RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MENTORING PROGRAM
CHARACTERISTICS, SELF-EFFICACY AND MENTEE
OUTCOMES: A STUDY OF MALAYSIAN INSTITUTIONS
OF HIGHER LEARNING IN SARAWAK
Michael Kho Khian Jui
Master of Science 2011
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MENTORING PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS,
SELF-EFFICACY AND MENTEE OUTCOMES: A STUDY OF MALAYSIAN
INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING IN SARAW AK
P.KHIDMAT MAKLUMAT AKADEMIK
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MICHAEL KHO KHIAN JUI
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
(Human Resource Development)
Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
,·4
2011
I
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations, which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at Universiti Malaysia Sarawak or other institutions.
(MICHAEL KHO KHIAN lUI) Date:
I I
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DEDICATION
To my family, friends as well as scholars and researchers in the field of Human Resource Development "
11
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude and thanks to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Azman Ismail, for his professional advices and assistance in helping me carry out this thesis. Thanks for the guidance and comment on my thesis. The following acknowledgement goes to my co-supervisor, Miss Farida Abdul Halim for her professional guideline in improving my thesis writing. Thanks for the valuable information and comment on my thesis.
The supportiveness and helpfulness of my faculty members as well as centre of post graduate staffs are very much appreciated. An abundance thanks to my faculty members, especially Dr. Shahren Ahmad Zaidi Adruce, Associate Professor Dr. Rusli Ahmad, and Madam Dayang Nailul Munna Abang Abdullah for their valuable comments on my thesis. Thanks to my entire faculty members that provide me the proper direction on how to conduct this research within timeframe. The acknowledgment also goes to centre of postgraduate staffs for their guidance in helping me to apply the 'Zamalah' scholarship and updating me the latest information upon my study. Thanks to the entire staffs of postgraduate centre for giving me the clear direction on how to submit the necessary documents from time to time as well as support me to apply scholarship in order to solve my study financial problems.
III
I
I would like to give my thanks to all the staffs in the studied institutions that give me the opportunity to do the research and guide me in distributing my questionnaire. The kindliness and helpfulness from the staffs are very much appreciated and memorable. Besides, I would also like to thank the entire participants who willing to spend their valuable time in participating in this survey as well as providing crucial information during in-depth interview sessions. Without them, this study would not have been a success.
My thanks also go to Mr. Ahmad Zaidi for his helpfulness in proof reading my thesis before submit for examination. Next, I would also like to thank my colleague, Ng Kueh Hua for his kindliness of sharing knowledge as well as spending his time for discussions. An abundance thanks to my beloved family members for their loving support throughout the completion of this study. I would like to take this chance to thanks my mother for her continuous support in my life especially in my study. Last but not least, my friends and my fellow buddies also deserve my gratitude for their support and encouragement provided during the process of completing this study.
iv
ABSTRACT
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MENTORING PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS,
SELF-EFFICACY AND MENTEE OUTCOMES: A STUDY OF MALAYSIAN
INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING IN SARAWAK
( Training and development program literatures draw attention to two salient characteristics of mentoring programs: communication and support. The ability of mentors to properly implement comfortable communication style (e.g., communication openness) and provide adequate support (i.e., encouragement) may have a significant impact on mentee outcomes (i.e., psychosocial and academic perfonnance). Research in this area reveals the effects of mentoring program characteristics on mentee outcomes to be indirectly atTected by self-efficacy. Though the relationship is interesting in nature, little is known on the mediating effect of self-efficacy in mentoring program. Thus, it motivates the researcher to further explore this
iSSU~
It is the intention of this thesis to define the role self-efficacy plays in the relationship between mentoring program characteristics and mentee outcomes. This study employed two major types of research to collect and analyze the research data. Firstly, qualitative and quantitative research methods were used to gather the relevant information from undergraduate students (i.e., diploma and bachelor program) who have studied at Malaysian public and private institutions of higher learning in Sarawak, Malaysia. Secondly, a quantitative research method was used to gather the relevant infonnation from academic statTs (Le., tutor, lecturer, associate professor and professor) who have worked at one public university in Sarawak, Malaysia. A total of 1805 usable self-
v
report questionnaires (Le., mentee data) were gathered from the undergraduate students who have studied at Malaysian public and private institutions of higher learning in Sarawak, Malaysia. Additionally, a total of 121 usable self-report questionnaires (i.e., mentor data) were gathered from academic staffs who have worked at one public university in Sarawak, Malaysia.
The result of testing the mentoring program models based on both mentor and mentee samples using stepwise regression analysis shows that self-efficacy acts as an important mediator io influencing the relationships between: (I) communication with psychosocial and academic perfonnance, and (2) support with psychosocial and academic perfonnance.
These findings have important implications for employers planning to improve their mentoring programs. In tenns of theoretical contribution, organizations (e.g., owners, policy makers, managers, educationists and employees) need to understand that a mentoring program entails comprehensive training and curriculum development. With proper administration through communication and support, it will improve mentees' self-efficacy leading to an enhanced psychosocial and academic perfonnance in the studied organizations. With respect to the robustness of the research methodology, the survey questionnaires used in this study met the acceptable standards of validity and reliability analyses, hence the production of more accurate and reliable research findings. As for practical contributions, organizations should realize that, in any mentoring program, the effectiveness of communication and support is greatly affected by mentees' self-efficacy which potentially may enhance mentees' psychosocial and academic perfonnance in the studied organizations. The findings of this research may be used by organizations planning to improve the effectiveness of its mentoring programs by Updating the VI
content and method of mentoring training for mentors, improving the formal and informal mentoring relationships, and putting into place creative mentoring activities. These suggestions, should it be seriously considered, may increase the capability of mentoring programs to induce positive subsequent attitudinal and behavioral outcomes hence leading to a sustained and continuous support of organizational strategies and goals.
vii
...
ABSTRAK
PERHUBUNGAN Dl ANTARA elRJ-elRJ PROGRAM MENTORJNG, KEYAKINAN TERHADAP
KEBOLEHAN KENDlRJ DAN SlKAP DAN KELAKUAN MENTEE: KAJIAN Dl lNSTlTUSl
PENGAJIAN TINGGl MALAYSIA Dl SARAWAK
Literatur program latihan dan pembangunan mengenengahkan dua ciri yang sangat menonjol dalam program mentoring: komunikasi dan sokongan. Keupayaan mentor untuk melaksanakan gaya komunikasi yang selesa (komunikasi terbuka) dan memberi sokongan yang mencukupi (galakan) boleh menghasilkan kesan yang signifikan ke atas sikap dan kelakuan mentee (psikososial dan prestasi akademik). Kajian dalam bidang ini mendedahkan kesan ciri-ciri program mentoring ke atas sikap dan kelakuan mentee adalah dipengaruhi secara tak langsung oleh keyakinan terhadap kebolehan kendiri dalam diri mentee. Sifat perhubungan ini adalah menarik, tetapi kefahaman masih rendah tentang peranan keyakinan terhadap kebolehan kendiri mentee sebagai pembolehubah mencelah dalam program mentoring. Situasi ini mendorong pengkaji untuk meneroka isu ini dengan lebih mendalam.
Tujuan utama tesis ini adalah untuk mentakrifkan peranan keyakinan terhadap kebolehan kendiri dalam perhubungan di antara ciri-ciri program mentoring dan sikap dan kelakuan mentee. Metodologi kajian ini menggunakan dua jenis reka bentuk kajian bagi menggumpul dan menganalisa data kajian. Pertama, kedua-dua jenis kaedah kualitatif dan kuantitatif telah digunakan bagi tujuan menggumpulkan maklumat daripada para pelajar prasiswazah (program diploma dan sarjana muda) yang menuntut di institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi awam dan viii
swasta Malaysia di Sarawak. Kedua, kaedah kuantitatif digunakan bagi tujuan pengumpulan maklumat daripada staf akademik (tutor, pensyarah, profesor madya dan profesor) yang berkhidmat di sebuah universiti awam, Sarawak, Malaysia. Sejumlah 1805 borang soal selidik laporan kendiri telah dikumpulkan daripada para pelajar prasiswazah (program diploma dan sorjana muda) yang menuntut di institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi awam dan swasta Malaysia di Sorawak. Sebagai tambahan, sejumlah 121 borang soal selidik laporan kendiri telah dikumpulkan daripada staf akademik (tutor, pensyarah, profesor madya dan profesor) yang berkhidmat di sebuah universiti awam Malaysia di Sarawak.
HasH pengujian model program mentoring berdasarkan kedua-dua sampel mente dan mentor menggunakan analisa regresi "stepwise" menunjukkan bahawa kebolehan terhadap keyakinan kendiri mente telah memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai pembolehubah mencelah dalam perhubungan di antara (1) komunikasi dengan psikososial dan prestasi akademik, dan (2) sokongan dengan psikososial dan prestasi akademik.
Dapatan kajian ini membawa implikasi yang penting kepada para majikan yang berhasrat untuk menambahbaik program-program mentoring mereka. Dari sudut sumbangan kepada teori, organisasi-organisasi (para pemilik, pembuat polisi, pengurus, pendidik dan pekerja) perlu memohami bahawa program mentoring melibatkan kurikulum latihan dan pembangunan yang komprehensif. Sekiranya ia ditadbirkan secara teratur melalui komunikasi dan sokongan, ia akan dapot membangkitkan keyakinan terhadap kebolehan kendiri mentee yang seterusnya membawa lcepada peningkatan pSikososial dan prestasi akademik mentee di organisasi kajian. Dari segi pemantapan pengkaedahan penyelidikan, borang-borang soal selidik kajian ini telah memenuhi IX
piawai analisa kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan yang boleh membawa kepada penghasilan dapatan kajian yang lebih tepat dan dipercayai. Dari perspektij sumbangan praktikal, pihak organisasi perlu sedar bahawa dalam program menloring, keberkesanan komunikasi dan sokongan adalah sangat dipengaruhi oleh keyakinan terhadap kebolehan kendiri menlee yang seterusnya mampu mempertingkalkan lahap psikososial dan prestasi akademik menlee di organisasi kajian. Dapatan kajian ini boleh digunakan oleh organisasi-organisasi unluk menambahbaik keberkesanan program menloring mereka melalui pengemaskinian kandungan dan kaedah lalihan mentor, penambahbaikan corak perhubungan dalam program-program
mentoring formal dan lak formal, dan melaksanakan aktiviti-aktiviti mentoring yang krealif. Cadangan-cadangan ini sekiranya diberi perlimbangan yang sewajarnya mampu meningkatkan keupayaan program-program mentoring unluk menghasilkan sikap dan kelakuan menlee yang positij dan selanjutnya menyokong serta mengekalkan pencapaian mallamal-matlamal dan slrategi-strategi organisasi.
x
Pusat Khidmat Msklumat Akad mi UNl
Rsm 1ALAY IA S RAWA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration Dedication
ii
Acknowledgements
iii
Abstract
v
Abstrak
viii
Table of Contents
xi
List of Tables
xix
List of Figures
xxv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1-29
l.l
Background of Mentoring Program in Institutions of Higher Learning
2
1.2
Background of Mento ring Program in the Malaysian Institutions of Higher Learning
4
1.3
Problem Statement
7
1.4
Objectives of the Study
12
1.4.1 General Objectives
12
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
12
1.5
Conceptual Framework
13
1.6
Research Hypotheses
15
1.6.1 General Hypotheses
15
1.6.2 Specific Hypotheses
IS
xi
1.7
1.7.1
1.8
16
Operational Definitions ofTenns Mentoring Program Characteristics
16
1.7.1.1
Communication
17
1.7.1.2
Support
17
1.7.2
set f-effi cacy
17
1.7.3
Mentee Outcomes
17
1.7.3.1
Psychosocial
18
1.7.3.2
Academic Perfonnance
18
18
Significance of the Study 1.8.1
Significant to the Theory
18
1.8.2
Significant to the Research Methodology
20
1.8.3
Significant to the Practitioners
23
1.9
Outline of the Remaining Chapters
27
1.10
Conclusion
29
30-51
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
31
Conceptual Definitions of Tenns 2.1.1
Mentoring Program Characteristics
31
2.1.1.1
Communication
31
2.1.1.2
Support
32
2.1.2
Self-efficacy
34
2.1.3
Mentee Outcomes
35
2.1.3.1
Psychosocial
35
2.1.3.2
Academic Perfonnance
36
xii
2.2
Relationship between Mentoring Program Characteristics and
Mentee Outcomes
37
2.2.1 Theoretical Evidence Supporting the Relationship between
Mentoring Program Characteristics and Mentee Outcomes
37
2.2.1.1 Chickering's (1969) Vector Theory of Identity Development
37
2.2.1.2 Levinson's (1978) Early Adult Transition Model
38
2.2.1.3 Rice and Brown (1990) Need for Autonomy Model
39
2.2.2 Empirical Evidence Supporting the Relationship between
Mentoring Program Characteristics and Mentee Outcomes
2.3
40
2.2.2.1 Relationship between Communication and Psychosocial
40
2.2.2.2 Relationship between Communication and
Academic Perfonnance
40
2.2.2.3 Relationship between Support and Psychosocial
41
2.2.2.4 Relationship between Support and Academic Perfonnance
42
Relationship between Mentoring Program Characteristics, Self-Efficacy and
Mentee Outcomes
43
2.3.1 Theoretical Evidence Supporting the Relationship between Mentoring
Program Characteristics, Self-Efficacy and Mentee outcomes
43
2.3.1.1 Bandura's (1986) Social Cognitive Theory Self-Efficacy
43
2.3.1.2 Vroom's (1964, 1973) Expectancy Theory
44
2.3.1.3 Thompson's (1995) Social Network Theory
45
2.3.1.4 Locke and Latham's (1968) Goal-Setting Theory
45
2.3.1.5 Tinto's (1975, 1987) Social Integration Model
46
2.3.2 Empirical Evidence Supporting the Relationship between Mentoring
Program Characteristics, Self-Efficacy and Mentee outcomes
47
2.3.2.1 Relationship between Communication, Self-Efficacy and
Psychosocial
47
2.3.2.2 Relationship between Communication, Self-Efficacy and
Academic Perfonnance
47
2.3.2.3 Relationship between Support, Self-Efficacy and Psychosocial
48
Xlll
2.3.2.4 Relationship between Support, Self-Efficacy and
Academic Performance
49
2.4
Research Questions
50
2.5
Conclusion
51
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES FOR CONDUCTING
RESEARCH
52-76
3.1
Unit of Analysis and Sampling Procedures
53
3.2
Research Design Process
54
3.3
3.2.1
Phase 1: In-depth Interviews
54
3.2.2
Phase 2: Pilot Study
55
3.2.3
Phase 3: Actual Survey
56
3.2.3.1 Process of Designing the Self-Report Questionnaires
57
3.2.3.2 Translating the Research Questionnaire
58
3.2.3.3 Content of the Self-Report Questionnaire Design
59
3.2.3.4 Process of Conducting the Actual Survey
61
64
Data Analysis Techniques 3.3.1
Data Screening
64
3.3.2
Validity and Reliability of Instruments
64
3.3.3
Analysis of the Constructs
66
3.3.4
Testing the Direct Effects Model
67
3.3.5
Testing the Indirect Effects Model
67
3.4
The Outcomes of the In-Depth Interview
69
3.5
Conclusion
76
XIV
CHAPTER 4: THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE MEASUREMENT SCALES 77-100
4.1
Outcomes of the Pilot Study 4.1.1
4.2
78
The Results of Pilot Study Using the Survey Questionnaires 4.1.1.1
Respondents of the Pilot Study
78
4.1.1.2
The Results of Exploratory Factor Analysis
80
4.1.2 The Results of Pilot Study Using a Formal Discussion on the
Survey Questionnaires
84
Outcomes of the Actual Survey
87
4.2.1
Sample Profile
87
4.2.2
Data Screening
89
4.2.3
Exploratory Factor Analysis
89
4.2.4
Analysis of the Construct
92
4.2.4.1 Analysis of Variance
92
4.2.4.1.1
Independent Sample T -test
92
4.2.4.1.2
One-Way ANOV A Analysis
94
4.2.4.2 Pearson Correlation Analysis and Descriptive Statistics 4.3
78
Conclusion
99
100
xv
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS OF TESTING THE DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECT
MODELS IN MENTEE SAMPLE 101-118
5.1
5.2
The Direct Effects Model
102
5.1.1
Conceptual Framework and Research Hypothesis
102
5.1.2
Outcomes of Testing Direct Effects Model
104
The Indirect Effects Model
105
5.2.1 Conceptual Framework and Research Hypothesis
105
5.2.2
Outcomes of Testing Mediating Model
108
5.2.2.1
Outcomes of Testing Hypothesis 3a and Hypothesis 4a
108
5.2.2.2
Outcomes of Testing Hypothesis 3b and Hypothesis 4b
111
5.3
Discussion
114
5.4
Conclusion
117
CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS OF TESTING THE DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECT
MODELS IN MENTOR SAMPLE 119-149
6.1
Outcomes of the Actual Survey
120
6.1 .1 Sample Profile
120
6.1.2
Data Screening
122
6.1.3
Exploratory Factor Analysis
123
6.1.4
Analysis of the Construct
126
6.1.4.1
Analysis of Variance
126
6.1.4.1.1
Independent Sample T -test
126
6.1.4.1.2
One-Way ANOVA Analysis
127
6.1.4.2
Pearson Correlation Analysis and Descriptive Statistics
xvi
133
Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire of the Pilot Study for Mentee Sample
194
Appendix B: Survey Questionnaire of the Actual Study for Mentee Sample
205
Appendix C: Survey Questionnaire for Mentor Sample
215
Appendix D: SPSS Results of the Actual Study for Mentee Sample
225
xviii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Respondent's Profile ofthe In-depth InteIView
69
Table 3.2 Summary ofthe Infonnation from the In-Depth InteIViews
70
Table 4.1
79
The number of Respondents for the Pilot Study
Table 4.2 Respondents' Characteristics ofthe Pilot Study (n=196)
79
Table 4.3 81
Item Validity for Pilot Study
Table 4.4 The Results of Validity and Reliability Analyses for Measurement Scales of the Pilot Study
83
Table 4.5 Respondents of the Pilot Study Using a Fonnal Discussion
xix
84
Table 4.6 Result of the Pilot Study based on Discussion
85
Table 4.7 Respondents of the Actual Study
87
Table 4.8 Respondents' Profile of the Actual Study (n= 1805)
88
Table 4.9
89
The Results of Normal Distribution Test
Table 4.10
90
Item Validity for Actual Study
Table 4.11 The Results of Validity and Reliability Analyses for Measurement scales of the Actual Study
92
Table 4.12 Independent Sample T-test for the Differences between Genders
93
Table 4.13 Independent Sample T-test for the Differences between Academic Programs
xx
93
Table 4.14 Independent Sample T-test for the Differences between Institutions
94
Table 4.15 The Results of One-Way ANOVA for the Difference between Age Structures
95
Table 4.16 The Results of One-Way ANOVA for the Difference between Educational Level
96
Table 4.17 The Results of One-Way ANOVA for the Difference between Year of Study
97
Table 4.18 The Results of One- Way ANOV A for the Difference between Academic Achievement
98
Table 4.19 The Results of One-Way ANOVA for the Difference between Mentor Gender
99
Table 4.20 Pearson Correlation Analysis and Descriptive Statistics
100
Table 5.1 Pearson Correlation Analysis
104
xxi
Table 5.2 Result for Multiple Regression Analysis with Self-Efficacy as a Mediating Variable and Psychosocial as Dependent Variable
109
Table 5.3 Result for Multiple Regression Analysis with Self-Efficacy as a Mediating Variable and Academic Performance as a Dependent Variable
112
Table 6.1 120
Respondents of the Actual Study
Table 6.2 Respondents' Profile of the Actual Study (n=121)
121
Table 6.3 122
The Results ofNormal Distribution Test
Table 6.4
Item Validity for Actual Study
124
Table 6.5 The Results of Validity and Reliability Analyses for Measurement scales of the Actual Study
126
Table 6.6 Independent Sample T-test for the Differences between Genders
xxii
126
Table 6.7 The Results of One-Way ANOV A for the Difference between Age Structures
127
Table 6.8
The Results of One-Way ANOV A for the Difference between Educational Level
128
Table 6.9 The Results of One-Way ANOV A for the Difference between Length of Service
129
Table 6.10 The Results of One-Way ANOVA for the Difference between Position
130
Table 6.11
The Results of One-Way ANOV A for the Difference between Faculty
131
Table 6.12
The Results of One-Way ANOVA for the Difference between Mentee Gender
132
Table6.l3 Pearson Correlation Analysis and Descriptive Statistics
133
Table 6.14
136
Pearson Correlation Analysis
xxiii
