the professional functions were obtained by means of interview investigation and questionnaire distribution. The complete results of the interview and questionnaire were attached in Appendix 2 and Appendix 4.
The following elaboration is the
integrated result of the interview investigation and questionnaire distribution.
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The professional functions were addressed implicitly in the interview and explicitly in the questionnaire item no. 11. Originally, based on the preliminary interview with the PHO leader, the questionnaire provided seven professional functions which the research participants performed in English. Those were: Guest reception, Seminar presentation, International negotiation, International correspondence, Program proposal, Program/activity reporting, and Official travel. However, after the interview was conducted, there were five professional functions added by Bu Diana, one of the interview participants. The newly-added five professional functions were: Information seeking, Fund raising, Translating, Interpreting, and fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking. And the other four interview participants agreed with these newly-added four official activities. The questionnaire items no. 10, 11, and 12 asked about the professional functions and the activities done under such function. And the post- interview result as the tool to validate the obtained data supported the findings. Hence, the health officials performed these professional functions in their international relation and communication by applying functions of the language. As specified in the questionnaire items, the professional functions performed were then divided into several official activities and the functions of language. The functions of the language were the researcher’s own logical interpretation based on the research findings. The functions of the language were derived from the research participants’ answers in the interview and questionnaire. Besides, the post- interview result as the tool to validate the obtained data supported the
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findings. The following is the summarized result of each professional function which was arranged according to frequency of performing it in English . 1. Guest reception The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in guest reception function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
6
5
5
13
1
The health officials often received foreign guests and they coordinated the jobs dealing with the international guests. When they received international guests, they performed some language functions. The language functions identified were: Table 4.1. Guest Reception Professional Function Guest reception
Official Activity - Receiving international colleagues
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ greeting, ◦ introducing someone and ourselves,
- Preparing meetings and
◦ answering an introduction,
or seminars attended by
◦ asking how someone is,
the international
◦ saying how you are,
colleagues
◦ asking for information, ◦ saying you do not know,
- Coordinating meetings
◦ asking if something is
and or seminars attended
correct,
by the international
◦ saying something is correct,
colleagues
and ◦ saying something is not correct.
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2. International negotiation The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in international negotiation function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
7
6
4
12
1
The health officials often negotiated their international programs with their international/ foreign colleagues. The negotiation usually concerned with the execution of certain program. Some language functions identified in this international negotiation were as follows: Table 4.2. International Negotiation Professional Function Foreign negotiation
Official Activity - Preparing the budget of the program
- Proposing the budget of the program
- Negotiating the program, usually concerned with the budgeting
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ asking for information, ◦ saying you know about something, ◦ reminding, ◦ asking if something is correct, ◦ saying something is correct, ◦ asking if someone is sure about something, ◦ saying you are sure, ◦ saying what you think is possible or probable, ◦ saying you are not sure, ◦ saying what you think is improbable or impossible, ◦ talking about what might happen, ◦ saying you are curious, ◦ saying what you hope will happen, ◦ saying what you want, ◦ saying you are looking forward to something, ◦ saying you are optimistic/ pessimistic,
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Professional Function
Official Activity
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ saying you are worried or afraid, ◦ saying you are excited, ◦ asking about preference, ◦ saying what you prefer, ◦ asking if someone approves, ◦ saying you approve, ◦ comparing, ◦ saying something is not important, ◦ asking for someone’s opinion, ◦ giving your opinion, ◦ trying to change someone’s opinion, ◦ asking if someone is interested, ◦ saying you are interested, ◦ giving reasons, ◦ asking if someone agrees, ◦ agreeing, ◦ disagreeing, ◦ saying you wrong and someone else is right, ◦ saying you have reached agreement, ◦ saying you intend to do something, ◦ asking if someone is able to do something, ◦ saying you are able to do something, ◦ asking for advice, ◦ suggesting, ◦ requesting, ◦ encouraging, ◦ persuading, ◦ complaining, ◦ saying you are willing to do something, ◦ saying you are willing to do something under certain conditions, ◦ saying you are unwilling to do something, ◦ refusing to do something, ◦ starting a conversation, ◦ greeting, and ◦ ending a conversation.
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3. Program/activity reporting The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the
professional
functions
in
English.
The
answer
composition
in
program/activity reporting function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
8
8
2
12
-
After certain program/ activity had been completed, the health officials as the responsible officers reported the completed program/ activity to the international colleagues who had provided the fund for the program/ activity. The report was presented in written, but the international colleagues often asked the report to be presented in a meeting. The following table describes the official and sub- official activities and the functions of language when the report was presented in a meeting. Table 4.3. Program/ Activity Reporting Professional Function Program/ activity reporting
Official Activity - Preparing the report
- Consulting the report to competent parties
- Reviewing the report
- Revising the report - Presenting the report
- Submitting the report
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ saying you know about something, ◦ saying something is correct/ not correct, ◦ saying you are sure, ◦ saying what you think is possible or probable, ◦ saying what you think is improbable or impossible, ◦ talking about what might happen, ◦ saying what you hope will happen, ◦ saying what you want, ◦ saying you are looking forward to something, ◦ saying you are optimistic/ pessimistic,
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Professional Function
Official Activity
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ saying you are worried or afraid, ◦ saying you are excited, ◦ reassuring someone, ◦ expressing likes, ◦ saying what you prefer, ◦ saying you approve/ do not approve, ◦ giving your opinion, ◦ trying to change someone’s opinion, ◦ asking if someone is interested, ◦ saying you are interested, ◦ giving reasons, ◦ asking if someone agrees, ◦ agreeing and disagreeing, ◦ saying you have reached agreement, ◦ saying you intend to do something, ◦ saying you are able to do something, ◦ saying someone needs to do something, ◦ asking for advice, ◦ saying you are willing to do something, ◦ saying you are willing to do something under certain conditions, ◦ greeting, ◦ thanking, ◦ complementing, ◦ ending a conversation, ◦ asking someone to say something again, ◦ checking that you have understood, ◦ checking that someone has understood you, ◦ saying something again, ◦ saying something in another way, ◦ giving an example, and ◦ showing you are listening.
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4. International correspondence The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in international correspondence function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
7
4
6
11
2
To maintain the relation as well as communication with the international colleagues, the health officials made correspondence with them. The correspondence was mostly via e. mail., and sometimes via fax or letters. The following table describes the official and sub- official activities and the functions of language when the international correspondence was performed. Table 4.4. International Correspondence Professional Function International correspondence
Official Activity - opening and closing the correspondence - clarifying topics in the correspondence - asking and answering things related to the correspondence
Interpretation of Possible Language Function - greeting - asking information - clarifying information - closing
5. Seminar participation The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in seminar participation function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
3
12
5
10
-
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The health officials coordinated some programs which were funded by international donor agencies.
The programs were especially related to the
aftermath recovery and reconstruction. The health officials often presented their programs or the result of their programs in English. When they conducted their seminars, they applied some language functions. The identified language functions in this professional function were as follows: Table 4.5. Seminar Participation Professional Function Seminar presentation
Official Activity - Preparing the program
- Presenting the program
- Coordinating the program
- Revising the program report
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ greeting, ◦ giving information, ◦ asking for information, ◦ asking if someone knows about something, ◦ saying you know about something, ◦ asking if something is correct, ◦ saying something is correct, ◦ saying something is not correct, ◦ correcting someone, ◦ asking if someone is sure about something, ◦ saying you are sure, ◦ saying what you think is possible or probable, ◦ saying what you think is improbable or impossible, ◦ saying what you want, ◦ saying you are looking forward to something, ◦ saying you are optimistic/ pessimistic ◦ asking about preference, ◦ asking if someone approves, ◦ saying you approve, ◦ asking for someone’s opinion, ◦ giving your opinion, ◦ saying you have no opinion, ◦ asking if someone is interested, ◦ saying you are interested,
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◦ giving reasons, ◦ asking if someone agrees, ◦ agreeing, disagreeing, ◦ saying you partly agree, ◦ saying you are wrong and someone else is right, ◦ saying you have reached agreement, ◦ ending the seminar, and ◦ saying goodbye
6. Program proposal The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in program proposal function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
10
6
4
10
-
In this professional functions
the health officials proposed their
programs which were intended to get fund from the international donor agencies. The program proposal was presented in written and in a seminar afterwards. There was hardly any language functions performed in written program proposal, but it would be some rhetorical ones. The health officials would perform some language functions when they
presented the program proposal a seminar
attended by the international donor agencies. The following table describes the official and sub- official activities as well as the language functions performed Table 4.6. Program Proposal Professional Function Program Proposal
Official Activity - Preparing the proposal
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ saying you know about something, ◦ saying something is correct, ◦
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Professional Function
Official Activity - Consulting the proposal to competent stakeholders
- Revising the proposal
- Presenting the proposal
- Submitting the proposal
Interpretation of Possible Language Function saying you are sure, ◦ saying what you think is possible or probable, ◦ saying what you think is improbable or impossible, ◦ talking about what might happen, ◦ saying what you hope will happen, ◦ saying what you want, ◦ saying you are looking forward to something, ◦ saying you are optimistic/ pessimistic, ◦ saying you are worried or afraid, ◦ saying you are excited, ◦ reassuring someone, ◦ expressing likes, ◦ saying what you prefer, ◦ saying you approve, ◦ giving your opinion, ◦ trying to change someone’s opinion, ◦ asking if someone is interested, ◦ saying you are interested, ◦ giving reasons, ◦ asking if someone agrees, ◦ agreeing, ◦ disagreeing, ◦ saying you have reached, ◦ agreement, ◦ saying you intend to do something, ◦ saying you are able to do something, ◦ saying someone needs to do something, ◦ asking for advice, ◦ suggesting, ◦ requesting, ◦ encouraging, ◦ persuading, ◦ saying you are willing to do something, ◦ saying you are willing to do something under certain conditions, ◦ starting a conversation,
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Professional Function
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ greeting, and ◦ ending a conversation.
Official Activity
7. Fund raising The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in fund raising function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
9
4
7
10
1
It is not probable to depend on the central government to fund all programs that the PHO carries out. Especially during the aftermath recovery and reconstruction phases, the health officials are obliged to design their own relevant programs as well as the program funding. Consequently, the health officials need to expand their networking and develop it not only at national level but also international one. The following table describes the official and subofficial activities and the functions of language when the health officials perform fund raising activity. Table 4.7. Fund Raising Professional Function Fund raising
Official Activity - Preparing the program
- Proposing the program to international donors
- Negotiating with the
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ asking for information, ◦ asking if someone knows about something, ◦ saying you know about something, ◦ asking if something is correct, ◦ saying something is correct/ not correct,
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Professional Function
Official Activity donors
- Finalizing the program
- Executing the program
- Presenting the program result
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ saying you are sure / not sure, ◦ saying what you think is possible or probable, ◦ saying what you think is improbable or impossible, ◦ talking about what might happen, ◦ saying you are curious, ◦ saying what you hope will happen, ◦ saying what you want, ◦ saying you are looking forward to something, ◦ saying you are optimistic/ pessimistic, ◦ saying you are excited, ◦ saying what you prefer, ◦ asking if someone approves, ◦ saying you approve/ do not approve, ◦ asking for someone’s opinion, ◦ giving your opinion, ◦ trying to change someone’s opinion, ◦ asking if someone is interested, ◦ saying you are interested, ◦ giving reasons, ◦ asking if someone agrees, ◦ agreeing, ◦ disagreeing, ◦ saying you have reached agreement, ◦ saying what you think you ought to do, ◦ asking if someone is able to do something, ◦ saying you are able to do something, ◦ asking for advice, ◦ suggesting, ◦ requesting, ◦ persuading, ◦ introducing yourself, ◦ introducing someone,
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Professional Function
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ greeting, ◦ thanking, ◦ responding to thanks, ◦ ending a conversation, ◦ saying goodbye, ◦ asking someone to say something again, ◦ checking that you have understood, ◦ checking that someone has understood you, ◦ saying something again, ◦ saying something in another way, ◦ giving an example, and ◦ showing you are listening.
Official Activity
8. Official travel The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in official travel function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
8
6
7
9
-
The health officials often do official travel to other provinces and even to other countries. The main purpose of the official travel is usually dealt with the coordination of the health officials’ works. When the health officials travel to other countries, they need English in preparing their visa. And of course, the language of the communication in other countries is English. The following table describes the official and sub- official activities and the functions of language
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when the health officials do official travel to other provinces and to other countries. Table 4.8. Official Travel Professional Function Official travel
Official Activity -
Preparing visas and other administrative requirements (at the central office and/or embassy)
-
Communication during the travel (on the flight, etc)
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ asking for information, ◦ saying you do not know, ◦ asking if something is correct, saying something is correct, ◦ asking if someone is sure about something, ◦ saying you are sure/ not sure, ◦ saying what you want, ◦ saying you are worried or afraid, ◦ saying you are pleased/ displeased, ◦ saying you are relieved, ◦ saying you are disappointed, ◦ saying you are excited, ◦ saying you are bored, ◦ asking about likes, ◦ expressing likes and dislikes, ◦ asking about preference, ◦ saying what you prefer, ◦ asking for someone’s opinion, ◦ giving your opinion, ◦ asking if someone is interested, ◦ saying you are interested, ◦ saying you are not interested, ◦ giving reasons, ◦ asking if someone agrees, ◦ agreeing, ◦ disagreeing, ◦ saying you have reached agreement, ◦ offering to do something for someone, ◦ accepting an offer of help, ◦ refusing an offer of help, ◦ asking if someone is able
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Professional Function
Interpretation of Possible Language Function to do something, ◦ saying you are able to do/ not to do something, ◦ asking for permission, ◦ asking for advice, ◦ suggesting, ◦ requesting, ◦ complaining, ◦ refusing to do something, ◦ starting a conversation, ◦ introducing yourself, ◦ greeting, ◦ offering something, ◦ accepting / declining an offer of something, ◦ giving something to someone, ◦ thanking, ◦ responding to thanks, ◦ complementing, ◦ ending a conversation, ◦ saying goodbye, ◦ asking someone to say something again, ◦ checking that you have understood, ◦ checking that someone has understood you, ◦ saying something again, ◦ saying something in another way, ◦ giving an example, ◦ showing you are listening, and ◦ changing the subject.
Official Activity
9. Information seeking The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in information seeking function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
3
12
7
8
-
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To facilitate their works and expand their knowledge, the health officials need to seek for more information. They seek the information mostly via internet and references. Often, the related references from which they seek the information are only available in English. Likewise, the websites from which they browse the information are only available in English. 10. Interpreting The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in interpreting function was as follows: rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
8
4
1
5
12
number of participant
During the aftermath emergency response and recovery phases, there were international NGOs which based their office at PHO and not all of them employed their own interpreter. Likewise, not all of the PHO staffs understood and used English properly, even the PHO strategic staffs such as those participated in the interview investigation. Consequently, in maintaining the official relationship and communication with these international NGOs , the PHO staffs who were able to understand and use English acted as the interpreters of the PHO. The following table describes the official and sub- official activities and the functions of language when the health officials perform the interpreting activity. Table 4.9. Interpreting Professional Function Interpreting
Interpretation of Possible Language Function necessary ◦ asking someone to say
Official Activity -
Preparing
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Professional Function
Official Activity document
for
meeting/ seminar
-
Coordinating meeting/ seminar
Interpretation of Possible Language Function the something again, ◦ checking that you have understood, ◦ checking that someone has understood you, the ◦ saying something again, ◦ saying something in another way, ◦ giving an example, ◦ taking up a point, and ◦ summing up
11. Fellowship/ Short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in fellowship/ Short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
10
3
5
5
7
Similar to the official travel, the PHO staffs conducted this official activity to other provinces and even to other countries. As the term of this official activity indicated, the main purpose was to expand the PHO staffs knowledge and ability in their workplace. The following table describes the official and sub- official activities and the functions of language when the health officials join fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking. Table 4.10. Fellowship/ Short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking Professional Function Fellowship/ Short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking
Official Activity - Preparing visa
- Communication during
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ asking for information, ◦ asking if someone knows about something, ◦ saying you know/ do not
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Professional Function
Official Activity the travel
- Communication during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking
- Daily communication during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking
- Preparing the activity report
- Presenting the activity report
Interpretation of Possible Language Function know about something, ◦ asking if something is correct/ not correct, ◦ asking if someone is sure about something, ◦ saying you are sure, ◦ saying what you think is possible or probable, ◦ saying what you think is improbable or impossible, ◦ saying you are curious, ◦ saying you are optimistic, ◦ saying you are excited, ◦ asking about likes, ◦ expressing likes and dislikes, , ◦ asking about preference, ◦ saying what you prefer, ◦ asking if someone approves, ◦ saying you approve, ◦ asking for someone’s opinion, ◦ giving your opinion, asking if someone is interested, ◦ saying you are interested, ◦ giving reasons, ◦ asking if someone agrees, ◦ agreeing, ◦ disagreeing, ◦ offering to do something for someone, ◦ accepting/ refusing an offer of help, ◦ saying what you think you ought to do, ◦ asking if someone is able to do something, ◦ saying you are able to do something, ◦ asking for permission, ◦ asking for advice, ◦ suggesting, ◦ requesting, ◦ encouraging, ◦ persuading,
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Professional Function
Interpretation of Possible Language Function ◦ complaining, ◦ saying you are willing to do something, ◦ saying you are willing to do something under certain conditions, ◦ starting a conversation, ◦ introducing yourself, ◦ introducing someone, ◦ greeting, ◦ giving someone your general good wishes, ◦ thanking, ◦ complementing, ◦ ending a conversation, saying goodbye, ◦ asking someone to say something again, ◦ checking that you have understood, ◦ checking that someone has understood you, ◦ saying something again, ◦ saying something in another way, ◦ giving an example, ◦ showing you are listening, and ◦ changing the subject
Official Activity
12. Translating The questionnaire item no. 10 asked about the frequency of performing the professional functions in English. The answer composition in translating function was as follows: number of participant
rarely
occasionally
usually
mostly
always
7
3
2
4
14
Since there were quite a number of programs funded by foreign donor agencies, the PHO staffs were required to report their programs bilingually. And
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during the aftermath emergency response and recovery phases, there were international NGOs which based their office at PHO and not all of them employed their own translator. Consequently, in maintaining the official relationship and communication with these international NGOs , the PHO staff helped them in translating necessary documents into English. Likewise, the PHO staffs needed to translate some NGO documents into Indonesian because not all of the PHO staff understood English
B. Result of Communicative Competence Identification This sub- chapter outlays the result of communicative competence identification. The data on communicative competence were obtained by means of interview investigation and questionnaire distribution. The questionnaire items no. 8 and 9 implicitly investigated the weaknesses of the research participants in performing the communicative competence. The following elaboration is the integrated result of interview investigation and questionnaire distribution. 1. Guest reception After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in guest reception function were able to receive the international colleagues, to prepare meetings and or seminars attended by the international colleagues, and to coordinate meetings and or seminars attended by the international colleagues. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.11. Communicative Competence in Guest Reception
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Competence 1. Discourse competence
2. Actional competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and lexical chains in dealing with guest reception Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in dealing with guest reception Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects required in dealing with guest reception Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in dealing with guest reception Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in dealing with guest reception Appropriately apply the functions of language in receiving international colleagues Appropriately apply the functions of language in preparing and coordinating meetings and or seminars attended by the international colleagues
3. Linguistic competence
Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to guest reception Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to guest reception Appropriately pronounce the language in relation to guest reception
4. Sociocultural competence
Appropriately communicate messages in relation to guest reception by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to guest reception
5. Strategic competence
2. International negotiation After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in international negotiation function were able to communicate the
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budget preparation of the program, to propose the budget of the program and to negotiate the program budget. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.12. Communicative Competence in International Negotiation Competence 1. Discourse competence
2. Actional competence 3. Linguistic competence
4. Sociocultural competence
5. Strategic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and lexical chains in international negotiation Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in international negotiation Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects in international negotiation Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in international negotiation Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in international negotiation Appropriately apply the functions of language in international negotiation Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to international negotiation Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to international negotiation Appropriately pronounce the language in relation to international negotiation Appropriately communicate messages in relation to international negotiation by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to international negotiation
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3. Program/ activity reporting After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in program/activity reporting was able to communicate the report preparation, to consult the report to the competent parties, to review the report, to revise the report, to present the report, and to submit the report. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.13. Communicative Competence in Program/ Activity Reporting Competence 1. Discourse competence
2. Actional competence 3. Linguistic competence
4. Sociocultural competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and the lexical chains in program/activity reporting Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in program/activity reporting Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects in program/activity reporting Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in program/activity reporting Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in program/activity reporting Appropriately apply the functions of language in program/activity reporting Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to program/activity reporting Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to program/activity reporting Appropriately apply the spelling and pronunciation of the language in relation to program/activity reporting Appropriately communicate messages in relation to program/activity reporting by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors,
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Competence
5. Strategic competence
Indicator and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to program/activity reporting
4. International correspondence After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in international negotiation activity were able to open and close the correspondence, to ask and answer things related to the correspondence function, to clarify and to confirm topics in the correspondence. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.14. Communicative Competence in International Correspondence Competence 1. Discourse competence
2. Actional competence
3. Linguistic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and the lexical chains in international correspondence Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in international correspondence Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects in international correspondence Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in international correspondence Appropriately apply the functions of language in international correspondence Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to international correspondence Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to international correspondence Appropriately apply the language in relation to international correspondence
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Competence
Indicator
4. Sociocultural competence
Appropriately communicate messages in relation to international correspondence by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors.
5. Strategic competence
Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to international correspondence
5. Seminar participation After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in seminar participation function were able to communicate the preparation of the seminar, to present the seminar, to coordinate the seminar and to report the seminar. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.15. Communicative Competence in Seminar Presentation Competence 1. Discourse competence
2. Actional competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and lexical chains in seminar participation Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in seminar participation Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects required in seminar participation Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in seminar participation Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in seminar participation Appropriately apply the functions of language in seminars attended by the international colleagues
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Competence
Indicator
3. Linguistic competence
Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to seminar presentation Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to seminar presentation Appropriately pronounce the language in relation to seminar presentation
4. Sociocultural competence
Appropriately communicate messages in relation to seminar presentation by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to seminar presentation
5. Strategic competence
6. Program proposal After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in program proposal activity were able to communicate the preparation of the proposal, to consult the proposal to competent stakeholders, to revise the proposal, to present the proposal and to submit the proposal. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.16. Communicative Competence in Program Proposal Competence 1. Discourse competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and lexical chains in program proposal Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in program proposal Appropriately apply language tenses and aspects in program proposal
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Competence
2. Actional competence 3. Linguistic competence
4. Sociocultural competence
5. Strategic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in program proposal Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in program proposal Appropriately apply the functions of language in program proposal Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to program proposal Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to program proposal Appropriately apply the spelling and pronunciation of the language in relation to program proposal Appropriately communicate messages in relation to program proposal by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to program proposal
7. Fund raising After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in fund raising activity were able to communicate the preparation of the program, to propose the program to international donors, to negotiate with the donors, to finalize the program, to execute the program and to present the program result. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.17. Communicative Competence in Fund Raising Competence 1. Discourse competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and the lexical chains in fund raising
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Competence
2. Actional competence 3. Linguistic competence
4. Sociocultural competence
5. Strategic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in fund raising Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects in fund raising Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in fund raising Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in fund raising Appropriately apply the functions of language in fund raising activity Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to fund raising activity Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to fund raising activity Appropriately apply the spelling and pronunciation of the language in relation to fund raising activity Appropriately communicate messages in relation to fund raising activity by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to fund raising activity
8. Official travel After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in program proposal activity were able to communicate in preparing visas and other administrative requirement and during the travel (on the flight, etc). The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.18. Communicative Competence in Official Travel
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Competence 1. Discourse competence
2. Actional competence 3. Linguistic competence
4. Sociocultural competence
5. Strategic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and lexical chains in official travel Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in official travel Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects in official travel Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in official travel Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in official travel Appropriately apply the functions of language in official travel Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to official travel Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to official travel Appropriately apply the spelling and pronunciation of the language in relation to official travel Appropriately communicate and receive messages in relation to official travel by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to official travel
9. Information seeking After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in information seeking activity were able to up-load and down-load information, to apply the micro and macro skills in reading, and to make executive summary based on the information. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function.
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Table 4.19. Communicative Competence in Information Seeking Competence Linguistic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply and comprehend the grammar of the language in relation to the information being seek Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to the information being seek Appropriately apply the spelling of the language in relation to the information being seek
10. Interpreting After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in interpreting activity were able to communicate in preparing necessary documents for the meeting/seminar, coordinating the meeting/seminar, and interpreting the meeting/seminar.
The following elaboration showed the
competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.20. Communicative Competence in Interpreting Competence 1. Discourse competence
2. Actional competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the references and lexical chains in topics being interpreted Appropriately apply the devices of situational context required in topics being interpreted Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects in topics being interpreted Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in topics being interpreted Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in topics being interpreted Appropriately apply the functions of language in relation to topics being interpreted
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Competence 3. Linguistic competence
4. Sociocultural competence
5. Strategic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to topics being interpreted Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to topics being interpreted Appropriately pronounce the language in relation to topics being interpreted Appropriately communicate and receive messages in relation to topics being interpreted by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to the interpretation of topics
11. Fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking function were able to communicate in preparing visas, during the trip, during the fellowship/
short
course/
comparative
study/
benchmarking,
in
daily
communication during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking, in preparing the report and presenting the report. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.21. Communicative Competence in Fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking. Competence Indicator 1. Discourse competence
Appropriately apply the references and lexical chains in fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking Appropriately apply the devices of
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Competence
Indicator
2. Actional competence
3. Linguistic competence
4. Sociocultural competence
situational context required in fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity Appropriately apply the language tenses and aspects in fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking Appropriately apply the genre/ generic structure of texts required in fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity Appropriately apply the conversation structure required in fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity Appropriately apply the functions of language in fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity Appropriately apply the spelling and pronunciation of the language in relation to fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity Appropriately communicate and receive messages in relation to fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Appropriately receive messages in relation to fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors.
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Competence 5. Strategic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply various strategic communication skills in relation to fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking activity
12. Translating After the data on communicative competence were obtained by means of the interview and the questionnaire, the data, then, showed that the competence standards in translating activity were able to apply the grammar, vocabulary, and spelling of the language in relation to the topics being translated. The following elaboration showed the competences and the indicators in such professional function. Table 4.22. Communicative Competence in Translating Competence Linguistic competence
Indicator Appropriately apply the grammar of the language in relation to topics being translated Appropriately apply the vocabulary in relation to topics being translated Appropriately apply the spelling in relation to topics being translated
C. Result of Syllabus Development The syllabus development followed the process suggested by Richards and Renandya (2002). The process of the syllabus development covered assessing the needs of the learners, developing the goals and objectives, planning the syllabus, selecting the teaching approaches and materials, and deciding the assessment procedures and criteria.
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1. Assessing Learners’ Needs Following Hutchinson and Waters (1987), the framework of target situation analysis as well as for analyzing learning needs were applied in the contents of the interview and questionnaire items. The following description is the result of target situation analysis based on the interview and questionnaire result, which later serves as the basis of the syllabus design. The language is needed for study, work and career promotion. The language will be used in the media of speaking, writing, reading, and listening; in the channel of telephone, face to face, via internet facilities; and types of text or discourse are informal and formal conversations, proposals and seminars. The content areas would concern with the subject in public health management; and the graduate level. The learner would use the language with native and nonnative speakers; with the level of knowledge or receiver as expert; and the relationship was e.g. colleague, manager – executor. The language be used in office physical setting; meetings, seminars, on telephone as the human context, and in own country as the linguistic context. The language would be used concurrently with the ESP course. In addition to the target situation analysis framework, the result of the framework for analyzing learning needs includes: the learners were taking the course because it was compulsory, apparent needs, and promotion involved. The learners’ learning background were academy, undergraduate and graduate in health; where as the learners’ concept of teaching and learning was that an English course should be developed into an institutional program in PHO internally. The methodology which will appeal to them was the use of role play/
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simulation related to their official activities. Sort of techniques which are likely to bore/alienate them was lecturing/ presentation. The learners were adult/ female and male/ Indonesians, they have already learnt General English, their interests were related with health management, their socio-cultural background was Javanese and they maintained positive attitude to English and to the cultures of the English speaking world. The ESP course would take place at the office (after the office hour); the surroundings are pleasant and air- conditioned, equipped with laptop and LCD. The ESP course take place at noon, after the office hour, and it would be once a week session. 2. Developing Goals and Objectives The goal is determined as follows: Learners are able to communicate and interact using English in their professional functions within the contexts of international relation and communication. The objectives are developed from the official activities and communicative competence. The objectives cover: 1. Communicative competences required by the health officials in performing their official activities 2. Appropriate activities, exercises and resources to provide learners with sufficient practice 3. Deciding Syllabus Type By virtues of the official activities the learners perform and communicative competences required to perform the official activities, the selected type is competence- based syllabus design. Also, it is selected because
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according to Landasan Filosofi Teoritis Pendidikan B. Inggris, competencebased curriculum considers language as a social communication tool and places language in cultural and situational contexts. 4. Specifying Contents Specifying contents cover a sequence of materials and activities which was based on the result of need analysis. The development of contents’ scope and sequence is as follows: Table 4.23. Specifying Contents Professional Function
Competence Standard
1. Guest reception
Being able to receive the international colleagues, to prepare meetings and or seminars attended by the international colleagues, and to coordinate meetings and or seminars attended by the international colleagues using proper and acceptable
2. International negotiation
Being able to communicate the budget preparation of the program, to propose the budget of the program and to negotiate the program budget.
3. Program/activity reporting
Being able to communicate the report preparation, to consult the report to the competent parties, to review the report, to revise the report, to present the report, and to submit the report
4. International correspondence
Being able to open and close the correspondence, to ask and answer things
Teaching/ Learning Activities - presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules - presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules - presentation - speaking and listening practice
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Professional Function
Competence Standard related to the correspondence function, to clarify and to confirm topics in the correspondence.
5. Seminar participation
Being able to communicate the preparation of the seminar, to present the seminar, to coordinate the seminar and to report the seminar.
6. Program proposal
Being able to communicate the preparation of the proposal, to consult the proposal to competent stakeholders, to revise the proposal, to present the proposal and to submit the proposal Being able to communicate the preparation of the program, to propose the program to international donors, to negotiate with the donors, to finalize the program, to execute the program and to present the program result. Being able to communicate in preparing visas and other administrative requirement and during the travel (on the flight, etc).
7. Fund raising
8. Official travel
9. Information seeking
Being able to up-load and down-load information, to apply the micro and macro skills in reading, and to make executive summary based on the information.
Teaching/ Learning Activities - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules - presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules - presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules - presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules - presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules - predicting, - skimming for gist, - scanning for details, and - answering questions
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Professional Function 10. Interpreting
11. Fellowship/ Short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking
12. Translating
Competence Standard Being able to communicate in preparing necessary documents for the meeting/seminar, coordinating the meeting/seminar, and interpreting the meeting/seminar. Being able to communicate in preparing visas, during the trip, during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking, in daily communication during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking, in preparing the report and presenting the report to apply the grammar, vocabulary, and spelling of the language in relation to the topics being translated
Teaching/ Learning Activities - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
- studying the structures of the texts - discovering the generalizations/ rules - translating practice
5. Planning Syllabus The instructional materials were, then, divided into 11 units, they were Guest
reception,
Seminar
presentation,
Foreign
negotiation,
Foreign
correspondence, Program proposal, Program/activity reporting, Official travel, Information seeking, Fund raising, Translating, Interpreting, and fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking. Each unit would consist of 1 session (100 minutes). In a week, there would be 1 meeting for 1 unit, so all sessions would be completed in 12 weeks. Following competence-based curriculum design, the syllabus would also be equipped with competence standards and basic competence along with the
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indicators. The final plan of the syllabus design is presented in the following page.
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Theme
1. Guest reception
2. International negotiation
Competence Standard/ Competence Being able to receive the international colleagues, to prepare meetings and or seminars attended by the international colleagues, and to coordinate meetings and or seminars attended by the international colleagues using proper and acceptable
Indicator
Learning Experience
Evaluation
Time Allocation
Resource
-Applying the conversation structure appropriately -Applying the language functions appropriately -Communicating messages appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
Authentic evaluation using performance
100 minutes
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
Being able to communicate the budget preparation of the program, to propose the budget of the program and to negotiate the
-Communicating messages appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately -Applying the conversation structure
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures
Authentic evaluation using performance
100 minutes
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
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Theme
3. Program/activity reporting
Competence Standard/ Competence program budget.
Being able to communicate the report preparation, to consult the report to the competent parties, to review the report, to revise the report, to present the report, and to submit the report
Indicator
Learning Experience
appropriately -Applying the language functions appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately -Applying the conversation structure appropriately -Applying the language functions appropriately -Communicating messages appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately
- discovering the generalizations/ rules
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
Evaluation
Authentic evaluation using performance
Time Allocation
100 minutes
Resource
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
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Theme
4. International correspondence
5. Seminar presentation
Competence Standard/ Competence Being able to open and close the correspondence, to ask and answer things related to the correspondence function, to clarify and to confirm topics in the correspondence. Being able to communicate the preparation of the seminar, to present the seminar, to coordinate the seminar and to report the seminar.
Indicator
Learning Experience
Evaluation
Time Allocation
Resource
-Communicating messages appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately -Applying the language functions appropriately
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
Authentic evaluation using performance
100 minutes
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
-Applying the language functions appropriately -Applying the conversation structure appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately -Communicating messages
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
Authentic evaluation using performance
100 minutes
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
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Theme
Competence Standard/ Competence
6. Program proposal
Being able to communicate the preparation of the proposal, to consult the proposal to competent stakeholders, to revise the proposal, to present the proposal and to submit the proposal
7. Fund raising
Being able to communicate the preparation of the program, to propose the
Indicator
appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately -Applying the conversation structure appropriately -Applying the language functions appropriately -Communicating messages appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately -Applying the conversation structure appropriately -Applying the
Learning Experience
Evaluation
Time Allocation
Resource
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
Authentic evaluation using performance
100 minutes
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers
Authentic evaluation using performance
100 minutes
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
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Theme
8. Official travel
Competence Standard/ Competence program to international donors, to negotiate with the donors, to finalize the program, to execute the program and to present the program result.
Being able to communicate in preparing visas and other administrative requirement and during the travel (on the flight, etc).
Indicator
Learning Experience
language functions appropriately -Communicating messages appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately -Applying the conversation structure appropriately -Applying the language functions appropriately -Communicating messages appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately -Applying
- practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
Evaluation
Authentic evaluation using performance
Time Allocation
100 minutes
Resource
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
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Theme
9. Information seeking
10. Interpreting
Competence Standard/ Competence
Being able to upload and download information, to apply the micro and macro skills in reading, and to make executive summary based on the information. Being able to communicate in preparing necessary documents for the meeting/seminar, coordinating the meeting/seminar, and interpreting the meeting/seminar.
Indicator
strategic skills appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately
-Applying the conversation structure appropriately -Applying the language functions appropriately -Communicating messages appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately
Learning Experience
Evaluation
Time Allocation
Resource
- predicting, - skimming for gist, - scanning for details, and - answering questions
Authentic evaluation using performance
100 minutes
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
- speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures
Authentic evaluation using performance
100 minutes
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
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Theme
11. Fellowship/ Short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking
Competence Standard/ Competence
Being able to communicate in preparing visas, during the trip, during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking, in daily communication during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking, in preparing the report and presenting the report
Indicator
-Applying strategic skills appropriately -Applying the conversation structure appropriately -Applying the language functions appropriately -Communicating messages appropriately -Receiving messages appropriately -Applying strategic skills appropriately
Learning Experience
Evaluation
- presentation - speaking and listening practice - questions and answers - practicing the communicative expressions or structures - discovering the generalizations/ rules
Authentic evaluation using performance
Time Allocation
100 minutes
Resource
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
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Theme
12. Translating
Competence Standard/ Competence to apply the grammar, vocabulary, and spelling of the language in relation to the topics being translated
Indicator
-Applying the grammar of the language in relation to topics being translated appropriately -Applying the vocabulary in relation to topics being translated -Applying the spelling in relation to topics being translated appropriately
Learning Experience
Evaluation
- studying the structures of the texts - discovering the generalizations/ rules - translating practice
Authentic evaluation using performance
Time Allocation
100 minutes
Resource
Examples of texts taken/ adopted from the learners’ fields of professions
Note. This syllabus plan remained the technological-by product of this research because it has not been justified by any experts.
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6. Selecting teaching approaches and materials The result of interview investigation and questionnaire distribution suggested that the teaching and learning approach was by the use of games, simulations, and role plays. Considering the learners’ occupational position and the main objective of the course which was intended to support the success of their occupational activities, hence, the materials of learning would be taken and or adopted from the learners’ field of professions. 7. Assessment procedures and criteria The result of interview investigation and questionnaire distribution suggested that the course was better conducted in informal atmosphere, after the office hour, and in a form of a continual course, therefore, the assessment would not be set up in formal procedures and criteria. This was also intended to reduce the load of the learners’ jobs and responsibilities. However, a simple assessment guide was prepared and given to the learners so the learners themselves were able to assess their own progress of learning. The assessment guide covered grammar, fluency, clarity, pronunciation and intonation.
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CHAPTER V CONCLUSION
This final chapter presents the research conclusion and implication which are referred to the result of the research, and some suggestions which are intended for future researches in similar field. A. Conclusion The health officials as the government agents in health field performed their professional functions in front of the public in general. The issue of new policy in public healthcare has encouraged the health officials to improve their human resource capacity. The disaster that struck the area where the research was conducted has invited many international donor and non- government organizations to provide assistance during the phases of emergency, reconstruction and rehabilitation. The health officials as the government agents in health field played significant role in improving the human resource capacity as well as in coordinating assistance from these international parties. Such role would not be performed well unless the health officials improved their capacity and maintained the communication with the international parties. One aspect needed to improve was that of the language competence. The professional functions mostly performed in English by the health officials involving the international colleagues are as follows: guest reception, international negotiation, program/activity reporting, international correspondence, seminar participation, program proposal, fund raising, official travel, information
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seeking, interpreting, fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking and translating. The communicative competences of the language required to perform the official activities involving international colleagues are discourse competence, actional competence, linguistic competence, sociocultural competence and strategic competence. Discourse competence is indicated by appropriately applying the cohesive devices required in dealing with specific professional functions, appropriately applying the devices of situational context required in dealing with specific professional functions, appropriately applying the coherence device required in dealing with professional functions, appropriately applying the genre/ generic structure of texts required in dealing with specific professional functions, and appropriately applying the conversation structure required in dealing with specific professional functions. Actional competence is indicated by appropriately applying the functions of language in specific professional functions. Linguistic competence is indicated by appropriately applying the grammar of the language in relation to specific official activity, appropriately applying the vocabulary in relation to specific professional functions, and appropriately pronouncing the language in relation to specific professional functions. Sociocultural competence is indicated by appropriately communicating messages in relation to specific professional functions by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non-
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verbal communication factors, appropriately receiving messages in relation to specific professional functions by considering the social and contextual factors, style and appropriateness factors, cultural factors, and non- verbal communication factors. Strategic competence is indicated by appropriately applying various strategic communication skills in relation to specific professional functions. Considering the professional functions the research participants perform and communicative competences required to perform the functions, the selected type of syllabus design is competence- based. Also, it is selected because according to Landasan Filosofi Teoritis Pendidikan B. Inggris, competence-based curriculum considers language as a social communication tool and places language in cultural and situational contexts. The steps in designing the syllabus and clear description of how the syllabus looked like have been included in the previous chapter.
B. Implication There are a number of language teaching and learning theories on English for Specific Purposes and on adult language learning. Teachers can search for what he/she believes is true and appropriate for his/her own situation. The application of a theory to a classroom depends on the characteristics of the classes, the learners, the teachers, and the belief about the theory of teaching and learning and objective of the program. The teacher needs to look closely at how the learners learn most effectively. Adult learners have superior ability and their need for sensory input
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can rely a little more on their imagination. Adult learners have a maturity and an understanding of priorities. A prime characteristic of adultness is the need and capacity to be self directing. In other words, adults will direct their own learning agendas. The greatest challenge is how to facilitate and provide learning experience which promotes such self- directed learning. Positive perception about English encourages the learners to learn the language effectively. Teachers may consider such adult learning characteristics in order to facilitate and provide them with the most proper learning experience. And finally, such consideration will contribute to the attainment of the learning objectives. C. Suggestion A need survey/ analysis is a very important tool in an ESP program like English for Health Officials. The need survey/ analysis appeared to concern with what seemed to be the learners’ needs of the language and nothing else. However, it would be better if a program like ESP also gives more concern with the learners’ personal interests, especially when the learners are adults. Thus, the materials can be those which are not only relevant to the learners’ needs, but also satisfy their personal interests. This research does not provide material development for the program concerned, but the syllabus design as the technological by-product of this research has given a set of criteria for the material development. In case, the instructor (the teacher) is free to take any material relevant to the criteria set up by the syllabus design.
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It would be better to vary the types of activities conducted in class. This can be done when the instructor is allowed to produce, for instance, listening materials by recording relevant conversations of native speakers. Since the more input materials given to the learners, there will be more chances for them to acquire. Such materials are important especially to make the learners wellacquainted with the pronunciation of the native speakers. Also, sharing experience can be a valuable tool to gain interest in a post-experience program. In this way, at least the instructor is not some who tries to teach them on something they lack from. A suggestion is presented also for the next researcher in the similar field. The next researcher may apply the syllabus proposed in the research in an English classroom for health officials. He/ she may also conduct further research on language competence in specific divisions in health offices. This will give great contribution for the development of health human resource. It is to be hoped that, with better English, the health officials can perform their official activities involving the international colleagues appropriately and maintain proper communication and relationship with them. This will give the benefit to the health office itself. More international donor/ agencies will come to the office and offer beneficial assistance for the development of the health office itself, and the community in general. And finally, such condition gives benefit to the country because then, the health human resource is improved and it has positive consequence on the health service provided to the people.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ary, D., Lucy, C., and Razavieh, A. 2002. Introduction to Research in Education. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Baker, C. 1993. Foundation of Billingual Education and Billingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Bailey, K. 2003. Speaking. In David Nunan (ed). Practical English Language Teaching. New York: McGraw Hill.
Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. New York: Pearson Education.
Brown, Gillian. Et.al. (Eds). 1996. Performance and Competence in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Christison, Mary Ann. 2003. Learning Styles & Strategies. In Nunan, David (Ed). Practical English Language Teaching. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies. Cohen, Louis. Et.al. 2000. Research Methods in Education. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Creswell, J. 2003. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches. California: SAGE Publication Inc. Dessler, Gary. 1997. Human Resource Management. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Ellis, Rod. 1990. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Finney,Denise. 2002. The ELT Curriculum: A Flexible Model for a Changing World. In Richards & Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Freeman, D. 2000. Techniques and Principles in language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Graves, K. 2000. Designing Language Course: A Guide for Teachers. Ontarion: Heinle & Heinle.
Hilles, Sharon & Sutton Andre. 2001. Teaching Adults. In Celce- Murcia. (Ed), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Holliday, Adrian. 2002. Doing and Writing Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications.
Hutchinson, Tom. & Waters, Alan. 1987. English for Specific Purposes. A Learning- Centered Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Johns, Ann M. & Price-Machado, Donna. 2001. English for Specific Purposes (ESP): Tailoring Courses to Students Needs and to the Outside World. In Celce- Murcia. (Ed), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Jordan, R.R. 1997. English for Academic Purposes. A Guide and Resource Book for Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kvale, S. 1996. Interviews. London:Sage Publication ________.2004. Landasan Filosofis Teoritis Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris. Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Master, Peter. 1998. Responses to English for Specific Purposes. San Jose: San Jose State University. McDonough, J & McDonough, S. 1997. Research Methods for English Language Teachers. Great Britain: JW. Arrowsmith, Ltd. Nunan, David. 2001. Syllabus Design. In Celce- Murcia. (Ed), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Nunan, David (Ed).2003. Practical English Language Teaching. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies.
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Oxford, Rebecca L. 2002. Language Learning Strategies in a Nutshell. In Richards, Jack C. & Renandya, Willy A. Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, Jack C. & Rodgers, Theodore S. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, Jack C. & Renandya, Willy A. 2002. Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. 2002. Planning Aims and Objectives in Language Programs. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Skehan, Peter. 1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shumin, Kang. 2002. Factors to Consider: Developing Adult EFL Students’ Speaking Ability. In Richards, Jack C. & Renandya, Willy A. Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Savignon, Sandra J. 2001. Communicative Language Teaching for the TwentyFirst Century. In Celce- Murcia. (Ed), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Syakdiah. 2001. Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia. Yogyakarta: Universitas Widya Mataram. Trisnantoro, Laksono (Ed). Et.al. 2005. Desentralisasi Kesehatan. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Taylor, E. 2002. Research in Your Own Classroom. In Richards and Renandya (Ed). Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ______. 2003. Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum, 2004. Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. Yalden, Janice. 1987. The Communicative Syllabus. Evolution, Design, and Implementation. Hertfordshire: Prentice- Hall International
http://www.archeologist.net
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APPENDICES
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Appendix 1 INTERVIEW GUIDE Interviewee: Position
:
1) What is the decentralization/ autonomy policy all about? 2) What are the impacts of the decentralization and autonomy policies for the development of health human resource development? 3) Are there any other factors encouraging the needs/ necessities to improve the health human resource? 4) In terms of international relationship, how is the frequency of dealing with foreigners? 5) Do you perform the following activities in your international relationship and communication? And your staff? 6) What is your strength in dealing with foreigners? 7) What is your weakness in dealing with foreigners? 8) Do you see any needs and necessities to learn English and improve your communicative competences in dealing with foreigners? 9) What is your strength in learning English? 10) What is your weakness in learning English? 11) What kinds of materials are most appropriate for you? 12) What do you think is the best approach to teach English for health officials? 13) After the 27th May earthquake, the PHO received, coordinated and facilitated foreign NGOs giving aids for Yogya. Did you take any part in activities dealing with these foreign NGOs? What part did you take? 14) Do you realize the importance of English in such occasion? 15) How would you suggest to the other officials in relation to the importance of English in such occasion and improving their weakness in English?
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Appendix 2 Interview Result Interviewee: Bu Anita What is the decentralization/ autonomy policy all about? Pake Bahasa Indonesia atau Inggris, mbak? It’s up to you, Bu. Campur aja ya mbak, sekalian belajar. So, decentralization is the policy is approaching to the public services. The district …Kabupaten Kota…. have more authority than a Province .. jadi lebih banyak ke kabupaten kota. And before the autonomy, province have more power and authority than district….Sebelumnya lebih ke pusat. What are the impacts of the decentralization and autonomy policies for the development of health human resource development? Yes, there is an impact, the human resources must be to develop, quality of human resource must be higher in autonomy. Are there any other factors encouraging the needs/ necessities to improve the health human resource? Yes, with the global issue …perkembangan global… like ISO… In terms of international relationship, how is the frequency of dealing with foreigners? Often…. some time I use such the English conversation for dealing in the event like PHP …the contract with world bank is once in five years…, or the disaster last may, 27, 2006 …the frequency more intense… in spoken communication. . Do you perform the following activities in your international relationship and communication? And your staff? (handing the questionnaire containing items on official activities) Harus diisi dulu ya… Yes, Bu, I will take that later after you fill it all.. What is your strength in dealing with foreigners? Cuma karena kebutuhan saya harus bisa, dari semua kemampuan saya, English saya sangat minim, walaupun saya sering kursus, jadi motivasi saya untuk bisa saja yang tinggi.Cuma masalah waktu yang jadi soal. Dalam inggris pasif saya bisa, seperti di UGM saya tidak masalah. Menurut saya aktif juga sangat diperlukan dan setiap baik writing, speaking, atau reading harus di tingkatkan. What is your weakness in dealing with foreigners? Language only the language. Jadi dihadapan foreigner saya hanya mampu menjawab semampu saya, jadi saya masih membutuhkan course-course untuk meningkatkan kemampuan saya berbahasa. 114
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Do you see any needs and necessities to learn English and improve your communicative competences in dealing with foreigners? Of course...apalagi setelah gempa kemarin...all competences…terutama speaking. I can not speaking well…mbak Laksmi should be my interpreter… I think we have to improve …. What is your strength in learning English? I can more understand in the language on daily conversation or in my programs (health programs), because I often use the word in my programs…. I open minded and easy to get an information What is your weakness in learning English? Out of my program I must be to learn more and I don’t have any time to study. What kinds of materials are most appropriate for you? I will choose the English conversation, The language of programs, but I like informal communication What do you think is the best approach to teach English for health officials? English conversation ..not too formal…yang tidak terlalu mengikat After the 27th May earthquake, the PHO received, coordinated and facilitated foreign NGOs giving aids for Yogya. Did you take any part in activities dealing with these foreign NGOs? What part did you take? We do the coordination with the official government foreigner or dealing with NGO’s, and distributing the medical equipment and medicine. And with NGO’s, we give them an information. And we also arrange their capability or qualification and distributing them to the needed place. But the Japanese and Koreans cant speak English. They have own guide. Do you realize the importance of English in such occasion? Iya mbak…but too lazy. and busy.. How would you suggest to the other officials in relation to the importance of English in such occasion and improving their weakness in English? I thing, I will suggest a simple thing first such informal communication. The example is … Our Chief, Mr. Bondan use English in disposisi when the earthquake happens. It more intense ask and answer with the English conversation but until 20 days because Mr Bondan tired..he use interpreter…not mbak Laksmi? No, Bu. Right…thank you for the information…I appreciate it much…and your English is quite acceptable… Ndak pa-pa..it’s ok. B.Inggris-nya berantakan…
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Interviewee: Bu Diana What is the decentralization/ autonomy policy all about? Well…emm…Decentralization is a policy giving room to the local authority to manage itself…so providing more room for the provinces, districts, and municipalities. Although it provide room, it still have indicator-indicator for the health programs
What are the impacts of the decentralization and autonomy policies for the development of health human resource development? Emmm…in term of human resource distribution…it does not make the condition better…in programs principally they are okay…only for the technical matter of the programs..a bit problematic…
Are there any other factors encouraging the needs/ necessities to improve the health human resource? Let see...globalization...ISO..you know the quality certification…our policies which keep changing…(laughing)...
In terms of international relationship, how is the frequency of dealing with foreigners? Me..personally...emm..I m often asked by pak Bondan to assists him when there are foreign guests..expatriets... .well...all in..miss Laksmi..interpreter..translator...(laughing)
Do you perform the following activities in your international relationship and communication? And your staff? (showing the questionnaire with list of official activities) mmm…yes…aah…what about the information seeking..looking information via internet… Good point, ma’am Also..for the fund raising….and my side jobs with pak Bondan (laughing)..translating..interpretiing… Okay And when we get the scholarship…or benchmarking… So, comparative study, ma’am? Yeah..you can add them… What is your strength in dealing with foreigners? I am talkactive…(laughing) Easy to get along with people? Well may be (laughing) What is your weakness in dealing with foreigners?
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With their strange pronunciation…I may pronounce something strange too…like… you know…satin…I pronounce it as satan…(laughing)..it should be satin, right….what.. you have satan batik?..(laughing)
Do you see any needs and necessities to learn English and improve your communicative competences in dealing with foreigners? Yes, of course...so that we are not depended on interpreter...we can also depend on ourselves...that may be much better...you see...like when we debating something...or proposing something... What is your strength in learning English? I like it..and Im willing to learn…(laughing) What is your weakness in learning English? Hmmm....Im inpatient person...quaite talkactive... What kinds of materials are most appropriate for you? Like games...role-plays...anything which is informal...in relax atmosphere... What do you think is the best approach to teach English for health officials? You know better…. (laughing) After the 27th May earthquake, the PHO received, coordinated and facilitated foreign NGOs giving aids for Yogya. Did you take any part in activities dealing with these foreign NGOs? What part did you take? Many...I coordinated the medicine supply...with my staff...quite busy time..and tiresome... Do you realize the importance of English in such occasion? Yes of course…hope you were there…(laughing) How would you suggest to the other officials in relation to the importance of English in such occasion and improving their weakness in English? Make the program compulsory...or just like what we had...English meeting..and you become the facilitator.. Good idea, ma’am Okay, thank you Bu, I think I have got all I need... Same here, miss Laksmi
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Interviewee: Bu Maria What is the decentralization/ autonomy policy all about? Desentralisasi menerapkan UU otonomi yang dibuat dan ditetapkan tahun 1999, tapi dalam Implementasi diterjemahkan sendiri-sendiri terutama kabupaten/ kota, begitu euphoria sehingga mereka ingin sekali benar-benar melaksanakan segala sesuatu sendiri, tapi menurut saya bidang kesehatan mempunyai indicator-indikator yang berlaku secara nasional seperti umur harapan hidup, angka kematian ibu lalu programprogram seperti pemberantasan malaria, hal tersebut tidak dapat bekerja sendiri-sendiri. Bagaimanapun harus ada integrasi dengan kab lain dan propinsi, dan mestinya UU telah dievaluasi dengan UU No. 32, sehingga propinsi lebih banyak memiliki.power What are the impacts of the decentralization and autonomy policies for the development of health human resource development? Dampak dengan sdm tidak berjalan baik, tenaga di prop banyak yang berkualitas sudah memiliki s2 banyak dan pangkat tinggi belum bisa menduduki jabatan structural, sedangkan di kab/ kota sdm dari segi pendidikan sangat kurang, misal d3 ada yang menduduki jabatan. Tapi karena adanya desentralisasi ketenagaan tersebut tidak dapat diubah misal s2 ke kab/ kota secara langsung. Dalam hal program, sebenarnya tidak masalah cuma dalam hal teknis seperti teknis medis seharusnya standarnya berasal dari pusat,cuma program khusus dapat dikembangkan kab/ kota, dengan membuat inovasi-inovasi seperti di Sleman atau Bantul. Kebijakan atau standar tetap dari pusat sesuai dengan kewenangan sedangkan pengelolaan seperti keuangan dan sumber daya dari daerah. Are there any other factors encouraging the needs/ necessities to improve the health human resource? Dengan adanya globalisasi akan mendorong masing-masing Kab/ Kota untuk meningkatkan kualitas seperti puskesmas ISO, perawat internasional. Masing-masing kab/ kota saling kompetitif, sehingga pro juga mendorong mereka untuk membuat program-program yang inovatif. In terms of international relationship, how is the frequency of dealing with foreigners? Dalam hal institusi kita sering berkumpul dengan World bank dan sering bertemu dengan konsultannya juga. Karena dinilai jogja bagus sering juga kedatangan ADB untuk melihat seberapa jauh program-program dilakukan. Secara pribadi dengan adanya desentralisasi harus juga menjalani short course harus presentasi dengan bahasa inggris, dan sebagainya. Do you perform the following activities in your international relationship and communication? And your staff? (showing list of official activities) Iya sih mbak. Tetapi frekwensinya berlainan. Saya isi dulu atau gimana? Okay, I will leave the questionnaire with you. 118
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Tapi saya ndak bisa cepet ngisinya…nanti kalao mo diambil sms dulu ya (laughing) No problem, Bu. What is your strength in dealing with foreigners? Cuma karena kebutuhan saya harus bisa, dari semua kemampuan saya, English saya sangat minim, walaupun saya sering kursus, jadi motivasi saya untuk bisa saja yang tinggi.Cuma masalah waktu yang jadi soal. Dalam inggris pasif saya bisa, seperti di UGM saya tidak masalah. Menurut saya aktif juga sangat diperlukan dan setiap baik writing, speaking, atau reading harus di tingkatkan. What is your weakness in dealing with foreigners? Language only the language. Jadi dihadapan foreigner saya hanya mampu menjawab semampu saya, jadi saya masih membutuhkan coursecourse untuk meningkatkan kemampuan saya berbahasa. Do you see any needs and necessities to learn English and improve your communicative competences in dealing with foreigners? Yang pertama kaitannya dengan speaking kita juga harus banyak vocabulary, tapi writing juga sangat perlu. Sekalipun tidak adanya PHP tetapi ADB juga minta, sehingga bahasa inggris tetap diperlukan. Untuk meningkatkan speaking, menurut saya dengan mengadakan komunikasi dalam bahasa inggris misal pada hari jumat semua karyawan harus berbahasa inggris semua,kalau bagus maka bisa hari hari lain bisa diaplikasikan. Program kemarin tidak gagal. Cuma waktunya bagi kami sangat terbatas, seharusnya tidak terbatas bagi pejabat stuktural saja, tetapi sepatutnya seluruh karyawan, saat ini memang karyawan-karyawan baru banyak yang fasih dalam berbahasa inggris. What is your strength in learning English? Cuma karena kebutuhan saya harus bisa, dari semua kemampuan saya, English saya sangat minim, walaupun saya sering kursus, jadi motivasi saya untuk bisa saja yang tinggi.Cuma masalah waktu yang jadi soal. Dalam inggris pasif saya bisa, seperti di UGM saya tidak masalah. Menurut saya aktif juga sangat diperlukan dan setiap baik writing, speaking, atau reading harus di tingkatkan. What is your weakness in learning English? Orang lain menilai saya, pada waktu WB datang, sering dimintai tolong untuk menjelaskan review misal program 5 tahun ke depan. Misal program farmakmin, dan sebagainya. Jadi mungkin knowledgeable. What kinds of materials are most appropriate for you? Saya suka yang pakai role-play begitu, dan yang tidak terlalu formal…kan sudah capek kerja
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What do you think is the best approach to teach English for health officials? Apa ya…mungkin mbak Laksmi lebih tahu…kalau orang tua seperti saya ini baiknya diapakan (laughing) After the 27th May earthquake, the PHO received, coordinated and facilitated foreign NGOs giving aids for Yogya. Did you take any part in activities dealing with these foreign NGOs? What part did you take? Ada banyak….saya kan membantu di Crisis Center…mbak Laksmi juga ada kan? I was on behalf of PMPK, Bu...And what were your responsibilities at the Crisis Center, Bu? Supervisi ....koordinasi juga… Do you realize the importance of English in such occasion? (laughing) Saya sebenarnya mau nge-bon mbak Laksmi saja…(laughing) O, you will never learn then..(laughing) Iya memang penting…kalau ada pekerjaan yang berhubungan dengan orang asing baru terasa kalau Inggris itu penting…tapi ya itulah..susah ngatur jadwalnya… I know... How would you suggest to the other officials in relation to the importance of English in such occasion and improving their weakness in English? Memang harus dipaksa untuk belajar…dan tidak usah takut salah…yak an mbak… Right, Bu... Okay, thank you Bu, I think I have got all I need... Njawabnya gimana, no problem gitu ya… Sama-sama mbak Laksmi…
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Interviewee: Bu Yasmin What is the decentralization/ autonomy policy all about? Pake Indonesia saja ya mbak… Desentralisasi itu pada prinsipnya pendelegasian tugas dan wewenang dari Pusat dan Daerah. Tetapi pelaksanaan dari tugas dan wewenang tersebut merupakan tanggung jawab masing-masing kabupaten/ kota, ...singkatnya begitu What are the impacts of the decentralization and autonomy policies for the development of health human resource development? Pasti ada perubahan atau impactnya dari sentralisasi ke desentralisasi kalo dulu menentukan kapasitas sdm, kita dulu didekte Jakarta, sekolah sekian s1 sekian tetapi sekarang lebih byk ditentukan oleh kita. dan untuk level propinsi ditentukan sekian SDM dan kebutuhan sekian. Produk2 tenaga kesehatan lebih byk terdesentralisasi sekarang lebih bebas terutama swasta dilibatkan dan memproduksi tidak terbatas. Dan produksi nanti terbatasi oleh pasar sendiri …market oriented…. Are there any other factors encouraging the needs/ necessities to improve the health human resource? Globalisasi sangat terkait dengan tupoksi saya. Dan merupakan tantangan karena mempersiapkan hal-hal yang lebih baik bagi tenaga kesehatannya. Terkait dengan tupoksi saya dengan mengetatkan pengawasan maka mutu bisa menjadi lebih baik tidak asal mencetak tenaga kesehatan, juga dengan mengetatkan standar sehingga siap keluar dan berlomba dengan tenaga kesehatan asing lainnya. . In terms of international relationship, how is the frequency of dealing with foreigners? Biasanya lewat e-mail karena tupoksi saya lebih ke persiapan administrasi bagi yang mau Tubel ke luar negeri...lewat telephone atau fax juga sering....saya tu ndak pede kalau ngomong langsung pake Inggris..(laughing) Do you perform the following activities in your international relationship and communication? And your staff? Ok saya isi dulu kan.. tinggal aja ya mbak... Okay Bu...
What is your strength in dealing with foreigners? Ndak tahu…(laughing) Tidak ada tugas secara langsung dengan tamu asing... Seperti tugas pokok tidak ada, tapi mempersiapkan ada, seperti tawaran tubel ke LN ada. Jadi Aktifitasnya hanya memfasilitasi peminat dari kab/ kota untuk belajar ke LN seperti bekerjasama ke Australia.membantu bagi mereka 121
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yang minta rekomendasi dari Kepala Dinas. Sering pake e-mail....mbok saya diajari mbak.. (laughing) O, surely Bu. (laughing) What is your weakness in dealing with foreigners? Banyak…(laughing) tatabahasa saya ndak suka (laughing)…tapi harus belajar ya… Ya nanti speaking jadi tidak bisa dimengerti, bu, kalau ndak pakai aturan...(laughing) Do you see any needs and necessities to learn English and improve your communicative competences in dealing with foreigners? Memang seharusnya pendidikan berbasis kompetensi. Dan begitulah bekerja harus berdasar kompetensi What is your strength in learning English? Duh…ndak tahu, mbak…(laughing) What is your weakness in learning English? Weakness? …Saya sebenarnya suka bhs inggris…. cuma grammarnya yang sangat tidak kuat, lumayan vocabulary nya, dengerin ...menangkap basa inggris... bisa, jadi pasif saja. Padahal harusnya bisa secara aktif dengan ketugasan saya. harusnya bisa. Selalu yang jadi sebab kesibukan dalam bekerja. What kinds of materials are most appropriate for you? Kurang seneng di tata bahasa, tapi lebih pengin dulu atau familier dulu misal berkaitan dengan tugas tugas saya.dan basa tulis dan bahasa lisan beda. What do you think is the best approach to teach English for health officials? Saya lebih suka model pembelajaran dengan diskusi seperti dilemparkan satu kasus kemudian dibicarakan dengan bahasa inggris. 30% teori atau guidance dan 70 % praktek untuk berbicara dalam bahasa inggris. th After the 27 May earthquake, the PHO received, coordinated and facilitated foreign NGOs giving aids for Yogya. Did you take any part in activities dealing with these foreign NGOs? What part did you take? Kalau saya tidak terlalu terlibat…tapi ada staff saya yang membantu …di Crisis Center…. Do you realize the importance of English in such occasion? (laughing) memang perlu ya…. How would you suggest to the other officials in relation to the importance of English in such occasion and improving their weakness in English? Harus semangat belajar..kalau perlu kursus b.Inggris-nya dibuat rutin, menjadi agenda internal…jadi ada kewajiban harus ikut… Right, good suggestion...thank you for your time, Bu... 122
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Interviewee: Pak Kresno What is the decentralization/ autonomy policy all about? Desentralisasi adalah undang-undang tentang otonomi yang pelaksanaannya dilakukan sendiri-sendiri terutama kabupaten atau kota, memberi keleluasaan bagi daerah untuk melaksanakan otoritas masingmasing…singkatnya begitu…
What are the impacts of the decentralization and autonomy policies for the development of health human resource development? Ya..dampaknya…sumber dayanya harus siap dan tidak hanya dalam hal kemampuan tapi etos kerja juga harus diperbaiki..banyak hal yang berubah…kalau sdm tidak siap..yaa..semakin sering berubah..(laughing)
Are there any other factors encouraging the needs or necessities to improve the health human resource? Otonomi daerah..globalisasi..quality management atau ISO… What about the occurrence of the disaster last month, pak. Ya..itu juga..harus bisa bahasa Inggris…
In terms of international relationship, how is the frequency of dealing with foreigners? Saya relatif sering..terutama dengan WHO...World Bank..ADB...beberapa program didanai oleh mereka...mereka punya konsultan-konsultan yang setiap saat mengasisteni kita…
Do you perform the following activities in your international relationship and communication? And your staff? (handing the questionnaire and showing list of official activities) Saya baca-baca dulu ya.. Okay, I will leave the questionnaire with you. Nanti saya disms kalau mau diambil Okay pak.
What is your strength in dealing with foreigners? Maksudnya kelebihan saya?...(laughing)…easy going mungkin…(laughing)…dan banyak pekerjaan yang berkaitan dengan pihak luar negeri… What is your weakness in dealing with foreigners? Bahasa…ya memang pokok permasalahannya tidak pernah menyempatkan diri untuk benar-benar belajar
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Do you see any needs and necessities to learn English and improve your communicative competences in dealing with foreigners? Jelas..mbak..apalagi untuk program-program yang berkolaborasi dengan pihak asing...laporannya mesti dengan bahasa inggris...presentasinya...penjelasan-penjelasannya...
What is your strength in learning English? (lauhing)….cukup seorang yang fast- learner…
What is your weakness in learning English? Malas mikir...tidak sempat...alasan klise...(laughing)
What kinds of materials are most appropriate for you? Yang langsung berkaitan dengan pekerjaan..jadi bisa menunjang pekerjaan lah... What do you think is the best approach to teach English for health officials? Jangan terlalu rigid…kami kan sudah orang tua…yang santai saja tapi tetap serius… After the 27th May earthquake, the PHO received, coordinated and facilitated foreign NGOs giving aids for Yogya. Did you take any part in activities dealing with these foreign NGOs? What part did you take? Saya mendampingi pak Bondan langsung...memberi informasi-informasi kepada para NGO...mengkoordinasi bantuan yang disini...cukup sibuk...termasuk Satgas bencana juga... Do you realize the importance of English in such occasion? (laughing) ya itulah masalahnya mbak Laksmi…saya tahu kekurangan saya…tapi memang harus dipaksa.. I know... How would you suggest to the other officials in relation to the importance of English in such occasion and improving their weakness in English? Jangan malu untuk belajar...dan tidak usah takut salah... Right, Pak... Okay, thank you , I think I have got all I need... Sama-sama mbak Laksmi…
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Appendix 3 ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS QUESTIONNAIRE 1. Nama: 2. Usia:
; Jenis Kelamin: F / M
3. Pendidikan Terakhir: 4. Jabatan Terakhir:
5. Kursus B. Inggris yang pernah diikuti:
6. Test kemampuan B. Inggris yang pernah diikuti, beserta skor-nya:
7. Apa motivasi anda untuk mempelajari B. Inggris?
8. Silakan menilai kemampuan anda dalam area B. Inggris berikut ini! 1 : ‘sangat buruk’ , sampai dengan 125
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5 : ‘sangat bagus’ English Area
1
2
3
4
5
Speaking Listening Writing Reading Grammar Vocabulary Pronunciation Accuracy/clarity Spelling Cross- cultural understanding Pemahaman terhadap teks tertulis dan lisan
9. Apakah anda merasa yakin, tidak terlalu yakin, atau tidak yakin pada aspek B. Inggris berikut ini? (e.g. Speaking, Listening, Writing, Reading, Pengetahuan Grammar, Pengetahuan Vocabulary, Pronunciation, Spelling, dll)
Aspek B. Inggris
Yakin
Tidak terlalu yakin
Tidak yakin
Mengapa
Speaking
Listening
Writing
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Aspek B. Inggris
Yakin
Tidak terlalu yakin
Tidak yakin
Mengapa
Reading
Pengetahuan Grammar
Pengetahuan Vocabulary
Pronunciation
Spelling
Cross- cultural understanding
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Aspek B. Inggris
Yakin
Tidak terlalu yakin
Tidak yakin
Mengapa
Pemahaman terhadap teks tertulis dan lisan
Lain-lain:
10. Urutkan (3) aktifitas kantor anda dari yang jarang memerlukan B. Inggris sampai dengan yang selalu memerlukan B. Inggris! 1. jarang 2. kadang-kadang 3. biasanya 4. sering 5. selalu Aktifitas Kantor 1. Menerima tamu
1
2
3
4
5
2. Seminar 3. Negosiasi dengan Orang Asing 4. Surat Menyurat dengan Orang Asing 5. Penyusunan Proposal 6. Penyusunan Laporan 7. Perjalanan dinas 8. Mengumpulkan informasi
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Aktifitas Kantor 9. Pencarian dana
1
2
3
4
5
10. Translating (Penterjemahan tertulis) 11. Interpreting (Penterjemahan lisan) 12. Mengikuti Beasiswa/shortcourse/ study banding/ benchmarking 13. Lain-lain:
14. Lain-lain:
15. Lain-lain:
11. Dalam aktifitas-aktifitas kantor tersebut apa saja yang anda lakukan? No 1.
Aktifitas Kantor Menerima tamu
2.
Seminar
3.
Negosiasi dengan Orang Asing
4.
Surat Menyurat dengan Orang Asing
5.
Penyusunan Proposal
Yang Dilakukan
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No
Aktifitas Kantor
6.
Penyusunan Laporan
7.
Perjalanan dinas
8.
Mengumpulkan informasi
9.
Pencarian dana
10.
Translating (Penterjemahan tertulis)
11.
Interpreting (Penterjemahan lisan)
12.
Mengikuti beasiswa/shortcourse/ study banding/ benchmarking
Yang Dilakukan
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12. Sebutkan aktifitas- aktifitas kantor yang memerlukan B. Inggris yang mungkin akan anda lakukan!
13. Pilihlah (3) cara mengajar dan belajar yang dapat mendukung pembelajaran anda dalam mengembangkan aspek-aspek kemampuan berB.Inggris: 3
Mengajar/ Belajar Menggunakan kontek Menggunakan langkah-langkah/prosedur Menggunakan media audio visual Menggunakan permainan/simulasi/bermain peran Belajar mandiri Belajar kelompok Lainnya: sebutkan
14. Tipe B. Inggris yang mana yang anda pilih untuk diajarkan? (dalam hubungannya dengan aktifitas pekerjaan anda)
B. Inggris Formal . Alasan:
B. Inggris Informal . Alasan:
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15. Berapa lama anda ingin pelatihan B. Inggris ini berlangsung?
16. Dimana anda ingin pelatihan B. Inggris ini berlangsung? Jam berapa?
17. Catatan lain:
--- Terimakasih ---
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Appendix 4 Questionnaire Result ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS
Age: 30 – 50 years old
Sex : Male : 11 Female: 19
Educational Background: - D3 : 6 (Nursing, Midwifery, Health Administration) - S1 : 6 (Nursing, Health Administration, Public Health) - S2 : 13 (Medical, Public Health Management) - S3 : 5 (Public Health Management, Hospital Management, Pharmaceutical Management) Last Position: - Leaders of Office Divisions - Leaders of Office Sub- Divisions - Staff of Office Divisions and Sub- Divisions - Heads of Health Centers - Staff of Health Centers
-
: 5 : 10 : 11 : 3 : 6
English Courses which have been followed: TOEFL Preparation English courses in language centers (ELTI, LIA, Pusat Bahasa UGM)
English Test which has been taken: - TOEFL- like Test -
Motivation to learn English: agar bisa berkomunikasi dalam B. Inggris agar bisa menulis dalam B. Inggris untuk menambah pengetahuan menambah ilmu melanjutkan studi/ short course diluar negeri ingin lancer berbahasa Inggris karena tuntutan profesi/ karir persyaratan studi S2 untuk bisa mempelajari/membaca informasi lebih luas 133
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Jumlah participants dalam isian menilai kemampuan dalam area B. Inggris. 1 : ‘sangat buruk’ , sampai dengan 5 : ‘sangat bagus’
English Area
1
2
3
4
5
Speaking Listening Writing Reading Grammar Vocabulary Pronunciation Accuracy/clarity Spelling Cross- cultural understanding Pemahaman terhadap teks tertulis dan lisan
6 4 5 4 6 5 8 8 8 9
11 14 11 9 11 11 8 11 12 10
9 8 8 12 7 8 9 6 5 6
4 4 6 5 6 6 5 5 5 5
-
7
9
8
6
-
Jumlah participants dalam isian rasa yakin, tidak terlalu yakin, atau tidak yakin pada aspek B. Inggris. (e.g. Speaking, Listening, Writing, Reading, Pengetahuan Grammar, Pengetahuan Vocabulary, Pronunciation, Spelling, dll)
Aspek B. Inggris
Yakin
Speaking
3
Tidak terlalu yakin 10
Listening
2
10
Tidak yakin 17
18
Mengapa - karena merasa kurang mampu - jarang menggunakan - vocab kurang - takut salah - tidak yakin dengan tata bahasa yang diucapkan - untuk Indonesian lebih jelas tetapi kalau untu foreigner kurang jelas
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Aspek B. Inggris
Yakin
Writing
Tidak terlalu yakin
6
Tidak yakin
13
11
Reading
7
14
9
Pengetahuan Grammar
3
10
17
Pengetahuan Vocabulary
5
16
9
Pronunciation
4
11
15
Spelling
4
6
20
Cross- cultural understanding
2
10
18
Pemahaman terhadap teks tertulis dan lisan
6
14
10
Mengapa - vocab kurang - kurang latihan - ragu-ragu dalam memahami maksud kalimat yang didengar - kurang mampu grammar & vocab - kurang latihan - banyak yang lupa - tidak yakin dengan tata bahasa yang ditulis - kurang latihan - vocab kurang - ragu-ragu dalam memahami maksud kalimat yang dibaca - sering lupa - kurang latihan - pemahaman sangat kurang - kurang latihan - perbendaharaan bahasa masih sangat terbatas - kurang latihan - tidak yakin dengan ketepatannya - kurang latihan - tidak yakin dengan ketepatannya - kurang kesempatan - kurang pemahaman - tidak yakin dengan pemahamannya - sering baca - kurang pengetahuan - tidak yakin dengan pemahamannya
Lain-lain:
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Jumlah participants dalam urutan aktifitas kantor dari yang jarang memerlukan B. Inggris sampai dengan yang selalu memerlukan B. Inggris. 1. jarang 2. kadang-kadang 3. biasanya 4. sering 5. selalu Aktifitas Kantor 1 2 3 4 5 Menerima tamu 6 5 5 13 1 Seminar 3 12 5 10 Negosiasi dengan Orang 7 6 4 12 1 Asing Surat Menyurat dengan 7 4 6 11 2 Orang Asing Penyusunan Proposal 10 6 4 10 Penyusunan Laporan 8 8 2 12 Perjalanan dinas 8 6 7 9 Mengumpulkan informasi 3 12 7 8 Pencarian dana 9 4 7 10 Translating 7 3 2 4 14 (Penterjemahan tertulis) Interpreting 8 4 1 5 12 (Penterjemahan lisan) Mengikuti 10 3 5 5 7 Beasiswa/shortcourse/ study banding/ benchmarking
12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 12.
Jawaban participants dalam isian apa yang dilakukan pada tiap-tiap aktifitas kantor:
No 1.
Aktifitas Kantor Menerima tamu
2.
Seminar
3.
Negosiasi dengan Orang Asing
4.
Surat Menyurat dengan Orang Asing
Yang Dilakukan - Receiving international colleagues - Coordinating meetings and or seminars attended by the international colleagues - Preparing the program - Presenting the program - Coordinating the program - Revising the program report - Preparing the budget of the program - Proposing the budget of the program - Negotiating the program, usually concerned with the budgeting - writing the letters
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
No
Aktifitas Kantor
5.
Penyusunan Proposal
6.
Penyusunan Laporan
7.
Perjalanan dinas
8.
Mengumpulkan informasi
9.
Pencarian dana
10.
Translating (Penterjemahan tertulis)
11.
Interpreting (Penterjemahan lisan)
12.
Mengikuti beasiswa/shortcourse/ study banding/ benchmarking
Yang Dilakukan - sending the letters - Preparing the proposal - Consulting the proposal to competent stakeholders - Revising the proposal - Presenting the proposal - Submitting the proposal - Preparing the report - Consulting the report to competent parties - Reviewing the report - Revising the report - Presenting the report - Submitting the report - Preparing visas and other administrative requirements (at the central office and/or embassy) - Communication during the travel (on the flight, etc) - Browsing via internet - Reading the articles - Making summaries of the articles - Preparing the program - Proposing the program to international donors - Negotiating with the donors - Finalizing the program - Executing the program - Presenting the program result - Preparing the documents - Consulting the documents with the authors - Preparing necessary document for the meeting/ seminar - Coordinating the meeting/ seminar - Preparing visa - Communication during the travel - Communication during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking - Daily communication during the fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking - Preparing the activity report - Presenting the activity report
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Jumlah participants dalam isian cara mengajar dan belajar yang dapat mendukung pembelajaran dalam mengembangkan aspek-aspek kemampuan ber- B.Inggris: Mengajar/ Belajar
Number of Participant 2 1 3 12 2 7
Menggunakan kontek Menggunakan langkah-langkah/prosedur Menggunakan media audio visual Menggunakan permainan/simulasi/bermain peran Belajar mandiri Belajar kelompok
3
Lainnya: sebutkan - field visit
Item pada tipe B. Inggris yang dipilih untuk diajarkan. (dalam hubungannya dengan aktifitas pekerjaan)
B. Inggris Formal -
(24) Alasan: untuk menghadapi tamu asing birokrasi sesuai kebutuhan pekerjaan yang berkaitan dengan dunia akademik perlu dalam membuat proposal era globalisasi
B. Inggris Informal (6) -
Alasan: tidak terikat, dalam kondisi santai lebih cepat menangkap
Item berapa lama pelatihan B. Inggris ini berlangsung. - sampai dengan lancar berbahasa Inggris - hingga tingkat penyerapan yang cukup - enam bulan - sesuai dengan kemampuan - manut, yang penting efektif, efisien & gampang dicerna - enam bulan, setiap minggu 2x – 3x @ 1,5 jam - paling tidak 3 hari/minggu, selama satu tahun berturut-turut (kontinyu) - 1 tahun
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- sampai yakin dianggap bisa B. Inggris (terukur) Item tempat dan waktu pelatihan B. Inggris berlangsung. - dikantor : jam 14 – 15.30 - dikantor, sehabis jam kantor - dikantor, 1 jam sebelum jam kantor usai - diluar kantor, tempat yang nyaman, 14.00 – 15.30 - dikantor, jam 12.00 -
-
Other remarks: kursus B. Inggris bukan pemecahan masalah utama dalam ketidakmampuan berbahasa Inggris. Akan sangat bermanfaat bila ketidakmampuan berbahasa Inggris diatasi dengan program secara kelembagaan/ institusional di internal Dinkes Prop. DIY. Misal 1x/minggu diselenggarakan pertemuan/ rapat dengan bahasa pengantar bahasa Inggris dengan didampingi fasilitator bahasa. Sudah saatnya pelayanan publik/ petugas puskesmas juga bisa B. Inggris (antisipasi era globalisasi) minimal bisa menangkap informasi-informasi dari komputer, manual book dari alat kesehatan, bahan-bahan kesehatan maupun farmasi.
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Appendix 5 Research Statement Completion
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