ISSN : 2579-5554
th
The 6 International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere
Integrating Bioresources and Advanced Technology for Sustainable Development
IPB ICC, Bogor, Indonesia th November, 15-16 2016
ISSN : 2579-5554
PROCEEDINGS th
THE 6 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR SUSTAINABLE HUMANOSPHERE [ISSH]A Forum of the Humanosphere Science School [HSS] 2016
“Integrating Bio-Resources and Advanced Technology for Sustainable Development” Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 Bogor - INDONESIA
Organized by Research Center for Biomaterials – LIPI Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University
Published by Research Center for Biomaterials - LIPI 2017 The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 2
Publication of this program book is organized by: Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH, Kyoto Univ.) co-hosted by: Japan-ASEAN Science, Technology and Innovation Platform (JASTIP, JST) Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development (SATREPS, JICA/JST) Asia Research Node (ARN, Kyoto Univ./LIPI) National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) and supported by: Kyoto University Research Coordination Alliance (KURCA, Kyoto Univ.)
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 3
Edited by: Prof. Dr. Ir. Subyakto, M.Sc. (LIPI) Prof. Dr. Made Sudiana, M.Sc. (LIPI) Dr. Ir. Euis Hermiati, M.Sc. (LIPI) Dr. Ir. Wahyu Dwianto, M.Agr. (LIPI) Dr. Widya Fatriasari, S.Hut., M.M. (LIPI) Dr. Dede Heri Yuli Yanto, S.Si., M.Agr. (LIPI) Dr. Titik Kartika, S.Si., M.Agr. (LIPI) Dr. Firda Aulya Syamani, S.TP., M.Si. (LIPI) Anis Sri Lestari, S.Si., MS. (LIPI) Apriwi Zulfitri, S.Si., M.Sc. (LIPI) Bramantyo Wikantyoso, S.Si (LIPI) Deni Zulfiana, S.Si., M.Si. (LIPI) Eko Widodo, S.T (LIPI) Lilik Astari, S.Si., M.For.Ecosys.Sc. (LIPI) Maulida Oktaviani S.Si (LIPI) Ni Putu Ratna Ayu Krishanti, S.P., M.Si (LIPI) Sita Heris Anita, S.Si., M.Si. (LIPI) Triyani Fajriutami, S.P., M.Eng.(LIPI) Yeyen Nurhamiyah, S.Si. (LIPI)
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 4
PREFACE This publication contains papers that were presented at the 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere (ISSH) that was held in Jakarta from 15-16 November 2016. All papers were formatted and edited before published without changing original meaning and views of the author(s). The symposium is a part of Humanosphere Science School (HSS), an annual event organized by a good collaboration between Research Center for Biomaterials - Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH) - Kyoto University. This symposium also co-hosted by Japan-ASEAN Science, Technology and Innovation Platform (JASTIP, JST), Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development (SATREPS, JICA/JST), Asia Research Node (ARN, Kyoto Univ./LIPI), National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), and supported by Kyoto University Research Coordination Alliance (KURCA, Kyoto Univ.). The focus for this year event was “Integrating Bio-Resources and Advanced Technology for Sustainable Development”. This year, the committee has received 37 full paper submissions cover the field of forest science, biological science, earth science, community-based development and advanced science and technology. The 2016 HSS-ISSH participants were student, researcher and lecturers that coming from Japan and Indonesia. On behalf of the committee, I humbly thank you to all authors for the contribution and also dedicated editor team member who have spared their valuable time to take all the great efforts in the making of this proceeding. Lastly I hope this proceeding will be a useful source of information and achieved its primary objective of disseminating new experiences and information to researchers, academics, policy makers and students.
Bogor, March 2017
Bramantyo Wikantyoso Chairman of HSS-ISSH 2016
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 5
ISSN : 2579-5554 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Scientific Committee
4
Preface
5
Table of Content
6
Keynotes Paper No
Title
Page
1.
Function of Boron in Plant Cell Walls
13
2.
Masaru Kobayashi Plant Cell and Tissue Culture: The Basics of Plant Biotechnology
14
3.
Masahiro Sakamoto Bioinformatics
15
4.
Daisuke Shibata Lesson Learned from Mangrove Program in Indonesia
16
5.
Cecep Kusmana Bioenergy Production Potential from Marginal Lands
17
6.
Himlal Baral, Edi Wiraguna Review on The Role of Micro-Satellite Technologies in Supporting Sustainable Humanosphere
18
7.
Robertus Heru Triharjanto Safety of Wooden Houses to Investigate in Kumamoto Earthquake 2016
19
8.
Takuro Mori Wood Adhesive from Natural Rubber Latex
20
9.
Euis Hermiati, Widya Fatriasari, Fahriya Puspita Sari, and Raden Permana Budi Laksana Research of Wood-Based Panels Considering Wood Resources
22
10.
Kenji Umemura Wireless Power as Game Changing Technology
23
Naoki Shinohara
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 6
11.
Earthquake Sciences and Disaster Mitigations in Indonesia
24
Danny Hilman Natawidjaja Participants Papers ORAL PRESENTATION BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE 1.
2.
3.
4.
Toxicity of Liquid Oil Waste in Martapura Baru Port River toward Goldfish (Cyprinus Carpio) Seed LC50 – 96 Hour Widya Rizky Amalia, Retno Jumirah, and Bunda Halang Effect of Delayed Mating and Sex Ratio on Biological Performance of Almond Moth, Ephestia cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae) Haris Setyaningrum Antifeedant Activity of Ethanol Extract of Fives Selected Plants Against Larvae of Taro Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura Fabricius, 1775) Desak Made Malini, Madihah, Melanie, Hikmat Kasmara, Rani Maharani, Vita Novianti, Fakhrur Rozi, and Wawan Hermawan Insect on Fruit of Ficus spp
27
32
38
49
Ghvirly Ramadhani, Noor Farikhah Haneda and Iwan Hilwan EARTH SCIENCE 1.
El Nino Modoki Impacts nn Rainfall Anomaly in Papua, Indonesia
57
2.
Anna Maria Kusumaningayu, Joko Wiratmo, and Ridho Syahputra Description of Atmospheric Parameters Due to Waterspout in Tarakan August 26th 2015 (North Kalimantan-Indonesia)
64
3.
Ambinari Rachmi Putri, Rizka Erwin Lestari, and Ejha Larasati Siadari The Determination Of Initial Of Rainy Season Around Equatorial Region Using Howi
70
4.
Joko Wiratmo The Influence of El Nino and La Nina on Biak Rainfall in 30 Years (1981-2010)
75
5.
Prayoga Ismail and Aries Kristianto Identification of Changing in Diurnal Pattern of Rainfall in Case of Flooding in Northern Coastal of West Java 2014
84
6.
Erma Yulihastin, Nining Sari Ningsih and Tri Wahyu Hadi Rainfall Estimation Using Auto-Estimator Based on Cloud Top Temperature of Himawari 8 Satellite Compared to Rainfall Observation in Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station
92
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Nurhastuti Anjar Rani, Aulia Nisa’ul Khoir, and Sausan Yulinda Afra COMMUNITY-BASED DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL ECONOMIC SCIENCE 1.
Analysis of Potential Institutional Watershed Management
99
2.
Messalina L. Salampessy, Ina Lidiawati, Indra G. Febryano, and Dini Zulfiani The Analysis of Mangosteen West Java Farmer Marketing Channel
105
3.
4.
Reny Andriyanty and Linar Humaira Role of Social Institution in Sustainable Agriculture Development (Case Study at Japara, Kabupaten Kuningan, West Java) Mahra Arari Heryanto,Ganjar Kurnia, Tomy Perdana, and Tetep Ginanjar Organic Rice Development: How Social-Ecological System Perspective Could Contribute
110
118
5.
Dika Supyandi, Pandi Pardian and Mahra Arari Heryanto Macro – Micro Linkages on Agricultural Development: A Case Study in Gianyar, Bali, Indonesia
125
6.
Adi Nugraha, Dika Supyandi and Mahra A. Heryanto The Role of Brain Gain Actors in Self Reliance in The Social System and Rural Agribusiness Ecosystem
132
Iwan Setiawan, Adi Nugraha, and Irfan Rahadian ADVANCED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1.
Estimation of in-Plane Bending Strength of Clt With Different Number of Layers
142
Tsuyoshi Aoyama, Takuro Mori, Akihisa Kitamori, Hiroshi Isoda, Yasuhiro Araki, and Takafumi Nakagawa POSTER PRESENTATION FOREST SCIENCE 1.
2.
Competitive Relationship Between Weed and Tree Sapling Species of Taman Buru Masigit Kareumbi Restoration Site Muhamad Aditio Ramadian, Rina Ratnasih Irwanto, and Robert Manurung The Chemical Components Changes of Platinum Teak Wood
152
165
Eka Lestari, Dwi Ajias Pramasari, Yusup Amin, Danang Sudarwoko Adi, Adik Bahanawan and Wahyu Dwianto The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 8
3.
Bulk Density, Particle Distribution and Moisture Content of Particleboard from Corn Stalk
172
Lilik Astari, Kurnia Wiji Prasetiyo, Sukma Surya Kusumah and Subyakto BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE 1.
2.
3.
4.
In-Vitro Assay of Neem Seed Formulation Against Fusarium oxysporum, Causal Agent of Basal Plate Rot on Onion Ni Putu Ratna Ayu Krishanti and Arief Heru Prianto Packaging Evaluation Related to The Survival of The Acetobacter sp. Rmg-2 and Biocellulose Product in Paste Inoculum Urip perwitasari, Nuryati, Ruth Meliawati and Yopi Biological Diversity Contribution to Reduce CO2 in The Atmosphere 5: CO2 Absorption of Highland and Lowland Tree Species at Different Level of Light Intensities Nuril Hidayati and Titi Juhaeti Characteristics of Chlorophyll Content of The Kibaceta (Clausena excavata Burm. F.) Leaf under Different Light Intensity in Pananjung Pangandaran-Nature Reserve
177
183
190
200
5.
Tia Setiawati and Anis Susilawati Laboratory Bioassays of Metarhizium spp and Beauveria spp. Against Tenebrio molitor larvae
206
6.
Anis Sri Lestari and Sujaya Rao Study of Beauveria sp. and Paecilomyces sp. Filtrates Against Spodoptera litura (F.)
212
7.
Deni Zulfiana, Ni Putu Ratna Ayu Krishanti and Apriwi Zulfitri The Need for True Green Solvent to Assure Environmental Friendly Biopesticide in Neem Plant (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) Crude Extract Formulation
219
8.
Bramantyo Wikantyoso and Arief Heru Prianto Strain Improvement Comparison of Isolate H2 between Nitric Acid Mutation and Uv Rays Mutation
226
9.
Rahayu Fitriani Wangsa Putrie, Tiwit Widowati and Harmastini Sukiman Application of Biofertilizers Biovam - Lipi to Promote Plant Growth of Jackfruit
231
Sylvia J. R. Lekatompessy, Liseu Nurjanah and Harmastini Sukiman
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10.
11.
12.
Isolation of Oil Degrading Bacteria from The Terrestrial Sites of Minas, Riau and The Pre Screening of The Isolates on The Simple Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Elvi Yetti, Hans Wijaya, Ahmad Thontowi and Yopi Fungal Pathogenicity and Profile Cuticle Damage Caused by Entomopathogenic Fungus Metarhizium anisopliae Infection Against to Oxya japonica (Or-Thoptera: Acrididae) Melanie, Tjandra Anggraeni, Wardono Niloperbowo and Nining Ratningsih The Potency of Endophytic Fungi Isolated from Taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) as Plant Growth Promoting Agent
237
244
250
13.
Tiwit Widowati, Nuriyanah, Indah Budi Asih and Harmastini Sukiman The Study of Plankton Diversity Index in Musi River Flood Plain to Determinate the Quality of Waters as Habitat of Fishes
256
14.
Effendi Parlindungan Sagala Macrozoobenthos Community in Downstream of Musi River at Palembang City Regional of South Sumatera
267
Rosmanida, Effendi Parlindungan Sagala EARTH SCIENCE 1.
2.
3.
The Decrease in Rice Production Due to Climate Change in The Area of Rice Production Center in West Java Ruminta, Agus Wahyudin, and Joko Wiratmo Determination of Relationship Between Cloud Top Brightness Temperature of Infrared Channel Himawari-8 Satellite and Rainfall Events on February 2016 at Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station Sabitul Hidayati and Richard Mahendra Putra Hotspot Temperature Estimation Based on Himawari-8 Using Modis
274
283
292
Nenden Wardani, Alek Taufik Rahman, and Aprilia Susilowati COMMUNITY-BASED DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL ECONOMIC SCIENCE 1.
Identification of Leading Sectors in North Sumatera Province
297
2.
Fahmi W. Kifli and Arif Umami Processing Waste Paper for Art Paper in Biovillage Concept Prespective
303
Widya Fatriasari, Fahriya Puspita Sari, Raden Permana Budi Laksana, Firda A.Syamani,Enung Sri Mulyaningsih and Euis Hermiati The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 10
ADVANCED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1.
Design Software for Pulse Oximeter Accuracy Testing Using Labview
313
SiddiqWahyu Hidayat, Irawan Sukma and Wuwus Ardiatna Symposium scheduled
320
Participants
321
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LECTURERS/ KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 12
FUNCTION OF BORON IN PLANT CELL WALLS Masaru Kobayashi1* 1
Laboratory of Plant Nutrition, Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract
Boron (B) is one of the 17 essential elements for plants. Deficiency of B leads to various physiological disorders including inhibited expansion of young leaves, death of meristem, and decreased seed set. Soils containing suboptimal amount of B exist worldwide, and the deficiency of this element has been one of the major constraints in crop production. It is thus significant to understand the mechanism by which B deficiency damages plants. We previously found that B in plants localizes extracellularly, and forms borate diester with a specific sugar residue in pectin, the major matrix polysaccharide of primary cell walls. The diester ties multiple chains of pectin together to form a hydrophilic gel, in which the cellulose microfibrils are embedded. We also found that cell death due to oxidative damage occurs under B deficiency. These findings together suggest that the failure to cross-link pectin with B triggers an overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the accumulated ROS causes oxidative damages and cell death. Although the exact physiological function of the gel is yet to be elucidated, emerging evidence suggests that the integrity of pectin gel is critical for stress tolerance of plants. We are studying plant responses to B deficiency further; it will help us to understand the physiological role of pectin gel, then may contribute to an engineering of plants with better tolerance to adverse environmental conditions. Keywords: boron; cell wall; deficiency; oxidative damage; pectin
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 13
PLANT CELL AND TISSUE CULTURE: THE BASICS OF PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY Masahiro Sakamoto1* 1
Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, 606-8502 Kyoto, Japan *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract Plant cells have the totipotency that is the ability of the plant regeneration from single cell. Plant biotechnology has developed based this plant ability. The study of plant cell and tissue culture began at the early of the 20th century. Especially, the discovery of cytokinin developed the cell and tissue culture. Skoog and Miller succeeded the formation of callus, shoot and root by regulating a balance between kinetin and IAA (indole acetic acid), namely cytokinin and auxin. Thereafter, Stewart succeeded the somatic embryogenesis from carrot cell culture, and proved the totipotency of plant. Many plants have been tried to culture and regenerate the plant. Most crops were also the targets of culture because of their breeding. Rice is the most successful plant for cell culture among crops. At the beginning, it was difficult to culture rice cells because leaf and root were used as an explant. Cells derived from rice seed embryo let the rice cell culture succeed. Also a protoplast culture is available to use cells derived from seed. Although rice cell culture method is widely used for many experiments, other major crops e.g. wheat, barley and maize are still difficult to culture and limited. Now, plant cell and tissue culture is an essential method for plant biotechnology. This cell and tissue culture method is applied to modern plant breeding and clonal propagation for virus free plant, the production of the secondary metabolites. Gene transfer to plant cells via Agrobacterium also requires cell culture. Here I talk about plant cell and tissue culture method as the basics of plant biotechnology. Keywords: Agrobacterium tumefaciens; culture; gene transfer; plant cell; plant tissue
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 14
BIOINFORMATICS Daisuke Shibata1* 1
Department of Biotechnology Development, Kazusa DNA Res. Inst. Kazusa-Kamatari, Kisarazu, Chiba 292-0818, Japan *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract
Bioinformatics is indispensable in the current biology, especially in the research area of genome, proteome and metabolome analysis, which is called “omics”, that is, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics. The total DNA sequences available in the public databases have increased drastically during this decade due to the development of new DNA sequencing technologies known as next generation sequencing. For example, one of the commonly-used next generation sequencers, HiSeq 2500 (Illumina Inc.) produces 1 tera base/run at the maximum performance. To treat the huge datasets of DNA sequences, various technologies have been developed as a field of bioinformatics, such as assembling tiny DNA sequence pieces into long contiguous sequences with sequence homology and annotating and finding genes in the sequences. In addition to genomics, proteomics and metabolomics are dealing with comprehensive analyses of proteins and metabolites, respectively. Various types of technologies for identifying proteins extracted from biological materials combining with the genomic information of the organism have been developed. On the other hand, metabolomic analysis is still under the development. Especially comprehensive identification of metabolites is still the major challenge in the research field. Recent development of technologies for mass spectrometry helps the comprehensive analysis of metabolites. For example, an Orbitrap liquid-chromatography mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific) detects several thousand small molecules with high resolution when a vegetable extract is analyzed. As each detected molecule is given the accurate mass value, it is possible to speculate the molecule formula of the chemical. The machine also detects the MS/MS patterns of some molecules, which are useful clues for speculating the molecular structures of the molecules. To integrate the biological data from the omics analyses, various types of databases have been constructed as a file of bioinformatics. The GeneBank (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/) is one of the biggest database for all publicly available DNA sequences. Keywords: use DNA sequencing, genomics, metabolomics, omics, proteomics.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 15
LESSON LEARNED FROM MANGROVE PROGRAM IN INDONESIA Cecep Kusmana1* 1
Silviculture Departement, Faculty of Forestry Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) * Corresponding author:
[email protected]
Abstract Indonesia as an archipelagic country more than 17,504 islands with the length of coastline estimated at 95,181 km bears mangroves from several meters to several kilometers. They grow extensively in the five big islands (Jawa, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua). At the year of 2009, Agency of Survey Coordination and National Mapping (Bakosurtanal) of Indonesia reported the existing mangrove forest area in Indonesia of about 3,244,018 ha, however Directorate General of Land Rehabilitation and Social Forestry, Ministry of Forestry (Ditjen RLPS MoF) of Indonesia at 2007 reported about 7,758,411 ha of mangrove area in Indonesia (including existing vegetated mangrove area). It was further reported that those mangroves were 30.7% in good condition, 27.4% moderate-destroyed, and 41.9% heavydestroyed. In order to rehabilitate destroyed mangrove ecosystems, Indonesia applies at least three type of planting designs (square planting design, zig zag planting design, and cluster planting design) and eight planting techniques (“banjar harian” technique, bamboo pole technique, guludan technique, water break technique, huge polybag technique, ditch muddy technique, huge mole technique, cluster technique). Generally, in Indonesia Rhizophora spp. are used for mangrove rehabilitation and/or restoration with the spacing of 1x1 m spending varied planting cost based on the site local condition and planting technique used. The mangrove planting ranged from about Rp. 14.2 million using propagules to Rp. 18.5 million using cultured seedlings. Recently, local community used to utilizing associated mangrove aquatic fauna for supporting their daily life as well as utilizing mangrove habitat for multipurpose uses through agroforestry techniques (silvofishery, agrosilvofishery, agrosilvopastoralfishery systems). So that, the good mangrove ecosystem serves luxurious both flora and fauna species (biodiversity) as well as their abundance for significantly supporting the welfare of coastal community. Keywords: agroforestry technique, local community, mangrove rehabilitation, planting design, planting technique
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 16
BIOENERGY PRODUCTION POTENTIAL FROM MARGINAL LANDS Himlal Baral1* and Edi Wiraguna1,2 1
Center for International Forestry Research, Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede, SindangBarang, Bogor 16115, Indonesia 2 Associated Bachelor of Bogor Agricultural University (D3 IPB), Jl. Kumbang No. 14, Bogor, Indonesia; *Corresponding author:
[email protected];
[email protected] Abstract Energy is a significant issue nowadays because fossil fuels are predicted to be unavailable in the future. In Indonesia, government plans to use bioenergy as alternative energy sources (23% of total energy consumption by 2025). Other countries, USA and Brazil produce bioenergy from food crops such as corn and sugar cane; however, this conversion can trigger competition between bioenergy and food crops, which increases hunger, food commodity prices and food insecurity. This review tries to solve the problem by classifying degraded or marginal land, in Indonesia particularly; and suggesting bioenergy crops from inedible plants. The areas can be categorized as marginal land if it has high erosion intensity, sloppy areas and low productivity by using geographical information system (GIS) tool. Moreover, bioenergy crops were chosen if they can adapt to unfavourable conditions such as sloppy areas, salinity and low pH.The result showed that 23.76 million hectares are marginal land and available to bioenergy cultivation where the largest area is South Sumatra province at 3.08 million hectares.In addition, bioenergy plants that adapts to unfavourable conditions were Reutealistrisperma, can grow on sloppy areas between 15% and 40%, and Calophylluminophyllum, adapts to saline conditions. In conclusion, the two bioenergy plants are recommended grown on degraded land but further research is needed because some areas of degraded land might be suitable for agricultural crops. Keywords: energy; marginal land, GIS, bioenergy plants
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 17
REVIEW ON THE ROLE OF MICRO-SATELLITE TECHNOLOGIES IN SUPPORTING SUSTAINABLE HUMANOSPHERE Robertus Heru Triharjanto1* 1
Satellite Technology Center, National Institute for Aeronautics & Space (LAPAN), Rancabungur, Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract
Micro-satellites is the new trend in satellite technology. Its development cost provide advantages for new kind of Earth observation and science missions, as well as, emerging space countries’ missions. Being very limited in size and weight, micro-satellite has some limitation in delivering the mission ebjectives. The paper discuss the micro-satellite capacity limitations for missions related to sustainable humanosphere, i.e. environmental polution/degradations, effect of urban developments, agricultures, and natural disasters. It also dicuss the Indonesian/LAPAN experiences in developing micro-satellite missions; its status, future opportunies, and challenges. Keywords: micro-satellite, earth observation missions, Indonesia space program
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SAFETY OF WOODEN HOUSES TO INVESTIGATE IN KUMAMOTO EARTHQUAKE 2016 Takuro Mori1* 1
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract
I introduce our report that the earthquake damage of the wooden houses was investigated in Kumamoto earthquake 2016. Many building and houses were damaged or collapsed by this earthquake shaking. It is also a history of building code and necessity of building performance in Japan, it has been revised several times after major earthquake occurs. In 1981, Japanese building code was revised to require twice the performance compared to the previous one. After 2000, about the wooden structure, the several connections, for example of base-column, base-sill and beam-column, need to joint by the connection with sufficient strength and stiffness was established. Therefore, when evaluated in conjunction with this change age, it could be seen that old houses = relatively low performance. Further, our investigation houses had found several damage by bio-deterioration such as the termite and the decay, and those houses were indicated larger damage compared with less biodeterioration part. This lecture introduces that it is important to improve of earthquake resistance performance and durability, in order to continue to use safety at long term in the wooden houses. Keywords: earthquake resisting; earthquake damage; wooden house
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 19
WOOD ADHESIVE FROM NATURAL RUBBER LATEX Euis Hermiati1* , Widya Fatriasari1, Fahriya Puspita Sari1, and Raden Permana Budi Laksana1 1
Research Center for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract
Natural rubber is a biopolymer (poly cis-1,4-isoprene) obtained after tapping rubber trees (Hevea braziliensis). A milky white solution, called field latex, will flow from the trees. The tack property’s of natural rubber becomes a reason it was one of the earliest materials used in formulating adhesives. Natural rubber adhesives can be used in bonding diffrent kinds of non metalic materials, such as leather, fabrics, rubber products, wood and paper. There are two types of rubber adhesives, solvent base and emulsion. Some solvents usually used are benzene, toluene and naphta. Since the solvents are volatiles, it is important to pay attention to the vaporization of each component to prevent blushing, a condition in which the more volatile fraction of a solvent evaporates faster than the others, cause cooling on the surface, which makes the moisture from the air condensed on the glue film. Rubber emulsion is a dispersion of small rubber globules in water, which is called latex. It needs emulsifiers to maintain good dispersioan of a non polar material in a polar liquid. The performance of natural rubber as wood adhesive is usually lower than that of other wood adhesives such as formaldehyde bearing wood adhesives, due to its poor resistance to stress and heat and fair resistance to moisture. However, there are some technologies, for example blending with commercial adhesives, chemical modifications, or combinations of chemical modification and blending, that could be used to improve its performance, so that it can be used as an exterior grade wood adhesive. Blending with commercial adhesives is the easiest and the most simple way in improving adhesion quality of natural rubber. The natural rubber latex (NRL) could be blended with formaldehyde bearing adhesives, such as urea formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde or phenol formaldehyde, as well as with nonformaldehyde adhesives, such as Aqueous Polymer Isocyanate (API) adhesive. Chemical modifications mean that the rubber is modified chemically, for example by grafting with polystyrene (PS) or polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), or by making an epoxidized natural rubber (ENR). The modified rubber also can be blended with other commercial adhesives and produce adhesives of good bond strength. Our study on the bonding performance of Aqueous Polymer Isocayanate (API) adhesive that was prepared from natural rubber latex (NRL) and PVA as base polymers and diisocyanate as crosslinking agent, showed that the ratio of base polymer components (NRL/PVA) affected the bonding performance of the adhesive. Higher bond strengths were observed at ratios of NRL/PVA <4 and >10 and at total solid content between 38 and 43%. Bond strengths are increased due to increase of corsslinker amount. Glue spread rate also influenced bonding strength, and the highest bonding strength was observed at glue spread rate between 250 and 350 g/m2. In other studies we investigated the effects of the addition of lignin into the base polymers on the characteristics of API adhesive and its bond performance. In these studies the base polymers of the adhesive were prepared by blending NRL, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and lignin isolated from black liquor of alkaline pretreatment of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) and sugarcane bagasse (SB) with several compositions. The isocyanate crosslinker The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 20
was added at the level of 15% of the weight of base polymer. The adhesive was used for producing plywood (using hot pressing) and laminated wood (using cold pressing). Results showed that the addition of lignin in the base polymer blends of API adhesive did not significantly affect the Tg of the adhesives. However, it affected the thermal decomposition and bond performance of the adhesives. There were more residues and less homogenous adhesive solution due to the addition of lignin in the base polymer blends of API adhesives. The base polymers composition that could produce API adhesive for plywood of exterior application, with shear strength after cyclic boiling test of 0.80 N/mm2 (8.16 kgf/cm2), was NRL/PVA/Lignin (4/4/2). The use of more lignin in adhesive formulation decreased bond strength of plywood and laminated wood. The highest shear strength values of API adhesives obtained in this study (5.30 N/mm2 or 5.30 MPa) was obtained at formula NRL/PVA/Lignin (5/4/1), and this was still lower than those previously reported by other researchers that used different types of polymers for base polymer blends, and different crosslinkers. The decrease in bond performance of plywood and laminated wood with API adhesive containing lignin was probably due to the poor miscibility of lignin solution in the base polymer blends, as well as the dominance of phenolic hydroxyl groups, instead of aliphatic hydroxyl groups in the lignin. Keywords: biopolymer; lignin; natural rubber; renewable, wood adhesive.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 21
RESEARCH OF WOOD-BASED PANELS CONSIDERING WOOD RESOURCES Kenji Umemura1* 1
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract
Wood-based panels are regarded as renewable and environmentally friendly materials and are indispensable as materials for architecture and furniture etc. According to FAO data, production of wood-based panels such as particleboard, plywood and fiberboard is increasing year by year. This would be due to population increase and economic development in the world, and the demand for wood-based panels is expected to increase in the future. However, global forest area is continuing to decrease, and 129 million ha was lost since 1990. Therefore, positive utilizations of plantation woods and non-wood plants is desired. In our research group including Indonesian researchers, comparison of mechanical properties of wood-based panels manufactured from plantation and natural woods was performed. Plantation and natural woods of Shorea leprousula were used as raw materials. As a result, the physical properties of the panels manufactured from natural wood were a little superior to those of the panels from plantation wood. The research on utilization of non-wood plants for wood-based panels has been performed by many researchers. Recently, we are researching the development of particleboard using sweet sorghum bagasse, because sweet sorghum is widely cultivated as common multipurpose crops. In this research, natural wood adhesive such as citric acid is used, and the sustainable manufacture technology of the particleboard is investigating. Keywords: wood resources, wood-based panels, plantation wood, non-wood plants.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 22
WIRELESS POWER AS GAME CHANGING TECHNOLOGY Naoki Shinohara1* 1
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract
Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) is currently considered as one of game changing technologies because electricity can be transmitted wirelessly with information. The WPT has a possibility to change our life to wireless and battery-less world. Additionally, the WPT can be applied for a Solar Power Satellite (SPS) which is a future CO2-free power station in space. The SPS is one of hopeful technologies toward a sustainable humanosphere. Theory, technologies, applications, and current R&D status of the WPT will be presented. The talk will cover both the far-field WPT via radio waves, especially beam-type and ubiquitous-type WPT, and energy harvesting from broadcasting waves. The research of the WPT was started from the far-field WPT via radio waves, in particular the microwaves in 1960s. In recent years this became a hot topic again due to the rapid growth of wireless devices. Theory and technologies of antenna and circuits will be presented in case of beamtype and ubiquitous-type WPT. The industrial applications and current R&D status of the WPT via radio waves will be also presented. In 2015, many field WPT experiments were carried out in RISH, Kyoto University, and in Japan. One is a field WPT experiment with a very thin phased array as a power transmitter toward the SPS by support by Japanese ministry METI. The author is a chair to conduct the WPT project from 2009. The other is a demonstration of battery-less sensor system by use of a drone which carries a microwave transmitter and provides a wireless power to the ground. In this talk, the experimental results are shown. Keywords: wireless power transfer, microwave power transfer, solar power satellite, sustainable humanospheres
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 23
EARTHQUAKE SCIENCES AND DISASTER MITIGATIONS IN INDONESIA Danny Hilman Natawidjaja1* 1
Research Center for Geotchnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, LIPI campus, Bld#70, Jl. Sangkuriang, Bandung *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract
Indonesian is one of the most tectonically active region on earth. This lecture will describe knowledge of major earthquake fault zones in Indonesia based on current state-of-art studies in the field of earthquake geology, seismology, and geodesy. The most aplied disastermitigation practices is using earthquake-source knowledge to predict ground-motion or seismic hazard level for building code or developing earthquake-shake proof structures. The other less known hazard is potential damages due to fault-surface ruptures/deformations. Earthquake processes also shape or influence past, current, and future natural landscapes. Understanding earthquake processes, impacts, hazards and risks is crucial to develop saver human environments in the present time and the future. Keywords: active faults, earthquake geology, seismology, paleoseismology, tectonic geodesy, seismic hazards and risks, environmental damages.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 24
ORAL PRESENTATION
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 25
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 26
TOXICITY OF LIQUID OIL WASTE IN MARTAPURA BARU PORT RIVER TOWARD GOLDFISH (Cyprinus carpio) SEED LC50 – 96 HOUR Widya Rizky Amalia*, Retno Jumirah and Bunda Halang Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarmasin, 70124, Indonesia. *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract Oils are one of important product for life used for vehicle and factories, oils work to lubricating the engine and the work become such as blood for human body. As we also known that it need specializing treatment before disposal, if it were carelessly discarded every chemical mass would have negative impact for the environment. It will be absorbed by every living organism and non-living e.g soil and water. There are many anchored ships around of Martapura Baru Port River which come from every place but one thing that should to be more observed that is oil waste disposal activity directly into the water. According to Storage Critecria and Collection of Oil Waste and Lubricants (BAPEDAL Number .KEP-225/BAPEDAL.08.1006) we took conclusion it has been done for long time by ships crew. The toxicity degree determined through full scale test towards goldfish seed by adding liquid oil waste on the concentration of 0 ml/L,32 ml/L, 42 ml/L, 56 ml/L, 75 ml/L and 87 ml/L. Shortly after exposure, the seed of C.carpio showed more than LC50 – 96 hour. Keywords : Cyprinus carpio, heavy metals, Martapura Baru Port, oil waste Introduction There are two types of oil waste, light industrial oil and black oil. Light industrial oil is relatively cleaner and easier to clean with simple treatments such as filtration and heating. Black oil comes from automotive engine also containing metals particular and residual fuel which has changed physically and chemical properties by high thermal and mechanical load (Raharjo, 2007). If it carelessly discharged this waste potential threaten environmental health. Oil waste will degenerate soil fertility, undissolvable and flammable properties might endangering water habitat. In daily activity at Martapura Baru Port River managed by PT. PELINDO III anchored ships from Java Sea and around Borneo, from many routines up-and-loading dock, special activity which need further observation that is disposal activity of oil waste that has been done by ship crew directly into the water. Relating to the treatments of oil waste based on PP 38/2007 on the licensing authority and control (collecting, processing, carriage) being fully under of Ministry of Environmental in Jakarta. Irrationally if small businessman should submit all of these to the center, it is consequently all process above became uncontrollable e.g including those who directly dispose oil waste to the river. Sign or indicator of polluted environment there are physical change (turbidity, temperature, colour, smell and taste), chemicals change (dissolved chemical also pH change) as well as Biology change (pathogen microorganism). Fish is one of the biomonitoring for river environmental change, the waste presence would reduce the availability of dissolved oxygen then it would harm aquatic organisms. The damage caused by chemical mass such as strong acidic or alkaline destructive naturally if has direct contact or acute and chronic effect aquatic organism. Meanwhile, exposure of heavy metals within oil waste would leading to disturbed metabolism (enzyme physiology) and will be accumulated to the organ (Palar, 2008).
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 27
Polluted river by oil waste would impact aquatic organism that consume by citizen. According to Soemirat & Suli (2007) toxicity is divided into four based on toxicant works i.e Acute (quickly and heavy range only 4 days), Sub-Acute (pertinent effect need more than 4 days), Chronic (Stimulus more than 10 days even throughout it lifetimes) and Sub-Lethal (concentration indirectly cause death). There are various types of pollution that are odors, colours, sound, even environmental chain termination or a destruction of organism at the level of ecosystem (Palar, 2008). In this research, further examination were done toward goldfish seed where goldfish being one of the most sensitive freshwater species to be tested regarding the environmental influence. The aim of oil waste exposure LC50 during 96 hours was to knowing on which condition and concentration levels that would cause growth disruption. Materials and Methods The equipment In this research the equipment that were used consist of 24 aquariums, 24 aerators, 1 Becker glass 1000 ml, 1 measure glass to measuring 1 ml, 10 ml & 100 ml of oil waste volume, 1 stirring spoon, Volumetric pipette, 5 botle to placing oil waste, 24 bucket, label clip, digital camera & pen. The materials The materials used are animal testing seed of C. carpio as long as 5.013-5.574 cm as weight as 5.02-5.06, counted 240 animal / testing place, liquid oil waste (Mesran Merk), comfeed fish food, aeration water. It took 3 months from march till may regarding of collecting data, reference collection, explanatory and full scale test. The biology test Experimental method done with two procedure such as exploratory test and fullscale test. The procedure was modify Rand (1980) & Tandjung (1982) Programme: Naparin & Halang (2004) through the utilization of Complete Random Programme with 6 treatments & 4 repetitions, has steps as : a) Breeding, 1) fish are bred in Lab condition during 5 days and get aeration sufficiently, 2) water commutation as 40-60% everyday from receptacles, 3) fed twice a day (morning & noon) after observation. b) Acclimatization, fish are not fed the day before testing and as long as the acclimatization process the mortality has not reach 2% then the process continued. c) Testing, divided into two procedural: 1) The exploratory test was done to get lowest and highest standard value of toxicity i.e : a) 5 treatments with doses 0 ml, 0.1 ml, 10 ml, 100 ml, & 1000 ml. b) Static water method on each aquarium volume 10 L / 10 fish. c) 30 minute after observation fish will be observed on their operculum and body balance. d) Marked as dead if there was no movement and smooth stimulation respond after 5 minutes. e) The sum of dead fish was noted and moved out to prevent deterioration. f) Observation was done at 0 hr, 24 hr, 48 hr, 72 hr & 96 hr. g) Feces weredisregarded during testing. h) Determining the lower limit value and the upper limit value. 2) The full scale test was use Rand scale to multiplied with lower limit result, i.e 0 ml/L, 32 ml/L, 42 ml/L, 75 ml/L, 87 ml/L with four times repetitions which have been observed for LC50-96 hours regard to minimum repetition of Fereder equality (t-1) (r-1) ≥ 15.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 28
Results and Discussion Fish Mortality (t) hr Liquid Oil Waste Concentration (ml//L) 0 0.1 1 10 100 1000
∑ Fish
24
48
72
96
∑ Dead Fish
10 10 10 10 10 10
-
3
1 7
1 9 -
1 1 9 10
Table 1. The exploratory test result show such as Based on exploratory test, we have achieved the result for lower limit value as 10 ml and upper limit value as 100 ml, on the concentration 100 ml/L has shown us there is more than 50% mortality. Table 2. The fullscale test result after exposure with 4 repetitions Nu.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Concentration & Repetition Treatment 0 ml
32 ml
42 ml
56 ml
75 ml
87 ml
Time (hr)
∑ Dead Fish
Mortality (%)
24
49
72
96
A1 U1 A1 U2
-
-
-
-
0 0
0 0
A1 U3
-
-
-
-
0
0
A1 U4
-
-
-
-
0
0
B1 U1 B1 U2
-
-
-
9
0 9
0 90
B1 U3
-
-
-
8
8
80
B1 U4
1
-
-
5
6
60
C1 U1 C1 U2
-
9 3
7
-
9 10
90 100
C1 U3
1
-
-
-
1
10
C1 U4
1
8
-
-
9
90
D1 U1 D1 U2
1 -
9 10
-
-
10 10
100 100
D1 U3
-
-
-
9
9
90
D1 U4
-
-
7
3
10
100
E1 U1 E1 U2
-
-
1 -
9 5
10 5
100 50
E1 U3
-
1
5
4
10
100
E1 U4
-
1
-
7
8
80
F1 U1 F1 U2
-
6 5
4 5
-
10 10
100 100
F1 U3
-
7
3
-
10
100
F1 U4
-
3
7
-
10
100
The concentration that causes mortality more than LC50 were 56 ml, 75 ml and 87 ml to knowing how much toxicity impact toward seed of C. carpio we have been used Quant Programme by Finney Probit Model and the result showed us as 26.6708. Based on statistic analysis transportation The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 29
procedure come from mortality percentage data to determine function of logarithmic segregation under LC 50 estimation. Through the observation result, we have been seen that the river condition is turbid, soiled by trash (organic nor anorganic) even waste. However, on this research was only observing oil waste toxicity toward fish which does not measure of environmental parameter quality, related with others study is toxicology for histopathology there was damage on the respiration organ with the same family of Cyprinidae fish. It remarks that fish will be suffered by polluted water (heavy metal contamination) on the same river as we have been researching for (Basirih River). Lethal concentration (LC) dose works to weakening fish until they get death by toxicant works which has been determined within four days or 96 hours. Fish showed us to change in behavior through heightened operculum movements in according to obtain oxygen. Oil waste that dissolved in water causing blockage of the oxygen diffusion where the surface of lamella gills covered at least made fish struggle in respiration, as well as the balance of fish body, are no longer controlled until eventually cause the mortality. In the open water generally oil waste is potentially blocking sunlight penetration that will disturb photosynthesis of aquatic plants. Basically fish will swim away from pollution source but the quantity increasingly by what ship crew has been done since a long time period (accumulative effect) and it has spread toxicant widely. Oil waste not only consists of residual fuel but also heavy metals, as mentioned by Widowati, et al (2008) engine lubricate (oil) as transportation results and paint coatings loss of hull are also potential in contributing heavy metal to waters. These toxicant materials would harm the environmental due to bio-accumulative and bio-magnification properties. Meanwhile, on the interview with ship crew (Narita 3) they were good in handle of oil waste where they usually returning their liquid oil waste to The Industry (Pertamina) as well. But, mostly of ships around of research area have been discharged their liquid oil waste directly to water. They should collect their oil waste to be returned as recycle product as stated in PP 38/2007.
Figure 1. narita ships 3, the observation ships
Figure 3. Crew in disposal activity
Figure 2. Ships around the port
Figure 4. Liquid oil waste sample
Conclusion In conclusion, the toxicity test toward C. carpio seed was manifested as a LC50-96 hour as amount as 26.6708 ml/L. Behavior change is mortality form that seen during the observation process against the toxicant presence, the higher toxicant concentration the higher movement of operculum occur until fish struggle in the respiration and face death. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 30
Acknowledgment The author would thanks to Mrs. Retno Jumirah, Mr. Bunda Halang, Mr. Kaspul and the veterinary for their valuable help on direction and correcting explanation. Also, the study was done at Mandiangin Freshwater Cultivation Hall.
Reference http://www.elip.ub.ac.i/Pesticide Dose Impact “Diazinon” Toward Mortality and Goldfish Growth Speed (Cyprinus carpio). http://www.dewistika.uns.lamongan/research/Loundry Waste Toxicity toward Goldfish carpio)
(Cyprinus
Azwar, E. 2000. Impact of liquid ship oil toward plankton diversity area of fishery port Belawan Nusantara. Medan. University of North Sumatera. Bulkis. 2012. Toxicity test of Sasirangan Liquid Waste toward the mortality and growth of Oreochromis niloticus. Banjarmasin : Lambung Mangkurat University. Finney. D. J. R. 1994. Probit Analysis Third Edition. Cambridge, England : Cambirdge University Press. Gaspersz, V. 1991. Testing Planing Methods. Bandung : Armico. Koesman, J. H. 1987. General Brief of Toxicology (Translated by R. H. Yudono). Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada University Press. Kristanto, P. 2002. Industry Ecology. Yogyakarta : Andi Press. Lu, F. C. 1995. Basic Toxicology. Jakarta : Indonesia University Press. Mukono, H. J. 2002. Environment Epidemiology. Surabaya : Airlangga University Press. Naparin & Halang, B. 2004. Practical Guide of Environment Toxicology. Banjarmasin : Lambung Mangkurat University Press. Palar, H. 2008. Contamination & Heavy Metals Toxicology. Jakarta. Rineka Cipta. Raharjo, W. B. 2007. Science Research & Technology. Surakarta. Sebelas Maret University. Santika & Alearts. 1987. Water Research Methods. Surabaya. National Labor. Soemirat & Suli. 2004. Environment Health. Yogyakarta. Gadjah Mada University Press.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 31
EFFECT OF DELAYED MATING AND SEX RATIO ON BIOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF ALMOND MOTH, Ephestia cautella (WALKER) (LEPIDOPTERA : PYRALIDAE ) Haris Setyaningrum1* 1
Department of Agrotechnology , Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Darussalam Gontor Jl Raya Siman km 5, Siman, Ponorogo, East Java, Indonesia 63471 *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract The Almond moth, Ephestia cautella (Walker) is important and dangerous pest in stored product especially cereal and grain. No comprehensive study of delayed mating and sex ratio on E. cautella is currently available. The delayed mating experiment was conducted in four treatment included 0 (no delayed), 1, 3, and 5 delayed days. Sex ratio experiments was conducted in five different treatments, single male:single female (control), 1:2, 1:3, 2:1. 3:1. Additionally, biological study and sex determination are available from these study. Delayed mating of E. cautella caused decreasing of egg fecundity rate as increased as delayed days, that may caused female physiological conditions. Sex ratio showed that increasing number of male caused increasing fecundity rate of eggs. Increasing of egg fecundity may caused by fluid energy transfer during copulation from male to female which affected embryo developments. The biological performances of E. cautella under artificial diet during 50 days treatments are described as follow egg hatching period 4- 5 days, male larvae are 12 days and female 9 days, pupal period of males are 12 days and female 10 days, while adult life span of males are 6 days and female 8 days. The sex of E. cautella determined by availability of brown dark coloring marked in abdomen part in larval and pupal stage. Adult stage sex determined cone shape of abdomen tips in male while female determined by thin forked abdominal tips. Keywords: copulation, sex ratio, fecundity, Ephestia cautella
Introduction Almond moth,Ephestia cautella (Walker) is one important stored product pest in the world. It a common cosmopolitan pest in the most of temperate world as well as in warmer areas. E.cautella have been recorded by various experts caused huge losses and qualitative damages of dry fruits, stored food grains and their derivatif products(Boshra, 2007). Morphology of E. cautella are similar in many characters with Plodia interpunctella. In case of P. interpunctella, their fecundity depend on several factors, including type of food, size of the female, provision of drinking water, and physiological condition of adult female moths (Mohandass, 2007). The Food availability and quality naturally will affect life-history of organism such as E. cautella and other moths. Many pyralid moths have nonfeeding adults, and therefore dependent on larval food quality and quantity to determine adult gamete production (reproductive investment), fat reserves and muscle tissue. The almond moth E. cautella is a typical indoor pest, has a non-feeding adult with functional mouthparts that are used to drink liquids (Ryne, et.al 2004). Biological performance and life cycle of E. cautella merely with E.elutella, where E. elutella having adults stage up to 3 weeks, depending on temperature and body size, and morphology of males shorter than females. In E. cautella the single female laid 150 – 200 eggs except in some case over 300 eggs. Eggs Incubation of E. cautella 6 -7 days under 25 °C temperature. These species larvae develop through six instars and 2 - 3 months inside the food storage. The duration of the The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 32
pupal stage is affected by temperatures, according to Ashworth (1993) it can be reach 45 days at 15 °C and only 10 days at 30 °C. Delayed mating an organism including E. cautella is affected pheromone. The pheromone communication system of moths has developed so that males can find females over a relatively large area in certain day, even when the population density of the females is quite low. Pheromones are typically consisted 2-5 components that occur in relatively constant ratios. If the pheromone blend is altered, inactivity or a reduced response may occur (Jones, Anon; Mozūraitis, 2006). Mating was influence by pheromones, in E. cautella presence of high concentration of sex pheromones generated by the females population, sexually excited males of this species will attempt mating with any moths. It therefore appears likely that synthetic female sex pheromones will limit reproduction effectively in E.cautella only in at very low adults population densities (Barrer, 1976). No comprehensive study of E.cautella are currently available from around the world. The present experiments are designed to study effect of delay mating and sex ratio copulation on biological performance of E.cautella. These experiments be expected effective method in future for controlling stored pest included E.cautell. Materials and Methods Biology study A single fresh egg from the culture was put on 9 cm Petridish with small amount of artificial diet. All treatments were conducted in Entomology Laboratory, Plant Protection Department, King Saud University. Daily observation was conducted till the individual death and be tabulated (incubation, larval, pupal, and adult period). Observation consisting of morphological appearance and behavior during all stages. Thirty replications were applied during experiments. Diet replacement treated only for larval stage and carry out every two days. Sex Determination Sex determinations of E. cautella were applied for three main stages, larvae, pupa and adults. Each stage consisted ten replications with daily observation. Sex determination of larval stage was determined by appearance of testis in dorsal of abdomen and black coloration. The Male was identified with black or brown dark spot otherwise female identified without dark spot on dorsal of abdomen (Figure 1). In Pupal stage, male was identified with dark spot lines appearance while, female had no spot on the dorsal part closed to the head part (Figure 2). In adult stage, male identified with the tip of abdomen forked and slender and female with tip tube like appearance (Figure 3).
Male of larva E.cautella Female of larva E.cautella Figure 1. Male and female of larvaE.cautella
Male of pupae E.cautella female of pupae E.cautella Figure 2. Male and female of Pupae E.cautella The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 33
Male of adult E.cautella Female of adult E.cautella Figure 3 :Male and female of adult E.cautella Delay mating The delayed mating of E. cautella was conducted to observe biological performance such as fecundity and hatch ability of eggs. The male and female adults in same age were prepared for delayed mating in one, three and five days. In the series of day (1, 3 and 5 days) male and female were mated together in a 250 ml jar covering with muslin cloth (Figure 4). After 24 hours, they were separeted d into a single container and observed the eggs production daily until the female and male died. The eggs hatchability were observed daily.
Figure 4. Container design for delay mating and sex ratio experiment
Figure 5. Petridish for study biology
Sex ratio The newly emerge of male and female were collected and gathered together until their died. Observations of eggs production were conducted every 48 hours (two days). The sex ratios (male: female) were designed as 1:2; 1:3; 2:1 and 3:1. The eggs hatchability observed every 48 hours. All experiment was conducted under 25±1 °C temperature regime, 16 hours photoperiod and 70 % humidity.
Results and Discussion 1. Biology The eggs of Almond moth, E. cautella were deposited by adult females in varied quantity. In our experiment shown the eggs were laid on the surface of the walls or fell down to the basal of containers. The eggs sometimes attached to the walls or surface for several days. Eggs were laid singly or in a group, with morphology of eggs was sandy white in color when it was laid and turned darker as well as embryo development. Each egg was covered with relative tough shell and be deposited in almost all areas of the container. This indicated that the female behavior were moving frequently during laying eggs were distributed in the container. The eggs hatched in 4 – 5 days after laid on the substrate.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 34
Table 1. Longevity of Ephestia cautella sex
Incubation
Larval (day)
(day)
Prepupa
Pupa (day)
(day)
Adults (day)
male
4.5±0.52
12.83±14.99
17.33±14.86
12.08±1.38
6.25±1.71
female
4.53±0.64
9.00±7.23
13.53±7.11
10.93±1.16
8.53±3.38
In our artificial media, prepupal periods were longest period compare with other stages. It means the process to become pupa from the larval are need more time. Its’ may cause from the ingredients of media. The rich protein will make growth faster or optimally including process from larval to pupal stage. Larval develop through five instars, were mostly larvae entering the food and begin to feeding. Pupal stage period were almost 12 days on male and 10 days on female. The body appearance of pupal stage was light brown to dark brown, as dark as growth of pupae. The males had longer time period campared to female. The adults male life span of E. cautella was six days while female were nine days. The adult life span was quietly different with the larval and pupal stage where, the duration of males was longer than females durations. These results are agreed with Ashworth (1993), which the life span of males adult are shorter than female. 2. Sex ratio of mating Sex ratio of mating in E. cautella was affected to the fecundity. The result shown fecundity was decreased as increased number of female. These result was indicated competitions between during mating process, especially in ratio male: female, 1: 2 and 1: 3. Fecundity was also affected by female nutrition, where transferred from male to female during copulation. In these case, the higher number of male were transferred more liquid nutrition so affected to increasing fecundity. These results was conformed with Fox (1995), in his experiment on Callosobruchus macultus. The control was highest fecundity compared to another treatments that may caused by female condition rather than male competition. Table 2. Fecundity of E.cautella different sex ratio male and femal Ratio male : Number egg/single female female 1:1(control) 250.5±239.17a 1:2 53±3.54b 1:3 62±2.83ce 2:1 98.5±13.44d 3:1 75±8.49e a–d Mean values followed by different letters within rows are statistically different (p < 0.05).
Delayed mating The Fecundity of E. cautella after delayed mating for one day was 177±99.3, where lower than control (250.5±239.17) and delayed mating 5 days (296.50±100.69). Compared to delayed mating for 3 days (84.33±48.79), these results was higher. The fluctuated of fecundity showed that condition of adults E. cautella were unstable physiologically both males and females. Unstable physiological condition of adults were affected the quality and quantity of eggs production.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 35
Table 3. Fecundity of E. cautella under different delayed mating Treatment (delay in Number of egg days) control 1 3 Number egg/female Life span
250.5±239.17a 8.5±4.80
177±99.35b 9±3.37
84.33±48.79c 7±1.00
5 296.50±100.69d 12±2.16
a–d Mean values followed by different letters within rows are statistically different (p < 0.05). Physiological of female was determined the quality of eggs, these agree with Barrer (1976) resulted in his experiment. The egg fecundity was also affected by female life span as shown in five days delayed mating. Life span of adult females were indicate the quality of nutrition inside body.
Conclusion
The biological performance of E.cautella in artificial diet was concluded as by egg hatching time, larval period, pupal period and adult period. The hatching time of egg was 4- 5 days. The male larval period was longer than female. Pupal period of males was longer than female, while adult life span of males was shorter than female. During these study the life cycle of E.cautella was 50 days long. Increasing male number were affected increased egg fecundity of E.cautella in sex ratio treatments. The physiological of females were affected of egg fecundity in delayed mating. Acknowledgment I would like to express a great gratitude to Prof. Dr. Yousif Al Dryhim for laboratory work information and guiding experiment. We would also like to give our gratitude to Head Depertment of Plant Protection and all member of King Saud University Museum of Arthropods (KSMA) for his great help in facilitate this study. Special appreciation is extended to all the members of Economic Entomology Research Unit, Plant Protection, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University.
References Mohandass.S. , Arthurb, F.H., Zhuc, K.Y., & Throne, J.E. (2007). Biology and management of Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptra: Pyralidae) in stored products. Journal of Stored Products Research 43, 302–311. Boshra, S.A. (2007). Effect of gamma irradiation on food consumption, assimilation and digestive enzymes in Ephestia cautella(Walker ) larvae. Journal of Stored Products Research 43, 49 – 52 Ryne, Camilla., Nilsson, P. Anders., & Siva-Jothy, Michael T. (2004). Dietary glycerol and adult access to water: effects on fecundity and longevity in the almond moth. Journal of Insect Physiology 50, 429–434. Jones, Vincent P.Anon years. Population Dynamics of Moths Under Mating Disruption. Washington State University extension. Barrer, P.M. 1976. The influence of delayed mating on the reproduction of Ephestia cautella (Walker ) (Lepidoptera : Phyctidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 12, 65- 169. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 36
Ashworth, Jeremy R. (1993). The biology of Ephestia elutella.Journal of Stored Products Research. 29 (3), 199- 205. Fox, Charles W., Hickman, Debra L., Raleigh, E.Llyod., & Mousseau, Timothy A . (1995). Paternal investment in a seed beetle (Coleoptera : Bruchidae): influence of male size, age, and mating history. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 88 (1),100 – 103. Mozūraitis, Raimondas . (2006).Pheromone release behaviour in females of Phyllonorycter strigulatella (Lien. & Z.) and Ph. sorbi (Frr.) (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) under daily cycling temperature regime. EKOLOGIJA 4, 7–11.
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ANTIFEEDANT ACTIVITIY OF ETHANOL EXTRACTS OF FIVE SELECTED PLANTS AGAINST LARVAE OF TARO CATERPILLAR (Spodoptera litura Fabricius, 1775) Desak Made Malini*1, Madihah1, Melanie1, Hikmat Kasmara1, Rani Maharani2, Vita Novianti1, Fakhrur Rozi1, Wawan Hermawan1 1
Departement of Biology, Faculty Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung Sumedang Km. 21, Jatinangor, Jawa Barat 45363, Indonesia 2 Departement of Chemistry, Faculty Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung Sumedang Km. 21, Jatinangor, Jawa Barat 45363, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract This research was carried out to investigate antifeedant activity of ethanol extracts from five plants against larvae of Spodoptera litura F. The plants that used were Pterocarpus indicus, Centella asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Alstonia scholaris, and Lantana camara. The aimed of this study were to find effective minimum concentration that has antifeedant properties against third instar S. litura larvae and to screen the best extract with antifeedant properties. This research used leaf disk method with choice and no choice test. The parameter was the average leaves areas that were consumed by the larvae. The data were analyzed by using non parametric statistics of Mann-Whitney U. The results showed that the effective minimum concentrations that showed antifeedant properties from C. asiatica, C. inophyllum, A. scholaris and L. camara extracts were 625 ppm for the choice test, however, extract of P. indicus did not show the effective minimum concentration for the antifeedant properties. There was no significant antifeedant properties from the extract with no choice test. Based on total value of antifeedant coefficient, it was found that C. asiatica was the best extract with antifeedant properties at concentration of 2500 ppm with coefficient of antifeedant activity in range of 101-150% so that categorized has a good antifeedant properties. Keywords: antifeedant, Centella asiatica , Spodoptera litura
Introduction The quality improvement from the vegetable productions has some serious obstacles. One of them is the presence of pests that can attact the vegetables. One of the pests is taro caterpillar (Spodoptera litura F.) (Suryaningsih & Hadisoeganda, 2004). The pest management of S. litura still relies on the use of chemical insecticides by the farmers. The use of the chemical insecticides results in the pest resistency (Kristanto et al., 2013). The develompent of pest resistency against the insecticides that is followed by the increase in society awareness has pushed the needs in the pest management intensively by decreasing the use of chemical insecticides and keeping the sustainable system by farmers (Carter 1989 in Marwoto & Suharsono, 2008). This has pushed researchers to find another method in the pest management that avoids the chemical insecticides such bioinsecticides and nucleopolyhedrosis that can fight the taro caterpillar (Nathan & Kalaivani 2006). Bernhoft (2010) mentioned that secondary metabolites from plants are bioactive compounds that have pharmacological effects towards human and other pest. Based on Kubo (2006), bioactive compounds have some benefits in controlling the pests. Some of these compounds have high toxicity, antifeedant, repellant, attractant and fumigant properties. Some of them can inhibit reproduction of the The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 38
pest. Mcauslane & Alborn (1998) showed that the addition of terpenoids extract can inhibit the feeding activities of Spodoptera exigua. Beside terpenoid, there are some other compounds with these properties, such as flavonoid (Morimoto et al., 2000; Nenaah, 2014) and glycoside (Bernays & de Luca, 1981; Jain & Tripath, 1991). Other study showed that the leaves of Pterocarpus indicus Willd, Centella asiatica (L.) Urban., Calophyllum inophyllum L., Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. and Lantana camara L. have secondary metabolites that are potential to control the pest. One of them is terpenoid (Kesari et al., 2004; Andhika, 2012; Indrakumar et al., 2012; Arumugam et al., 2015; Raju and Victoria, 2015; Rohyani et al., 2015). Based on the preliminary test, the extract of the plants leaves that were fed to the S. litura was found that they were potential as antifeedant due to larvae mortality after 48 hours-investigation to all extracts giving less than 100% and further, the antifeedant activity assay will be reported in this paper. Schoonhoven (1982) described that antifeedant from plants were prefer to be developed as bioinsecticide because they were not toxic and did not give a resistency to the pest. Antifeedant properties can only inhibit the feeding activities of the pest. Based on Sastrosiswojo (2002) in Asmaliyah et al. (2010), the use of bioinsecticide will be more effective if we can find out the minimum inhibition concentration that has no toxic effect to the pest. Based on this description, we will investigate the antifeedant activities of ethanol extracts of the selected plants against third instar S. itura larvae.
Materials and Methods The research object is taro caterpillar (S. litura) (Figure 1) that is one of the important pest due to wide spectrum of the pest including soy, peanut, cabbage, potato and other horticultural plants. In this research, third instar of the larvae were using as the bioindicator that were obtained from HPT Departement, agriculture faculty of UNPAD and Laboraturium Uji Balai Penelitian Tanaman. Sayuran (BALITSA) in Lembang. Feed and testing leaves used are taro plant (Colocasia esculenta) that is a typical food for taro caterpillar. Ethanol extracts of five plants that are potential as bioinsecticides are ethanol extract of leaves of Pterocarpus indicus (Figure 2), Centella asiatica (Figure 3), Calophyllum inophyllum (Figure 4), Alstonia scholaris (Figure 5), and Lantana camara (Figure 6). All of the plants were obtained from Arboretum Universitas Padjadjaran.
Figure 1. Spodoptera litura
Figure 2. Pterocarpus indicus
Figure 3. Centella asiatica
Figure 4. Calophyllum inophyllum
Figure 5. Alstonia scholaris
Figure 6. Lantana camara
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 39
Instruments used were glasswares and evaporator, leaf disk printer, filter paper, gauze, brush, label, pippette, pinset, ruler, scissor, cutter, milimeter block paper, HVS paper and others. Research method applied was bioassay guided test with leaf disk method- choice and no choice test (Isman, 2002). There were five concentrations, which are 625 ppm, 1250 ppm, 2500 ppm, 5000 ppm and 0 ppm (as a control) that was applied for the five plants extracts (Widiastuti, 2015). Repetition was carried out five times for each concentration (number of repetition was calculated based on formula of Federer in Baihaki & Sudrajat (1997). The experimental was initiated by the production of ethanolic extracts of the five plants that were carried out by maceration method. Further, antifeedant bioassay with choice and no choice test were undertaken with observations on testing parameter, data collection, and data analysis. Choice antifeedant test The choice test involves two different leaves, the first one is leaf in a normal condition (control) and the second one is leaf with plant extract on it (treatment). This aplication was based on the real condition where pest will choose either leaf that has been sprayed with natural pesticide or just the normal leaf. No choice antifeedant test The no choice test involves only one leaf in each test. The larvae will only treat either leaf in normal condition (control) or leaf with extract on it. Repetition was done for five times. In the experimental for both choice and no choice tests, petri disk was based with wet filter paper and gauze. The taro leaves was printed into a disc form with diameter of 5 cm (Ambarningrum, 2012) and both leaves were treated by immersing the leaves into sample for 5 second and then dried at room temperature. Both treated leaves were put on the top filter paper and gauze in different petri disks. One of 3rd instar larvae that has been fasting for ± 3 hours, was added into the petri disc. The parameter was investigated after 24-hours treatment (Widiastuti, 2015). The investigated parameter for the antifeedant bioassay was the leaf area thath consumed by S. litura larvea for both in treatment and control. To measure the leaf area consumed, milimetre block paper was used where each block has 1 mm square. The leaf area consumed obtained by calculating numbers of block that have been eaten by the larvae. Numbers of blocks were converted into cm2. All of the broad leaves that have been eaten were calculated for their average (mean of leaf area consumed). Equations Antifeedant activity was determined by calculating the (mm2) that has been eaten by the 3rd instar larvae of S.litura in every test. The average of the either for control or treatment was calculated. In a choice antifeedant test, relative activity was calculated by measuring the broad leaf that has been eaten by the larvae based on formula of Nawrot et al. (1982) in Gabrys et al. (2006): %R = (C-T)/(C+T) Note :
100 (choice test)
C – consumed broad leaf for control (mm ) T – consumed broad leaf for treatment (mm2) R – Relative antifeedant activity (%) 2
In no choice antifeedant test, relative activity was calculated by measuring leaf area consumed by larvae based on formula of Nawrot et al., (1982) in Gabrys et al., (2006): %A = (CC-TT)/(CC+TT) Note :
100 (no-choice test)
CC – consumed broad leaf for control (mm2) TT - broad leaf for treatment (mm2) A – Absolute antifeedant activity (%)
The inhibition activity measurement was calculated from coefficient total value based on formula of Nawrot et al. (1982) in Gabrys et al. (2006): The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 40
T = A+R Note :
T – Total of antifeedant activity coefficient A – Absolute antifeedant activity (%) R – Relative antifeedant activity (%)
Antifeedant activity categories based on Gabrys et al. (2006) are as follows: Table 1. Antifeedant activity group from total value of inhibition coefficient No 1 2 3 4 5
T value <50 51 – 100 101 – 150 151 – 200 negative
Antifeedant category Poor Medium Good Very good Attractant
Data analysis was carried out by using statistic test of Mann-Whitney U. Statistic test of MannWhitney U is a non-parametic test to find two free samples coming from the same population (Elston & Johnson, 1994). Calculation was carried out through the ratio of control average at P < 0.05. Results and Discussion Result of choice antifeedant test In a choice antifeedant test, five extracts of plants in four different concentrations, which are 625, 1250, 2500, and 5000 ppm. In a period of 24 hours did not caused larvae death. This result indicated that the five extracts of plants were not toxic towards the 3rd instar larvae of S. litura up to 5000 ppm. Based on the average value of mean leaf area consumed at control with the choice antifeedant test (Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9, Figure 10, and Figure 11), it has been shown that the five extracts of plants have the average mean leaf lower than the control. If the broad average of leaf treatment is lower than control, it means that there is an inhibition of feeding activity of the larvae against the treated leaf. Based on Schoonhoven (1982), antifeedant is a substituent that can suppress feeding activity and further can also inhibit this activity. For all concentrations of extract of C. asiatica, the results showed the average mean leaf area consumed is lower than the control Based on the results of analytical statistic test Mann Whitney U with choice test of the five plant extracts (Table 2), it has been shown that the antifeedant activity with significant result were found for extract of C. asiatica, C. inophyllum, A.scholaris,and L. camara due to the p-value> α (0,05). Extract of C. asiatica showed a significant antifeedant activity at concentration of 5000, 2500 and 625 ppm. Table 2. Results of analytical statistic test Mann Whitney U with choice test of five extracts of plants Concentration 625 ppm 1250 ppm 2500 ppm 5000 ppm
P. indicus n.s n.s n.s* n.s*
Results of analytical statistic test Mann Whitney Uwith choice test C. asiatica C. inophyllum A. Scholaris s S s n.s n.s* s s n.s* n.s* s n.s* n.s
L. camara s n.s* n.s* n.s
Notes : n.s = not significant (not different) n.s* = not significant (not different and the average broad leaf consumed is higher than the control) s = significant (different)
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Concentration (ppm)
Concentration (ppm) rd
Figure 7. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3 instar larvae of S. litura at choice antifeedant test of leaf extract P. indicus
Concentration (ppm) Figure 9. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd instar larvae of S. litura at choice antifeedant test of leaf extract C. inophyllum
Figure 8. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd instar larvae of S. litura at choice antifeedant test of leaf extract C. asiatica
Concentration (ppm) Figure 10. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd instar larvae of S. litura at choice antifeedant test of leaf extract A. scholaris
Concentration (ppm) Figure 11. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd instar larvae of S. litura at choice antifeedant test of leaf extract L. camara
Result of no choice antifeedant test At a no choice antifeedant test, the five extracts at four different concentrations, which are 625, 1250, 2500, and 5000 ppm. In period of 24 hours did not caused larvae death. This result indicated that the five extracts of plants were not toxic against the 3rd instar larvae of S. litura up to 5000 ppm.
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Concentration (ppm) Concentration (ppm) Figure 12. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd Figure 13. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd instar instar larvae of S. litura at no choice antifeedant test larvae of S. litura at no choice antifeedant test of of leaf extract P. indicus leaf extract C. asiatica
Concentration (ppm) Figure 14. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd instar larvae of S. litura at no choice antifeedant test of leaf extract C. inophyllum
Concentration (ppm) Figure 15. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd instar larvae of S. litura at no choice antifeedant test of leaf extract A. scholaris
Concentration (ppm) Figure 16. Diagram of mean leaf area consumed by 3rd instar larvae of S. litura at no choice antifeedant test of leaf extract L. camara
Based on the average value of broad leaf consumed at the control with the no choice test (Figure 15, Figure 16, Figure 17, Figure 18 and Figure 19), it has been shown that five extract of plants have the mean area leaf consumed lower than the control. If the broad average of treatment leaf is lower than control, it means that there is an inhibition of feeding activity of the larvae against the treated leaf. Based on the results of analytical statistic test Mann Whitney U with no choice test of the five plant extracts (Table 3), it has been shown that there is no significant antifeedant properties due to pvalue> α (0,05) if the broad average of treatment leaf is lower than control.
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Table 3. Results of analytical statistic test Mann Whitney U with no choice test of five extracts of plants Concentration 625 ppm 1250 ppm 2500 ppm 5000 ppm
P. indicus n.s* n.s n.s n.s
Results of analytical statistic testMann Whitney Uwith choice test C. asiatica C. inophyllum A. Scholaris n.s* n.s* n.s* n.s n.s n.s* n.s n.s* n.s* n.s* n.s* n.s
L. camara n.s n.s* n.s* n.s*
Notes : n.s = not significant (not different) n.s* = not significant (not different and the average broad leaf consumed is higher than the control) s = significant (different)
Comparison between choice test and no choice test Khaidir and Hendrival (2013) and Dadang and Oshawa (2000) explained that insect can face two things to start its feeding activity, which are (1) the present of stimulants to initiate feed activity (feeding stimulant) in plant that can give stimulus for the recognition of food type and maintain the feeding activity to be continued, (2) detection of the presence of foreign compounds that have properties as feeding inhibitor so that it can shorten the feeding activity or stop it at all. Based on the choice test, it was suspected that there are attractant properties For the choice test, the five extracts showed antifeedant activities significantly except for extract of P. indicus. Meanwhile, for the no choice test, the five extracts did not showed antifeedant activity significantly. Based on Isman, (2011), the choice test is more sensitive in showing the feeding inhibition compared to the no choice test. Extract of C. asiatica showed the highest antifeedant properties because it was shown significant activities for three different concentrations, which are 625 ppm, 2500 ppm and 5000 ppm. Physiologically, antifeedant compound can destroy insect digestive system. Hermawan et al. (2010) mentioned that the andrografolide (sambiloto extract) administration can lower activity of the digestive gland and cause enlargement of the lumen diameter of P. xylostella. Agresti (2001) and Alamanda (2011) showed that the damage of the ephitellia cell at the wall of the central middle intestine of larvae P. xylostella was caused by the damage of peritropic membrane that protects the epithellial cells due to the foreign substances (compounds in the plant extracts). The destroyed peritropic membrane causes the epithellial cell influenced by the mechanical disturbances directly. This description can be also the same reason that happens to larvae of S. litura because both of them are still in the same Lepidoptera. Coefficient of antifeedant activity Based on the antifeedant activity (Table 4), it has been shown that there was only extract of C. asiatica showing antifeedant activity in all concentration and at concentration of 2500 ppm, it has been categorised as a good antifeedant activity, which is between 101-150%. Rajkumar and Jebanesan (2005) described that ethanolic extract of leaves of C. asiatica is toxic towards mosquito type Culex quinquefasciatus at concentration of 1.12 ppm at temperature 31oC and 6.84 ppm at temperature 19 oC. Based on Manimegalai et al. (2014), leaves of C. asiatica that has been extracted by chloroform contained alkaloid, flavonoid, glycoside, and terpenoid. While Isman (2002) wrote that alkaloid, flavonoid, glycoside, and terpenoidare compounds with antifeedant properties against insects. Table 4. Category of antifeedant activity of five extract plants Concentration 625 ppm 1250 ppm 2500 ppm 5000 ppm
P. ndicus Poor Poor -
Category of antifeedant activity C.asiatica C.inophyllum A.scholaris poor poor poor poor moderate good moderate poor
L.camara moderate -
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Leaves extract of P. indicus with concentrations of 625 ppm and 1250 ppm were categorised as poor antifeedant activity, was shown by total value of antifeedant coefficient < 50%. Extract of C. inophyllum with concentrationof 625 ppm was categorised as also poor antifeedant activity. Leaves extract of A. scholaris with concentrations of 625 ppm and 5000 ppm were categorised as poor antifeedant activity. Meanwhile, at concentration of 1250 ppm, it was categorised as medium activity. Based on Gabrys et al. (2006), category of poor antifeedant activity was shown by total value of antifeedant coefficient < 50% and in a range of 51-100% for the medium activity. Based on Arivoli and Tennyson (2013), extracts of hexane, dichloromethane, diethyl eter and ethyl acetate of leaves of A. scholaris at concentration 10.000 ppm, there was only extract of ethyl asetat that has an antifeedant activity against larvae of S. litura. Extract of ethyl acetate has total value of antifeedant activity less than 25%. Based on Gabrys et al. (2006), category of poor antifeedant activity was shown by total value of antifeedant coefficient in a range of 51-100%. Leaves extract of L. camara was categorised as medium antifeedant agent at concentration of 625 ppm. Based on Gabrys et al. (2006), category of poor antifeedant activity was shown by total value of antifeedant coefficient in a range of 51-100%. Based on Arivoli and Tennyson (2013), extracts of hexane, dichloromethane and ethyl acetate of leaves of L. camara at concentration 10.000 ppm were found to have antifeedant properties against larvae of S. litura. Hexane and dichloromethane extracts showed total value of antifeedant coefficient under 25% and ethyl acetate extractgave total value of antifeedant coefficient in a range of 25%-50%. Leaves extracts of P. indicus, C. inophyllum, A. scholaris and L. camara gave concentrations that are categorised for the negative antifeedant activity. Gabrys et al. (2006) said that antifeedant activity with negative value indicating that the sample has attractant properties. Based on Torto (2016), attractant property is related to chemical signal that is given by bioactive compound resulted in adaptive benefit for insect. The chemical signal can be a direction to the food direction or signal for reproduction. Leaves extract of P. indicus, C. inophyllum, A. scholaris and L. camara contained concentrations with antifeedant properties and had attractant properties. Based on Yulinah et al. (2001), biological activity of extract from nature has a property with chemical multicompounds. Effect of these compounds can work sinergically, additively and antagonistically. It was suspected that the four extract gave antagonistic properties between antifeedant and attractant propertied. Based on Zheng et al. (2014), (±)-2-hexanol is an essensial compound isolated from leaves of P. indicus causing strong signal as attractant against female Aleurodicus disperses at different concentration. Based on Murugesan et al. (2012), leaves of L. camara contained α-Copaene. This compound is an attractant compound.
Conclusion The effective minimum concentration with antifeedant properties were investigated at 625 ppm for extract of C. asiatica, A. scholaris, L. camara and C. inophyllum at choice test. However, extract P. indicus was not found to have the effective minimum concentration. The best extract having antifeedant activity is extract of C. asiatica. This is due to the total value of antifeedant coefficient of C. asiatica giving a value between 101%-150% at 2500 ppm.
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Ambarningrum, B., Trisnowati, Setyowati, E. A. & Susatyo, P. (2012). Aktivitas Anti Makan Ekstrak Daun Sirsak (Annona muricata L.) dan Pengaruhnya Terhadap Indeks Nutrisi Serta Terhadap Struktur Membran Peritrofik Larva Instar V Spodoptera litura F. J. HPT tropika. 12(2) : 169– 176. Andhika, & Donny, S. (2012). Uji Efek Ekstrak Etanol Daun Pegagan (Centella asiatica (L) Urb.) dan Kombinasinya dengan Ekstrak Etanol Biji Jinten Hitam (Nigella sativa L) Terhadap Daya Ingat Mencit Menggunakan Metode Labirin Y. Universitas Islam Bandung: Bandung. Arivoli, S. & Tennyson, S. (2013). Antifeedant activity, developmental indices and morphogenetic variations of plant extracts against Spodoptera litura (Fab) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. 1(4): 87-96. Arumugam, T., Ayyanar M., Yesudason, P. K. J. & Sekar, T. (2011). Phytochemical screening na Antibacterial Activity of Leaf and Callus Extracts of Centella asiatica. A Journal of the Bangladesh Pharmacological Society Vol 6: 55-60. Asmaliyah, Etik, E. W. H., Utami, S., Mulyadi K.., Yudhistira, Sari, F. W., & Illa, A. (2010). Pengenalan Tumbuhan Penghasil Pestisida Nabati Dan Pemanfaatannya Secara Tradisional. Kementerian Kehutanan Badan Penelitian Dan Pengembangan Kehutanan Pusat Penelitian Dan Pengembangan Produktivitas Hutan. Baihaki A. & Sudrajat, M. (1997). Perancangan dan Analisa Percobaan. Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Padjadjaran. Bandung. Bernays, E. & de Luca C. 1981. Insect Antifeedant properties of an iridoid glycoside: ipolamiide. Experientia. (35): 1289-1290. Bernhoft & Aksel. (2010). Bioactive compounds in Plant – benefits and Risks for Man and Animal. Proceedings for a Symposium : The Norwegian Academy of Sience and Letter. Dadang & Oshawa, K. (2000). Penghambatan Aktivitas Makan Larva Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae) yang Diperlakukan Ekstrak Biji Swietenia mahogani Jacq. (Meliaceae). Buletin Hama dan Penyakit Tumbuhan 12(1): 27-32. Dalal & Surender. (2008). Spodoptera litura (Fabricius, 1775) - Asian Cotton Leaf Worm., http://www.biolib.cz/en/image/id133278/ (6 Desember 2015) Elston, C., Robert & William, D. (1994). Essentials of Biostatistics. F. A. Davis Company : Philadelphia. Gabrys, B., Szczepanik, M., Dancewicz1, K., Szumny, A., & Wawrzeńczyk, Cz. (2006). Environmentally Safe Insect Control: Feeding Deterrent Activity of Alkyl-Substituted γ- dan δLactones to Peach Potato Aphid (Myzus persicae [Sulz.]) and Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say). Polish Journal of Enviromental Study, 15: 549-556. Hermawan, W., Erawan, S., Erik, & Hadiansyah, C. (2010). Efek Antifidan Andrografolida Terhadap Aktivitas Kelenjar Pencernaan Larva Plutella xylostella L.Bionatura – Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Hayati dan Fisik12(1): 50 – 56. Indrakumar I., Selvi V., Gomathi R., & Karpagam S. (2012). Phytochemical Analysis of Leaf Extracts of Calophyllum inophyllum and Cananga sonata (Lam.) Hook. F. & Thomson. Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. Vol 3, Issue 2, 35-37. Isman &Murray. (2002). Insect Antifedant. The Royal Society of Chemistry. Pp 152-157. Journal Trends in Biotechnology Research. Vol. 2 No. 1 : 12-16. Isman & Murray. (2011). Insect Bioassay Workshop. ADAPPT annual meeting. Lusaka : Zambia. Jain C. D. & Tripath K. A. (1991). Insect Feeding-Deterrent Activity of some Saponin Glycosides. Phytotheraphy Research. (5): 139-141. Kesari, A.N., Gupta, R.K., & Watal, G. (2004. Two aurone glycosides from heartwood of Pterocarpus santalinus. Phytochemistry 65: 3125-3129. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 46
Khaidir & Hendrival. (2013). Pengujian Penghambatan Aktivitas Makan Dari Ekstrak Daun Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) Terhadap Larva Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae) L. Jurnal Floratek 8: 35-44. Kristanto, P. S., Sutjipto, & Soekarto. (2013). Pengendalian Hama pada Tanaman Kubis dengan Sistem Tanam Tumpangsari. Berkala Ilmiah Pertanian. 1(1) 7-9. Kubo, I. (2006). New concept to search for alternate insect Control agents from plants. p. 61-80. In Rai, M., & Carpinella, M. (eds.) Naturally occurring bioactive compounds 3. Elsevier. Manimegalai, M., Hima C. R., & Rajmohan, D. (2014). Studies on Control of Mosquito, Aedes aegypti (Culicidae : Diptera) Using The Chloroform Leaf Extract of Centella asiatica as a Biocide. Reseach Article. 7(8): 57-571. Marwoto & Suharsono. (2008). Strategi Dan Komponen Teknologi Pengendalian Ulat Grayak (Spodoptera litura Fabricius) Pada Tanaman Kedelai. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian, 27(4) 131-136. Mcauslane, H. J. & Alborn, H. T. (1998). Systemic induction ofallelochemicals in glanded and glandless isogenic cotton by Spodoptera exigua feeding. Journal Chemical Ecology. 24: 399-416. Morimoto, M., Kumeda, S., & Komai, K. (2000). Antifeedant Flavonoid from Gnaphalium affine D. Don, Journal Agric. Food Chem. Vol. 48 No. 5: 1888-1891. Murugesan, S., Rajeshkannan, C., Babu, S. D., Sumathi, R., & Manivachakan, P. (2012). Identification of insecticidal properties in common weed- Lantana camara Linn by Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrum (GC-MS). Advance in Applied Science Research. 3(5): 2754-2759. Nathan, Sentil S., & Kalaivani, K., (2006). Combined effects of azadirachtin and nucleopolyhedrosis virus (SpltNPV) on Spodoptera litura Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae. Biol. Control 39: 96−104. Nenaah, E. G. (2014). Toxic and Antifeedant activities of prenylated flavonoid isolated Tephrosia apollinea L. against three major coleopteran pests of stored grain with reference to their structure-activity relationship. Natural Product Research. 28(24): 2245-2252. Rajkumar, S., & Jebanesan, A. (2005). Larvacidal and Adult Emergence Inhibition Effect of Centella asiatica Brahmi (Umbeliferae) Against Mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera : Culicidae). African Journal of Biomedical Research (8): 31-33. Raju, C. D. & Victoria, D. T. ( 2015). Phytochemical Screening and Bioactivity Studies of Immature and Mature Leaves of Calophyllum inophyllum L. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences. Vol. 8 Issue 1, 46-51. Rani, V., & Nessa. (2014). Efek Antifidan Andrografolida Terhadap Aktivitas Enzim Protease dan Tripsin pada Usus Tengah Larva Plutella xylostella L. (1758). Skripsi. Universitas Padjadjaran : Jatinangor. Rohyani, S., Immy, Aryanti, E., & Suripto. (2015). Kandungan Fitokimia Beberapa Jenis Tumbuhan Lokal Yang Sering Dimanfaatkan Sebagai Bahan Baku Obat di Pulau Lombok. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Masyarakat Biodiversiti Indonesia, 1(2) : 388-391. Roviani, & Hana. (2014). Efek Antifidan Andrografolida Terhadap Aktivitas Enzim α-Amilase dan Invertase pada Usus Tengah Lava Plutella xylostella L. (1758). Skripsi. Universitas Padjadjaran: Jatinangor. Schoonhoven. (1982). Biological Aspect of Antifeedant.Ent. Exp & Appli. 31: 57-69. Suryaningsih, Hadisoeganda, E., & Widjadja. W. (2004). Pestisida Botani untuk Mengendalikan Hama dan Penyakit pada Tanaman Sayuran. Monograf No. 26 Balai Penelitian Tanaman Sayuran : Bandung. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 47
Torto & Baldwyn. (2016). Chemical Signals Attractants, Repellents and Aggregation Stimulant. Dalam http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx. Widiastuti & Mardian. (2015). Uji Bioaktivitas Antifidan Ekstrak Metanol dan Fraksi-fraksi Daun Cocor Bebek (Kalanchoe pinnata Lam. Pers) terhadap Larva Ulat Grayak (Spodoptera litura Fabricius, 1775). Skripsi : Universitas Padjadjaran. Yulinah, E., Sukrasno, Fitri, A., & Muna. (2001). Aktivitas Antidiabetika Ekstrak Etanol Herba Sambiloto (Andrographis paniculata Nees (Acanthaceae)). JMS. 6(1): 13 – 20. Zheng, L. X., Wu, J. W. & Fu, G.Y. (2014). (±)-2-Hexanol from Pterocarpus indicusleaves as attractant for female Aleurodicus dispersus (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). African Entomology 22(2): 267–272.
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INSECTS ON FRUIT OF Ficus spp Ghvirly Ramadhani*, Noor Farikhah Haneda, Iwan Hilwan Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural Institute, Dramaga-Bogor 16680, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract Ficus is one of the main species that has important role in the continuity of tropical rain forest ecosystem. Insect is one of the kinds that require ficus to breed. Ficus hispida and F. racemosa are several kinds of ficus in Indonesia which is still little known what kind of insect that can breed inside the ficus fruit. The purpose of this research is to inventory the insects in order to provide information on the types of insects found in fruits F. hispida and F. racemosa. The withdrawal of 25 ficus fruit in Kampus Institut Pertanian Bogor, Darmaga is done randomly in one individual tree based on the visual appearance and palpability fruit directly. The insects that are found in F. hispida are Ceratosolen solmsi, Phylotrypesis sp., and Apocrypta sp1. Meanwhile, the insects that are found in F. racemosa are C. fusciceps, Apocryptophagus sp., and Apocrypta sp2. The abundance of Ceratosolen sp insects dominate the individual number of insects found in both types of fruit, F. hispida and F. racemosa. Ceratosolen sp. has a role as pollinator insect in ficus so that the abundance of this type of insect dominate in a ficus fruit. Meanwhile, Phylotrypesis sp., Apocrypta sp1, Apocrypta sp2, and Apocryptophagus sp. is parasitic non-pollinator insect, so the abundance of the individual types are less than Ceratosolen sp. Keywords: Ceratosolen sp., Ficus sp., insects pollinator
Introduction Forest ecosystem is one that consists of a collection of trees and inside it there are interactions between biotic and abiotic factors. The interaction between those two is the ecosystem mechanism to sustain life. Pollination is one of the interactions between plants and biotic and abiotic pollinators agents. Pollination starts the of plants reproduction, including trees that massively affect the continuity of forest regeneration. Ficus (Moraceae) as one component of the forest ecosystems has an important role as a key species. Ficus produce fruit throughout the year, so it can provide food for wildlife; moreover, as a pioneer, ficus can be used in revegetation activities. Ficus’ canopy shade can create comfortable conditions for the development of these kinds of tolerant, so ficus roles in maintaining the stability of forest ecosystems indirectly. In addition, ficus wood can also be used as carpentry, as well as its fruit that are edible for humans. Ficus is one type of trees that require insects as pollinating agent. Pollination on ficus is specific, meaning that a type of ficus often can only be pollinated by particular type of insects. Otherwise, these insects can breed only on certain types of ficus, so that both need each other. F. hispida and F. racemosa are some kind of ficus in Indonesia that are still not widely known what kind of insect found in ficus fruit. The inventory types of insects need to be done in order to provide information and an overview about the types of insects associated with ficus.
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Materials and Methods Materials The materials that are used in this research are clear plastics about ½ kg, collecting bottle, camera, freezer, microscope, tweezers, petri dish, identification book Hymenoptera of the World: An Identification Guide to Families (1993), as well as identification book superfamily Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) by Grissel and Schauff (1990). The objects that are used in this research are ficus fruit, insects, and alcohol 70% that is used to preserve the specimens during the identification. Methods The inventory activity is done by collecting 25 ficus fruits for each type with twice repetition. The collecting of ficus fruit is done to identify the types of insect and to count the abundance of pollinator insect in Kampus IPB Darmaga. The withdrawal of 25 ficus fruit in Kampus IPB Darmaga is done randomly in one individual tree based on the visual appearance and palpability fruit directly. F. hispida fruit is chosen when the fruit’s colour is yellowish green and based on the palpation is soft enough to be pressed with index finger and thumb. F. racemosa fruit is chosen when there is red highlight above the yellowish green colour and is soft enough to be pressed with index finger and thumb. After the fruit is collected, it is saved in a closed plastic for 2*24 hours until the insects come out from the fruit. Then, the plastic that contains fruit and insect is put in the freezer to kill the insect. The collecting of pollinator insect is done by using tweezers and put into the collecting bottle that contains alcohol 70%. Then, the collected insect is calculated and identified its type. The data is analyzed to calculate the abundance of insect that is found. The data is analyzed descriptively to describe the insect found in F. hispida and F. racemosa fruit.
Results and Discussion Pollinator Insect and non-pollinator insect F. hispida and F. racemosa The identification to the pollinator insect that is found in F. hispida leads to the Ceratosolen solmsi type. Meanwhile, the identification result to the pollinator insect that is found in F. racemosa leads to the C. fusciceps type. Both types belong to the Hymenoptera ordo, Agaonidae family, Agaoninae sub family, and both have sexual dimorphism so the diversity of male insect and female insect different from each other. Figure 1 provides figure of pollinator that is found in the observed fig. Generally, pollinator insect C. solmsi and C. fusciceps have morphology that show the special function related to the pollination in ficus. It is shown by the shape of its head and body that tend to be flat. The flat head makes Ceratosolen sp can go through the ostiole in the ficus and penetrate the bractea involucrate to the middle part of ficus fruits that also known as fig (Ramirez, 1991). The mandible shape in Ceratosolen sp’s head is modified in such way so the low part of mandible has notched arrangement which function to grip the fig wall when Ceratosolen sp pass through the ostiole. Besides mandible, the ovipositor part in Ceratosolen sp has the same length with the flower’s ‘stalk’ of the pollinated female ficus, so the ovum can evolve into larvae in the flower’s ovary (Priyadarsanan, 2000).
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Figure 1. (a) Male Ceratosolen solmsi, (b) male Ceratosolen solmsi, (c) female Ceratosolen fusciceps, and (d) male Ceratosolen fusciceps Sexual dimorphism between male pollinator and the female pollinator shows the different function and role between the genders of Ceratosolen sp pollinator insect. Male insect has limb structure with bigger femur followed by the smaller tibia. Tarsus consists of 5 segments but each segment tends to be short and found off. According to Priyadarsanan (2000), the structure shows the function of male Ceratosolen sp.’s limb to move between the flowers inside the gall. Besides, the limb’s function for gripping and digging in making his way out of the gall fruit. The wings reduction in male Ceratosolen sp. is the result of evolution that takes place through interaction between the male insects and Ficus sp plants. Generally, the male insect has no role in resulting the descent or distributing the next generation from a species, so that through the process of evolution where the wings of male insects is reduced and maintained at female insects (Cruaud et al., 2012). The observation to the two types of ficus shows that there are another type that breed in the observed fig. The type is a non-pollinator insect that belongs to the Pteromalidae family (Sycoryctinae sub family) and Agaonidae family (Sycophaginae sub family). Philotrypesis sp. and Apocrypta sp1. are non-pollinator insect that is found in F. hispida and those both belong to Sycoryctinae sub family. Meanwhile, the non-pollinator insect that is found in F. racemosa is Apocryptophagus sp. from Sycophaginae sub family and Apocrypta sp2. from Sycoryctinae sub family. Figure 2 provides figure of non-pollinator that is found in the observed fig. The sexual dimorphism in insect allegedly infected by the genetic and environment. Genetically, the difference of sex-different gene expression is big so the phenotype appears in the different shape (Xiao et al., 2013). The dimorphism also appears in the non-pollinator insect found in F. hispida and F. racemosa. In general, there are wings and long ovipositor as the special morphology shape owned by the female non-pollinator insect. The length of the ovipositor can be 2 times longer than the insect’s body and have the ovipositor cover with the same length. The non-pollinator insect use ovipositor to put the ovum into the fig by impaling the fig from the outside. According to Wen-Quan et al. (2005), the length of non-pollinator insect’s ovipositor is different depend on the type of ficus where the insect perform the oviposition. The ovipositor length is thought to be an adaptation of the non-pollinator insect towards the various types of ficus with various thicknesses. On the other hand, the differentiation of the ovipositor length affects the non-pollinator insect behavior when it impales the ovipositor into the fig. Based on the previous research by Jousselin et al. (2004), one of the types of male nonpollinator insects experienced intraspecific polymorphism. As the result, in a type of ficus there is two or three shape of male insect. Hamilton (1979) explained the condition that morphological differences is part of the genetic strategy as an alternative in choosing the better individual to mate. It also influenced by the environmental factor. Furthermore, Jousselin et al. (2004) explained that The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 51
morphological difference is a type of labile forms of evolutionary adaptation because those types can appear and lose in appropriate with the required condition.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 2. Ficus hispida non-pollinator insect: (a) Philotrypesis sp., (b) Apocrypta sp1; Ficus racemosa non-pollinator insect: (c) Apocryptophagus sp., (d) Apocrypta sp2 The abundance and the diversity of insect in the observed ficus The abundance result found in ficus shows that there is variation of insect number found in a fig fruit (Figure 3; Figure 4). The variation shows the number of gall flower in a fig fruit that is used to breed. Pollinator insect in F. hispida and F. racemosa dominate in a fig fruit with the composition of female insects larger than the male insects. The number of male insect tend to follows the number of female insect, the more number of female insect, the more number of male insect. This is allegedly as one of the strategies of a type of insect to spread and to breed. If it is related to the co-evolution theory, the number of female insect is related to the number of fig fruit that will be pollinated. A fig tree can produce 500 untill 1,000,000 fig fruits, so it is estimated a fig tree needs female insect as much as that number to pollinate fig fruit (Janzen, 1979). The types that are categorized as non-pollinating insects are allegedly to be the competitor or parasitoid so as to reduce significantly the number of pollinating insects. Non-pollinator insects that are found in F. hispida consist of two types, Philotrypesis sp. and Apocrypta sp1., meanwhile in F. racemosa there are two types non-pollinator insect, Apocryptophagus sp. and Apocrypta sp2.. Philotrypesis sp. and Apocrypta sp1. classified to the kleptoparasite that has affected the abundance of pollinator insect (Priyadasanan, 2000). Kleptoparasite is the insect’s or animal’s behavior that take other organism’s resource in its life. The behavior resembles to the organism’s competition, but in this case the Philotrypesis sp. larvae also breed in the same ovary (gall) with the pollinator larvae and take the same nutrition needed by pollinator larvae continually and causing the death of pollinator larvae (Vovlas & Larizza, 1996). According to Yang et al. (2005), the parasitism level of those type is the highest if it is compared to another non-pollinator insect. Those type are considered to be the most affected the abundance of C. solmsi.
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250
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Figure 3. Insects abundance of Ficus hispida
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Figure 4. Insects abundance of Ficus racemosa Apocrypta sp1. is another non-pollinator insect found in the F. hispida that has more abundance than Philotrypesis sp.. This type of non-pollinator insect is a parasite in C. solmsi, but according to Yang et al. (2005), he found that this type of parasite also found in Philotrypesis sp. and causes bigger effect in reducing the number of Philotrypesis sp. type than C. solmsi. It is shows that Apocrypta sp1 is hyperparasite, meaning that Apocrypta sp1 also consume another parasite in ficus. Apocrypta sp1. behavior as hyperparasites should be able to compress the abundance of Philotrypesis sp. as C. solmsi parasite. The most dominant non-pollinator insect in F. racemosa is Apocryptophagus sp. that classified into the Sycophaginae sub family. That type breed in the gall and gain nutrition inside it, therefore it can be said as parasitic (Ramirez, 1996). Beside, Apocrypta sp2. is classified as one of non-pollinator insects found in small number and not all figs found in Apocrypta sp2. Godfray (1988) reported that Apocrypta sp2. is hyper parasitoid of Apocryptophagus sp. in F. hispida. The role of an organism in an ecosystem allegedly determine the size of its population, the higher organism’s position in an ecosystem chain the less its number, and vice versa aimed at to maintain the ecosystem’s stability. In this case, the role of Apocrypta sp2. as hyperparasite occupy higher position in the fig’s ecosystem, so its number is less than the other types. The description of F. hispida and F. racemosa fruit F. hispida that is classified into dioecious has tassel and female flower in the different individual tree. Both individual is resemble, therefore it can be said that both individual can only be distinguished through the fig fruit it produce. Fig fruit that consists of sterile tassel and female flower The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 53
is known as male fruit. The male fruit will produce pollen that will be brought away by pollinator, and sterile female flower inside it will be the place for the ovum and larvae of pollinator insect to breed into imago. Then, the sterile female flower will grow bigger that is known as gall flower. On the other hand, fig fruit that consists of female flower is known as female fruit. After pollinated, the flower will produce seed that has an important role in spreading an individual tree in the forest. The shape of observed female fruit is round and grooved with fine hairs on the surface of the fruit, causing rough impression when touched. The fruit will turn from green into light green yellowish, and will be fully yellow when it is ripe. The color changing also experienced by male fruit that ripens, marking the pollinator insects that will come out shortly before the fruit color changes into yellow completely. The shape of male fruit is little bit different visually because its shape is more round, so it is allegedly can provide enough room for pollinator insect to breed. F. racemosa that is classified into monoecious fig has tassel and female flower, and sterile female flower inside a fig fruit. Fig fruit from F. racemosa changes its color from green into reddish green, and turn ito red with yellowish tinge when it ripes. It is different from F. hispida, the fig fruit of F. racemosa has solid round shape with a smooth surface when touched, and has distinctive scent when the fruit is ripe. F. racemosa fig fruit will produce pollen that will be brought away by pollinator insect at the same time with the fig fruit ripe. On the other hand, F. racemosa fruit produce seed and the new generation of pollinator insect when it is ripe. Although it looks efficient because it produces seeds and pollinating in one fig fruit, but on the other hand, the resources that is used, the female flowers are split into pollinators insect, nonpollinators insect, and seed. If it is compared with dioesious ficus that has tassel and female flower in a different individual, it is more efficient because it can produce pollinator and seed in higher number (Harrison & Yamamura, 2003). On the other hand, dioecious ficus with split tassel and female flower has a problem because pollinator insect cannot distinguish male fig fruit and female fig fruit (Weiblen, 2002). Both produce volatile substances that attract pollinator insect so that the female fig can produce seed when pollinator insect come to it, although the pollinator insect cannot breed. So as the nonpollinator insect that is also deceived by female fig, so that it can reduce the parasitism level against male fig. Conclusion The type of pollinator insect in F. hispida is C. solmsi, meanwhile C. fusciceps is the type of insect that pollinate F. racemosa. Both types of insect are classified into Agaoninae sub family, Agaonidae family. Other types of insect found in F. hispida and F. racemosa are classified into nonpollinator insect. Those types are Philotrypesis sp., Apocrypta sp1., Apocrypta sp2. (Sycoryctinae sub family), and Apocryptophagus sp. (Sycophaginae sub family). References Cruaud, A., Cook, J., Yang, D., Genson, G., Jabbour-Zahab, R., Finn, K., Pereira, R. A. S., Ronsted, N., Santos-Mattos, O., Savolainen, V. (2012). Evolution of Plant-Pollinator Relationships. Patiny S, editor. New York: Cambridge University Press.Hammond, K. R., & Adelman, L. (1986). Science, values, and human judgment. In H. R. Arkes & K. R. Hammond (Eds.), Judgement and decision making: An interdisciplinary reader (pp. 127-143). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Godfray, H. C. J. (1988). Virginity in haplodiploid populations: a study on fig wasps. Ecological entomology. 13: 283-291. Hamilton, W. D. (1979). Wingless and fighting males in fig wasps and other insects. In: Blum MS, Blum NA, editor. Sexual Selection and Reproductive Conflict in Insects and Arachnids. New York (US): Academic Press (pp 167-220). Harrison, R. D., Yamamura, N. (2003). A few more hypotheses for the evolution of dioecy in figs (Ficus, Moraceae). Oikos. 100(3): 628-635. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 54
Janzen, D. H. (1979). How to be a fig. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 10: 13-51. Jousselin, E., Noort, S., Greeff, J. M. (2004). Labile male morphology and intraspecific male polymorphism in the philotrypesis fig wasps. Molecular phylogenetic and evolution. 33: 706718. Priyadarsanan, D. R. (2000). Figs insect of Kerala. Rec zool Surv India 182 (1-7): 1-175. Ramirez, W. (1991). Evolution of the mandibular appendage in fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae). Rev biol Trop. 39(1): 87-95. Ramirez, W. (1996). Breathing adaptations of males in fig gall flowers (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae). Rev biol Trop. 44 (3)/45(1): 277-282. Vovlas, N., Larizza, A. (1996). Relationship of Schistonchus caprifi (Aphelenchoididae) with fig inflorescences, the fig pollinator Blastophaga psenes, and its cleptoparasite Philotrypesis caricae. Fundam appl nematolo. 19 (5): 443-448. Weiblen, G. D. (2002). How to be a fig wasp. Annu Rev Entomol. 47: 299-330. Wen-Quan, Z., Da-Wei, H., Jin-Hua, X., Da-Rong, Y., Chao-Dong, Z., Hui. (2005). Ovipositor length of three Apocrypta species: effect on oviposition behavior and correlation with syconial thickness. Phytoparasitica. 33 (2): 113-120. Xiao, J., Zhen, Y., Ling-Yi, J., Xin-Hua, Y., Li-Hua, N., Zhuo, W., Peng, Z., Bao-Fa, S., Shun-Min, H., Zi, L.et al. (2013). Obligate mutualism within a host drives the extreme specialization of a fig wasp genome. Genome biology. 14(12): 1-18. Yang, Q. P., Da, R. Y., Qiu, Y. W. (2005). Quantitative tests of interaction between pollinating and non-pollinating fig wasps on dioecious ficus hispida. Ecological entomology. 30: 70-77.
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EARTH SCIENCE
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EL NIÑO MODOKI IMPACTS ON RAINFALL ANOMALY IN PAPUA INDONESIA Anna Maria Kusumaningayu*, Joko Wiratmo and M. Ridho Syahputra Department of Meteorology, Bandung Institute of Technology, Ganesha Street No. 10, Bandung 40132, West Java, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract The new kind of El Niño phenomenon that known as El Niño Modoki has occurred more frequently during recent decades. It causes different impacts on rainfall in regions near Pacific compared with conventional El Niño. Thus, it is interesting to investigate El Niño Modoki spatial impacts on rainfall in Eastern Indonesia especially in Papua region. This study analyzes composite of Sea Surface Temperature (SST) in the equatorial Pacific using Hadley Centre Sea Ice and Sea Surface Temperature (HadISST) data and precipitation in Papua region using Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) data reanalysis in the period of 1979-2010. That composite analyses has a purpose to proving the El Niño Modoki SST anomalies spatial pattern and identify rainfall anomalies spatial pattern in Papua during El Niño Modoki event. Then Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) analysis used to calculate the fraction of squared covariance between SST anomalies in the equatorial Pacific and rainfall anomalies over Papua. The composite analyses of SST and rainfall anomalies during MAM show rainfall reduction over northern Papua and rainfall increment over southern Papua, which consistent with SVD analysis. The SVD analysis of SST and rainfall reveals El Niño Modoki in second mode that accounts for 2,64% of the square covariance fraction on rainfall anomalies in Papua Keywords: rainfall anomalies; SST anomalies; el niño modoki; MAM; Papua
Introduction El Niño is a phenomenom that happens in equator Pacific which generally causes rainfall reduction than normal condition even drought in Indonesia. The previous study explains that there is new kind of El Niño which is known as El Niño Modoki (Ashok et al., 2007). Both types of that El Niño have a different characteristic. It can be refered to the difference of sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies location from each El Niño type. The conventional El Niño is characterized by strong warm SST anomalies in eastern Pacifik and cool SST anomalies in western Pasific. However, El Niño Modoki is characterized by distinct warm SST anomalies in central Pacific and weaker cool SST anomalies in west and east of the basin. During recent decades El Niño Modoki events occurred more frequently than conventional El Niño (Ashok et al., 2007; Yeh et al., 2014). Taschetto and England (2009) show that conventional El Niño and El Niño Modoki have different impacts in many regions. Japan, China, America, and Australia generally experience normal or rain condition during conventional El Niño but dry condition during El Niño Modoki. The difference impacts can be appeared in spatial. A significant reduction in rainfall occurs over northeastern and southeastern Australia during conventional El Niño but a large-scale decrease in rainfall appears over northwestern and northern Australia during El Niño Modoki. Weng et al. (2007) indicate that there are significant different impacts of conventional El Niño and El Niño Modoki to regions near Pacific climate. Study that focus to El Niño Modoki in Indonesia is done by Tristania (2012). El Niño Modoki cause rainfall decreasing in eastern Indonesia about 30% - 40%, which is more than other Indonesia regions. Rainfall is one of factor that can effect on agriculture condition. Recently, Papua is developed as the first main food-agricultural in Indonesia (Dewi et al., 2014). The government plan a landmass of 9 million agricultural areas developing in Papua during 2015-2025 in order to secure the food The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 57
endurance. Now the agricultural area in Papua are limited than all of Papua areas. Therefore, it is important to examine how El Niño Modoki spatial impact on rainfall anomalies in Papua region, especially considering that the study about El Niño Modoki is still infrequently in Indonesia. This study’s main goals is to analyze El Niño Modoki spatial impact on rainfall in Papua region and to find out the El Niño Modoki’s variance percentage to rainfall in Papua region. Furthermore, the rest of this paper is divided as follows: the datasets and methods, the results, and the major conclusions. Materials and Methods The datasets used in this study include reanalysis data which consist of SST and rainfall datasets. The SST dataset used Global Sea Ice and Sea Surface Temperature Analyses from the Hadley Centre (HadISST1) (Rayner et al., 2003). The SST data can be downloaded at http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobs/hadisst/data/download.html in monthly temporal resolution. It covers tropical equator Pacific region from 20o N to 20o S and 120o E to 40o W with spatial resolution 1o 1o. This data use the period 1979-2010 which include strong El Niño Modoki events. The selected strong El Niño Modoki years are divided in season (Brito 2011). The strong El Niño Modoki years of December-January-February (DJF) are 1979/1980, 1968/1987, 1990/1991, 1991/1992, 1992/1993, 1994/1995, 2002/2003 and 2004/2005. The strong El Niño Modoki years of March-April-May (MAM) are 1982, 1991, 1994, 1995, 2003, 2005, and 2007. The strong El Niño Modoki years of Juny-July-August (JJA) are 1990, 1991, 1994, 2002, and 2004. The strong El Niño Modoki years of September-October-November (SON) are 1986, 1990, 1991, 1994, 2001, 2002, 2004, and 2005. The rainfall dataset used reanalysis Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) data. This rainfall data include Papua region from 3o N to 9o S and 130o to 141o E for the period 1979-2010. The data have spasial resolution 0.5o 0.5o and monthly temporal resolution which can be downloaded from official website National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) at http://climatedataguide.ucar.edu/climate-data/gpcc-global-precipitation-climatology-centre. The specific humidity and wind (u,v) datasets used European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) ERA-INTERIM data. This specific humidity data include Papua and tropical Pacific regions from 15o N to 20o S and 120o E to 120o W for surface level 1000 mb to 800 mb. This data have spatial resolution 0.25o 0.25o and monthly temporal resolution for the period 1979-2010 which can be downloaded at http://apps.ecmwf.int/datasets/. Composite analysis are used to show SST anomalies and rainfall anomalies spatial patterns of each season. Beside that, we also used Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) method to indentify variance percentage between El Niño Modoki SST anomalies in equator Pacific and rainfall anomalies in Papua. The SVD method is a generalization of the Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis, using two combined data fields. The SVD analysis performs a singular value decomposition of the cross-covariance matrix between two space and time dependent data fields (Bjornsson, 1997). The result is a spatially orthogonal set of singular vectors that analogous to eigenvectors in the EOF and a set of singular values associated with each pair of vectors that analogous to EOF eigenvalues. Singular vectors represent spatial pattern of two fields while singular value represent variance percentage of the squared covariance between the two fields.
Results and Discussion Composite analysis is used to explain El Niño Modoki SST and rainfall data based on seasons in order to the difference of maximum SST El Niño Modoki anomalies can be identified temporally. SST anomalies are difference between El Niño Modoki mean SST and climatological mean SST. Figure 1 (a-d) shows El Niño SST anomalies composite each season based on strong El Niño Modoki years. That composite result exhibit clearly that there are warm SST anomalies in central Pacific between cool SST anomalies in both west and east of the basin in each season. It is consistent with previous El Niño Modoki studies (Larkin & Harrison 2005; Ashok et al., 2007). As we know The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 58
from that SST anomaly patterns, the SST anomalies range in DJF and MAM longer than in JJA and SON.
Figure 1. El Niño Modoki SST anomalies composite as compared to normal condition during (a) DJF, (b) MAM, (c) JJA, and (d) SON Regarding to SST anomalies, the rainfall anomalies in this study define as different between monthly mean rainfall during El Niño Modoki and monthly climatological mean rainfall. The monthly climatological mean rainfall are used as normal condition of rainfall and will be compared with monthly mean rainfall during El Niño Modoki. El Niño Modoki SST anomalies during DJF cause rainfall reduction almost over Papua region with maximum in south Papua region (Figure 2a). This indicate during DJF, almost all of Papua region experience drier condition than normal condition. El Niño Modoki SST anomalies during JJA cause the biggest rainfall reduction over Papua among other seasons (Figure 2c). that rainfall reduction also happen almost over Papua region with maximum in central and northwest Papua region. Rainfall reduction also happen in north Papua during MAM (Figure 2b). However in some areas of small northwest Papua region is dominated by rainfall increment even so the value are not too high. During SON, rainfall reduction also dominate Papua region except rainfall increment occure in small area of south of Papua mountain. Overall rainfall reduction to normal condition happen in north Papua are greater than south Papua in all seasons.
Figure 2. Rainfall anomalies composite as compared to normal condition when strong El Niño Modoki years during (a) DJF, (b) MAM, (c) JJA, and (d) SON In this study, we use SVD analysis to identify principal mode of couple variable of SST and rainfall. Figure 3 displays the first principal mode of couple variable of SST anomalies in tropical Pacific and rainfall in Papua for period 1979-2010. This first mode indicate the strong and significant relationship between SST and rainfall. The SST variability in this first mode show warm SST anomalies clearly over equator Pacific from central to east and cool SST anomalies in west Pacific, which represent conventional El Niño structure. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 59
Figure 3. (top) First mode of SVD analysis between (left) SST in the tropical Pacific and (right) Papua rainfall period 1980-2010. (bottom) Time series of the SVD expansion coefficient. Blue line: the SST mode (oC). Green line: the rainfall mode (mm month-1). Black line: Niño-3 index. The correlation coefficient between the SST and rainfall time series is 0.61 and between Niño-3 and SST is 0.8. The yellow box remark strong conventional El Niño year (explained further in the text). The SST expansion coefficient of the first mode is correlated with Niño-3 index which is index representative for conventional El Niño. Correlation value between SST expansion coefficient and Niño-3 index is 0.8 which means that SST and conventional El Niño have close enough of relationship. Time series of expansion coefficient SST point out 3 years which have high amplitude of SST that indicate years when strong conventional El Niño happen. That years are 1982, 1987, and 1997. This matches with previous study by Trenberth (1997) which chose that 3 years as strong conventional El Niño years. Thus, we can declare that the spatial pattern of first mode of the SVD analysis between SST and rainfall in Papua shows conventional El Niño anomaly pattern. This conventional El Niño anomaly pattern is associated with negative rainfall anomalies over Papua especially in northwest and south Papua regions. This matches with previous study which explain that lowland in south Papua is very effected by ENSO (Rafi, 2012). Variance percentage of couple variable conventional El Niño events and rainfall reduction over Papua is 94.48%. That value indicate quatitative contribution of conventional El Niño to rainfall in Papua. The second dominant mode of SVD analysis between SST anomalies in Pacific and rainfall in Papua for period 1980-2010 is displayed on Figure 4. SPL variability in this second mode show warm SST anomalies are located in central Pacific between cool SST anomalies in west and east of the basin. This pattern matches with spatial pattern of El Niño Modoki (Ashok et al., 2007). The SST expansion coefficient of the second mode is correlated with EMI (El Niño Modoki Index) which index representative for El Niño Modoki. Correlation value between SST expansion coefficient and EMI is 0.54 which means that relationship between SST and El Niño Modoki are close enough. Time series of expansion coefficient SST point out 7 years which have high amplitude on SST that indicate years when strong El Niño Modoki happen. That years are 1980, 1987, 1991, 1995, 2003, 2005, and 2010. This matches with previous studies which choose that years as strong El Niño Modoki (Ashok et al., 2007; Lee & McPhaden, 2010; Brito, 2011). Thus, we can declare that the spatial pattern of second mode of the SVD analysis between SST and rainfall in Papua display El Niño Modoki anomaly pattern. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 60
Figure 4. (top) Second mode of SVD analysis between (left) SST in the tropical Pacific and (right) Papua rainfall period 1980-2010. (bottom) Time series of the SVD expansion coefficient. Blue line: the SST mode (oC). Green line: the rainfall mode (mm month-1). Black line: El Niño Modoki index (EMI). The correlation coefficient between the SST and rainfall time series is 0.32 and between EMI and SST is 0.54. The yellow box remark strong El Niño Modoki year (explained further in the text). Variance percentage of couple variable El Niño Modoki events and rainfall reduction over Papua is 2.64%. This value is really contrast with variance percentage of the first mode. This explains El Niño Modoki contribution to rainfall in Papua is really lower than conventional El Niño contribution. El Niño Modoki SST anomaly pattern is associated with negative rainfall anomalies in north of Papua mountain especially in northwest Papua region and positive rainfall anomalies in south of Papua mountain. The SVD result shows the same pattern with the composite analysis rainfall pattern in MAM which indicate the consistence of the rainfall pattern in Papua when El Niño Modoki events. Time series of expansion coefficient show the high amplitude during El Niño Modoki in MAM. Taschetto and England (2009) in their study explain that MAM is a season which characterize with maximum El Niño Modoki SST anomalies and cause the biggest rainfall response in Australia. Range of rainfall amount in Papua during MAM generally are 100-300 mm in north Papua and 300500 mm in south Papua region with variance about 80 mm of the mean rainfall amount (figure not shown). If it is compared with the rainfall anomalies in Papua during El Niño Modoki MAM then the rainfall anomalies reach 50% of the variance value. Thus, the rainfall reduction and increament in Papua during El Niño Modoki MAM is significant. Rainfall pattern in Papua during El Niño Modoki a little bit different from previous which explain that eastern Indonesia region especially Papua experience rainfall reduction during El Niño Modoki (Tristania, 2012). The difference is estimated because in that study only used some strong El Niño Modoki years, which are 1986, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994, 2002, and 2004 in composite analysis. However, 2010 was not used as strong El Niño Modoki year in composite analysis of the study. Important to note that composite analysis is weak because only some El Niño Modoki events are averaged (Tashetto & England 2009).
Conclusion There are two conclusions of this research. First, composite analysis show that El Niño Modoki SST anomalies cause the difference of rainfall anomalies in Papua spatially and temporally. During The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 61
DJF, rainfall reduction happen over Papua with maximum occur in south Papua region. During MAM, there are rainfall increment in south Papua region and otherwise in north Papua region. During JJA, rainfall reduction happen over Papua with maximum in north Papua. During SON, there are rainfall reduction over Papua with less magnitude than in JJA and rainfall increament in small central Papua region. The rainfall anomalies in all seasons up to 50% of Papua rainfall variance (significant). Second, composite analysis in MAM and SVD analysis show consistent rainfall anomaly spatial pattern in Papua. Rainfall reduction occure in north Papua region and rainfall increament in south Papua region during El Niño Modoki events. El Niño Modoki is second mode of SVD analysis between SST and rainfall in Papua with variance percentage 2.64% of total variance.
Acknowledgment This work was supported by the Department Meteorology of Bandung Institute of Technology. The authors thank Dr. Armi Susandi, MT, Edi Riawan, MT, Dr. Rusmawan Suwarman, MT, and the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and discussions.
References Ashok, K., Behera, S. K., Rao, S. A., Weng, H., & Yamagata, T. (2007). El Niño Modoki and its possible teleconnection. Journal of Geophys Res. Lett., 112,C11007. Ashok, K., Iizuka, S., Rao, S. A., Saji, N. H., & Lee, W. J. (2009). Processes and boreal summer impacts of the 2004 El Niño Modoki: an AGCM study. Journal of Geophys Res. Lett. 36,L04703. Bjornsson, H., & Venegas, S. A. (1997). A manual for EOF and SVD analyses of climate data. CCCGR Rep. 97-1. McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, 52pp. Brito, A. S. (2011). El Niño and El Niño Modoki impacts on South American rainfall. The University of New South Wales Sydney, Australia. Chang, C. P., Wang, Z., Ju, J., & Li, T. (2004). On the relationship between Western Maritime Continent Monsoon rainfall and ENSO during northern winter. Journal of Climate. Chen, J., Jhonny, C. L., Chan, Zhou, W, & Huang, R. (2008). Anomalous modes of moisture transport by East Asian Summer Monsoon and associated rainfall patterns in China. China. Dewi, Y. A., Hendriadi, A., Ananto, E. E. (2014). Sumber inspirasi membangun kemandirian pangan pulau-pulau kecil dan wilayah perbatasan. Diperoleh melalui situs: http://www.litbang.pertanian.go.id/buku/membangun-kemandirian-pangan/BAB-IV/BAB-IV4.pdf downloaded at February 16th 2016. Fasullo, J., & Webster, P. J. (2002) Hydrological signatures relating the Asian Summer Monsoon and ENSO. Journal of Climate. Hendon, H. H. (2003). Indonesian rainfall variability: impact of ENSO and local air-sea interaction. Journal of Climate. Holton, J. R. (2004). An introduction to dynamic meteorology (4ed). University of Washington, Washington: Department of Atmospheric Sciences. Kao, H. Y., & Yu, J. Y. (2009). Contrasting Eastern-Pacific and Central-Pacific types of ENSO. Journal of Climate, 22,615-632. Kubota, H., Shirooka, R., & Hamada, J. I. (2011). Interannual rainfall variability over the eastern maritime continent. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan. Larkin, N. K. & Harrison, D. E. (2005). On the definition of El Niño and associated seasonal average U.S. weather anomalies. Journal of Geophys Res. Lett. 32,L13705. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 62
Rafi, A. (2012). Analisis respon tipe hujan di wilayah Papua terhadap fenomena ENSO. Bandung: Institut Teknologi Bandung. Rasmusson, E. M., & Carpenter, T. H. (1982). Variations in tropical sea surface temperature and surface wind fields associated with the Southern Oscillation/El Niño. Mon. Wea. Rev. 110,354384. Ratnam, J. V., Behera, S. K., Masumoto, Y, Takahashi, K., & Yamagata, T. (2010). Pacific ocean origin for the 2009 Indian Summer Monsoon failure. Journal of Geophys Res. Lett., 37,L07807. Rouw, A. (2013). Analisis variasi geografis pola hujan di wilayah Papua. Institut Teknologi Bandung. Rouw, A. (2014). Pengaruh variabilitas iklim interdecadal terhadap pergeseran pola hujan di wilayah Papua. Institut Teknologi Bandung (tidak diterbitkan). Taschetto, A. S., & England, M. H. (2009). El Niño Modoki impacts on Australian rainfall. Journal of Climate, 22,3167-3174. Trenberth, K. E. (1997). The definition of El Niño. Bull. America Meteorology Society, 2771-2777. Tristania, S. (2012). Pengaruh El Niño Modoki terhadap curah hujan di Indonesia. Program Studi Meteorology ITB. Wang, G., & Hendon, H. H. (2007). Sensitivity of Australian rainfall to inter-El Niño variations. Journal of Climate, 20,4211-4226. Weng, H., Ashok, K., Behera, S. K., Rao, S. A., & Yamagata, T. (2007). Impacts of recent El Niño on Modoki dry/wet conditions in the Pacific Rim during Boreal summer. Clim. Dyn., 29,113-129. Windari, E. H. (2012). El Niño Modoki dan pengaruhnya terhadap curah hujan monsunal di Indonesia. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor. Zhou, T. J., & Yu, R. C. (2005). Atmospheric water vapor transport associated with typical anomalous summer rainfall patterns in China. Journal of Geophys Res. 110,D08104. Zhou, X., Ding, Y., & Wang, P. (2010). Moisture transport in the Asian Summer Monsoon region and its relationship with summer precipitation in China. Acta Meteorologica Sinica
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DESCRIPTION OF ATMOSPHERIC PARAMETERS DUE TO WATERSPOUT IN TARAKAN AUGUST 26th 2015 (NORTH KALIMANTAN-INDONESIA) Ambinari Rachmi Putri*, Rizka Erwin Lestari, and Ejha Larasati Siadari State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics (STMKG) Jakarta, Pondok Betung, Tangerang Selatan, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract On August 26th 2015 at 00.35 UTC, fair weather waterspout was observed in Tarakan’s sea (2.5 miles offshore from north west Juwata International Airport runway). That phenomenon did not cause victim but the citizen has to be watchful because the same phenomenon caused victims in Lombok strain, Indonesia in 2003. Based on the hazard potency and caused by the analysis of waterspout is still rare in Indonesia, this analysis come to describe the atmospheric parameters condition when the phenomenon occured in Tarakan. This analysis used SST anomaly, streamline, clout type analysis from Himawari canal IR satelite, and sounding data for description of local atmospheric condition. The result showed that based on sea temperature anomaly analysis, the warmer value of SST anomaly could be the source of convective cloud development. Based on streamline analysis, there was a low pressure in East Philippines which had a role as a trigger of shearline in North Kalimantan. Based on satelite data, convective cloud were around Kalimantan. The last, based on potential energy analysis in North Kalimantan, CAPE value indicated a big potential energy which can be a trigger for convective cloud development (especially cumulonimbus). It showed in this case that 1-2 days before phenomenon, the CAPE value increased continually. Beside that, the shape of Skew-T diagram were representative to describe cumulonimbus development. Keywords: atmospheric parameters; Indonesia; Tarakan; waterspout
Introduction Waterspout is funnel which contains an intense vortex, sometimes destructive, of small horizontal extent and which occurs over a body of water. There are two types of waterspouts: tornadic waterspouts associated with supercells or quasi-linear convective systems and fair-weather waterspouts associated with localized convective and shear vortices (Antonescu, 2016). Tornadic waterspouts generally begin as true tornadoes over land in association with a thunderstorm, and then move out over the water. On the other hand, fair weather waterspouts tend to form beneath growing cumulus congestus clouds and when cool air moves over warm water (Simpson et al., 1986). Joseph Golden, distinguishes five stages of waterspout formation: 1. Dark spot. A prominent circular, light-colored disk appears on the surface of the water, surrounded by a larger dark area of indeterminate shape and with diffused edges. 2. Spiral pattern. A pattern of light and dark-colored surface bands spiraling out from the dark spot which develops on the water surface. 3. Spray ring. A dense swirling annulus (ring) of sea spray, called a cascade, appears around the dark spot with what appears to be an eye similar to that seen in hurricanes. 4. Mature vortex. The waterspout, now visible from water surface to the overhead cloud mass, achieves maximum organization and intensity. Its funnel often appears hollow, with a surrounding shell of turbulent condensate. The spray vortex can rise to a height of several hundred feet or more and often creates a visible wake and an associated wave train as it moves. 5. Decay. The funnel and spray vortex begin to dissipate as the inflow of warm air into the vortex weakens. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 64
On August 26th 2015 at 00.35 UTC, fair weather waterspout was observed in Tarakan’s sea (2.5 miles offshore from north west Juwata International Airport runway). It is occurred for 14 minutes. Tarakan is an island city surrounded by sea which located in North Kalimantan (3.25 N / 117.65 E). Because of that, Tarakan’s daily weather is dynamic and influenced by local effect of its region. The convective cloud forming is rapidly occurred in this area. That phenomenon did not cause victim at the time but the citizen has to be watchful because waterspout phenomenon in Lombok Strain, Indonesia, caused high waves about 2-3 meters. As a consequence, Wimaladharma Ship was sinked and took 11 victims, 5 of them were dead. Based on the hazard potency and caused by an analysis about waterspout is still rare in Indonesia, this analysis come to describe the atmospheric parameters condition when the phenomenon occured in Tarakan.
Figure 1. Waterspout phenomenon in Tarakan’s sea which captured by the observer from rooftop of stasiun meteorologi Juata Tarakan on August 26th 2015
Materials and Methods Materials This analysis used satellite data of Sea Surface Temperature from NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) on August 25 th – 26 th 2015 around Indonesia; 3000 feet streamline data from BOM (Bureau of Meteorology) on 25 th August 2015 at 12.00 UTC and 26 th August 2015 at 00.00 UTC; cloud type analysis from Himawari Satellite on 25th – 26th August 2015 at 23.00 and 00.00 UTC made by Indonesian Agency for Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysics; and Sounding data at 24th until 26th August 2015 to get value of K-Index, LI (Lifted Index), TC (Temperature Convective), CAPE (Convective Available Potential Energy) and SWEAT (Severe Weather Threat Index) from Tarakan Meteorological Station. Methods Methods used in this analysis is descriptive for some parameters when waterspout occured. In order to study this phenomenon, sounding data from Tarakan Meteorological Station was ran utilizing Skew-T chart processing software to get values of K-Index, Lifted Index, Temperature Convective, SWEAT and CAPE. On the other hand, analyzing sea surface temperature, streamline and cloud type analysis by himawari satellite did not use any special software.
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Results and Discussion Waterspout is a phenomenon which take place in water so in this analysis, sea surface temperature was described firstly. The response to the peak of the solar power near solstice is the warming of the oceans and the troposphere and associated increases in humidity and convective activity (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001). Daily apparent motion of the sun on August is directly in the north of equator causing northern areas of equator experiences warmer than southern areas. Increasing sea surface temperature indicates increasing energy in the sea that gives possibility increasing evaporation in the atmosphere (Aldrian, 2008). The greater evaporation will form convective cloud with greater energy. Based on sea surface temperature anomaly data conducted by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) in Figure 2, The sea around Tarakan was warmer than its surrounding with range of value between 1.00 – 1.50 celsius degree. This warmer sea surface temperature anomaly can generate convective cloud forming because it has strong enough latent energy.
Figure 2. Sea surface temperature anomaly for three days (24 – 26 August, 2015) Following the comprehension about sea surface condition, the atmospheric condition above the sea is needed to describe waterspout phenomenon. Hence, the second description about atmospheric condition above the sea become the second parameter which is analyzed. Based on 3000 feet streamline data from BOM (Bureau of Meteorology) in Figure 3, wind patterns at an altitude of 3000 feet show a low pressure area in the eastern Philippines Philippines which have a role as a trigger of shearline in North Kalimantan.
Figure 3. Streamline at 3000 feet on 25 th August 2015 (left) 12.00 UTC and 26 th August 2015 (right) 00.00 UTC After knowing the sea-atmospheric condition, cloud nephanalysis was analyzed to get real state information about cloud. Based on Figure 4, on 25th August 2015 at 23.00 cumulus cloud (orange area) did not dominate North Kalimantan area but on 26 th August 2015 at 00.00 UTC cumulus cloud (orange area) dominate North Kalimantan area including Tarakan. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 66
Figure 4. Cloud type analysis from Himawari Satellite on 25th August 2015 at 23.00 (left) and 26th August 2015 at 00.00 UTC (right) Beside regional scale, forecaster needs to notice local scale in weather forecasting. The local scale analysis can utilize sounding data from Meteorological Station (Zakir et al., 2010). Based on sounding data which more representative to local atmospheric condition in Tarakan, value of some index and Skew-T diagram was obtained. The analysis showed that on the day waterspout occurred and the previous two days, some stability index value increased such as Lifting Index (LI) and TC (Temperature Convective). Lifting Index (LI) analysis shows that the stability value on the day waterspout occurred was quite high than two days before in the amount of -7.6, while two days before only reached -4.9 and -6.9. The negative LI value that reachs -7.6 indicates a strong thunderstorm potential. In addition, the value of surface air temperature required for convective air parcel lifting in TC index on the day waterspout occurred was quite high than two days before in the amount of 32.4 °C, while two days before was 31.9 °C and 32.2 °C. The increase in TC value will be required for convective air parcel lifting. The greater TC, the air parcel lifiting will be faster and stronger. KI that is used to identify convective potential shows a lower value than two days before the water spout occurred. KI value is in moderate condition in the amount of 29.9 which indicates a thunderstorm potential 40-60%. Based on potential energy analysis in North Kalimantan, CAPE value indicated a big potential energy which can be trigger for convective cloud development. It can be seen from a day until 2 days before phenomenon that there was increasing of CAPE value. The delivered information could be seen in Table 1 and Table 2. Beside that, based on the shape of Skew-T diagram, It was representative to describe convective cloud development, especially cumulonimbus. Table 1. Table of ki, li, tt index value on august 24th , 25th , and 26th 2015 Date/ Index
LI
KI
24th 25th 26th
-4.9 -6.9 -7.6
37 30.4 29.9
TC (⁰C) 31.9 31.2 32.4
Table 2. Table of SWEAT index and CAPE index value on August 24th , 25th , 26th 2015 Date/ Index
SWEAT
CAPE [J/kg]
th
24 25th
227.6 221
1886 2974
26th
184.4
2709
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Figure 5. Diagram Skew-T of August, 24th 25th, and 26th 2015 in Tarakan Conclusion From the results and discussion above, it can conclude that based on potential energy analysis in North Kalimantan, CAPE value indicated a big potential energy which can be a trigger for convective cloud development. It showed in this case that 1-2 days before phenomenon, the CAPE value increased continually. On the other hand, other stability indexes was not describe waterspout phenomenon appropriately. Acknowledgment The authors would like to say thank to Mr. Achmad Zakir from State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics (STMKG) Jakarta,Pondok Betung, Tangerang Selatan, Indonesia for comments and advices that greatly improved the manuscript. The authors would also like to show gratitude to Mr. Muhammad Hermansyah and Indonesia Agency for Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Tarakan for giving informations about waterspout.
References Aldrian, Edvin. 2008. Meteorologi Laut Indonesia. Jakarta: Badan Meteorologi Klimatologi dan Geofisika. Antonescu, Bogdan, David M.Schultz and Fiona Lomas. (2016). Tornadoes in Europe: Synthesis of the Observational Datasets. Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 144: Centre for Atmosphere Science, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom. doi: 10.1175/MWR-D-15-0298.1. Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology. (2015). Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieve October 2016 from: http://www.bom.gov.au/cgibin/charts/charts.browse.pl Djuric, D. (1994). Weather Analysis. Prentice-Hall Inc, 304 pp. Golden, Joseph H,. (1974). The Life Cycle of Florida Keys’ Waterspout, I. Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol.13: National Severe Storms Laboratory, NOAA, Norman, Okla, 73069. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001), Model evaluation, in Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, edited by J. T. Houghton et al., pp. 471– 524, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
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Nation Enviromental Satelit, Data and Information Service. (2015). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieve October 2016 from http://www.ospo.noaa.gov/data/sst/anomaly/ 2015/anome.8.24.2015.gif Simpson. (1986). Waterspouts. The Comet Program: University Corporation of Atmospheric Research. Retrieved October 2016 from : http://www.meted.ucar.edu/tropical/textbook_ 2nd_edition/navmenu.php?tab=88&page-2.4.3. Zakir, A., Sulistya, W., Khotimah, M. K. (2009). Perspektif Operasional Cuaca Tropis. Jakarta: Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan, Badan Meteorologi Klimatologi Dan Geofisika. ISBN: 978-9791241-30-4.
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THE DETERMINATION OF INITIAL OF RAINY SEASON AROUND EQUATORIAL REGION USING HOWI Joko Wiratmo Department of Meteorology, Faculty of Earth Science and Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology Jl. Ganesha 10 Bandung 40132 West Java Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract Determination of initial of rainy season is very important to many purposes. One of them is to reach efficiency of implementation time of rain-making for purpose of fire forest burnout. This study aims to determine early rainy season in Riau province (3o N - 1.5o S, 100o – 104o E) where many fire forest occured in 2015. The data used is forecast data of surface rainfall of ECMWF (European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecast) with resolution 0.25o x 0.25o from 1 January to 31 December 2015. HOWI method (Hydrological Onset and Withdrawal Index) is applied for the purpose as of above on 15 coordinate in Riau Province. The result shows that this method is not easy to apply because it is very random compared to the simple method of BMKG (National Agency of Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics) Keywords: equatorial, HOWI method, intial rainy season, ECMWF Introduction Indonesian experiences a marked seasonal cycle in precipitation characteristic of monsoon climate, especially near and south of equatorial with principal rainy season centred in DJF and dry season in JJA (Aldrian & Susanto, 2003). Seasonality is caused by the tilting of the earth while the monsoon weather systems are a result of the land-sea temperature differences caused by solar radiation (Huffman et al, 1997). When the earth rotates and revolves around the sun, different seasons occur due to the different land, masses of the northern and southern hemispheres. The regional scale nature of monsoon is complicated at local scale due to the complex island topography, warm waters, pronounced diurnal land-sea breeze circulations and their interaction with intraseasonal oscillations (Kodama et al., 2006). According to Lee & McBride (2016), during El Nino years the monsoon is seen to arrive faster at and remain layer over the western maritime continent. At these time, monsoon wind strength is stronger and weaker than usual in the sea channel 10o north and south of equator respectively, while the opposite is time for La Nina years. Over the western side of the maritime continent ENSO has a weak influence on the boreal winter precipitation (Chang et al., 2004). IOD (Indian Ocean Dipole Mode) is a zonal mode of SST (sea surface temperature) variability in the tropical Indian ocean. The IOD is tightly tied to the seasonal cycle with events tending to develop in boreal summer, peak in fall, and decay rapidly in winter (Saji et al., 1999) as well as to ENSO with peak positive phase (cold eastern Indian ocean) tending to occur during El Nino. In 2015, drought coincided with El Nino and Dipole Mode produce positive impact decreasing chances of rain as usual. Smog disaster that strucked the island of Sumatra and Kalimantan in 2015 is among the most severe. Riau Province is one of the provinces affected by the severe smog. Every day the people of the island have complained because of shortness of breath, eye pain, impaired activities of daily living, and other emotional disorders. Those events always take place when a long drought cause the people of both islands have been apathetic. Land and forest burning activities that always occur and recur during the dry season is mostly done by entrepreneurs and the general public. Local and central government seems to have not had a surefire formula to overcome and respond late on this disaster. One of the efforts taken by the central government is working on the implementation of The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 70
artificial rain. However, it seems that none works well because improper execution time considering the terms of the success of weather modification is not met. Artificial rain to tackle haze in Riau should be done in the early days of the rainy season. This is because hygroscopic condensation nuclei, potential clouds, and relative humidity must be high so the opportunity for the formation of water droplets sized drops of rain higher. The problem is when the beginning of the rainy season occurs. Methods prescribed by the BMKG rather late when applied in the field. Therefore, it will try a method called HOWI (Hydrological Onset and Withdrawal Index). HOWI is a method to determine onset and withdrawal monsoon which is based on the vertically integrated moisture transport (VIMT). This method succes to apply to determine the onset and withdrawal of West African monsoon (Dalu et al., 2008) and Indian monsoon (Fasullo & Webster, 2003).
Methodology Many reanalysis data was used in research (Kalnay et al., 1996) that one of them is used in this research. The data used is the surface rainfall forecast data downloaded from ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast) with a spatial resolution 0,25o x 0,25o. For the period of January 1st, 1979 until December 31st, 2014, is used daily data at 03:00 and 15:00 GMT, while for the period of January 1st, 2015 until December 31st, 2015 used the data at 00.00 and 12:00 GMT. Many methods was used to determine the initial monsoon such as developed by Wang et al. (2004) and Byun & Lee (2002). But HOWI (Hydrological Onset and Withdrawal Index) developed by Fassulo & Webster (2003) whose research is based on the link between monsoon system with the contribution of spatial gradient of water vapor, clouds and rain is looked more powerfull. HOWI concept is the removal of water vapor by the wind in the coloumn of the air. HOWI calculation is integrating water vapor transport (specific humidity) or Vertical Integrated Moisture Transport (VIMT) from the surface to a height of 300 mb. Limit of 300 mb been selected since a specific moisture over 300 mb considered small, almost 2-digit different than on the surface.
where q is specific humidity, U is wind vector, and P is pressure (mb)
Results and discussion Monsoon are large-scale perturbations of the tropical atmosphere flow induced by the ocean – continent seasonal temperature contrast, which changes the wind direction driving the ocean moisture inland and causing abundant rainfall (Dalu etl al., 2008). So to determine season in maritime continent can be looked at the pattern of rainfall. Before determining the start of the season with HOWI methods, approaches to estimate when the intial of the season is determined by the method used by the BMKG which is called “dasarian method”. At 1,5o N 100o E, practically no dry season occurs. There is an opportunity between third dasarian of June to third dasarian of July, but on second dasarian of July BMKG criteria are not met so third dasarian of June can not be regarded as purely the initial of the dry season. This is shown in Figure 1 below.
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A
B
C
Figure 1. Patterns of rainfall dasarian, from top to bottom of each point coordinates 1,5o N (A), 0° (B), and 1,5o S (C) with longitude 100o E. At the equator and 1,5o S 100o E the same thing happened. There is no rainfall for three consecutive dasarian that makes it difficult to estimate when the beginning of the dry season occurs. Among the principle motivations for developing an improved index of monsoon onset is the role such an index may play in clarifying the relationship between the monsoon transitions, the strength of the monsoon season and ENSO (Fasulo & Webster, 2003). The HOWI offers several advantages as the index is based on fields that are better modeled and measured than rainfall. This index is indicative of transition in the large-scale monsoon circulation rather than being highly sensitive to synoptic variability and the spatial complexity of the monsoon transitions. Value of HOWI is highly variable over space and especially time. HOWI value for the area in the South of the equator positive for three consecutive days indicate that the rainy season has begun. HOWI for the North region of the equator positive for three consecutive days indicate that the region has entered the dry season. Seen in the Figure 2 below that HOWI variation against time to have a very irregular pattern at all sampling points of Riau province. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 72
A
B
C
Figure 2. Sample of HOWI’s daily value at 1,5o N (A), 0o (B), and 1,5o S (C) with longitude 100o E (top to bottom) show very random patterns It can easily be found positive and negative values of adjacent indicate the onset and withdrawal of the monsoon happens quickly and several times a year. Ploting rainfall in one year of some locations show that the peak of the rainfall occurs in March-April and November-December indicating equatorial rainfall pattern or type B which is different from the type monsoon but some others show no peak rainfall. Given that the dominant factor in determining the season in Riau province is not the monsoon then perhaps this is what causes the use HOWI method does not work perfectly.
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Conclusion HOWI method needs to be elaborated further as one method of determining the onset and withdrawal of the rainy monsoon season. It looks that for areas in the vicinity of the equator, especially Riau province HOWI is probably not appropriate. Probably this method is appropriate for the other areas away equator. Acknowledgment Thanks to Institut Teknologi Bandung who helps for financial support to this research. Also thanks to Anna Maria who helps me to process the data. References Aldrian, E., & Susanto, D. (2003). Identification of three dominant rainfall regions with Indonesian and their relationship to sea surface temperature. Int. J. Climatology, 23, 1435-1452. Aldrian, E., Gates, D., & Widodo, F. H. (2007) Seasonal variability of Indonesia rainfall in ECHAM4 simulations and in the reanalysis: the role of ENSO. Theor Appl Climatology, 87, 41-59. Byun, H. R., & Lee, D. K. (2002). Defining three rainy season and the hydrological summer monsoon in Korea using available water resources index. Journal of The Meteorology Society of Japan, 80, 33 - 44. Chang, C. P., Harr, P., McBride, J. L., & Hsu, H. (2004) The maritime continent monsoon: in East Asian monsoon, edited by Chang, CP, World scientific series of meteorology of East Asia, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore, ISBN: 978-981-4483-13-1. Dalu, G. A., Gaetami, M., & Baldi, M. (2008). A hydrological onset and withdrawal index for the West African monsoon. Theor Appl Climatol, 96(1), 179-189. Fasullo, J., & Webster, P. J. (2003). A hydrological definition of indian monsoon onset and withdrawal, Journal of Climate, American Meteorological Society, 16, 3200 - 3211. Huffman, G. J., Alder, R. F., Arkin, P., Chang, A., Ferraro, R., Gruber, A., Janowick, J., McNub, A., Rudolf, B., & Schneider, U. (1997). The global precipitation climatology project (GPCP) combined precipitation dataset, Bulletin of the American precipitation dataset, Bulletin of the American Meteorologycal Society, 78(1), 5-20. Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., et. al., (1996), The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project. Bulletin American, 437 - 471. Kodama, Y. M., Tokuda, M., & Murata, F. (2016). Convection activity over the Indonesian maritime continent during CPEA-I as evaluated by lighting activity and Q1 and Q2 profiles. J. Meteo Soc, Japan, 84: 133-149. Lee, S. Y.,& McBride, J. L. (2016). The progression of the boreal winter monsoon through the western maritime continent as differentiated by ENSO phase. Advances Geosci, 42, 51-60. Saji, N. H., & Yamagata, T. (2003). Possible impacts of Indian Ocean Dipole Mode events on global climate. Climate Res, 25 (2), 151-169. Shi, L., Hendon, H. H., Alves, O., Luo, J. J., Balmaseda, M., & Anderson, D. (2012). How predictable is the Indian Ocean Dipole ?, Monthly Weather Review, 140, 3867-3884. Wang, B., Ho, L., Zhang, Y., & Lu, M. M. (2004). Definition of South China Sea monsoon onset and commencement of the East Asia summer monsoon. Journal of Climate, 17, 699 – 710.
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THE INFLUENCE OF EL NINO AND LA NINA ON BIAK RAINFALL IN 30 YEARS (1981-2010) Prayoga Ismail* and Aries Kristianto 1
Indonesian State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics (STMKG), Jalan Perhubungan I No.5 Komplek Meteorologi Pondok Betung, Bintaro 15221, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract Research on the influence of El Nino and La Nina during 30 years is focused in Biak. Rainfall data (1981-2010) is based on Biak Meteorological Station observation. ENSO activities and its teleconnection to the variability of monthly rainfall has been evaluated by analyzing the response of the monthly rainfall and ENSO-related activities through the comparison of normal monthly rainfall and ENSO events composites. During El Nino, Biak monthly rainfall tends to decrease until it reached 42.55% which took place in October. While, La Nina tended to leave positive impact on Biak monthly rainfall of up to 54.27%, which occurred in September. The influence of El Nino and La Nina most to the seasonal rainfall occurred in the SON as a transition period from dry to rainy season. Correlation analysis between Biak monthly rainfall and Nino 3.4 index during the period revealed that ENSO activities gave a negative impact on Biak monthly rainfall with the highest correlation coefficient occurred in October, reaching -0.55. This number indicated a moderate correlation Keywords: Biak rainfall, el nino, la nina Introduction ENSO (El Nino and Southern Oscillation) phenomenon is anomalous increase or decrease in sea surface temperature (SST) of the normal value which occurs in the central and eastern region of equatorial Pacific Ocean (Philander, 1990). This global impact tropical circulation is divided into two phases: El Nino (warm phase) and La Nina (cold phase). There are many previous studies that proved that the activities of ENSO influenced on rainfall variability in the region of Indonesia (Gutman et al., 2000; Aldrian, 2002; Mulyana, 2002; Hamada et al., 2002; Hendon, 2003). Meanwhile, the influence of ENSO activities to rainfall in eastern Indonesia (Papua) have also been studied previously (Kubota et al., 2011; Suwandi et al., 2014). From various studies the influence of ENSO activities on rainfall over Indonesia had been known clearly. However, need more studies to determine the influence of ENSO activities on rainfall for a smaller scope area to understand better. In this case, the research conducted on Biak region, which is a municipal level (district). This paper is a review of the influence of ENSO activities on Biak monthly rainfall over a period of 30 years (1981-2010) and to find out the relationship between Nino 3.4 index and Biak monthly rainfall during this period. This study is expected not only to support and complement previous studies but also to provide a more comprehensive understanding related to the influence of ENSO activities in Biak monthly rainfall over a period of 30 years. Biak is one of the districts in the province of Papua, Indonesia. Based on the monthly rainfall data over a period of 30 years (1981-2010), Biak classified as equatorial type, one of the three existing rainfall patterns in Indonesia (Rouw et al., 2014). Aldrian and Susanto (2003) explained that the different response types of rain with SST in Indonesia, so the differential responses will appear when ENSO events. In the east, Biak, which is located directly adjacent to the western equatorial Pacific Ocean is certainly closer to the ENSO phenomenon compared to other regions of Indonesia. This fact is at once interesting to be elaborated how the influence of ENSO activities during the period 19812010 to the monthly rainfall specifically in Biak district. Then, the teleconnections to climate change The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 75
impacts on the environment can be known. The research will also gives benefit for BMKG (Indonesian Agency for Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics), governments and communities to provide knowledge related to El Nino and La Nina events so it can be used for mitigation in the upcoming events.
Materials and Methods This study used monthly rainfall data over a period of 30 years (1981-2010), which collected from the observation data of Frans Kaisiepo Biak Meteorological Station. The data is classified as secondary data because the precipitation observations is done directly by the observer using obs rain gauge which is managed and stored properly and quite representative for Biak district, especially the airport area. The data also being a dependent variable in this study. Monthly rainfall data over a period of proficiency level will be computed into the value of the average monthly rainfall consist of 12 normal rainfall data from January to December. Then, it will be graphed to determine the pattern of Biak monthly rainfall. Calculations were performed by using the following equation:
X
1 n xXi n i 1
(1)
As stated in Pratama, 2013. In formula (1), X is average monthly rainfall for the period of 1981-2010 (mm units), n is the number of monthly rainfall data over a period of 30 years, and Xi is the value of the monthly rainfall (mm units). Then, the data used to identify the time of occurrence of ENSO is monthly SST anomaly Nino 3.4 index data during the period 1981 to 2010 as shown in chart 1 which includes the equatorial Pacific Ocean region with astronomical area 50 S - 50 N and 1200 W - 1700 W. The data were taken from NOAA ESRL Physical Science Division with HadISST dataset with the provision, El Nino event occurs when an index number-value ≥ 0.5. Whereas, for the event La Nina occurs when the index number is worth ≤ -0.5. Nino 3.4 index as well as the independent variable in this study. After determining the time of ENSO events in the phase of El Nino and La Nina, each data will be calculated into the composite average monthly rainfall data when the activities of the El Nino and La Nina occurs. The rainfall composites occurrence of El Nino and La Nina yield 12 monthly rainfall data from January to December. After that, it will be graphed to determine the pattern of Biak monthly rainfall upon occurrence of El Nino and La Nina. Calculations were performed using the following equation: n
X=
1 xåXi n i=1
(2)
As stated in Pratama, 2013. In formula (2), X is the average monthly rainfall El Nino or La Nina filter during the period 1981-2010 (mm), n is the number of monthly rainfall data El Nino or La Nina filter for the period of 30 years, and Xi is the value of the monthly rainfall El Nino or La Nina filter (mm). In this study, the methods are response analysis and correlation analysis using Pearson correlation coefficient. Analysis of Biak monthly rainfall response to ENSO events will be assessed through rainfall anomaly that occurs when the El Nino and La Nina events. ENSO events rainfall composite in the phase of El Nino and La Nina during the period 1981 to 2010 will be calculated into the average monthly and compared with the Biak monthly rainfall in a normal period (1981-2010). Then, it will be seen how the influence of the El Nino and La Nina activities on rainfall composite for each months. Methods of correlation analysis is using Pearson correlation coefficient intends to explore the extent of the closeness of the linear relationship between variability of Biak monthly precipitation and Nino 3.4 SST anomaly index over a period of 30 years (1981-2010), by using the following equation:
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n XY X Y
r
n X 2 ( X ) 2 n Y 2 ( Y ) 2
(3)
As stated in Pratama, 2013. In formula (3), r is the Pearson correlation coefficient, n is the number of Nino 3.4 index data over a period of 30 years, X is the value of Biak monthly rainfall during the period from 1981 to 2010 (mm), and Y is Nino 3.4 SST anomaly the index value (0C) during the period. Meanwhile, SST anomalies composite map was processed by using the Research and Development Application of NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory, Physical Science Division.
Results and Discussion Biak rainfall pattern Indonesia is divided into three predominant regions of the rainfall patterns (Aldrian & Susanto, 2003). Based on rainfall patterns during a period of 30 years as shown in the Figure 1 (a), Biak which is located in eastern Indonesia became one of the areas in Papua, can be categorized as the equatorial rainfall pattern. The pattern is seen from the graph that resembles with two peaks period that occurred in March and July. In general, Biak monthly rainfall interval is under 100 mm. Biak which is located to the west of the equatorial Pacific Ocean, so the weather and climate oscillations that occur in the Pacific it is possible to give impact to the variability of the weather and climate in the region. Response analysis Based on Figure 1 (b), showed that Biak monthly rainfall pattern changes when there is activities of El Nino (yellow line) and La Nina (blue line). In general, the activities of the El Nino tends to cause a reduction in the monthly rainfall in Biak. Meanwhile, the activities of La Nina tends to cause Biak monthly rainfall increase. These are the dominant results. Reduction of rainfall means that the monthly precipitation is below normal, while the increasing of rainfall means that the monthly rainfall is above normal. Nevertheless, from the response analysis there are cases which experienced the opposite, namely the addition of monthly rainfall when El Nino activities, and a decrease in the monthly rainfall when La Nina activities. However, the cases were minimal and not dominant.
b.
350.0
350.0
300.0
300.0
RAINFALL (mm)
RAINFALL (mm)
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50.0
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MONTH 30 YEARS MEAN
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MONTH 30 YEARS MEAN La Niña MEAN
El Niño MEAN
Figure 1. (a) Biak monthly rainfall pattern over a period of 30 years (1981-2010); (b) Biak monthly rainfall pattern of normal value, El Nino filter (yellow), and La Nina filter (blue) for same period
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Monthly rainfall response As shown in Figure 2, based on response analysis composite between normal monthly rainfall from January to December 1981-2010 and monthly rainfall during ENSO activities during the same period, showed that monthly rainfall anomalies in ENSO activities. In January, the activities of the El Nino and La Nina were both a positive influence in the form of increased rainfall in Biak, respectively of 5.15% (13.3 mm) and 2.43% (6.3 mm) to normal. In February, El Nino activities caused a decrease in the monthly rainfall amounted to 2.43% (6.3 mm), while the activities of La Nina impact was quite clear in the form of increased rainfall of up to 24.74% (58 mm) to normal. In March, El Nino activities had little impact on reducing monthly rainfall amounting to 1.15% (3.3 mm), and the activities of La Nina impact on increasing the monthly rainfall amounted to 9.56% (27.4 mm) to normal. In April, the activities of the El Nino and La Nina nearly had the same impact that increase Biak monthly rainfall respectively by 11.51% (30.2 mm) and 10.27% (27 mm) to normal. In May, the influence of El Nino activities impact on the monthly rainfall decrease amounted to 20.29% (47 mm), while the activities of La Nina impact on increasing the monthly rainfall of up to 33.83% (78.3 mm) to normal. In June, El Nino activities also decreased the monthly rainfall amounted to 13.02% (28.8 mm), whereas La Nina activities increase monthly rainfall amounted to 5.36% (11.9 mm) to normal. Unique cases also occurred in July, where the second phase of ENSO (El Nino and La Nina) caused a decrease in monthly rainfall, respectively amounting to 19.58% (53.6 mm) occurred when the activities of El Nino, and 15.71% (43 mm) occurred when La Nina activities. In August, the influence of El Nino caused a decrease in the monthly rainfall amounted to 25.34% (58.7 mm), and the influence of La Nina activities led to an increase in the monthly rainfall amounted to 26.82% (62.1 mm) to normal. In September, the activities of the El Nino caused a decrease in the monthly rainfall amounted to 21.45% (45.6 mm), whereas La Nina activities provided significant influence in the form of an increase of monthly rainfall reached 54.27% (115.4 mm) in which La Nina impact this month was the biggest among other months. In October, El Nino activities caused the highest decrease in the monthly rainfall compared to other months, reaching 42.55% (95.4 mm), whereas La Nina activities impact on the addition of monthly rainfall amounted to 19.05% (42.7 mm). In the earlier of November, the two phases of ENSO again having the same impact, a reduction in monthly rainfall, respectively amounting to 13.89% (26.7 mm) when the activities of El Nino and 6.27% (12.1 mm) when the activities of La Nina. In December, El Nino activities had a negative impact in the form of a decrease in the monthly rainfall amounted to 11.41% (29.1 mm), whereas La Nina activities provided little positive impact as addition of monthly rainfall only 1.79% (4, 6 mm) to normal. 60.00% 40.00% 20.00% 0.00% 1
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-20.00% -40.00% -60.00% MONTH El Niño ANOMALY
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Figure 2. Percentage of monthly rainfall anomalies in Biak period of 30 years for El Nino filter (yellow), and La Nina filter (blue)
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Seasonal rainfall response Based on Figure 3, DJF (December, January,and February) represented the rainy season in Indonesia. In this period, DJF normal rainfall in Biak experienced a slight decrease of 2.07% (15.8 mm) when the El Nino activities. Meanwhile, the activities of La Nina, DJF normal rainfall increased slightly in the amount of 1.94% (14.8 mm). From these results, it appeared that in the rainy season, the activities of the El Nino and La Nina gave a little impact with almost similar anomalies on Biak rainfall.
a.
b. DJF Anomaly
DJF 790.0 780.0 770.0 760.0 750.0 740.0 730.0
LA NINA
EL NINO EL NINO
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-3.00% -2.00% -1.00% 0.00% 1.00% 2.00% 3.00%
Figure 3. (a) Response and (b) anomalies of Biak rainfall in DJF when the activities of El Nino and La Nina in 30 years period Based on Figure 4, MAM (March, April, and May) represented the transition season or period from the rainy season to the dry season in Indonesia. In this period, a normal rainfall MAM decreased slightly by 1.62% (12.6 mm) when the El Nino activities. Meanwhile, when the activities of La Nina, normal rainfall MAM increased more in the amount of 14.44% (112.8 mm). This result showed that in the MAM transition season, the influence of La Nina activities was stronger than El Nino impact on Biak rainfall. a.
b. MAM
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0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
Figure 4. (a) Response and (b) anomalies of Biak rainfall in MAM when the activities of El Nino and La Nina in 30 years period
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a.
b. JJA Anomaly
JJA 800.0
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10.00%
Figure 5. (a) Response and (b) anomalies of Biak rainfall in JJA when the activities of El Nino and La Nina in 30 years period Based on Figure 5, JJA (June, July, and August) represented the dry season in Indonesia. In this period, a normal JJA Biak rainfall quite real decline in the amount of 22.65% (164.5 mm) on the activities of El Nino. However, on the activities of La Nina, normal JJA rainfall only increased slightly amounting to 1.84% (13.4 mm). It can be seen that in JJA (dry season), the impact of El Nino on Biak rainfall was stronger than the influence of La Nina. a.
b. SON Anomaly
SON 1000.0 800.0
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-40.00%
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Figure 6. (a) Response and (b) anomalies of Biak rainfall in SON when the activities of El Nino and La Nina in 30 years period Based on Figure 6, SON (September, October, and November) represented the transition season, from dry season to the rainy season in Indonesia. At the time, a normal SON Biak rainfall decreased greater than most other seasons, reaching 27.08% (170.4 mm) when the El Nino activities. Meanwhile, when the activities of La Nina, normal SON rainfall also increased greater than most other seasons, reaching 32.91% (207 mm). It showed that in the SON transition season, the influence of El Nino and La Nina activities provided the most significant influence on Biak rainfall compared to the other seasons. Correlation analysis By using the Pearson correlation coefficient, it can be seen the level of correlations between Nino 3.4 index and Biak monthly rainfall during the period of 1981-2010. The results are as shown in the Table 1.
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Table 1. Correlation between Nino 3.4 index and Biak monthly rainfall in 30-years period Months
R
Correlation
January
0,11
Negligible
February
-0,25
Weak
March
0,01
Negligible
April
0,05
Negligible
May
-0,46
Moderate
June
-0,26
Weak
July
-0,15
Negligible
August
-0,37
Weak
September
-0,50
Moderate
October
-0,55
Moderate
November
-0,08
Negligible
December
-0,16
Weak
Table 1, showed the correlation between Nino 3.4 index and Biak monthly rainfall in the period of 30 years (1981-2010). It can be seen that the ENSO activities based on Nino 3.4 index, give dominant negative impact on the Biak monthly rainfall, meaning that when the warm ENSO activities index (positive) occurs, it can decrease Biak monthly rainfall. And conversely, if the cold ENSO activities index (negative) happens, there is an increase on Biak rainfall. However, the results varied from extremely weak levels (negligible) of relationship (January, March, April, July, August), weak correlation (February, June, August, September), until moderate correlation (May, September, October). And the highest correlation value is in the month of October with the r value reached -0.55 which means that the Nino 3.4 index had a strong enough (moderate) negative impact. Or in other words, when the ENSO activities occurs, it is able to influence Biak monthly rainfall strong enough, especially in October. During the period of 1981-2010, there were some cases when the El Nino activities precisely Biak monthly rainfall increased, while when the La Nina activities precisely Biak monthly rainfall decreased. However, the cases were not dominant results, because the percentage was only about 16.67 % of the El Nino and La Nina that occurred during that period. Factors triggering their minor cases that show the opposite effects of El Nino and La Nina in general are still not known for sure. This is because the phenomenon and oscillations that occur around the Pacific basin were not only El Nino and La Nina. There might be by PDO (Pacific Decadal Oscillation), ENSO Modoki, and others influence. PDO phenomena could affect the intensity of El Nino or La Nina event of the same period. When in the same phase to ENSO or the so-called constructive, PDO could amplify the intensity of El Nino and La Nina. However, if it was in opposite phase or the so-called destructive, the PDO could prevent the “true” impact of El Nino and La Nina. Then, the impact was an increased on rainfall in the central part of equatorial Pacific and the decreased in rainfall in western and eastern parts of equatorial Pacific when the El Nino Modoki activities. Meanwhile, La Nina Modoki impact decreased on the rainfall in the central part of equatorial Pacific and the increased on rainfall in the western and eastern region of equatorial Pacific. Besides these two phenomena, it was possible other combination factors such as sea surface temperature conditions in Indonesia. When the SST Indonesia experienced a warm anomaly, it had an impact on increasing the chance of rain in Indonesian region, including Biak. If warm anomaly of SST Indonesia coincided with ENSO events, the impact of the intensity of El Nino and La Nina also affected. In addition, there were also the cyclonic circulation occurred around the Pacific basin which could affected the impact of El Nino and La Nina.
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Conclusion Research on the influence of ENSO activities against Biak monthly rainfall during the period of 1981-2010 has been completed using response analysis composite and correlation analysis. During this period, the frequency of El Nino events reached 33.33%, while La Nina reached 30.00%, while the neutral state reached 36.67%. These numbers indicated that the ENSO activities period nearing its normal period. ENSO activities during this period give considerable influence to Biak rainfall. From Biak monthly rainfall pattern was observed that the 1981-2010 period related to a shift in ENSO activities. In the El Nino events, the dominant pattern of normal rainfall had decreased or below normal. With a maximum decrease occurred in October, which reached 42.55% (95.4 mm). While the occurrence of La Nina, normal rainfall patterns predominant increased or tended to be above normal. With a maximum increase occurred in September, which reached 54.27% (115.4 mm). ENSO activities also affects the seasonal rainfall in Biak. The strongest influence of the El Nino and La Nina activities occurred in SON, namely the transition period from dry season to the rainy season in Indonesia. El Nino activities in SON triggered the largest decrease in rainfall of up to 27.08% (170.4 mm), while La Nina activities triggered an increase in the heaviest rainfall of up to 32.91% (207 mm). The smallest influence of El Nino occurred in MAM (the transition period from rainy season to dry season), while the smallest influence of La Nina occurred in JJA months (dry season in Indonesia). Correlation analysis revealed that the relationship between Nino 3.4 index and Biak monthly rainfall yield relationships that varies from negligible to quite strong (moderate). The highest correlation coefficient achieved in October indicating a negative relationship between the two variables were strong enough. Therefore, Biak which has equatorial rainfall type is moderately influenced by the activities of El Nino and La Nina. Instead of this, there were some minor cases opposite to dominant results. Because there were other oscillations influenced such as PDO and ENSO Modoki. Acknowledgment I am so honored and just want to deliver special thanks to Dr. Aries Kristianto, S.T., M.Si. for helping me to review the paper and Frans Kaisiepo from Biak Meteorological Station for the data.
References Aldrian, E. (2002). Spatial patterns of ENSO impact on Indonesian rainfall. Jurnal Sains & Teknologi Modifikasi Cuaca, 3(1), 5-15. Aldrian, E., & Susanto, R. D. (2003). Identification of three dominant rainfall regions within Indonesia and their relationship to sea surface temperature. International Journal of Climatology, 23(12), 1407–1545. Chen, W. Y. (1983). The climate of spring 1983-A season with persistent anomalies associated with El Nino. Monthly Weather Review, 111, 2371 – 2384. Gutman, G., Csiszar, I. & Romanov, P.. (2000). Using NOAA/AVHRR products to monitor El Nino impacts: focus on Indonesia in 1997-98. Bulletin American Meteorological Society, 81, 1189– 1205. Hamada, J. I., Yamanaka, M. D., Matsumoto, J., Fukao, S., Winarso. P. A., & Sribimawati, T. (2002). Spatial and temporal variations of the rainy season over Indonesia and their link to ENSO. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan Ser. II, 80(2), 285-310. Hendon, H. H. (2003). Indonesian rainfall variability: Impacts of ENSO and local air–aea interaction. Journal of Climate,16, 1775-1790. Kubota, H., Syamsudin, F., Shirooka R., & Hamada, J. I. (2011). Interannual rainfall variability over the eastern maritime continent. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan, 89A, 111-122.
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Mason, M. (2016). El Nino and La Nina: Their impact on the environment. Retrieved from http://environmentalscience.org/el-nino-la-nina-impact-environment/ Mulyana, E. (2002). Hubungan antara ENSO dengan variasi curah hujan di Indonesia. Jurnal Sains & Teknologi Modifikasi Cuaca, 3(1), 1-4. Philander, S. G. H. (1990). El Nino, La Nina and the southern oscillation. San Diego: Academic Press. Pratama, M. S. (2013). Pengaruh fenomena ENSO tahun 1997 dan 1999 terhadap curah hujan di Biak (Unpublished third diploma thesis). Akademi Meteorologi dan Geofisika. Rouw, A., Hadi T. W., Tjasyono, B. H. K., & Hadi, S. (2014). Geographic variation analysis of rainfall pattern in Papua region. Jurnal Tanah dan Iklim, 38(1), 25-34. Suwandi, Zaim, Y., & Tjasyono, B. H. K. (2014). Pengaruh aktivitas ENSO dan Dipole Mode terhadap pola hujan di wilayah Maluku dan Papua selama periode seratus tahun (1901 – 2000). Jurnal Meteorologi dan Geofisika 15(1), 71-76. World Meteorological Organization. (2016). World Meteorological Day 2016: hotter, drier, wetter. Face the future. Retrieved from http://www.wmo.int/documents/wmo2016calendlowres.pdf/
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 83
IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGING IN DIURNAL PATTERN OF RAINFALL IN CASE OF FLOODING IN NORTHERN COASTAL OF WEST JAVA 2014 Erma Yulihastin1,2*, Nining Sari Ningsih1 dan Tri Wahyu Hadi1 1
Faculty of Earth Science and Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology, Jl. Ganesha 10 Bandung 40132, Indonesia 2 Center of Science and Technology of Atmosphere, National Institute of Aeronautics and Space, Jl. Djunjunan 133 Bandung 40173, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected];
[email protected] Abstract Documentation regarding events of Jakarta flooding in 2007 and 2013 showed heavy rains occurred in the morning until noon for a couple days on the coastal area. These indicated that the events related to a change in diurnal patterns of rainfall over land. This study was conducted to confirm the changing on diurnal rainfall pattern in the case of flooding in the northern West Java on 17 January 2014 using hourly 3B41RT rainfall data from TRMM satellite. Research results show significant changes in phase and amplitude of diurnal patterns of rainfall occurred on the north coast of West Java during 16-21 January 2014. This change was shown through opposite phase of diurnal rainfall pattern over the north coastal area, which the larger amplitude of maximum rainfall was reached in the early morning. In land, the phase of diurnal rainfall cycle has changed from diurnal to semidiurnal with peaks of rainfall occurs in the mornings and evenings. Genesis of flooding on 17 January along the northern coast of West Java preceded by heavy rainfall persistently which occurred during 18 hours on 16-17 January and it was supposed changed the cycle of diurnal rainfall average during January 2014. Keywords: changing, diurnal rainfall, flooding, West Java, 2014
Introduction Documentation of flooding events in Jakarta based on previous research showing that the flooding associated with heavy rains from early morning until noon (Yulihastin, 2014) and persistent occurred several days before the flood event (Trilaksono et al., 2011; Trilaksono et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2013). This indicates that the rainfall is not in accordance with the diurnal pattern of rainfall on land in general which should take place from noon to night with the peak of rainfall occurs in the late afternoon. Meanwhile, rainfall over sea occurred from midnight until morning with the peak of rainfall occurs in the early morning. Differences of diurnal rainfall pattern between land and ocean are caused by local circulation due to the thermal gradient between land and ocean (Land-Sea Breeze, LSB) because of its ability to absorb insolation and the elevation difference between the mountains and the valley (Mountain-Valley Breeze, MVB). LSB occur due to heating of the sun during the day have caused the surface pressure is reduced relatively larger in the land than the sea, so that it can increase the pressure gradient, especially over boundary areas between land and sea (Biasutti et al., 2011; Yang & Smith 2006). Meanwhile, upslope MVB would become downslope in the night. When solar radiation decreases in the afternoon which is indicated by radiative cooling at the surface, the upslope would be reduced. When radiative cooling diminished, colder air is formed on the higher slopes. Cooler air with higher densities has flowed down the slopes blowing opposites with Mountain-Breeze, which it is later called as Valley-Breeze (Biasutti et al., 2011; Yang & Smith, 2006). For north coast of West Java, the diurnal rainfall pattern is more dominantly influenced by LSB circulation. Previous research showed that the synoptic scale of weather disturbances occurred in the Jakarta flooding event at 2007 and 2013 has weakened the effect of local influence LSB circulation, The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 84
causing torrential of persistent rain for a couple days. Yulihastin and Fathrio (2014) have proved that there is a change in rainfall patterns from diurnal to semidiurnal with the peak of rainfall occurring in the afternoon (16:00 LT) and early morning (02:00 LT) over mainland of West Java, during events of the Cross-Equatorial Northerly Surge (CENS) coincide with the Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO) in a phase of transition from strong to weak over the Indonesian Maritime Continent during the period of 2002-2013. In addition, there is a change of long-term trend in the diurnal rainfall pattern in Jakarta, namely an increase of rainfall over land occurred in the early morning and the afternoon rain phase shift to the early evening (Siswanto et al., 2015). However, no study has investigated the changing of diurnal rainfall patterns includes changes in amplitude and phase of diurnal precipitation and its difference between coastal and inland in West Java. As we have known, in addition to major flood events in Jakarta in 2007 and 2013, heavy floods again occurred in Jakarta and made a high impact on socio-economic which reach 30 trillion rupiahs. The peak of the flooding that occurred on 17 January 2014 in Jakarta is further expanded to the whole region of the north coast of West Java, soaking the paddy fields for days and resulted in hundreds of people to be evacuated (BNPB, 2014). Previous research on Jakarta floods in 2007 and 2013 did not specifically analyze the tendency of changing patterns of rainfall diurnal cycle but a more focused on investigation main factors causing flooding associated with synoptic-scale disturbances. Therefore, this study aimed to find changes in diurnal patterns of rainfall that occurred along the northern coast of West Java in relation to cases of flooding that occurred in the region in January 2014. Nevertheless, the study is limited to the identification of changes in diurnal patterns which include amplitude and phase of rainfall. The physical process that causes changes in the pattern will be followed in subsequent studies.
Materials and Methods We use an hourly rainfall data of 3B41RT with a spatial resolution of 5 km from the TRMM satellite during the period January 2014 and January 2012. The period of January 2012 has been selected as a comparison of the normally condition of rainy season. The research method developed to investigate the pattern and cycle of diurnal precipitation diurnal both of spatial and time of flood events in Jakarta and West Java's northern coast in January 2014. We arranged method as below. The first, conducted a cross-sectional time- latitude hovmöller diagram analysis to determine the evolution of rainfall during the period January 2014 over West Java. Second, we are averaging diurnal rainfall 4-hourly during the month of January 2014 to understand the patterns of change in spatial rainfall over West Java. Third, time series analysis is done by dividing the region into coastal and land of West Java to determine differences in the diurnal cycle of rainfall that occurred in the region during the flood event in January 2014 compared with the normal conditions in January 2012.
Results and Discussion Figure 1 shows the evolution of hourly rainfall average for January over the north coast of West Java. It appears that from 1 to 14 January 2014, large of rainfall occurs both of over the land and the sea as well. Nevertheless, it appears that the maximum rainfall occurred intensified during 15 to 17 January and clearly concentrated over north coastal sea areas. During that period, the spatial features of rainfall exhibit that the maximum rainfall occurs more over land and minimum over the sea. Differences of rainfall intensity between land and sea indicated the disruption of the normal pattern of rainfall which generated by LSB.
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Figure 1. Time-Latitude cross section of precipitation evolution during 1-31 January 2014 (left side), 15-17 January 2014 during Jakarta flooding event (right side). Red boxes of dash lines show location of the northern coastal sea of West Java. Figure 2 illustrates the spatial evolution of hourly rainfall average for January over the north coast of West Java. It seem that the maximum rainfall over the northern coast of West Java occurred a long time since just before midnight (23:00 LT) to noon (11:00 LT) with a maximum peak of the rainfall occurs in the morning (03:00 LT - 07:00 LT). While the maximum rainfall in the central part of West Java occurred at 15:00 LT till night 19:00 LT. Maximum rainfall since midnight until noon that fell on the territory of coastal sea is not in accordance with the general pattern of diurnal rainfall over the coast that should reach maximum in the afternoon (Mori et al., 2004; Teo et al., 2012; Biasutti et al ., 2015; Nuryanto 2011; Pandawana et al., 2013; Qian, 2008). The area divided as coastal sea and land in West Java depicted in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Spatial of diurnal rainfall average (mm/hr) during 1-31 January 2014 over West Java region.
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Figure 3. Coastal sea region (blue box) and land region (red box) of West Java region. Furthermore, comparison of the normal pattern of diurnal rainfall cycle over the coastal sea area defined in Figure 4 (b) which shows an average hourly of diurnal rainfall pattern during normal condition on 1-10 January 2014. In these patterns, diurnal rainfall has a peak value in the night at 19:00 LT. In the other hand, the diurnal pattern of rainfall during January 2014 experienced a phase change into a semidiurnal with peak rainfall occurs at night at 19:00 LT and 04:00 LT early morning. It also appears that the average rainfall that occurred in the early days had a peak amplitude which greater than the peak of rainfall during the night.
a)
b)
Figure 4. Cycle of diurnal rainfall average (mm/hr) during 1-31 January 2014 (a), 1-31 January 2012 (b) over coastal sea of West Java region. The diurnal cycle of rainfall over land of central West Java for January 2014 is also changing the phase of diurnal be semidiurnal with major peaks occur in the afternoon until the evening (16: 0019: 00 LT), while the second peak occurred in the early morning (04:00 LT). Meanwhile, during the period of flooding in Jakarta and the northern coast of West Java (16 to 21 January), there appeared to The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 87
be a significant change in the phase and amplitude of the diurnal cycle of rainfall over coastal and mainland (Figure 5). The phase which changes over coastal region shows the opposite phase with the general pattern, which it reaches the peak in the afternoon. Moreover, the amplitude of rainfall increased to two times than the average amplitude of diurnal rainfall during January 2014. The phase of diurnal rainfall cycle also occurred over the land of central West Java that firmly demonstrated through maximum rainfall which took place on early morning not in the afternoon or evening as a general pattern of rainfall diurnal over land (Figure 6). Patterns with opposite phases that occur in coastal areas and land of this kind does not correspond to Mori et al. (2004), which asserts that the rainfall over coastal sea and inland in Sumatra reached the peak in the afternoon, also Qian et al. (2008) who found that during the DJF period diurnal rainfall in Java Island reaches its maximum in the afternoon (17:00 LT). Evidence of phase change in West Java is also contrary to the claims of Kikuchi and Wang (2007), which argue that the diurnal cycle of rainfall were mixed on a seasonal basis in the tropics and can undergo changes in amplitude but not in phase. Love et al. (2011) even showed through the rainfall data of TRMM satellite at 2008-2009 period that diurnal rainfall over Java attain a maximum value at night 21:00 LT and minimum in the morning 09:00 LT. However, the identification of changes in amplitude and phase of diurnal rainfall in northern West Java confirm to Siswanto et al. (2015) which showed that an enhance in the intensity of rainfall in the early morning and shifting phase of peak precipitation from the afternoon into the evening during the DJF period in Jakarta during 2001-2010 based on ground-based stations rainfall data. In addition, changes in diurnal patterns become semidiurnal over land in West Java have also been investigated occurred during the past 10 years (2002-2013) during CENS events in conjunction with the transition phase of the MJO from strong to weak (Yulihastin and Fathrio, 2013). Changes of phase and amplitude of diurnal rainfall that occurred during the flood event due to persistent rainfall in northern West Java for 24 hours on January 16 and reach maximum intensity in early midnight until morning at 09:00 on January 17 (Figure 7).
Figure 5. Same as Figure 4, but for land region of central West Java.
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a
b
Figure 6. Cycle of diurnal rainfall average (mm/hr) during flooding event 16-21 January 2014 (a) and normal conditions 1-10 January 2014 in coastal sea of West Java region (b).
Figure 7. Evolution of hourly rainfall over West Java from 16 January on 22:00 LT (a) to 17 January 9:00 LT (l). Conclusion Changes in phase and amplitude of diurnal precipitation occur during flood events 16 to 21 January 2014 for the coastal sea and mainland of West Java. The opposite phase change occurred significantly where the maximum peak rainfall in coastal and inland occurred in the morning and early morning. Meanwhile, the maximum amplitude of rainfall increased twofold during flood events than the maximum amplitude of the average for the month of January 2014. Changes in the diurnal cycle of rainfall into semidiurnal with main peaks occurred in the morning also took place during January 2014 The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 89
indicating that there has been a deviation diurnal pattern of rainfall during the period. Deviations diurnal pattern of the average rainfall for January 2014 show that the most rainfall more occurred and concentrated on the north coast of West Java.
Acknowledgment The author would like to thank Indonesia Endowment for Education (LPDP), Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia for their scholarship in the completion of doctoral studies in Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology of Earth, Bandung Institute of Technology. This paper is preliminary result of author’s dissertation with improvement in case study of flood in January 2014.
References Biasutti, M., Yuter, S. E., Burleyson, C. D., & Sobel, A. H. (2012). Very high resolution rainfall patterns measured by TRMM precipitation radar: seasonal and diurnal cycles, The International Journal of Climate Dynamics, 39, 239 – 258. BNPB (2014). Kejadian Bencana di Indonesia 1-31 Januari 2014, http://bnpb.go.id/uploads/migration/pubs/592.pdf , have been downloaded in 1 November 2016. Kikuchi, K., Wang, B. (2007). Diurnal Precipitation Regimes in the Global Tropics, Journal of Climate, 21, 2680-2696. Love, B. S., Matthews, A. J., & Lister, G. M. S. (2011). The diurnal cycle of precipitation over maritime continent in a high-resolution atmospheric model, Quarterly Journal of The Royal Meteorology Society, 137, 934 – 947. Nuryanto, D. E. (2011). Analisis Pseudo-Vektor Pada Aktvitas Konvektif Benua Maritim Indonesia, Jurnal Meteorologi dan Geofisika, 12, 117 – 127. Pandawana, I. D. G. A., Tanaka, T., Osawa, T., Mahendra, M. S., & As-Syakur, A. R. (2013): Indonesian Rainfall Diurnal Cycle Analysis Using Satellite Data: A Case Study in Java Island and Surrounding Areas, Proceedings of 34th Asian Conference on Remote Sensing 2013, Bali, Indonesia, 3, 1920 – 1927. Qian J-H. (2008). Why precipitation is mostly concentrated over islands in maritime continent, Journal of The Atmospheric Sciences, 65, 1428-1441. Siswanto, Oldenborgh, G. J.-v., Schrier, G.-v-d., Jilderda, R., & Hurk, B.-v-d. (2015). Temperature, Extreme Precipitation, and Diurnal Rainfall Changes in the Urbanized Jakarta City during the Past 130 Years, International Journal of Climatology, DOI: 10.1002/joc.4548. Trilaksono, N. J., Otsuka, S., Yoden, S., Saito, K., & Hayashi, S. (2011). Dependence of modelsimulated heavy rainfall on the horizontal resolution during the Jakarta flood event in JanuaryFebruary 2007, Scientific Online Letter on The Atmosphere, 7, 193–196. Trilaksono, N. J., Otsuka, S., & Yoden, S. (2012). A Time-lagged ensemble simulation on the modulation of precipitation over West Java in January-February 2007, Monthly Weather Review, 140, 601–616. Teo C-K., Koh T-Y., Lo, J. C-F., & Bhatt., B. C. (2011). Principal component analysis of observed and modeled diurnal rainfall in the maritime continent, International Journal of Climate, 24, 4662–4675. Wu, P., Hara, M., Fudeyasu, H., Yamanaka, M. D., & Matsumoto, J. (2007). The Impact of transequatorial monsoon flow on the formation of repeated torrential rains over Java Island,, Scientific Online Letter on The Atmosphere, 3, 93–96. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 90
Wu, P., Arbain A. A., Mori, S., Hamada, J., Hattori, M., Syamsudin, F., dan Yamanaka, M. D. (2013).: The effects of an active phase of the Madden-Julian Oscillation on the extreme precipitation event over Western Java Island in January 2013, Scientific Online Letter on The Atmosphere, 9, 79 – 83. Yang, S. & Smith, E. A. (2006). Mechanism for diurnal variabality of global tropical rainfall Observed from TRMM, Journal of Climate, 19, 5190-5226. Yulihastin, E. (2014). Pengaruh cross-equatorial northerly surge terhadap presipitasi pada kasus banjir Jakarta 2013, Tesis Program Magister, Institut Teknologi Bandung. Yulihastin, E. & Fathrio, I. (2014). Interaction between CENS-MJO transition phase affect to diurnal anomaly of the rainfall over Wet Java, Proceeding The 4th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere, 15-20, ISSN: 20889127.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 91
RAINFALL ESTIMATION USING AUTO-ESTIMATOR BASED ON CLOUD-TOP TEMPERATURE OF HIMAWARI 8 SATELLITE COMPARED TO RAINFALL OBSERVATION IN PANGKALPINANG METEOROLOGICAL STATION Nurhastuti Anjar Rani, Aulia Nisa’ul Khoir*, Sausan Yulinda Afra State Collage of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysic, Jalan Perhubungan I no 5 Pondok Betung, Tangerang Selatan, Indonesia *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract The rainfall rate estimation method needs to be developed in Indonesia because its high rate of variabilities. The method, called auto-estimator, is used to predict the potential of rainfall occurrence in an area at a certain moment that constituted by algorithm calculation which utilizes cloud-top temperature data from Himawari 8 satellite. Weather satellite is satellite to monitor and capture real time weather behavior which occurs on the earth’s surface. The function of weather satellite are identifying clouds types, measuring wind direction and speed, tracking the tropical cyclon, measuring sea surface temperature, estimating rainfall, etc. This study’s aims is to determine the validity and accuracy of the auto-estimator method for predicting the rainfall rate on Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station where located at 2.160 0N dan 106.140 0E. We used the data of three months daily rainfall of Himawari 8 Satellite from January to March 2016. Actual daily rainfall observation data from Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station was used to verify data of the result by algorithm calculation. Results showed that the cold cloud-top produced more rainfall than warmer tops. The results also showed the under estimate value between rainfall estimation and actual rainfall observation on Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station. The correlation between the data compared was 0.7 which means it has positive relevancy. The rate of the relevancy was moderate, concluded by the value of RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) of 68.7 mm. Keywords: rainfall estimation, auto-estimator Introduction Rainfall is a form of precipitation any water droplet or ice crystal which falls from the clouds base and reach the earth surface. The amount and intensity of rainfall are the most important variables of weather. To understand these variables, rainfall observation is needed. In general, rainfall observation is done conventionally by measuring rainfall which has reached the land surface using rain gauge. But, there are some obstacles in this conventional method like the high price of the instruments and observers should do routine maintenance. Additionally, rain gauge sometimes can not handle bad weathers which occur in a certain area. These can become a serious problems in collecting time, accurate, and continuous rainfall data. Besides, more detailed information for weather service, including accurate rainfall forecast, also needs to be developed, especially in Indonesia because its high rainfall rate variabilities. Consequently, rainfall estimation based on weather satellite needs to be developed. This study focused on calculating the accuracy of the result of rainfall estimation by autoestimator method during Januari to March 2016 in Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station where located at 2.160 0S dan 106.140 0E. Auto-estimator method was used by Vicente to calculate rainfall estimation on 1998. The method was based on algorithm which utilizes the cloud-top temperature data from Infrared (IR) image which was produced by geostasioner satellite. Comparison between this cloud-top temperature and weather radar image shows that convective cloud type can be characterized The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 92
by a very low temperature of cloud-top, which ranges 195 K to 210 K (Vicente, 1998). One of the most important facts about rain coluds used in the development of the auto-estimator is that clouds with cold tops in the IR imagery produce more rainfall than those with warmer tops (Secherer and Hudlow 1971; Scofield 1987). Himawari 8 satellite is one of satellites which produces cloud-top temperature information. Himawari 8 satellite was developed by Japan Meteorogical Agency (JMA) to observe weather and climate paramaters occur in the earth. IR image from Himawari 8 satellite has 10 minutes temporal resolution and 2 kilometers spacial resolution. Satellite image is generally used to identify clouds distribution (Kristanti, 2015). IR image generates cloud-top temperature on celcius which can be displayed using Satellite (SATAID).
Materials and Methods Materials Daily rainfall data from January to March 2016 has been used because these are the period of rainy season in Pangkalpinang, which is a lot of rainy days occur and making the data representative. There were two kinds of data used, temperature of cloud-top from Himawari 8 satellite as data for estimation and actual daily rainfall observation data from Stasiun Meteorologi Pangkalpinang where located at 2.160 0S dan 106.140 0E. Himawari 8 satellite has 10 minutes temporal resolution and 2 kilometers spasial resolution, which is provided by BMKG satellite. Rainfall estimation Auto-estimator, used by Vicente, was used to determine the rainfall estimation from Himawari 8 data satellite. Auto-estimator computes rainfall’s rate based on a nonlinear, power-law regression relationship between cloud-top temperature (10.7µm brightness temperature), cloud-top growth average, and cloud-top temperature gradient which were obtained from weather satellite image. This study used cloud-top temperature data from Himawari 8 satellite to calculate the estimation of the rainfall on milimeter (mm) (Swarinoto & Husain, 2012). On its algorithm, rainfall is assumed to occur on the growing cloud-top (Eq 1).
R 1.1183 *1011 exp(3.6382 *10 2 * T 1.2 )
(1)
where R is the rainfall rate in millimeters per hour and T is the cloud-top temperature in Kelvins. Verification Verification was calculated for the result of calculated rainfall which is estimated by auto estimator method and the result of actual rainfall from observation in Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station based on statistic method which were Pearson correlation and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). Correlation is used to find the value which indicates the strength and the relation between the amount of rainfall from estimation and observation (actual daily rainfall). The equation which is used to calculate the coefficient of Person correlation is shown in Eq 2.
r
nxy (x)(y )
(2)
{nx (x) 2 }{ny 2 (y ) 2 2
where r is Pearson coefficient correlation; x is n-th rainfall data calculated (mm); and y is n-th actual rainfall data on Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station. The distribution value of r range from -1 to +1, shows strong-weak relation between correlated variables. The stronger relation between correlated variables, the greater the value of r obtained. RMSE was used to show the value of error between the daily rainfall estimation by autoestimator and actual daily rainfall data from observation (Eq 3).
RMSE
1 n ( y1 y 2 ) 2 n i 1
(3)
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where n is the amount of data; y1 is n-th rainfall data calculated (mm); and y2 is n-th actual rainfall data in Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station (mm). The high value of RMSE means the difference between daily rainfall estimation and daily rainfall observation is higher than the lower value of RMSE. The best value of RMSE is 0, although it couldn’t happened in fact.
Results and Discussion Table 1. Daily data comparison of rainfall estimation and actual rainfall observation on January 2016 Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Rainfall Estimation 53.0
Rainfall Observation 17.6
Date 17
Rainfall Estimation 0.0
Rainfall Observation 5.2
12.7
0.0
18
0.0
29.2
0.0
0.0
19
23.7
0.2
0.0
0.0
20
14.7
37
0.0
0.0
21
0.8
34.9
0.0
0.9
22
0.0
19
0.0
20.5
23
163.9
12.1
0.2
0.8
24
12.8
13.6
0.0
0.0
25
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
26
0.0
0.0
0.0
27.9
27
0.0
5.1
3.8
0.0
28
0.0
5.3
1.8
0.0
29
0.0
43.2
0.0
0.0
30
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
31
0.0
0.0
41.2
0.0
Table 2. Daily data comparison of rainfall estimation and actual rainfall observation on February 2016 Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Rainfall Estimation 8.9
Rainfall Observation 0.0
Date 16
Rainfall Estimation 12.4
Rainfall Observation 0.0
0.0
6
17
0.0
0.0
0.5
4
18
0.0
26.1
17.1
11.6
19
0.0
19.9
0.0
2.4
20
179.2
0.5
635.0
114.9
21
9.0
3.6
367.5
183.9
22
0.0
72.9
0.0
23.6
23
12.9
4.8
0.0
42.2
24
8.4
48.4
81.9
0.0
25
19.5
0.4
3.2
4.7
26
0.0
7.9
23.9
0.0
27
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.6
28
0.0
0.0
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 94
14 15
27.7
0.0
29
0.0
25.6
0.0
0.0
Table 3. Daily data comparison of rainfall estimation and actual rainfall observation on March 2016 Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Rainfall Estimation 0.0
Rainfall Observation 40.5
Date 17
Rainfall Estimation 0.0
Rainfall Observation 0.0
40.0
50.2
18
0.0
9.5
1.1
0.0
19
0.4
0.0
0.0
22.2
20
0.0
0.0
0.0
3
21
0.0
55.2
29.2
0.0
22
85.7
10
2.4
0.0
23
6.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
24
33.0
18.2
0.0
0.0
25
100.8
7.8
0.0
7
26
26.5
25.5
0.0
4.5
27
231.4
102.4
3.7
9.1
28
37.7
1.1
0.1
11
29
11.4
0.3
0.1
29.7
30
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
31
0.4
0.0
14.9
0.0
Based on table 1, 2, and 3, it shows that majority result of the rainfall estimation were lower than the actual rainfall from observation in Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station. The correlation between rainfall estimation and the rainfall observation is 0.7. It means that the relation between the rainfall estimated by auto-estimator method and rainfall observation is moderate and also shows possitive correlation. It indicated if the rainfall estimation increases, the actual rainfall also increases and vice versa. RMSE was calculated to show the difference value of rainfall estimation to rainfall observation. The lower value of RMSE, the better result is obtained, because there are not much error is produced. The value of RMSE in this study was 68.7 mm which means that the error of the estimation produced by auto-estimator method is 68.7 mm per day. It is classified to high value to become an error of rainfall estimation. It caused by auto-estimator method use the data obtained and calculated in the clouds, not in the earth surface. These data were obtained from cloud-top temperature IR1 channel of Himawari 8 satellite.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 95
Rainfal Estimate
31-Jan
29-Jan
27-Jan
25-Jan
23-Jan
21-Jan
19-Jan
17-Jan
15-Jan
13-Jan
11-Jan
9-Jan
7-Jan
5-Jan
3-Jan
Rainfal Observation
1-Jan
Curah Hujan (mm)
180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 00
Tanggal
Figure 1. Daily data comparison of rainfall estimation and actual rainfall observation on January 2016
Curah Hujan (mm)
700 600 Rainfall Estimate
500 400
Rainfall Observation
300 200 100
29-Feb
27-Feb
25-Feb
23-Feb
21-Feb
Tanggal
19-Feb
17-Feb
15-Feb
13-Feb
11-Feb
9-Feb
7-Feb
5-Feb
3-Feb
1-Feb
00
Figure 2. Daily data comparison of rainfall estimation and actual rainfall observation on February 2016
Curah Huajn (mm)
250 200
Rainfall Estimate
150
Rainfall Observation
100 50
31-Mar
29-Mar
27-Mar
25-Mar
23-Mar
21-Mar
19-Mar
17-Mar
15-Mar
13-Mar
11-Mar
9-Mar
7-Mar
5-Mar
3-Mar
1-Mar
00
Tanggal
Figure 3. Daily data comparison of rainfall estimation and actual rainfall observation on March 2016 Based on Figure 1, 2, and 3, it showed that the relevancy between rainfall estimation and actual rainfall observation graph from Januari to March 2016 had irregular pattern. Considering in the comparison of the relevancy, auto-estimator method was not proper for estimating rainfall in Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 96
Conclusion Auto-estimator method is generally not suitable to estimation the rainfall in Pangkalpinang Meteorological Station since the calculation results tend to under estimate. Correlation between the rainfall estimation using auto-estimator and actual rainfall from observation is 0.7 and the Root Means Square Error (RMSE) shows 68.7 mm. Figure of comparison between rainfall estimation and actual rainfall also indicates irregular pattern. The deviation of this estimation happened due to the data of cloud temperature which is used for rainfall estimation calculated based on cloud-top temperature, while the rainfall measured as validation occurs on the land surface. It means that the calculation only consider temperature on the cloud-top, not enclose the temperature around the cloud.
Acknowledgment We are grateful to Dr. Endarwin, S.Si., M.Si. for supporting this study. References Kristantri, E. (19-23 Oktober 2015). ‘Analisa Pertumbuhan Awan Konvektif dengan Satelit Himawari 8 (Studi Kasus Hujan Lebat di Timika 25 November 2015)’. In Proceeding of the Weather Sattelite Operational Workshop. Makassar, vol. 2. Schere, W.D., and Hudlow, M. D. (1971). ‘A Technique for Assessing Probable Distributions of Tropical Precipitation Echo Lengths for X-band Radar from Nimbus 3 HRIR Data’. In BOMEX Bull., 10, 63-68. Scofield, R. A., (1987). ‘The NESDIS Operational Convective Precipitation Technique’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 1773-1792. Swarinoto, Y.S., & Husain. (2012). Estimasi curah hujan harian dengan metode auto estimator (Kasus Jayapura dan sekitarnya). Jurnal Meteorologi dan Geofisika, vol. 13, no. 1, 53-61. Vicente, G. A., Scofield, R. A., & Menzel, W.P. (1998). The Operational GOES Infrared Rainfall Estimation Technique. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 79, 9.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 97
COMMUNITYBASED DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL ECOLOGICAL SCIENCE
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 98
ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL INSTITUTIONAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Messalina L. Salampessy1*, Ina Lidiawati1, Indra G. Febryano2, Dini Zulfiani3 1
Forestry Faculty, University of Nusa Bangsa Bogor, Indonesia Department of Forestry, Agriculture Faculty, University of Lampung, Indonesia 3 Public Administration, Social and Political Science, Mulawarman University, Samarinda, Indonesia 2
*Corresponding author:
[email protected]
Abstract Watershed management becoming an important aspect in supporting the preservation of the surrounding area. The function of the upstream region as a water catchment area must be maintained by keeping the area utilization in order to avoid the carrying capacity exceed of the environment. The role of the community in the surrounding area becomes an important effort to maintain the continuity of watershed function. This study aims to analyze the potential of local institutional support in watershed management. The research method was a case study in which data were collected through depth interviews, focus group discussions and participant observation. The data analysis was conducted using problem tree analysis method then presented descriptively with a framework approach situation - structure - behavior - performance. This study shows that the sub-watersheds of upstream Cisadane are still considered as free open access resources where everyone is free to exploit the natural resources within it. This is related to the existing condition that shows the interdependence between the government, private sector and the communities involved in the utilization of shared resources. The behavior of the parties regarding the utilization of the watershed greatly affects the existing condition of the watershed; where the management performance of upstream Cisadane sub-watershed has not yet provided maximum results because management is still ongoing sectorally
Keywords: local institutional, watershed management, upstream Cisadane subwatershed Introduction Watershed management is not simply managed the natural resources, but rather to manage human activities since it has an impact on the conservation of available natural resources. Watershed management requires the integration of upstream to downstream, a synergy between sectors and institutions as well as the engagement between stakeholders from the public, private and governmental (Marfai, 2012). Supriadi in Sumarto (2005) mentions that the upstream region has an important role as a water provider to flow into the downstream region for the benefit of agriculture, industry, and settlements, as well as maintainers of ecological balance to support the life system. The Carrying capacity of limited land and land use which not accordance to its use will have a big impact on the land in upstream and downstream. Besides the headwaters of the catchment area that serves to hold rainwater from going directly into runoff and drove to the downstream areas; but can be temporarily detained and some of the water can be absorbed into groundwater reserves that provide substantial benefits to the ecology and ecosystems (Marfai, 2012). According to Listyani (2011) community development in the watershed area can accelerate changes in existing patterns of natural resources utilization. The exploitation that pays less attention to conservation principles land leads to degradation of upstream watershed conditions. Development of the communities in the watershed area can accelerate changes in the utilization pattern of existing natural resources. Nowadays, the community in the watershed have access and have The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 99
a high dependency on the use of natural resources. The people access to obtain, control and manage the use of natural resources in the surrounding watersheds and the role of stakeholders play an important role in the preservation of the function and role of watershed. Therefore, this study is aimed to analyze the potential of local institutional support in watershed management. Knowledge and understanding would be beneficial to the various parties that involved in making a recommendation watershed management in a fair, prosperous and sustainable, so that the watershed area can be preserved and beneficial to all parties.
Materials and Methods The study was conducted in Cemplang village, Cibungbulang District, Bogor Regency, West Java Province. Cikedung village chosen as the study site because this village is one of the villages located in the upper east at sub-watershed of Ciaten Cisadane watershed. This study uses the case study method, where data were collected through in-depth interviews, participant observation, and focus group discussions. Interviews involving 30 key informants. Informant selecting process was conducted using snowball sampling. Data analysis was performed using the problem tree analysis (Groenendijk,2003) and elaborated in the framework of a descriptive approach Situation - Structure behavior - Performance (Schimd, 1987).
Results and Discussion Cisadane watershed area is inter-provincial Watershed, which is administratively located in the province of West Java and Banten as well as a small portion of downstream includes to the territory of Jakarta. Most Watershed Cisadane located in West Java province with an area of 113,535.66 hectares (74.11%), the rest in Banten area of 39500.64 hectares (25.78%) and Jakarta 172.61 hectares (12:11%). Watershed Cisadane has forest area of less than 20% which is an area of 28,098.79 hectares (18:34%). Most of the Watershed land cover in the form of agricultural land Cisadane both dryland agriculture and paddy fields. Extensive dryland agriculture and dryland farming mix covering 47,368.55 hectares (30.92%), wetland area of 29,499.34 hectares (19:25%), residential area of 34,194.25 hectares (22:32%), while the scrub and open land area of 4,485.68 hectares (2.93%). In the upstream Watershed part of Cisadane there is the an are of Mount Gede Pangrango National Park and Gunung Halimun Salak National Park. State of the topography of the area is generally flat to steep in general can be said to be flat. Flat topography dominate the area that is 50% and ramps rank second at 41%, there is no area that has a slope of more than 40% or very steep. The altitude varies from 214 m asl to 520 m above sea level and most of the area has an average altitude of about 260 m above sea level. The problems that occur in the watershed Cisadane does not happen separately but takes place in a chain of causal relationship. Relations interconnections are illustrated in the problem tree shown in Figure 1 the problem tree analysis as follows: Problem tree analysis shows the policies that have been implemented by the government in an effort to revitalize watershed Cisadane cannot run properly because of the weak of law enforcement on land clearing activities in protected areas as well as a decrease in the quality control of the river. The fundamental cause of lack of law enforcement from the government side is due to the sectoral ego in watershed management approaches so that the implementation of the program runs separately in each institution. In addition, it causes socialization becomes ineffective resulting the lack of public awareness and participation. Meanwhile, from the community, especially land owners tend to promote the economic benefits from the exploitation of natural resources in the watershed Cisadane particularly in sub-watershed Cianten. Cemplang village is one of the villages that located right around the east upstream Cisadane watershed. Ecologically the existence of upstream Cisadane sub watershed support the ecosystem balance so that in this region are often found abundant natural resources, including forest resources and wildlife, and others. Land resources and water resources provide economic benefits for the community that surrounding the watershed area, including the potential for large sand deposits in the Village Cemplang. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 100
Sand mining activities
The uncontrollable of watershed degradation
The weak of laws & policies enforcement
The lack of coordination between the various institutional
The lack of public knowledge
The lack of optimal role from watershed management
The lack of Community empowerment programs
The high dependency of community activities on watershed
The ownership of land
The lack of community participation
The economy capacity and low quality of human resources
The management permit from village
Retribution for the village
The potential of deposit sand
The resource potential management in sub watershed Ciaten
Figure 1. Problem tree analysis Sand mining activities in the Village Cemplang operating without a legal permit, but it supported by the village government and has been going on for generations. Cemplang rural communities mostly have low education levels and low economic capabilities. Their lives depend on the activity of sand excavation. People consider rivers as public property for various purposes, such as bathing, washing and toilet, sewer and household waste. The accumulation of all these factors leads to declining quality of the river because of pollution and sediment that can cause downstream flooding, while the extent of the open land area increased vulnerability to landslides and declining land productivity due to improved soil eroded rainwater. Both floods and landslides will eventually be detrimental to all parties. Situation - structure - behavior – performance analysis According to Schimd (1987), the situation is the current state assumed unchanged after a policy is applied. The structure is a condition consisting of rules of the games for every economic agent, or institutional conditions (institutions) or may take the form of legislation that imposed by the government and other regulations that are informal as is the custom of indigenous peoples and others. Behavior is the response that carried out every individual, community or organization, while the performance is a condition that can be measured as the embodiment of a response.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 101
Situation management sub-watershed Cisadane upstream Management situations include characteristics of natural resources and human resources that contained in the sub-watershed Ciaten Cisadane upstream watershed. Regional vulnerability to landslides is high. People recognize and feel the environmental changes that occur in their territory, including the loss of some water sources, reduced aquatic biota, water is not suitable for consumption and people lack clean water. The situation reflects that the watershed is still regarded as the free object and open access for everyone to exploit the natural resources in it freely. According to Sukartaatmadja (2006), the total annual erosion at the upstream Cisadane sub-watershed is about 1700.84 tons/ha, its classifies as a very heavy category also it consist of annual sediment value of 81.39 tons/ha.
Structural management of sub-watershed Cisadane upstream Existing Condition of sub-watershed Cisadane upstream illustrates the interdependence. Existing condition sub-watershed Ciaten watershed Cisadane upstream illustrates the interdependence between the three parties which involved the use of shared resources, between the government, landowners, and communities. The structure of the parties in sub Ciaten can be grouped into four components according to their interest, as follows: a. Regulator Regulators are the institution of decision makers or those who are authorized to make the policy, stakeholders belonging to the regulator is Development Planing Agency at sub-National Level (Bappeda) and the Ministry of Spatial Planning and Land in Bogor district. b. Operator The operator is the institution established with the functions to carry out the daily management of water resources, infrastructure, and other resources that are in a basin, stakeholders belonging to the operator is Watershed management agency (BPDAS) Citarum-Ciliwung Distanhut Kab. Bogor, Extension Implementing Agency of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (BP4K) District. Bogor, as well as the Central River Region Ciliwung Cisadane. c. User Stakeholders were classified as users or beneficiaries are communities of Cemplang village and Landowners who organized the activity of sand excavation. d. Facilitator The facilitator serves to facilitate the delivery of government policies, information, and watershed management innovation to the community through education programs and community development as well as to channel the aspirations and complaints to the regulator. Facilitators consist of BPDAS, Distanhut (Agriculture and forestry office at Bogor Regency) and BP4K. The interests that carried by each stakeholder would be more effective if it good coordinated, however, the interests of sectoral show and it has implications for the environmental damage watershed and community vulnerability. Behavior of the parties in the management sub-watershed Cisadane upstream The behavior of the parties regarding the utilization of Watershed affects the existing condition of watershed. Most of the community in Cemplang depends on their income on the sand excavation activities however they do not have access to land resources for almost 70% of the area since it controlled by the landowner from other villages. The dominant issue at the sub-watershed Ciaten Cisadane Hulu watershed is the land use patterns that are inconsistent with its function as a protected area and buffer area underneath. The high public access to sand excavation activities in the Cemplang village highly influential in malfunctions of watershed protection. Mustadjab (1986) states that the degree of criticality of a watershed is indicated by a decline in permanent vegetation cover and expansion of critical land in the watershed thereby reducing the ability to store water which resulted in increased frequency of flooding, erosion and the spread of landslides during the rainy season and drought in the dry season. The community has a high dependence on sand excavation activities as community economic supporting. Sand mining community located on the territory of a particular property will be governed by the landowner to the excavation plots designated section. Miners haves full rights over sales (per The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 102
pickup) and only provides a daily retribution between Rp 6,000, - and Rp 25,000, - depending on the agreement with landowners. This retribution is managed by landowners for social activities such as road construction, mosques, religious activities and others. Society use the resources in the watershed based on subsistence, however, they do not have a solid foundation in the use these resources legally. Behavior that emphasizes the economic interests rather than the importance of ecological lead watershed hydrological system reacts causing flooding problems, landslides, disease, and decreased land productivity and causing huge material losses to the government and society. The behavior of the actors in the sub watershed Cisadane upstream influenced by the knowledge and perceptions about the watershed, to the programs of socialization, education, counseling, training and mentoring as well as comparative studies need to be intensified to improve the knowledge and perception of the actors in the sub-watershed Cisadane upstream so it can be actualized in a positive behavioral change towards the watershed and surrounding environment. Performance Performance management in the watershed upstream Cisadane has not provided maximum yet results because the management still continues sectorally. The management of protected areas, such as forests and watersheds more dominant emphasizes the role of government. Communities around the watershed and the private sector have not been involved in the preparation of a comprehensive management program. The dominance of government has been accompanied by policies that consciously or not, it caused people tend to be the object of a policy. The government launched a variety of projects or programs and implement them by forming community action groups form working groups or farmer groups. Top-down pattern like this even though the result is not optimal but still runs today. Involvement of multiple stakeholders without solid institutional development may hamper watershed management program if there is no proper coordination between the parties, so there is no certainty about the division of roles and participation, this could potentially lead to conflict. The potential involvement of local communities as an alternative to watershed management The community empowerment that conducts in this village is still considerably less than it should be. Institutional development always based on structural lines but weak from the development of its cultural aspects. The organizational structure has been built in advance, but not followed by the development of cultural aspects (vision, motivation, spirit, management, etc.), for example Forum Communications subzone Cisadane upstream. The magnitude role and participation of the local community will result in greater efficiency in the management of natural resources because it can minimize transaction costs, control over the implementation of the program better, and the local community is more likely encourage the conservation of natural resources. Coordination and cooperation are required for suppressing the interdependence between the parties through an institutional setting so that a group of stakeholders (regulators, operators, users, and facilitators) can work together in a strong coordination and the watershed management programs did not operate separately but become one unified management. Coordination forum in the implementation of protected area management in sub-watershed Cisadane upstream has a definite authority and responsibilities of each party (who, doing what, when, where, and how). This time, there is no proper coordination forum yet in watershed management Cisadane upstream, that makes the agreements between stakeholders are difficult to make. Local community initiatives will be able to develop into strong institutions if the government and non-governmental organizations continue to strengthen social capital in the community Cisadane upstream subzone. Conclusion Natural resource exploitation activities in protected areas and the perception that the watershed is a public property with open access become the main cause of decreased function sub-watershed Cisadane river upstream. Human activities cause various problems such as increased run-off, sedimentation, landslides, flooding downstream, as well as water pollution. The role and position of the parties in Cisadane upstream can be grouped into three components: regulators, operators, users and facilitators according to their interest level in watershed. Local communities have great potential to operate community-based watershed management programs. Local institutional community in the Cemplang village should be strengthened through collaboration between the Government, local The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 103
NGOs, national and international, universities, research institutions, private companies through CSR, and others. The collaboration is expected to improve the bargaining position of local institutions.
References Groenendijk, L. (2003). Planning and management tools. The Netherlands: A Reference Book. The International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), p. 72-74 Mustadjab, M. M. (1986). Pengaruh status penguasaan atas tanah garapan terhadap pengelolaan usaha tani dan konservasi lahan kering di DAS Brantas bagian hulu. Malang: artikel buku Universitas Brawijaya.p.36-38. Marfai. (2012), Potensi dan permasalahan lingkungan di daerah aliran sungai dan wilayah pesisir. Biro Penerbitan Fakultas Geografi. Artikel buku,Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jogjakarta, p.75-81 Listyani. (2011). Pengaruh pengelolaan DAS terhadap kehidupan masyarakat pesisir (wilayah studi di DAS Mundu dan Desa Mundu Kabupaten Cirebon) (Thesis) ITB.p.35-38 Schimd, A. A. (1987). Property, power, and public choice. An Inquiry Into Law Into Law and Economics. and Economics. Praeger Praeger Publisher. New York. Artikel buku.p.27-29. Sukartaatmadja, S. (2006). Evaluasi aliran permukaan, erosi, dan sedimentasi di sub DAS Cisadane hulu dengan menggunakan model AGNPS. Jurnal Keteknikan Pertanian, 20(3),p 217-223. Sumarto, M. (2005). Dampak alih fungsi hutan menjadi permukiman di bagian kota IX Mijen kota Semarang. (Thesis). Program Magister Ilmu Lingkungan Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang.p.35-38.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 104
THE ANALYSIS OF MAGOSTEEN WEST JAVA FARMER MARKETING CHANNEL Reny Andriyanty* and Linar Humaira Agribusiness Study Program Agriculture Faculty Nusa Bangsa University Bogor Jl.Baru Km.4 Cimanggu Tanah Sareal Bogor 16166 *Corresponding author:
[email protected]
Abstract Indonesian Mangosteen export value and volume trend has increasing and need to develop. The marketing channel that was choosen by the farmer, holds major contribution. The objective of this study was to analyze the factors that influencing the mangosteen farmer marketing channel in West Java that choosen by those farmers. The data analyzed by logistic regression. The data collected from 315 farmers by interviews and structured questionnaires in Bogor and Tasikmalaya district. The results of this study were: The sum of farmer who sold their mangosteen through direct marketing was 15.53 percent and 84.47 sold it to the indirect marketing. The major variables that influencing the choice of marketing channel were price and the good agriculture practice that they done. This study recommend that farmers can enhance their marketing capacity by the application of good agriculture practise (GAP) on their mangsoteen farm to increase their quantity, quality and also price Keywords: GAP, mangosteen, marketing channel
Introduction The Agriculture ministry’s data from 2012 till May 2016 shows that mangosteen has increasing trend in both of volume and export value. The data show below: Indonesia Mangosteen Export Value and Volume Trend 7.000.000,00
1.800.000,00 1.600.000,00
6.000.000,00
1.400.000,00 5.000.000,00 1.200.000,00 4.000.000,00
1.000.000,00
3.000.000,00
800.000,00 600.000,00
2.000.000,00 400.000,00 1.000.000,00 Export Value (US$) Volume (Kg)
200.000,00 2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
1.680.721,67
637.321,08
840.148,92
3.181.444,92
5.848.847,40
35.280,08
477.859,17
545.399,00
1.434.340,92
1.536.857,33
-
Figure 1. Mangosteen export value and volume, year 2012-2016 (source: RI Agriculture Ministry) The increasing of export value above indicate that Indonesia has big potention to develop mangosteen business. In southern Asia, commonly the mangosteen tree can grow in Indonesia, The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 105
Thailand and Malaysia. In Indonesia has harvest time from November till March, meanwhile in Thailand and Malaysia it is only on June till July every year. The Indonesia’s superiority of long harvest time make Indonesia must develop the mangosteen production. Based on USAID (2007), Indonesia’s mangosteen holds some potential for suceesfull intervention if some reasonable mangosteen growing areas or organization can be identified. In year 2003, the West Java planning institution (Bappeda) determined that manggosten is a prime commodity. But based on result of Astuti, Marimin, Poerwanto, Machfud, & Arkeman (2010): the est Java mangosteen production actitivy was not efficient to international competetion and needed to involving organization selection in order to rise the Bogor mangosteen competitiveness. Smallholders farmer’s participation in marketing channel choice is limmited by low volume of produce, presence of middleman and perceived low prices in local market, lack of information (Kherallah & Kirsten, 2002). Therefore main objective of this study was to analyze the influencing factors which the marketing channel that choosen by the farmer. The factors were analyzed in this study, relate with the farmer marketing capacity such as price, income, the cultivation behavior and degree of farmer’s communication and transportation application into marketing.
Materials and Methods This resarch was carried out in Bogor and Tasikmalaya district in year 2016. Those areas was purposively determined because both of them are the mangosteen main area in West Java. In Bogor, the farmer samples collected from 8 villages such as Barengkok, Karacak, Karyasari, Pabangbon, Sukaraksa, Bunar, Pangradin and Jugalaya. In tasikmalaya district the reasearch are covered 9 villages: Puspahiang, Pusparahayu, Cimanggu, Luyubakti Mekarjaya, Linggaraja, Sirnajaya Sukarasa and Jahiang. Interviews and structured quisetionnaires were administrated to 315 farmers. The factors that influencing the mangosteen marketing channel in West Java that choosen by farmers, analyzed by the logistic regression. The dependent variable was the marketing pattern that choosen by the farmer (direct marketing=1 and indirect marketing=0). Direct marketing means that farmer sold their mangosteen directly to the market by their self or to exporter. Meanwhile the indirect market means that farmer sold their mangosteen throught middleman. In this study the predicted variables that influenced the type of marketing pattern were price (X1), farmer’s income (X2), Good agriculture practice that farmer applied in their field (GAP applied=1 and not-GAP applied=0)(X3), the farmer’s telecomunication technology (using handphone for marketing=1 and not-using handphone for marketing=0) (X4) and farmer’s transportation technology (vehicle using for marketing=1 and vehicle not-using for marketing=0)(X5). The logistic regression equation were : MP = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 + β5X5 + u Where: β0 β1 to β5 μ
: :
The intercept term The unknown parameters to be estimated
:
Error term
(1)
Results and Discussion The mangosteen marketing organization in Bogor and Tasikmalaya district commonly were same. The involving marketing organization were middleman and exporter. The middleman are two types traders; first is local trader and second is Ijon. Local trader is a trader that buy mangsoteen from farmer in the harvest time base on daily price without any differ quality. Ijon is similar with local trader, but it has different purchasing method. Ijon will appraise farmer’s mangosteen tree and counted all stem for each tree, then multiply them with the sum of tree belongs to the farmer. The appraisal price differs for every famer. It depended on ijon’s persepective. The farmers who sold to the ijon, generaly has debt for living outside of harvest time. Because of their debt, farmer must take this The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 106
marketing method. In average ijon appraise the price of every tree in Rp.100.000 till Rp.250.000 depends on the sum of stem in every branch. The more of stem the higher price that taken by farmer. The mangsoteen average production was bought by middleman among 27.917 kilograms per year and average price among Rp.3.507 per kilograms. Exporter is a big collector of mangosteen and sell it abroad. The exporter buys mangosteen mixed quality from farmer and also middleman. In this reserch the exporter’s total purchasing reached 270.000 kilograms per year with average price Rp.12.000 per kilograms. This reasearch caterorized the farmers into two groups of study. The farmer who sold their mangosteen by their selves or to the exportes identified as farmer choosed the direct market. The farmer who sold their manggosteen through middleman, identified as farmer choosed the indirect market. Refer to the observation in the field, 84 percents of farmer sold their mangosteen through indirect marketing and only 16 percents farmer choosed direct marketing. That circumstances showed that most of the farmer choosed indirect marketing. It happened because through the indirect marketing, farmer can get debt outside of their harvest time, the non-existing funding institution for the farmer, and the ease of funding accessibility to fulfill the farmer daily living. The farmer’s marketing channel decisions will influence their income. Each marketing channel behaviour will establish the price that taken by the farmer. In relate with marketing channel, every marketing channel has opportunistic behaviour. Davis and Newstrom (1995) declared that individual behaviour is opportunistic and rational, but faced by bounded rationality to choose something. It is caused by enviroment complexity and problem that make the high degree of uncertainty. The high degree of uncertainty arise of information imperfect in marketing process. The individual bounded for getting and processing information in uncertainty circumstances tends to opportunistic behavior for each parties who involve in marketing. Those matter also happened in this study. Farmer assumed, has opportunistic behaviour in lower degree compare to middleman and exporter. It caused by asymmetric information about quality and price. The limmited farmer capability to access and to process the information, can cause the rentseeking exploitation by marketing organization. It also declared by Sporleder (1992) that opportunistic behavior has potention becaming of rentseeking exploitation (p. 1229). The rentseeking exploitation becomes worse when the farmer’s capital was low, the transportation cost and mangsoteen’s perishable was high, the non-existing funding institution for the farmer. All of them will force farmer sell their mangosteen through the indirect marketing. The farmer also realized that their mangosteen can not fulfill export’s quality. The analysis of the factors which influencing the marketing channel that choosen by the farmer, was analyzed by logic regression. The result showed as below: Table 1. Parameter estimates of the logic regression model for the determinant of marketing type chosen by the farmer. The mangosteen marketing type Price Farmer’s income GAP farmer’s telecomunication technology farmer’s transportation technology *5% significance level.
Coefficient 1.871 -0.62 2.458 -0.722
Std.error 0.743 0.089 0.423 0.469
Significance level 0.012* 0.485 0.000* 0.124
Exp(B) 6.497 0.940 11.680 0.486
-0.830
0.567
0.143
0.436
The price variable was significance on 5 percent. Cofficient value was positif and indicated that every 1 rupiah price increasing would rise odd ratio the probablity of direct marketing that choosen by the farmer as 1.871. The value of Exp(B) showed that for 1 rupiah increasing of price, the farmer’s chance to choose the direct marketing bigger 6.497 than indirect marketing cateris paribus. That statement above was supported by Kustiari et al. (2012), that revealed the price played key roles in addressing production continuity and modernization of mangosteen cultivation. For mangosteen developing, the farmer and other mangosteen business parties, would make decison base on the price. Many traditional farmers do not have the knowledge or skills to make informed decisions. They tend The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 107
to rely on intitution or simply copy of decisions that other farmers make. The decision-making process is often very basic and intuitive (Kahan, 2013). The other variable that significance in 5 percent degree was the good agriculture practise (GAP) that farmer applied to their mangosteen farm. The Cofficient value was positif 2.46. It indicated that if farmer did GAP, would increase odd ratio the probablity of direct marketing that chosen by the farmer as 2.46. The value of Exp(B) showed value as 11.68. It declared that if farmer did GAP, the farmer’s chance to chose the direct marketing bigger 11,68 than indirect marketing cateris paribus. In this study only 29.77 percents farmer who applied GAP to produce their mangosteen. Table 2 shows the farmer’s cultivation pattern from cost structure approach. The farmers that sell their mangosteen through direct marketing more intencive cultivation than other. The mangosteen cost structure show on table below : Table 2. No.
The mangosteen farming cost structure base on marketing channel.
Cost components
1. Seed 2. Farming tools 3. Labor 4. Organic fertilizer 5. Chemical fertilizer 6. Pecticide 7. ZPT 8. Farm tax 9. Post-harvest labor Total cost
Farmers sell through Direct marketing Indirect marketing 3.069.297 610.029 289.202 173.538 804.401 344.782 696.174 400.560 358.230 22.705 72.586 67.204 46.424 52.312 3.096.212 833.415 3.800.265 2.307.056 12.232.791 5.011.056
Cost structure analysis revealed, that farmers who choose direct marketing carry farming cost 59.03 percent higher than farmers who choose indirect marketing. In this study also revealed that farmers feel more convinience sell their mangosteen if they did GAP. Base on that, the mangosteen GAP application must spread among the farmers. GAP application on their farming will increase their mangosteen quality and quantity. FAO (2007) explains, that the basic concepts of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) in order to: guide the production systems towards a sustainable agriculture and ecologically safe, obtain harmless products of higher quality, contribute to food security generating income through the access to markets and improve working conditions of producers and their families (p.1) By the observation in this reserch, the farmer who did GAP more confindence sold their mangosteen better than farmer who did not do GAP. Farmer who apply GAP on their farming, will get the better mangsoteen. Better mangosteen will increase the quality and quantity and also the price. It means better income for the farmers. Farmers with better income can do promotion through communication and transportation technology. By communicaton, farmer can promote their product and bigger promotion will expand theirmarket. Conclusion The conclusion from this study was total 84 percent farmers choosed the indirect marketing and the variables that influence the mangosteen farmer marketing channel in West Java were price and good agricuture practice (GAP) that was applied by the farmer. This study recommends that farmer should increase their cultivation skill by GAP application into their farm. By GAP application, farmer will get better quality, quantity and also better price. Acknowledgment The author wishes to thank the research and community service director, Indonesia Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education for funding and supporting the research. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 108
References Astuti, R., Mariamin, Poerwanto, R., Machfud, & Arkeman. Y. (2010). The Need and Institution of Mangosteen Supply Chain Structure (Bogor district supply chain: study case). Jurnal Manajemen Bisnis 3(1): 99-115. Boehlje, M., Fulton, J., Gray, A., & Nilsson, T. (2003). Strategic Issues in the Changing Agricultural Industry. Center for Food and Agricultural Business. West Lafayette : Purdue University. Davis, K., and Newstrom J. W. (1995). Organization Behaviour. Jakarta: Gramedia. FAO. (2007). Guidelines “Good Agricultural Practices for Family Agriculture” Departmental Program on Food and Nutritional Security, Antioquia, Colombia, Project TCP/3101/COL – UTF/COL/027/COL. Latin America and The Caribbean. Kahan, D. (2013). Market Oriented Farming: An overview. Rome: FAO. Kherallah M., & Kirsten, J. F. (2002). The New Institution Economics: Applications for Agricultural Policy Research in Developing Countries, Agrekon 41(2):111-134. Kotler, P. (2001). Marketing Management, Analysis, Planning & Control. London: Prentice-Hall Inc. Kustiari, R., Helena, J. P. & Hermanto. (2012). The Analize of Indonesia Mangosteen Competitiveness in International Market (West Sumatera study case). Jurnal Agro Ekonomika 30(1):81-107. Lukiastuti, F., & Muliawan, H. (2012). Non-Parametrics Statistics; The Application in Economis and Business Field.. Yogyakarta: CAPS Publisher. Schipmann, C. & Qaim, M. (2011). Supply chain differentiation, contract agriculture, and farmer’s marketing preference: the case of sweet pepper in Thailand. Global Food Discussion Papers. Göttingen: Georg-August-Universität. Sporleder, T. L. (1992). Managerial Economics of Vertically Coordinated Agricultural Firms. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 74(5), 1226-1231. doi: 10.2307/1242792 US Agency for International Development (USAID). (2008). Assessment of the Fresh Fruit Value Chain in Indonesia. Jakarta: AMARTA. Zivenge, E. & Karavina, C. (2012). Analysis of factors influencing market channel access by communal horticulture farmers in Chinamora District, Zimbabwe. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics 4(6), 147-150. doi:10.5897/JDAE10.070
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ROLE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT (CASE STUDY AT JAPARA, KABUPATEN KUNINGAN, WEST JAVA) Mahra Arari Heryanto1*, Ganjar Kurnia1, Tomy Perdana1, Tetep Ginanjar2 1
Department of Social and Economics of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture Universitas Padjadjaran, Jatinangor Campus 40600, West Java, Indonesia 2 Agribusiness and Logistic Supply Chain Research Group, Universitas Padjadjaran *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Abstract Sustainability of integrated agriculture development system between agriculture and livestock is a network which interconnected as input-output one to another. Rural development in an integrated sector of agribusiness cluster shows a lot of dynamic about social, economy, and even more technology. Poor governance of its dynamic can lead to a contra productive situation or conflict. Developments of social institution which can reduce the dynamic volatility become the success key in integrated rural development. Institution improvement is addressed to a collective system, so that creation of value added which is the aim of the integrated development can be reached. Social institution in which social capital inside, conceptually and empirically were influenced by economic, technology and environment component. Social capital can play role as a centre and growth engine of social institution, and society “adhesive” for complex agriculture development. This research using system thinking approach that analyze the complexity of rural development dynamic between agriculture, livestock, and social institution as an important thing in achieving the goals of community development at Japara Village, Kabupaten Kuningan Keywords: collective system, integrated agriculture, rural development, social institution, system thinking
Introduction Sustainable development can be defined as meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development does not mean sustaining economic growth. Issue of sustainability is not a simple thing, it needs a holistic understanding of interaction between nature or ecology with the society. As one of economic activity, agriculture has the most direct and close interaction with the environment. Agricultural development is not only the basis of human survival, but also directly affects the global environment. Improving agricultural development, establishing eco-agriculture systems which has concern to environmental problem, and achieving good ecological and economic are crucial to human development. (Marten, 2001; Hjorth et al., 2006; Li et al., 2011). Dealing with sustainable development requires moves across the boundaries of different branches of science and humanities. A shift of paradigm from fragmentation in science to holism is required. Interaction between human with society and society with their environment can not be ignored in order to agricultural development activity. Society or human interaction that is reflected in social norms, legal regulations and distributional systems, established procedures and routine patterns of individual and social behavior can be mentioned as social institution (Hjorth et al., 2006; Breit & Troja, 2012; Heryanto et al., 2014). This article discuss about the role of social institution as an alternative effort in order to reduce the green revolution impact in Japara village, Kabupaten Kuningan. Integrated agriculture livestockpaddy have been implemented from zero waste concept of eco-agricultural development. Eventhough The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 110
this is not an organic system farming application completely, at least using of natural fertilizer, FG (farmer group) trying to become an independent society which has less resistance from chemical fertilizer. Ecological agriculture is a complex system involving ecology, economics, industry, human behavior, policy and society. It needs an comprehensive and holistic analysis, a systems perspective is appropriate to analyze comprehensively relevant factors of social-ecological in agricultural development. The challenge of sustainability is not merely an environmental problem, but also a social problem influenced by technology which is affected to the environment quality. System thinking approach on this article is a part of system dynamic which can analyze factors of social-ecological in agriculture development holistically and comprehensively (Hjorth et al., 2006; Li et al., 2011; Fiksel 2012).
Materials and Methods This research applies case study method to obtain in depth understanding about development of sustainable agriculture in Japara village, Japara sub-district, Kuningan District-West Java. Case studies are designed to study wholes rather than parts. As a consequence, interviewees or informant selection on this case study is chosen purposively with the required criteria. Comprehensive information to answer the research question in qualitative research sampling is the main consideration, because of the external validity of case studies is based on the logic of replication rather than on sampling logic. Social institution on this article defined as social capital, it is consist of social structure and facilitate certain actions actor within the structure. Linkages between social capital, trust and collective actions in the context of social institution are examined through an empirical investigation of Gemah Ripah farmer group in rural area of Japara village (Maxwell, 1996; Vaus, 2001; Koutsou, et al., 2014). System thinking Collected data is analyzed using system thinking approach. System thinking is approach with interdependent and interrelated analysis of the elements in a system. Feedback loop works simultaneously in causal loop diagram consist of complexity, but if there is no feedback loop, complexity can not be illustrated (Sterman, 2000; Tasrif, 2004; Senge, 2014). Validation technique used triangulation method, it collect information from different person or informant according to the theory and causality relationship as control of information. Feedback loop in system thinking become research control to identify logic causality of empiric evidence. Validation is confidence building of the research model (Sterman, 2000). In this article, charting feedback will be aided by the use of Vensim DSS Software. With the software, it will be known the cause of the feedback that occurs in the model structured.
Results and Discussion Sustainable agriculture at Kuningan District-West Java, in Japara Village has been developed using agribusiness cluster concept since 2015. The clusters have been developed in a collaboration between Universitas Padjadjaran with Central Bank of Indonesia representative office in Cirebon District, local government in Kuningan District, Universitas Kuningan, and Gemah Ripah II farmer group. Subsystem in sustainable agriculture development Agriculture development system in Japara village, Kabupaten Kuningan now is composed of three subsystems: paddy farming, livestock and social. There was different before the development of sustainable agriculture (before 2015), agriculture development system was only consisting of two subsystem: paddy farming and social (Figure 1). Integrated agriculture will never realized without utilization of paddy waste (straw) for livestock feed and livestock waste for organic fertilizer All social institutions are dynamic, they change continually in response both to endogenous pressures and to exogenous forces (Breit & Troja, 2012). Changing of social institution in this case is forced by intervension which is introducing livestock as a new FG’s bussines in agribusiness cluster The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 111
programme. Since 2015, Gemah Ripah FG have introduced eco-agriculture system such as integration of livestock business to paddy farming. Straw processing for feed and livestock waste processing for organic fertilizer bridging the livestock-paddy integrated system. Changing in FG’s activity drive the institutional change, generally for Japara village society and for Gemah Ripah FG especially. Social capital as a collective action is the main engine in social system of FG, they work together hand in hand to develop integrated agriculture system for sustainability purpose. Social capital is used by scientists of various disciplines, each one of them points to the fact that social capital can play a decisive role in the development process of a local society or society in general (Koutsou et al., 2014). From the social structure, social capital inside of social system plays important role as a booster in sustainable or eco-agriculture development (Figure 1).
Livestock System
Paddy Farming System
Social System of FG
Livestock Waste Utilization
Paddy Waste Utilization
Social System of FG
Paddy Farming System
Figure 1. Changing in paddy farming system to integrated farming-livestock (before at left side, after at right side) Development of integrated agriculture system Integrated agriculture system were built in the connection between paddy farming with livestock of cattle. All this time, farmers using chemical fertilizer and let straw waste to be burned after finished their harvest, so do they only small number of farmers have cattle or livestock. However, application of chemical fertilizer creates negative effects and potential risks (Li et al., 2012). Since agribussiness cluster has been implemented in 2015, implementation actors and beneficiaries developed integrated agriculture system, which were livestock business, straw waste processing, and livestock waste processing development. The implementation establish an interrelated feedback loop and accelerate regional growth economically. The ecological agriculture system brings good benefits mainly in land quality recovery and zero waste application. Th ecological agriculture system brings good benefits mainly in land quality recovery and zero waste application. Economic growth of a society is not only resulted from development and technology, but it is a complex process in which society’s organization plays a significant role (Koutsou et al., 2014). Social institution plays an important role in the cluster programme development (livestock business, straw waste processing, and livestock waste processing development). FG collective action is the engine of movement to build an eco-sustainable-agriculture. Business cycle running on paddy farming (loop R1 and B1) and livestock (loop R3 and B2) because of cooperative action collectively which build in FG. The pattern that has similiarity with the bridge of paddy farming and livestock, paddy waste processing and livestock waste processing are forced by established collective action. Relationship between both of them creates a positive feedback loop which accelerate the growth of paddy farming and livestock bussiness (loop R2). Economically, utilization of straw waste become livestock feed will increase the livestock bussiness efficiency. Vice versa, utilization of livestock waste as fertilizer will be increasing paddy farming efficiency. Economy benefit from production input efficiency and additional benefit from livestock business influence FG social institution. Eco-agriculture benefit economically raised the members trust to development activity which has been implemented, thus, it increased social capital The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 112
connection as the core of social institution in FG. Social capital in this case pay role as cooperative action unifier, as Ife and Tesoriero (2006) stated that social capital is unify “adhesive”. Social capital strengthen means strength the society. Collective action in Gemah Ripah 2 FG sourced from social capital that established in a long period. Trust is the root of social capital connection while collective action is result of social capital (Koutsou et al., 2014). FG mechanism that growing social capital connection with FG’s activity periodically was very effective to strength the social capital. FG annual meeting is the main mover of social capital connection which form is interaction among members that will give feedback to the strength of social capital (loop R3). Trust is a social capital element built from among members interaction which also have a role to increase social capital connection (loop R5). Good trust will reduce probabality of the member absent from FG activity such us annual meeting or collective activity. Likewise, collective action including implemented activity will increase the existed social capital (loop R4).
+ Benefit form Livestock Livestock Cost Efficiency of Production Livestock Input B2 + + Income from Capital of Availability of Livestock + Livestock + Livestock Input + + R3
+
Livestock Production
+
+
+
+
+
+ Livestock Input Production: Feed R2
+ Feed Processing + from Straw + + Straw Waste
+
Perceived Disadvantage
Benefit from Agriculture
Livestock + Development
Livestock Waste + + Organic Fertilizer Processing from Livestock Waste +
Training & Extension of Organic Fertilizer from + Livestock Waste + Perceived Advantage
Trust
+
R5 + + Increasing of Social Capital Connection
+ + Interaction among Education & FG's members + Information in FG +
R4 FG Collective Action
+
+
R3
Monthly FG's meeting
Social Capital + + FG's Obligation + + + Decreasing Social - Absent in FG's Capital Connection meeting B3 +
+ + Organic Input + Paddy Farming Grain Production Production + + + R1 Efficiency of Farm + Input Availability of + Paddy Farming + Farmer's Income + Capital Input FG Collective in Organic B1 + Fertilizer Processing Production Cost Paddy Farming -
+ + Social Punishment Training & Extension of Feed Processing from Straw +
Figure 2. Causal loop diagram of social institution role in integrated agriculture development FG members ignoring the FG rules will be sanctioned socially. Eventhough it decreases social capital connection (loop B3), the speed of additional social capital connection is faster than the depreciation, generally social sanction will not reduce stock of FG’s social capital. Agribusiness cluster development which integrate livestock business and agriculture add the power of FG’s social capital. Collective action of FG is frequent interaction among members in a together activity. The members previously only met on monthly annual meeting but now they also interact while working at livestock, straw waste processing or livestock waste processing. Without strong social capital, agribusiness cluster development will not running well because of FG participation is the key for the activity successful. Knowledge and technology transfer in community development will run slower without beneficiaries participation, because participation is the main tool try to improve society role in developmet (Ife & Tesoriero, 2006).
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Role of social institution In social science the term institution refers to “the rules of the game” (North, 1990), practically in can be identified as social norms or legal regulations and distributional systems, established procedures and routine patterns of individual and social behavior. In real life, existing institutions cannot be understood as the outcome of an actual consensus of citizens but rather as the evolutionary product of social needs and societal functions (Breit et al., 2003). Social capital inheres in the structure of relations between and among actors, therefore it comes through changes in the relations among persons that facilitate action (Coleman, 1988). Interaction among FG’s members as illustrated on causal loop diagram (Figure 2) is the key of Gemah Ripah 2 FG to build social capital connection among them. Monthly annual meeting become an effective media to create interaction between members of FG. This process in long term is accumulated in trustworthiness contributing to increase the social capital connection. Beside interaction and trustworthiness, social capital connection growth at Gemah Ripah 2 FG also raised by collective action in developing eco-agriculture system and perceived advantage as result. FG’s members who involve work collectively and get the benefit are connected each other stronger than before. Perceived Disadvantage Decreasing Social Capital Connection Social Punishment FG Collective Action Social Capital Connection Interaction among FG's members Increasing of Social Capital Connection Perceived Advantage Trust
Figure 3. Causes tree of social capital connection As pointed by Coleman (1988) social capital have similarity but not same with human or economy capital, but social capital in this case can be decreased or depreciated as well as capital in economics. Perceived disadvantage of eco-agriculture development in the cluster and social punishment from disturbance of FG’s obligation will decrease or depreciate social capital. Likewise FG’s members who ignore the obligation will be punished socially. Social sanction will cause the punished person stand away from the society and furthermore scrape the FG’s social capital (Figure 3). Breit et al. (2012) stated that institutions appear as a problem for sustainable development if they serve to stabilize patterns of unsustainable behavior, but can be turned into a solution if they promote environmentally sound forms of production and consumption. Stable behavior in this case can be found at the social capital capacity of the FG. Capacity of social can be interpreted as the capacity for cooperation, trust and civicness (Koutsou et al., 2014). Good capacity of social capital means the members of FG have a good ability in cooperative work, can be trusted, and good society. The perspective of social capital capacity empirically can be shown in solidarity among FG members. It is parallel with the idea of Ife and Tesoriero (2006) who pointed that social capital as “adhesive” society. Local actors such as FG and Japara’s society in this cluster play role more significant than planner and implementator actors like local gevernment and university. As a new technology, sustainable agriculture system is an innovative decision for the FG. Collective innovation decision process in some cases need longer time than power-push innovation decision (Heryanto et al., 2016). Gemah Ripah 2 FG with the power of their social capital proved that quality and capability of social capital empirically reduced time of innovation decision. Local actors with a good capability in social capital accelerate process in implementation of innovation. To make it easier to understand, analysis is illustrated with a uses tree structure of social capital describing role of social capital in agribusiness cluster development to build an eco-agriculture system. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 114
Uses and causes tree diagram is a simple structure from causal loop diagram to identify the key factor of social capital. Eco-agriculture development at Japara is influenced hardly by social capital capacity of FG. This empiric evidence is suitable with Shi and Gill (2005) statement: cooperative production become a key feature of ecological agricultural practices, in determining the change in sense of community. Social capital connection in Gemah Ripah 2 FG determined two main components in social structure of social institution: FG collective action and FG’s obligation (Figure 4). Feed Processing from Straw FG Collective in Organic Fertilizer Processing Increasing of Social Capital Connection FG Collective Action Interaction among FG's members Social Capital Connection Livestock Development Paddy Farming Monthly FG's meeting FG's Obligation Social Punishment
Figure 4. Uses tree of social capital connection As Shi and Gill (2005) pointed, FG’s obligation is main product of social capital which becomes the growth engine for social capital networking among the members society. Monthly annual meeting as described in causal loop diagram is media for FG’s members even they do not receive cluster program intervention. Without obligation, nowadays this FG will not have a good accumulated social capital and stable social system society at Japara village. Furthermore without obligation, ecoagriculture program will not running as well as the plan, because obligation in social capital is the center for the booster in eco-agriculture development. Social sanction for consensus violator is effective enough to control the society in achieving the objective of eco-agriculture development program. Effectiveness of sanction whether social, economic, and legal based on Breit et al. (2012) include to the efficiency of institution. In this sense, institutions can affect anthropogenic use of natural resources both negatively and positively. FG as institution involves and allows members discourses and open decision processes in monthly annual meeting attended by all members of FG. Concept of eco-agriculture as form of sustainable agriculture development is a new knowledge for Japara villagers, complicated system of sustainable agriculture needs a holistic understanding at the implementation level: social, economic, technology and environment. Sustainable development is a new challenge for human capacities for social learning (Breit et al., 2012). Relationship between social, economic, technology and environmental aspect should be directed to reach the successful of agriculture development, especially human development. FG collective action is the most important requirement in participatory eco-agriculture development. Participation is solution for dependency of society to a development program. They have to develop their society by themselves independently, development program only play role as an accelerator and initial activity for society. Feed processing and organic fertilizer processing will be sustained as long as implemention involve the member of FG which has a good quality of social capital. The further development of ecological agriculture is closely related to the promotion of grassroots policy initiated through public participation in policy making at the local level (Shi & Gill, 2005).
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Conclusion Sustainable agriculture development consist of complex system: economics, social, technology and environment. Social institution where social capital inside, is conceptually and empirically influenced by economic, technology and environment component. Social capital can play role as the centre and growth engine of social institution, and society “adhesive”for complex agriculture development. Collective action and obligation are two main products of social capital which are very powerful to force the social changing included environment system. Social capital can be decreased and depreciated as economic capital in economy. Actors who involved and drove the connection or interaction among human society become the important key to build a collective action in order to reach the objective of sustainable agriculture development. This article analysed the relationship between social, economy, technology and environment aspect of sustainable development in depth qualitatively. But it can not predict when and where the direction of social changing as result of sustainable agriculture development will lead, thus further quantitative simulation to predict the result in the future accurately is needed.
Acknowledgment We would like to thank Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of the Republic Indonesia and Universitas Padjadjaran that founded the research of Ipteks Bagi Wilayah (IbW) CSR Local Government with the tittle “Development of Agribusiness Cluster with Integration between Vegetables and Padjadjaran Sheep” and Central Bank of Indonesia Cirebon Regional Office, Local Government in Kuningan District, and Universitas Kuningan as partners in the implementation of the IbW Research in Kabupaten Kuningan. References Breit, H., Engels, A., Moss, T. & Troja, M. (2012). How institutions change: perspectives on social learning in global and local environmental contexts. Springer Science & Business Media. Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American journal of sociology, 94, pp.S95-S120. Fiksel, J. (2012). A systems view of sustainability: The triple value model. Environmental Development, 2, pp.138-141. Heryanto, M. A., Sukayat, Y. & Supyandi, D. (2014). Model konsepsi-adopsi inovasi beras organik: sosial ekonomi petani (Studi Kasus Kabupaten Tasikmalaya, Jawa Barat). STI Policy and Management Journal, 12(2), pp.115-124. Heryanto, M. A., Sukayat, Y. & Supyandi, D. (2016). Model perilaku petani dalam adopsi sistem usahatani padi organik: paradoks sosial-ekonomi-lingkungan. Sosiohumaniora, 18(2). Hjorth, P. & Bagheri, A. (2006). Navigating towards sustainable development: A system dynamics approach. Futures, 38(1), pp.74-92. Ife, J. W., & Tesoriero, F. (2006). Community development: Community-based alternatives in an age of globalisation. Pearson Australia. Koutsou, S., Partalidou, M. & Ragkos, A. (2014). Young farmers' social capital in Greece: Trust levels and collective actions. Journal of Rural Studies, 34, pp.204-211. Li, F. J., Dong, S. C. & Li, F. (2012). A system dynamics model for analyzing the eco-agriculture system with policy recommendations. Ecological Modelling, 227, pp.34-45. Marten, G. G. (2001). Human ecology: Basic concepts for sustainable development. Earthscan. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 116
Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (Vol. 41). Sage publications. North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. Cambridge university press. Shi, T. & Gill, R. (2005). Developing effective policies for the sustainable development of ecological agriculture in China: the case study of Jinshan County with a systems dynamics model. Ecological Economics, 53(2), pp.223-246. Senge, P. M. (2014). The fifth discipline fieldbook: Strategies and tools for building a learning organization. Crown Business. Sterman, J. D. (2000). Business dynamics: systems thinking and modeling for a complex world: Jeffrey J. Tasrif, M. (2005). Analisis Kebijakan Menggunakan Model System Dynamics. Bandung: Program Magister Studi Pembangunan. Institut Teknologi Bandung. De Vaus, D. A. & de Vaus, D. (2001). Research design in social research. Sage.
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ORGANIC RICE DEVELOPMENT: HOW SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE COULD CONTRIBUTE Dika Supyandi*, Pandi Pardian, and Mahra Arari Heryanto Department of Socio-economics of Agriculture, Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract In line with growing awareness towards healthy life, economic viability and environmental sustainability, organic rice development has become one of the most influential interests in Indonesian agricultural development. Several programs have been delivered by the government in order to foster this development. Organic rice development brought about integrating a complex relationship between social, economic, political, ecological and biophysical aspects to guide actors’ decision making. This paper aims to briefly describe the process of organic rice development at a sub district in Purwakarta Regency, an organic rice development area in West Java, from social ecological system perspective using system thinking approach. The research shows that integration among actors, institutions and learning processes is necessary. It is started from the description of technology needed, social relation and interaction among involved actors, and ultimately describes how social ecological system perspective could contribute to improve organic rice development in the location Keywords: organic rice, social-ecological system, system thinking Introduction Social and environmental problems are systemic, resulted from complex situations, from interrelation processes among actors. They are difficult to be understood only by an academic discipline (Scholz & Steiner, 2015), as well as need sustainable and coordinated solutions. They can only be solved through integration of actors, institutions, networks, interactions, productive processes and learning processes, and commitment to adopt systemic perspectives on human element with its environment (Chairatana, 2000). As an Indonesian staple food and determinant of food security, rice is always having high demand. Along with an inrease on level of living, demand to better quality of rice will also increase. Quality, today, is not only defined as physical better quality, but also related to lower cost, shorter time delivery, and higher safety, which ultimately support sustainable production. Hence, demand towards safer and healthier rice is also unavoided situation. Organic rice development is an important response to answer this phenomenon. From systemic point of view, interrelation between human and non human elements determines the success of organic rice development. From human side, several social relation patterns motivate farmers to cultivate organic rice. They are economic rationality, friendship bonding, relatives/family support, patron-client relation, and “support” from external/government through several organic rice development programs (Sukayat, 2013). Therefore, sustainability of organic rice development system is highly depended on the human factrors. On the other hand, from nonhuman side, physical environment support in organic cultivation with its limitation must be also sustainable. Hence, human and environmental/non human aspects are very important to determine organic rice development sustainability In addition to other regencies such as Tasikmalaya, Ciamis and Bandung, Purwakarta is one of the regencies in West Java that developed organic rice cultivation. In order to maintain competitive agriculture and to prevent local cultures from distinction, Purwakarta local government released Purwakarta Act Number 11/2012 about Regional Planning of Regency of Purwakarta 2011-2031. This The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 118
local policy is in line with efforts to develop integrated and environmental friendly agriculture, in order to develop a plan to protect agriculture land existention in Purwakarta. One of the organic rice development locations in Purwakarta is Sub-district Pondoksalam. Information from Office for Agriculture, Plantation and Forestry of Purwakarta (2015) showed that among 17 sub-districts in Purwakarta, Pondoksalam is the second largest of paddy harvesting areas after Sub-district of Darangdan. In addition, based on data from Office for Agriculture, Plantation and Forestry of Purwakarta, from 2004 to 2010 Sub-district of Pondoksalam has become a location for organic rice development in Purwakarta. These facts reflected several efforts and programs to develop organic rice in the area. The question are whether organic rice development in the area has considered human and non human elements appropriately, or it was only technological intervetion that was disseminated linearly? Furthermore, whether this organic development has considered an integration of actors and has optimized potentials in the location, properly and sufficiently.
Materials and Methods Methods used in the research was qualitative using case study technique (Kerlinger, 1990). Analysis is focused on organic rice development area in Sub-district of Pondoksalam, Regency of Purwakarta, from social ecological system perspective using system thinking approach.
Results and Discussion Organic rice has been developed in Sub-district of Pondoksalam since several years ago, through several trainings and workshops initiated by the local government. At the farmer group level, this effort just been started since the last two years. Several farmers cultivated in organic ways consistently even though it was not related to the government programs anymore. At program management level, i.e. extension officers, as well as several farmers and farmer leaders, a philosophical viewpoint of organic development is established. In spite of organic rice is attractive economically, they believe that organic rice development in the location should be directed to fulfill local consumption need. On the other word, instead of sell organic rice (whis is healthier, and having potential to improve quality of live) and then buy conventional rice (which is not also economical), produce and consume organic rice by themselves are actually much better. The product (organic rice) only be sold while over production. In order to fulfill other farmer living needs, production of other commodities can be carried out or doing other possible efforts. However, far for this philosophical viewpoint, farmers and government officers’ mindset towards organic rice development in several aspects are also needed to change. The government has supported and initiated organic rice development and directed it to fulfill organic rice demand (national and global). Government plan to distribute packaging machine, give packaging plastic, build rice drying floor, and build rice milling unit that were dedicated only to process organic rice for farmer group showed that organic production will directly focus on external demand fulfillness. In the situation that land ownership of farmers is only 3.000 m2 on average, farmers will tend to sell their organic rice and buy conventional rice for their consumption. Similarly, feedstock provision program plan that was initially aimed to produce organic fertilizer for farmers’ rice plant, tend to be misused for selling fertilizer instead of for their own consumption. The previous circumstances show that two main problems are faced by organic rice development in Sub-district of Pondoksalam, namely first, farmer mindset change and motivation improvement, and second, knowledge, skill and creativity improvement. In general, organic rice farm management in Sub-district Pondoksalam, in particular technology needed can be brief in the Table 1. In this context, technology is not only defined as physical technology, but also human, information and organisation elements.
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Table 1. Technology needs for organic rice development in location Farming Sytem
Technology Used
I. 1.
Organic Rice Cultivation System Cropping pattern Paddy-paddy-“palawija”, paddy-paddypaddy, and paddy-paddy-recess/”bera”
2.
Seedling
3.
Tillage
4.
Seeding and planting
5.
Organic fertilizer provision
6.
Root growth regulator provision Leaf growth regulator provision Fruit growth regulator provision Organic pesticide provision
7. 8. 9.
10.
II. 11.
12.
13.
14.
- Varieties: Sintanur, Ciherang, Mekongga, Inpari 4, Inpari 6, Inpari 13, Inpari 24 (brown rice) - Seed selection apllied saline solution - 20% human - 60% machinery - 20% animal - 80% “tegel” - 20% ”legowo” Use local ingredients - Animal waste: cow, goat, buffalo - Raw material: straw, leaves, banana stem, husk, sawdusk, starch - Local microorganisms: fruit extract, coconut water, bamboo shoots, starch, and sugar Use local ingredients: bamboo shoots, coconut water Use local ingredients: bamboo shoots, coconut water Use local ingredients: snail egg, fruit waste, starch, coconut water - Introduction and development of antagonistic bacteria (coryenebacterium, tricoderma, tricogama, etc.) - Local ingredients: lemongrass (“walang sangit”), soursop leaf (leafhopper), neem leaf and soursop leaf (caterpillar), “gadung”, “mahkota dewa”, “suren” leaf, “manalika” leaf, “salam” leaf, etc.
Harvest and Postharvest a. Harvest Serrated sickle b. Postharvest Traditional technic (gebot), power thraser Organic Rice Farming System Farmer institution - Farmer group, 46 members - Extension is carried out by extension officers at farmer group level Information provision - Extension office and extension officer at local level - Farmers look for information by themselves Source of capital - Independent - Cultivation tools grant from government project (central and local) Marketing - Mostly subsistence - Direct selling to certain consumers
Identified Technology Need Effectivity and efficiency of best cropping pattern, according to nature condition Introduction and management of adaptive varieties toward climate change (pest attack, flood and drought, climate variability) Best technical tillage technology (need further research and developed by farmer group) Best planting techniques (test at farm level is needed) Socialize best composition of local paddy nutrient need more intensively, and introduce several local potential ingredients
Socialize intensively about best composition of paddy nutrient need for growing root, leaf and fruit locally, and introduce the potential use of local ingredients Introduce the potential use of local ingredients
Socialize effectivity and efficiency of using agricultural machinery Better group management (values and norms, group management skill) Develop interaction and triangulation between farmers, extension officers and research institution More effective mechanism for source of capital, from need assessment to its distribution and management - own consumption is very encouraged - Over production for better marketing orientation, such as for modern markets or exports
Interaction, conceptually results in associative forms (cooperation and accomodation) and dissociative forms (competition and conflict). Several actors interacted in organic rice development in location. They are farmers, government officers at local and regency level, organic rice traders, and personal buyers. According to Sukayat et al. (2013), relation pattern among farmers and other actors can be categorized into five reasons, namely economic rationality (contract), friendship bonding (emotion), relatives/family support (genealogy), patron-client relation (power), and “support” from The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 120
external/government through several organic rice development programs (power). In Sub-district of Pondoksalam, organic rice development initially was a government program, which means related to power of the government and for some reasons related to “financial and facility opportunities” for farmers and farmer groups. However, when the program was closed, several farmers decided to continue their ”organic way” cultivation method, and their reason was not the same as what Sukayat et al. stated previously. Surprisingly, their reason was because of environment and health considerations. They think cultivation and consumption of organic rice has positive impacts to their health and environment. They cultivated organic was not because other people insisted them to do that, it was not because their friends or family asked them to do that, and even it was not because price of organic rice is higher than conventional rice. From human and non human relation related to sustainability consideration, this farmer behavior was very positive. Analysis towards organic rice development can also be approached by social ecological system perspective. Social ecological system consists of a “bio-geo-physical unit and its associated social actors and institutions” (Glaser et al. in Jahn et al., 2009). Jahn et al., (2009) go on to say that social ecological system can be categorized into three system elements, namely “natural, social and hybrid” entities, it is related to natural and social sciences, and the field research of human ecology. In order to express the relations and dynamics, this system is also recognized the concepts of network, feedback loops and causal chain. Furthermore, in order to achieve sustainable governance of SESs, better understanding of decomposable, multitier governance systems that bridges the separations of biophysical and social science research is needed (Ostrom, 2007) As a working definition, Halliday and Glasser (2011) states that “a social-ecological system can be considered as a system composed of organized assemblages of humans and non-human life forms in a spatially determined geophysical setting”. Halliday and Glasser develop a decision making model to implement social ecological systems from “a management perspective, as arena of practice rather than as discipline-specific objects of study”, which can be applied by people from a range of applied and theoritical disciplines. Furthermore, Halliday and Glasser indicated an intention to consider social, biological and physical aspects at the same level. Therefore, definition of social and ecological (ecological = biological + physical) describes a same management level of a system. Figure 1 describes the generic model of social ecological system. SES System Boundary
Technology (“designed physical system”)
T Management and Control (“human activity system)
Natural System (Including People)
C
N Worldview (“designed abstract system”)
W
Figure 1. Generic model of social ecological system (Checkland in Halliday & Glasser, 2011) According to Checkland (1984) in Halliday and Glasser (2011), four basic subsystems consisted in SSE: (1) Natural subsystem (N): natural substances and process building system, including humans and their interaction with bio-geo-physical environments. This means human is “a part of nature”. (2) Management subsystem (C): activities aimed to manage these bio-geo-physical and social environments. (3) Worldview subsystem (W): it includes knowledge, believe, and value systems that guide human activities. (4) Technology subsystem: machine (which impacts directly to N), information (impacts to C and W), and T that can influence value system and knowledge. System diagram of organic rice development in Subdistrict of Pondoksalam can be drawn in Figure 2. Figure 2 shows description of four subsystems in the model. W shows the ideas of cultivating organic or conventional, as well as values towards healthy life, holism and sustainability. N includes natural system of the farm and elements of the physical, biological and social situations The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 121
which are important to the system. C shows that “even when the decision making unit is very simple the structure of the decision making system is quite complex” (Halliday & Glasser, 2011). The elements are goals of the system and a set of hypotheses regarding behavior of N that influences decisions. T presents two technologies used, namely traditional agricultural technologies, and modern/cutting edge technologies. This systems diagram describes a quite complete systemic view of organic rice development. It also shows the boundary of the system. However, it does not show linkages between the farm system and the surrounding system environment.
Decision Support
Ideas of the System
Conventional
Sustainability
Organic
Values + Beliefs
Holism
Need to Healthier Life
W Physical Soils
Water
Climate
N
Extension Officers
C
Interest
Goals
Management Styles
Sustainable Farming
Hypotheses Scientific Knowledge
Local Knowledge
Social Trust
Network
Traditional Technologies
Potentials/Constraints Biological Livestock Trees
T
Modern Technologies
Crops
Figure 2. System diagram of organic rice development (Adapted from Halliday & Glasser (2011) In order to show linkages among activities and entities in the system, in this paper, social ecological system perspective approaches organic system development through three aspects, which relates one another. They are social, economy, and ecology aspects. From ecological aspect, organic rice provision is very depended on organic production process and productivity of organic rice cultivation. This production process is determined by organic input provision, which is an economic aspect. Organic input provision is determined by farmers capital, farmers’ creativity to produce inputs at local level, and sometimes organic input provision program delivered by the government. On the other hand, sell organic rice will increase farmers’ income, which is influenced by organic rice price and cost of production. Organic rice cultivation will be successful only if together activities are conducted. From social aspects, a group will work together only if members have social capital each others. It icludeds trust, network between and among members, and willingness to work together. The existence of the group is also demanding obligations that must be fulfilled, such as rules/norms. These norms are actually not only socially, but also economically and environmentally. Above description shows that the development of organic rice will not be successful and sustainable if it is approached only from a single standpoint/aspect. This is the reason of the importance of a systems approach, in particular based on social ecological system perspective to analyse organic rice development. Figure 3 shows relation among activities in organic rice development process. In the figure, green area represents ecology aspect, yellow area represents economy, and red area represents social. If we look at Figure 3, we can see that social aspect is relatively more problematic than economic and ecological aspects, which can lead to the success or failure of this organic development. For several reasons, we could say that human factors are determinants to the sustainability of organic rice development, even though both aspects are actually influence each others. Human influences non human, and vice versa. However in Subdistrict of Pondoksalam, farmers attention and awarness toward environment, and put economic consideration at the next priority bring about optimism that sustainability of organic potential will be reached. Based on these two approaches, using generic model from Halliday and Glasser, and system thinking approach, we can see that even though it is a small unit analysis and simple issue, while we analyze systematically, the results can be more effective to help in solving potential problems. In The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 122
addition, systemic approaches including social ecological system are much more useful to find potential solution, in particular related to sustainability issues. + Land Quality +
Innovation and Creativity +
Stability of Physical Environment +
Acces of + Information +
Enviroment Capacity
+ + Productivity
+ + + Production Prcess Organic Paddy Organic Grain Planted of Organic + + + + + + Utilization of Labor Selling of Organic and Input + Grain + + Production Cost Price of Organic Organic Input Grain + Programme + + Farmer's Capital Farmers Income +
Collective Action in Organic Faming + +
Farmer's Knowledge in Organic +
+
+ Benefit from Income
+
+ Unsuccessful of Organic Production
+
+ Value of Social + + Capital Connection
Benefit from Information Acces
Social Capital + Connection -
Successful of + Organic Production +
+ Trust in Organic
Benefit from Environment Capacity
+ Connection Increase +
State Extension Programme
+
Social Capital Depreciation + Motivation to Organic
+ Enviromental FG + Obligation +
Obligation Development
+
Benefit from Social Stability +
+ Social Stability of Environment Oriented + Environmental Norm and Obligation +
Figure 3. Relations among activities in organic rice development Conclusion Technology needed in organic agroecosystem (rice development) can be divided into two large categories, namely first, specific technology for organic rice cultivation, from seedling process to postharvest activities, and second, specific technology for organic rice farming system, including institution, finance, marketing, and information provision aspects. Technology intervention has improved farmer capability to doing organic and develop farmers’ network. However, it was not succesful to develop impacts on farmer group development. Social ecological system perspective has a significant role to describe elements involved in development process. It also helps to simplify complexity of the system. In addition, it explains interrelation among activities in order to achieve sustainability.
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Acknowledgment This paper is written based on a research funded by Universitas Padjadjaran (Unpad) through “Hibah Pengembangan Kapasitas Riset Dosen” scheme. Hence, we would like to thank Unpad for gave us this opportunity.
References Chairatana, P. (2000). Conceptualising Innovation Systems: The Implication to Agriculture Sector. Aalborg University. Denmark. Halliday, A.,& Glaser, M. (2011). A Management Perspective on Social Ecological Systems: A generic system model and its application to a case study from Peru. Human Ecology Review, 18 (1). Jahn, T., Becker, E., Keil, F., & Schramm, E. (2009). Understanding Social-Ecological Systems: Frontier Research for Sustainable Development, Implications for European Research Policy. Institute for Social-Ecological Research (ISOE), Frankfurt/Main, Germany. Kerlinger, F. N. (1990). Asas-asas Penelitian Behavioral. Edisi Ketiga. Simatupang LR, Penerjemah. Gadjah Mada Press. Yogyakarta. Ostrom, E. (2007). Sustainable Social-Ecological Systems: An Impossibility?. Center for the Study of Institutions, Population, and Environmental Change. Annual Meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, “Science and Technology for Sustainable WellBeing,” 15–19 February in San Francisco. Scholz, R. W.,& Steiner, G. (2015). Transdisciplinarity at the Crossroads. Sustain Sci (2015) 10:521– 526. Sukayat, Y., Supyandi, D., & Tridakusumah, A. C. (2013). Relasi Sosial dalam Pengembangan Padi Organik ((Studi Kasus di Kabupaten Tasikmalaya Propinsi Jawa Barat). Prosiding Simposium Kebudayaan Indonesia Malaysia, Bandung.
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MACRO – MICRO LINKAGES ON AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY IN GIANYAR, BALI, INDONESIA Adi Nugraha*, Dika Supyandi, Mahra A. Heryanto Department of Agricultural Social Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, Indonesia. Email: [email protected] Abstract This paper aims to describe the macro-micro linkages in agriculture development in Gianyar, Bali, Indonesia. This study focuses on the agricultural development paths and heterogeneity of perspectives towards it, which influence farming styles of farmers. The study was a case study which allows flexible responses to social processes evoked by the events. Ethnography approach in the Macro-micro linkages analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of community perceptions and what was happening in the community. Data were collected through various methods, including participant observation, in-depth interviews, and document analysis. The results show that structural elements in Gianyar’s agriculture pose hindrances and opportunities, creating rooms for manoeuvre and influencing farmer’s ability in exercising their agency. Some farmers were able to exercise their agency in choosing which structures to be attached to, and which farming styles to practice. This condition led to heterogeneity of perspectives toward agricultural development paths. Respectively, it contributed to the emergence of different farming styles and farming strategies in the micro level. Furthermore, this paper is not only about the differences in perspective on agricultural development, but also about the liberty of generating alternative ideas for farming, the capability and knowledgeability of farmers that could be the seed of endogenous agriculture development Keywords: agricultural development, macro-micro linkages, farming styles, perspectives.
Introduction Agricultural development in Indonesia has been through several phases. Green Revolution is one of the most influencing events in Indonesian agricultural development. It has been able to improve the farmers’ economy by increasing the productivity of agricultural products, which in the end secured the Indonesian food supply. However, external materials and practices brought by the Green Revolution formed problems for the environment, health condition, and replaced original practices. “Moreover, it also changed the way the farmers interact with their social, natural and technological contexts. As the ‘modern’ farming requires capital to procure agricultural inputs which means that only those who have certain amount of capital are able to continue to grow and survive in the competition, leaving those with limited capital behind” (Nugraha, 2015). Therefore, social gaps also emerged due to the Green Revolution. “In Indonesia, as elsewhere in Southeast Asia, the Green Revolution disproportionately benefited wealthier rural residents, who used the new technologies to increase production and shed traditional obligations to women and poorer neighbours, who were pushed onto more marginal land or off the land entirely” (Welker, 2012). Post Green Revolution period, Indonesia was lead to a more sustainable farming practices. Several programs promoting organic and low input agriculture practices are proliferating from the government and Non-Government Organizations (NGOs). At the global level, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) became the basis of Indonesian governmental tendency to support the alternative styles of farming. However, despite where the program leads Indonesian agriculture to, responses at the micro level often to be put in the periphery. “There is, currently, a re-emergence of The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 125
deterministic views that strongly emphasize the impacts of general, ‘external’ pressures on agriculture, whilst neglecting the importance of responses generated at the micro-level” (Ploeg, 2012). While in the field, agricultural practices brought by the Green Revolution and SDGs projects are being questioned in many levels of the societies. The contestations about the ideas of the ‘ideal’ way of farming are not only happening in the level of experts, but also the farmers. As the results, the emergence of grassroots based initiatives that justify their farming styles are proliferating. “These alternative ideas not only arise due to external influences, but also from the farmers’ intuition, experiences, experiments, and even beliefs and relation with ancestors. Nevertheless, these ideas are often being ignored, considered as practice without a theory or even ‘crazy’, while it might be the seed of endogenous development of their agriculture” (Nugraha, 2015). The overall objective of this paper is to see how the contestations of agricultural development path shaped the emergence of different farming styles as a socially constructed process. More importantly, to see how the farmers perceive their structures and justify their chosen path of agriculture, which is the manifestation of responses generated at the micro-level, which as Ploeg (2012) stressed, are often neglected in agricultural development processes. Materials and Methods The framework of this paper was adapted from the macro-micro-macro linkages analysis (Figure 1), which analyses different structural levels (micro and macro) and how they relate to certain actors. First, it analyses the impact of the situation in the macro level (the structure) to the micro level. Then it analyses how do actors in micro level processed and reacted to the situation in where they conduct their farming activities. The last part, analyses how these responses generated at micro level affected the macro situation. However, we only used macro-micro linkages analysis to suit the objectives of the paper. It combines two major concepts in sociological studies: structure and agency, which also later in the paper focuses on the notion of styles of farming through the application of labour process analysis.
The structural analysis of agrarian change which focuses on processes (such as market incorporation, commoditization, institutionalization and externalization), was applied in order to analyse the settings in which practices of agriculture are being carried out. This structural analysis, however, does not see farming as practice which is determined by markets and technologies. It focuses on how specific interrelations are established between farm enterprises and communities, on the one hand, and markets, market agencies and the processes of technology development and transfer on the other; the question of how these relationships, once established, affect and remould the farm practices concerned (including the underlying strategies); and finally, structural analysis studies how the relationships involved might be changed over time (Hebinck & Ploeg, 1997). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 126
However, in order to grasp how the farmers process and exercise their agency in determining what they think as ‘ideal’ way of farming, the structural analysis alone will not be sufficient, as Giddens stated, “structures are constituted by human agency and are the very medium of this constitution” (Giddens, 1976). The actor-oriented approach, then, “develops a theory of agency based on the capacity of actors to process and act on one another’s experiences in differentiated ways, in accordance with their competing priorities, purposes and circumstances” (Long, 2001). Thus, this paper employed actor-oriented approach to show the heterogeneity of perspectives among farmers which has the capacity to process and react on their current situation. “It aims to understand farmers, their agricultural practices and relationships ‘within the context in which they live’ (Rhoades, 1984). In this context, the actor-oriented methodology, as elaborated by Long, has proved highly useful in getting to grips with the specificities of agricultural practices” (Hebinck & Ploeg, 1997). “An important contribution from the actor-oriented perspective consists in the notion of markets and technology as entailing specific room for manoeuvre, which is actively created by the actors involved through processes of negotiation and redesigning” (Ibid, 1997). These three strands of theories of agrarian change and agricultural development were then summarised in the notion of styles of farming. “A style of farming is the complex but integrated set of notions, norms, knowledge elements, experiences, etc., held by a group of farmers in a specific region, that describes the way farming praxis should be carried out” (Hofstee, 1985 in Ploeg & Long, 1994). According to Hebinck and Ploeg (1997) a style of farming consists of three interrelated and mutually dependent levels. These levels are: “First, a specific cultural repertoire composed of shared experiences, knowledge, insight, interests, prospects and interpretations of the context in which farmers operate; second, a style of farming is an integrated set of practices and artefacts; third, a style of farming comprises a specific ordering of the interrelationships between the farming unit, on the one hand, and markets, technology and institutions on the other” (Hebinck & Ploeg, 1997).
Results and Discussion The structures that shaped Balinese agriculture Bali’s agriculture is influenced by various inter-related structures. Historical events (e.g. dissemination of Green Revolution and the 65 Tragedy) has shaped most of farmers’ mentality. While the current government and NGOs are promoting the discourse of sustainability, which is seen to be fit with the beliefs of some farmers. Farmers’ are exercising their agency in form of various responses to this situation, which has led to contestations of which farming practices that suit best Balinese sociopolitic-economic and environment. Being freed from the chains of dictatorship of the New Order government which ruled for three decades, many representatives of local regions came up with their own ideas and power agendas. The sudden emergence of various interests and ideas triggered conflicts between the regions in Indonesia. Thus, the government decided to decentralise political power, giving authority to local governments in managing their own area through their own local policies, through the Constitution No. 22/1999 regarding the local government (Undang-Undang Nomor 2 Tahun 1999 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah). “Decentralisation in Indonesia had radical implications (Hull 1999), introducing considerable autonomy to very small district-level units” (Pedersen, 2007). “A policy of decentralisation and regional autonomy further stimulated such local and regional political agendas” (Roth, 2014). This event was then, seen as an opportunity for local government to claim authority by implementing rules and policies in managing their own resources and society based on their interests, which were mostly concealed by discourses of local wisdom/tradition (adat). “After decades of marginalization and dispossession by a predatory central state that did not recognize customary claims to resources like land, water and forest, the political changes of the late 1990s provided an opportunity for local political actors to reaffirm customary claims, often related to regional or ‘indigenous’ identities” (Roth, 2014). Subak as the gate of change is being put in a new control mechanism through programs and policies which include the reward system so that the subaks are competing against each other to be the best in the eye of government; which means, those who manage to implement government’s programs The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 127
the best, get more rewards in term of funding, programs, and also the prestige of being labelled as the best subak; restricting their ability to be critical toward government’s programs. In the end, it depends on the mentality of the subak leaders who can become catalysts of transformation. The presence of tourism also has its impact to the perception of the actors in the governments. Grounded by the promotion of Bali’s ‘uniqueness’ as a part of promoting Bali’s sustainable tourism development, the government encourages especially in Ubud area which is known to be the spiritualhealth rejuvenating destination which provides healthy organic food and enhanced connection with the spiritual through nature; this creates markets for healthy organic products. Being a ‘unique’ touristic spot, made many of former tourists decided to move in bringing their ideas and disseminate them through NGOs, which then influenced and facilitated the farmers in shifting to organic practices. Most of the sustainable farmers are related to NGOs and under the Simantri program of government. Both government and NGO provided access to materials, knowledge, and even markets that are needed by the farmers to support their organic practices. Actors’ responses The contestations of agricultural modernization in the case of Gianyar surfaced from the twosided perspectives that both come from personal experience of actors who are connected and framed in different settings. Both of these perspectives, however, are mostly focused on certain elements without taking other elements into account (e.g. productivity and economy over culture, environmental and social, and vice versa). Those who are in favour of modern agriculture practices chose the production and economic aspect; while those who are against the agricultural modernization approaches based their arguments on culture, environmental, and social elements. Actors who are in favour toward agricultural modernization approaches have the tendency to be pessimistic toward alternative agriculture practices by thinking that it is only another way to fulfil the desires of tourists. This thought, however, is also influenced by the lack of trust they have toward the government who are currently putting their efforts in promoting sustainable agriculture practices through Simantri program. But interestingly, they also showed that their pro-behaviour toward the agricultural modernization was due to the trust that they put in the government. These contradicting reasons showed the presence of plural images of government in their head. This pluralism is presumably based on the comparison of government under two different leaderships: the first one is the New Order era which although authoritarian and corrupt, have managed to made real changes through some more structured and clear programs; and the second the ever-changing governments in the reformation era, which are less involved in the field than the previous one, together with the publicly transparent corruption behaviour creating an untrustworthy image. Macro – micro linkages Agricultural modernization is contested at the level of policy makers, project implementers and farmers, due to the different perspectives towards the question which path is the best for developing agriculture. Policy makers who are in favour of agricultural modernization tend to bring up the macro level considerations of agriculture such as feeding the population and monetary based farmers’ livelihood improvement which are all based on increasing farm productivity through farming intensification and modern agricultural practices. The conventional farmers came up with their distrust toward the organic methods and the institutions who are trying to promote it; and also, the difficulties in shifting towards it. On the other hand, those who are not in favour of agricultural modernization talk about socio-environmental issues, sustainable practices and farmers’ autonomy. In this paper, it can be seen that both conventional and alternative farmers use understandable ways of reasoning in choosing their own farming styles. Each farmer has different life experiences and capabilities to process and perceive their past, present, and future. All these combined create a fundament in their way of thinking that made them stick to or change into what they believe to be their ‘ideal’ way of farming. The pro agriculture modernization actors’ cynical perspectives toward the efforts to shift to organic farming are based on the distrust in organic practice’s ability to fit in the current modernized era; which, from the government’s perspective, in relation to unaffordable drops in productivity during the process of shifting which in will hampers the consumers in term of supply and price; and from the farmers’ side, is associated with its excessive shifting process both administratively and The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 128
practically, uncertainty about markets, their lack of knowledge of organic practices, and most of all, their ‘addiction’ to the convenience of conventional farming (e.g. easy access to inputs, govt.’s aid in term of subsidies and regular free inputs, clear market, and less complicated practices). This means that the structure has put them in their ‘comfort’ zone which indirectly restricts the farmers’ ability to be autonomous. The externalization of inputs also created new demands for knowledge (i.e. of how to appropriately use the inputs in order to reach optimum productivity) which can only be provided by external institutions such as the government. However, in the current situation, shifting to organic practices also requires external knowledge since most of the farmers have already replaced their traditional practices with conventional farming. Moreover, the average age of farmers is dominated by the generation who have been practicing conventional agriculture practice for decades and it is difficult for them to go through the process of change. As Dijk and Ploeg (1995) stated that “Locality is not considered as a resource for local-specific practices anymore, the focus is on global parameters: market trends, newest technologies, agricultural policies – rules and subsidies.” (van Dijk & van der Ploeg, 1995), we found this statement fits well with the perception of actors who are in favour of agricultural modernization (esp. the dinas representative). While those who are against agricultural modernization approaches mostly depart from their sense of belonging for their nature, culture, and tradition. They felt that their nature and culture are being threatened by agricultural modernization processes; thus, they leaned towards alternative ideas of farming as their solution. The propagation of THK (Tri Hita Karana, Balinese philosophy of life) and Ajeg Bali movement might have influenced their perspectives by enhancing their sense of Balinese, but actually, most of them have been having these thoughts before the THK become as famous as today. However, they tend to forget that agricultural modernization is not only about the negative sides that are brought by the chemicals, but also there are some positive sides such as the mechanization which is indeed helpful in dealing with the labour problems. In this case, both perspectives are not only raised by their own consciousness, but also are strongly supported by the structures where they practice their farming. In the farmer’s level, both perspectives, supported by the structures lead the farmers to practice different ways of farming. The manifestations of agricultural modernization in the Balinese context are Janus-faced, and are characterized by the existence of different (and often contradictory) perspectives towards it. The top-down style of agricultural development had been weakened by the time that the New Order regime fell in the late 1990s. Since the fall of Soeharto and subsequent political-administrative reforms, many initiatives are proliferating. Freedom has indeed (to some extent) become enhanced. Currently, in Bali the government is actively promoting organic farming alongside conventional farming methods. Even though the proposed way of farming might be different from the earlier Green Revolution packages, the method of dissemination is more or less the same as before: farmers are expected to follow the proposed prescriptions. However, this provides farmers with more options than before, and they can actually decide on their own which proposed prescriptions they are willing to follow.
Conclusion In the context of Balinese agriculture, institutions, market, technologies, tourism, and cultures pose both hindrances and opportunities for the emergence of different farming styles. Farmers actually have a variety of options for choosing to either practice conventional farming or for going organic, since both of the proposed prescriptions are supported and also restricted by the structural elements. However, in this case, we can see that farmers are using their agency in creating their own room for manoeuvre by choosing which structures they want to be attached to. This agency is not only influenced by the ideas that came from outside (e.g. institutions and market), but also their life experience, observations and even their beliefs. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 129
The mainstream ideas that are hovering among the development actors are still that the farmers are always seen as passive, unknowledgeable actors who always need to be helped by the experts in order to improve their welfare. Exogenous development has always been the focus in most experts’ projects brought by agricultural modernization processes. The problem with exogenous development is that it has an end, a goal, it is limited by time and external agendas, not to mention the well-known corruption as part of our culture and socio-political system. The example would be the government effort to promote organic farming for rice in subak Wengaya Betan which, although considered successful at the production level but less so in marketing its produce in the end met its failure. Furthermore, our respondents have pointed out the failures of experts’ projects in developing Balinese agriculture due to its inability to optimise the ever-complex constellation. It doesn’t mean that it has to be stopped, but exogenous development policies and programs need to be improved and adjusted to local processes and structures. Thus, the last remark that we would like to make in this paper concerns future research opportunities. In the end, it is not only about going organic or conventional, but about whether the development process is being carried exogenously or endogenously, and whether the development actors have the synergy and sincere will to help the farmers. From our field observation in Gianyar, modernizing agriculture is not about promoting conventional agriculture anymore, but rather about promoting sustainable farming practice. The government and NGOs in Bali are actively promoting organic practices, even by strategically utilising (invented) Balinese beliefs in their agricultural policies (e.g. the propagation of THK, and its ‘obligatory’ presence in the subak agenda); and some farmers are actually reluctant and even sceptical toward it. This heterogeneity is often only paid scant attention to, while it might be important for researchers to identify the potentials of endogenous development process that might contribute to formulating policies for future agriculture development.
Acknowledgment This paper is based on Adi Nugraha’s thesis work. Thus, we would like to thank DIKTI who gave funds for his master study, and Dr. Dik Roth, Prof. Van der Ploeg, Dr. Paul Hebinck, and Dr. Alberto Arce who was supervising him during his thesis writing.
References Giddens, A. (1976). New Rules of Sociological Method: A Positive Critique of Interpretative Sociologies. Minnesota, Hutchinson: Hutchinson Publishing. Hebinck, P. G. M., & Ploeg, J. D. V. (1997). Dynamics of Agricultural Production. An Analysis of Micro-Macro Linkages. in: Haan, de H and N. Long (eds.) (1997). Images and realities of rural life. Wageningen Perspectives on Rural Transformations. Assen: Royal van Gorcum, pp. 202226. Leaf, M. J. (1998). Pragmatism and Development: The Prospect for Pluralist Transformation in the Third World. Portsmouth: Greenwood Publishing Group. Long, N. (2001). Development Sociology: Actor Perspectives. New York: Routledge. MacRae, G. (2011). Rice Farming in Bali. Critical Asian Studies 43(1):69–92. MacRae, G. S., & Arthawiguna, I.W.A. (2011). Sustainable Agricultural Development in Bali: Is the Subak an Obstacle, an Agent or Subject?. Human Ecology 39(1):11–20. Nugraha, A. (2015). Bhinéka: an Ethnography Study of Farming Style in Gianyar, Bali, Indonesia. Wageningen: Wageningen University. Pedersen, L. (2007). Responding to Decentralisation in the Aftermath of the Bali Bombing. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology. Retreived from The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 130
Ploeg, J. D. V. (2012). The Genesis and Further Unfolding of Farming Styles Research. Pp. 427–39, Historiche Anthropologie, vol. 20, Cahier 3, théme: styles d'agriculture. Ploeg, J. D. V., & Long, A. (1994). Born from within: Practice and Perspectives of Endogenous Rural Development. Assen: Royal van Gorcum. Roth, D. (2014). Environmental Sustainability and Legal Plurality in Irrigation: The Balinese Subak. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 11:1–9. Welker, M. (2012). The Green Revolution’s Ghost: Unruly Subjects of Participatory Development in Rural Indonesia. American Ethnologist 39(2):389–406.
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THE ROLE OF BRAIN GAIN ACTORS IN SELF RELIANCE IN THE SOCIAL SYSTEM AND RURAL AGRIBUSINESS ECOSYSTEM Iwan Setiawan*, Adi Nugraha, Irfan Rahadian Department of Agricultural Social Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Social gaps and crisis in Indonesian rural space are influenced by several factors such as aging, low farmers’ regeneration rate, and the high rate of urbanization, which drains the availability of young potential human resources in the rural area. Human Ecology perspective sees that the return of young work-force from the urban to rural area (internal brain gain) is one of the forms of self-reliance and adaptation towards homeostatic condition. This paper aims to analyse the role of brain gain actors in balancing rural social system and agribusiness ecosystem. The study is a case study, which applies qualitative approach of system thinking paradigm. The information was gained through in-depth interview with young brain gain actors and rural institutions representatives. The result shows that the presence of young skilled and educated brain gain actors in their home village has enhanced its social system and ecosystem, leading both systems toward sustainability. The balance was created due to the varieties of actors’ business activities in on-farm (primary), off-farm (secondary), and nonfarm (tertiary) areas. Primary actors are proven to have roles in the development of agribusiness (socio-technic-economy), while secondary and tertiary actors play role in diversification of business activities which generate employment and environmental conservations (socio-technic-ecology). Moreover, the activities of those actors are complementary and having a positive feed-back loop. A well-planned brain gain can be an alternative solution to strengthen the resilience, dynamics, and sustainability of rural agribusiness
Keywords: brain gain, self-reliance, social system, ecosystem, rural agribusiness
Introduction Rural area covers 85% of developing countries’ areas and are the basis of its agricultural, natural and demographical resources. Human ecological perspectives seen rural concept as an integrated entity, which is very crucial to a nations development in general. Socio-economically, the role of rural areas is still focused on supporting nearby cities’ development, by supplying energy, labour, food, land, water, and other natural resources. 2010 census showed that 50.02% of Indonesian population live in the rural areas. Agriculture, fisheries, forestry, poultry, and estates were dominating rural sectors by contributing 14.7% to the GDP in 2011 (Indonesian Bureau of Statistics, 2013). This shows that future development is possible if the rural dominant sectors’ existence is enhanced thoroughly within the frame of agribusiness that is integrated with creative economy, innovation, and sustainability. However, in reality, exploitation of rural primary resources by urban entities is going out of control. Consequently, rural pulling factor has weakened, leading to a brain drain phenomenon. Brain drain has been known as one of the main factors that cuts down the process of regeneration of skilful workforce and knowledge in the rural areas. IBS (Indonesian Bureau of Statistics) (2012) stated that 77% of agricultural workforce is above their productive age, while the other 23% are in their mid-age, and are not getting any younger. IBS data also shows that the number of young agriculture actors diminished from 9.5 million in 2007 to 8.4 million in 2011 (12.11%) and 7.3 million in 2015. In West Java, several researchers such as Sumardjo (1999), Agussabti (2002), Setiawan (2007), Sadono (2012) and Setiawan (2015) stated that the average age of farmers is 49 The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 132
years, with 40% of them are over their 60s. This condition has, of course, limited their productivity, which then affected the overall performance of rural agricultural sector. Human ecology perspective seen the social issues such as aging, under value and brain drain will have a negative feedback loop in a long term, worsening the crisis and gaps in the rural space. Thus, efforts to create balance have to be taken. There are various solution offered to tackle these issues, one of them is brain gain, a strategy to pull back skilled and knowledgeable young villagers to enhance the development of their home village. Werker (2009), Kupets (2011) and Hu et al. (2012) argued that brain gain is a strategic issue in Eastern Europe, Asia, South America and Africa. Brain gain is even considered to be successful in the United Kingdom, India, China, Taiwan, South Korea, Ukraine and Brazil. That is why in 2007, the European Union had recommended brain gain as one of the cutting-edge solutions to rural crisis. Although brain gain is not yet institutionalized and known in Indonesia, the presence of skilled and knowledgeable youths in the hinterlands of West Java shows that it has potential to be developed. This paper aims to analyse the personalities of brain gain actors and their roles in creating the balance in their social system and agribusiness ecosystem.
Materials and Methods This study was a case study, using qualitative method with constructivism paradigm. The study was conducted in Cianjur Regency. Information were gained through in-depth interview to brain gain actors, farmer group’s leaders, private sectors, NGOs, extension agents, and other government representatives. In this case, young actors who got their high school or higher education degrees and had skill trainings from outside their home village and have returned are considered as brain gain actors. Participant observation and field observation were also done to complement the primary data. Secondary data were gained through document and artefact analysis. Collected information were then classified and analysed by using system thinking and complex adaptive system approach in order to grasp the underlying construction of existing causal relationship to better understand the situation. Table 1. The profile of brain gain actors
Su
Place of Study Bandung
Time of study 4 Years
As
Japan
3 Years
Ap
Jakarta
3 Years
Senior Highschool
So
Jakarta
6 Years
Bachelor of Economy
Ab
Jakarta
8 Years
Magister of Management
Du
Jakarta
4 Years
Senior Highschool
Za
Jakarta
2 Years
Senior Highschool
Name
Education Senior Highschool Agricultural Highschool
Training Agricultural Training, Cyber Extension Agribusiness Internship, Japan, Cyber Extension
Occupation Farmer, Potato Seed Breeder
Farmer, Farmer Group’s Administrative, Cyber Extension Admin. Organic Agriculture Farmer, Head of Farmer Group Training, Pest Management and Association System Training Internship, organic Farmer, Supplier, Exporter, agriculture, pest Private Extension Agent, Head management system, cyber of Farmer Association and extension Young Farmer Association, Auction Market Admin. Agricultural extension, Extension Agent, Cyber agricultural training, Extension Admin. internship Agricultural extension, Farmer, Private Extension internship, advocacy agent, Broadcaster, NGO training Integrated pest Farmer, management, cyber Farmer group admin. extension
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 133
Results and Discussion Education background and psychographic characteristics of key informants became the baseline of this study, as we consider that those factors have a strong influence to their decision-making capabilities. Table 1 below shows the profile of brain gain actors that we interviewed during our study. However, for the sake of research ethics, we just provide their initials in this paper. Based on their businesses, we divided brain gain actors into three categories: 1) primary actors, are those who farm vegetables; 2) secondary actors, are those who are involved in agribusiness activity which is not based on vegetables; and 3) tertiary actors, are those who have business in a nonagriculture sector. The experience of brain gain actors are varied from 5 to 20 years. Primary actors’ average land size is more than one hectare. Most of them had their financial capital supported by family members or/and private companies who became their partner. With this extra feat, it is normal if their business orientation is very limited to economical purpose. As for secondary and tertiary actors, who have a relatively smaller lands and scale, their financial capital relies more on community sources and their business activity orientation is more ecological. There are various motivations for all the respondents in starting and running their business such as family heritage, to develop their village’s agribusiness potential, to apply the knowledge they have gained during the time outside their village, improving village environment (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Characteristics, motivation, adaptability and orientation of brain gain informants Characteristics of brain gain actors in Cianjur are similar to what Ha et al. (2009), Warker (2009), Faiz (2007), and Schiff (2005) found in Northern Africa, South America, Eastern Europe and Asia. Brain gain actors in general are 15 – 35 years old, having a relatively high education background (formal and non-formal), having a low family spending, open minded, having high motivations, positive orientation, high adaptability, wide networks, and are risk takers. Social and ecological system dynamics The analysis was started with hinterlands agribusiness history mapping, especially the events related to recent crisis and present phenomena. Based on our observation, there are two conditions: 1) Rural ecosystem and agribusiness social system before brain gain actors’ presence, where Cianjur highland was still dominated by tea plantation. Vegetables farming was present, but it was still dominated by local commodities, which were carried out by small farmers. Since 1990, vegetable farming started to grow significantly. Consequently, this has impacted the balance of ecosystems due to forest transformation to farms, which also applied heavy dose of chemicals. Modern agriculture practices have been damaging the environment and local knowledge, which then led to catastrophic events such as landslides and floods. These processes are shown in Figure 2. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 134
Pemukiman dan Vila
+
Alih Fungsi Lahan Kehutanan
-Lahan Hutan
Keamanan-
-
+
Tegakan Hutan
-
+ Penduduk -
+
Permintaan+ Sayuran
Kebutuhan Lahan Usahatani
-
+ + + + Lahan Usahatani
Perkebunan Teh -
Petani + + - +
+ + Longsor
- Resapan Air
+ Aktivitas Ekonomi +
+
Zona Koservasi Taman Nasional
- Struktur Tanah
+Alih Fungsi Lahan Perkebunan -
Pasokan Sayuran +
+ Usahatani Sayuran ++
+ Sungkup Plastik Rumah + Kassa/Kaca
Curah Hujan
+
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+ Hama Penyakit Tanaman + +
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Advokasi
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+
+
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Reclime + Ekstensifikasi
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+
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Konversi Lahan Kehutanan
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Modal Sosial -
-Sayuran Lokal
Investasi Sayuran + + Monokultur + Lapangan Kerja Sewa Lahan Sayuran + + Benih Produk + Investor Industri Produksi Sayuran + + + + + + Intensifikasi + Kesehatan Supplier + Toko Saprotan Bandar + Penduduk + + + + + Input Kimia Supermarket Pasar -
Produktivitas Modal +
Kesuburan Lahan +
Pupuk Organik Pupuk Kimia
+ Pestisida Kimia
Kelembaban Udara + + Air Hujan +
-Pasokan Air
Konflik Agraria + + + Organisasi Tani
+
Kelompok Tani +
+ Pencemaran+
Pencemaran
Figure 2. Ecological system before the presence of brain gain actors
Supllier Input Pertanian
Figure 3. Social system before the presence of brain gain actors
Secondly, parallel with the ecosystem, the problems alsooccured in the social system. Extensification of the vegetables by farmers and outsiders (investors) has triggered the agrarian conflict, between local people with the plantations and forestry (national parks). Small farmers organized by farmer organizations and investors to claim of forest and plantations. Rich farmers (only 20 percent from all) controlled about 75 percent of the land, while 80 percent small farmers only control 25 percent of the land. Share cropping almost completely unknown since replaced by the land rent. The working condition in the rural area experiencing saturation conditions at the time. Some of the young generation migrate to the city and they work in non-agricultural sectors. Access for young generation to land is low, because dominate by the old. The orientation of farmers becomes very comercial but did not think about the environment (exploitative). Information connection, innovation, market, capital and farmer partner become large but bias for elite. Farmers group, farmers association and cooperative more massive but there is not effective to bridge the imbalance of the market.The market is more complex (middleman, wholesaler, supplier, lokal market, auction market, main market, supermarket, industry), but some of farmers still depends on the middleman. The agricultural extension is many in different region, but bias to government or cooperative or agriculture input coorporate. The use of organic fertilizer is high, but not domestically produced. Application of chemical inputs increasingly out of control; even compounded by the addition of formalin, oil, detergents and paint. Technology and local knowledge of farming is reduced along with the disappearance of local varieties and social capital. Until the mid-1990s, vegetable farming is still dominated by non-educated and old farmers. In 2000s, farming began to attract the young generation which is well-educated and skilled. Those who long to wander (school, work, mesantren, internships) in urban and abroad going back home (brain gain). The presence of the brain gain actor contribut many changes, both to the ecosystem (such as farming practices, the environment) and social systems (such as service, institutional and dynamics in business networking, network information, network marketing and social networking) (Figure 1). Institutionally, the presence of the brain gain actors had been opened and bridged community and rural institutions (local) with national and international institutions. Socially, brain gain actors can maintain the relationship within the family, in groups and even in community. The presence of brain gain actors have a real impact on the development of farming (vegetables) and has been growing alternative commodities in the rural. The existence of the business development and growth of new businesses in the rural has openend up employment opportunities and be able to absorb the rural labor force (Figure 3). The roles of brain gain actor In the social economy aspect, the presence of brain gain actors in the rural has a real impact on business development, business diversity, business productivity and business network area. In the techno-ecological, brain gain actors also have an impact on efforts to improve farming technology, The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 135
land rehabilitation technologies and forest rehabilitation. Ecologically, brain gain has also an impact on environmental conservation, such as the implementation of organic farming systems, agroforestry approach to the implementation of land conservation, the development of integrated farming systems, and the development of non-vegetable business which have value added to the environment. Socioecological, the development of non-vegetable business, such as rabbit breeding, sheep breeding, beekeeping and natural silk farm has been slowly changing patterns of behavior and dependence on vegetable farming for forest-land farmers. Institutionally, brain gain has a real impact on institutional development in the rural, agricultural, socio-economic and ecological institutions. Related with the brain gain actors, Ed (45), who have decades become an agriculture extensions in the Cianjur Highlands say: “They are smart young man, brave, well-educated, creative and always offer something new, its dynamic, never give up (even if they fail, they quickly rise), a lot of links, information and sources of capital, connect to the internet (online), and have an unique idea to develop the “unusual business” (like Ap who cultivates organic carrots, Du who work hard in the reforestation and management of community radio, Su did seed potatoes business and So is a supplier of supermarkets; There was also a young man who became a pioneer of rabbits business, who patiently spread to the people who depend on the vegetables farming, until some farmers move into rabbit business; ..... Su and Ap is very young with less experience, but because of the high education and creative, then the different way of farmers in general; ... " Tn (50), coordinator of agricultural extension in the highlands of Cianjur asserted that: "Youths who led the farm and organize of farmer groups, GAPOKTAN and farmer association that actually propagate new ideas in the Cianjur Highland. They are smart, brave, critical, a lot of network, always improving their business, is not satisfied to only one innovation, entrepreneurial, market-oriented, responsive to something new offered by extensions and partners, starting something of themself (to give an example), connect with information technology (IT); ... In the agribusiness, they are more advanced than the extension; ... high participation in the management of farmers' groups, because 80 percent of its members are young.” As the young agriculture extension who is educated and skilled in management and information technology, As (34) stated that: "Based on socio-technical, the land access for some of brain gain actor is low; moreover limited land in the highlands. The land conversion from forest to vegetable are not recommended; therefore, some of the actors engaged in the non-vegetables business, such as marketing, seed, livestock, information services, agro-tourism and ecotourism; they are not only creative-innovative, but also adaptive-anticipatory ". In general, this brain gain condition in Cianjur highland not too different with research by Friedman (2009) in China and India. Brain gain has been the trigger of the rise of a variety of productive economic activities and institutions. The brain gain actors acknowledge that the information and communication technology make the market open, networking is becoming more widespread and access to information becomes easier. Brain gain actors have a significant role in the society, including environmental aspects (ecological). The brain gain actors also have a good impact in rural economy, from the vegetable and non-vegetables agribusiness. That condition proved to be a multiplier, long term and not just in the form of benefits tangible, but also intangible (such as the increased awareness about the environment, strengthening participation, strengthening advocacy efforts, strengthening the institutional capacity of farmers and strengthening community responsibility towards the environment of human and non-human). Associated with the role of brain gain actor in reconstructing the social system and the balance of rural agribusiness-ecological system, there are three models. First, the brain gain model, which applied by the educated and skilled young actors (Figure 4). Second, the brain gain actor model in balancing the social and ecological system of rural agribusiness (Figure 5). Third, rural agribusiness model that is balanced and sustainable (Figure 6). The core substance of the first model is how the presence of young actors in the countryside to be significant. There are two scenarios for doing so, namely: (1) reduce the rate of brain drain through strengthening the attractiveness of agribusiness and rural; and (2) increase the rate of brain gain through strengthening the thrust from overseas (such as advocacy by the association of diaspora, agribusiness workshop, strengthening nationalism and capital), the policy of brain gain (such as a contract of employment / business, facilitation, provision of incentives, granting a dispensation, infrastructure development, strengthening access to productive The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 136
resources) and promote the attractiveness of agribusiness and rural development (such as uniqueness, innovation centers, high income, diversification of commodities, planning, regeneration and so on). The rising young actors who are educated and skilled agribusiness are expected to increase productivity. Agribusiness Readiness + Production Inputs
+
+ Advocation of Diaspora Association Nasionalism
+
+
Capital
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+
-
+ Push Factor of+ Brain Gain
+4
Productive Resourcess
Agribusiness Vocational Agribusiness Productivity of Rural Youth
+ +
Agribusiness Innovation Rural Youth Community
The Attractiveness of Urban/Foreign +
+ Brain Gain
+ Rural Youth are Educated and Skilled
+
-2
Brain Drain +
The Relative Attractiveness of Rural -
+1 Uniqueness
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Market, Price and Income
+ Attractiveness of + Agribusiness and Rural + + -
Barrier of Brain Gain
Facilities, Incentive, Dispensation
Planning Regeneration in The Family
+3
+
Brain Gain Policy
Figure 4. The brain gain model, which applied by the educated and skilled young actors Second model substance (Figure 5) contains how brain grain’s actor or young professional agribusiness able on stabilizing between social and rural environment. Second causal loop diagram model offers four scenarios to increase productivity. The scenario I, increasing PMA’s innovation, that will lead to agribusiness innovation and PMA’s role model. Agribusiness innovation will decrease PMA’s reproductive behavior, increase the productive access of resources, create innovations and enhance institutional innovation (PMA’s creative communities). It will lead to the positive result towards PMA’S productivity. Basically, innovative PMA will transform to the trusted role model of PMA and if their leadership skill was trained, it will become PMA’s leader. Scenario II, decreasing reproductive behavior of PMA (repeating the saturation of horticulture’s plantation). It will push the creation of agribusiness involution, stagnant agribusiness and PMA’ s dependency. Scenario III, developing and activating PMA’s creative communities through collaboration, strengthening the leadership skill of PMA as a community leader and practicing pluralistic method as the result of innovation’s approach. Scenario IV, developing the multidisciplinary education as intensive factor, to increase leadership, entrepreneurship and agribusiness proficiency of PMA.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 137
Innovation Approach
+ 12
+ Pluralistic Method
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+ + + Productivity of Rural Youth
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Collaboration
+2 + + Rural Creative Community
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+6 + Figure/Role Model
Agribusiness Readiness
+
+ Trust
+
+
+ 13
+
+ 10
+
Capital
+4
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+
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+9
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Innovation of Agribusiness + +
Access to Productive + 5 + Resourcess + 15 Aplication of Innovation
Reproductive
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+ 11
+ 14
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Push Factors
Figure 5. Brain gain actors’ role in balancing social system and ecological system The third model of substance (Figure 6) contains the way to increase PMA’s dependency on modern agribusiness instead of conventional agribusiness. Conventional Agribusiness is a homogenate yet have a heterogenic market and responsive to chemical inputs. There are three scenarios that can be done, which are (1) increase the PMA’s dependency level through eco-friendly agribusiness innovations, a certain degree of agribusiness qualities that produce alternative market and commodities. (2) decrease the conventional agribusiness and PMA’s dependency through reinforcing the agribusiness’ readiness, enhancing ecological agribusiness, developing alternative commodities, creating market’s alternative and increasing PMA’s access towards productive resources. The alternative market could be created and enlarged through the using of information and communication technology; and (3) the readiness could be increased by developing PMA’s creative communities, legalizing the policy of brain gain and strengthening agribusiness’ best practices. The readiness of agribusiness positively impactful to the agribusiness’s ability of PMA. Faktor Pendukung Daya Saing PMA +
+ +
+1 Agribisnis Ekologis
+2 Komoditas Alternatif
+
+ +3 Agribisnis Konvensional +
+ Pasar Alternatif
+9
+
+4
Agribisnis Inovatif +
+8
+ -
ICT
+7
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+
Ketergantungan PMA -
Kesiapan Beragribisnis PMA + +
+5
+6
+
Kemandirian PMA
+ Produktifitas Beragribisnis PMA
Akses PMA + Komunitas Kreatif PMA
Kebijakan Brain Gain
Best Practices Agribusiness
Figure 6. Brain gain actors’ role in balancing rural agribusiness Three model of the Causal loop (Figure 4, 5 and 6) is the unity form of the process that begins with PMA’s quality of enhancement, capacity enhancement, PMA’s productivity enhancement, and The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 138
PMA’s dependency enhancement. As ideally, within dynamics systems, behavior patterns should be followed by simulation, so it will lead to the obvious progress. However, behavior patterns would still meaningful even though it doesn’t follow by the simulation. It is because social reality showing that there is still alternative method, one of recommended method are the pluralistic method, triple helix model and interface model. Adapted by miscellaneous models, methods and the alternative idea of PMA will lead the application of PMA’s dependency behavior pattern constructed within the adaptable method for communities, which is the multihelix method (multiple helix methods).
Conclusion The appearance of brain gain actor to the rural area in Cianjur plateau that intensively working on horticulture commodities have a role on self-regulation and stabilize between ecosystem condition and social system. Specifically, the role and contribution of secondary and tertiary brain gain actor are more visible than the primary actor. The development of alternative on sustainable and integrated models of agribusiness (in form of organic farming, creative agroindustry, agroforestry, agroedutourism, and agro-ecotourism that adaptive to the conservation area) is the effort of secondary and tertiary brain gain to re-organize the harmony of “social and ecological system” on rural agribusiness. The circumstance is there still a lack of adaptable, creative, productive one on secondary and tertiary brain gain actor. So the result towards self-regulation effort “social and ecological system” still not significant yet. Therefore, it necessary to approach the brain gain by design under the policy and partially by all the stakeholders to increase the secondary and tertiary brain gain actor’s percentage, so it will contribute to the self-regulation effort “social and ecological system” on rural agribusiness in Cianjur plateau become significant.
References Agussabti. (2002). Kemandirian Petani dalam Pengambilan Keputusan Adopsi Inovasi: Kasus Petani Sayuran di Provinsi Jawa Barat. (Doctoral Dissertation. Pascasarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor). BPS. (2012). Analisis Potensi Pemuda Indonesia. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. BPS. (2013). Statistik Pemuda Indonesia: Hasil Sensus Penduduk Tahun 2010. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. Central Coast Mariners Academy. (2005). Youth Development. Faiz, P. M. (2007). Brain Drain dan Sumber Daya Manusia Indonesia: Studi Analisa terhadap Reversed Brain Drain di India, disampaikan pada International Conference for Indonesian Students di Sydney. Australia, September. Friedman, T. L. (2006). The World is Flat: Sejarah Ringkas Abad Ke-21. Yi, J., Zhang, J., & Ha, W. (2009). Brain drain, brain gain, and economic growth in China. Hu, R., Cai, Y., Chen, K. Z., Cui, Y., & Huang, J. (2010). Effects of Inclusive Public Agricultural Extension Service. DiscussionPaper 01037. International Food Policy Research In-stitute. Kupets, O. (2011). Brain gain or brain waste? The performance of return labor migrants in the Ukrainian labor market. Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa. (2002). Promoting Youth Employment”, Which Calls Upon Member States to Prepare National Reviews and Action Plans on Youth Employment. Wahington DC (US): United Nations Programme on Youth. Sadono, D. 2012. Model Pengembangan Keberdayaan Petani dalam Pengelolaan Usahatani Padi: Kasus di Jawa Barat. (Tesis. Pascasarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 139
Schiff, M. (2006). Brain gain: claims about its size and impact on welfare and growth are greatly exaggerated. REMITTANCES &, 201. Setiawan, I. (2002). Tingkat Keberdayaan Komunikasi Petani dan Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhinya: Kasus di Kabupaten Bandung (Tesis. Pascasarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor). Setiawan, I., Sumardjo, S., Satria, A., & Tjitropranoto, P. (2015). Strategi Pengembangan Kemandirian Pelaku Muda Agribisnis “Brain Gain Actors” di Jawa Barat. MIMBAR, Social and Development Journal, 31(2), 409-418. Sumardjo. 1999. Transformasi Model Penyuluhan Pertanian Menuju Pengembangan Kemandirian Petani: Kasus di Provinsi Jawa Barat. Disertasi. Bogor (ID): Sekolah Pascasarjana IPB. Walker, M. A. (2009). The UNESCO-HP Brain Gain Project: Context and Development. In IST-Africa Conference Proceedings. Paul Cunningham and Miriam Cunningham, Editor. Paris (FR): IIMC International Information Management Corporation.
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ADVANCED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
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ESTIMATION OF IN-PLANE BENDING STRENGTH OF CLT WITH DIFFERENT NUMBER OF LAYERS Tsuyoshi Aoyama1*, Takuro Mori1, Akihisa Kitamori1, Hiroshi Isoda1, Yasuhiro Araki2, Takafumi Nakagawa3 1
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan 2 Building Research Institute 1 Tachihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0802, Japan 3 National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, MLIT 1 Asahi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0804, Japan *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
A simulation model based on Monte-Carlo method was developed to estimate in-plane bending strength of cross laminated timber (CLT). The model used mechanical characteristics of lamina obtained from edgewise bending test of them. Simulation result was compared with the result of experiment on CLT beam without any defect. The test result indicated that the bending strength decreases increasing number of effective layer as reported in some previous researches. The model reproduced this tendency by employing weakest link theory. Simulated and experimental value showed a good agreement when effect of knots is excluded in calculation. On the other hand, when it is included, simulated value was much lower than experimental one Keywords: cross laminated timber, in-plane bending strength, Monte-Carlo method, simulation Introduction Cross laminated timber (CLT) is a large solid building material produced by stacking up several layers composed of lumber strips (lamina). Layers are arranged perpendicular to each other. CLT was developed in Europe a few decades ago and its production quantity has been increasing. CLT is applied to large-scale and multi-story timber buildings in Europe. In Japan, CLT attracts considerable attention from the viewpoint of promotive and effective utilisation of domestic timber. It would lead to sustainable forest management and have a positive effect on reduction of CO2 emission. The mechanical properties of CLT, however, has not been sufficiently found. The bending strength loaded in plane is important when CLT is used for beams or lintels. According to CLT handbook from FPInnovations, when CLT is under loaded in plane, lamina arranged parallel to the direction of beam length resist load (FPInnovations, 2011). In this paper, lamina arranged such direction is called effective lamina (coloured lamina in Figure1) and layers composed of effective lamina is called effective layer as illustrated in Figure1.
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Figure 1. Effective lamina and effective layer Some previous tests of CLT loaded in plane suggest that in-plane bending strength decreases as the number of effective layer increases (Kitamori et al., 2014; Wada et al., 2015; Wada et al., 2016). In this research, the term lamination effect is defined as a tendency that in-plane bending strength of CLT decreases with increasing number of effective layer. This research aims to estimate in-plane bending strength of CLT beam using a simulation model based on Monte-Carlo method and to reproduce lamination effect using the model. This paper first will explain the model to estimate in-plane bending strength of CLT beam. Second, the two experimental investigation will be mentioned. Lamina edgewise bending test and CLT beam bending test loaded in plane were performed in order to acquire regression function between modulus of elasticity and bending strength and to confirm the existence of lamination effect in CLT beam. Finally, CLT in-plane bending strength is estimated by the model and the value is compared with experimental value. All specimens in the experiments described in this paper are made from Japanese Cedar (Cryptomeria japonica).
Materials and Methods Overview of simulation model To study the decrease in bending strength with increasing number of effective layers, a simple computational model based on Monte Carlo method was developed. The model assumes that failure occurs at one of the effective lamina arranged on the edge of the tension side. The lamina which has minimum maximum strain collapses first, considering lamina as a perfectly elastic body during the whole process. The first step of calculation is to allocate dynamic modulus of elasticity (Efr) to the lamina at the edge of the tension side. Second, MOR of lamina is generated from the regression equation between Efr and MOR acquired from edgewise bending test of lamina described later. As shown in Figure 2, MOR’ just on the regression line is calculated and then MOR is generated according to another normal distribution whose mean value and standard deviation are MOR’ and residual standard deviation (RSD), respectively. Maximum strain ( ) is calculated by equation (1).
During whole process strain on the tension side in each effective layer is considered always equal. Therefore, the lamina which has minimum collapses first. To calculate MOR of CLT (MORCLT), weakest link method was employed, assuming that CLT fails simultaneously with the first lamina failure. MORCLT is calculated as average stress occurs in each lamina at the moment of the weakest lamina failure. The overview of the model is shown in Figure 3.
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σb1=Efr εmax2 MORCLT= (MOR2+σb1)/2
MOR2 MOR
MOR’
MORCLT MOR1 NN(MOR’, (MOR’,RSD) Sd)
σb1
Efr2 Efr1
Efr
εmax2
Figure 2. Generation of lamina MOR from Efr
εmax1
Figure 3. Calculation of MORCLT
Experimental investigation Lamina edgewise bending test 320 lamina for CLT with a thickness of 30 mm, a width of 124 mm and a length of 2000 mm (without finger joint) were prepared. Four-point edgewise bending test illustrated in Figure 4 was carried out to acquire the regression equation between Efr and MOR of lamina. Efr of all specimens were measured before the bending test. F
F 30
124 620
1860
Figure 4. Test setup of lamina bending test CLT beam bending test Three and five layered CLT beams composed of lamina without any finger joint were prepared. Series3-1 has one effective layer of three layers in total and series5-2 has two of five, each comprising ten specimens. Size of the specimens are illustrated in Figure 5. When the specimens were manufactured, lamina arranged at the edge of tension side were chosen so that there is no knot near the centre of the specimens. Their Efr were measured before the test to acquire the distribution for the model. Three-point bending test loaded in plane was performed and bending strength was calculated from the maximum load.
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2,240 2240
2040 2040
1020
1020
100
510
440
100
100 90
150
100
series3-1
series5-2 Figure 5. Size of the specimens
Results and discussion Lamina bending test All specimens were failed by bending stress. Figure 6 shows ratio of failure mode with some photographs. The distribution of Efr and MOR of lamina are shown in Figure 7. MOR was calculated only for specimens whose failure occurred between two loading points.
i) No defect failure
ii) Knot failure Figure 6. The ratio of failure mode
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Figure 7. Distribution of Efr and MOR of lamina
MOR (MPa)
The relationship between Efr and MOR is given in the left side of Figure 8. Generally, timber has a strong correlation between modulus of elasticity and bending strength, but the result indicates a weak correlation. To study this tendency, the specimens are divided into two groups based on failure mode: no defect and knot failure. Former is composed of specimens categorised in i) in pie chart in Figure 6 and latter is ii). Regression line of each group was individually drawn as shown in the right side of Figure 8, indicating that correlation is stronger in the group without defect than in the group of knot failure. It means that the weak correlation as a whole was mainly caused by knots. This tendency would be more remarkable in edgewise bending because ratio of knot to thickness tends to be larger than that in flatwise bending. Liner regression equation between Efr and MOR and residual standard deviation (RSD) were acquired as shown in Table 1. 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4
6
y = 2.9845x + 21.339 R² = 0.0641 8 10 12 Efr (GPa)
Figure 8. Liner regression between Efr and MOR (left: based on all specimens, right: separately drawn by failure mode)
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Table 1. Regression analysis on each failure mode equation
RSD
(2a)
all specimens
MOR = 2.9845 · Efr + 21.339
10.687
(2b)
no defect
MOR = 2.8698 · Efr + 30.396
6.219
(2c)
knot
MOR = 2.0584 · Efr + 22.253
9.306
(MOR in MPa, Efr in GPa)
CLT bending test All specimens were collapsed by bending stress and there was no specimen whose failure was affected by knot. The bending strength is summarised in Table 2 and bending strength of each specimen is shown in Figure 9, indicating that the mean value of series 5-2 is lower than that of series 3-1. It means that the difference of bending strength caused by lamination effect. On the other hand, there is no significant difference in the 5th percentile (P5) since coefficient of variance (CV) of series 5-2 is lower than that of series3-1. Figure 10 shows the distribution of Efr of lamina arranged at the edge of the tension side. The distribution function will be employed in the model calculation later. Table 2. Test result of CLT beam bending test MEAN (MPa) 51.5 47.8
series 3-1 5-2
CV 8.9% 6.7%
P5 (MPa) 41.9 41.0
Bending Strength (MPa)
70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0
series 3-1
series 5-2
Figure 9. Bending strength of each specimen
Figure 10. Distribution of lamina Efr
Simulation result In-plane bending strength of CLT beams were calculated by the model to compare the value with experimental value. Distribution of lamina Efr and regression equation obtained from the tests previously described were employed as follows: ① In order to generate lamina Efr, the distribution of lamina Efr in CLT bending test was used assuming normal distribution. ② Lamina Efr was limited within the range of Efr of the laminae in CLT bending test. ③ Regression equation (2b) was employed to generate MOR from E fr since there was no specimen which failed from knot. Additionally, the equation (2a) was used in order to make it clear that the difference of simulated value by whether the effect of knot is included or not.
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Table 3 shows comparison between experimental value and calculated value acquired from the equation (2b) and Figure 11 illustrates relationship between MORCLT and the number of effective layers (ne). Calculated value is in good agreement with experimental value especially in mean value.
Table 3. Experimental and calculated value of each specimen MEAN, P5 in MPa
series3-1
series5-2
Experimental Calculated
MEAN
51.5
50.1
CV
8.9%
12.8%
P5
41.9
39.5
MEAN
47.8
46.6
CV
6.7%
11.2%
P5
41.0
37.9
Figure 11. Relationship between MORCLT and ne
Table 4 and Figure12 show the comparison between experimental value and calculated value obtained from the regression equation (2a). In this case, the simulated value is much lower than experimental one. CV of calculation value is much higher than that of test value, resulting from wide variance of MOR of lamina which failed at knots. Table 4. Experimental and calculated value of each specimen
MEAN, P5 in MPa
series3-1
series5-2
Experimental Calculated
MEAN
51.5
41.9
CV
8.9%
25.9%
P5
41.9
24.0
MEAN
47.8
35.9
CV
6.7%
24.5%
P5
41.0
21.4
Figure 12. Relationship between MORCLT and ne
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Conclusion and future work The existence of lamination effect was both empirically and computationally verified through CLT bending test and Monte-Carlo simulation based on weakest link theory. When the regression equation acquired from specimens without failure at any defect in the lamina bending test was employed, calculated value agreed with experimental result. However, the calculation result from the equation based on all specimens was much lower and the variance was much wider than the test value, which were caused by feature of knots. The model developed in this study showed a good agreement in a special condition that the effect of defects was excluded, suggesting that the basic idea of the model is not wrong. Next step of this study is to apply this model to CLT with defects such as knots. This study clearly showed that knots highly influence on edgewise bending strength of lumber. Therefore, how to generate knots and to express their bending strength and the variance in calculation are quite important.
Acknowledgement The tests described in this research were carried out as part of a project subsidised by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan.
References FPInnovations. (2011). CLT handbook (Canadian edition). Kitamori, A., Nakashima, S., & Isoda, H. (2014). Development of CLT shearframe using metalpalteinsert connections. Proceedings of World Conference on Timber Engineering. Wada, M., Kitamori, A., Mori, A., & Isoda, H. (2015). A study on strength properties of L and T shape panel with CLT construction. In: International Symposium on Wood Science and Technology. Wada, M., Kitamori, A., Mori, T., and Isoda, H. (2016). A study on strength properties of L and T shape panel with CLT construction. The 65th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society.
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POSTER PRESENTATION
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FOREST SCIENCE
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COMPETITIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WEED AND TREE SAPLING SPECIES OF TAMAN BURU MASIGIT KAREUMBI RESTORATION SITE Muhamad Aditio Ramadian1*, Rina Ratnasih Irwanto1 and Robert Manurung2 1
Forestry Engineering Study Program, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung 40132, Indonesia. 2 Bioengineering Study Program, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung 40132, Indonesia. *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
Forest restoration is an effort to regain structure, diversity, and productivity of a degraded forest. In forest restoration, weed management and species compatibility analysis for land condition are among the necessary things needed for the restoration program’s success. Forest restoration programs have been done by many stakeholders using various methods. One of the stakeholders is Taman Buru Masigit Kareumbi (TBMK), a conservation area that implements a forest restoration program named Wali Pohon. This program started in 2008 and until 2011 has already planted more than 150.000 trees and still counting. One of the problems faced by this program is the high rate of seedling mortality, which is up to 22 – 65%. This is caused by many factors, such as inappropriate weed management and restoration species selection. The purpose of this research is to determine the interaction pattern between weed and tree seedling, and to determine the influence of weed cover to tree seedling growth in a forest restoration planting plot. The data was taken from a 3 m × 3 m sub-plot in a 10 m × 10 m plot which is distributed across three different blocks. The determination of plot allocation was based on planting plot area. Vegetation and growth data were taken from the plot within three months. The competition pattern was simulated through a Lotka – Volterra competition equation that is modified for weed and tree seedling competition. The simulation uses the assumptions that the plot has not been not treated within three years, and species growth is linear. The result shows that Ageratina riparia is the most suppressing weed species followed by Eupatorium inulifolium, Calliandra callothyrsus and Etlingera coccinea. The relationship between weed cover rate and tree seedling growth rate is valued by r = –0.9836 Keywords: mortality rate, competition, growth rate, Lotka-Volterra equation, population change. Introduction Forest restoration is an effort in order to restore forest ecosystem with final purpose to restore the original biodiversity of a degraded area (Lamb & Gilmour, 2003). Some examples such as Assisted Natural Regeneration, which aim to accelerate natural succession by removing or reducing any inhibiting factors like soil degradation, competition with weedy species, and recurring disturbances, and Species Framework Method by replanting the area with selected native species; the chosen species has criteria such as fast growing, weed resistant, and ability to attract seed disperser animal (Shono et al., 2007). Generally, in a replanting effort, there are two stages; establishment phase and building phase (Kanowski & Catterall, 2007). The establishment phase which the seedling grows rapidly to develop canopy and ability to compete with surrounding weeds. This phase last 3-5 years depends on various factors such as the initial state of the area, the planting design, species selection, etc. The building phase occurs after that The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 152
until the tree is death and regenerated by the offspring. Based on a standard procedure, weeding is essential in the initial phase (Siyag, 2013). The purpose is to reduce competition with the weeds and other competing plant. Besides that, other efforts that can be done are fertilization and herbicide application. (Elliott et al., 2013). Weed is one of a threat in a restoration program that need to be managed properly, especially in establishment phase. Weed will affect economically, ecologically, and physiologically because they prone to external threat when they are still in seedling through sapling stage. Taman Buru Masigit Kareumbi (TBMK) one of the conservation area in Indonesia that implement a restoration program called Wali Pohon (Tree Adoption Program). This program has been run since 2008 by Perhimpunan Penempuh Rimba dan Pendaki Gunung Wanadri as a part of agreement with Balai Basar Konservasi Sumberdaya Alam (BBKSDA, Indonesian Conservation Agency), West Java (Manajemen TBMK, 2011). The program’s focus is to restore former illegallogged area when the area was under management of a private company. Until 2011, the program has managed to plant ±150.000 trees (Mirza & Irwanto, 2015). The obstacles faced by the management are mortality rate for a one-year seedling that up to 22%-65% (Mirza & Irwanto, 2015). One of the factor is uncontrollable weed growth in the plantation site. This research aims to understand the interaction between weed and tree sapling, and the impact of weed growth to the tree sapling growth in restoration site of TBMK. Expected outcome from this research is to give recommendation for this restoration program, especially to reduce plant’s mortality rate and to improve the plot treatment efficiency from weed threat. Materials and Methods Materials The materials were golok/machete, knife, plant press, camera, stationeries, tally sheet, writing board clip, 50 m roll meter, 150 cm measuring tape, 30 cm digital caliper, GPS, andcompass. Methods The research site located at west area of TBMK that is coordinated on 6°51’31” - 7°00’12” latitude and 107°50’30″ - 108°1’30” longitude. Figure 1 give details maps of the location.
A
B
Figure 1. TBMK map. (A) map of conservation areas of West Java, (B) map showing TBMK locating among Bandung, Garut, and Sumedang District. (image source: (A) http://dishut.jabarprov.go.id/ (B) https://kareumbi.wordpress.com/peta-kareumbi/) Plots were distributed around KW Block (Tourism Area) on three planting blocks that are 70, Gentong, and Cihaniwung Block. Those are the one-year-old planting site (planted in 2015). The distribution of the plots is shown on Figure 2.
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Figure 2. Detailed picture of KW Block. (a) 70 Block, (b) Gentong Block, (c) Cihaniwung Block Data collection The vegetation data was collected in a 10 × 10 m2 plot divided into four 3 × 3 m2 sub-plots. Vegetation data (tree sapling and weed) were collected on each sub-plot. For weeds species, the data were species frequencies and cover percentage. Meanwhile for tree sapling species were frequencies and density (Bonham, 2013). Besides the vegetation data, growth data (height and diameter) tree sapling were also collected 3 times in 3 months. Plots were selected randomly on each block. Plot area were determined based on 10% sample intensity (IS 10%) from planting plots (Soerianegara & Indrawan, 1998). The 10% sampling intensity wass specified because of the planting plot area that is less than 1000 ha (≈107 m2). Sum of 10 × 10 m2 plot assigned for this research is calculated from this formula; (1) Based on the following formula, thus sum of 10 × 10 m2 assigned on each planting plot will be different. The details of assigned plots are shown on the Table 1 below. Table 1. Total area and sum of assigned plot Plot
Block
Planting Plots
Planting Plot Total Area (m2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Blok 70 Gentong Gentong Cihaniwung Cihaniwung Cihaniwung Cihaniwung Cihaniwung
Asuransi Dayin Mitra SYNERGY 2 ISCAPS/ISDEC 2015 Bukit Muria Jaya Wali 8 KPP-PA YASMA Keluarga Drajat Kuswara
5.012 991 561 866 1,461 1,888 343 139
IS 10% (m2) Sum of 10 × 10 m2 Plot 501,2 99,1 56,1 86,6 146,1 188,8 34,3 13,9
5 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
Vegetation data analysis Vegetation data were analyzed by using (IVI) Important Value Index (Kalidass, 2014). This index was used to determine the composition of a community and to determine the most important species that is shown by highest value. For this research, IVI calculation is separated between tree sapling and weed species as shown by this following formula.
•
(2)
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• Competition data analysis The competition between tree sapling and weed species were determined from growth of both groups in a certain time. Data used as competition parameter were height and diameter growth of tree sapling, weed coverage percentage, and density. Those data were collected within three months. The analysis used for competition was modified Lotka-Volterra competition equation for tree sapling and weed (De Chant & De Chant, 2004) as seen on equation (3). (3)
Nomenclature: x = tree sapling density ε = growth rate y = weed density σ= maximum species density carrying parameter α= species interaction parameter Subscript: 1 = tree 2 = weed Equation (3) is visualized on the following diagram
Figure 3. Schematic of a phase plane population interaction diagram. A and B are representing tree sapling and weed population respectively, XE and YE are an equilibrium point between two species, and “trajectory” separation line represent the threshold of interaction between two species. From the diagram above can be concluded that weed species is oppressing the tree sapling species. Since the α and σ parameter in equation (3) are more difficult to measure in a field for a short time, those parameters will be replaced with more readily obtainable parameters that are xi, yi, x∞, y∞, ε1 and ε2 from this following equation (4) Substitution of equation (4) into equation (3) will change equation (5) like this.
(5) th
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Equation (5) is the system that we now analyze. Given the model described by equation (5), we compute the most salient features of a diagram analogous to Figure 3. One of featured point from the phase plane is the equilibrium point, XE, YE which can be approximated by (6) Finally, the separatrix line needs to be computed. Approximate computation of the separatrix (Logan, 2006) trajectory follows by considering an approximate linearized form of equation (5) near the equilibrium point (XE, YE). The possible function for the separatrix line is. ;
(7)
Thus, the phase plane solution is completely specified. Although the model itself still an idealization from what happened in a real world. The competition was modelled by using two kind of diagrams, the population dynamic and the phase diagram. It is done by using a model from http://mathinsight.org/applet/two_autonomous differential_equations_phase_plane_versus_time. This site contain simulation that needed based on equation (5). The example is shown by Figure 4.
2 1
a
b c
d
Figure 4. Population dynamics (1) and phase plane diagram (2). (1) visualize the population condition between two groups in certain time (year) (c). Population number range between 0 to 1, blue line (a) represents tree sapling species, meanwhile (b) represents weed species. Phase plane diagram (2) shows that the exotic/weed species is dominant with more area above the separatrix line (d) implying that the weed species has a greater tendency to displace the native/crop species. The effect of weed growth to tree sapling growth This analysis aims to measure the relation of weed cover and itsaffect to the growth of tree sapling. It is because one trait possessed by weed tend to cover other plant’s sunlight access so the plant’s growth will be inhibited. The parameters used were height growth parameter for tree sapling and cover percentage for weed. The correlation between these parameters were plotted on scatter plot in Microsoft Excel. Pearson linear correlation analysis is used in this part. Value of correlation (r) is obtained from rooted R2 in scatter plot. It ranged from -1 to +1 which means the relationship between x-axis and y-axis are from weakest to strongest (Zou et al., 2003). Figure 5 shows the example of plot using Pearson linear correlation analysis. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 156
Figure 5. Example of Pearson correlation analysis. Value of r = 1.0 means a strong positive relationship and r = -1.0 means a strong negative relationship.
Results and Discussion Results Selected weed and tree sapling species were determined based on IVI value. Two species with highest IVI values were selected to be analyzed. From vegetation data we get six competition systems from each blocks. The details are shown on Table 2. Table 2. Selected species between tree sapling and weed that is used for competition analysis System
Block
1 2
Blok 70
3 4
Gentong
5 6
Cihaniwung
Tree Sapling
IVI
Weed
IVI
Tarennoidea wallichi & Manglieta glauca Tarennoidea wallichi & Guioa diplopetala
0,77 0,47
Ageratina riparia Etlingera coccinea
0,25 0,19
0,69 0,35
0,15 0,24
Tarennoidea wallichi & Syzygium lineatum
0,98 0,74
Ageratina riparia Calliandra calothyrsus Ageratina riparia Eupatorium inulifolium
0,24 0,20
System 1 is between Tarennoidea walichii - Manglieta glauca and Ageratina riparia weed. The competition simulation is shown on Figure 6.
Figure 6. Competition 1 between Tarennoidea walichii - Manglieta glauca and Ageratina riparia. As shown above, when t = 2,09, tree sapling population nearly touching 0, while weed population approaching 0,935. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 157
System 2 is competition between Tarennoidea walichii - Manglieta glauca and Etlingera coccinea. The competition simulation is shown on Figure 7.
Figure 7. Competition 2 between Tarennoidea walichii - Manglieta glauca and Etlingera coccinea. In this competition, until the end of simulation (t = 3), tree sapling population is at 0,315; meanwhile weed population is at 0,817. System 3 is competition between Tarennoidea wallichii – Guioa diplopetala and Ageratina riparia. The competition simulation is shown on Figure 8.
Figure 8. Competition 3 between Tarennoidea wallichii – Guioa diplopetala and Ageratina riparia. In this system, Ageratina riparia presence still have a great impact to the tree sapling. As we can see above, this weed can suppress tree sapling population to 0 before the end of simulation (t = 2,24) while the weed population increase up to 0,946 at that time. System 4 contains competition between Tarennoidea wallichii – Guioa diplopetala and Calliandra calohyrsus. Simulation is shown on Figure 9.
Figure 9. Competition 4 between Tarennoidea wallichii-Guioa diplopetala and Calliandra calothyrsus. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 158
Weed species in this competition have tendency to suppress tree sapling’s population up to 0,002 at the end of simulation. Weed population grow to 0,961 at the end of simulation. System 5 is competition between Tarrenoidea wallichi-Syzygium lineatum and Ageratina riparia. Simulation is shown below on Figure 10.
Figure 10. Competition 5 between Tarrenoidea wallichi-Syzygium lineatum and Ageratina riparia. This competition system suppresses tree sapling population to 0 before the end of simulation time (t = 2,12) and weed population growth up to 0,952. System 6 is competition between Tarrenoidea wallichi-Syzygium lineatum and Eupatorium inulifolium. Simulation of competition is shown on Figure 11.
Figure 11. Competition 6 between Tarrenoidea wallichi-Syzygium lineatum and Eupatorium inulifolium. In this system, the tree sapling population is suppressed to 0,001 while weed population reach 0,973 until the end of simulation. Based on simulation from 6 systems above, A. riparia is weed species have tendency to grow on all blocks and potential to threat the tree sapling growth. The other weed species including E. inulifolium, C. callothyrsus, dan E. coccinea are impacting tree sapling population to 0,001; 0,002; and 0,315. Another result from this research is the effect of weed cover to tree sapling growth. The result shows that correlation between these parameters is r = -0,9836. This mean the weed cover affects tree sapling growth negatively, where the more area covered by weed, the more tree sapling growth will be inhibited. These correlation graph can be seen on Figure 12 below.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 159
Figure 12. Effect of weed cover rate on tree sapling growth rate. Discussion Competition between tree sapling and weed on restoration plot Based on TBMK history, it is categorized as a degraded forest because of illegal logging while under management of PT PMS (Agiariza, 2014). On a degraded forest, weed tends to invade and dominate the area easily (Fine, 2002). The competition between tree sapling and weed are summarized on a table below. The table shows the essential information from simulation using Lotka-Volterra equation. Table 3. Summary of competition simulation between tree sapling and weed using Lotka-Volterra equation (T: time, x: tree sapling population, y: weed population) System 1 2 3 4 5 6
Block Blok 70 Gentong Cihaniwung
Tree Sapling Tarennoidea wallichi & Manglieta glauca Tarennoidea wallichi & Guioa diplopetala Tarennoidea wallichi & Syzygium lineatum
Weed Ageratina riparia Etlingera coccinea Ageratina riparia Calliandra calothyrsus Ageratina riparia Eupatorium inulifolium
T 2,09 3 2,24 3 2,12 3
Condition x 0 0,315 0 0,002 0 0,001
y 0,935 0,817 0,946 0,961 0,952 0,973
According to Table 3, almost all of weeds tend to suppress tree sapling population up to 0, meanwhile weed population approaching 1. Only on system 2, with E. coccinea, the tree sapling population still have 0,315 remaining and weed population 0,817 (Figure 7). As stated by Fine (2002), weed invasion will change natural ecosystem in a long time. The consequences that may occur at restoration site of TBMK are inhibited growth, even death of restoration species if it not treated correctly. A. riparia is most influential weed in this research because of its tendency to suppress tree sapling population up to 0 even before the end of simulation time (Figure 6, 8, 10). A. riparia is one of exotic species of Indonesia, the presence of this species indicating that an area has been disturbed (Sosef & van der Maesen, 1997). A. riparia is shade tolerance, although it still need some light (Barton et al., 2004). This species is fast growing weed on high nitrogen contain soil, and has potential to agitate other plant’s nitrogen supply (Tripathil et al., 2012). The invasive ability causing this species become disturbing to tree sapling species. It grows rapidly by forming vine with height up to 1 meter and producing 7.000-10.000 seeds in one reproduction cycle (Daehler, 2009), it also disturbing other plant’s growth by producing allelopathy (Zancola et al., 2000). Another weed is E. inulifolium. As this weed belongs to same family to A. riparia, it shares properties like their preferences to forest edge with open access to sunlight (Haluwana & Madawala, The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 160
2013). Just like in Cihaniwung Block, which is a forest edge, this species grows and spreads rapidly. E. inulifolium will start to grow and inhibit regeneration of an open area in six month and continues in 2-3 years (Pethiyagoda & Nanayakkara, 2012). This species competes by blocking water supply and access to sunlight from other plant. (Hakim, Leksono, Purwaningtyas, & Nakagoshi, 2005). Based on simulation result, E. inulifolium can suppress tree sapling population up to 0,001 at the end of simulation time. Presence of this species on a restoration site will cause inhibited regeneration because E. inulifolium forms unwanted shade. Figure 13 shows an example of a restoration site that is invaded by E. inulifolium and A. riparia.
A B
Figure 13. Example of TBMK’s restoration site located in Cihaniwung Block that is invaded by E. inulifolium (A) and A. riparia (B) Invasion of E. inulifolium has a facilitative effect on the tree seedling regeneration on degraded grasslands through an enhanced shading effect and/or through improved edaphic conditions (Haluwana & Madawala, 2013). There are only few number of species match with E. inulifolium because of its trait as a weed. Thus, further studies are needed for that case. Competition with this weed also lead to decrease of biomass production, like on a tea plantation area (De Costa & Surenthran, 2005). C. calothyrsus is another weed species that based on simulation result, it can suppress tree sapling up to 0,002. It indicates this species has potential to harm other plants. C. calothyrsus belongs to a shrub that often used as cattle food, firewood, honeybee food, and marginal land conservation (Herdiawan et al., 2005). Furthermore, it also plays role as natural soil fertilizer, because of its ability to control erosion, nitrogen fixing, and as shade plant (Orwa et al., 2009). Based on field measurement, the plot with dominance of C. calothyrsus have highest growth rate with 6 cm/month in average. C. calothyrsus is a species with high rate of reproduction, especially on a highly degraded land, and near water area (Palmer et al., 1994). This species can form a tall and wide canopy which is one of the reason that make this species is categorized as a weed. Because the trait may lead to competition to get sunlight, and high rate of reproduction, C. calothyrsus also decrease the biodiversity of an area (CABI, 2015). E. coccinea which dominate on Block 70. This area is secondary pine (Pinus merkusii) forest located near a river. With given condition, no wonder that E. coccinea dominate on that area (Poulsen, 2007). Based on simulation, competition of tree sapling with E. coccinea resulting tree sapling’s population is decreased up to 0,315 while E. coccinea’s population is on 0,817. The 2nd competition The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 161
system (Figure 7) is the most different system because at the end of simulation time, E. coccinea doesn’t suppress tree sapling population like other weed does. E. coccinea has not been considered as one of weed species yet, unlike A. riparia that has been categorized as aggressive weed. Secondary forest which is habitat of E. coccinea have potential to colonize a restored area and disturbing the growth of restoration species. Because E. coccinea tend to grow tall and making a wide shade, allowing a competition of sunlight with the neighboring plants. So, a restoration area that is dominated by this species is recommended to be planted with shade tolerant species. Among four weed species, A. riparia is the most dominant and suppressing weed followed by E. inulifolium, C. calothyrsus, and then E. Coccinea. It is the most aggressive weed compared to other species. E. inulifolium and C. calothyrsus are showing the same trait like A. riparia, while E. coccinea doesn’t impact as much as the other weed does. Simulation given on this research simply can give a depiction about what has happened between weed and tree sapling by using given parameters. However, that’s still idealization from what happened in a real world, it’s a complex process that involve many factors like interaction among species, carrying capacity, predation, competition of sunlight, waters, and nutrition, etc. Thus to get more comprehensive result, more parameters are needed in a competition simulation especially between weed and tree sapling. Effect of weed cover to tree sampling growth Weeds presence on a restoration area could have negative and positive impact. One of the negative impact is production of allelopathy that can inhibit neighboring plants growth which lead to lack of nutrition for those neighboring plants. But it can impact positively by its ability to facilitate growth by root exudate excretion, mycorrhiza, association with nitrogen fixing bacteria, or by increasing microclimate and edaphic quality (Radosevich et al., 2007). In this research, result from Pearson’s linear correlation analysis in case of effect of weed cover to tree sapling growth shows that r = -0,9836. Interpretation from that number is strongly negative correlation (Zou et al., 2003). This indicate that weed cover rate leads to inhibition of tree sapling’s growth rate. As stated before, weeds presence on TBMK’s restoration site have a strong negative impact for restoration species because the weeds can inhibit their growth.
Conclusion Based on competition simulation result, weeds are tending to suppress tree sapling population till the end of simulation. Suppressing weed species respectively are A. riparia, E. inulifolium, C. calothyrsus, and E. coccinea. Relationship between weed cover rate to tree sapling growth rate is strongly negative with Pearson coefficient of -0,9836.
Acknowledgment Author would like to thank all TBMK management, for supporting this research by providing the area and accommodation. Thank to Mrs. Rina and Mr. Robert for material and mental support during this research. Thanks to author’s friend of UKM-ITB, HMH ‘Selva’ ITB, and School of Life Sciences and Technology ITB.
References Agiariza, R. (2014). Evaluasi dan Strategi Pengelolaan Program Wali Pohon Di Kawasan Taman Buru Kareumbi Masigit Jawa Barat. Thesis. Bandung: Institut Teknologi Bandung. Barton, J., Boow, J., Ragiel, K., Edenborough, K., & Whaley, K. (2004). Evaluating the flow-on effects of the biological control agents for Ageratina riparia (mist flower) on plant succession. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 162
In Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds (pp. 487– 492). Bonham, C. D. (2013). Measurements for Terrestrial Vegetation Second Edition. New York: Wiley. CABI. (2015). Calliandra houstoniana var. calothyrsus (calliandra). Retrieved June 2, 2016, from http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/14011 Daehler, C. (2009). Ageratina riparia (Regel) R. M. King and H. Robinson. In Weed Risk Assessment. De Chant, L. J., & De Chant, C. J. (2004). Development of an elementary quantitative competing species model: Potential guidelines for exotic/weed plant species control and ecosystem restoration programs. Ecological Engineering, 22(2), 67–75. De Costa, W., & Surenthran, P. (2005). Resource competition in contour hedgerow intercropping systems involving different shrub species with mature and young tea on sloping highlands in Sri Lanka. Journal of Agricultural Science, 143, 395–405. Elliott, S., Blakesley, D., & Hardwick, K. (2013). Restoring Tropical Forests: A Practical Guide. book, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved June 2, 2016, from https://books.google.co.id/ books?id=9b9jLwEACAAJ Fine, P. V. A. (2002). The invasibility of tropical forests by exotic plants. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 18(5), 687–705. Hakim, L., Leksono, A. S., Purwaningtyas, D., & Nakagoshi, N. (2005). Invasive Plant Species and the Competitiveness of Wildlife Tourist Destination : A Case of Sadengan Feeding Area at Alas Purwo National Park , Indonesia. Journal of International Development and Cooperation, 12(1), 35–45. Haluwana, N., & Madawala, H. M. S. P. (2013). Changes in Plant Diversity and Composition across Forest Edges Bordered by Austroeupatorium inulifolium Invaded Grasslands in the Knuckles Conservation Area , Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences), 42(2), 29–43. Herdiawan, I., Achmad, F., & Semali, A. (2005). Karakteristik dan Pemanfaatan Kaliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus). Prosiding Lokakarya Nasional Tanaman Pakan Ternak, 141–148. Kalidass, C. (2014). Distribution and population status of a critically endangered tree species Symplocos racemosa Roxb . in Eastern Ghats of Odisha. International Journal of Advanced Research, 2(11), 27–32. Kanowski, J., & Catterall, C. P. (2007). Monitoring Revegetation Projects for Biodiversity in Rainforest Landscapes. Toolkit Version 1, Revision 1. Cairns: Marine and Tropical Sciences Research Facility. Lamb, D., & Gilmour, D. (2003). Rehabilitation and Restoration of Degraded Forests. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK and WWF, Gland, Switzerland. Logan, J. D. (2006). Applied Mathematics (Vol. 8). http://doi.org/10.1090/S0002-9904-1950-09444-0 Manajemen TBMK. (2011, June 5). Wali Pohon Masigit Kareumbi. Tree Adoption Program Factsheet. Retrieved 2 June 2016, from http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/15327399/1262734267/name/ factsheet_program_wali_pohonv5.pdf Mirza, I. N., & Irwanto, R. R. (2015). Evaluasi Reforestasi di Kawasan Konservasi Taman Buru Gunung Masigit Kareumbi. PROS SEM NAS MASY BIODIV INDON, 1(September), 1–9. Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt, R., Jamnadass, R., & Anthony, S. (2009). Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 163
Palmer, B., Macqueen, D. J., & Gutteridge, R. C. (1994). Calliandra calothyrsus - a Multipurpose Tree Legume for Humid Locations. In Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture. USA: CABI Pethiyagoda, R. S., & Nanayakkara, S. (2012). Invasion by Austroeupatorium inulifolium (Asteraceae) arrests succession following tea cultivation in the highlands of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences), 40(2), 175–181. Poulsen, A. D. (2007). Etlingera Giseke of Java. Gardens’ Bulletin, Singapore, 59, 145–172. article. Retrieved from http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/150323 Radosevich, S. R., Holt, J. S., & Ghersa, C. M. (2007). Ecology of weeds and invasive plants: Relationship to agriculture and natural resource management: 3. ed. Shono, K., Cadaweng, E. a., & Durst, P. B. (2007). Application of assisted natural regeneration to restore degraded tropical forestlands. Restoration Ecology, 15(4), 620–626. Siyag, P. (2013). Afforestation, Reforestation and Forest Restoration in Arid and Semi-arid Tropics: A Manual of Technology & Management. book, Springer Netherlands. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=NVvFBAAAQBAJ Soerianegara, I., & Indrawan, A. (1998). Ekologi Hutan Indonesia. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor. Sosef, M. S. M., & van der Maesen, L. J. G. (1997). PROSEA : Plant Resources of South-East Asia 11, Auxiliary Plants. Jakarta: LIPI Press. Tripathil, R. ., Yadav, A. ., & Kushwaha, S. P. . (2012). Biology of Chromolaena odorata, Ageratina adenophora and Ageratina riparia: a Review. In Invasive Alien Plants: An Ecological Appraisal for the Indian Subcontinent (pp. 43–56). CABI Publishing. Zancola, B. J., Wild, C., & Hero, J. M. (2000). Inhibition of Ageratina riparia (Asteraceae) by native Australian flora and fauna. Austral Ecology, 25(5), 563–569. Zou, K. H., Tuncali, K., & Silverman, S. G. (2003). Correlation and simple linear regression. Radiology, 227(3), 617–622.
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THE CHEMICAL COMPONENTS CHANGES OF PLATINUM TEAK WOOD Eka Lestari*, Dwi Ajias Pramasari, Yusup Amin, Danang Sudarwoko Adi, Adik Bahanawan, and Wahyu Dwianto Research Center for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Platinum teak wood is a fast growing teak wood which has been developed by Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), however it still has limited information of the basic properties. Research Center for Biomaterials - LIPI has been studied effect of age tree on the basic properties of platinum teak wood particularly on chemical composition. In present study, the platinum teak wood in 4-year-old selected from the Cibinong Science Center plantation was used as raw material. The chemical component analysis used Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual Standard. The result showed that the extractive content is significantly affected by tree age and axial position in the stem. The extractive content, klason lignin, holocellulose, and α-cellulose content of 4-year-old wood are 1.00%, 31.81%, 78.18% and 45.78%, respectively. The age tree and axial position of 2-4 years old tree old only affect on extractive content of wood Keywords: chemical component, fast growing wood, age tree, axial position, platinum teak wood
Introduction The one of major commercial species of Indonesia also well-known for its high strength and high natural durability is teak wood (Tectona grandis L. f.). Platinum teak wood is a fast growing teak wood developed by tissue culture method and radiation from berlian teak wood. It has been developed intensively by Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI). By this method, the new varieties of teak wood might be produced with growth rapidly and large diameter (Kusumaputri, 2012). Utilization of platinum teak wood is still constrained by limited information particularly on basic properties such as physical, mechanical, and chemical properties, durability properties as well. Generally, the fast growing wood has inferior properties compared to the natural woods. Chemical properties of wood is one of basic properties affected by tree growth. The tree age has been considered to affect differences in the main wood chemical component as well as extractives (Lukmandaru & Takahashi, 2009; Nazri et al., 2009; Kasmani et al., 2011). According to Pettersen (1984), the factors which effect the chemical components changes of wood including wood section (roots, stems, and branches), wood species, growth place, climate, and soil conditions. Moreover, Kollmann and Cote (1984) explained that chemical composition of wood different in each section of single tree, includes from pith to bark, from stump to crown, between earlywood and latewood, and between sapwood and heartwood. In addition, genetic factors and tree age also affect the chemical components of wood (Berrocal et al., 2004). The previous studies conducted by Pramasari et al. (2015) and Pramasari et al. (2016) showed that the chemical components of platinum teak wood significantly were affected by tree age. Furthermore, this wood has similar chemical components with the conventional teak wood and other fast-growing teak wood. Research Center for Biomaterials LIPI has studied the effect of age on the chemical composition of Platinum teak wood since 2014 (Pramasari et al., 2015; Pramasari et al., 2016). Up to now, the optimum of age that has similar basic properties with the conventional teak wood is still observing. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 165
Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate the chemical composition 4-year-old of platinum teak wood, which was selected from Cibinong Science Center Plantation. This data is to complete the chemical composition of platinum teak wood at several age. The prospects of platinum teak wood utilization can also determined.
Materials and Methods The raw material used in this study was stem of 4-year-old platinum teak wood, which was obtained from Cibinong Science Center Plantation, Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. The stem was cut into three parts of axial position (vertical cutting) i.e. top, middle, and bottom. Otherwise, the stem was not cut in radial position (horizontal cutting), due to the heartwood was not found. A slab (about the width of 5 cm) from each axial position has been taken for analysis chemical composition. It was chopped, milled and sieved into sawdust that pass 40 mesh and retained on 60 mesh. After that, the samples were dried, packed into sealed plastic bag and stored in room temperature before used for chemical composition analysis. The method of chemical analysis was Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual Standard (2000). It was used for determining the relative amount of extractive content that soluble in alcohol-benzene, lignin, holocellulose, and α-cellulose content. The effects of tree age on chemical composition were analyzed using Statistical Tool for Agricultural Research (STAR) program in a 95% confidence level. The experimental design used completely randomized design (CRD) single factor (tree age) with triplicates. The significant differences between the chemical composition and tree age or axial position were further analyzed by using Duncan test. The effects of tree age on chemical composition had compared to the previous data for 2-year-old (Pramasari et al., 2015) and 3-year-old (Pramasari, et al., 2016).
Results and Discussion The result showed that the alteration of alcohol-benzene extractive, lignin, and holocellulose content are significantly affected by tree age. In addition, the significant effect of tree-age is showed by the statistical analysis. Otherwise, α-cellulose tendency does not have significant changes in each tree-age due to the same of relative amount (Figure 1). Furthermore, α-cellulose was hardly influenced by the age of wood (Santana, 2011).
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Chemical Composition (%)
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
74.94b
73.29b
49.19a
45.04a
78.18a
45.78a
29.01b
31.06a
31.81a
0.92a
0.66b
1.00a
2
3 Tree Age (Years)
4
Extractive
Lignin
Holocellulose
Alfa cellulose
* Means in the figures by the same letter in a same line means not significantly different using Duncan’s test at the level of 95%
Figure 1. Chemical composition of platinum teak wood The effect of age tree on extractive content The lowest content of chemical composition in wood is the extractive content. Even though, it is not included as major component of cell wall, it has an important rule to protect wood from pest attack (Kollmann & Cote, 1984). The extractive compounds that soluble in alcohol-benzene include polyphenols, resins, and oils (Pari et al., 2001). The extractive content has increased parallel with the tree-age. The similar result has been reported previously by Lukmandaru (2009), which is the higher extractive content of wood, the older of tree-age. The vascular cambium of old tree-age has more chances to divide and multiply into parenchyma cell, so that formation of parenchym cell will increase. Thus, the extractive content tends to increase (Hamidah et al., 2009). According to the classification of Indonesian hardwood species based on chemical component (Departemen Pertanian, 1967), extractive content for 2 - 4 years old were classified in low class. A lower extractive content associated with sapwood formation indicated by presence of juvenile wood without heartwood formation (Lukmandaru & Sayudha, 2012). Iskandar (2009) explained that extractive content can affect on the mechanical strength of wood. While, the extractive content was main factor effecting to durability, color, pulp and paper quality, and the adhesion of wood in the plywood industry (Wistara et al., 2002; Cahyono et al., 2012). So that, it can be suggested that based on the level of strength and durability, 2 - 4 years old of platinum teak woods include in low class. This condition will affect for application in wood industry. The extractive content is not only affected by tree-age, but also the axial position of wood. It can be seen in Table 1 in which extractive content increase parallel with the axial position of branch wood. It is augmented by statistical analysis which indicated the axial position has significant differences in tree-age. It is contrast with result of Prayitno (1992) which reported axial position on bottom of wood has the highest extractive content. It is caused by more heartwood formation was found inside it.
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Table 1. Chemical composition of Platinum teak wood on axial position Tree-Age (Years)
Chemical composition (%) Axial Position
Extractive AlcoholBenzene 0.92 ± 0.16b 1.11 ± 0.27 a 1.19 ± 0.19 a 1.07 ± 0.14 0.66 ± 0.06 b 0.79 ± 0.15 a 0.98 ± 0.09 a 0.81 ± 0.16 0.89 ± 0.13 b 1.08 ± 0.18 a 1.03 ± 0.08 a 1 ± 0.10
Lignin
Holocellulose
α-Cellulose
Bottom 29.01 ± 0.08 74.94 ± 0.70 46.98 ± 0.06 a a a Middle 30.17 ± 0.29 73.87 ± 1.26 43.04 ± 2.29 b Top 31.24 ± 0.32a 72.92 ± 0.70a 44.18 ± 0.92 ab Average 30.14 ± 1.11 73.91 ± 1.01 44.73 ± 2.03 Bottom 31.06 ± 0.12a 73.29 ± 1.74a 45.04 ± 1.11 a 3** Middle 31.85 ± 0.71a 73.97 ± 3.80a 43.82 ± 2.25 b a a Top 31.39 ± 0.28 73.88 ± 1.22 45.28 ± 0.92 ab Average 31.44 ± 0.40 73.71 ± 0.37 44.72 ± 0.78 Bottom 31.70 ± 1.75a 79.51 ± 3.02a 47.26 ± 2.57 a 4 Middle 31.85 ± 0.77a 78.03 ± 1.24a 45.40 ± 1.60 b a a Top 31.89 ± 1.80 77.00 ± 3.45 44.69 ± 2.61 ab Average 31.81 ± 0.10 78.18 ± 1.26 45.78 ± 1.33 * Pramasari et al., 2015 ** Pramasari et al., 2016 *** Means in the tables by the same letter in a same column means not significantly different using Duncan’s test at the level of 95% 2*
a
a
The effect of age tree on lignin content The main role of lignin is to maintain the integrity of the cell wall, to provide rigid structure and to determine the properties of wood (Haygreen & Browyer, 1996). Moreover, it has a toxic that effect on durability of wood (Kollmann & Cote, 1984). The result shows that lignin content increases in accordance with tree-age. This result is similar with Kasmani et al. (2011). The lignin content does not affect significantly in axial position of wood. This is augmented by statistical analysis. Lignin in axial distribution tends to increase from bottom to top position of wood (Table 1). Similar results are found by Zaki et al. (2012) using juvenile rubber wood. The top position of wood has high lignin content compared to bottom portion. It is affected by presence of a lot of new cells in top portion. Lignin content of 2 - 4 years old wood is 29 - 32 %. Interestingly, it is not in range of lignin content in hardwoods (the average value of 18 - 25%) (Kollmann & Cote, 1984). It is suggested that metabolism of fast growing wood is in balance with the growth of wood, so that it is possible for resulting more lignin content in Platinum teak wood. According to the classification of Indonesian hardwood species based on chemical component (Departemen Pertanian, 1967), the lignin content of 2 - 4 years old can be categorized as medium class. This timber can be used for construction due to good mechanical strength (Supartini, 2009). The other utilization is for pulp industry, however the quality of paper is not good as low class of lignin content. The effect of age tree on holocellulose content Holocellulose component can be obtained by remove lignin from wood (Fengel & Wegener, 1995). It is major component in the cell wall of wood, and almost all carbohydrates are included in holocellulose such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin (Prawirohatmodjo, 1995). Bedmansyah (2000) explained that increasing the age of hardwood caused hemicellulose will decrease. Hence, the holocellulose content will be decrease similar with hemicellulose content. In this study, the holocellulose content is tendency increase in accordance with tree-age. It is suggested that hemicellulose still has decreased yet. Furthermore, holocellulose content of 2 - 4 years old is in high class (upper 60%), refers to the classification of Indonesian hardwood species based on chemical component (Departemen Pertanian, 1967). It proposes that wood processing in the pulp will result high yield (Pasaribu et al., 2007). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 168
The holocellulose content does not affect significantly in axial position of wood. The distribution of holocellulose content in 2 and 4 years old tends to decrease from bottom to the top position of wood. Three year old in the middle position is shown the highest holocellulose content. Decrease of holocellulose content from bottom to the top position causes the top position is still active to produce new cells (Zaki et al., 2012). In addition, the bottom position of wood usually has thicker cell wall in wood, there by holocellulose as carbohydrate fraction constituent in the secondary cell wall will be higher (Sunyata, 2011). The effect of age tree on α-cellulose content α-cellulose component was one of the major component in wood which roles as the main structure of the cell wall in wood (Fengel & Wegener, 1995). Kollmann & Cote (1968) explained that α-cellulose contributes to produce high tensile strength in a complex structure. Statistical analysis in a 95% confidence level determined α-cellulose content is only affected by axial position of wood not the tree-age of wood. The range of age might be still nearby and hardly influenced by the age of wood (Santana, 2011), so that the discrepancies between α-cellulose component is not clearly. This result is contrast with results of Bedmansyah (2000) and Mauludi (2000) which found α-cellulose content was affected by age tree. The distribution of α-cellulose content of 2 - 4 years old has similar pattern whereas decrease in the middle position and then increase founds in the top of wood except for 4 year old. Its suggested that 4 years tree age tendency to transition growth. -cellulose content decreased from the bottom to middle position because the bottom position contains lots of mature cells (Zaki et al., 2012). Furthermore, α-cellulose content both 2 and 3 years old can be categorized as medium class, otherwise 4 year old is in high class, according to the classification of Indonesian hardwood species based on chemical component (Departemen Pertanian, 1967).
Conclusion The alteration of chemical composition affected by increase of age and axial position of platinum teak wood is only extractive contents. In addition, heartwood of 2 - 4 years old has been still formed yet therefore it is not recommended for the utilization of fast growing wood for construction.
Acknowledgment Authors thank to Research Center for Biomaterial, Indonesian Institute of Science through DIPA 2016 funding for supporting this research.
References Bedmansyah. (2000). Komponen Kimia Kayu Jati (Tectona grandis L. f.) pada Berbagai Kelas Umur dari KPH Purwakarta (Skripsi). Retrieved from http://repository.ipb.ac.id/ Berrocal, A., Baeza, J., Rodriguez, J., Espinosa, M., & Freer, J. (2004). Effect of tree age on variation of Pinus radiata D. Don chemical composition. Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society, 49(3), 251-256. Cahyono, T. D., Ohorella, S., & Febrianto, F. (2012). Beberapa sifat kimia kayu samma (Antocephalus macrophylus Roxb.) terhadap rayap tanah. Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Kayu Tropis, 10(2),168178. Departemen Pertanian. (1967). Vedemacum Kehutanan Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Penjelidikan Kehutanan. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 169
Fengel, D., & Wegener, G. (1995). Kayu: Kimia, Ultrastruktur, Reaksi-Reaksi (H. Sastrohamijoyo, Trans.). Yogyakarta : Gajah Mada University Press. Hamidah, S., Burhanudin, V., Istikowati, W. T. (2009). Kajian sifat-sifat dasar kayu manis sebagai pertimbangan pemanfaatan limbah pemanenan kulit kayu manis (Cinnamomum burmanii Blume). Jurnal Hutan Tropis Borneo, 10(26), 210-223. Haygreen, J. G., & Browyer, J. L. (1996). Hasil Hutan dan Ilmu Kayu (S. A. Hadikusumo, Trans.) Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. (Original work published 1982). Iskandar. (2009). Pengaruh pengestrakan pada kekuatan kayu: damar batu, kempas, dan durian. Jurnal Rekayasa Kimia dan Lingkungan, 7(2), 82-87. Kasmani, J. E., Nemati, M., Samariha, A., Chitsazi, H., Mohammadi, N. S., & Nosrati, H. (2011). Studying the effect of the age in Eucalyptus camaldulensis species on wood chemical compounds used in pulping process. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, 11(6), 854-856. Kollman, F. F. P., & Cote, W. A. (1984). Principle of Wood Science and Technology, Volume I: Solid Wood. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo : Springer - Verlag. Kusumaputri, S. (2012, May). Bangsawan bongsor. Majalah Trubus, 510, 60 – 61. Lukmandaru, G. (2009). Sifat kimia dan warna kayu teras jati pada tiga umur berbeda. Journal Tropical Wood Science and Technology, 7(1), 1-7. Lukmandaru, G., & Takahashi, K. (2008). Variation in the natural termite resistance of teak (Tectona Grandis Linn. Fil) wood as a function of tree age. Annals of Forest Science, 65, 708p1-708p8. Lukmandaru, G., & Sayudha, I. G. N. D. (2012). Komposisi ekstraktif pada kayu jati juvenil. In J. Sulistyo, et al. (Ed.). Penguatan Pendidikan Berbasis Penelitian dalam Pengolahan Secara Tepat pada Kayu. Buku I. (pp. 361-366). Yogyakarta: Masyarakat Peneliti Kayu Indonesia. Mauludi, A. S. (2000). Komponen Kimia Kayu Jati (Tectona grandis L.f.) pada Berbagai Kelas Umur dari KPH Saradan (Skripsi). Retrieved from http://repository.ipb.ac.id/ Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual. (2000). Japan: Japan Wood Research Society Publisher. Nazri, W. M., Jamaludin, K., Rudaini, M. N., Rahim, S., & Yuziah, M. Y. N. (2009). Effects of chemical components on properties of oriented strand board from Leucaena leucocephala wood. Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 21 (4), 353-360. Pari, G., Setiawan, D., & Saephuloh. (2001). Analisis komponen kimia dari kayu kurang dikenal dari Kalimantan Timur. Buletin Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 4, 203-206. Pasaribu, G., Sipayung, B., & Pari, G. (2007). Analisis komponen kimia empat jenis kayu asal Sumatera Utara . Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 25(4), 327-333. Pettersen, R. (1984). Chemical Composition of Wood. The Chemistry of Solid Wood. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society. Pramasari, D. A., Lestari, E., Bahanawan, A., Adi, D. S., & Dwianto, W. (2016). Kajian Komponen Kimia Jati Platinum berdasarkan Umur Pohon (II). In E. Hermiati, W. Dwianto, W. Fatriasari, D. H. Y. Yanto, S. H. Anita, Y. D. Kurniawan, A. Zulfitri, L. Astari, D. Zulfiana, D. A. Pramasari, Y. Nurhamiyah, M. Oktaviani, & A. Sumarno (Eds.). Prosiding Seminar Nasional XVIII Masyarakat Peneliti Kayu Indonesia (MAPEKI). (pp. 190-197). Bandung: Masyarakat Peneliti Kayu Indonesia. Pramasari, D. A., Wahyuni, I., Adi, D. S., Amin, Y., Darmawan, T., & Dwianto, W. (2015). Effect of Age on Chemical Component of Platinum Teak Wood – A Fast Growing Teak Wood from LIPI. In R. Hartono, A. H. Iswanto, K. S. Hartini, A. Susilowati, D. Elfiati, Muhdi, M. Zahra, S. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 170
Latifah, R. Batubata, N. Anna, T. Sucipto, & I. Azhar (Eds.). Proceedings of The 6th International Symposium of Indonesian Wood Research Society.(pp. 211-216). Medan: Indonesian Wood Research Society. Prawirohatmodjo, S. (1995). Kimia Kayu. Yogyakarta: Fakultas Kehutanan Universitas Gadjah Mada. Prayitno, T. A. (1992). Sifat kimia kayu salam (Zyzigium poliantha Wight). Buletin Fakultas Kehutanan Universitas Gadjah Mada, 22, 53-65.
Santana, W. M., Calegario, N., Arantes, M. D. C., & Trugilho, P. F. (2011). Effect of age and diameter class on the properties of wood from clonal Eucalyptus. Cerne Lavras, 18(1), 1-8. Sunyata, A., (2011). Sifat Kimia Kayu Huru Kuning (Research Report). Yogyakarta: Institut Pertanian Yogyakarta. Supartini. (2009). Komponen kimia kayu meranti kuning (Shorea macrobalanos). Jurnal Penelitian Dipterokarpa, 3(2), 43-50. Wistara, N., Rachmansyah, R., Denes, F., & Young, R. A. (2002). Ketahanan 10 jenis kayu tropisplasma CF4 terhadap rayap kayu kering (Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light). Jurnal Teknologi Hasil Hutan,17(2), 48-56. Zaki, J. A., Muhammed, S., Shafie, A., & Daud, W. R. W. (2012). Chemical properties of juvenile latex timber clone rubberwood trees. The Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 16(3), 228234.
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BULK DENSITY, PARTICLE DISTRIBUTION AND MOISTURE CONTENT OF PARTICLEBOARD FROM CORN STALK Lilik Astari1*, Kurnia Wiji Prasetiyo1, Sukma Surya Kusumah1, Subyakto1 1
Research Center for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences Jalan Raya Bogor KM 46 Cibinong Bogor *Corresponding Author: [email protected] Abstract
Corn stalks are abundant agricultural post harvest products and continuously available in Indonesia. The study aimed to investigate bulk density, moisture content and particle distribution of particleboard produced from corn stalks and urea formaldehyde adhesive. Bulk density calculated by measuring initial and final weight of the overnight dried raw materials Particle distribution calculated by filtering the raw materials through using different sieve sizes ranging from 1680 to 180 µm. Restrained particles were then measured for their weight and length. Moisture content was measured based on weight calculation of the initial and oven dried particles. The results show that the bulk density of particle is 0.210 g/cm3 with moisture content 11.2 %. Mean while the particle distribution of the following particle size: 180, 250, 500, and 1680 µm are 2.05%, 16.15%, 54.69% and 25.09% respectively. Keywords: bulk density, corn stalk, moisture content, particle distribution, particleboard
Introduction In Indonesia, corn productivity rose considerably within 3 years. In 2013 corn productivity was 48.44 quintal/ha, 49.54 quintal/ha in 2014 and 51.78 quintal/ha in 2015 (BPS, 2016). In addition, corn is reported as the most harvested cereal plant globally as it is depicted in Figure 1 (Jarabo et al., 2013). The increase of productivity leads to the increasing amount of its agricultural by products such as stalk, cob, leaves and husk. The high amount of those biomass is an opportunity for various feedstock technology such oil and starch as well as alcohol. Corn stalk after biological treatment also reported as a superior material for particleboard (Wu et al., 2011). Utilisation of corn stalk as raw material for particleboard provides an alternative aside from its used as forage or boiler. It is expected that technology of particleboard production from agricultural post harvest products adopted by small industries may contribute to the socio-economic development.
Figure 1. Main cereals production (Source: Jarabo et al., 2013) The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 172
There are several factors influencing physical and mechanical properties of particleboard. Bulk density, moisture content and particle size are affecting mechanical properties especially on its Young’s modulus, tensile strength and impact strength (Chiang et al., 2016). One previous investigation regarding particle size and distribution conducted by Cheng et al., (2016). It was reported that particleboard made from peanut hull powder and coarse result in inferior properties of particleboard (Cheng et al., 2016). This research was aimed to investigate the bulk density, particle size and distribution and also the moisture content of corn stalk particle prior to production of particleboard.
Materials and Method Materials used in this research is corn stalk collected from farm area in Dramaga District Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. Corn stalk preparation Corn stalks were chopped in to particles using machete then followed by ring flaker. Particles were subseqently sun dried for several days until the moisture content reached less than 12%. After drying process the particles was packed in a plastic bag and stored until particleboard production. Afterwards, bulk density, particle geometry and moisture content were determined. Bulk density characterization Initial weight of the measuring cup was coded as m0 whereas m1 was defined as the final weight of 37 ml of dried particles in the measuring cup. Bulk density was calculated according to below formula: ρ= where: ρ = density (g/cm3) m1 = final weight mo = initial weight v = volume
(1)
Particle distribution characterization Sample particles (8.751 g).were placed in various size of strainer and shaken for 5 minutes until they were filtered through (Figure 2) Subsequently, particles held on each strainer were measured for its length and weight.
Figure 2. Particles retained in different size of strainers Moisture content characterization Initial weight of particles defined as m0 is 8.751 gram whereas m1 is the weight of 24 hour oven-dried particles.. The moisture content was then calculated based on the below formula The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 173
MC =
x 100%
(2)
Result and Discussion The results show that the bulk density was 0.210 g.cm-3. The bulk density of corn stalks particles are similar to several materials such as wood particles (0.23 g.cm-3) and bamboo chips (0.20 g.cm-3) (Papadopoulus & Hague, 2003). Corn stalks particles were typically thinner, lighter and narrower than wood. particles Therefore, ratio of length to thickness and length to width were also relatively higher than wood particles. Bulk density of raw materials on particle boards is a key element of heat transfer in hot pressing procedure. A research by Papadopoulus et al. (2002) reported that coconut and flax chips showed slower heat transfer to the core compared wood particles. Futher study revealed that this fenomena due to bulk density (Papadopoulus et al., 2004). The below chart shows that over half (54.69%) of the particles are about 500 μm, followed by 25.09% are 1680 μm in length, 16.15% are 250 μm, and 2.05% are 180 μm (Figure 3). In particleboard production, particle size related to its mechanical strength. Particleboard made from larger particles results in better mechanical strength (Yemele, Blanchet, & Cloutier, 2008). Different result was reported by Cheng et al. (2016) whiwas reported that superior mechanical properties of particleboard made from mixture particles was obtained rather than if it composed from coarse and large particles (Cheng et al., 2016). PARTICLE DISTRIBUTION OF CORN PARTICLEBOARD 2.05%
16.15%
25.09%
1680 µm 250 µm
500 µm 180 µm
54.69%
Figure 3. Particle size distribution of corn particle
Moisture content of corn stalk particles in this study is 11.2%. which satisfy the requirement of JIS A 5908. Based on the standard, moisture content value is recommended in the range of 3-13%. Moisture content of raw materials greatly affects not only formaldehyde emisions but also physical, mechanical and surface properties (Baharoğlu et al., 2012).
Conclusion Corn stalk material was dominated by particle size 500 μm (54.69%) followed by 1680 μm (25.09%). While bulk density of stalk particle was 0.210 g/cm3, its moisture content was 11.2% which meet the JIS A 5908 standard for particleboard production.
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Acknowledgement Authors would like to say thank you to Mr. Sudarmanto for his assistance during sample preparation and also to Research Center for Biomaterials and JASTIP programme.
References Badan Pusat Statistik (2016). https://www.bps.go.id/linkTableDinamis/view/id/869 Baharoğlu, M., Nemli, G., Sarı, B., Bardak, S., & Ayrılmış, N. (2012). The influence of moisture content of raw material on the physical and mechanical properties, surface roughness, wettability, and formaldehyde emission of particleboard composite. Composites Part B: Engineering, 43(5), 2448-2451. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2011.10.020 Chen Chiang, T., Sinin, H., & Mohd Shahril, B. O. (2016). Properties of Sago Particleboards Resinated with UF and PF Resin. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, Vol 2016 (2016). doi:10.1155/2016/5323890 Cheng, X., He, X., Quan, P., Xu, K., Li, X., & Cai, Z. (2016). Effect of the particle geometry and adhesive mass percentage on the physical. Bioresources, 11(3), 7271-7281. Japanese Standard Association. 2003. Japanesse Industrial Standard Particle Board JIS A 5908, Japanese Standard Association, Japan. Jarabo, R., Monte, M. C., Fuente, E., Santos, S. F., & Negro, C. (2013). Corn stalk from agricultural residue used as reinforcement fiber in fiber-cement production. Industrial Crops and Products, 43, 832-839. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.08.034 Papadopoulus, A. N., & Hague, J. B. (2003). The potential use of Linum usitatissimun (flax) chips as a raw lignocellulosic material for particleboards. Industrial Crops & Products, 17(2), 143-147. Papadopoulus, A. N., Hill, C. A. S., Gkaraveli, A., Ntalos, G. A., & Karastergiou, S. P. (2004). Bamboo chips (Bambusa vulgaris) as an alternative lignocellulosic raw material for particleboard manufacture. Holz Roh Werkst, 62, 36-39. Wu, J., Zhang, X., Wan, J., Ma, F., Tang, Y., & Zhang, X. (2011). Production of fiberboard using corn stalk pretreated with white-rot fungus Trametes hirsute by hot pressing without adhesive. Bioresource Technology, 102(24), 11258-11261. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.09.097 Yemele, M. C. N., Blanchet, P., & Cloutier, A. (2008). Effects of bark content and particle geometry on the physical and mechanical properties of particleboard made from black spruce and trembling aspen bark. Forest Products Journal, 58(11), 48-56.
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BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 176
IN-VITRO ASSAY OF NEEM SEED FORMULATION AGAINST Fusarium oxysporum, CAUSAL AGENT OF BASAL PLATE ROT ON ONION Ni Putu Ratna Ayu Krishanti* and Arief Heru Prianto Research Centers for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Basal plate rot disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum is one of the most important diseases of onion in Indonesia. Application of fungicide such as soil drench will increase the cost of onion production and may be dangerous for environment. One of techniques to suppress the dispersal of pathogen can be implemented by natural resource which is effective, degradable, and environmentally friendly. Antifungal effect of neem seed formulation was examined by in vitro assay against Fusarium oxysporum. The results indicated that neem seed formulation inhibited the growth of fungi, although the rate of inhibition varied with different concentrations. It was indicated that neem seed formulation is potential to be developed as biofungicide Keywords: antifungal activity, Fusarium oxysporum, basal plate rot, neem, onion
Introduction Basal plate rot disease of onion caused by Fusarium oxysporum generates several losses of onion production in Indonesia. An alternative to suppress the dispersal of pathogen can be implemented by natural resource which is effective, degradable, and environmentally friendly. Several plant extract-based products are effective in controlling some plant diseases (Hanaa et al., 2011). Various plant products have been evaluated to manage the basal plate rot disease. Many plants are capable in producing secondary metabolites, which have an allelopathic effect. These phytochemicals are safer to the environment and human than conventional chemical. Some plants represent an abundant source of antimicrobial compounds such as flavonoid, phenol, unsaturated lactone, sulphur compound, and saponin (Bennett & Wallsgrove, 1994; Osbourne, 1996). Plant also become the source of natural pesticide which leads the development of new biopesticide (Dissanayake & Jayasinghe, 2013). One of the producing phytochemical plants as well as known for its pesticidal properties is neem (Azadirachta indica). Indonesian farmers have been using neem to control pests and diseases for hundred years. The bioactivity of neem product has been attributed to various compounds which can be found in the seed and leaf, including nimbin, nimbidin and salannin, but the most important compounds appear as the tetranortriterpenoid molecules, which is azadirachtin (Salehzahde et al., 2003). These compounds possess insecticidal, ovicidal, antifeedant, and growth-inhibiting effects against many species of pests. Several research have been reported that azadirachtin also have huge antimicrobial activity (Lale & Abdulrahman, 1999). The antimicrobial activity of neem-derived products is uncontested (Pai et al., 2004), only few reports are available on action of neem against fungi especially plant fungal pathogen (Ramos et al., 2007; Sipahelut, 2015). Regarding the needs for an eco-friendly alternative to control plant fungal pathogen, it is believed that it is important to screen the antifungal effects of neem seed formulation. Since our concern is about controlling the pathogen of basal plate rot disease, so the objective of the present investigation is to evaluate the antifungi activity of neem seed formulation against F. oxysporum by in vitro assay. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 177
Materials and Methods Neem extract production Neem seed oil was obtained by pressing the seed with screw press. It is necessary to do a preliminary process that includes depulping (remove the seeds from the fruit), seeds drying, and decortating (peel the endorcarp) before pressing the seeds. Seeds that have been cleaned and treated by the pre-treatment process will be pressed with the screw tool. The oil obtained was filtered in order to collect the pure neem oil. Neem formulation Biopesticide formulation which contains active neem seed oil was made by mixing neem oil extract with anionic and ionic surfactants. Combinations of the composition of each material were performed in order to obtain the best formulation which has a significant stability of emulsion. In this experiment, five (5) formulations of neem seed oil have been made. Formulas F1 to F5 were made in the similar procedure using cold process (without heating). Cold process have been selected because it is more efficient compared to the heat process. All formulations used two types of surfactants which were Geronol bc-5 (etoksilat alkil fenol) and Rhodakal 70 bc (calcium dodesilbenzen sulfonat), total surfactant content in variety of neem oil formulations was 10%. Culture isolate and media preparation Isolate of fungi pathogen, F. oxysporum was collected from Bogor Agricultural University culture collection laboratorium (IPBcc) and maintained in medium of potato dextrose agar. For in vitro-assay, growth medium prepared for F. oxysporum was Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). Then, 1 % of neem formulation from different concentrations (F1 – F5) added to each media to evaluate the antifungal activity. The medium was sterilized by autoclave at 121°C, 1 atm, for 15 minutes. PDA plates, without any neem formulation supplementation, acted as negative control. Effect of neem seed formulation on mycelial growth Mycelial discs (Φ : 9 mm) from inoculant F. oxysporum were deposited into the center of PDA treated medium containing F1 – F5 formulations. The dishes were incubated at 37°C and photoperiod was performed for 12 hour day/ 12 hour night. The growth of mycelia was measured at the interval of 3 days and it was compared to the control treatment during nine days. Each formulation was triplicated. The percentage of inhibition is calculated by the formula as follows (Bragulat et al., 1991):
Where C = Diameter of test fungus (Control) T = Diameter of test fungus
Results and Discussion Neem formulation In this study, five active ingredient of formulations were made and they were contained neem seed oil as active ingredient. Formulations F1 to F5 made by the same procedure, but with different level of neem seed oil concentration and surfactant. Formula base comprised of 94% active ingredients which were neem seed oil and 6% surfactants (ionic and anionic). Formulations F1 to F5 used both types of surfactants in the total level of 6%. Further detail about formulation composition is presented in Table 1.
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Table 1. Composition of five types of concentration of neem formulation. Formulation Neem Seed Extract Anionic Surfactan (Genorol BC-5) Ionic Surfactan (Rhodakal BC-70) Distilled Water
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
94%
65.8%
32.9%
9.87%
2.96%
2%
1.4%
0.7%
0.26%
0.06%
4%
2.8%
1.4%
0.42%
0.13%
-
30%
65%
89%
96.85%
The results of water solubility testing showed that formulations F1 to F5 generated foam. The formation of foam occured when the mixture become homogenous due to dissolved surfactant in the water. The surfactant has a hydrophobic group (unlike water) and hydrophilic group (like water) that united in a molecule, so that the surfactant tended to be in between with the different phases of polarity (Fatima, 2005). Formulation of F2 to F5 formed two phases of solution, where the top phase solution consisted of foam with neem oil, while the low phase solution which was in white-colored. The formulation of F1 only produced single phase solution which was in white ivory-colored with foam. Antifungal activity test The activity of neem seed formulation against mycelial growth of F. oxysporum is presented in Figure 1. It was observed that all neem formulations inhibited the mycelial growth of F. oxysporum. F1 formulation showed the greatest inhibitory effect against mycelial growth than other formulations. Compared to the negative control, mycelial in treated medium grew slowly and it was secreted dark purple pigment. It was indicated that the mycelial was in the stage of stress condition.
A
B
C
Figure 1. Antifungal activity of neem formulation against Fusarium oxysporum after nine days of incubation. Picture description: (A) Control without treatment, (B) Treatment using F 1 formulation, (C) Treatment using F5 formulation. The mechanism of neem formulation action against pathogenic fungi of F. oxysporum was expected to be related to the cell wall, it has been observed that the neem formulation inhibits chitin synthesis in mycelial fungi (Maoz et al., 2000). Kavitha et al. (2014), found that neem seed methanolic extract was inhibit the ergosterol biosynthesis of Aspergillus parasiticus, this effect might be attributed to inhibition of enzyme which was involved in this process. Some of studies stated that beside of inhibit the mycelial growth, neem extract also effectively inhibits the germination of F. oxysporum spore as well as Mancozeb pesticide at concentration of 400 – 2000 µg/cm2 (Govindachari et al., 1999). According to Da-Costa et al. (2010), based on the efficacy of neem seed extract against fungal pathogen, neem seed extract treatment had a higher inhibition percentage than neem leaf extract. The result of antifungal activity of five formulations of neem seed oil against F. oxysporum showed that these formulations had the highest inhibitory in F1 formulation generated the lowest The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 179
mycelial growth of 31.4 mm on 9 days of incubation. While the lowest inhibition was found in the F 5 formulation with highest mycelial growth of 77.8 mm on 9 days incubation day (Figure 2). Formulations of F2 to F5 were not showing any significant different inhibition of mycelial growth. It was indicated that the composition of formula F2 to F5 were not as effective as formula F1. The higher concentration of neem seed oil extract contained, the higher inhibition of cell growth of fungi obtained so that the strength of fungi cell will be decreased as well. Growth of misellia (mm) control
Day of Incubation
Figure 2. The growth of mycellia (mm) F. oxysporum on PDA medium containing neem formulation during nine days of incubation. Strong inhibition showed by F1 formulation compared to control treatment. F2-F4 formulation showed growth inhibition but not significant among treatment. Inhibition of neem formulation on mycelial growth Percentage of inhibition analysis of pathogenic fungi F. oxysporum against neem seed oil formulation F1-F5 showed that the greatest percentage of inhibition was found in formula F1 with 65.11% followed by F2, F3, F4, and F5 formulations (Table 2). Reduction of neem seed oil concentration and addition of ionic as well as anionic surfactant concentration makes the inhibition of mycelial growth becomes not optimal. Based on the data, it is necessary to re-optimize the composition of the formula which gave the greatest inhibition of pathogenic fungi growth. Further investigation on purified components of neem seed oil needs the proper insight of active ingredients responsibility for controlling the dispersal of diseases. The high value of percent inhibition that produced by neem seed formulation against fungal mycelial of F. oxysporum can not be separated from the role of bioactive compounds contained. Based on the analysis performed by preparative HPLC, Suresh et al. (1999), found that there are at least 10 peaks that indicate active compounds in neem seed oil. Analytical HPLC revealed that peaks 1 and 2 contained mainly azadirachtins A, B, D, H and I. Peak 1 and 2 did not show any appreciable inhibitory activity. Peaks 3 and 4 yielded small amounts of material, with little or no activity against F. oxysporum. It was summarized that azadirachtins do not possess any antifungal activity. Peak 5 was identified as 6-deacetylnimbin and showed appreciable inhibition against F. oxysporum (49.2%) at 1000 ppm. Peak 7 (nimbin as the major constituent), peak 8 (salannin as the major constituent) showed excellent inhibitory antifungal activities at 1000 ppm. Peak 9 showed moderately active against F. oxysporum at 1000 ppm. Peak 10 (epoxyazadiradione as the major constituent) was most effective against F. oxysporum.
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Table 2. Anti-fungal activities of neem formulation against F. oxysporum (Mean ± SD). Neem Formulation
Diameter of Mycelial Growth (mm)
Percentage Inhibition of Mycelial Growth (%)
Control
90.00 ± 0.00
F1
31.40 ± 1.14
65.11 ± 1.27
F2
70.00 ± 0.71
22.22 ± 0.79
F3
72.40 ± 1.82
19.56 ± 2.02
F4
76.00 ± 2.00
15.56 ± 2.22
F5
77.80 ± 2.28
13.56 ± 2.53
While, Epoxyazadiradione in pure form exhibited no inhibitory activity against fungi. It is possible that in pure form the major triterpenoids from oil, have very low or no antifungal activity, while in combination they show excellent activity against the fungi, suggesting additive / synergistic effects. There is a need further investigations on purified components of neem seed oil to have depth knowledge of the active ingredients responsible for controlling the spread of the diseases.
Conclusion Five types of neem seed oil formulation had antifungal activity and they could inhibit the growth of mycelial pathogenic fungi, Fusarium oxysporum, causal agent of basal plate rot disease on onion effectively. Based of the antifungal activity test analysis, F1 formulation gave the highest percentage of inhibition of 65.11%. Formulations that gave the most stability described by the ratio of ionic surfactan : anionic formulation : neem seed extract were 4% : 2% : 96%. The results indicated that neem seed formulations were potential to be developed as biofungicide and it needs a further analysis about actives compound that plays important role in fungal suppression.
Acknowledgment This work is financially supported by Research Center for Biomaterials LIPI through DIPA 2016. Therefore, we are grateful for this funding and support for this research. References Bennett, R. N., & Wallsgrove, R. M. (1994). Secondary metabolites in plant defence mechanisms. New Phytology, 127, 617-633. Bragulat, M. R., Abarca, M. L., Bruguerra, M. T., & Cabanes, F. J. (1991). Dyes as fungal inhibitors: effect on colony diameter. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 2777-2780. Dissanayake, M. L. M. C., & Jayasinghe, J. A. N. (2013). Antifungal activity of selected medicinal plant extracts against plant pathogenic fungi: Rhizoctonia solani, Colletotrichum musea, and Fusarium oxysporum. Int. J. Sci. Inventions Today, 2, 421-431. Fatima, F. (2005). Efektivitas Antioksidan dalam Sistem Emilsi Oil-In-Water (O/W) [Disertasi]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor. Sekolah Pascasajana. Program Studi Ilmu Pangan, p 64. Govindachari, T. R., Suresh, G., Gopalakrishnan, G., Banumathy, B., & Masilamani, S. (1999). Identification of antifungal compounds from the seed oil of Azadirachta indica. Phytoparasitica, 26(2), 1-8. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 181
Hanaa, R. M. F., Abdou, Z. A., Salama, D. A., Ibrahim, A. R. (2011). Effect of neem and willow aqueous extracts on fusarium wilt disease in tomato seedlings : Induction of antioxidant defensive enzymes. Annals of Agri. Sci., 56, 1-7. Kavitha, G., Karuna, R., & Sashidar, R. B. (2014). Inhibitory role of neem seed kernel extracts and terpenoids on growth and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus. Ind. J. Nat. Prod. Resour., 5(1), 20-33. Lale, N. E. S., & Abdulrahman, H. T. (1999). Evaluation of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) seed oilobtained by different methods and neem powder for the management of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in stored cowpea. Journal of Stored Products Research, 35, 135-143. Maoz, M., & Neeman, L. (2000). Effect of Inula Viscosa extract on chitin synthesis in dermatophytes and Candida albicans. J. Ethnopharmacol., 71, 479-482. Osbourne, A. E. (1996). Preformed antimicrobial compounds and plant defence against fungal attack. The Plant Cell, 8, 1821-1831. Pai, M. R., Acharya, L. D., Udupa, N. (2004). Evaluation of antiplaque activity of Azadirachta indica leaf extract gel, a 6 week clinical study. J. Ethnopharmacol., 90(1), 99-103. Ramos, D. R., Falcao, L., Barbosa, S., Marcellino, H., & Gander, S. (2007). Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) components: candidates for control of Crinipellis perniciosa and Phytophthora spp. Microbiol. Res., 162(3), 238-243. Salehzahde, A., Cushley, A., Adams, R. L., Strang, R. H. (2003). The antimitotic effect of the neem terpenoid azadirachtin on cultured cells. Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol., 33, 681-689. Sipahelut, S. G. (2015). Identifikasi senyawa antijamur dari minyak daging buah aktivitasnya terhadap Fusarium moniliforme. Jurnal Agroforestri, 10, 95-99.
nimba
dan
Suresh, G., Gopalakrishnan, G., & Masilamani, S. (1999). Neem: Today and In The New Millennium. USA: Kluwer Academic Publisher, p: 183.
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PACKAGING EVALUATION RELATED TO THE SURVIVAL OF THE Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 AND BIOCELULOSE PRODUCT IN PASTE INOCULUM Urip Perwitasari1*, Nuryati1, Ruth Melliawati1, and Yopi1 1
Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
Packaging evaluation is essential for the survival of its microbial content. Three types of container (plastic, cup, and bottle) were evaluated in this study. The parameters analyzed were cell viability and its ability to form biocellulose of paste inoculum for 28 weeks. As a result, the cell viability of Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 packaged in three types container has opposite trends to longer storage period. Cell viability of Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 packaged in the cup reached the highest (5,8 x 108 cfu/mL) for 28 weeks of storage period. Thickness and dry weight of biocellulose formation inside retrieved from plastic cup were 0,1 cm and 0,4 grams respectively. Keywords: Acetobacter sp., RMG-2, paste inoculums, 3 kinds of packaging
Introduction Biocellulose is cellulose fiber from fermentation coconut water with Acetobacter xylinum. Biocellulose or nata de coco is indigenous food in Philippines. Technology productions of this traditional food grow rapidly in Indonesia because Indonesia has wide coconut plantations. Data from General Directorate of Plantation Ministry of Agricultural Indonesia in 2014, amount of coconut production 3.031.310 ton. As a main content for biocellulose production, coconut water contains nutrition for support metabolism microorganism such as water, fat, and protein (Yong et al., 2009). Acetobacter sp. produce biocellulose from coconut water in addition carbon source and nitrogen (Budhiono et al., 1999). Biocelllulose produced by Acetobacter after 15-20 days incubation at pH 4,0 with sucrose 10% (Jagannath et al., 2008). The applications of biocellulose from fermentation acetic acid bacteria can be processed into high value product such as in pharmaceutical for medical implants, tissue engineering, drug delivery, wound-healing, cardiovascular applications (Jorfi and Foster, 2015), paper manufacturing, membrane filtration, acoustic transducers (Lin et al., 2013). Acetic acid bacteria such as Acetobacter sp. in Indonesia, Thailand, and Philippines mainly found in fermented foods (Lisdiyanti et al., 2003). Preservation of starter Acetobacter becomes important it is because bacterial cellulose has a big potential value in industry application. Bacterial cellulose can production biocellulose with high purity, better crystalline property, high water absorbency, simple polymerization, stronger, and high bio-compatibility (Sukara & Melliawati, 2014). The immobilized cell for the production of biocellulose is one solution to the product resulted in a cell-free nata (Nugroho & Aji, 2015). Starter isolates Acetobacter sp. to producing nata de coco until today still on sale in liquid form. Liquid starter have a problem in shipment. Several carriers have been report about preservation starter bacterial such as CMC, agar, sago flour, skim milk, calcium alginate (Jagannath, 2010), biocellulose pulp (Melliawati, 2008). Subsequently it was report that the carrier materials (CMC and biocellulose pulp) are able to keep bacteria without loss their capability to produce cellulose (Melliawati, 2008). The suitable packaging for easy shipment the inoculum in matrix CMC and viability of the cell not have The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 183
been report. Therefore, the aim of this research is to evaluation the viability and activity of starter paste inoculum Acetobacter in various packaging and time incubation.
Materials and Methods Bacterial isolate Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 isolate collection of Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesia Institute of Science was used in this research. The isolate was cultured with using media composition: HB Agar (25 g glucose, 0,15 g (NH4)2SO4, 0,625 g yeast extract, 1,25 g K2HPO4, 0,05 g MgSO4.7H2O, 5 mL CH3COOH, Bacto Agar 20 g) and adjusted pH media until 5.5. Culture was incubated for 3 days in room temperature. Preparation of paste inoculum Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 was inoculated in media contained: HB (25 g glucose, 0,15 g (NH4)2SO4, 0,625 g yeast extract, 1,25 g K2HPO4, 0,05 g MgSO4.7H2O, 5 mL CH3COOH) and adjusted pH media until 5.5. Culture was incubated for 2 days in shaker at room temperature. Culture was added to Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) 4% as carrier with concentration 1:1 (Melliawati, 2008). Packaging of paste inoculum Subsequently, paste inoculum was packed in to three different type of packaging (plastic, cup, and bottle). The paste inoculum filled as much as 2/3 of the volume. Paste inoculum was stored in 4oC then checks the cell viability and activity to produce biocellulose. Cell viability One gram of pasta inoculum was added to 9 mL aquadest sterile. Cell viability was inoculated on media HB agar. The number of living cells is the number colony divided the dilution factor. Biocellulose production Three gram of Acetobacter xylinum inoculum was added in to bottle jam containing 100 mL media GAA (0.3 g of glucose, 0.5 g of (NH4)2SO4, 5 mL of acetic acid was mixed in 100 mL of coconut water and adjusted to pH to 5.5). The fermentation culture was carried on bottle jam in static culture and then given a cover paper. Incubation was carried out at room temperature.
Results and Discussion Cell Viability Acetobacter are group acetic acid bacterium and includes types of aerobic obligate. It was needed oxygen for the metabolism (De Vero & Guidici, 2013; Sainz et al., 2016). Some research about this Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 had been done including Acetobacter inoculum for manufacturing of paste as biocelullose (Melliawati, 2008). This research was conducted on the packaging paste inoculum in three kinds of packaging to find out the population of Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 cells that can live in the packaging. Figure 1 shows the three kinds of packaging paste inoculum biocellulose. Types of packaging in this study have different materials, plastic packaging is from PE (polyethylene), cup packaging is from PP (polypropylene), and bottle packaging is from glass.
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A
B
C
Figure 1. Paste inoculum of Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 on various packaging (A: Plastic, B: Cup, C: Bottle) Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 population at the beginning of storage in three packs is 9,1 x 108 cfu/mL. Acetobacter sp RMG-2 cells population in paste inculum is shown in Figure 2. Population cell for 28 weeks incubation at 4oC in plastic packaging is 1,6 x 107 cfu/mL, in cup packaging is 5 x 108 cfu/mL, and in bottle packaging is 3,9 x 108 cfu/mL (Figure 2). Population of the cell in plastic, cup, and bottle packaging are decline after 28 weeks incubation in 4 oC. Declining population number, possibly because oxygen in media is diminishes. Then it causes the bacteria to die because Acetobacter needed oxygen for cell metabolism (De Vero & Guidici, 2013). The decline of population cells from 109 cfu/mL become 108-107 cfu/mL in which 83%-90% cell of Acetobacter sp RMG-2 still life after 28 weeks of incubation in 4oC temperature storage. The result is similar with study that have been report, the population cell of Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 in CMC for 15 weeks incubation is 1,79 x 108 cfu/mL and 7,75 x 107 cfu/mL in cellulose pulp (Melliawati, 2008). The other study show viability the lactic acid bacteria in skim milk for 60 days incubation have decline population from 109-1010 cfu/g become 107 cfu/g (Jagannath et al., 2010). It is show CMC is the suitable carrier for Acetobacter sp RMG-2. The low population Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 in glass because the density of glass more tightly than PP and PE. Glass packaging is impermeable to gases and vapors (Marsh & Bugusu, 2007)
Figure 2. Viability of paste inoculum Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 on various packaging and stored at 4 oC Cell activity The capability cells Acetobacter sp RMG-2 to produce biocellulose fibers from waste coconut water shown in Figure 3 until Figure 6. Thickness and weight biocellulose from paste inoculum are not stable but pH media and water content of the biocellulose relative stable. The unstable thickness in this research can be caused by the composition of waste coconut water are different on each evaluation every month (coconut water obtained from the market). Thickness of biocelulose is affected by The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 185
sucrose and ammonium sulphate, maximum concentration sucrose is 10% and ammonium sulphate is 0,5% (Jagganath et al., 2008). Source of sucrose for produce biocellulose in this study was derived from coconut water only. The mature coconut water is the optimum media for producing biocellulose (Mohammad et al., 2016). Young coconut (6 months) has different chemical composition with mature coconut (12 months). Sucrose content in mature coconut is 10% almost 10 folds higher than young coconut (Yong et al., 2009).
Figure 3. Thickness of biocellulose The result of average thickness of biocellulose from paste inoculum in plastic packaging is 0,41 cm, cup packaging 0,68 cm, bottle packaging 0,38 cm for 9 days. Biocellulose produced by paste inoculum Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 in cup packaging is the higher than plastic and bottle packaging. It is appropriate with the number of population cell Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 (Figure 2). The numbers of living cell increase the thickness of biocellulose production. The layers of crystalline biopaste inoculumcellulose starts to thicken after 5 days of incubation, it is because the sheets biocellulose formed subfibril then biocellulose crystallized as microfibril (Mohammad et al., 2014). Dry weight of biocellulose of each month does not appropriate to the thickness of biocellulose produced in every month. At the 20 weeks incubation of paste inoculum Acetobacter the thickness of biocellulose is high but the dry weight of biocellulose is low. This is due to the biocellulose produced by Acetobacter sp RMG-2 has not crystallized. A layer of cellulose fibers which have not crystallized has high water content so it looks thick. Crystallization index and crystallization size will decrease with increasing growth time of the cell (Sheykhnazari et al., 2011).
Figure 4. Dry weight of biocellulose
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pH culture media for producing biocellulose in present study are 5,5, it was preferred optimum pH for Acetobacter cell growth (Hwang et al., 1999). After production biocellulose (9 days incubation) range pH medium at the end of fermentation coconut water between 4,9-6,8 (Figure 5). The change of pH media because production gluconic acid from metabolism of Acetobacter (Masaoka et al., 1993). During conversion glucose into gluconic acid the pH medium has drop significantly from 5,0 to 4,3. Optimum production gluconic acid by Acetobacter is pH 4 (Hwang et al., 1999) and Acetobacter growth between 3,5-7,5 (Mohammad et al., 2014). Hwang et al. (1999) explain during gluconic acid production the cell growth or cellulose concentration increased slowly. At the cellulose production phase the pH of the culture medium increased from 4,3 to 6,5, the cell grew and cellulose production increase rapidly. The accumulated of gluconic acid consume by the cell. In stationary phase the biocellulose not produced but the cell still consume gluconic acid and pH of the culture increase from 6,5 to 7,0. This explains the increase in
the pH of the medium which occurred at week 20, and production of biocelluse began declining, but the number of living cells Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 still high. In this study a decrease in production of biocellulose each packaging has a difference. Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 from paste inoculum in bottle packaging at 20 weeks incubation and plastic packaging at 24 weeks incubation could not produce biocellulose even though pH media at range for Acetobacter growth. It is probably due to the activity of cell Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 to produce biocellulose decrease, because basically Acetobacter is aerobic bacteria that require oxygen for
metabolism and glass packaging denser than the other packaging.
Figure 5. pH of residual medium in the end fermentation Water content biocellulose production from paste inoculum Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 in all type packaging relative stable (Figure 6). Biocellulose production from paste inoculum after 20 weeks incubation in cup packaging has higher water content in the amount of 94%. Study from Sheykhnazari et al. (2011) show hydrogen and C–H bonds increased with increasing growth time in bacterial cellulose. Biocellulose water content average from paste inoculum in every packaging was 91%. It shown the packaging does not significantly affecting the water content of biocellulose produced. Total counts of cells Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 paste inoculum in all packaging decreased. The viabillity cell is relatively the same in each packaging. Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 in bottles and plastic packaging loses activity in producing biocellulose. Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 in paste inoculum in bottle packaging loses the activity to produce biocellulose after 20 weeks incubation (Figure 3 and Figure 4), while Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 in paste inoculum in plastic packaging loses the activity to produce biocellulose after 28 weeks incubation (Figure 3 and Figure 4). Overall the results shows suitable packaging for paste inoculum biocellulose is plastic cup. In addition to the good viability, ease of delivery of paste inoculum plastic cup also allows for lighter The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 187
than glass packaging and production costs using a plastic cup is also more benefit (Humbert et al., 2009).
Figure 6. Water content of biocellulose
Conclusion The packaging types influence the cell viability of Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 because the natures of the Acetobacter sp. as obligate aerobic bacteria. It was need oxygen in their life cycle. Plastic packaging and packaging cup still allow aeration of oxygen into the package even if only a little. Cell viability on a cup packaging gives better results than other packaging on both. Cell viability Acetobacter sp. RMG-2 on a plastic cup packaging 5,9 x 108 cfu/mL during the storage of 28 weeks. Need more research, using the coconut water with a carbon source is measured as a medium for producing biocellulose.
Acknowledgment We would like many thanks to Indonesian Institute of Science of DIPA Tematik project for funding this research.
References Budhiono, A., Rosidi, B., Taher, H., & Iguchi, M. (1999). Kinetic aspects of bacterial cellulose formation in nata-de-coco culture system. Carbohydrate Polymers, 40, 137–143. doi 10.1007/s11274-008-9781-8 De Vero, L. & Guidici, P. (2013). Significance and management of acetic acid bacteria culture collections. Acetic Acid Bacteria, 2:54-61. doi:10.4081/aab.2013.s1.e9. Humbert, S., Rossi, V., Margni., Jolliet., & Loerincik, Y. (2009). Life cycle assessment of two baby food packaging alternatives: glass jars vs. plastic pots. Int J Life Cycle Assess, 14, 95–106. di: 10.1007/s11367-008-0052-6 Hwang, J. W., Yang, Y. K., Hwang, J. K., Pyun, R. Y., Kim Y. S. (1999). Effects of pH and dissolved oxygen on cellulose production by Acetobacter xylinum BRCS in Agitated Culture. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 88(2), 183-188. doi:10.1016/S1389-1723(99)80199-6
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Jagannath, A., Kalaiselvan, A., Manjunatha, S. S., Raju, P. S., & Bawa, A. S., (2008). The effect of pH, sucrose and ammonium sulphate concentrations on the production of bacterial cellulose (Nata-de-coco) by Acetobacter xylinum. World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 24, 2593–2599. Jagannath, A., Raju, P. S. & Bawa, A. S. (2010). Comparative evaluation of bacterial cellulose (nata) as a cryoprotectant and carrier support during the freeze drying process of probiotic lactic acid bacteria. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 43,1197-1203. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2010.03.009 Jorfi, M., & Foster, E. J. (2015). Recent advances in nanocellulose for biomedical applications. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.doi: 10.1002/APP.41719 Lin, S. P., Calvar, I. L., Catchmark, J. M., Liu, J. R., Demirei, A., & Cheng, K. C. (2013). Biosynthesis, production and applications of bacterial cellulose. Cellulose, 20:2191–2219, doi 10.1007/s10570-013-9994-3 Lisdiyanti, P., Katsura, K., Potacharoen, W., Navarro, R. R., Yamada, Y., Uchimura, T., & Komagata, K. (2003). Diversity of acetic acid bacteria in Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. Microbiol. Cult. Coll, 19(20), 91-99. Marsh, K., & Bugusu, B. (2007). Food Packaging—Roles, materials, and environmental issues. Journal of Food Science, 72(3). 39-55, doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00301.x Masaoka, S., Ohe, T., & Sakota, N., (1993). Production of cellulose from glucose by Acetobacter xylinum. Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, 75(1), 18-22. doi:10.1016/0922338X(93)90171-4 Melliawati, R. (2008). The evaluation of carrier material for increasing qualities of gel inoculum for nata de coco. Biodiversitas, 9, 255-258. Mohammad, S. M., Rahman, N. A., Khalil, M. S., & Abdullah, S. R. S. (2014). An overview of biocellulose production using Acetobacter xylinum culture. Advances in Biological Research, 8 (6), 307-31. doi: 10.5829/idosi.abr.2014.8.6.1215. Mohammad, S. M., Rahman, N. A., Khalil, M. S., & Abdullah, S. R. S. (2016). Optimization production of biocellulose by Acetobacter xylinum 0416 using response surface methodology. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Norliza_Abdrahman2/publication/301785991_Optimizatio n_Production_of_Biocellulose_by_Acetobacter_Xylinum_0416_Using_Response_Surface_Met hodology/links/5728293e08ae262228b45b22.pdf. Nugroho, D. A & Aji, P. (2015). Characterization of nata de coco produced by fermentation of immobilized Acetobacter xylinum. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia, 3, 278–282. doi: 10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.01.053 Sainz, F., Mas, A., & Torija, M. J., (2016). Draft genome sequence of Acetobacter malorum CECT 7742, a strain isolated from strawberry vinegar. Genome Announc., 4(3):e00620-16. doi:10.1128/genomeA.00620-16. Sheykhnazari, S., Tabarsa, T., Ashori, A., Shakeri, A., & Golalipour, M. (2011). Bacterial synthesized cellulose nanofibers; Effects of growth times and culture mediums on the structural characteristics. Carbohydrate Polymers, 86, 1187–119. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.06.011. Sukara, E., & Melliawati, R. (2014). Potential values of bacterial cellulose for industrial applications. Jurnal Selulosa, 4(1), 7–16. Yong, J. W. H., Ge L., Ng, Y. F, & Tan, S. N. (2009). The chemical composition and biological properties of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water. Molecules 14, 5144-5164.
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BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY CONTRIBUTION TO REDUCE CO2 IN THE ATMOSPHERE 5: CO2 ABSORPTION OF HIGHLAND AND LOWLAND TREE SPECIES AT DIFFERENT LEVEL OF LIGHT INTENSITIES Nuril Hidayati* and Titi Juhaeti Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Biological diversity can make a significant contribution to reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Forest ecosystem can both be sources and sinks of CO2. Thus, the trees in a forest stand form an essential part in the functioning of the terrestrial biosphere, especially in the carbon cycle. Yet tree photosynthesis is far less studied than crop photosynthesis because of the large number of species and difficulty in measuring photosynthesis of entire trees or of forest stands. This research aims to assess the contribution of biological diversity in the absorption of carbondioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere by analyzing the physiological characteristics that are related to CO2 absorption such as photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance, leaf chlorophyll content of tree species native to tropical highland and lowland forest ecosystems at different light intensities. This research was conducted at Cibinong Science Center LIPI. Two treatment factors applied were shading levels (0%, 55%, 75%) and tree species. The experiment was arranged in randomized block design with five replicates. Result of the experiment revealed that there was a wide range of variation of CO2 assimilation rate between tree species. The overall CO2 absorption rate in the range of 3 and 37 µmolm-2s-1, which the highest rate was reached by Nyamplung tree (37 µmolm-2s-1), followed by Kopo tree (28 µmolm-2s-1) at 0% shade. Highland trees performed better at lower light intensities or shade condition (55% and 75% shade) and lowland trees performed better under higher light intensity (0% shade). The rate of CO2 assimilation was affected by incident radiation and thus the photon flux (Q leaf). Correlation between CO2 assimilation and Q leaf under certain environmental condition was considerably high. Incident radiation and Q leaf also affected stomatal conductance and thus rate of transpiration Keywords: biological diversity, CO2, photosynthesis, light intensity Introduction Forest ecosystem can be both sources and sinks of CO2. Deforestation is the source of between 10% and 30% of global CO2 emission annually. Efforts to reduce these emissions must therefore be considered as part of any strategy for Indonesia to participate in global efforts to reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. Sustainable forest management, afforestation, reforestation and agroforestry appear to be the best mitigation options. Biological diversity can make a significant contribution to reduce the build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Each year about 60 gigatonnes (GT) of carbon (C) are taken up and released by land-based ecosystems. These natural fluxes are large compared to the approximately 6.3 GT being emmited from fossil fuels and industrial processes, and about 1.6 GT per year from deforestation (CBD, 2008). Thus, trees in a forest stand form an essential part in the functioning of the terrestrial biosphere, especially in the carbon cycle. Yet, tree photosynthesis is far less studied than crop The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 190
photosynthesis because of the large number of species and difficulty in measuring photosynthesis of entire trees or of forest stands. A reliable method for restoration of forest, reforestation, afforesttation, is using native tree species. The trees which are suitable for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)’s purpose should have the following characteristics; (1) seedling that can adapt easily to open sites, after transplanting from shade (nurseries) to the sunlit conditions; (2) fast-growing species that is able to compete with weeds and fern (Ashton, 1998); (3) tree species that have high CO2 assimilation capacity and long live. However, these physiological characteristics differ widely among tree species. In order to attain successful reforestation, it is necessary to carefully select appropriate trees based on these characteristics. For evaluation of the appropriate trees, physiological (photosynthesis, transpiration) characteristics are suitable indicators (Ashton, 1998; Takahashi et al., 2005; Takahashi et al., 2006). Variance in CO2 assimilation rate is large among trees grown under sunlit conditions not only across the continental transect but also across tropical climate regions (Matsumoto et al., 2003). Fastgrowing trees often have relatively high CO2 assimilation rate in tropical climate zone suggesting that CO2 assimilation rate can be an indicator for evaluating fast-growing characteristics (Press et al., 1996; Matsumoto et al., 2003). In this study, we examine physiological characteristics of tree species native to humid highland and lowland forest ecosystems. This research aims to provide informations on tree characteristics related to CO2 absorption and the effect of light intensity by analyzing physiological characteristics (CO2 absorption, transpiration, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll content). Materials and Methods This ex-situ research was conducted at Cibinong Science Center LIPI. Tree species that consist of species native to lowland and highland forest ecosystem at seedling phase approximately 1 year old with the height ranged from 50 cm to 150 cm were planted under three microclimate conditions or three different levels of black paranet shading 0%, 55%, and 75%. The list of tree species is presented at Table 1 and microclimate conditions under three light conditions is presented at Table 2. Table 1. List of tree species native to lowland and highland used in this study No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Local Name Ketapang Nyamplung Suren Mahoni Jati Klon-4 Jati Klon-L Trembesi Akasia 1 Akasia 2 Rasamala Jirak Gede Huru Meuhmeul Kopo Pasang Batarua
Species Terminalia catappa Calophyllum imophyllum Toona sureni Swietenia mahagoni Tectona grandis Klon-4 Tectona grandis Klon-L Samanea saman Acacia mangium Acacia crassicarpa Altingia excelsa Symplocos fassiculata Litsea sp1 Eugeina opaca Quersus lineata
Family Combretaceae Clusiaceae Meliaceae Meliaceae Verbenaceae Verbenaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Hamamelidaceae Symplocaceae Lauraceae Myrtaceae Fagaceae
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Table 2. Microclimate condition at three different shade used in this study Parameters Quantum on leaf surface (Qleaf: µmolm-2s-) Soil Moisture (%) Relave Humidity (%) Air Temperature (oC) Light Intensity (Lux) Q Leaf (µmolm-2s-1)
0% Shade 900 – 1700
55% Shade 500 – 900
75% Shade 100 – 500
65 65 32 8978.0 700 - 1300
84 71 31 6512.5 400-700
85 73 30 4342.5 100 – 400
Simultaneous measurements of CO2 assimilation, stomatal conductance and transpiration were conducted by using portable LCi Photosynthesis System (ADC Bioscientific Ltd.) which is shown in Figure 1. The measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake is a direct method of measuring carbon exchange. This measurement of CO2 exchange involved enclosure methods which is enclosure of a leaf in a transparent chamber. The rate of CO2 assimilation by the leaf enclosed is determined by measuring the change in the CO2 concentration of the air flowing across the chamber. In this close system air is pumped from the chamber enclosing a leaf into an Infra Red Gas Analyzer (IRGA) which continuously records the CO2 concentration of the system. The air is then recycled back to the chamber. No air leaves or enters the system. When the leaf in the chamber is photosynthesizing, the CO2 concentration in the system will decline until the CO2 compensation point of photosynthesis is reached. The rate of CO2 assimilation is equal to the change in the amount of CO2 in the system per unit time (Long & Hallgren, 1993).
Figure 1. LCi Photosynthesis System (ADC Bioscientific Ltd.) (left) and Leaf chamber (right) Rate of CO2 assimilation was measured under certain range of CO2 concentrations, photon flux, and temperature (Table 3). For measurement of physiological characteristic, a fully expanded (considered young) and relatively old leaves were chosen per sampling. Three different individual plant of each species were measured. Simultaneous measurements of microclimate, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and chlorophyll content were conducted. The measuring time for each species range from 9 to 11 am under completely clear sky. Air temperature and relative humidity were measured using digital thermohygrometer AS ONE TH-321; soil pH and moisture content were measured using soil tester; and light intensity was measured by using Lux meter Luxor. Leaf chlorophyll content was measured using chlorophyll meter SPAD-502 (Minolta Co.Ltd., Osaka, Japan).
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Table 3. Parameter recorded at the measurement Symbols
Parameters
Unit
c ref c’an ∆c e ref e’n ∆e Qleaf T ch A
CO2 reference CO2 analysis The difference of CO2 H2O reference H2O analysis The difference of H2O Photon flux density Chamber temperature Rate of CO2 assimilation Rate of transpiration CO2 concentration inside stomata CO2 Stomatal conductance
E ci gs
vpm vpm vpm mbar mbar mbar µmolm-2s-1 o C µmolm-2s-1
Average recorded values 0 - 400 0 - 400 0 - 100 0 - 100 0 - 100 0-5 0 - 1500 5 - 43 0 - 40
Average reference values 400 400 80 20 20 2 0 - 1650
mmolm-2s-1 vpm
0 - 10 0 - 400
0 - 15
molm-2s-1
0.00 – 2.00
-10 - 100
Results and Discussion Table 4 represents the growth rate of plant height and diameter at three levels of shading. The increase of plant height varied with plant species and light intensity levels. The highest rate of plant height increment occurred at 75% shade or low light intensity. Meanwhile the highest rate of plant diameter increment occurred at 55% shade or medium light intensity. Some tree species showed high height growth rate such as Acasia mangium (0.675 cm/d), Samanea saman (0.528 cm /d) and Jati Klon-L (0.521 cm/d) and also high diameter growth rate such as Jati Klon-L (0.073 cm/d), Samanea saman (0.072 cm/d) and Jati Klon-4 (0.055 cm/d). The highest rate of plant diameter increment occurred at 55% shade. Under such environmental condition, trees native to lowland performed better, in terms of plant height and diameter growth rate, compared to that of highland. Table 4. The growth rate of tree species under there levels of light intensities Tree Species Ketapang Jati Klon-4 Jati Klon-L Rasamala Suren Mahoni Samanea saman Acasia mangium
Height rate (cm/d) 0% 55% 75% 0.339 0.301 0.256 0.385 0.468 0.432 0.304 0.495 0.521 0.113 0.239 0.289 0.234 0.300 0.329 0.331 0.424 0.218 0.444 0.518 0.528 0.377 0.675 0.606
Diameter rate (mm/d) 0% 55% 75% 0.046 0.041 0.026 0.048 0.055 0.041 0.048 0.073 0.057 0.025 0.037 0.027 0.049 0.050 0.044 0.048 0.053 0.040 0.072 0.061 0.043 0.028 0.037 0.034
Physiological characteristics relate to CO2 absorption varied with plant species and light intensity. There was an indication that some tree species more effective assimilate CO2 at high light intensity such as Nyamplung which showed the highest rate (+ 37 µmolm-2s-1), Kopo (+ 27 µmolm-2s1 ) and Acasia mangium (+ 16 µmolm-2s-1). Some tree species more effective assimilate CO2 at lower light intensity such as Jati Klon-L (+ 20 µmolm-2s-1), Jati Klon-4 (+ 20 µmolm-2s-1), Suren (+ 20 µmolm-2s-1), and Rasamala (+ 19.5 µmolm-2s-1). In most species under study assimilation of CO2 were higher at 75 % shade (Figure 2). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 193
Photosynthesis (umol/m2/s)
There was also an indication that some tree species native to highland forest ecosystems showed lower rate of growth as well as lower rate of CO2 assimilation such as Huru, Jirak, Rasamala, Pasang Batarua and Mahoni. Meanwhile some tree species showed higher rate of growth as well as higher rate of CO2 assimilation such as Jati Klon-L, Jati Klon-4, Acasia mangium and Samania saman than others (Table 4 and Figure 2). It is known that light intensity and air temperature affect stomatal opening and rate of transpiration. Transpiration rate increase with the increase of light intensity. In this study there was an obvious correlation between these factors. Under full light (0% shade) transpiration rate reached the highest up to + 13 molm-2s-1 (Acacia mangium), + 13 molm-2s-1 (Kopo) and + 12 molm-2s-1 (Jati Klon – L) which were considerably very high. There was a similar pattern between transpiration and CO 2 assimilation where trees with higher rate of growth showed higher rate of CO 2 assimilation and transpiration than others (Table 4, Figure 2 and Figure 3). All trees showed the highest rate of transpiration at 0% shade, followed by 55% and the lowest were at 75% shade. 40 35 30 25 20
0%
15 10
55%
5
75%
0
Tree Species
Transpiration (mol/m2/s)
Figure 2. Variation in CO2 absorption rate of different tree species at different light intensity 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
0% 55% 75%
Tree Species
Figure 3. Variation in transpiration rate of tree species at different light intensity The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 194
Stomatal conductance (mol/m2/s)
Stomatal conductances varied with radiation intensities. The values of the conductance ranged from 0.1 to 1.6 molm-2s-1. In most tree species stomatal conductance was relatively high at high light intensity (0% shade), it is mean that leaf stomata open more diwely under high light intensity up to a certain level. Higher value of stomatal conductance resulted in higher transpiration rate. This positive correlation is presented in Figure 5. Acacia mangium and T. grandis Klon–4 at 0% shade showed the highest value of stomatal conductance. Meanwhile A. excelsa and Q. lineata at 0% and 55% showed the lowest stomatal conductances (Figure 4). 1.80 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00
0% 55%
Tree Species
Figure 4. Variation in stomatal conductance of tree species at different light intensity
Transpiration (mol/m2/s)
14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00
y = 4.172x + 4.722 R² = 0.350
4.00 2.00 0.00 0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
Stomatal Conductance (molm-2s-1) Figure 5. Correlation between transpiration and stomatal conductance Leaf chlorophyll content determine leaf CO2 assimilation. The fact that overall leaf chlorophyll content was higher at 75% shade, followed by 55% and 0% shade, indicate that leaf chlorophyll is effectively assimilated at lower light intensity and temperature. It might indicate that microclimate under 0% shade was considered unfavourable for leaf chlorophyll synthesis.
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Chlorophyll (g/l)
Variation in leaf chlorophyll content amongs tree species could be detected that group of tree species that showed lower rate of CO2 assimilation appeared to show lower leaf chlorophyll content such as Kianak, Jirak, Huru, Puspa, Kibeusi dan Kopo (Figure 6). It is known that leaf chlorophyll assimilation is affected by light. At dark condition chlorophyll b is higher than chlorophyll a. Therefore, under higher shade condition, the ratio of a/b chlorophyll was lower, although in this sudy the difference was not significant due to the small difference of light intensity.
0.010 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.000
N 0%
N 50%
N 75%
Species Figure 6. Total leaf chlorophyll content of tree species at different light intensity 40
Leaf Carbohydrate (g/l)
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Species
Figure 7. Leaf carbohydrate content at of tree species at different light intensity Leaf carbohydrate content is known higher under higher light levels. The result of this tudy also revealed carbohydrate conten of leaf at higher ligh intensity was higher than that of at lower light intensity. The highest leaf carbohydrate content was showed by Samanea saman under 0% and 55% shade, followed by Symplocos fassiculata, Terminalia catappa, and Calophyllum imophyllum at 0% shade (Figure 7). It was detected that tree species with higher rate of CO2 assimilation (photosynthesis), which are mostly fast growing and native to lowland ecosystem, showed higher leaf carbohydrate content (Figure 2 and 7). The significant differences in the response of physiological characteristics to environmental conditions were represented by tree species. The response of physiological characteristic showed typical acclimation to sunlit condition such as increasing CO2 assimilation rate. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 196
Under such environmental conditions CO2 assimilation was affected more by external factors (i.e. solar radiation) than by the leaf stomatal character although some theory stated that stomatal conductance correlates with photosynthetic capacity (Baldocchi, 1994). Under certain range of Q leaf, there was a linear relationship between CO2 assimilation Q leaf. This findings agree with the report by Long and Hallgren (1993). There was positive correlation between CO2 assimilation and leaf chlorophyll content although the value was not significant. However this relationship need to be studied more thouroughly under controlled environment. The plasticity of stomatal conductance (gs) was little in the range 0.030 molm-2s-1 - 0.263 molm2 -1 s in lowland environment condition under relatively shade and low temperature and in the range 0.043 molm-2s-1 - 0.223 molm-2s-1 in highland environment condition (Hidayati et al., 2012; Hidayati et al., 2013). Findings were reported that gs of fast–growing of S. balangeran and A. mangium were 0.49 molm-2s-1 (Takahashi et al., 2005; Takahashi et al., 2006) and 1.3 molm-2s-1 (Matsumoto et al., 2003). The high gs play a role for high capacity of ventilation due to high transpiration rate in open site, being able to avoid extremely increase of leaf temperature. Abiotic factors such as light, temperature, CO2 concentration, vapour pressure deficit and nutrient status have a major effect on net photosynthesis, and thus on growth and productivity. All environmental conditions that tend to reduce photosynthetic rate (e.g. low light, low temperature, low nutrient availability) reduce the photosynthetic carbon gain (Ceulmens & Sauger, 1991). The results of this study agree with some findings that leaf photosynthesis in trees varies with maximum values under natural conditions ranged from 3 to 30 µmolm-2s-. The values varies from 2 to 25 µmolm-2s-1 for deciduous broad leafed trees, from 2 to 10 µmolm-2s- for coniferous trees, from 3 to 6 µmolm-2s- for certain broad leafed species such as Quersus and Fagus, more than 25 µmolm-2s- for poplar, oil palms and eucalypt (Ceulmens & Sauger, 1991; Raghavendra, 1991). Photosynthesis of Shorea was reported ranged from 7 to 21 µmolm-2s-, Shorea balangeran 21.9 µmolm-2s- in Central Kalimantan, Acacia mangium 24.2 µmolm-2s-, Hopea odorata 16 µmolm-2s-, Ochroma lagopus 27.8 µmolm-2s- (Chazdon et al., 1996; Press et al., 1996; Matsumoto et al., 2003). Photosynthesis of tropical woody plants for the first stage of succession ranged from 10 to 20 µmolm-2s- , scarcely 25 µmolm-2s(Larcher, 1995). This study suggested that morphological and photosynthetic characteristic of leaves are suitable indicators for evaluation of the appropriate tree species,. In general, sun leaf has higher light saturated CO2 assimilation rate and lower apparent quantum yield of CO2 assimilation rate than shade leaf (Boardman, 1977; Larcher, 1995; Press et al., 1996). Shade leaf has high light-use efficiency for CO2 assimilation under low light condition due to high accumulation light harvesting system in photosynthesis. However, under open condition, shade leaf does not have high light-use efficiency and the reduction of CO2 assimilation rate often occurs due to light oxidation by excess light energy called photoinhibition (Clearwater et al., 1999). Furthermore, Press et al. (1996) demonstrated that the degree of photosynthetic plasticity in response to changes of light regimes was high in the most-light demanding species, therefore it is recommendable to select trees which have high CO2 assimilation rate of sunlit leaf and high degree of plasticity. Some reports revealed that correlation between stomatal conductance and transpiration is closer compared to correlation between stomatal conductance and CO2 absorption (Hidayati et al., 2011; Hidayati et al., 2015). Increase of light intensity is accompanied by the increase of temperature and thus the increase of leaf transpiration. This positive correlation occure up to a particular level of light intensity (Salisbury & Ross, 1992). Some important remarks should be made about the correct interpretation of the values of photosynthetic rate. First, growth conditions as well as the experimental methods have important implication on the CO2 exchange rate that are measured. Plant raised under natural conditions and/or measured in situ tend to have higher CO2 exchange rate than do plants grown under controlled environment such as greenhouse condition. Therefore specification on tree size, measurements conditions and methods used are mentioned in this paper. In many cases net photosynthesis has been found to be poorly correlated with growth rate for some reasons, i.e difference in leaf area, pattern of carbon partitioning and variation in wood and root The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 197
respiration rate. The harvestable product of a tree (the stem) depends not only on the photosynthetic carbon uptake by the foliage but also on respiration of the various organs and carbon investment into renewable organs (leaves, fine roots) and non harvestable organs (branches and large roots). Consequently, there is no obvious relationship between photosynthesis and biomass production. However, a fast growing tree needs a high photosynthesis, but the reverse is not necessarily true (Raghavendra, 1991).
Conclusion Different microclimate conditions during the measurements resulted in variance CO2 assimilation rate. Incident radiation effected the rate of CO2 assimilation and thus rate of transpiration. Correlation between stomatal conductance and transpiration under certain environmental condition was considerably high. In environmental condition under study, tree species native to lowland forest ecosystem perform better compared to species native to highland ecosystem, in terms of growth rate, rate of CO2 assimilation and transpiration. Acknowledgement The authors thank to The Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Research Center for Biology, Halimun National Park, Sukawayana, Palabuhan Ratu conservation Forest and some assistants who helped the field works. References Ashton, M. S. (1998). Seedling ecology of mixed-dipterocarp forest. In S. Appanah & J. M. Thurnbull (Eds.), Review of Dipterocarps, Taxonomy, Ecology and Silviculture. CIFOR, Bogor, (pp. 8998). Baldocchi, D. (1994). An analytical solution for coupled leaf photosynthesis and stomata1 conductance models. Tree Physiology 14, 1069-1079. Heron Publishing-Victoria, Canada Boardman, N. K. (1997). Comparative photosynthesis of sun and shade plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol., 28, 57-107. Ceulmens, R. J., & Sauger, B. (1991). Photosynthesis. In AS Raghavendra (Ed), Physiology of Trees, (pp. 21-50). Wiley & Sons Publ. New York 262p. Clearwater, M. J., Susilawati, R., Effendi, R., & van Gardingen, P. R. (1999). Rapid photosynthetic acclimation of Shorea johorensis seedlings after logging disturbance in Central Kalimantan. Oceanologia, 121, 478-488. Chazdon R. L., Pearcy, R. W, Lee, D. W., & Fetcher, N. (1996). Photosynthetic responses of tropical forest plants to contrasting light environments. In S. S. Mulkey, R. L. Chazdon & A. P. Smith (Eds). Tropical forest plant ecophysiology. (pp. 5 – 55). Chapman and Hall, New York. Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD). (2008). Biodiversity: A Missing Link for Mitigating Climate Change. World Environment Day Celebrated in Montreal (Press Release). Hidayati, N., Juhaeti, T., & Mansur, M. (2012). Biological diversity contribution to reducing CO2 in the atmosphere: CO2 absorption of tree species in lowland forest ecosystem of Pelabuhan RatuWest Java. Berita Biologi, 11, 113-122. Hidayati, N., Mansur, M., & Juhaeti, T. (2013). Physiological characteristics related to carbon sequestration of tree species in highland forest ecosystem of Halimun-Salak National Park. Journal of Forestry Research, 9 (2), 49 – 62. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 198
Hidayati, N., Reza, M., Mansur, M. & Juhaeti, T. (2011). Serapan karbondioksida (CO2) jenis-jenis pohon di Taman Buah “Mekar Sari” Bogor, kaitannya dengan potensi mitigasi gas rumah kaca. Jurnal Biologi Indonesia, 7 (1), 133-146. Hidayati, N., Juhaeti, T. & Syarif, F. (2015). Respon fisiologis dan pertumbuhan Kakao (Theobroma cacao), Kopi (Coffea arabica), Karet (Hevea brasiliensis) dan Cengkih (Syzigium aromaticum): Fase bibit terhadap naungan dan pemupukan. Jurnal Biologi Indonesia, 11(1), 31-40. Larcher, W. (1995). Physiological plant ecology (3rd). Springer, Berlin. Long, S. P. & Hallgren, J. E. (1993). Measurement of CO2 assimilation by plants in the field and the laboratory. In D. O. Hall, M. O. Scurlock, H. R. Bolhar-Nordenkampf, R. C. Leegood & S. P. Long (Eds.). Photosynthesis and production in a changing environment: A field and laboratory manual. Chapman & Hall. 464 p. Matsumoto, Y., Maruyama, Y., Uemura, A., Shigenaga, H., Okuda, S., Harayama, H., Kawarasaki, H., Ang, L. H., & Yap, S. K. (2003). Gas exchange and turgon maintenance of tropical tree species in Pasoh forest reserve. In T. Okuda,, N. Manokaran, Y. Matsumoto, K. Niiyama, S. C. Thomas, P. S. Ashton (Eds.). Ecological of Lowland Rain Forest in Southeast Asia. (pp. 241-250). Springer-Verlag, Tokyo. Press, M. C., Brown, N. D., Baker, M. G., & Zipperlen, S. W. (1996). Photosynthetic responses to light in tropical rain forest tree seedlings. In M. D. Swaine (Ed.). The Ecology of Tropical Forest Tree Seedlings. (pp. 41-58). UNESCO, Paris. Raghavendra, A. S. (1991). Physiology of trees. Wiley & Sons Publ. New York 262p. Salisbury, B. and Ross, C.W. (1992). Plant Physiology. Wadsworth Publishing Company : 682p Takahashi, K., Osaki, M., Shibuya, M., Tamai, Y., Saito, H., Swido, L. H., Tuah, S. J., Susanto, A. R., Pidjath, C. & Erosa, P. (2005). Growth phenology and photosinthhetic traits of tree species native to peat-swamp forest. (pp: 68-70). Annual Report: Environmental Conservation and Land Use Management of Wetland Ecosystem in Southeast Asia. Takahashi, K., Shibuya, M., Tamai, Y., Saito H., Swido, L. H., Tuah, S. J., Susanto, A. R. & Erosa, P. (2006). Morphological and photosynthetic characteristics of shorea selanica and s. Balangeran sapling planted at open and understory conditions on peat soil in central kalimantan. (pp: 6268). Annual Report: Environmental Conservation and Land Use Management of Wetland Ecosystem in Southeast Asia
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CHARACTERISTICS AND CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT OF THE KIBACETA (Clausena excavata Burm. F.) LEAF UNDER DIFFERENT LIGHT INTENSITY IN PANANJUNG PANGANDARAN-NATURE RESERVE Tia Setiawati* and Anis Susilawati Departement of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, 45363 Jatinangor, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract This study was conducted to determine the characteristics of anatomy, morphology and chlorophyll content of Kibaceta (Clausena excavata) leaf based on the differences in light intensity at the Pananjung Pangandaran Nature Reserve. The method used was a survey method for determining the location of sampling. The location was determined by the presence of C. excavata plants namely in two areas that have a different light intensity. Two of these locations were Cikamal (the open area with light intensity of 52,500 lux) and Ciborok (the shaded area with light intensity of 233 lux). The results showed that the average thickness of leaves, leaf area, stomata density, thickness of palisade and chlorophyll content of leaves in the open area (Cikamal) were 0.14 mm, 10.08 cm2, 483.00 mm2 and 32.44 μm, and 14.72 CCI, respectively, whereas in the shaded area (Ciborok) were 0.11 mm, 13.85 cm2, 246.66 mm2, 27.88 μm and 33.84 CCI, respectively Keywords: chlorophyll content , density of stomata, , open area, shaded area
Introduction The leaves of plants contain a variety of nutrients and non-nutritional (secondary metabolites), such as vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, beta-carotene and chlorophyll. Consumption of vegetable materials (leaves) often associated with reduced risk of suffering from degenerative diseases, especially coronary heart disease. It is not independent of the content of bioactive compounds from the herb. Natural antioxidant compounds found in large quantities in green leaves is chlorophyll. Some research indicates that chlorophyll and its derivatives have the ability as an antioxidant and antimutagenic (Marquez et al., 2005; Ferruzzi et al., 2006). Availability of high chlorophyll in nature and its biological properties, an opportunity to be developed as a supplement ingredient (Palupi et al., 2007). Meanwhile, the chlorophyll-based supplement that circulated in Indonesia almost all imported products that have relatively high selling price (Nurdin et al., 2009). One type of herbs that are often used by people, i.e Clausena excavata known as Kibaceta. Clausena excavata leaves have numerous ingredients medicinal compounds such as alkaloids, coumarin, carbazole, and flavonoids that are useful as anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-HIV, anti-malarial and other (Arbab et al., 2011). The use of C. excavata as anticancer, antibiotics, antimalarial and others is the beginning of a new discovery so that intensive study of various aspects still to be done. In nature, these plants still grow wild, so that cultivation should be done in order to fulfill the needs of research materials and consumer needs of the patient. Research on cultivation aspects are closely linked to research on this plant is still not much done. One of the factors that affect plant growth is light intensity. Plant responses to light intensity difference are by making changes in the The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 200
anatomy, morphology and physiology characteristics of leaves as a form of adaptation so that it can be used as indicators of environmental changes. Besides chlorophyll content, leaf characteristics that are closely related to the intensity of light are the thickness of leaves, leaf area, the thickness of palisade tissue and density of stomata.
Materials and Methods The materials used in this study were distilled water, transparent nail polish, tissue, envelopes, paper labels and leaves of kibaceta (Clausena excavata). This research was a quantitative descriptive approach. The sampling technique using a survey method. Location research was based on the existence of Clausena excavata plants in areas that have a different light intensity, which is an open area (Cikamal) and shaded area (Ciborok). At each location, leaf samples were taken as many as three pieces of the third leaf of bud from three different individuals. Leaf characteristics observed were the thickness of leaves, leaf area, the thickness of palisade, stomatal density, and chlorophyll content. Leaf thickness measurement using a micrometer screw. Leaf clamped between a gap in the tool, then the lock is rotated until it "clicks" and note the number that appears on the screen (Cahyaningsih, 2015). Leaf area was measured using the gravimetric method, by weighing the replica of the leaves that have been made, and then compared with the average weight of a standard paper (size of 1 cm2). Leaf area was calculated based on the equation (Sitompul & Guritno, 1995):
The thickness of palisade tissue was measured by making preparations of leaf transverse section was observed under a light microscope at a magnification of 400x which has been equipped micrometers on the ocular lens. Observations of stomata density using a replica method (Haryanti, 2010) transparent nail polish applied to the leaf surface, allowed to dry, then spread transparent nail polish peeled away slowly. Replica of stomata placed on a glass slide and examined under a light microscope with a magnification of 400x. Stomata density calculation using the following formula:
Note: Field wide of view (magnification of 400x)
= ¼ π d2 = ¼ x 3.14 x (0.5) 2 = 0.19625 mm2
Measurement of chlorophyll content using a chlorophyll meter. Measurement was repeated 5 times on the same leaf samples then were averaged (Cahyaningsih, 2015). Results and Discussion Observation of leaf thickness, leaf area, the density of stomata, thick palisade, and the chlorophyll content of Clausena excavata leaves growing in the open area (Cikamal) with a light intensity of 52,500lux and the shaded area (Ciborok) with a light intensity of 223 lux, can be seen in Table 1. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 201
Table 1. The average thickness of leaves, leaf area, stomata density, the thickness of palisade, and chlorophyll content of Clausena excavata leaves in the areas with different light intensity. No. 1 2 3 4 5
Parameters Thickness of leaf (mm) Leaf area (cm2) Stomatal density Thickness of palisade (mm) Chlorophyll content (CCI)
Open area (52,500 lux) 0.14 10.08 483 32.44 14.72
Shaded area (223 lux) 0.11 13.85 246.66 27.88 33.84
Table 1 showed that the average thickness of leaves in the open area (12.14 mm) was higher than the shaded area (0.11 mm). This condition is a form of adaptation of plants to direct sunlight for a long time. The leaves tend to minimize the loss of water during the process of evapotranspiration due to high light intensity by increasing the thickness of leaves. The leaves of plants that are in areas that lack light will tend to be thin to maximize the absorption of light by chlorophyll. It is intended in order to more solar radiation is passed down so that the light distribution be spread evenly on the underside of the leaf. The decline of leaves thickness was accompanied by a widening or increasing of leaf area resulting in more light reception (Sugito, 1999). In addition, the leaves on an open area have pale green color (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Comparison of Clausena excavate leaves color in the open area (left) and the shaded area (right) The average leaf area of Clausena excavata in the shaded area (13.85 cm2) was higher than in the open area (10.08 cm2) (Table 1). The increase in leaf area is one form of plant adaptation to the conditions of low sunlight penetration in an effort to maximize the capture of limited light. Evans and Pooter (2001) reported that plants that grow in low light environments will tend to increase the leaf area as a way to expand the area for light capture so that the photosynthetic capacity will increase. Table 1 showed that the average density of stomata of Clausena excavata leaves in the open area 483.00 mm2) was higher than in the shaded area (246.66 mm2). Stomata density value in an open area classified as medium, because <500 mm2. Tambaru et al. (2011) stated that the density of stomata categorized as low if <300 / mm2, medium if 300-500 / mm2 and high if > 500 / mm2. In the adaptation, the plant will increase the number of stomata in order to be optimal transpiration process. Transpiration serves to maintain turgidity of plant cells to remain in optimum condition and accelerate the rate of transport of nutrients through the xylem vessels (Lakitan, 2004). Plants that have a high density of stomata which will have a higher transpiration rate than plants with a low density of stomata (Lestari, 2006). Croxdale (2000) revealed that the density of stomata each plant will vary depending on environmental factors, especially the intensity of light and moisture. Plants that grow in dry areas and get full sunlight exposure will have a greater stomatal density compared to a plant that grows in The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 202
wet areas and shaded. Full irradiation conditions, low soil moisture accompanied with higher temperatures will increase the frequency of stomata. Observations of stomata preparation of Clausena excavata leaf showed the type of parasitic, i.e the stomata surrounded two subsidiary cells that are parallel to the longitudinal axis of pore and guard cells (Figure 2). In Figure 2 seems also that the frequency of stomata on leaves of C. excavata in the open area higher than in the shaded area. This was indicated by the number of stomata more in the open area.
Figure 2. Stomata density of Clausena excavata leaf in the open area (left) and the shaded area (right) Leaves in the shaded area were thinner than on leaves in the open area (Table 1; Figure 3). Leaves become thin due to the reduction in the number of palisade tissue layer and mesophyll cells (Fitter & Hay, 1998; Taiz & Zeiger, 2002). In Table 1, the leaf palisade tissue in an open area (32.44 μm) was thicker than in the shaded area (27.88 µm). The existence of palisade tissue can increase the absorption of CO2 in the mesophyll tissue (Radwaan, 2007).
Figure 3. The palisade thickness of Clausena excavata leaf in the open area (left) and the shaded area (right) Table 1 showed that the chlorophyll content of leaves in the shaded area was higher (33.84 CCI) than in the open area (14.72 CCI). Salisbury & Ross (1995) reported that the chloroplasts in the shaded leaves will be arranged in a pattern that maximizes the absorption of light. While the leaves that grow in places with high light intensity can cause damage to the structure of chloroplasts so that the chlorophyll content becomes low. Marjenah (2001) stated that as a result of the limited light, the plant will stimulate the formation of chlorophyll to increase the efficiency of the capture of light, so that the content of chlorophyll in the leaves shaded become abundant.
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Conclusion The average thickness of the leaves, the density of stomata and palisade thickness of Clausena excavata leaves in the open area was higher than in the shaded area. The average leaf area and leaf chlorophyll content of Clausena excavata in the shaded area were higher than in the open area.
References Arbab, I. A., Abdul, A. B., Aspollah, M., Abdullah, R., Abdelwahab, S. I., Mohan, S., & Abdelmageed, A. H. A. (2011). Clausena excavata Burm. f. (Rutaceae): A Review of its Traditional Uses, Pharmacological and Phytochemical Properties. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 5(33), 7177-7184. Cahyaningsih, J. N. (2015). Hubungan karakteristik daun dengan akumulasi partikulat dan timbal (Pb) pada daun pohon Pterocarpus indicus Willd., Swietenia macrophylla King., dan Filicium decipiens (Wight & Arn) Thwaites di kawasan Taman Lansia kota Bandung. Skripsi. Univervitas Padjadjaran. Jatinangor. Croxdale, J. (2000). Stomatal patterning in Angiosperm. American Journal of Botany, 87, 1069-1080. Evans, J. R. & Pooter, H. (2001). Photosynthetic acclimation of plants to growth irradiance: the relative importance of specific leaf area and nitrogen partitioning in maximizing carbon gain. Plant Cell Environ, 24, 755-767. Ferruzzi, M. G., Böhm, V., Courtney, P. D., & Schwartz, S. J. (2006). Antioxidant and antimutagenic activity of dietary chlorophyll derivatives determined by radical scavenging and bacterial reverse mutagenesis assays. J Food Sci., 67, 2589–2595. doi: 10.1111/j.13652621.2002.tb08782.x Fitter, A. H., & Hay, R. K. M. (1992). Fisiologi lingkungan tanaman. Penerjemah: Andani, S. dan E. D. Purbayanti. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Haryanti, S. (2010). Respon pertumbuhan jumlah dan luas daun Nilam (Pogostemon cablin Benth.) pada tingkat naungan yang berbeda. Jurnal Respon Pertumbuhan Jumlah, (1), 20–26. Lakitan, B. (2004). Dasar-dasar fisiologi tumbuhan. Grafindo Persada. Jakarta: 203 hlm. Lestari, E. G. (2006). Hubungan antara kerapatan stomata dengan ketahanan kekeringan pada somaklon padi Gajahmungkur, Towuti, dan IR 64. Biodiversitas, 7(1), 44-48. Marjenah. (2001). Pengaruh perbedaan naungan di persemaian terhadap pertumbuhan dan respon morfologi dua jenis semai meranti. Jurnal Ilmiah Kehutanan ”Rimba Kalimantan”, 6(2), 2840. Marquez, U. M. L., Barros, R. M. C., & Sinnecker, P. (2005). Antioxidant activity of chlorophylls and their derivates. Food Research International, 38, 885-891.Nurdin, C., Kusharto, M., Tanziha, I., & Januwati, M. (2009). kandungan klorofil berbagai jenis daun tanaman dan Cu-turunan klorofil serta karakteristik fisiko-kimianya. Jurnal Gizi dan Pangan,4(1), 13- 19. Palupi, N. S., Zakaria, F. R., dan Prangdimurti, E. 2007. Pengaruh pengolahan terhadap nilai gizi pangan.Topik 8. Modul e-learning ENBP. Departemen Ilmu dan Tekonologi Pangan. Faperta – IPB, Bogor. Radwaan, U. A. A. (2007). Photosynthetic and leaf anatomical characteristics of the droughtresistant Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Seedlings. American-Eurasian of Journal Agricultural and Environmenal Science, 2(6), 680-688. Salisbury, F. B., & Ross, C., W. (1995). Fisiologi tumbuhan. Ed. Ke-4. Terjemahan. Bandung: Penerbit ITB. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 204
Sitompul, S. M, & Guritno, B. (1995). Analisis pertumbuhan tanaman. Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada University Press. Sugito, Y. (1999). Ekologi Tanaman. Fak. Pertanian UNIBRAW, Malang. Taiz, L., & Zeiger., E. (2002). Plant Physiology. Third Ed. Sunderland. Massachusetts. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publisher. Tambaru, E., Paembonan, S. A., Sanusi, D., & Umar, A. (2011). Karakter morfologi dan tipe stomata daun beberapa jenis pohon penghijauan hutan kota di kota Makassar. Program Pasca Sarjana Universitas Hasanuddin Makassar, Makassar.
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LABORATORY BIOASSAYS OF Metarhizium spp AND Beauveria spp AGAINST Tenebrio molitor LARVAE Anis Sri Lestari1* and Sujaya Rao2 1
Research Center for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia 2 Department of Crop Science, Oregon State University 4050 Cordley Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
Entomopathogenic fungi such as genera Metarhizium and Beauveria are known for their potential for controlling pest insects. Pathogenicity of those genera may be different against specific host insect. Hence, virulence assessment of each isolate of entomopathogenic fungi against particular type of insect is essential. Total twelve isolates with each six isolates of genus Beauveria and Metarhizium were tested for their virulence to Tenebrio molitor larvae using contact method. In four days post treatment of high concentration spore suspension, both genera Metarhizium and Beauveria began to cause larval mortality. Fungal treatment with Metarhizium infected all larva in seven and six days after dipped with low and high spore concentration, respectively. Meanwhile with Beauveria, all isolates caused 100% larval mortality post treated using high concentration. Keywords: Metarhizium; Beauveria; Tenebrio molitor; pathogenicity; entomopathogenic fungi
Introduction Metarhizium and Beauveria are cosmopolitan genera of entomopathogenic fungi mostly found in terrestrial ecosystems such as forest habitat and various agricultural landscapes. They have been isolated from wide range of insect hosts, thus, they provide ecological function in regulating insect population not only in subtropical but also tropical region (Tigano-Milani et al., 1995). Besides that, entomopathogenic fungi were often isolated from soil samples using soil baiting method. Tenebrio molitor or known as yellow mealworm are commonly used as bait for this isolation method (Zimmerman, 2007). Metarhizium and Beauveria have been evaluated for their virulence against various types and stages of insect pests such as wireworm (Ansari et al., 2009); granulate ambrosia beetle (Castrillo et al., 2013) and sweet potato weevil (Reddy et al., 2014). Association of entomopathogenic fungi to T. molitor have been studied to highlight the effect of different nutrients in fungal media in relation with (Savafi et al. 2007) and to observe immunity response against fungal pathogen infection (Moret et al., 2003). Additionally, Bharadwaj et al. (2011) documented the use of T. molitor larvae as bioassay probe to evaluate the virulence of Metarhizium brunneum against Ixodes scapularis, a vector for several diseases such as lyme disease. The use of T. molitor larvae are common to be used as to quantify the virulence of fungal entomopathogens or serve as bioassay probe due to its low price and accessibility in which they are available to be purchased in pet stores and biological store houses. Hence, when the target host subjected in screening tests against entomopathogens is arduous to be cultured, it may be substituted by T. molitor. In the previous study, many isolates of entomopathogenic fungi were isolated from red clover fields in Willamette Valley, OR (Lestari, 2016). Screening test is necessary to narrow down potential The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 206
fungal isolates to be tested against main target insect pest (clover root borer, Hylastinus obscurus). Therefore, this research is conducted to assess pathogenicity of entompathogenic fungi isolated in red clover fields against T. molitor larvae. Materials and Methods This research was conducted in Laboratory of Entomology, Department of Crop Science, Cordley Hall, Oregon State University, USA in October 2015. Fungal strains and preparation of fungal spores Twelve isolates contain six isolates genus Metarhizium and Beauveria isolated from red clover fields in Willamette Valley, OR were selected (Tabel 1.). All fungal isolates were grown on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) media for 12-14 days. Spore suspension of each isolate was prepared by adding sterile suspension of Tween 0.01% on to agar surface then the spore-attached media were gently scraped using a sterile inoculation loop letting the released spores diluted in to Tween suspension. Subsequently, the spore suspension of each isolate was counted and adjusted to two levels of concentrations: low and high spore concentrations: 4 x 105 and 4 x 106 spores/ml respectively. Mealworm (T. molitor larvae) Small mealworm larvae (size 0.25-0.5 inch) were obtained from New York Worms Long Island. Tabel 1. Strain list of fungal entomopathogen genus Beauveria and Metarhizium No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Isolate codes/species W1-Beauveria bassiana FD-Beauveria bassiana P1SlpC-Beauveria bassiana WH3LA-Beauveria pseudobassiana 32LA-Beauveria bassiana WH1SlpC-Beauveria bassiana G2LB-Metarhizium sp GR12LA-Metarhizium sp A4-Metarhizium brunneum W11LA-Metarhizium sp 1 SlpA-Metarhizium sp G1LA-Metarhizium sp
Isolation method/host Soil baiting Hylastinus obscurus Soil baiting Soil baiting Soil baiting Soil baiting Soil baiting Soil baiting Soil baiting Soil baiting Soil baiting Soil baiting
Bioassays Ten T. molitor larvae were dipped in each spore suspension of fungal strain for 5-7 seconds. After those treated larvae were air dried, they were then placed in a petriplate layered with filter paper (Whatmant#1). As for negative control ten larvae were exposed with sterile 0.01 % Tween suspension. The petriplates were kept in a dark chamber maintained in temperature 22 ± 1 oC and humidity 75%. Mealworm diet was frequently given once per two days. The experiment was assigned using Randomized Block Design and each spore concentration x each fungal strain was replicated four times. Within two weeks post-exposure, the plates were monitored daily for detection of dead larvae. Any dead larva found was placed on moistened filter paper to confirm cause of its death due to fungal infection by indicated from the growth of mycelium and/or spores from its cadaver. If it is necessary verification on fungal identification through microscopic morphological observation was conducted. Data analysis The number of dead larvae in each fungal treatment was recorded, counted and plotted in to line graph. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 207
Results and Discussion
Mortality percentage (%)
Bioassays of Beauveria spp. against T. molitor larvae Mortality responses showed in Day 5 after T. molitor larvae were exposed to low concentration of Beauveria bassiana isolates FD and 32 LA (Figure 1). It was noted that these two fungal isolates caused 100% mortality in Day 6 whereas other remaining isolates took longer time to infect T. molitor larvae. In spite that, after two weeks-fungal treatment, all Beauveria isolates had larval mortality responses more than 80%. 100 80 60 40 20 0 1
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Figure1. Mortality response of T. molitor larvae after treated with low spore concentration of B. bassiana and B. pseudobassiana strains
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Figure 2. Mortality responses of T. molitor larvae after treated with high spore concentration of B. bassiana and B. pseudobassiana strains The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 208
Mortality Percentage (%)
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Figure 3. Mortality responses of T. molitor larvae after treated with low spore concentration of M. brunneum and Metarhizium sp. strains
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Figure 4. Mortality responses of T. molitor larvae after treated with high spore concentration of M. brunneum and Metarhizium sp strains
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Different mortality responses showed as T. molitor larvae were treated at high level of fungal spore concentration (4x106 spores/ml). Apparently, more conidia or spores were able to cause greater larval mortality one day earlier compare to when they were exposed in low spore concentration. Beauveria bassiana isolates FD and 32 LA were among fungal treatments in causing mortality of T. molitor larvae in Day 4, yet, B. pseudobassiana isolate WH3LA had the highest larval mortality among all Beauveria isolates tested (Figure 2). Additionally, it is noteworthy that all fungal treatments at spore concentration 4 x 106 spores/ml infected all T. molitor larvae in Day 8 while in 4x105 spores/ml they were incapable to show similar larval mortality response. Bioassays of Metarhizium spp. against T. molitor larvae At low spore concentration, all fungal treatments of Metarhizium spp showed capability of causing mortality in Day 5 and appeared to infect all T. molitor larvae in Day 7 (Figure 3). All fungal isolates of Metarhizium spp with concentration level 4 x 106 spores/ml were able to cause larval mortality in Day 5 which was one day earlier compared to those exposed at concentration 4 x 10 5 spores/ml. All fungal treatments also showed their pathogenicity against all T. molitor in Day 7 after exposure (Figure 4). This research revealed that five isolates of B. bassiana and one isolate B. pseudobassiana tested demonstrated their virulence to T. molitor larvae. Additionally, all six Metarhizium isolates showed consistent pathogenicity in causing larval mortality either when they were exposed in low or high fungal spore concentration. This study’s result demonstrated similar trend to previous observation by Mora et al. (2016) at which higher level spore concentration of fungal treatments, more larval mortality occurred within faster period. In spite of that, compare to Mora’s research, our study showed greater larval mortality percentage on Metarhizium isolates. At approximately comparable level of spore concentration: 106 spores/ml, all Metarhizium isolates tested in this study infected all T. molitor larvae in two days shorter than in the previous research. Furthermore, different fungal strains displayed various mortality responses aside from the fact that they are similar species. Hence, it justifies that every isolate or strain of entomopathogens has diverse in virulence which is also suggested by Tanada et al. (1993). This study is presumably the first study of assessing pathogenicity of B. pseudobassiana against T. molitor larvae. Previous studies on virulence of B. pseudobassiana were observed, yet against Coleopteran adults of Ips sexdentatus and Ips typographus (Kocaçevik et al., 2016). In comparison with aforementioned previous study, B. pseudobassiana in this study seemed to have better virulence by causing 100% larval mortality one day earlier. However, not only used different insect species, we also subjected larvae to fungal spore exposures instead of adult stage. Type of insect species and developmental stage may also determine virulence of entomopathogens (Goettel et al., 2005). Laboratory bioassays of entomopathogenic fungi against specific insect pest are necessary to find the most potential agent. Moreover, a screening test to select a prime candidate across possible fungal entomopathogen isolates is a plausible starting point to practically implement the use of entomopathogens in the field. However, for screening study purpose, not all target hosts can be cultured in the laboratory such as Ixodes scapularis which is a parasite on both animal and human causing lyme disease. Laboratory culturing I. scapularis is challenging due to its complicated biological cycle and complex feeding biology (Bonnet et al., 2012). T. molitor larvae were used as bioassay probe to assess pathogenicity of Metarhizium anisopliae to substitute the use of adult I. scapularis because of their high market availability and accessibility (Bharadwaj et al., 2001). However, eventhough other insect such T. molitor larvae were used considering convenience reasons, re-adjustment calculation of virulence on host target is required to estimate accurate pathogenicity of particular entomopathogens. In this study, clover root borer is the main target insect on which these entomopathogens will be applied. A large number of clover root borer is necessary for screening more than 100 fungal isolates found in red clover fields in Willamette Valley, OR. However, this beetle pest can not be laboratory cultured, therefore, T. molitor larvae were selected to narrow down the most virulence entomopatogen against clover root borer in the next bioassay tests. This sudy study suggest that Beauveria bassiana isolate FD which was previously found infecting clover root borer and M. brunneum isolate A4 The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 210
showed promising virulence especially when they were exposed at the low spore concentration (Figure 1 and 3). Therefore, a bioassay test on these isolates against clover root borer is a necessity. Conclusion Some strains of Beauveria spp and Metrahizium spp were assessed for their pathogenicity against T. molitor larvae. Within 2 weeks period of exposure, all isolates of B. bassiana including B. pseudobassiana caused more than 80% larval mortality, whereas all isolates Metarhizium including M. brunneum infected all treated T. molitor larvae.
Acknowledgment Authors would like to say thank you to Gracie Gallindo for her assistance in the laboratory, and for the funding Agricultural Research Foundation, Corvallis, Oregon.
References Ansari, M. A., Evans, M., Butt, T. M (2009). Identification of pathogenic strains of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi for wireworm control. Crop Protection 28: 269-272 Bharadwaj, A., Stafford III, K. C (2011). Potential of Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) as bioassay probe for Metarhizium brunneum (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) activity against Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 104 (6): 2095-2098 Bonnet, S and Lu, X. Y. 2012. Laboratory artificial infection of hard ticks: a tool for the analysis of tick-borne pathogen transmission. Acarologia 52(4): 453-464 Castrillo, L. A., Griggs, M. H., Vandenberg, J. D (2013). Granulate ambrosia beetle, Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) survival and brood production following exposure to entomopathogenic and mycoparasitic fungi. Biological control 67: 220-226 Goettel, M. S., Eilenberg, J., Glare, T. 2005. Entomopatogenic fungi and their role in regulation of insect population. In Sevim, A., Memir, A., Sönmez, E., Kocaçevik, S., Demirbağ, Z. 2013. Evaluation of entomopatogenic fungi against the sycamore lace bug, Corythucha ciliata (Say) (Hemiptera: Tingidae). Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 37:595-603 Kocaçevik, S., Sevim, A., Eroğlu, M., Demirbağ, Z., and Demir, I. 2016. Virulence and horizontal transfer of Beauveria pseudobassiana S.A. Rehner and Humber in Ips sexdentatus and Ips typographus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 40: 241248 Lestari, A. S. 2016. Isolation and pathogenicity of naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungi to clover root borer (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), a pest of red clover seed crops. Master Thesis. Department of Crop and Soil Sciences. Oregon State University Mora, M. A. E., Chacon-Orozco, J. G., Harakava, R., Rouws, J.R.C., and Fraga, M.E. 2016. Molecular characterization and virulence of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae against Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) larvae. African Journal of Microbiological Research. Vol. 10(19):662-668 Moret, Y., Siva-Jothy, M. T. 2003. Adaptive innate immunity? Responsive-mode prophylaxis in the mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor. Proceedings: Biological Sciences 270: 2474-2480 Reddy, G. V. P., Zhao, Z., Humber, R. A (2014). Laboratory and field efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi for the management of the sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius (Coleoptera: Brentidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 122: 10-15 Safavi, S. A., Shah, F. A., Pakdel, A. K., Rasoulian, G. R., Bandani, A. R., Butt, T. M. 2007. Effect of nutrition on growth and virulence of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. FEMS Microbiol Lett 270: 116-123 Tanada, Y and Kaya, H. K. 1993. Insect Pathology. Academic Press, San Diego. CA. In Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., Gardner, W. A., Fuxa, J. R., Wood, B. W., Nguyen, K. B., Adams, B. J., Humber, R. A., The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 211
Hall, M. J. Survey of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi endemic to pecan orchards of the Southeastern United States and their virulence to the pecan weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Environmental Entomology, 32(1): 187-195. Tigano-Milani, M. S., Gomes, A. C. M. M., Sobral, B. W. S (1995) Genetic variability among isolates of entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae. Journal of Invertebrate pathology 65: 206-210 Zimmerman, G. 1986. The ‘Galleria bait method’ for detection of entomopathogenic fungi in soil. J. Applied Entomology, 102 : 213-215
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STUDY OF Beauveria bassiana AND Paecilomyces sp. FILTRATES AGAINST Spodoptera litura (F.) Deni Zulfiana*, Ni Putu Ratna Ayu Krishanti, and Apriwi Zulfitri Research Center for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *
Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
The continuous use of pesticides to overcome the attack of armyworm (Spodoptera litura F.) on vegetable crops in Indonesia has been causing bad impact on health and the environment. Today, the development of biological agents as an alternative to chemical pesticides in order to reduce the use of pesticides have been done, one of them is the utilization of entomopathogenic fungi. However, studies on how the effect of the fermented filtrates of entomopathogenic fungi especially Beauveria bassiana and Paecilomyces sp. toward S. litura larvae is still unknown. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of the extract of entomopathogenic fungi, B. bassiana and Paecilomyces sp. against the 3rd larval stage of S. litura. The filtrate was produced through the fermentation process using a combination of Czapex-dox broth with 10% yeast extract. Bioassay on S. litura had been done by spray and leaf dip methods. The mortality rate of S. litura larvae that treated with the extract of B. bassiana using both methods was higher than treated with Paecilomyces sp. (60% and 30-40%, respectively). B. bassiana filtrates had significant difference to S. litura larval mortality compared to control, while Paecylomyces sp. filtrates did not (α = 0.05). Furthermore, the use of different method showed no significant difference either in B. bassiana or Paecylomyces sp. strain. Therefore, S. litura larvae mortality was suspected due to the activity of toxin and enzyme excreted in the growth media . Keywords: Beauveria bassiana, fermentation, mortality, Paecilomyces sp., Spodoptera litura
Introduction Armyworm (Spodoptera litura) is one of destructive pests causing economy loss in the agroecosystem (Embriani, 2014). Larvae of armyworm feed most of plant parts such as fruit and leaf, only leaving the midrib. The population of armyworm reaches the highest in dry season when humidity is high, thus the attack is becoming more intensive. The larvae are nocturnal while during the day hiding in grassy vegetation, under the leaf or in the soil cavity. This pattern makes it difficult to control armyworm (Kalshoven, 1981). There are several methods of controlling S. litura such as physical / mechanical, or the most common method is the use of synthetic chemical pesticides. Concerns about the negative impacts of synthetic chemical pesticides generates the development of biocontrol agents as an alternative in order to reduce the danger of excessive usage of pesticides on human health and the environment (Hazraet al. 1998). One is the use of Myco-biocontrol, which is using entomopathogenic fungi to control these pests. The use of entomopathogenic fungi has many advantages, namely: are naturally present in the soil therefore more environmentally friendly; has a fairly complex mechanism so that the possibility of resistance is low; and is selective against the target pest (Sandhu et al., 2012). Currently, the use of entomopathogenic fungus has been considered as an important strategy in reducing pest insect populations including S. litura. Some of well known entomopatogen fungus are Metarhizium anisopilae (Metchnikoff) Sorokin, Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) VUILLEMIN dan The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 213
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Wize) Brown & Smith (Wanida & Poonsuk, 2012; Shoaib et al., 2012; Meikle et al., 2005). The most common application of entomopathogenic fungi is using the conidia that can attack the insect directly by damaging the cuticle, while application using fermented filtrate producing secondary metabolites such as toxins and enzymes compound from entomopathogenic fungi is still unknown. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of fermented filtrate of two isolates entomopathogenic fungi B. bassiana and Paecylomyces sp. as a pest control agent of S. litura.
Materials and Methods Fungal strain and submerged fermentation The isolates of B. bassiana and Paecilomyces sp. were obtained from Bogor Agricultural University culture collection. Each fungal strain that had been cultured on PDA media for 7 days was cultured in conical flasks containing autoclaved czapex-dox liquid medium with 10% yeast extract. The flasks were then agitated at 120 rpm in room temperature for eight days. The fungal filtrates were harvested by separating its fungal residue using Whatman filter papers. The filtrates were subsequently used in the bioassay tests. Bioassays of entomopathogenic fungi against the larvae of Spodoptera litura The bioassays were carried out using spray and leaf dip methods. The spray method was conducted by spraying 10 ml of fungal extract on the integument of the 3 rd larval stage of S. litura. Afterward, the diet (taro leaf) was given daily to the treated larva. The other infection approach used in this research was leaf dip method. Taro leaf in 4x4 cm size was dipped for 5 minutes into the fungal filtrates and baited to the 3 rd larval stage of S. litura which had been previously fasted for 6 hours. Fresh leaf was provided daily after the leaf treated diet were completely eaten. Each bioassay using spray and leaf dip methods was performed on three replicates. Each replicate consisted of 10 larvae of S. litura. The larva and the diet sprayed and dipped in sterile distilled water were used as control. The mortality of larvae was counted every 24 hours within 72 hours of observation. Further observation was done macroscopically on dead larvae to gain symptoms of larval mortality caused by entomopathogenic fungus. Statistical analysis The data was subjected to ANOVA and the difference between means was analyzed using LSD test at the 0.05% level.
Results and Discussion The pathogenicity of Beauveria bassiana and Paecilomyces sp. towards S. litura’s larva using spray and leaf dip methods are displayed in Figure 1 and 2 below. S. litura larval mortality using leaf dip method The average percentage of larval mortality by filtrate Paecylomyces sp., B. bassiana, and control were 40%, 63.3% and 16.67% respectively (Figure 1). B. bassiana filtrate showed higher pathogenicity than Paecylomyces sp. filtrate, this might be due to different specificity between both strains. Paecylomyces sp. was more likely to infect a host at the adult stage (moth) so it may be less effective in the larval stage (Rai et al., 2014). High host specifity possessed by B. bassiana might supported its pathogenicity against S. litura larvae (Rai et al., 2014).
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Larval mortality (%)
80
63.33
60 40
a
40 20
ab
16.67 b
0 Paecilomyces
Beauveria Treatment
Kontrol
Figure 1. Mortality rate of S. litura larvae after treated with the filtrate of entomopathogenic fungi by leaf dip method. Means followed by different letters are significantly different from each other according to LSD test (α: 0.05) Based on ANOVA and LSD test results, mortality rate of S. litura larvae treated with B. bassiana filtrate was significantly different than those of the control at 95% confidence level (Table 1). This showed that filtrate B. bassiana was effective against S. litura larvae. Meanwhile, mortality rate of S. litura larvae treated with Paecylomyces was not significantly different from either B. bassiana treatment or control treatment. Table 1. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of S. litura larval mortality using leaf dip method Source of variation
Degrees of freedom
Sums of squares
Mean squares
F
f-test
Treatment
2
32.667
16.333
7.35
5.14*
Error
6
13.333
2.222
Total 8 46 *f test< F means variance between the means of two populations is significantly different
Mortality rate of S. litura larvae treated with entomopathogenic fungi resulted in higher percentage than those of control. However, S. litura larvae mortality rate due to Paecylomyces sp. treatment did not significant different compared to control, statistically. The death of larvae after feeding on leaf treated with entomopathogenic fungi might be caused of toxic secondary metabolites produced by the fungus such as destruxin, beauvericin, bassianolide or beauverolides (Sandhu et al., 2012). Fernandes et.al., (20212) said the role of a series of enzymes excreted on the fungi filtrate such as esterase, pectinase, kaseinase, cellulase, amylase and protease may also have a role in the fungus pathogenicity. This is also supported by Shahid et al., (2012), the enzymes in the fungal filtrates degrade integument degradation and other parts of the larvae thus causing death. S. litura larval mortality using spray method Mortality rate of S. litura sprayed with B. bassiana filtrate resulted in higher percentage (60%) compared to those sprayed with Paecylomyces sp. (20%) and control (13.335). (Figure 2).
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Larval mortality (%)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
60 a
20 13.33 b b
Paecilomyces
Beauveria
Kontrol
Treatment
Figure 2. Mortality rate of S. litura larvae after sprayed with filtrate of entomopathogenic fungi. Means followed by different letters are significantly different from each other according to LSD Test at P = 0.05 Based on statistical analysis, ANOVA and LSD test at 95% confidence level 95% (Table 2), mortality rate of S. litura larvae treated with B. bassiana was significantly different compared to control and Paecylomyces sp. treatment. However, larvae sprayed with Paecylomyces sp. did not significantly different to control. This might be due to higher activity of pectinase enzyme contained in B. bassiana filtrate to degrade larval cuticle (Fernandes et al., 2012). Degradation of larvae cuticle is an initial important step in fungal pathogenicity to allow access for other enzymes and toxin entering the larvae body (Reddy et al., 2013). Fungi that excretes enzymes, toxin and other metabolites causes faster death to larvae compared to those who does not produce secondary metabolites as explained by Kumari et al., (2014). Table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of S. litura larval mortality using leaf dip method Source of variation
Degrees of freedom
Sums of squares
Mean squares
F
f-test*
Treatment
2
38.222
19.111
13.231
5.14
Error
6
8.667
1.444
Total 8 46.889 *f test< F means variance between the means of two populations is significantly different
ANOVA analysis between leaf dip and spray method Mortality rate of S. litura larvae resulted in leaf dip and spray method treated was subjected to ANOVA, to find information whether there was any different statistically in both methods (Table 3 and Table 4). The result shows there was no significant difference between those methods, either in B. bassiana or Paecilomyces sp., in other words, both methods were quite effective against S. litura larvae. Table 3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of S. litura larval mortality using leaf dip and spray method treated with B. bassiana Sum of squares df Mean square F Between Groups .167 1 .167 .250 Within Groups 2.667 4 .667 Total 2.833 5 * Sig. level (.643) > α = 0.05 the results are not statistically significant
Sig.* .643
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Table 4. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of S. litura larval mortality using leaf dip and spray method treated with Paecilomyces sp. Sum of squares df Mean square F Between Groups 6.000 1 6.000 2.400 Within Groups 10.000 4 2.500 Total 16.000 5 * Sig. level (.196) > α = 0.05 the results are not statistically significant
Sig. .196
Macroscopic observation of larval mortality symptoms Observation on S. litura mortality symptoms was also done besides counting of mortality percentage (Figure 3). Mortality symptoms on larvae trated with both fungal filtrates showed similar symptoms. Behavior of larvae before dead phase also did not show significant difference such as decreasing food consumption level, slowed movement as well as contact responses.
A
B
C
Figure 3. Mortality visualization of infected S. Litura larvae by entomopathogenic fungi (A) control (distilled water), (B) dead larva of S. litura infected by B. bassiana (C) dead larva of S. litura infected by Paecilomyces sp. In order to find out mode of action of toxin produced by the fungal filtrates responsible for S. litura larval mortality, morphological observation was done macroscopically on infected and control larvae. Figure 3 shows fungal infected larvae shrank thus smaller, darker compared to control larvae, the body become dry and stiff. From those symptoms, toxin produced while fermentation process was expected as mode of action causing larval mortality. Furthermore, according to Sandhu et al. (2012) the process of cell destruction with cytotoxins may occur before penetration of hyphae, this was fit to this research finding that no mycelial growth beyond the larval dead body. B. bassiana has been identified contains several kind of toxin such as beauvericin, bassianolide, or beauverolides. Another type of toxin obtained from other fungi such as Metarhizium anisopliae such as destruxin and Cytochalasin. The toxin will cause paralysis of the larvae that led to the death of the larvae. However, to determine the specific toxin responsible for S. litura larval mortality in this study, further studies to characterize the toxin contained in the larval body need to be conducted. In addition to a toxin, an enzyme produced by fungi can also cause death in armyworm. At the beginning of the treatment, there may be a protease enzyme and esterase, followed by the production of chitinase and lipase enzymes which have the capability to decrease the immune system of the armyworm (Pedrini, 2006). Conclusion The fermented filtrate of B. bassiana had significant effect on mortality of larvae of S. litura, while filtrate fungi Paecylomyces sp. showed insignificant effect (α = 0.05). There were no significant differences between application methods, leaf dip or spray method. Mode of action on pathogenicity of both fungal strains might be caused of the toxin and enzyme produced in the filtrate. Acknowledgement The authors would like to say thank you to DIPA 2016 for funding this study and also Redian Fikri Mayo and Wahyu Setyaji Dwiantara from Bandung Institute of Technology for technical assistance in the laboratory. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 217
Refferences Abboud, R., Mouhanna, A. M., Choueiri, E., & Rahbana, B. E. (2012). Assessment of the effectiveness of Beauveria bassiana fungus in controlling insect under greenhouse, field and laboratory conditions. Persian Gulf Crop Protection. 1, 36-44. Embriani. 2014. Status ulat grayak (Spodoptera litura F.) sebagai hama. BBPPTP Surabaya. Fernandes, E. G., Valerio, H. M., Feltrin, T., & Sand, S. T. V. D. (2012). Variability in the production of extracellular enzymes by entomopathogenic fungi grown on different substrates. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 827-833. Hazra, C. R., Pandey, K. C., Sinha, N. C. (1998). Integrated pest management in forage crops. In: Integrated pest and disease management (Eds.: Upadhyay RK, Mukherji KG, Chamola BP , Dubey OP). A.P .H. Publishing House, New Delhi. pp. 490-513. Hegazi, E. & Khafagi, W. (2005). Developmental interaction between suboptimal instars of Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and its parasitoid Microplitis rufiventris (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiolog,. 60(4), 172-184. Kalshoven, L. G. E. 1981. Pest of Crop in Indonesian. in Van der daan, D.A. (ed). Jakarta : PT Ichtiar Baru Van Hoeve. Kumari, B. R., Vijayabharathi, R., Srinivas, V., Gopalakrishnan, S. (2014). Microbes as interesting source of novel insecticides : A Review. Academic Journals. 13(26), 2582-2592. Meikle, W. G, Mercadier, G., Rosengaus, R. B., Kirk, A. A., Derouané, F., Quimby, P. C. (2005). Evaluation of an entomopathogenic fungus, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Wize) Brown and Smith (Deuteromycota: Hyphomycetes) obtained from Formosan subterranean termites (Isop., Rhinotermitidae) J. Appl. Entomol, 129: 315-322. Pedrini, N., Crespo, R., Juarez, M. P. (2007). Biochemistry of insect epicuticle degradation by entomopathogenic fungi. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 127-137 Rai, D., Updhyay, V., Mehra, P., Rana, M., Pandey, A. K. 2014. Potential of entomopathogenic fungi as biopesticides. Ind. J. Sci. Res. and Tech., 2(5), 7-13. Reddy, K. R. K., PraveenKumar, D., Reddy, K. R. N. (2013). Entomopathogenic fungi : A potential bioinsecticide. Kavaka. 41, 23-32. Sandhu, S. S., Sharma, A. K., Beniwal, V., Goel, G., Batra, P., Kumar, A., Jaglan, S., Sharma., A. K., & Malhotra, S. (2012). Myco-Biocontrol of Insect pests : Factors involved, mechanism, and regulation. Journal of Pathogens. 10 hlm. Shahid, A. A., Rao, A. Q., Bakhsh, A., & Husnain, T. (2012). Entomopathogenic fungi as biological controllers: new insights into their virulence and pathogenicity. Arch. Biol. Sci., 64(1), 21-42. Shoaib, F., Mushtaq, A. S., Khan, M. B., Muhammad, N. (2012). Prevalence and Effectiveness of Metarhizium anisopliae Against Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Pak. J. Zool. 44:753-758. Wanida, P., Poonsuk, P. (2012). Evaluation of Strains of Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana against Spodoptera litura on the basis of their virulence, germination rate, conidia production, radial growth and enzyme activity. Mycobiology, 40(2):111-116.
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THE NEED FOR TRUE GREEN SOLVENT TO ASSURE ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY BIOPESTICIDE IN NEEM PLANT (Azadirachta indica A. JUSS) CRUDE EXTRACT FORMULATION Bramantyo Wikantyoso* and Arief Heru Prianto Research Center for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia Email: [email protected] Abstract Neem plant, Azadirachta indica possess considerable potential as pesticide alternatif due to its environmental safety level. Problem arise in the formulation of neem plant crude extract using solvent which is not environmentally friendly. Purpose of the research is an examination of neem plant crude extract formulated by geen solvent which is known to be more secure to environmental and human health. Te previous experiment of acute oral toxicity of 5000 mg/kgBW neem plant crude extract formulation with green solvent as solvent had yielded visible clinical signs after 1 hour treatment namely anxiety, weakness, asphyxiate, and hyperlacrimation. These clinical signs were followed by 40 % animal test lives through. Hence, according to Annex 3 of 420 OECD the level of administered dose which culminates on ≥ 40 % mortalities is lethal. It encourages the defeasance of green solvent in the following remaked formulation. The test is conducted on 2 – 3 weeks DDY mices in three groups of threatment namely control group, surfactant threatment group, and formulated neem without solvent and the mortality rate was recorded through 14 days observation. No clinical sign is observed and 100 % of survival rate in all three groups Keywords: Azadirachta indica, acute oral, crude extract, green solvent, toxicity
Introduction Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been becoming the frontier for pest controlling effort as it accentuates ecologically and environmentally safety. Bactery, fungi, plant and the other bioresources are used for developing natural controlling agent or biopesticide. Technology has brought biopesticide further by utilization of microorganism secondary metabolite and pheromone. Transgenic technique is usedto produce resistence plant against pest attack (Copping & Menn, 2000; James et al., 2010). The biopesticide existence is fundamental to subtitute synthetic chemical pesticide which harm environment. Although it is hard to fully substitute, some countries has legalized biopesticide to be used by farmer and other applicators (Anon, 1992). US, UK, China have registered neem plant-based fungicide, fertilizer, and insecticide in 2001 (Tinghui et al., 2001). There are many types of pesticide liquid formulation as solution, emulsion, wetable powder, aerosol, and liquid bait. Emulsified formulation dissolve active substance into oil or other solvents and emulsifier is used so the dissolved active substance is mixed well with water or other solvents during spraying. Alcohol group as methanol, ethanol, butanol and ethylene glycol are popular solvent as well as Xylene and toluene from hydrocarbon group. (Smallwood, 1996). Utilization of ethanol along with xylene coincidely will sparks unbalance xylene metabolism, blood xylene rate rises while methylpuric acid excretion decreasing (Riihimaki et al., 1982). Gastrointestinal and nervous system are affected by the exsistence of xylene inside the body, although disruption on the nervous system is reversible. Fever and nausea are the early symptoms which lead to loss of balance. (Vucinic et al., 2007; The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 219
Kandyala et al., 2010). Ethanol administration into the body will lead to elevation of insulin rate and force blood glucose level to be droped down. Those circumstances produce tremor and inflict anxiety, sweating, weakness, drawning, loss concentration, fever, give rise to hunger and headache (Field et al., 1962; Kalra et al., 2015). Green solvent is an alternative solvent that has been using as substitution towards synthetic chemical solvent which has rough effect on human and environmental health. Green solvent is developed by (i) substitution of hazardous substance by the one with better environmental, health and safety (EHS) characters, (ii) production of bioresources based solvent by natural fermentation, (iii) substitution by organic solvent with low CO2 emission to prevent ozon depletion, (iv) utilization of ionic liquid with low water gas pressure to decrease emission (Gupta et al., 2010). Azadirachta indica is known to possess antifeedant and growth inhibitor abilities to more than 80 insect species. Furthermore, many research shows the neem plant active substance, so called Azadirachtin, is capable for controlling more than 200 insect species as Anopheles stephensi, Ostrinia nubialis, some species of mites and cockroach andSpodoptera littoralis, Sitophilus oryzae (Arnason et al., 1985; Nathan et al., 2005; Achio et al., 2012; Yusuf et al., 2012; Shaurub et al., 2014). Neem plant is known to be environmental friendly and spesifically targeting insect, therefor it is safe for non-target organisms. The value of sub acute toxicity is 1500 mg/kg BW and concentrate of 4,5% azadirachtin has LD50 value more than 5000 mg/kg BW on white rat (US EPA, 1993). Yusuf et al. (2012), suggested that biopesticide formulation by neem plant’s kernel extraction has been done with azadirachtin as the active substance, geronol BC/5 and Rhodacal 70B/C as surfactant, P-xyleneas diluentandethanolassolvent. The previous sub acute toxicity research has been done with P-xylene and ethanol as as solvent experienced 0% rat mortality at 5000 mg/kg BW as single dose administration on treatment group. However, reversible clinical signs are observed as weakness, tremor and anxiety. The paper explains further acute toxicity limited test of neem plant crude extract by substitute the previous solvent with commercial chemically organic-based green solvent as environmental friendly one.
Materals and Methods Research is taken place on Research Center for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Science, Cibinong Science Center, Bogor. OECD no. 420 – Acute Oral Toxicity – Fixed Dose Procedure – Limit test is adopted (OECD, 2001). Test material density The determination of material density is done to determine conversion of neem extract formulation into the highest test dose 5000 mg/kg BW. Pycnometer 25 ml (PYERX) is used to determine the density by standard pycnometer method. Test material Each 10 ml for emulsifiable concentrate (EC) of neem formulation without green solvent and one with the addition of green solvent are prepared. 1ml Geronol BC/5 and Rhodacal 70B/C are used for the test by dissolving into 100 ml distillated water. Test animal Fifteen female DDY mice (2-3 weeks / 20–30 gram) from Balai Besar Pengujian Mutu dan Sertifikasi Obat Hewan (BBPMSOH) are used. Each 5 test animal are put on plastic container (39x30x12.4 cm) as cage. The food and water are given by ad libitum. Animal tests are acclimated for 5 days prior to administration. Three groups for each test material are established depend on different treatment namely 5000 mg.kgBW treatment group (NIM), Surfactant treatment group (K+) and control group with sterile aquadest instead of test material (KM). Preliminary test with 5000 mg/kgBW neem formulation with green solvent is conducted. In the preliminary test, 8-12 weeks sound female Sprague Dawley Rats (150-200 grams) from Medical Faculty, Bogor Agriculture The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 220
Institute, are used. Two groups of treatment are prepared namely neem formulation with green solvent administration (NIMGS) and control group with sterile distillated water (KT). Test material administration Test animals are fasted for 12 hours and weighted on the next morning prior to administration. 5000 mg/kgBW as the highest acute oral toxicity dose are determined as orally single dose administration. Administration volume is depended on each animal test body weight. Six percent surfactant of total volume formulation is determined as surfactant administration dose. 7 cm gavage needle is used for the rat and 4 cm long gavage needle is used for mice. Food is given 4 hours after administration. Observation Mortality is observed and clinical signs are noted namely weakness, hyperlacrimation, hypersalivation, tremor, cramp, breathless and anxiety. Clinical signs are valued by scoring (0: no clinical signs are observed, 1: mild clinical signs, 2: moderate clinical signs, 3: severe clinical signs, 4: very severe clinical signs, without movement) (Taiwo, 2008). Observation is conducted at the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th hour administration, followed by 24 hours and per day observation until the 14th day. Should the animal test is found dead, the procedure is to end the test. Fourteen days survival of the administration suggests the test material is not categorized following Globally Harmonized System (GHS). Animal weight is conducted once in three days within 15 days observation. Results and Discussion Preliminary test results shows that NIMGS group’s mortality are observed at 60%. The remaining 40% survive until the 14th day with reversible clinical signs are observed. Mortality are taken place on the 3rd and 4th hour and 2nd day after administration. While control group has 0% mortality. The graphic presents observed physiological response on treatment group as weakness, breathless, hyperlacrimation and anxiety. These signs start to appear on the 1 st hour and culminate on 3rd and 4th hour after treatment. NIMGS group shows slow and limited movement due to power loss of the hind legs. The treatment group culminate on breathless response on the 4 th hour after administration and followed by mortalities. Hyperlacrimation response is increase as well as decrease, at the same moment, along with breathless response. While control group shows no clinical signs at all.
Figure 1. Clinical signs and survivor percentage of NIMGS treatment group with the administration of 5000 mg/kgBW test material. Scoring: 0: No clinical signs; 1: mild clinical signs; 2: moderate clinical signs; 3: severe clinical signs and limited movement; 4: very severe clinical signs and shows no movement.
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As the results of preliminary test, hence, re formulation of neem crude extract devoid green solvent utilization was done. Mices are used as animal test on the advance assay to avoid the considerable amount utilization of the same substance. In the Ready-To-Use low formulation pesticide (RTU), the biggest percentage of the formula is solvent and the rest percentage is for adjuvant and active substance which only take 1% of the product volume. The considerable amount of solvent on the RTU pesticide formulation will harm the environment and applicator themselves. Ultra Low Volume is another example of formulation which has almost 100% active substance and it needs only very few amount of solvent to dissolve it (pesticide.org). On the NIM, K+ and KM group, there are no clinical signs start from the first until the last day of observation. The observed mortality is 0%. The acute toxicity dose of neem crude extract formulation devoid green solvent is more than 5000 mg/kgBW on mice. This results is taking over the acute toxicity dose of Martineau (1994) neem formulation test (Azatin-EC) (Bakr, 2013). The surfactant test solely shows no clinical signs at 6% of the formulation volume. The result supports another neem extract toxicity test that has acute toxicity dose over than 5000 mg/kgBW (US EPA, 1993).
Figure 2. Clinical signs and survivor percentage of NIMGS treatment group with the administration of 5000 mg/kgBW test material and K+ group with the administration of 6% surfactant. Scoring: 0: No clinical signs; 1: mild clinical signs; 2: moderate clinical signs; 3: severe clinical signs and limited movement; 4: very severe clinical signs and shows no movement. With only 40% left survivor till the end of observation day, this suggests 5000 mg/kgBW as acute toxicity dose of neem crude extract formulation with green solvent is lethal. Following OECD limitation that lethal dose category is established when mortality percentage is more than 40% of treatment population (OECD 2001). Martineau (1994) and Bakr (2013), conducted acute toxicity test of formulated azadirachtin of neem (Azatin-EC) and resulted 4.241 mg/kgBW as it’s LD50. While another similar research of neem kernel crude extract resulted on acute toxicity dose more than 5000 mg/kgBW with ethanol and xylene as its solvent and diluents. However, several clinical signs are observed (Wikantyoso & Prianto, 2015). This assay suggests that in the natural resources-based product or formulation, the percentage use and/or the kind of solvent has the biggest part to determine it’s toxicity value. Subtitute the solvent with the true green solvent one which is might be produced by natural fermentation would be interesting concern ot be studied further.
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Table 1. Neem crude extract formulation with different solvents and observed mortality and clinical signs.
Neem Crude Extract
Solvent Green solvent (Acetophenon + 2 - 2 etylhexyl acetate)
Surfactant
Clinical Sign
Mortality
Geronol BC/5 dan Rhodacal 70B/C
weakness, hyperlacrimation, anxiety, breathless
60%
Etanol + Xylene (Wikantyoso dan Prianto, 2015)
Geronol BC/5 dan Rhodacal 70B/C (Wikantyoso dan Prianto, 2015)
weakness, tremor, anxiety (Wikantyoso dan Prianto, 2015)
0% (Wikantyoso dan Prianto, 2015)
no solvent
Geronol BC/5 dan Rhodacal 70B/C
no clinical sign
0%
The giving of 5000 mg/kgBW dose of neem crude extract formulation with green solvent culminate on clinical signs appearance namely weakness which dominated the treatment group, breathless followd by hyperlacrimation, and anxiety. The appearance of those clinical signs have no fix order, but Forster (1994) stated that solvent overdose lead to severe weakness, incoordination and even mortality. Likewise, Dick (1998) suggested similar statement that some solvent are irritant which wreck mucous membrane and lead to breathless response. in this bioassay, constituents of green solvent are 2-2 - ethylhexyl acetate and acetophenone where both have 3000 mg/kgBW as their oral acute toxicity dose in 14 days observation. 2-2 - ethylhexyl acetate is a substance that establish inflammation. Overdose will generate rhinorrea, cough, breathless and acute lung injury (“Toxicology Data Network” 2002). While acetophenone is a substance that some of them inflict irritation. Overdose of this substance will give rise to incoordination, central nervous depression and cardiorespiration failure. (“Toxicology Data Network” 2003). Average weight of treatment rats decreasing 1.73 % until the sixth day observation, while control group increase 6.01%. It suggest clinical signs to affect apetite of treatment group. It is supported by the average weight of KM, NIM and K+ treatment group which increase to about 51,4 %, 48,9 %, and 54,5 % respectively.
Figure 3. Average weight of NIM, K+, KM, after administration of neem crude extract formulation devoid green solvent, surfactant treatment, and distillated water respectively (A). Average weight of NIMGS and KT after administrationof neem crude extract formulation with green solvent and distillated water respectively.
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Conclusion Administration dose 5000 mg/kgBW of neem crude extract formulation with acetophenone and ethylhexyl acetat based as green solvent is lethal. Nullification of particular solvent prevents clinical signs and mortality of 5000 mg/kgBW neem crude extract formulation.
Acknowledgement This work is financially supported by Research Center for Biomaterials LIPI through DIPA 2016. We would like to thank for all the members of Urban and Agricultural Pest Management Research Group, Research Center for Biomaterials LIPI, for helping the discussion. We would like to thank Deni Zulfiana, Apriwi Zulfitri and Ni Putu Ratna Ayu Krishanti for technically helping the research, observation and the discussion of the result.
References Achio, S., Ameko, E., Kutsanedzie, F., & Alhassan, S. (2012). Insecticidal effects of various neem preparations against some insects of agricultural and public health concern. International Journal of Research in BioSciences, 1(2), 11-19. Anon. (1992). Neem: A Tree For Solving Global Problems. Washington DC: National Academy Press. p 1–12. Arnason, J. T., Philogene, B. J. R., Donskov, N., Hudon, M. I., McDougall, C., Fortier, G., Morand, P., Gardner, D., Lambert, J., Morris, C., & Nozzolillo, C. (1985). Antifeedant and insecticidal properties of azadirachtin to the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis. Entomol. pp. 29-34. doi: 10.1111/j.1570-7458.1985.tb03494.x Copping, Leonardo G., & Julius J. M. (2000). Review Biopesticides: a review of their action applications and efficacy. Pest Manag Sci., 56, 651-676. Dick, R. B. (1988). Short duration exposure to organic solvents: the relationship between neurobehaveioral test results and other indicators. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 10, 39-50. Field, J. B., Hibbard E. W., & Glenn E. M. (1962). Studies on the mechanism of ethanol-induced hypoglycemia. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 42(4), 497-506. Forster, L. M. K., Tanhauser, M., & Tanhauser, S. L. (1994). Toluene Toxicology: abuse aspects. Rev. Saude Publica, 28(2), 197–72. Gupta, M., Paul, S., & Gupta, R. (2010). General aspects of 12 basic principles of green chemistry with applications. Current Science, 99(10), 1341–1360. James, B., Atcha-Ahowe, C., Godonou, I., Baimey, H., Goergen, G., Sikiriou, R., & Toko, M. (2010). Integrated pest management in vegetable production: a guide for extension worker in West Africa. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, 13, 78–83. ISBN 978-131-344-7. Kalra, Sanjay, Mukherjee, J. J., Venkataraman, S., Bantwal, G., Shaikh, S., Saboo, B., Kumar Das, A., & Ramachandran, A. (2015). Hypoglycemia: the neglected complication. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 17(5), 819-834. Kandyala, R., Raghavendra, S. P. C., & Rajasekharan, S. T. (2010). Xylene: an overview of its health hazards and preventive measures. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, 14(1), 1-4. Martineau, J. (2013). MSDS for azatin-EC biological insecticide. AgriDyne Technologies, 1994, in Bakr Shori Amal. Pakistan Journal of Biological Science, 16(4), 697–700. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 224
Nathan, S. S., Kandaswami, K., & Kadarkarai, M. (2005). Effects of neem limonoids on the malaria vectore Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Acta Tropica, 96, 47-55. OECD. (2001). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: Guideline for Testing Of Chemicals: Acute Oral Toxicity – Fixed Dose Procedure. 420, 1–14. Raizada, R. B., Srivastava, M. K., Kaushal, R. A., & Singh, R. P. (2000). Azadirachtin, a neem biopesticide: subchronic toxicity assessment in rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 39, 477483. Riihimaki, V., Savolainen, K., Pfiiffli, P., Pekari, K., Sippel, H. W., & Laine, A. (1982). Metabolic interaction between m-xylene and ethanol. Arch Toxicol., 49, 253-263. Shaurub, El-Sayed, H., El-Meguid, A. A., Nahla, M., & El-Aziz, A. (2014). Effect of some environmental factors on the toxicity of azadirachtin to the Egyptian Cotton Leafworm Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Ecologia Balkanica, 6(2), 113-117. Smallwood, I. M. (1996). Handbook or Organic Solvents Properties. Great Britain: Arnold. pp: 39, 47. ISBN-13: 978-0080977874. Taiwo, V. O., Nwagbara, N. D., Suleiman, R., Angbashim, J. E., & Zarma, M. J. (2008). Clinical signs and organ pathology in rats exposed to graded doses of pyrethroids containing mosquito coil smoke and aerosolized insecticidal sprays. African Journal of Biomedical Research, 11, 97–104. Tinghui, X., Wegener, M., O’Shea, M., & Deling, M. (2001). World distribution and trade in neem products with reference to their potential in China. Contributed paper to AARES 2001 Conference of Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society, Adelaide, 22-25. Toxicology Data Network (2002, November 08). Retrieved from http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgibin/sis/search2/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+2668 Toxicology Data Network (2003, October 15). Retrieved from https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgibin/sis/search2/f?./temp/~VufCWi:1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1993). Guideline Series 81-1, Acute Oral Toxicity Study. Washington D.C. pp 1 – 4. Vucinic, S., Jovanovic, D., Joksovic, Z. V. D., Segrt, Z., & Jovanovic, M. Z. M. (2007). A near-fatal case of acute poisoning by amitraz/xylene showing atrial fi brillation. Forensic Toxicol., 25, 41– 44. Wikantyoso, B., & Prianto A. H. (2015). Acute oral toxicity test of Azadirachta indica crude extract formulation on sprague dawley rat (Rattus norvegicus L.) (Preliminary Study). Proceedings The 5th International Symposium For Sustainable Humanosphere (ISSH) – A Forum of Humanosphere Science School (HSS). F-09, 226–230. Yusuf, S., Setiawan, K. H., Tarmadi, D., Zulfiana, D., Ismayati, M., & Setyowati, A. (2012). Development of stored product pest control technology using biopesticide based on neem (Azadirachta indica. A. Juss). Pangan, 21 (3), 211-219.
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STRAIN IMPROVEMENT COMPARISON OF ISOLATE H2 BETWEEN NITRIC ACID MUTATION AND UV RAYS MUTATION Rahayu Fitriani Wangsa Putrie*, Tiwit Widowati and Harmastini Sukiman Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] / [email protected] Abstract Strain improvement could be done by using chemical and physical radiation. This research aimed to compare studies of strain improvement between nitric acid mutation and UV rays mutation for IAA hormone production of H2 isolate. Nitric acid mutation were conducted with some different treatment time such as 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min whereas UV rays mutation such as 0, 10, 20 and 30 min. Colonies were grown from the treatment subsequently measured for IAA production. Nitric acid mutan and UV rays mutan could produce IAA hormone within a range 79.31 µg mL-1 to 96.16 µg mL-1. and 64.45 µg mL-1 to 73.83µg mL-1, respectively. Mutan of nitric acid could produce a higher IAA hormone compared with mutan of UV rays Keywords: comparison, mutation, nitric acid, strain improvement, uv-rays
Introduction Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have been known play important roles in sustainable agriculture industry. The use of PGPR could increase the yield of agricultural crops and that is an environmentally friendly step. PGPR could regulate growth hormone and nutritional balance, induce the immune system of plants, antagonist with fitopatogen and dissolve the nutrients to be easily absorbed by plants (Vejan et al., 2016). It potential makes PGPR were used as inoculants of biofertilizers in agriculture land. Indole acetic acid (IAA) hormone or auxin production in PGPR isolates are important characteristic to be possessed (Damam et al., 2016). IAA hormone have been known as an essential molecule that control plant development (Paque & Weijers, 2016). Function of IAA hormone in plants are to promote the growth of auxiliary bud and bud formation, help in the apical dominance, stimulate lateral and adventitious root development and growth by several ways. In addition, IAA hormone were also play crucial role in leaf and flower abscission (Kundan et al., 2015). The need of IAA hormone levels for each plant were different. IAA hormone production for the growth of maize not be able to promote the growth of high-woody crops. Concentration of IAA hormone 10-10 M to 10-8 M could promote the growth of maize (Mulkey et al., 1982) whereas highwoody crops such as Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen were require IAA hormone concentration 0.01 M to 1 M (Sasmitamihardja et al., 2005). Isolates have been known for the ability to produce IAA hormone could be enhanced for their ability with strain improvement so that application as PGPR could be expanded. Strain improvement is an essential part of procces development. Those way were conducted by using chemical and physical radiation for causing mutation. Chemical mutations could be done by using nitric acid whereas physically mutation by using ultraviolet (UV) rays radiation (KamalaKumari et al., 2015). Induced mutagenesis by using UV rays for selection of microorganisms to produce biologically active substances and improvement of their activities have been known effective (Goodarzi, 2016). UV radiation also used to improve ability of Eschericia colli for penicillin G acylase expression (Arshad et al., 2010). The success of mutations by using nitric acid and UV radiation have been known but the success between those way have not been compared. H2 isolate is The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 226
one of endophytic microbes that have been known for their ability to produce IAA hormone. Therefore, in this research we aimed to compare studies between nitric acid mutation and UV rays mutation for improvement of IAA hormone production in H2 isolate. Materials and Methods H2 isolate were used in this research is one of endophytic isolates collection of Symbiotic Microbes Laboratory Research Center for Biotechnology Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI). It were isolated from mungbean, previously. Nitric acid mutation Nitric acid mutation was done by the following way (KamalaKumari et al., 2015): the parent strain were prepared by using acetate buffer pH 7.5 subsequently as much as 1 mL of suspension was centrifuged. The pellets were obtained then subjected to nitrous acid (0.1 M sodium nitrite in buffer of phosphate) treatment with different time such as 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min by incubating the mixture at 30°C. After incubation, the suspension was centrifuged at 10.000 rpm subsequently pellets was washed twice with phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) and suspended in phosphate buffer. The samples were diluted and plated on to nutrient agar (NA Difco ™) (23 g L-1) medium and incubated at 28°C for 24 h. Furthermore, the grown of colonies were calculated. UV rays mutation UV rays mutation was done by making a suspension culture in a nutrient broth (NB Difco ™) (8 g L-1) medium. A total of 4 mL suspension then poured aseptically into a sterile Petri dish. The exposure to UV rays were conducted in a laminar air flow (LAF) with UV lamp. The distance from the UV lamp to Petri dish around ± 60 cm with a treatment time of 0, 10, 20 and 30 min. During the exposure, petri dish cap are opened and all the other sources of light were cut off. Afterthat, suspension were transferred into sterile test tubes covered with a black paper and kept in the refrigerator overnight to avoid photo reactivation. Nextday, suspension of each treatment was serially diluted with sterile distilled water, plated on to nutrient agar (NA Difco ™) (23 g L-1) medium and incubated for 24 h at 28 °C. The number of colonies in each plate was calculated (KamalaKumari et al., 2015). Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) hormone production Isolates of each treatment were inoculated into10 mL NB (8 g L-1) medium supplemented with 0.2 mM tryptophan and incubated for 24 h on a shaker. The bacterial suspension as much as 2 mL were centrifuged at 10.000 g for 10 min the temperature of 4ºC. The production of IAA hormone was done by using colorimetric method as described by Gordon & Weber (1951). The supernatant were transferred into a test tube subsequently added 2 mL of Salkowsky reagent (150 mL concentrated H2SO4, 250 mL of distilled water, and 7.5 mL of 0.5 M FeCl3) and incubated at room temperature in the dark condition for 30 min. The absorbance was measured using a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 520 nm. Value of absorbance showed a concentration of IAA after calculated with the equation obtained from the IAA standard curve.
Results and Discussion Mutations are known as nucleotide sequence change of the genetic material that caused modification of amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene (Tanja van Mourik, 2013). Treatment time and type of mutations have different effects on the number of colonies. The density of colonies were obtained after nitric acid treatment (Table 1) and UV rays treatment (Table 2) resulted a number of colonies in nitric acid treatment more than UV rays treatment. The number of colonies were grown on nitric acid treatment are fluctuated whereas in the UV rays treatment have decrease trends in density of the number of colonies. UV rays causes more deaths than the nitric acid. This might occured due to UV rays is one way of physical sterilization of bacteria so that not many colonies The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 227
to survive. Responses of the different isolates also varied greatly to UV, because UV could induce DNA damage (Santos et al., 2013) Table 1. Nitric acid effect for number of colonies after exposure Exsposure time (min)
Number of colonies (mL-1)
0
2.106
30
1.107
60
2.107
90
17.105
120
1.108
Table 2. Ultraviolet rays effect for number of colonies after exposure Exsposure time (min)
Number of colonies (mL-1)
0
4.105
10
7.104
20
3.104
30
5.104
The wild strains produced 67.94 µg mL-1 of IAA hormone. Mutants of nitric acid and UV rays could produce IAA hormone within a range of 79.31 µg mL-1 to 96.16 µg mL-1. and 64.45 µg mL-1 to 73.83 µg mL-1, respectively. The highest IAA hormone production in the treatment of nitric acid mutation are MN.0 then decreased as much as 16.85 µg mL-1 in the treatment of MN.30. IAA hormone production had a slight increase in the treatment of MN.60 as much as 0.34 µg mL-1. The increase of a higher IAA hormone in treatment of MN.90 as much as 9.93 µg mL-1 and then stabilized for IAA hormone production in treatment of MN.120. Exposure duration of nitric acid over 90 min no affect for IAA hormone production by H2 isolate. Fluctuation of IAA hormone production in nitric acid treatment were still higher when compared with wild-type (Figure 1.A).
(A)
(B)
Figure 1. IAA hormone production of H2 mutan isolate between (A) nitric acid mutation (MN) and (B) UV mutation (MUV)
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In the treatment of mutation by using UV rays radiation, the highest of IAA hormone production in MUV.10 treatment (Figure 1.B). IAA hormone were produced by MUV.0 only differ as much as 0.21 µg mL-1 if compared with MUV.10 treatment. The high of decrease in IAA hormone production, even under the wild-type were occurred in the treatment of MUV.20. In those treatment were occured decreasing of IAA hormone as much as 3.49 µg mL-1 compared with wild type. The significant increment of IAA hormone production were occurred in MUV.30 treatment. In this treatment IAA hormone production increased as much as 7.74 µg mL-1 from the treatment of MUV.20. When compared for production of IAA hormone in H2 isolate, mutation by using nitric acid more efficiently than mutation by using UV rays. This result consistent with the research were conducted by KamalaKumari et al., (2015) that marine fungus Beauveria bassiana SS18/14 were mutated with nitric acid could produce the enzyme L-asparaginase higher than the UV mutation. Mutant UVF4-N-2 could produce 10.44 IU/mL enzyme activity whereas the mutant UV-4 could UVF produced 8.34 IU mL-1. The overall strain improvement could increase L-asparaginase activity 1.65 times with respect to the parent wild strain, that is equal to 6.32 IU mL-1.
Conclusion Strain improvement by using nitric acid mutation in H2 isolate could produce a higher IAA hormone if compared with mutation by using UV rays. Moreover, mutan of nitric acid overall could produce a higher IAA if compared with wildtype.
Acknowledgment Author thanks for the supports given to carry out this research to staff of Plant Symbiotic Microbes Laboratory Research Center for Biotechnology Indonesian Institute of Sciences. References Arshad, R., Farooq, S. & Ali, S. S. (2010). Improvement of penicillin g acylase expression in Escherichia coli through uv induced mutations. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 41, 11331141. Damam, M., Kaloori, K., Gaddam, B. & Kausar, R. (2016). Plant growth promoting substances (phytohormones) produced by rhizobacterial strains isolated from the rhizosphere of medicinal plants. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 37(1), 130-136. Goodarzi, A. (2016). UV-induced mutagenesis in lactic acid bacteria. Int. J. Gen. Genomics, 4(1),1-4. doi: 10.11648/j.ijgg.20160401.11. Gordon, S. A., & Weber, R. P. (1951). Colorimetric estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant Physiology, 26,192-195. doi:10.1159/000332747 Kamala, Kumari, P. V., Sankar, G. G. & Prabhakar. (2015). Strain improvement studies for the production of L-asparaginase by Beauveria bassiana SS18/41. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 31(2),173-176. Kundan, R., Pant, G., Jadon, N. & Agrawal, P. K. (2015). Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria: mechanism and current prospective. J Fertil Pestic, 6(2), 9 page http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/jbfbp.1000155. Mulkey, T. J., Kuzmanoff, K. M. & Evans, M. L. (1982). Promotion of growth and shift in the auxin dose/response relationship in maize roots treated with ethylen biosynthesis inhibitors aminoetoxyvinylglycine and cobalt. Plant Sci Lett., 25, 43-48. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 229
Paque, S. & Weijers, D. (2016). Q &A: Auxin: the plant molecule that influences almost anything. BMC Biology, 14(67), 5 page. doi:10.1186/s12915-016-0291-0. Sasmitamihardja, D., Hadisutanto, J. S. & Widiyanto, S. N. (2005). In vitro regeneation of Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen. Acta holticulturae, 692(692), 167-172. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2005.692.22 Santos, A. L., Oliviera, V., Baptisa, I., Henriques, I., Gomes, N. C. M., Almeida, A., Correia, A. & Cunha, A. (2013). Wavelength dependence of biological damage induced by UV radiation on bacteria. Arch Microbiol., 195, 63–74. doi:10.1007/s00203-012-0847-5. Tanja van Mourik (2013). The mutagenic action of 5-bromouracil: static and dynamic DFT calculations on uracil and 5-bromouracil in nanodroplets. Plenary Lecture of School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews (UK). MACC-5, Kharkiv, 1-5 July 2013. Vejan, P., Abdullah, R., Khadiran, T., Ismail, S. & Boyce, A. N. (2016). Role of plant promoting rhizobacteria in agricultural sustainability-a review. Molecules, 51(573), 17 page. doi:10.3390/molecules21050573.
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APPLICATION OF BIOFERTILIZERS BIOVAM - LIPI TO PROMOTE PLANT GROWTH OF JACKFRUIT Sylvia J. R. Lekatompessy *, Liseu Nurjanah and Harmastini Sukiman Research Centre for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Applications of biofertilizer products (BIOVAM - LIPI) is one activity biovillage program - LIPI to promote plant growth of jackfruit. The research shows that the application of biofertilizer BIOVAM significantly different at plant height and diameter compared to the control. Back to nature, to harness the potential of soil microbes as biofertilizer. The fact that happened people prefer to use chemical fertilizers. Because the effect of the use of biofertilizers slow even though the price of expensive chemical fertilizers. While the use of biofertilizers can preserve the environment and produce organic products are safe. Exploiting the potential of soil microbes as biofertilizer with simple technologies that easily made and applied by farmers. But this is also not an easy thing, to change the mindset of farmers in using biofertilizers BIOVAM. Farmers prefer chemical fertilizers because it feels better than the biofertilizer without any further consideration of the impact on the environment.Utilization of environmentally friendly biofertilizer is expected to compete with chemical fertilizers. The result is more secure or organic products. The purpose of the activity biovillage is to compare the use of biofertilizers BIOVAM with control (without biofertilizer), reducing the use of chemical fertilizer and produces healthy food. Jackfruit plant chosen was one of the models of tropical forest plants and plant jackfruit already widely known by the public. Jackfruit plants also have the potential in which the fruit and seeds of the plant are edible jackfruit, wood of the plant can be used, and so on. The results of the use of biofertilizers on crops jackfruit showed biofertilizer can be more to support jackfruit plant growth. Through the program biovillage, jackfruit plant seedlings will be given the first use of biofertilizers BIOVAM started from seed. Utilization of biofertilizers for forest plants can help in reforestation and forest development program undertaken by the municipality in dealing with geothermal. Expected from biovillage program with simple technologies that utilize the potential of microbes can be useful for creating environmentally friendly Keywords: biofertilizer; potential microbiol; organic food
Introduction Agricultural development is supported by biotechnological advances that enable researchers to develop biofertilizer with microbial content such as fertilizer with mycorrhizae content. It improves and maintains soil quality while it also enhances crop growth and productivity. According to Irianto (2009) and Turjaman (2013) giving the biofertilizer to seedling is capable to support plant growth. Sukiman (2012), add to CO2 uptake provides information that plants with treated inoculation soil fungi mycorrhizae are able to absorb up to 747.72 tons per hectare while that plants without treated with mycorrhizae is 639.35 tons per hectare. Specifically, the data for these types of African wood plants, with other crops, CO2 uptake given with biofertilizer treatment mycorrhizae can reduce elevated CO2.
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Through the program biovillage, biofertilizers BIOVAM used to assist in the provision of quality crop seedlings to resolve the problems faced at the national level, namely the lack of availability of plant seedlings healthy needed to rehabilitate degraded land. Plant of jackfruit, one of the models of tropical forest plant and has potential of wood where the wood can be utilized, have a substance yellow dye contained in the plant that can be used as a coloring material because it contains substances morine, while other fruits and seeds of jackfruit can be consumed and roots of the plants of jackfruit can be used as a drug. One of these plants was jackfruit, jackfruit plants included in the tropical forest plants and has potential which can be exploited wood, yellow subtances contained in these plants is used as a coloring material because it contains substances morine, these fruit can be consumed and roots of plants can be used as medicine. Jackfruit plants are already known to many people and these plants can also be planted by the community, in addition to exploiting the potential of jackfruit plant. Plants also can assist people in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem. Jackfruit plant will store water in the rainy season, and reservoirs during the summer. Application of biofertilizers on crops is expected to help the reforestation program that maintain the balance of the soil environment, reducing the use of chemical fertilizers. In addition symbiosis that occurs between plants and mycorrhizae can help absorb CO2. Jackfruit plants treated with biofertilizer can assist in creating a friendly environment. Critical land is environmental condition which plant is not getting enough water and nutrients duet to its soil physical condition is unable infiltration process of rainwater, high salt content causing plasmolysis and poisoning plants with toxic heavy metals (Subiksa, 2002). Utilization of biofertilizer with beneficial soil microbe content can promote growth, yield and quality of crops until 10-100% or more. Beneficial soil microbes can suppress the growth pathogenic organims living in the root area and increase the tolerance of plant roots against poisoning dangers of various heavy metals (Rohyadi et al., 2004). Setiadi (2004) mentions the use of biofertilizers with mycorrhizae significantly increase growth and quality of forest trees vegetation at mined and critical land. Therefore, mycorrhizae application in the revitalization of soil ecosystem is one of the solutions to accelerate the development of environmentally friendly farming in Indonesia. Mycorrhizae living in symbiosis with plant roots. BIOVAM biofertilizer is expected to stimulate the growth of crop seeds, increasing the surface area of roots for nutrients and moisture absorption, improve the durability of water stress. Utilization BIOVAM can support sustainable agriculture programs. In connection with the Program biovillage, rural communities in remote areas can use the seeds of plants that have been applied to BIOVAM biofertilizer to help reforestation and rehabilitation of degraded land.
Materials and Methods This research was conducted using biofertilizers BIOVAM and repeated three times. Treatment of this study are: mycorrhizae fungi (BIOVAM) and without mycorrhizae fungi. Implementation of the experiment begins with the preparation of the soil to be used for growing media, among others, take of the soil, removal of garbage or dirt organic and inorganic. The soil media put in to a polybag. For treatment with biofertilizer, seed planted and given biofertilizer ± 2 gr Plant seeds that will be used seeds of selected were healthy, well, is not damaged and not carry disease from seed. Seeds are ready to be planted and labeled in accordance with the treatment. treatment without giving BIOVAM labeled: KO and treatment with biofertilizers labeled: BIOVAM. Observations of research do every month. Parameters measured were plant height and diameter, to see the effect of treatments using biofertilizers on crops. Parameters Parameters measured were plant height, diameter, and then to analyze the effectiveness of inoculants of Biofertilizer BIOVAM, among others, can be seen from the growth of plants through indicators morphology, one of the analysis by using the formula: Relative Field Mycorrhizae The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 232
Dependency (RFMD). Relative Field Mycorrhizae Dependency (RFMD) response or plant growth because mycorrhizae (TPAM) or response from the growth of mycorrhizae (MGR), so in this study using one of the variables (plant height) were observed. mycorrhizae relationship with plants can be explained by the dependence on mycorrhizae plants, based on the results of the analysis by using the formula RFMD. (Munyanziza et al, 1997;. Brundrett,1999)
RFMD =
Cm - Cnm X 100% Cm
Cm = crop yield using of mycorrhizae Cnm = crop yield without mycorrhizae Note : Results can be either component of growth and yield components
Results and Discussion Based on the results of observation in Figure 1 Shows of the plants were treated with biofertilizer BIOVAM significantly different compared with the untreated plants biofertilizers BIOVAM. The parameters observed were plant height. Based on these results the effect of mycorrhizae BIOVAM can help support the growth of jackfruit plants. According Sastrahidayat and Rochdjatun (2011) that increased metabolism and photosynthesis of plants will be accompanied by increase in plant growth and development, such as plant height, therefore, the provision of mycorrhizae effective in optimizing plant growth and development due to the symbiosis between mycorrhizae and plants can maintain the balance of the plant physiological processes. In Figure 2 Shows observation of diameter, the more significant. Plants were given a biofertilizer BIOVAM has a larger diameter than plants untreated biofertilizer BIOVAM. According to Haris (2005) mycorrhizae benefits include: growth plants for the better so that the results are so much more. It is because mycorrhizae can improve nutrient absorption area by external mycelium. Figure 3 The effectiveness of the symbiosis that occurs between plants jackfruit with BIOVAM. Plants applied BIOVAM biofertilizer, plant growth percent higher than the control plants. It is because BIOVAM plant growth. According to Marx (2004), Mycorrhizae is a form mutualistic association between high levels of plant roots with mycorrhizae fungi from the soil. Host plants acquire a variety of nutrients, water, biological protection and others, while soil fungi / mycorrhizae get fotosintat as a carbon source. This mutualistic association is an interaction between host plants, soil fungi and soil factors. Mycorrhizae can associate approximately 80-90% of plant propagation over the North Pole to the tropics and from the desert to the forest. The effectiveness of the symbiosis that occurs between plants jackfruit with BIOVAM given biofertilizer showed higher treatment plant with a biofertilizer grows faster when compared with control plants. According to Marx (2004), Mycorrhizae is a form mutualistic association between high levels of plant roots with mycorrhizae fungi from the soil. Host plants acquire a variety of nutrients, water, biological protection and others, while soil fungi/mycorrhizae get fotosintat as a carbon source. This mutualistic association is an interaction between host plants, soil fungi and soil factors. Mycorrhizae can associate approximately 80-90% of the crop spread over the Arctic to the tropics and from the desert to the forest. RFMD shows plants and mycorrhizae relationships are depicted with the plant's dependence on mycorrhizae fungi can reach RFMD about: 168.14.Very high dependence on mycorrhizae plants because the plants need nutrients and water to support plant growth. According to Suri et al., 2011 that mycorrhizae produces oxalic acid and complexation constants phosphatase enzyme and have a high Ca, Fe, Al and dissolving element P. Mycorrhizae but it can increase the absorption of P and N, micronutrients, especially Zn and Cu. Nurhandayani et al. (2013), that mycorrhizae is able to be an intermediary uptake and nutrient supply.
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Figures and tables
Heigth of palnt
100
BIOVAM CONTROL
80 60 40 20 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Age of plant (months)
Figure 1. Effect of biofertilizer BIOVAM application on height of 9-10 months jackfruit plant.
BIOVAM
1.2
CONTROL
Diametrer of palnt
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
9 Age of plant (months)
Percentage of seedling growth
Figure 2. Effect of biofertilizer BIOVAM application on diameter of 9 and 10 months- jackfruit seedling VAM
100
KO
80 60 40 20 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
Age of plant (months)
Figure 3. Percentage growth of jackfruit seedling
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Table 1. Effectiveness of BIOVAM the jackfruit plants seen from symbiosis capacity, symbiosis effectiveness and relatif field mycorrhizae depedency. Treatment plant
symbiosis effectiveness (SE)
relatif field mycorrhizae depedency" (RFMD)
Jackfruit
120,42
168,14
Conclusion The role of soil microbes mycorhizae fungi - BIOVAM help the jackfruit plant in acquiring nutrients and water with the help of hyphae so as to increase the surface area of roots, helps stimulate the growth of seedlings and help shorten growth to be faster, increase drought resistance and diseases that attack plant roots, reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers BIOVAM only performed one time only.
Acknowledgment Thanks to the program biovillage in providing funding activities. Thanks also to Team MST Lab and field workers who have helped.
References Irianto, R. B. (2009). Pengaruh Inokulasi Fungi Mikorisa Arbuskula terhadap Pertumbuhan Bibit Jarak Pagar di Persemaian. Jurnal Penelitian Hutan dan Konservasi Alam, 6(2),195-201. Sastrahidayat, I. R. (2011). Rekayasa Pupuk Hayati Mikoriza Dalam Meningkatkan Produksi Pertanian. Universitas Brawijaya Press, Malang. Subiksa, I. G. M. (2002). Pemanfaatan Mikoriza untuk Penanggulangan Lahan Kritis. Makalah Falsafah Sains (PPs 702) Program Pasca Sarjana/S3 IPB. Bogor. Marx, D. H. (2004). Mycorrhizae: Benefits and Practical application in forest tree nurseries. USADA Forest Service. Tersedia pada www.forestpests.org/nursery/index.html (diakses Oktober 2016) Sukiman, H. I. (2012). The effect of Mycorrhizae inoculation on the growth of 8 species of forest tree in Bodogol area. Unpublished paper. Haris, A., & Adnan, A. M. (2005). Mikoriza dan Manfaatnya. Balai Penelitian Tanaman Serelia. Prosiding Seminar Ilmiah dan Pertemuan Tahunan PEI dan PFI XVI Komda Sul-Sel. Munyanziza, E., Kehri, H. K., & Bagyaraj, D. J. (1997). Agricultural intensification, soil biodeversity and agro-ecosystem function in the tropics : the role of mycorrhiza in crops and trees. Applied Soil Ecology, 6, 77-85. Suri, V. K., Anil, K. C., Girish, C., & Verma, T. S. (2011). Influence of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Applied Phosphorus on Root Colonization in Wheat and Plant Nutrient Dynamics in a Phosphorus Deficient Acid Alfisol of Western Himalayas. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal., 10(42), 1177-1186. Setyaningsih, L. (2011). Efektivitas Inokulum Fungi Mikoriza Arbuskula terhadap Pertumbuhan Semai Tanaman Hutan. Jurnal Sains, 1(2), 119-125. Prayudyaningsih, R. (2012). Pemanfaatan Mikoriza untuk Mendukung Keberhasilan Rehabilitasi Lahan Pasca Tambang. Kumpulan Karya Ilmiah. Balai Penelitian Kehutanan Makassar. Makassar. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 235
Rohyadi, A., Smith, F. A., Murray, R. S., & Smith, S. E. (2004). Effects of pH on Mycorrhizal Colonization and Nutrient Uptake in Cowpea under Conditions that Minimize Confounding Effects of Elevated Available Aluminium. Plant and Soil, 260, 283-290. Setiadi, Y. (2004). Arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculum production. Dalam Prosiding: Teknologi Produksi dan Pemanfaatan Inokulan Endo-Ektomikoriza untuk Pertanian, Perkebunan dan Kehutanan (Simarmata, T., Arief, D., H, Surmani, Y., Hindersah, R., Azirin, A., dan Kalay, A. M. Eds). Asosiasi Mikoriza Indonesia-Jawa Barat. ISBN 979-98255-0-4.
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ISOLATION OF OIL DEGRADING BACTERIA FROM THE TERRESTRIAL SITES OF MINAS, RIAU AND THE PRE SCREENING OF THE ISOLATES ON THE SIMPLE POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON ElviYetti*, Hans Wijaya, Ahmad Thontowi, and Yopi Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract Oil pollutant in terrestrial site can be sourced from production processes such as oil drilling and refinery processes in Oil Company. In the present study, we isolated native bacteria from several samples of soil and oil from gathering station sites in Minas, Riau, Indonesia. The sampling sites comprised disposal, well, and block area of the station. The isolation was carried out by enrichment method using Bushnell Haas (BH) medium. We successfully collected 117 pure bacterial isolates from those three samples. Further, the isolates were screened on naphthalene containing medium by sublimation method. From 117 isolates selected, we obtained 44 isolates that were potential isolates as naphthalene degrading bacteria Key words : oil, bacteria, terrestrial, napthalene, sublimation
Introduction As one of oil producing country in the world, Indonesia has many oil source, oilfield, and even oil manufactures that highly has resulted in energy-rich. However, this condition also leads Indonesia to be vulnerable for petroleum pollution due to oil spill accident, industry activities, and household waste.Oil pollution in Indonesia is occurred in both of marine and terrestrial sites. Oil pollution in terrestrial is mostly caused by petrochemical industry related to its process such as exploration, extraction, transport, refining, and finally consumption of oil products. Crude oil is a mixture of thousand of various compounds, organic and inorganic, including aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, which in average reaches 75 % of its content, as well as resins and asphalts. Non-hydrocarbon compounds include sulphur compounds (0.01–8%), mainly as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), mercaptans (compounds containing the –SH group), sulfides and disulfides, thiophenes, as well as benzothiophenes and naphthothiophenes that prevail in oil fractions (ATSDR, 2016). Petroleum pollution can affect release of some organic pollutants to the environment that definitely gives bad effect for human life not only for ecosystem but also for their health. Naphthalene is the simplest polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) and a white a characteristic odor that is known as an aromatic hydrocarbon. Naphthalene's structure consists of a fused pair of benzene rings (Figure 1). This compound is included one of predominant PAHs containing in crude oil (Kappell et al., 2014). Toxicity of naphthalene can lead to haemolytic anemia and nefrotoksisity for human (Samanta et al., 2002). Bioremediation is an alternative technology that uses microorganisms for solving environmental problems. In addition, bioremediation is believed to be non invasive and relatively cost-effective technology. Microorganisms can degrade oil by involving of major and ultimate natural mechanism by which one can clean up the petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants from the environment (Das & Chandran, 2011). For bioremediation application, indigenous oil utilizing microorganisms, which have the ability to degrade organic compounds, have an important role in the disappearance of oil from the contaminated site. These microorganisms are claimed to be an efficient, economic and versatile The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 237
alternative to physiochemical treatments. Therefore, it is a good step to isolate the bacteria from contaminated site. Several studies has indicated isolation of bacteria capable of degrade oil and its compounds from contaminated sites in terrestrial such as oil refinery, were reported by some researcher (Gupte & Sonawdeka, 2015; Afifi et al., 2015). The main purpose of this research is isolation of oil degrading bacteria from terrestrial sites. We also conducted screening the isolates on naphthalene as simplest PAHs. Naphthalene has often been used as a model compound to investigate the ability of bacteria to degrade PAHs because it is the simplest and the most soluble PAH.
Figure 1. Molecule structure of naphthalene Materials and Methods The collection of sample The samples consisted oftwo types i.e. soil and oil. The soil was obtained from disposal and well of Gathering Station (GS) 1, while oil was taken from block GS 1, Minas area. Minas is a districts located in Siak, Regency, Riau Province (Latitude. 0.8333333°, Longitude. 101.4833333°). Minas, is originated from abbreviation of Minyak Nasional attached for this area as that have rich oilfield. The location of sampling site is described in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The sampling area for bacterial source located in Minas, a districts located in Siak, Regency, Riau Province (Latitude. 0.8333333°, Longitude. 101.4833333°) Chemical and medium Medium used in this study were Bushnell Hass (BH) broth and agar for isolation of microorganisms; and Nutrient Agar (NA) as collection or growth medium supplied by .In order to obtain pure isolate, we select the enrichment culture in medium containing several alkane and PAH The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 238
compounds from Nacalai Tesque, TCL, Sigma aldrich, and Wako. While, naphthalene as carbon source in screening was obtained from Nacalai Tesque. Sample enrichment and isolation of bacteria The bacterial isolates used in this study were isolated from soil and oil collected nearby different gas stations by enrichment cultivation. The enrichment samples were prepared from 1) soil from Minas Disposal of Gathering Station (GS) 1; 2) soil from Minas well of GS 1; and 3) oil from Minas Block GS 1. Enrichment samples for soil were carried out as followed steps. Sub samples of 1g were suspended in 100 ml of sterile broth medium of Bushnell Hass (BH).While, oil sample enriched by adding 1 ml sub sample to 100 ml sterile broth BH medium. All samples were agitated in a incubator shaker at 150 rpm for 14 days. Next, the cultures serially were diluted up to 10–6. Isolation of microorganisms was carried out by spreading of 0.1 ml aliquots from each dilution over the surface Bushnell Hassagar containing 0.3 ml crude oil as substrate. The samples were incubated in 30 0C overnight. The microorganisms obtained in step 1 were selected by growing the isolates on BH agar containing several PAH i.e. naphtalene, phenanthrene, dibenzothiophene, fluorene, and pyrene 100 ppm. The isolates were collected on nutrient agar (NA) and purified by streaking them 4 times. Screening of isolates on naphthalene Screening of isolate was conducted using sublimation method as described by Alley and Brown (2000). Artificial Sea Water (ASW) agar medium were used as selection medium. Nafthalene were put on sterilize petridisk and rest in a heated aluminum dish on 75-80oC. Sublimation process is described in Figure 3. Positive isolates on naphthalene were indicated by clear zone appearance surrounding the isolate.
Figure 3. Sublimation process for screening of oil degrading bacteria on naphthalene Results and Discussion Sample enrichment After 10 (ten) days incubation, the enrichment medium from three samples were presented bacterial growth. Visually, sample 1 showed highest growth among the others noticed by turbidly level, by contrast, sample 3 revealed conversely (Figure 4). Sample 1 also began to show good bacterial growth at day 7 among others. Overall, soil sample also presented more easily enriched in BH medium than oil samples.
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Figure 4. Medium enrichment from three samples after 10 (ten) days incubation Isolation of oil degrading bacteria The bacteria were isolated from three different type sampling sites on BH agar medium. Bushnell Hass agar isrecommended for the examination of fuels for microbial contamination and for studying hydrocarbon deterioration by microorganisms. This media contains all the nutrients except hydrocarbon, which are necessary for the growth of bacteria. The bacteria can decompose a variety of hydrocarbons such as kerosene, mineral oil, paraffin wax and gasoline. Bushnell Hass medium as proper medium for isolation of oil or hydrocarbon degrading bacteria was also practiced by many researcher (Gómez-Ullate et al., 2008; Karthika et al., 2014; Udgire et al., 2015).This study result showed that the bacteria grown on enriched medium were able to use crude oil as carbon source (Figure 5). Therefore, we successfully obtained bacterial isolates from those sampling areas.
Figure 5. Bacteria obtained from BH agar sprayed by crude oil, PAH, alkane stock solution Totally, we got 117 pure bacterial isolates that could grow on BH agar medium containing crude oil from three samples. The largest number isolates were obtained from sample 2 derived from soil of oil well of GS 1. Pure bacterial accounted for 64 isolates in this sample. While, although enrichment of sample 3 just showed low growth visually, but the obtaining bacterial isolates from this sample were much enough. Thenumber of isolates in this samples sourced from block of GS 1 were 38 (Table 1). Whereas, we collected 15 isolates that could grow on BH medium containing crude oil from sample 1. It clear that bacterial isolates collected from isolation process was potential as oil degrader due to their capability to grow in oil containing medium. The difference between visual growth level in enriched medium and real number of isolates obtained after purification due to selection by crude oil as carbon source. Although enrichment of samples 1 visually showed high microbial growth, but only low number of isolates could grow in crude oil. By contrast, sample 2 that presented low growth in enrichment process, the culture actually had many potential isolates as oil degrader.
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Table 1. Number of pure isolate obtained from three sampling sites No.
Samples and sampling site
Pure Isolates obtained
1
The soil disposal of Gathering Station 1 The soil from Well of Gathering Station The oil from Block Gathering Station 1 Total
15
2 3
64 38 117
Screening of isolates on naphthalene All isolates collected were screened on naphthalene compound using sublimation methods. From the selection results, 44 of 117 revealed positive as candidates of naphthalene degrader.These potential isolates showed clear zone appearance surrounding their growth on BH agar medium sublimed by naphthalene (Figure 6). This study matched with indicator for positive isolates for PAHs included naphthalene screening as described by Alley and Brown (2000).
Figure 6. Appearance of isolates after 5 days incubation. The potential isolates capable of naphthalene degrading were shown by clear zone surrounding the isolates From the screening process, we obtained totally 44 positive isolates capable of grow on naphthalene containing medium. Based on sampling sites, the highest number of potential isolates of naphthalene degrader was reached by sample 2 with 21 isolates followed by sample 3 and sample 1 that had18 and 5 bacterial isolates, respectively (Table 2). This research also showed that sample originated from well of GS 1 produced most number of isolates among others sites both oil and potential of naphthalene degrader. It can be assumed that well site had more oil microorganisms than others because it contained a lot of petroleum. This study is pre screening; therefore, in further, we will characterize growth of isolates capable of naphthalene degrader and identify them molecularly. Table 2. Number of potential naphthalene degrader based on sampling sites No.
Totally isolates obtained 15
Number of potential naphthalene degrader 5
of
64
21
Block
38
18
117
44
Samples and sampling site
1
The soil disposal of Gathering Station 1
2
The soil from Well Gathering Station
3
The oil from Gathering Station 1 Total
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Conclusion Totally, we sucessfully isolated and collected 117 oil degrading bacterial isolates from three samples taken from three sites namely disposal of Gathering Station (GS) 1, well of Gathering Station, and Block Gathering Station 1, Minas, Riau Province. From the screening process, we obtained totally 44 positive isolates capable of grow on naphthalene containing medium. This research also showed that sample originated from well of GS 1 produced most number of isolates among others sites both oil and potential of naphthalene degrader.
Acknowledgment This research was supported by DIPA Tematik Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesia Institutes of Sciences 2016.
References Alley, J. F. & Brown, L. R. (2000). Use of sublimation to prepare solid microbial media with waterinsoluble substrates. Appl. Environ. Microbio l66 (1): 439. DOI:10.1128/AEM.66.1.439442.2000. Afifi, A., Motamedi, H., Alizadeh, B., & Leilavi, H. (2015). Isolation and identification of oil degrading bacteria from oil sludge in Abadan oil refinery. Environmental and Experimental Biology, 13,13–18. Retrieved from http://eeb.lu.lv/EEB/201503/EEB_XII_1_Afifi.pdf ATSDR. (2016). Fuel Oil: Chemical and Physical https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp75-c3.pdf
Composition.
Retrieved
from
Das, N., & Chandran, P. (2011). Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants: an overview. Biotechnology Research International, (Volume 2011), Article ID 941810, 13 pages. doi:10.4061/2011/941810 Gómez-Ullate1, E., Bayon , J. R. , Castro1, D., & Coupe, S. J. (2008). Efficiency of MPN method to indicate hydrocarbon biodegradation processes within permeable pavements. Proceeding of 11th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, Gupte, A. & Sonawdekar, S. (2015). Study of oil degrading bacteria isolated from oil contaminated sites Karthika, R., Gopinath, L. R., Archaya, S., & Bhuvaneswari, R. (2014). Isolation of diesel degrading bacteria, identification of Catechol gene and its biogas production.Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT)8(10), PP 76-82. Retrieved from www.iosrjournals.org www.iosrjournals.org Kappell, A. D., Wie, Y., Newton, R. J., Nostrand, J. D. V., Zhou, J., Mclellan, S. L. & Hristova, K. R. (2014). The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation potential of gulf of mexico native coastal microbial communities after deepwater horizon oil spill. Frontiers in Microbiology, 5, 114. Samanta, S. K., Singh, O. V. & Jain, R. K. (2002). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: environmental pollution and bioremediation. Trends in Biotechnology, 20(6), 243-248. Udgire, M., Shah, N., & Jadha. (2015). Enrichment, Isolation and Identification of Hydrocarbon Degrading Bacteria.MInt.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci 4(6): 708-713 pp. 708-713 http://www.ijcmas.com
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Yopi, Theresia, U. H., Thontowi A., & Susilaningsih, D. (2006).Characterization of Oil degrading Bacteria from Kamal Port, Jakarta Bay.Prosiding Seminar NasionalBioteknologi. Cibinong, 15 16 November 2006.
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FUNGAL PATHOGENICITY AND PROFILE CUTICLE DAMAGE CAUSED BY ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGUS Metarhizium anisopliae INFECTION AGAINST TO Oxya japonica (ORTHOPTERA: ACRIDIDAE) Melanie1*, Tjandra Anggraeni2, Wardono Niloperbowo3, Nining Ratningsih 4 1,4 )
Departemen Biology of Mathematics & Natural Sciences of Padjadjaran University 2,3 ) School of Life Sciences and Technology ITB *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
Resistance is one of impacts that arrising from the use of synthetic insecticides, and it’s became a major problem in agriculture. This encourages the application of integrated pest management including through biological control method. One of the biological agent known great potential in controlling the pest population is Metarhizium anisopliae. Entomopathogenic fungus is known as natural enemies of insects. The necessary information about the pathogenicity of the biological agent is very important in developing the M. anisopliae applications. Based on this, the research was conducted to find out the infected pathogenicity of M. anisopliae against Oxya japonica (Orthoptera: Acrididae). The Research was used a completely randomized design with single factor, the concentration fungal infection, and the parameters was letal time of O. japonica. The results was showed that concentration fungal infection was effected the letal time of O. japonica significantly (P <0.05), which is the shortest time of death occurred at the highest concentration fungal infection. Observed symptoms of fungal infection against to O. japonica was showed through changes in morphology and behavior of O. japonica infected. Furthermore, the profile longitudinal incision of Histologic cuticle was observed, there was cuticle degradation in the area of hyphae penetration. The hyphae was growth through the cuticle tissue forming mycelium that filled hemocoel. Its growth was resulted in damage to the structures of hemocoel inner tissues Keywords: Metarhizium anisopliae, Oxya japonica, pathogenicity, letal time, concentration fungal infection, profile cuticle damage
Introduction Pest resistancy to chemical insecticides has become major problem in agriculture. To overcome this problem, an integrated pest management was introduced with biocontrol as a part of the pest control methode. One of the biocontrol agent that exhibit a great potensive to control insect pest population is Metarhizium anisopliae. This entomopathogenic fungus is a natural enemy of insect (Prayogo et al., 2005). The information of fungus pathogenicity and insect immune response are the key factors in developing indigenous M. anisopliae as biocontrol agent. The necessary information about the pathogenicity of the biological agent is very important in developing the M. anisopliae applications. Based on this, the research was conducted to find out the infected pathogenicity of M. anisopliae against Oxya japonica (Orthoptera: Acrididae).
Materials and Methods The material of research was used 5th instar of O. japonica, it was infected by the spore suspension of M. anisopliae that was cultured in BPTP Propinsi Jawa Barat. The research methode The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 244
was used Completely Randomize Design, with dosage infection as single factor, there are 0 (control), 1.5 x 102, 1.5 x 103, 1.5 x 104, 1.5 x 105 spore/individual Histologic preparation performed by O. japonica infected for 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours and 96 hours, to determine the growth and development of fungal. Samples were obtained from infected animals that were fixed in advance in Bouin fixative solution. Further washing using 70% alcohol, which replaced two interval of 1 hour and then allowed soaked in 70% alcohol for 12 hours. The next stage is done dehydrated with a solution of NBA series, as follows: Alcohol 80%: NBA (3: 1) for 1 hour, Alcohol 96%: NBA (3:1) ) for 1 hour, Alcohol 100%: NBA (3:1) for 15 minutes, the last in the NBA pure 12 hours. Furthermore, the infiltration with liquid paraffin in the oven at 56 ° C. Infiltration is done three times, each for 30 minutes, 60 minutes and 90 minutes. Sample test insects which have been infiltrated with paraffin then planted in a block of paraffin and sliced using a microtome brand "American optical" with a thickness of 6μm. The incision is affixed to a glass slide with adhesive albumin meyer, then stained by the method of hematoxylin-eosin (Utari, 2000), which has been modified as follows: Xilol for 30 minutes, Alcohol 100% for 3 minutes, Alcohol 96% for 3 minutes, Alcohol 80% for 3 minutes, Alcohol 70% for 30 minutes/until the yellow color lost tissue, hematoxylin for 3 minutes, water flows for 30 seconds, Alcohol 70% for 3 minutes, Alcohol 80% for 3 minutes, eosin for 2 minutes, Alcohol 96% for 3 minutes, Alcohol 100% for 3 minutes, the last in Xilol for 3 minutes. Mixture which has been tainted by entelan then closed with coverglass. Results and Discussion Pathogenesis M. anisopliae infection process begins with the spore form of contact between the cuticle O. japonica. Fungus spore can penetrate the cuticle and was internal replicated into haemocoel of O. japonica. However, it was decreased the consumption, less activation and fitness of insect. The infection of M. anisopliae was showed that death occurs within 14 days, the body less haemolimph and turn to dark, mycelium with green spore was covered the cadaver of insect at reduced humidity. Fungal spores penetrate the cuticle and internal replicate in O. japonica haemocoel. On the surface of an infected cuticle darker colored, this occurs in 1-2 days after infection (Figure 1a), the darker the color when grasshoppers eventually die (Figure 1b). Nutrients in haemolymph will be reduced until it is used by the growth of the pathogen, until finally there is death. O. japonica who die in dry conditions will experience a depreciation of body fluids, dry body stiff, then blackened (Figure 1c). The spread of hyphae and mycelium growth in O. japonica body and produced conidia with greeny spores (Figure 1d).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 1. (a) O. japonica infected, at the beginning of the process occurs melanization in the area of infection (b) Early death of O. japonica, darkening the wider part of the body is infected ( c) The cadaver of O.japonica shrinkage of body fluids, body dry, stiff and blackened (d) The cadaver of O. japonica growth by mycelium of M. anisopliae with fully spores. The result of study showed that all dosages treatment of infection was led to 100% mortality of O. japonica. The mortality was no significant showed different in each dosages of treatment (Figure 2). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 245
Mortality (%) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
0
150
1500
15000
150000
Infection dosages (spora/individual)
Figure 2. Mortality O. japonica infected by M. anisopliae at 5 infectious dose level. The result showed that significantly the rate dosages infection of 1.5 x 102, 1.5 x 103, 1.5 x 104, 1.5 x 105 spore/individu were caused mortality (P<0.05). It also effected the average of death time significantly (P<0.05), that was shorter as the high infection dosage. Infection dosages (spore/individual)
150000
b
15000
bc
1500
bc c
150 0
0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5 The mean of death (Days)
3
3.5
Figure 3. The average time of death O. japonica infected by M. anisopliae at 5 infectious dose level. The mortality rate at the highest dose is 1.96 days shorter than the lowest dose that happens during the day 3,08. At the dosage of 1.5 x 104 spores, the mortality rate during the day 2,32, no more different than the average mortality in the treatment of 1.5 x 104 spores, that occurs at the day 2.64. Infectious spores were needed time to penetrate the cuticle, the spread of hyphae and mycelium growth in hemosol, it produces toxins that was killed O. japonica (Boucias & Pendland, 1986). The achievement of the optimum amount of infective spores will expedite the process of infection. The higher the number of spores that are infected, it was expected the higher chances of pathogenicity and death in insects. Disease in insects caused by a fungus called mycosis. Entomopathogenic fungus had an unique characteristic with their ability to penetrate the integument of insects which is the first barrier protection from the invasion of patogens. The development of the infection was performed by the profile of O. japonica cuticle Histologic preparations that have been infected by M. anisopliae in the period of 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours, and 96 hours post-infected. The parameters observed through the profile of hyphae growth, the conditions of infected cuticles and the growth of hyphae and mycelia The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 246
in the internal tissue of haemocoel. The profile of the O. japonica Histologic preparations was showed by photos presented in Figure 4.
I
CONTROL C 72 JAM
b B
b
KONTROL
a
A
Y X
b
B
100μm
B
II 24 Hours
48 Hours M X
Y X
H X
X
X
X
X
Y
H
X
X
H X 100μm
100μm
M M
Y
X
X
X
Y X
X X
M 100μm
72 Hours
100μm
96 Hours
Figure 4. Histologic longitudinal preparations of O. japonica thoracic; (I). CONTROLS: The structure of the internal tissue in O. japonica haemocoel: A. Gastrointestinal cavity (gut), a. Peritrophic membrane, B.Trachea cavities, b.Trakeoli cavity, C.Muscle tissue (II). Histologic preparation of O. japonica tissue that have infected by spores of M. anisopliae in 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours and 96 hours post-infected (40X magnification) (X = area spore penetration, Y = cuticle degradation by penetration of spores, hyphae = H, M = mycelium The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 247
The profile of O. japonica Histologic preparation (control) was showed that the structure of internal tissue in good condition (Figure 4 (I)) the longitudinal Histologic preparation was showed gastrointestinal tract (gut) in the central part haemocel, and the cavity digestion inner side of the trachea cavities around. The tissue around the cavity that stained bright red was the muscle tissue. The coloring looks bright, it was showed that the cells and tissues in good condition when the preparation was made. The Histologic preparation was showed the infection after 24 hours (Figure 4 (II)), digestive tissue structures of Oxya as the same as control. The development of further infection at 48 hours of infection, which is characterized by the development and deployment of hyphae form mycelium in haemocoel. The tissue structure was damaged, cavity respiratory tract (trachea and trakeoli) was damaged too, the muscle tissue can still be identified even though equally damaged. The profile of Staining Histologic preparation that compared to the control was changed, it means that tissue damage has occurred when the preparation was made. More severe tissue damage occurred after 72 hours and 96 hours infected, the tissue structure was not able identificated. The mycelium was grew and spreaded into haemocoel, so it can be assumed the tissue damage caused by the development of mycelium in hemosol. In addition, the development of mycelium was took some nutrients from the insect haemolymph. The fungal hyphae was produced mycotoxins such as destruksin to weaken the host tissue, based on this assumed tissue damage due to poisoned by destruxin. The development of M. anisopliae infection was began with infective spores that was penetrated on the surface of cuticle. After 24 hours infected, the hyphae was penetrated into the epidermis tissue that cuticle below. At 48 hours later observed, hyphae form mycelium were developed and spread into into the inner tissue of haemocoel. Mycelium were grew and filled the entire tissue of haemocoel, it was showed by profil of Histologic preparation 72 hours post infected (Figure 4 (II)). In the area of spore penetration, degradation of cuticle expanding along with the growth and development of hyphae, it was showed on the profile of Histologic preparation at 48 hours postinfected. The cuticle worst degradation occurs after infected, it was showed on the profile of Histologic preparation after 96 hours (Figure 4 (II)). The development of fungi in the insect's body consists of three phases: (1) adhesion / attachment of spores and germination of spores of the cuticle, (2) penetration into haemocoel, (3) The growth and development of the fungus into haemocoel was produced mycotoxins such as destruxin to weaken the host tissue, and it was caused the death of insect (Tanada & Kaya, 1993).
Conclusion The M. anisopliae infection against to O. japonica is was caused patogenecity the mortality of O. japonica. The spore infection of M. anisopliae in dosages of 1.5 x 102, 1.5 x 103 sp,1.5 x 104, 1.5 x 105 spora/individual, was led to 100% mortality that the mean of death was shorter as the high infection dosage. The mortality rate at the highest dose is 1.96 days shorter than the lowest dose that happens during the day 3,08. At the dosage of 1.5 x 104 spores, the mortality rate during the day 2,32, no more different than the average mortality in the treatment of 1.5 x 104 spores, that occurs at the day 2.64. Observed symptoms of fungal infection against to O. japonica was showed through changes in morphology and behavior of O. japonica infected. Furthermore, the profile of longitudinal histologic preparation of cuticle was observed, there was cuticle degradation in the area of hyphae penetration. The hyphae was growth through the cuticle tissue forming mycelium that filled hemocoel. Its growth was resulted in damage to the structures of hemocoel inner tissues after 24,72 and 96 hours infected. References Boucias, D. G. & Pendland, J. C. (1998), Principles of Insect Pathology (pp.259−532), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Massachusetts,.
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Prayogo, Y., Tengkano, W., & Marwoto. (2005), Prospek cendawan entomopatogen Metarhizium anisopliae untuk mengendalikan Ulat Grayak Spodoptera litura pada Kedelai, Jurnal Litbang Pertanian Tanada, Y., & Kaya, H. K. (1993), Insect Pathology (pp. 319 – 533). Academic Press, Inc. California, Utari, E. (2000), Pengaruh Infeksi HaNPV terhadap Kerusakan Membran Peritrofik dan Indeks Nutrisi Larva Instar 5 Helicoverpa armigera Hubner , Tesis Magister ITB, pp. 16 −18
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THE POTENCY OF ENDOPHYTIC FUNGI ISOLATED FROM TARO (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) AS PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING AGENT Tiwit Widowati1*, Nuriyanah1, Indah Budi Asih2 and Harmastini Sukiman1 1
Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jl. Raya Bogor KM 46, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia 2 Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, Surabaya, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
Endophytic fungi are fungi that live in plant tissues without causing disease symptom in plants. Endophytic fungi can produce secondary metabolite which can be used as plant growth hormones and biocontrol agent. The aims of this study is to isolate endophytic fungal from taro var. Bogor, Bentul and Kaliurang and screen their ability to produce the IAA hormone and against Fusarium oxysporum. Nineteen endophytic fungi have been isolated from taro, 7 isolates obtained from var. Bentul, 8 isolates from var. Kaliurang and 4 isolates from var. Bogor. The result on production of growth promoting hormone indicated that only three isolates were able to produce IAA varied from 0.27 – 9.24 mg/l. The result of antagonism test showed that three isolates were able against Fusarium oxysporum with percentage inhibition varied from 23.64 – 36.36% Keywords: endophytic fungi, taro, IAA hormone, Fusarium oxysporum
Introduction Endophytic fungi are fungal symbionts associated with plants living inside tissues without causing any disease symptoms. Endophytic fungi could produce various kinds of secondary metabolite compounds like phytohormone to protect the plants against biotic and abiotic stresses (Khan et al., 2012). Indole acetic acid (IAA) secreted by fungal endophytes can improve plant growth and crop productivity (Yuan et al., 2010). Endophytic fungi have recently been considered an important resource for screening biocontrol agent to suppress plant pests (insects and pathogens) and to overcome abiotic stresses (drought, salt and heat) (Zhang et al., 2014). Endophytes can exert their activity trough several mechanism. Endophytic fungi or bacteria can induce systemic resistance in plants against pathogens after actively penetrating and colonizing the host, promoting the synthesis of biological active compounds or causing changes in plant morphology and physiology (Hanada et al., 2010). Taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the Araceae family (Prajapati et al., 2011). The most frequently eaten part of the plant is the corms and cormels, which are formed underground by a thickening of the base of the stem. Depending on the varieties and local cultural traditions, other plant tissues, such as leaves, flowers and stems, are also consumed, especially in sauces, purees, stews and soups (Ferreres et al., 2012). Dry rot disease has been caused losses yield of taro. A number of Fusarium species, including F. oxysporum and F. solani were capable of causing rot symptoms on taro corm, while F. oxysporum might be more specific pathogen to C. esculenta (Widodo & Supramana, 2011). The utilization of endophytic fungi from taro as plant growth promoting agent is still limited. It is necessary to study IAA producer and biocontrol agent of endophytic fungi for stimulating plant growth. In present study, we aimed to isolate and screen endophytic fungal from taro which produced IAA hormone and against F. oxysporum. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 250
Materials and Methods Isolation of endophytic fungi Taro samples were obtained from garden of germplasm, Cibinong Science Center. The plant specimens were washed in running water for 10 minutes and than dried using a sterile paper towel. Roots and corm were cut into several pieces of about 1 cm and surface-sterilized by the immersion sequence in 75% ethanol for 1 minute, 5.3% sodium hypochlorite solution for 5 minutes and 75% ethanol for 0.5 minutes. Leaves were surface-sterilized by immersion in 75% ethanol for 2 minutes only. After drying, the pieces were cut on a sterilized glass to expose their inner tissues and placed in Petri dishes containing CMM medium (17 g cornmeal agar (Difco), 20 g malt extract, 2 g yeast extract, 50 mg chloramphenicol per liter water). After 3 days to 4 weeks of incubation at room temperature, fungi were purified on to potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. Characterization of endophytic fungi Nineteen of single spore fungal isolates were grown on PDA medium and incubated at room temperature for 10-15 days. The macroscopic characterization of fungi were observed such as growth rate, colors and shape of colony, radial lines, concentrically circle, observe and reverse color (Salvamani & Nawawi, 2014). Screening for IAA producer The fungi isolates were subcultured on PDA and incubated for 5 days. One disk of fungal colony inoculated on to 25 ml of Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB) with/without adding 0.5 mM Ltryptophan and than were incubated shaker at 28oC and 150 rpm/min for 5 days. The cultures are harvested and centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 15 min. One ml of supernatan was added 4 ml of Salkowsky reagent (50 ml, 35% sulfuric acid, 1 ml of 0.5 mol FeCl3 solution) and incubated at dark room for 60 minutes. Measurement of absorbance used spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 530 nm (Gutierrez et al., 2009). Antifungal assay In this experiment, dual cultures assay were conducted to evaluate the in vitro antagonistic activity of endophytes against Fusarium oxysporum. Hyphal plugs of pathogen and endophytes were placed 3 cm apart in Petri dish containing PDA. F. oxysporum was plated earlier than endophytes. Evaluation of interacton began 3 days after endophytes were placed into assay plates. Plates were incubated at 28ºC for 5 days. The colony diameter of fungal was measured and percentage inhibition calculated using the equation according to Seema and Devaki (2012):
P(%) R1 R2 / R1x100%
(1)
P: percentage inhibition, R1: diameter of F. oxysporum, R2: diameter of endophytes fungi
Results and Discussion Isolation and characterization of endophytic fungi Results of this study suggest that the fungi residing in taro plants are diverse. A total of 19 isolates of fungal endophytes were obtained, 8 isolates from roots, 1 isolate from leaves and 10 isolates from corm. Endophytic fungi of taro var. Kaliurang gave the highest result (8 isolates). All parts of taro var. Bentul produced endophytic fungi, whereas taro var. Kaliurang only obtained endophytic fungi from parts of root and corm and even taro var. Bogor was just from corm (Figure 1). Therefore, endophytic fungi in taro may differ due to different varieties. The successful isolation of endophytic fungi depends on surface sterilization of samples to eliminate epiphytic microorganisms. The surface sterilization was used to ensure that no symptoms of microbial diseases were present in the plant samples. The plant-associated habitat is a dynamic environment in which many factors affect the structure and species composition of the microbial communities that colonize roots, stems, branches, and leaves. It has previously been shown that The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 251
endophytic communities vary spatially in the plant or may be dependent on the interaction with other endophytic or pathogenic bacteria. According to Sun and Guo (2012), there are many factors can influence the isolation process such as number of sample, plant age and nutritional and water status of plant.
Figure 1. Endophytic fungi from different varieties of taro Table 1. Morphological characterization of endophytic fungi from taro Isolates TBTA 1 TBTA 2 TBTA 3 TBTA 4 TBTD 1 TBTU 1 TBTU 2 TLPA 1 TLPA 3 TLPA 4 TLPA 5 TLPU 1 TLPU 2 TLPU 3 TLPU 4 TBGU 1
Sample source Roots of taro var. Bentul Roots of taro var. Bentul Roots of taro var. Bentul Roots of taro var. Bentul Leaves of taro var. Bentul Corm of taro var. Bentul Corm of taro var. Bentul Roots of taro var. Kaliurang Roots of taro var. Kaliurang Roots of taro var. Kaliurang Roots of taro var. Kaliurang Corm of taro var. Kaliurang Corm of taro var. Kaliurang Corm of taro var. Kaliurang Corm of taro var. Kaliurang Corm of taro
Colony shape
Colony colors
Reverse colors
Radial lines
Concentrically circle
Velvety
White
White
No have
No have
Velvety
Tawny
Tawny
No have
Have
Velvety
Tawny
Tawny
No have
No have
Downy
White
White
No have
Have
Cottony
White
White
Have
Have
Downy
Greenish white
Greenish white
No have
Have
Cottony
White
White
No have
No have
Downy
White
No have
Have
Woolly
Greenish white
Brownish white Greenish white
No have
Have
Downy
White
Broken white
Have
Have
Velvety
White
Cream
No have
No have
Cottony
White
White
Have
Have
Downy
White
White
No have
No have
Absent
White
White
Have
No have
Absent
Brown
Brown
No have
No have
Velvety
Black
Black
No have
No have
Growth rate Slow growing Slow growing Slow growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast growing Slow growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast
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TBGU 2 TBGU 3 TBGU 4
var. Bogor Corm of taro var. Bogor Corm of taro var. Bogor Corm of taro var. Bogor
Velvety
White
White
Have
Have
Cottony
White
White
No have
No have
Cottony
White
White
Have
Have
growing Fast growing Fast growing Fast growing
Nineteen fungal isolates have been isolated from leaves, roots and corm of taro. Based on morphological characters were obtained varied results (Table 1). The colony of endophytic fungi from taro was dominated by shape velvety, downy and cottony, white colors and fast growing. Production of IAA hormone Nineteen fungal endophytes of taro were selected in its ability to produce the IAA hormone. The results on the production of growth promoting hormone indicated that only three isolates were able to produce IAA (Table 2). TBTU 1 produced the highest amount of IAA (9.24 µg/ml) in culture supplemented with L-tryptophan, followed by TLPA 5 (7.32 µg/ml). Isolate TLPA 5 also could produce IAA on medium without L-tryptophan (7.66 µg/ml), followed by TBGU 1 (0.27 µg/ml). Some isolates could not produce IAA hormone despite the added L-tryptophan as a precursor into medium. Table 2. Production of IAA hormone and percentage inhibition of F. oxysporum by endophytic fungi IAA production (µg/ml) Isolates
(-) L-tryptophan
(+) L-tryptophan
Percentage inhibition (%)
TBTA 1 TBTA 2 TBTA 3 TBTA 4 TBTD 1 TBTU 1 TBTU 2 TLPA 1 TLPA 3 TLPA 4 TLPA 5 TLPU 1 TLPU 2 TLPU 3 TLPU 4 TBGU 1 TBGU 2 TBGU 3 TBGU 4
-5.01 -3.84 -5.62 -0.21 -7.34 -5.55 -2.47 -7.75 -6.31 -6.72 7.66 -8.5 -7.54 -5.49 -5.55 0.27 -3.57 -10.83 -4.94
-9.80 -6.72 -7.27 -9.73 -0.76 9.24 -10.97 -9.18 -7.69 -6.92 7.32 -8.29 -6.65 -6.03 -5.97 -0.14 -10.49 -8.16 -10.49
36.36 23.64 32.72 -
IAA was not produced or produced in negligible quantity in the L-tryptophan free medium. There was a significant different level of L-tryptophan for varying microorganisms. The IAA production by microbes can vary among different species and strains and also it is influenced by culture condition, growth stage and substrate availability (Mohite, 2013). Some microorganisms produce auxins in the presence of a suitable precursor such as L-tryptophan. Three out of 19 endophytic fungi exhibited IAA production. They are probably the plant growth-promoting fungi. According to the review by Hyakumachi (2013), the mechanisms involved in The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 253
promotion of plant growth by PGPFs include production of gibberellin-like or IAA-like substances, abscisic acid, degradation of cellulose and starch, supply of mineral nutrients, suppression of indigenous, deleterious microorganisms in soil and production of volatile substances. Different mechanisms involved in plant growth-promotion and in disease suppression could explain that the isolates best in disease suppression are not necessarily the best in plant growth-promotion. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for the promotion effect of isolates TLPA 5 on growth of taro and to test pathogenesis of this fungi isolate on other crops. Antifungal assay Three of the 19 fungal isolates from taro exhibited antifungal activity against F. oxysporum with formation of inhibition zones ranging from 23.64 to 36.36% in the dual cultures on PDA medium (Table 2). Isolate TBTA 1 exhibited the strongest antifungal activity with percentage inhibition 36.36%, followed by TLPA 5 (32.72%) and TBTA 3 (23.64%). The antagonist testing of fungal isolates against F. oxysporum using dual culture conducted to determine the ability of secondary metabolites produced by endophytic fungal inhibit growth F. oxysporum. The inhibition zone indicated a competition between endophytic and pathogen fungal. The competition occurs when two microorganism require nutrients and space (Ainy et al., 2015). In this mechanism, endophytic fungal will get more nutrients compared with pathogenic fungi, thus the growth of pathogens inhibited. This inhibition might be also due to antibiosis produced by the secondary metabolite reaction of endophytic fungal which was mixed in medium.
Conclusion Isolation of endophytic fungi from taro obtained 19 isolates. Isolate TBTU 1 produced the highest IAA hormone with concentration 2.45 mg/ml, whereas isolate TBTA 1 could against Fusarium oxysporum with the highest percentage of inhibition 36.36%. Isolate TLPA 5 could produced IAA hormone and against F. oxysporum. References Ainy, E. Q., Ratnayani, R., & Susilawati, L. (2015). Uji Aktivitas antagonis Trichoderma harzianum 11035 terhadap Colletotrichum capsici TCKR2 dan Colletotrichum acutatum TCK1 penyebab antraknosa pada tanaman cabai. In Seminar Nasional XII Pendidikan Biologi FKIP UNS, Biologi, Sains, Lingkungan dan Pembelajarannya (pp 892-897). Ferreres, F., Gonçalves, R. F., Gil-Izquierdo, A., Valentão, P., Silva, A. M., & Silva, J. B. (2012). Further knowledge on the phenolic profile of Colocasia esculenta (L.) Shott. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60, 7005–7015 Gutierrez,C. K., Matsuy, G.Y., Lincoln, D.E., & Lovel, C.R. (2009). Production of the phytohormone indole-3 acetic acid by the estuarine species of the genus Vibrio. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 75, 2253-2258 Hanada, R. E., Pomella, A. W. V., Costa, H. S., Bezerra, J. S. Loguercio, L. L., & Pereira J. O. (2010). Endophytic fungal diversity in Theobroma cacao (cacao) and T. grandiflorum (cupuac¸u) trees and their potential for growth promotion and biocontrol of black-pod disease. Fungal Biology, 114, 901-910 Hyakumachi, M. (2013). Research on biological control of plant diseases: present state and perspectives. Journal of Genetic Plant Pathology, 79, 435–440 Khan, A. L., Hamayun, M., Kang, S., Kim, Y., Jung, H., Lee, J., & Lee, I. (2012). Endophytic fungal association via gibberellins and indole acetic acid can improve plant growth under abiotic stress: an example of Paecilomyces formosus LHL10. BMC Microbiology, 12(3), 1-14 The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 254
Mohite, B. (2013). Isolation and characterization of indole acetic acid (IAA) producing bacteria from rhizospheric soil and its effect on plant growth. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 13(3), 638-649 Prajapati, R., Kalariya, M., Umbarkar, R., Parmar, S., & Sheth, N. (2011). Colocasia esculenta: A potent indigenous plant. International Journal of Nutrition, Pharmacology, Neurological Diseases, 1, 90–96 Salvamani, S., & Nawawi N. M. (2014). Macroscopic and microscopic approaches for identification of Fungi from plant soil of Cameron highlands. Bioremediation Science & Technology Research, 2(1), 14-18 Sun, X., & Guo, L. D. (2012). Endophytic fungal diversity: review of traditional and molecular techniques. Mycology, 3(1):65–76, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2012.656724. Widodo & Supramana. (2011). Fusarium species associated with corm rot of taro in Indonesia. Microbiology Indonesia, 5(3), 132-138. DOI: 10.5454/mi.5.3.6 Yuan, Z. L., Zhang, C. L., & Lin, F. C. (2010). Role of diverse non-systemic fungal endophytes in plant performance and response to stress: progress and approaches. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 29,116-126 Zhang, Q., Zhang, J., Yang, L., Zhang, L., Jiang, D., Chen, W., & Li, G. (2014). Diversity and biocontrol potential of endophytic fungi in Brassica napus. Biological Control, 72, 98-108
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THE STUDY OF PLANKTON DIVERSITY INDEX IN MUSI RIVER FLOOD PLAIN TO DETERMINATE THE QUALITY OF WATERS AS HABITAT OF FISHES Effendi Parlindungan Sagala1 1
Biology Department of Science Faculty, Sriwijaya University, South Sumatra, Indonesia *Corresponding author [email protected] Abstract The flood plain of waters River Musi had many functions, a partly, namely as habitat of fishes. Existence plankton community as diversity and it's densities so very important to suplay much nutrition for foodstuff the juvenile of fishes. Acording to my research some years to prove that at waters of wetland like Musi River always acumulate much organic matter eventhough from domestic or natural material. Much of natural process works in the surface level of rivers by much plankton organism. according to my research in these years can expose the relation between the populations of several fishes and biodiversity and population of plankton diversities. Base of my research, the population of plankton in downstream of Musi Rivers in Palembang Regional so deplete and the diversity also mediate. These conditions determinate the population of fishes become lower from time ago untill now. The probility of these case pertaining to some physical and chemical factors which give effect to quality of waters of Musi River. The population of plankton communities at these research 39 up 105 individu/ liter. The diversity index of plankton communities were 2.91 upto 3.74. The species of fishes were 40 species which found during research in three months from June until September 2016. Keywords: musi rivers, plankton communities, fishes.
Introduction The flood plain of waters belong to Musi River had many functions, a partly, namely as habitat of fishes and others as settlemen and agriculture areas include swamps and marshlands. The effects of flood plain a long of edge effects of Musi River from upstream up to downstream until to estuary so very important to determine the quality of waters of Musi River. The quality of Musi River waters very important to establish the existence and survival plankton community as diversity. The densities of plankton community so very important to suplay much nutrition for foodstuff the juvenile of fishes. Acording to my research some years to prove that at waters of wetland like Musi River always acumulate much organic matter eventhough from domestic or natural material. Much of natural process works in the surface level of rivers by much plankton organism. This was carried out on the side of river because there a zone of standing waters a long of flood plain like a little or big swamps and from this sites waters drain to Musi waters to carry much plankton organism. When waters drain from a long flood plain Musi River which can perform on rain season or daily time, much the juvenile of fishes or larve of nekton from several kind of fishes or water insects. But the larve of waters insects who eats plankton will be foodstuff by little fishes in the food chain of aquatic ecosystem. According to my research in these years can be expose the relation between the populations of several fishes and biodiversity indices of plankton. Base to my research, the population of plankton in The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 256
downstream of Musi Rivers in Palembang regional so more little because damage of natural swamps and artificial swamps like retention pool anywhere. With studying of plankton diversity index in the river like on the Musi River flood plain able to determinate the quality of waters as habitat of fishes. Diversities index so effected by number of population and number of species. In this research, diversities index of plankton very depend to how much of species of plankton and the condition of population each species of plankton community.
P4
P 3 P2 P 1 Figure 1. The sites of Sampling Location (September, 2016). P1 : Water around of Ampera Bridge (S: 02 º 59’23,1”; E: 104º45’51,2”); P2 : Waters near PT. Pusri area (S: 02 º 59’02,0”; E: 104º48’05,4”); P3: Mouth of Komering River (S: 02 º 59’32,7”; E: 104º50’0,9”); P4; Mouth of Selincah River (S: 02 º 58’34,3”; E: 104º49’21,8”);
The plankton comprises all those aquatic organisms which drift passively or whose powers of locomotion are insufficient to enable them to move contrary to the motion of their inhabitat water mass (Barnes and Mann, 1980: 6). Of course, this is not to suggest that plankton are necessarily incapable of moving within a given a water mass; motile spesies may move vertically in a laterallyflowing current in much the same way that one may move up and down stairs in a double-decker bus without affecting one’s movement relative to ground (Barnes and Mann, 1980: 6). The movement of plankton depend to nutrition supply and hence they reproduce very quickly in surface level of those little streams and many pools when the nutrition for them so much in waters. In generally according to trophic level, plankton comprise of phytoplankton and zooplankton. In the communities of plankton in water ecosystem at the time and space given that phytoplankton more little of cell sizes than zooplankton. Phytoplanktons play an important role in aquatic ecosystems, both in freshwater and in marine environment. They are the primary producer organisms, therefore, supporting zooplanktons, fishes and other members of aquatic fauna. Thus, they are placed at the base of the trophic strata or at the bottom of the aquatic food web. Phytoplanktons also play a major role in global carbon dioxide fixation. Phytoplanktons also maintain the oxygen level of the water body, which is designated as dissolved oxygen or DO (Pal and Avik, 2014:23). The phytoplankton very important to supply nutrition for zooplankton in aquatic ecosystem, and almost of phytoplankton include into the algae. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 257
Existence and it survival of algae very relationships to condition of environment who support their nutrition for living. There were relationship between algae and environment (Lee, 2008:504). In wetland ecosystem like in the Musi River flood plain, that phytoplanktons are one of the fundamental players of physical, chemical and biological processes that characterize the wetland ecosystems. They mostly act as primary producer, therefore placed in the wetland food web (Pal and Avik, 2014): 29. Physical factors affecting wetland ecosystem are light and temperature. Light penetration in water column of shallow wetlands is affected greatly by wind driven sediment resuspension which also increases the productivity of shallow wetlands (Klarer and Millie 1992 in Pal and Avik, 2014). In this research, area of sampling so widespread a long downstream Musi River, becouse that, I take it four station of research from Near Ampera Bridge as upstream of Musi River until mouth of Komering River and mouth of Selincah River as downstream of Musi River with distance about one km one and another sampling station in Palembang Town. The little rivers in South Sumatra need be conservated persistently because they play a role important to contribute microhabitat as nursery ground for much freshwater fishes (Sagala, 2014). Plankton diversity Index can be used for measuring or determinating the quality of water as habitat of fishes. The index diversity of plankton community would point out the stability of plankton living in habitat. Stability of plankton show the condition of abundance or densities of each population of species and the richeness of plankton community. According Sagala (2014), Indices values of diversity can be categorize as follows: Indices diversity as big as: ≤ 1: can be said that the communties of organism very non stable in the ecosystem becouse any problems of physical, chemical and biological factors interference some communities of organism. If indices of diversity as big as > 1 - < 2,0: can be estimate that the communities of organism non stable in the ecosystem by some factors of biological, physical and chemical. When the indices diversity as big as: > 2,0 – 3,0 mean that the communties of organism adequate stable in the ecosystem. Furthermore, if the indices diversity as big as: > 3,0 mean that the communties of organism very stable in the ecosystem. The diversity index value can be interrelated to existence and population of fishes in habitat.
P5
Figure 2. The sites of Sampling Location (September, 2016). Explanation of sampling location: P5. Area of Sungsang Delta (S: 02 º 20’24,8”; E: 104º55’33,4”). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 258
Materials and Methods This research had been made in Musi River around Palembang City of South Sumatra Provincy. Some materials which used in the fields were plankton net no. 25, benthic net, cold box, camera (Canon Merk), pH Stick (Merck), Column Thermometer, pail vol. 10 liter and flacon bottles. The substrates of sediment and water samples from fields carryout to laboratorium for analysing the chemical contents. The physical features directly were measured in water column of Musi River like temperature and transparency. Sample of plankton taken with using plankton net as much as 50 liter and the precipitatate take in flacon, and then be given 4 drops formalin. Furtheremore, the sample of plankton inspected under the microscope in 150 X and 400 X magnitude and than recorded as data.
Diversity index of communities: H = - ∑ pi ln pi; pi = Ni/N The symbol H = Shannon index of general diversity. In here as Diversity Index of Plankton Community (Shannon index); pi = Importance probability for each species = ni/N; Ni = importance value for each spesies; N = total importance value (Odum, 1971: 144). The fishes which caught by fishermen around location during sampling plankton in location recorded and than identified in laboratory. Results and Discussion Acording to plankton analysis at five sampling location based to direction of water current in Musi River which passage Palembang City upto estuary of Musi River, point out that diversity index of plankton community were different enough for those location. Diversity index of plankton community on the upstream of estuary, apparently lower compared down stream of Sungsang Estuary (Table 1). The lowest of diversity index of plankton community found on the upstream for four location around of Palembang City. This condition prove that much activities around Palembang City like antrophogenic, industries, hospital, other domestic activities had been done mixing with water current had been effected the quality of Musi River and then cause the plankton population eliminated or probably diverse around waters and difficult to survive. This situation effect the population of plankton tobe descended. Fishes in near estuary lookfor the sites which much or blooming plankton maybe foodstuff directly or indirectly. As inderectly, the plankton population tobe food chain for little fishes, and than this little fishes tobe foodstuff fo the big fishes. Apparently, the high population of plankton can be found a round of Sungsang estuary. This condition had proved that there were root relationship between diversity index of plankton with the quality of waters as habitat for fishes. The higher index of diversity proved that there was more the quantiy of fishes can be found compare to other place who more lawer of diversity index of plankton community. The complete of plankton analysis can be found in Tabel 1. The population plankton community on all sites were 39 upto 105 individu/liter of water sample. This value can be said were low (less of 50 indiviu/ liter of water sample) upto abundance, namely more 100 individu/liter. Acording to level of trophic, the waters of study area can be said the oligo upto mesotrophic waters. The richness of plankton spesies on the downstream were highest were compared to other sites of sampling station. The four sampling station in upstream in Palembang City were lower than in downstream out of Palembang City. This prove that the waters of Musi River a round Palembang City were damage from much activities. This condition effect depletion of fishes population because the habitat of fishes in waters made worse. The 23 upto 36 species plankton which can discovered in the upstream showed that the habitat of fishes in those place had disturbed by some activities who had been said before. But, on the downstream who faraway from Palembang Town, actually better their habitat for fishes whether sawed from plankton diversities which appeared higher than four location others. Such as, on the downstream of Musi River after Palembang Town made up as important habitat for fishes in the ecosystem of Musi River Flood Plain. Overall , the richness of plankton community near estuary ecosystem of Sungsang area were 54 species, this condition include moderate, namely between 50 upto 100 species.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 259
Figure 3. P1 : A round of Ampera Bridge.
Figure 4. P2. Waters near PT. Pusri area
Figure 5. P2. Waters near PT. Pusri area.
Figure 6. P3. A Mouth of Komering River
Figure 7. P4.: Mouth of Selincah River.
Figure 8. P4.: Mouth of Selincah River.
Figure 9. P5. Area of Sungsang Delta.
Figure 10. P5. Area of Sungsang Delta
Tabel 1. Analysis results of plankton population on five sampling location of Musi River in Palembang Town until Sungsang Estuary of Musi River No. Group of Plankton and Species
A. PHYTOPLANKTON: I. Cyanophyceae: 1. Gloeotrichia echinulata 2. Lyngbya limnotica 3. Nodularia spumigena 4. Oscillatoria curveceps 5. Oscillatoria kawamurae 6. Oscillatoria lacustris 7. Oscillatoria limosa 8. Phormidium tenue 9. Rivularia minutula 10. Spirulina major 11. Spirulina nordsledtii
Population: Individual x liter -1 Sampling location: P1 P2 P3 P4
1 1 -
1 1 1 1 1 2 -
1 1 1 1 3
P5
1 1 2 3 -
1 1 1 2 -
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 260
II. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. III. 1. 2. 3. 4. IV. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. B. I. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. II. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Chlorophyceae: Chaetophora elegans Draparnaldia plumose Microspora tumidula Oedogonium multisporum Oedogodium varians Spirogyra varians Desmidiaceae: Closterium juncidum Closterium leibleinii Closterium libellura Gonatozyga moniliformis Diatomae: Amphipleura pellucida Asterionella formosa Bacillaria paradoxa Coscinodiscus oculus Cyclotella operculata Cyclotella stelligera Detonula schroederi Diatoma elongatum Diatoma vulgare Eunotia arcus Eunotia lunaris Fragilaria crotonensis Melosira varians Nitzschia linearis Nitzschia sigma Rhizosolenia sp. Surirella elegans Surirella robusta Surirella tenera Stephanodiscus carconensis Synedra tabulata Tabellaria fenestrata ZOOPLANKTON Flagellata: Carteria globosa Eudorina elegans Euglena deses Euglena viridis Monas vivipara Oicomonas socialis Phacus pleuronectes Thylacomonas compressa Trachelomonas abrupta Trachelomonas cervicula Trachelomonas curta Trachelomonas intermedia Trachelomonas oblonga Trachelomonas volxii Rhizopoda: Arcella dentata Arcella vulgaris Astramoeba radiosa Centropyxis aculeata Centropyxis ecornis
-
2
-
1 1
-
-
-
-
-
3 -
1 1 2 1 1 -
1 1
5 -
1 3
5 -
-
1 -
-
1
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 -
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
1 1 6 2 1 1 -
1 2 7 3 1 4 3
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 3 -
1 -
1 1 1 1 1 1 -
1 1 3
1 -
1 3 1 -
1 1 1 -
3 -
2
1 -
1 1
1
1 4 3
1 1 2 3
1
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 261
6. Difflugia urceolata 1 1 1 7. Ditrema flavum 1 8. Nebela militaris 1 9. Nebela dentistoma 1 1 1 1 10. Paraquadrula irregularis 1 11. Thecamoeba verrucosa 1 III. Cladocera: 1. Simocephalus vetulus 1 1 2. Chydorus ovalis 2 3. Stadium Nauplius 4 IV. Ostracoda: 1. Cypricercus reticulates 1 2. Cypridopsis aculeata 5 1 6 1 3. Cypridopsis Helvetica 4 3 1 4 4. Cyprinotus aureus 1 5. Cypris pubera 3 2 V. Copepoda: 1. Calanus finmarchicus 3 2. Cyclops strenuus 1 1 3. Cyclops magnus 1 3 4. Harpacticus chelifer 1 5. Std. Nauplius 10 VI. Rotifera: 1. Brachionus angularis 1 2. Brachionus falcatus 1 3. Chromogaster ovalis 1 4. Kellicottia longispina 1 5. Rotaria rotatoria 1 1 1 VII. Nematoda: 1. Anaplectus granulotus 1 VIII. Mollusca: 1. (larva Glochidium) 1 3 1 2. (Larva Glochidium) 2 Parameter: 1. Population of Plankton Community: 41 45 39 44 105 2. Population of Phytoplankton Community: 19 22 30 17 53 3. Population of Zooplankton Community: 22 23 9 27 52 4. Richness of Plankton Species: 24 36 33 23 54 5. Richness of Phytoplankton Species: 11 19 24 10 25 6. Richness of Zooplankton Species: 13 17 9 13 29 7. Diversity index of Plankton Community: 2.96 3.49 3.42 2.91 3.74 8. Dominance index of Plankton Community: 0.065 0.034 0.036 0.067 0.033 Primary Data: 20th, September 2016. Explanation of sampling location: P1 : Water around of Ampera Bridge (S: 02 º 59’23,1”; E: 104º45’51,2”); P2 : Waters near PT. Pusri area (S: 02 º 59’02,0”; E: 104º48’05,4”); P3: Mouth of Komering River (S: 02 º 59’32,7”; E: 104º50’0,9”); P4; Mouth of Selincah River (S: 02 º 58’34,3”; E: 104º49’21,8”); P5. Area of Sungsang Delta (S: 02 º 20’24,8”; E: 104º55’33,4”).
The results of plankton analysis can be showed on Tabel 1, that the highest diversity index of lankton community can be found in the downstream of Musi River near to Sungsang estuary, and this condition so related to the quality of waters as habitat of fishes. Acording to data of population of fishes (Tabel 2), that the highest of fishes population root related to diversity index of plankton community (Tabel 1). And this condition also related to some parameter as dissolved of oxygen and water transparency and others parameter.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 262
Figure 11. The fishes catched when plankton sampling. Tabel 2. Estimation of Fishes which caught by Fisherman along Sungsang Estuary when plankton sampling had been taken at same time in 20th September 2016 No.
Species
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Achirorides leucorhynchos Ambassis nalua Anabas testudineus Batrachocephalus mino Belontia hasselti Barbodes schwanefeldii Balantiocheilus malanopterus Butis butis Cyclocheilichthys repasson Clarias batrachus Clupeichthys goniognathus Chela hypothalmus Cynaglossus lingua
14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
Cyclocheilichthys enoplos Channa striata Chela hypothalmus Coilia sp. Dangila ocelata Glossogobius circumspectus Helostoma temmickii Kryptopterus limpok Labeo chrysophekadion Mastacembelus erythrotaenia Mystus micracanthus Mystus nemerus Mystus singaringan Noptoterus noptoterus Oreochromis niloticus Osteochilus schlegeli
Estimation of Population P1 P2 P3 + + + + -
-
+
+
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + -
P4 + + + + + + + -
P5 + ++ +++ + + ++ + + -
+ + + + + + ++ + + + +
+++ + + + + + ++ + +++ ++ + +
+ +
++ + + + ++ +++
++ ++ ++ + + + ++++ ++ + ++
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 263
30.
Osteochilus hasselti
31. 32. 33.
Pangasius micronemus Parambassis wolffii Parastromateus niger
-
34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.
Plotosus caninus Polistonemus multifilis Pangasius polyuronodon Pristolepis grooti Rasbora tonieri Rasbora Cephalotaenia Sciaena macropterus
+ + +
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
++ -
+ +
+ + -
+ + + + -
+ +++ + + + -
+ +++ ++++ + -
++++
41. 42.
Synaptura commersoniana ++ Tetraodon palembangensis + + + + Richness of species each research station: 12 7 22 23 39 Explanation: -: absent/not found; +: little, less of 10 ten individuals; ++: > 10 upto 20 invidual;+++: > 20 upto 30 individual; ++++: > 30 invidual. Tool for finding sample namely: gillnet Primary Data: 20th, September 2016. Explanation of sampling location: P1 : Water around of Ampera Bridge (S: 02 º 59’23,1”; E: 104º45’51,2”); P2 : Waters near PT. Pusri area (S: 02 º 59’02,0”; E: 104º48’05,4”); P3: Mouth of Komering River (S: 02 º 59’32,7”; E: 104º50’0,9”); P4; Mouth of Selincah River (S: 02 º 58’34,3”; E: 104º49’21,8”); P5. Area of Sungsang Delta (S: 02 º 20’24,8”; E: 104º55’33,4”).
According to Tabel 2, apparently the highest population of fishes in downstream out of area of Palembang City up to Sungsang estuary can be found in upstream Sungsang area on mouth of Musi River. This is reason why the fishermen take many their gill net around of sites. All of species of fishes which catched by gill net of fishermen were same of time with taking the sample of plankton. The fish that abundance if compared to others species was spesies, for example: Sciaena macropterus (gulamah, local name), namely more 30 individu catched on the time. The species of Mystus micracanthus (lundu, local name), Cyclocheilichthys enoplos (lumajang, local name), Batrachocephalus mino (utik, local name), Synaptura commersoniana (sebelah, local name) and Chela hypothalmus (janggut, local name) were more abundance. And than, Cynaglossus lingua (lidah, local name) and Pangasius micronemus (patin, local name) were less abundance. And last, Pristolepis grooti (sepatung, local name), Clarias batrachus (keli, local name), Parastromateus niger (bawal hitam, local name) and another, was scarce or no abundance. Tabel 3. The results of Chemical and Physical Analysis of Sungsang Estuary Waters No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Parameters
Locations:
A. Physical Parameters: Temperature (ºC): Light penetration/ transparency (cm): Electrical conductivity: Turbidity: TSS (total suspended solid): B. Chemical Parameters: pH: Total ammonia (mg/l): PO4 (mg/l) Sulfide (mg/: 0.099
10 603
0.16
P1 30
P2 30
P3 30
P4 30
P5 30
19 236 9 25.75
21 620 11 16.5
25 590 17 18.3
44 499 28 16.5
50 17.4
6.53 2.28 0.51 0.025
6.47 2.8 0.50 0.031
6.72 3.5 0.56 0.031
6.52 8.4 0.61 0.42
6.49 0.59
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 264
5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Nitrate (mg/l): COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) (mg/l): BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) (mg/l): DO (Dissolved Oxygen): Fad and oil (mg/l)
14.73 2.34 6.63
0,6 9.91 1.83 5.61 3.2
1.0 10.17 2.70 6.80 3.4
1.2 11.42 1.95 6.75 3.7
1.15 21.18 4.10 7.64 3.6
1.3
3.8
Primary Data: 20th, September 2016. Explanation of sampling location: P1 : Downstream of Sungsang Estuary (S: 02 º 20’24,8”; E: 104º55’33,4”); P2 : Central of Sungsang Estuary (S: 02 º 21’51,5”; E: 104º54’15,7”); P3: Upstream of Sungsang Estuary (S: 02 º 21’52”; E: 104º54’45”); P4; Mouth of Selincah River (S: 02 º 58’34,3”; E: 104º49’21,8”); P5. Area of Sungsang Delta (S: 02 º 20’24,8”; E: 104º55’33,4”).
Based to Tabel 3, much more of parameters of water which had measured relatively same one and another, but some parameters show a little difference. Some important parameters that showing the difference were DO (dissolved oxygen) and water transparency. DO, as parameter very important to activity of metabolisme of organisms in water ecosystem, play a role to respirate of aquatic organism like fishes, plankton and others. The water transparency also very important to activity of photosynthetisis in aquatic column by phytoplankton which produce organic matters and dissolved oxygen. Organic matters very important by microorganism in the waters and macroorganism also important for their respiration. Conclusion The downstream of Musi River out border Palembang City was very important as habitat for fishes in the ecosystem of Musi River upto Sungsang estuary, related to abundance and more rich plankton if compared to upstream around Palembang City. Wether we want to repair the waters of Musi River to be good habitat by fishes living, the way of good idea were to stop all of waste from activities of anthropogenic and from much activities of industries and others. Plankton Diversity Index in Waters of Musi River can used to Determinate the quality of waters as the Quality of Waters as Habitat of Fishes. When the index of diversity low means the population and richenss of fishes to be lower if compare to higher of diversity index. Acknowledgment
I thank to Dean of Natural Sciences Faculty of Sriwijaya University who permit and support me to face my paper “The Study of Plankton Diversity Index in Musi River Flood Plain to Determinate the Quality of Waters as Habitat of Fishes”. Also I thanks to Sriwijaya University, c.q. Research central and civil service of Sriwijaya University who had gived funding my research. References
Barnes R.S.K. & Mann, K.H. (1980). Fundamentals of Aquatic Ecosystems. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford London Edinburgh Boston Melbourne. 6 p. Cox, G. W. (1976). Laboratory Manual of General Ecology. Second Printing. WCB. Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. Dubuque, Iowa. Printed in the United of America. Edmondson, W.T. (1959). Fresh-Water Biology. University of Washington, Seattle. Printed in the University States of America. 1248 p. Klarer, D. M., & Millie, D. F. (1992). Aquatic macrophytes and algae at Old Woman Creek estuary and other Great Lakes coastal wetlands. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 18 , 622–633. Kottelat, M., Anthony, J, W., Sri, N. K., & Soetikno, W. (1993). Fresh Water Fishes of Western Indonesia and Sulawesi. Ikan Tawar Indonesia Bagian Barat dan Sulawesi. Periplus Edition Limited. Printed in Indonesia. ISBN 0-945971-60-5. 263 – 293. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 265
Lee, R.E. (2008). Phycology. Fourth edition. Colorado University, USA. Cambridge University Press. Pal, M. and Avik K. M. (2014). An Introduction to Phytoplanktons: Diversity and Ecology. Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London, 30. Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. Third Edition. W.B. Sounders Company. Philadelphia, London, Toronto. Toppan Company, Ltd. Tokyo, Japan. 144 p. Mizuno, T. (1979). Illustrations of The Freshwater Plankton of Japan. Hoikusha Publishing Co. Ltd. 353 p. Needham, J.G. & Needham, D.R. (1963). A guide to study of freshwater biology, 15th Edition. Holden Day Inc., Inc. San Fransisco. 108 p. Sagala, E.P. (2014). Surface Levels Wet Land Habitat For The Microorganism Communities Very Important to Supply Nursery Ground in Aquatic Ecosystem. International Conference on Hydrology (ICE), November 2014. Yogyakarta – Indonesia.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 266
MACROZOOBENTHOS COMMUNITY IN DOWNSTREAM OF MUSI RIVER AT PALEMBANG CITY REGIONAL OF SOUTH SUMATERA Rosmanida1 and Effendi P. Sagala2 1)
Biology Department of Saince and Technology Faculty Airlangga University, East Java 2) Biology Department of Science Faculty, Sriwijaya University, South Sumatra, *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract The purpose of this study was to compare macrozoobenthos community based on differences of microhabitat locations that include composition, abundance, diversity index, dominance indices, and similarity indices of some research stations around of Musi River in Palembang City. The study of macrozoobenhos community at some parts of waters Musi River around Palembang City has been conducted on September 2016. The macrozoobenthos sampling performed by using ekman grab at four observation stations with three points sampling each research stations which was established by method of purposive sampling. Physical and chemical parameters of sediments and waters include light penetration, sediment texture, sediment pH, C organic sediment, phosphate organic sediment, dissolved oxygen (DO), nitrate, phosphate, nitrate, sulphate, COD, BOD and fad an oil. The research results point out that makrozoobenthos compositions dominated by Shellfishes and Oligochaeta. The highest of total abundance for makrozoobenthos found in Kemarau Island with micro habitat type was 2.800 individu/m2. According to Shannon index and based on the analysis results, had been proved that the index of diversity for four sampling sites makrozoobenthos August 2016 was ranged from 0.0 upto 1.09. Base to data that the condition of the macrozoobenthos community can be said into the unstable criteria (<1.0) upto notyet stable condition (> 1.00 - <2.00). This research can discover there was dominant genus namely Corbicula, but macrozoobenthos communities are also relatively similar between stations. The abundance of Corbicula because there were the accumulation organic matter which create from some algae that living at surface of bottom. In addition there are differences in the factors of physics, chemistries and aquatic sediments affecting each observation station. Keywords: corbicula, macrozoobenthos, musi river, palembang
Introduction The water currents of Musi River had many functions, namely habitat of fishes, plankton and benthos and others. The study macrozoobenhos community at Musi River especially in Palembang City seldom carry out periodically, while the damages of quality of rivers run continually. Macrozoobenthos as organism who settle in sediment or bank of river so important as part of food chain and food web in aquatic ecosystem like in Musi River. The macrozoobenthos can be as bioindicator to pollutant in sediment of river bank, because their living in those sedimen would disturbed when the substrat of sediment was polluted by organic And anorganic material by waste from city activities. Formely upto now there are some peoples look for macrobenthos in sediment of Musi River known as remis (like mussel) for buying as their income for their live. But recently, the peoples who search the remis to be lesser, and finding a little of remis, while demand remis in marketing adding more. The damage of aquatic ecosystem was the main factor decrease the population of macrozoobenthos in Musi River. The damage of aquatic ecosystem on Musi River consist of degrading light penetration in water, depleting dissolved oxygen, increasing turbidity. This The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 267
condition effect the growth and development of algae as periphyton on substrat of sedimen, furthermore the macrozoobenthos without procure foodstuff or nutrition for their living. The other hand, those macrozoobenthos did not can life in ideal ecosystem because in deep waters a round of sedimen when they existence that the dissolved oxygen so lower, namely 1 – 2 ppm. They choice the sites which ideal for their habitat with dissolved oxygen > 3 until 6 ppm or more every time for their life. According to our research at last year can be expose the relation between macrozoobenthos populations with concerning several damage sediment by much of waste from domestic and other activities (for instance, hospital, tradisional market, fabric and industries) (Sagala, 2014). Based to our survey, the population of benthos in downstream of Musi Rivers in Palembang regional so more little because damage of natural swamps and artificial swamps like retention pool anywhere, this had been causing depletion the population in sediment of river on much site, especially in mouth of river which enter to column of Musi River. This consideration for us, furthermore suggest this research need carried out in Musi River a round Palembng City to know the potency of aquatic ecosystem according to condition of nowadays. Diversities index so effected by number of population and number of species. In this research, diversities index of macrozoobenthos very depend to how much of species and the condition of population each species of macrozoobenthos community.
P4
P3 P5 P2
P1
Figure 1. The sites of Sampling Location (September, 2016). P1: Mouth of Keramasan River (S: 03º01’43.1”; E: 104º44’24.8”); P2 : Mouth of Ogan River (S: 03º 00’47.4”; E: 104º45’03.2”); P3: Near Ampera Bridge (S: 02 º 59’23,1”; E: 104º45’51,2”); P4; Near Kemarau Island/ Mouth of Selincah River (S: 02 º 58’34,3”; E: 104º49’21,8”); P5. Mouth of Komering River (S: 02 º 59’32,7”; E: 104º50’0,9”). The benthos were organisms attached or resting on bottom or living in bootom sediments. The animal benthos may be conveniently subdivided according to mode of feeding into filter-feeders and deposit-feeders (a clam and snail, respectively, would be examples) (Odum, 1971). Existence and it survival of algae very relationships to condition of environment who support their nutrition for living, include for benthos organisms. There were relationship between algae and The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 268
environment (Lee, 2008:504). Physical factors affecting wetland ecosystem, include Musi River are light and temperature. Light penetration in water column of shallow wetlands is affected greatly by wind driven sediment resuspension which also increases the productivity of shallow wetlands (Klarer and Millie 1992 in Pal and Avik, 2014). In this research, area of sampling so widespread a long downstream Musi River, becouse that, I take it four station of research from mouth of Keramasan River, Ogan River, Near Ampera Bridge as upstream of Musi River until Kemarau Island in Musi River. Much little and medium river drain enter to Musi River since upstream until downstream. Every little rivers or streams in need be conservated persistently because they play a role important to contribute microhabitat as nursery ground for much freshwater fishes and benthos. According Sagala (2014), Indices values of diversity can be categorize as follows: Indices diversity as big as: ≤ 1: can be said that the communties of organism very non stable in the ecosystem becouse any problems of physical, chemical and biological factors interference some communities of organism. If indices of diversity as big as > 1 - < 2,0: can be estimate that the communities of organism non stable in the ecosystem by some factors of biological, physical and chemical. When the indices diversity as big as: > 2,0 – 3,0 mean that the communties of organism adequate stable in the ecosystem. Furthermore, if the indices diversity as big as: > 3,0 mean that the communties of organism very stable in the ecosystem. The diversity index value can be interrelated to existence and population of fishes in habitat. Materials and Methods This research had been made in Musi River around Palembang City of South Sumatra Provincy. Some materials which used in the fields were Ekman Grab, benthic net, cold box, camera (Canon Merk), pH Stick (Merck), Column Thermometer and plastic pocket for preserve bethic organism before bringing to laboratory for identification. The physical features directly were measured in water column of Musi River like temperature and transparency. Sample of macrozoobenthos were taken with using Ekman Grab, collected and then be given 4 drops formalin. Furtheremore, the sample of sedimen inspected under the microscope benoculer and loop and than recorded as data. Diversity index of communities: H = - ∑ pi ln pi; pi = Ni/N The symbol H = Shannon index of general diversity. In here as Diversity Index of Benthos Community (Shannon index); pi = Importance probability for each species = ni/N; Ni = importance value for each spesies; N = total importance value (Odum, 1971: 144). Results and Discussion Acording to macrozoobenthos analysis at five sampling location based to direction of water current in Musi River around study area of Musi River in Palembang point out that diversity index of macrozoobenthos community were different enough for those location. Diversity index of macrozoobenthos community on the mouth of Ogan River, apparently lowest namely 0,00, because in site can only discover one spesies of macrozoobenthos, namely Corbicula javanica. The highest diversity index of macrozoobenthos community was found in mouth of Keramasan River namely 1.09 with three species: Corbicula javanica, Corbicula rivalis and Chironomus sp. While on the site of Near Kemarau Island/ Mouth of Selincah River there were can found 5 species macrozoobenthos: Corbicula javanica, Corbicula rivalis, Chironomus sp., Epicordulia sp and Tubifex tubifex with total population of macrozoobenthos also highest namely 2800 individual/ m2, but the diversity index of macrozoobenthos only 0,66. Dominance index in the mouth of Ogan River was 1.00 show that only one species there were overthere, it means that the substrat as habitat of macrozoobenthos was damaged. The disturbance of macrozoobenthos microhabitat pertain to dissolved of oxygen so lower in the sedimen. The depletion of dissolved oxygen effected by organic pollution which originated by marketing ectivities upstream of Ogan River about 3 km distance from those sampling station. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 269
Base of all station sampling, apparently the richness or kinds of macrozoobenthos so more little because several limiting factor on the aquatic ecosystem of Musi River around of study area probably organic and anorganic pollution in sediment, suplly of dissolved oxygen in microhabitat of macrozoobenthos. Tabel 1. Analysis results of bentos population on five sampling location of Musi River in Palembang Town No. Group of Macrozoobenthos and Species
C. Class: Pelecypoda: 1. Corbicula javanica 2. Corbicula rivalis D. Class: Insecta: Odo: Diptera: 3. Chironomus sp. Ordo: Odonata: 4. Epicordulia sp. E. Oligochaeta: 5. Tubifex tubifex Parameter: 9. Population of Macrozoobenthos: 10. Richnes of Macrozoobenthos Species: 11. Diversity Index of Macrozoobenthos: 12. Dominance index of Macrozoobenthos:
Population: Individual/m2 Substrat Sampling location: P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
40
140 -
100 -
40 60
2260 -
100
-
20
200
40
-
-
20
180
-
-
-
160
100
100 1 0.00 1.00
240 4 0.98 0.49
2800 5 0,74 0.66
60 2 0,64 0.55
280 3 1.09 0.40
20
-
Primary Data: 20th, September 2016. Explanation of sampling location: P1: Mouth of Keramasan River (S: 03º01’43.1”; E: 104º44’24.8”); P2 : Mouth of Ogan River (S: 03º 00’47.4”; E: 104º45’03.2”); P3: Near Ampera Bridge (S: 02 º 59’23,1”; E: 104º45’51,2”); P4; Near Kemarau Island/ Mouth of Selincah River (S: 02 º 58’34,3”; E: 104º49’21,8”); P5. Mouth of Komering River (S: 02 º 59’32,7”; E: 104º50’0,9”).
The results of Macrozoobenthos analysis can be showed on Tabel 1, that the highest diversity index can be found in the upstream of Musi River, namely on the mouth of Keramasan River, although those value not so good becouse all avalue of disversity indices had range 0.00 upto 1.09 (Tabel 1.), it means that the communities of organism non stable in the ecosystem by some factors of biological, physical and chemical. Those also means that the living of macrozoobenthos in aquatic ecosystem of Musi River a round of Palembang City very interferent by some waste which originated from industry and anthropogenic activities that influencing alternation physically and chemically quality of waters in macrozoobenthos microhabitat. Tabel 2. The results of Chemical and Physical Analysis of five sampling location Musi River in Palembang Town No.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Parameters
Locations:
C. Physical Parameters: Temperature (ºC): Light penetration/ transparency (cm): Electrical conductivity: Turbidity: TSS (total suspended solid):
40 600
P1 30
P2 30
P3 31
P4 29
P5 30
19 230 40 25.8
45 610 50 16.4
70 690 49 18.7
42 480 18 15.5
50 27.4
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D. Chemical Parameters: 10. pH: 5.53 6.01 6.53 6.82 6.45 11. N-total (mg/l): 9.52 0.15 7.84 5.04 1.68 12. PO4 (mg/l) 0.67 0.40 0.15 1.50 0.59 13. Sulfide (mg/: 0.57 0.21 0.05 0.40 0.09 14. Nitrate (mg/l): 0,10 1.50 1.27 3.80 1.34 15. COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) (mg/l): 9.73 9.91 14.57 10.43 19.12 16. BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) (mg/l): 2.74 2.84 2.87 2.90 4.50 17. DO (Dissolved Oxygen): 5.50 2.60 5.40 6.90 5.90 18. Organic Matter (mg/l): 3.30 3.50 3.80 5.80 2.55 19. Fad and oil (mg/l) 3.12 3.54 3.87 3.76 3.58 Primary Data: 20th, September 2016. Explanation of sampling location: P1: Mouth of Keramasan River (S: 03º01’43.1”; E: 104º44’24.8”); P2 : Mouth of Ogan River (S: 03º 00’47.4”; E: 104º45’03.2”); P3: Near Ampera Bridge (S: 02 º 59’23,1”; E: 104º45’51,2”); P4; Near Kemarau Island/ Mouth of Selincah River (S: 02 º 58’34,3”; E: 104º49’21,8”); P5. Mouth of Komering River (S: 02 º 59’32,7”; E: 104º50’0,9”).
Figure 2. Sampling with Ekman Grab.
Figure 3. Sampling Substrat Sediment.
b
a
c
Figure 4. Specimen Macrozoobenthos collected. Figure 5. Corbicula javanica (a); Corbicula rivalis(b); Chironomus sp (c).
Figure 6. Fishermen had been collected Corbicula (remis) for selling.
Figure 7. Habitat of Macrozoobenthos Near Kemarau Island/ Mouth of Selincah River
Based to Tabel 2, much more of parameters of water which had measured relatively same one and another, but some parameters show a little difference. Some important parameters that showing the difference were DO (dissolved oxygen) and water transparency. DO appear parameter very important to activity of metabolisme of organisms in water ecosystem, play a important role in respiration like other organisms fishes, plankton and others tu survive in aquatic ecosystem. The water transparency also very important to activity of photosynthetisis in aquatic column by phytoplankton which produce organic matters and dissolved oxygen. Organic matters very important by microorganism in the waters and macroorganism also like macrozoobenthos and nekton so important for their respiration. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 271
Figure 8. Habitat of Macrozoobenthos. (a) Near Ampera Bridge, (b) Mouth of Komering River, (c) Mouth of Ogan River, (d) Mouth of Keramasan River
Conclusion The diversity index of macrozoobenthos community in Musi River waters around of Palembang City so little, namely less from 1.50 which affected by lessing species and dominance species on microhabitat. The limiting factor for living of macrozoobenthos on the Muris River around of Palembang City were dissolved oxygen, water transparency. Corbicula javanica constitute macrozoobenthos that dominate microhabitat on sediment of river bank around of Musir River waters around of Palembang City. References Barnes R.S.K. & Mann, K.H. (1980). Fundamentals of Aquatic Ecosystems. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford London Edinburgh Boston Melbourne. 6 p. Cox, G. W. (1976). Laboratory Manual of General Ecology. Second Printing. WCB. Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. Dubuque, Iowa. Printed in the United of America. Dharma, B. (1992). Siput dan Kerang Indonesia (Indonesian Shell II). First Published by Verlag Christa Hemmen. Gfrillparzerstr. 22. D, D-6200. Wiesbaden. Federal Republic of Germany. 9495 pp. Edmondson, W.T. (1959). Fresh-Water Biology. University of Washington, Seattle. Printed in the University States of America. 1248 p. Klarer, D. M., & Millie, D. F. (1992). Aquatic macrophytes and algae at Old Woman Creek estuary and other Great Lakes coastal wetlands. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 18 , 622–633. Lee, R.E. (2008). Phycology. Fourth edition. Colorado University, USA. Cambridge University Press. Pal, M. & Avik K. M. (2014). An Introduction to Phytoplanktons: Diversity and Ecology. Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London, 30. Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. Third Edition. W.B. Sounders Company. Philadelphia, London, Toronto. Toppan Company, Ltd. Tokyo, Japan. 144 p. Needham, J.G & Needham, D.R. (1963). A guide to study of freshwater biology, 15th Edition. Holden Day Inc., Inc. San Fransisco. 108 p. Sagala, E.P. (2014). Surface Levels Wet Land Habitat For The Microorganism Communities Very Important to Supply Nursery Ground in Aquatic Ecosystem. International Conference on Hydrology (ICE), November 2014. Yogyakarta – Indonesia. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 272
EARTH SCIENCE
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 273
THE DECREASE IN RICE PRODUCTION DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE AREA OF RICE PRODUCTION CENTER IN WEST JAVA Ruminta1*, Agus Wahyudin1, and Joko Wiratmo2 1)
Faculty of Agriculture, Padjajaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung Sumedang KM 21. Jatinangor Sumedang 45363 Jawa Barat Indonesia 2) Department of Meteorology, Faculty of Earth Science and Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology, Jl. Ganesa No 10, Bandung 40132 Jawa Barat Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
One of the factors causing the decline in rice production is the impact of climate change. Research on hazard decline in rice production due to climate change has been implemented in Rice Production Center in West Java. This study aims to assess the hazard level of the decline in rice production and identify areas that hazard level of it at high or very high level. Research methods were used survey, interviews, public hearings, and the collection of data from relevant sources. The results of this study are presented in spatial maps using GIS software. The results of this study indicate that to some extent in the area of Rice Production Center in West Java has experienced climate change it is shown by the changing patterns of rainfall, rain day, the distribution of annual rainfall, and annual rainfall has decreased that there are some areas become drier as the Lelea and Lohbener Subdistrict. Hazard decline in harvested area of rice in Rice Production Center in West Java average of 77.0 ha per year.While hazard decline in rice production in the region average of 926.1 tons per year. In Rice Production Center in West Java decreased area of rice harvested above 100 ha/ year occurred in the Pangkalan, Teluk Jambe Barat, Cilamaya Kulon, Tirtajaya, and Batujaya (Karawang District); Ciater, Cisalak, Dawuan, Pabuaran, Patokbesi, Pagaden, Cipunagara, Compreng, Ciasem, Pusakanagara, and Pusakajaya (Subang District); and Tukdana, Sriyeg, Pasekan, Shukra, and Patrol (Indramayu District). In the region decreased rice production over 1000 tons/ ha occurred in the Teluk Jambe Barat, Banyusari, Telagasari, Karawang Timur, Rawamerta, Kutawaluya, Pedes, Tirtajaya, Batujaya, and Pakis Jaya (Karwang District); Cisalak, Dawuan, Pabuaran, and Pusakanagara (Subang District); and Tukdana (Indramayu District) Keywords: climate change, hazard, rice production
Introduction The influence of global climate change, especially on the agricultural sector has been felt and become reality (Kurukulasuriya, et al., 2003; Semenov, 2009). This climate change is indicated by the floods, drought, and the shift of rainy season (Arnell et al., 2011). In recent years, the shift of rainy season causes the shift of planting and harvesting seasons of food commodities (rice, pulses and vegetables). In addition, floods and drought cause planting and crop failures, and even puso (Ruminta and Handoko, 2012 and 2016). In Indonesia, change of rainfall patterns is the biggest threat, because farmers depend directly on rainfall for their agricultural activities and livelihoods. Every changes of rainfall pose a great risk. Rainfed agriculture is susceptible to climate change, if the farming activities remain unchanged. Meanwhile, the quality of fresh water affect farming systems in coastal areas due to sea water intrusion and unsustainable irrigation activities. High salinity due to increasing sea level becomes a threat to food crop production in coastal areas because varieties are not resistant to high The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 274
salinity. Furthermore, high temperature will affect the agricultural system. Plants are sensitive to high temperatures during critical stages, such as flowering and seed development. Combined with drought, high temperatures can also cause disaster for agricultural lands (Mendelsohn, 2008). Changes in temperature and humidity can lead to the development of sprawl of pests and plant diseases. Floods and droughts also affect agricultural productions (Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal, 2003). Floods and prolonged droughts, caused by bad water management and low capacity, make significant decrease in productions (CCSP. 2008; IPCC, 2012). The extent of climate change to affect agricultural systems depends on various factors, including the type of crops, operation scales, farming orientations toward commercial or subsistence purposes, the quality of the natural resource bases, and the influence of human and farm manager (for example, education, risk tolerance, age, etc.) (FAO, 2007; Ruminta & Handoko, 2016). Hazard on rice farming is a decrease in rice productivity (yield), harvested area, and rice land area caused by sea level rise, which affect production and cause a risk on food security disturbance. Hazard analysis is based on assumption that the decrease in plant productivity and harvested area has a strong relationship with changes in air temperature and rainfall, while sea level rise will cause a reduction in agricultural land area (Kumpulainen, 2011; Metternicht et al., 2014). Increase in atmosphere temperature is a climatic stimulus on the increase of crop respiration and shorter crop growing season. In addition, the increase in air temperature cause an increase in potential evapotranspiration that can reduce the area of irrigated field that is supplied with water. Increasing atmosphere temperature causes higher crop respiration rate which sequentially leads to a decrease in crops yield. The decline in crop yields due to shorter crop growing season caused by increasing temperatures is approached with the 'Thermal Unit' concept, i.e. the crop development rate is faster by the higher air temperature. Thus, the higher air temperature, the shorter plants age so the biomass accumulated by the crop becomes less which results in crop yield decline. The relationship between the decline in crop yield due to shorter crop growing season and increasing air temperature assumes that crop yield is linearly related with the growing season (Ruminta & Handoko, 2012). Rainfall determines the availability of water for the crop, especially on rainfed fields (Aggrawal, 2008). Assuming a period of rainfall is spread equally during the crop growing season, then there is a strong relationship between rainfall with crop yield. Changes in rainfall causing droughts or floods is cause to decrease in crop yield (Kang, et al., 2009). Increase in air temperature will lead to higher crop evapotranspiration, thereby crop water requirement also will increase. As a result, the irrigated field area that can be supplied with irrigation water will be smaller. Potential evapotranspiration is used as the basis for the calculation of crop water use to estimate water supply to the crop using irrigated water. Potential evapotranspiration (ETp) can be calculated from air temperature using Thornwaite & Matter formula which is the function of air temperature (T). In this analysis, it is assumed that irrigated field area is proportional to the ETp and the total supply of irrigated water does not change (Ruminta & Handoko, 2012). Besides its effect on crop yield, low rainfall causes drought which results in harvest failure. Conversely, excessive rainfall will cause flood that also lead to harvest failure. In this analysis, a decline in harvested area due to drought and flood derived from the relationship between harvested areas and rainfall changes. Sea-level rise directly drown the cultivation area. Therefore the reduction of field area is calculated using a scenario of sea level rise. The agricultural fields affected will then be delineated to calculate the area decrease. Rice (Oryza sativa), one of staple food crops in West Java, is a plant that needs a lot of water during his life even though it is not a water plant. Because of catastrophic climate change have an impact on the amount and spatial distribution of water, rising sea levels, increasing extreme and weather events and it is a risky on rice productivity (Bar et al., 2014) Hazard analysis was carried out by using rice which are the eminent crops in the area of rice production center in West Java such as Karawang, Subang, and Indramayu District. By considering the impact of increasing air temperature, precipitation changes, and an increase in sea level on yield, harvested area, land area, and production of rice in the area of rice production center in West Java; the analysis related to hazard is focused on: potential decrease in rice harvested area and potential decline in rice production. The purpose of this The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 275
paper is to present the extent of impacts of climate change on rice production in the area of rice production center in West Java.
Materials and Methods This analysis used data of rainfall, temperature, sea level rise, droughts, floods, harvested area, land area, productivity, and production of rice. Critical review of hazard reduction in rice production due to a decrease in productivity (yield), harvested area, and land area has to be done so that it can be taken into consideration in the preparation of guidelines for local adaptation. North coast of West Java (area of rice production center in West Java) it susceptible from the threat of climate change (Aldrian, 2007). The increase in atmosphere temperature will affect respiration, plant age, and evapotranspiration all of which have an impact on reducing the productivity of rice plants. Drought and flooding as a result of interference with the normal seasonal conditions and the occurrence of extreme weather such as tornados, the effects of El Nino and La Nina, high intensity rainfall could threaten the reduced productivity of rice. Given the location directly adjacent to the sea Java that could be affected by sea level rise, the agricultural area is also expected to be affected. Hazard analysis focused on the conditions of the climatic stimuli parameter in the reduced rice harvested area, reduced rice land area, and reduced rice productivity shown by the main indicators of a reduced rice production (Ruminta & Handoko, 2012 and 2016). In general, rice production a product of the yield and the harvest area as follows: G = Y.A
(1)
G: rice productions (ton), Y: rice yields (ton/ha), and A: rice harvest area (ha). The relationship between the temperature rise and increase of plant respiration, which in turn causes a decrease of rice yields, can be written with the following formula, referred as temperature quotient (Q). Q10 = 2 (T-20)/10
(2)
Furthermore, the decline of crop yields which is caused by the increased respiration due to temperature rise can be approximated by (Ruminta & Handoko, 2012): ∆YP1 = Y0(Q10-Q10o) (3) T : temperature (oC), Q10o: temperature quotient of initial temperature before temperature rise, Q10 : temperature quotient of final temperature after temperature rise, ∆Yp1: potential of reduced yields as a result of rice respiration (ton/ha), and Y0: rice productions before temperature rise (ton/ha). Decrease in rice yields due to brief age of the plant that is caused by the temperature rise is approached by the concept of thermal units (TU), i.e. the rate of plant growth which is faster in higher temperatures. TU = Δ (Ti – Tb) , i = 1,2, ... , n
(4)
TU: thermal unit that is needed by the rice from planting to harvesting time, Ti: daily average temperature (oC) during growing time of rice, Tb: base rice temperature ( oC), and n: rice age (day). The rice plant age can be derived as follows: n = TU / (T – Tb)
(5) o
T: the average air temperature between planting and harvesting time ( C). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 276
The relationship between the decline in rice yields due to brief rice plant age due to increased air temperature, with assumption that rice yield is linearly proportional to the age of rice plant, can be written as follows : ∆Yp2 = Yo ( To – Tb)/(T – Tb)
(6)
ΔYp2: potency of decreased yields due to decreased rice age (ton/ha), Yo: rice yields before air temperature rise (ton.ha), To: initial air temperature (oC), T: air temperature after temperature rise (oC), and Tb: rice’s base temperature (oC). Rainfall determines the availability of water for rice plants, especially on rainfed land. By assuming a period of rainfall is spread evenly over the rice growing season, the relationship between rainfall and rice yield can be written as follows: Y = kP
(7)
Y: rice yields (ton/ha), P: rainfall (mm/season), and k: parameters (ton/(ha.mm). Based on that equation, then the change of rainfall that caused drought or flood will caused decreased rice yields as follows: ΔYp3 = k . ΔP
(8)
ΔYp3: potency of decreased rice yields (ton/ha) due to drought and ΔP: the change of rainfall (mm/season) Then, the impact of temperature and rainfall on the decreased rice yields can be written as: ΔYa = max (ΔYp1, ΔYp2, ΔYp3)
(9)
ΔYa: decreased rice yields due to temperature rise (ton/ha) Potential evapotranspiration that is used as the basis for the calculation of irrigation water can be calculated from air temperature using formula from Thornwaite & Matter, which is a function of temperature (T), as follows: ETp = 1.6 (10 . T/I)a
(10a)
I= Σ(T/5)1.54 a= 675x10-9xI3 - 771 10-7xI2 + 0.01792xI + 0.44239
(10b)
with, (10c)
If one assumes that irrigated land area is directly proportional to the value of ETP, while the supply of irrigation water does not change, then the potential reduction in irrigated land area can be predicted as follows: ∆Ap1 = Ao (1 – ETp/ETpo)
(11)
ΔAp1: potency of decreased irrigated land area (ha) due to increasing Etp, Ao: initial area of irrigated lands (ha), Etp: evapotranspirasi potential after temperature rise (mm/month), and ETpo: initial evapotranspirasi potential before temperature rise (mm/month). In this analysis, the decline in harvested area due to drought or flood is derived from the relationship between harvested area and rainfall during the growing season of plants, as follows: A=c.P
(12)
Thus, potency of decreased harvesting area can be approximated by: ΔAp2 = c . ΔP
(13)
ΔAp2 : potency of decreased harvesting area (ha) due to drought or flood, ΔP :the change of rainfall during planting season (mm), and c: parameters (ha/mm). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 277
Decrease in irrigated lowland rice production due to the increase in temperature and rainfall changes is calculated as follows: ΔG1
= ΔYa,1 . Ao,1 + ΔAp1.Yo,1
(14)
ΔG1: decreased of irrigated-farm rice productions (ton), ΔYa,1: decreased of irrigated-farm yields (ton/ha), Ao,1: initial irrigated farm area (ha), ΔAp1: potency of decreased harvesting area due to the temperature rise (ha), and Yo,1: the yields of harvest of irrigated farm before temperature rise (ton/ha). The calculation of decrease in rainfed lowland rice production is same with irrigated lowland rice, except the harvest area is influenced by rainfall and no irrigation effects. Here is the calculation of reduction in rainfed lowland rice production. ΔG2
= ΔYa,2 . Ao,2 + ΔAp2.Yo,2
(15)
ΔG2: decreased of farm rice productions (ton), ΔYa,2: decreased of rainfed yields (ton/ha) Ao,2: initial rainfed area (ha), ΔAp2: potency of decreased harvesting area due to the change of rainfall (ha), and Yo,2: the yields of harvest of rainfed before temperature rise (ton/ha). Sea level rise will reduce the affected rice land area, both irrigated and rainfed rice. Here is the calculation of reduction in the production of rice. ΔG3 = Yox . ΔAx
(16)
ΔG3: production decreased of rice (ton/ha), Yox: initial production of rice before climate change (ton/ha), and ΔAx: loose of land area of rice x (ha). . Results and Discussion Hazard analysis was carried out by using rice which are the eminent crops in the area of rice production center in West Java such as Karawang, Subang, and Indramayu District (BPS, 2014; Dinas Pertanian Jawa Barat, 2014). This analysis was considering the impact of increasing air temperature, precipitation changes, and an increase in sea level on productivity, harvested area, land area, and production of rice in the area of rice production center in West Java and the hazard analysis was focused on potential decrease in rice harvested area and potential decline in rice production. Rice production is a result of yield (Y) multiplied by harvested area (A), so the hazard potency of redused rice production is derived from those two variables that have been analyzed previously. The results of hazard analysis in the reduced rice harvested area and rice production in production center in West Java are shown in Figure 1, 2, and 3.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 278
Figure 1. Hazard map of reduced harvested area (left) and reduced production of rice (right) in Karawang Figure 1, 2, and 3 show the distribution of hazard index of reduced rice production derived from a combination of a reduction in productivity, land area, and harvested area. The red color indicates the high index value hazard. Subdistrict Teluk Jambe Timur, Banyusari, Telagasari, Karawang Timur, Rawamerta, Kutawaluya, Pedes, Tirtajaya, Batujaya, and Pakis Jaya, Cisalak, Dawuan, Pabuaran, and Pusakanagara; and Tukdana have the large hazard index which means the region is affected or cannot cope with the adverse effects of climate change. Therefore, the government should to do efforts so the impact of climate change is not too detrimental to the people engaged in agriculture.
Figure 2. Hazard map of reduced harvested area (left) and reduced production of rice (right) in Subang
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 279
Figure 3. Hazard map of reduced harvested area (left) and reduced production of rice (right) in Indramayu The impact of climate change has reduced harvested area and production in the area of rice production central of West Java such as Karawang, Subang, and Indramayu. The hazard potential in the decrease of rice harvested area in North coast of West Java is about 100 ha per year occurred in Pangkalan, Teluk Jambe Barat, Cilamaya Kulon, Tirtajaya, and Batujaya (Karawang); Ciater, Cisalak, Dawuan, Pabuaran, Patokbesi, Pagaden, Cipunagara, Compreng, Ciasem, Pusakanagara, and Pusakajaya (Subang); Tukdana, Sriyeg, Pasekan, Sukra, and Patrol (Indramayu). Meanwhile, the hazard potential in rice production decrease in North coast of West Java is about 1000 tons of dry milled grain (DMG) per year occurred in Teluk Jambe Timur, Banyusari, Telagasari, Karawang Timur, Rawamerta, Kutawaluya, Pedes, Tirtajaya, Batujaya, and Pakis Jaya (Karawang); Cisalak, Dawuan, Pabuaran, and Pusakanagara (Subang); and Tukdana (Indramayu). Generally, climate change in North coast of West Java lead to the decreasing of rice production. This is due to the potential decrease in productivity and harvested area of rice which is the consequences of air temperature increase, rainfall decrease, drought, and flood (Li et al., 2009). Potential areas for decreasing rice production in North coast of West Java are Teluk Jambe Timur, Banyusari, Telagasari, Karawang Timur, Rawamerta, Kutawaluya, Pedes, Tirtajaya, Batujaya, and Pakis Jaya (Karawang); Cisalak, Dawuan, Pabuaran, and Pusakanagara (Subang); and Tukdana (Indramayu). Potential reduction in productivity and harvested area cause decreasing rice production in West Java. If the hazard becomes real, there will be a decrease infood supply, especially rice (paddy). Therefore, food security and foodbalance in West Java, as well as West Java’s contribution as the national provision of rice stock, will be disturbed. Local governments, farmers and related institutions need to adapt to face in the decline of rice production as a impacts of climate change in North coast of West Java (UNDP, 2007). Adaptation efforts are needed to prepare and anticipate the oncoming impacts (Howden et al., 2007; COST, 2012). The adaptation efforts to various climate change impacts need different strategies, such as adaptation to air temperature rise, drought disaster, wet season shift, change of precipitation frequency and quantity, and also other extreme events (FAO, 2007; Metternicht et al., 2014). Conclusion The impact of climate change has reduced harvested area and production in rice production central of West Java such as Karawang, Subang, and Indramayu. Decrease in harvested area of rice in the area of Rice Production Center of West Java average of 77.0 ha per year. While hazard of the decline in rice production in the region average of 926.1 tons per year. In Rice Production Center of West Java harvested area of rice decreased above 100 ha/year occurred in the Pangkalan, Teluk Jambe Barat, Cilamaya Kulon, Tirtajaya, and Batujaya (Karawang District); Ciater, Cisalak, Dawuan, The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 280
Pabuaran, Patokbesi, Pagaden, Cipunagara, Compreng, Ciasem, Pusakanagara, and Pusakajaya (Subang District); and Tukdana, Sriyeg, Pasekan, Shukra, and Patrol (Indramayu District). In the region decreased rice production over 1000 tons/ ha occurred in the Teluk Jambe Barat, Banyusari, Telagasari, Karawang Timur, Rawamerta, Kutawaluya, Pedes, Tirtajaya, Batujaya, and Pakis Jaya (Karwang District); Cisalak, Dawuan, Pabuaran, and Pusakanagara (Subang District); and Tukdana (Indramayu District).
Acknowledgment The Authors give thanks to the STRANAS 2015 Research Grant and LPPM of Padjadjaran University Indonesia for providing all the facilities to achieve this study and funding this publication. References Aggrawal, P. K. (2008). Global Climate Change and India Agriculture: Impacts adaptation and mitigation. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 78 (10), 911-19. Aldrian E. (2007). Decreasing trends in annual rainfalls over Indonesia: A threat for the national water resources. Published by Journal of BMKG. Jakarta. Arnell, N. W., Van Vuuren, D. P., & Isaac, M. (2011). The implications of climate policy for the impacts of climate change on global water resources. Global Environ. Change, 21(2), 592-603. Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS). (2014). Jawa Barat Dalam Angka 2014. Badan Pusat Statistik Propinsi Jawa Barat. Bar, R., E. Rouholahnedjad, K. Rahman, K.C. Abbaspour, & Lehmann, A. (2014). Climate change and agricultural water resources:A vulnerability assessment of the Black Sea catchment. Environmental Science & Policy, ENVSCI -1351, 13p. CCSP. (2008). The effects of climate change on agriculture, land resources, water resources, and biodiversity in the United States. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. U.S. Department of Agriculture, USA. COST. (2012). Impacts and Adaptation to Climate Change of Crops in Europe in Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture in Europe. Published by Firenze University Press, Italy. Dinas Pertanian Jawa Barat. (2014). Laporan Pertanian Tahunan 2014. Pemerintah Provinsi Jawa Barat. FAO. (2007). Adaptation to climate change in agriculture, forestry and fisheries: Perspective, framework and priorities. Food and agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Howden, S. M., Soussana, J. F., Tubiello, F. N., Chetri, N., Dunlop, M., & Meinke, M. (2007). Adapting agriculture to climate change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 104(50), 19691-19696. IPCC. (2012). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New york, Ny, USA, 582 pp. Kang, Y., Khan, S., & Ma, X. (2009). Climate change impacts on crop yield, crop water productivity and food security- A review. Progress in Natural Science. 19, 1665-1674. Kumpulainen, S. (2011). Vulnerability concepts in hazard and risk assessment. Natural and Technological Hazards and Risks Affecting the Spatial Development of European Regions. Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 42, 65-74. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 281
Kurukulasuriya, P. & Rosenthal, S. (2003). Climate Change and Agriculture: A Review of Impacts and Adaptations. Climate Change Series Paper No. 91 of the WorldBank,Washington D.C. Li, Y. P, Ye, W., Wang, M., & Yan, X. D. (2009). Climate change and drought: A risk assessment of crop-yield impacts. Clim. Res. 39, 31- 46. Mendelsohn, R. (2008). The impact of climate change on agriculture in developing countries. Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research, 1, 5–19. Metternicht, G., Sabelli, A., & Spensley, J. (2014). Climate change vulnerability, impact and adaptation assessment. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 6, 442-476. Ruminta & Handoko. (2012). Climate Risk and Adaptation Assessment of Agriculture Sector in the South Sumatra Province. Ministry of Environment, Indonesia. Ruminta & Handoko. (2016). Vurnerability Assessment of Climate Change on Agriculture Sector in the South Sumatra Province, Indonesia. Asian Journal of Crop Science, 8(2), 31-42. Semenov, M. (2009). Impacts of climate change on wheat in England and Wales. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 6(33), 343-350. UNDP. (2007). The other Half of Climate Change: Why Indonesia must Adapt to Protects its Poorest People. UNDP Indonesia, Jakarta.
The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 282
DETERMINATION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLOUD TOP BRIGHTNESS TEMPERATURE OF INFRARED CHANNEL HIMAWARI-8 SATELLITE AND RAINFALL EVENTS ON FEBRUARY 2016 AT PERAK I SURABAYA METEOROLOGICAL STATION Sabitul Hidayati* and Richard Mahendra Putra2 1,2
State Collage of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysic Jakarta, Indonesia *corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract
For the convective cloud situation, there is an assumption that lower cloud top temperature is associated with heavier rainfall. Research of relationship between rainfall and satellite data can be done through the analysis of cloud top brightness temperature which showed on 10.4µm channel furthermore can be utilized to estimate the amount of precipitation in the future. This paper aims to determine and analyze the relationship between the average of cloud top brightness temperature from Himawari-8 satellite IR1 data with the rainfall per hour data were observed on February 2016 at Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station. The results of the analysis can be used to determine the distribution and the character of cloud top brightness temperature values during rain events at the sites. Analysis of the relationship is done by using warmer or colder average cloud top brightness temperature than -50oC treshold and divide it into several groups events. The result show that from 154 rainfall events data there are 60 (38.96%) events of the total rain events are accompanied by colder average cloud top brightness temperature than -50°C, and there are 94 (61.04%) events of the total rain events are accompanied by the warmer average cloud top brightness temperature than -50°C. In general can be said that with the warmer average cloud top brightness temperature than -50oC, rain in the region of Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station still can occur. The condition occurs in two circumstance, those are when in the same period time of rain there are colder or warmer cloud top brightness temperature than -50°C. The result of the the analysis for precipitation cloud characteristic shows that for the rain event which not accompanied by colder cloud top temperature than -50oC can occurs becuase an parallax error of cloud observation angle. This parallax error causes the cloud with top cloud temperature value colder than -50oC not exactly detected above the interest area. Keywords: brightness temperature, precipitation, rainfall, satellite, and top cloud
Introduction Rain as a liquid form of precipitation occur with the condensation process as the beginning. The amount of rainwater that fall from the rain cloud on an area within a given time referred as rainfall (Winarso, 2011). Rainfall is one important meteorology parameter which its data is required by almost all sectors of life such as agriculture, transportation, plantations, the early warning of natural disasters, floods, landslides, and droughts (Parwati et al., 2009). Research of rainfall from satellite data especially in subtropical region has been done by Hong et al. (2006, 2007), Naranjo (2007), and several more but has not done much in tropical region, especially in Indonesia which is also an archipelago (Parwati et al., 2009). One of those research is about rainfall estimation. Rainfall estimation can be done based on the cloud top temperature which the formation of rain clouds occur in clouds with top lower temperature (Handoko, 1994). High or low cloud top temperature which shown in satellite imagery mainly infrared channel imagery is frequently The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 283
correlated with the rain event and the amount of precipitation. The average temperatures of rain cloud forming is 195oK to 260oK (Grifith et al., In Tahir, 2009). Griffith et al. (1978) have found that a convective system is more active and produces the greatest rainfall rates when the tops become colder and continue to expand (Tahir, 2009). Operationally, Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station observing the value of rainfall using a conventional rain gauge that record rainfall data with three hour interval and Hillman rain gauge which can record data in one hour interval. In these daily activities, the rainfall events were not always accompanied by the cold (negative) temperature cloud tops. When the difference of rainfall intensity, the distribution of cloud top temperature is being random (not uniform) (Aryani et al., 2013). Aryani (2013) in her research found that the value of the cloud top brightness temperature for all the intensity of rain is in the range between -80 °C to 10 °C and there are two classes of top brightness temperature number, first -80 °C to -30 °C and the second is -30 °C to 10 °C. This paper aims to determine and analyze the relationship between the average of cloud top brightness temperature from Himawari-8 satellite IR1 data with the rainfall per hour data that were observed on February 2016 at Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station. Analysis of the relationship was conducted by using warmer or colder average cloud top brightness temperature than -50 oC treshold and divided into several groups events. The treshold which used is based on the research that has been done before by Panjaitan (2013). It is intended to find out the distribution of cloud top brightness temperature values during rain events and to know the character of cloud top brightness temperature which can produce rain events on February 2016 at Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station.
Materials and Methods Materials This research used Himawari-8 weather satellite IR1 channel data (ten minutes interval) and rainfall observation data (one hour interval) which recorded by Hillman rain gauge from Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station. The criteria of rainfall events which used is with various intensity that is from slight to heavy rain. The amount of precipitation with trace value (TTU) is regarded as 0 mm.
a
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b
c
Figure 1. Graphic of rain events and the amount of precipitation on February 2016 Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station (per 10 days interval). a) 1st-10th of February 2016, b)11st-20th of February 2016, c) 21st-29th of February 2016. Methods After collecting data, the method was applied in data processing to determine and analyze the relationship between the average of cloud top brightness temperature from Himawari-8 satellite IR1 data with the rainfall per hour data is as follows: 1. The extraction of cloud top brightness temperature IR1 channel data The extraction of cloud top brightness temperature Himawari-8 satellite IR1 channel data (10 minutes interval) was conducted using SATAID software. The extraction was done within 7.28 °LS 112.72 °E which are regarded as approximately coordinates of Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station observation point. The cloud top brightness temperature data with 10minutes intervals is averaged for one hour observation data and then compared with the amount of precipitation data at the same time. 2. Compiling the value of data series The data series of rainfall (per hour) during February 2016 as the time period of this research compiled with time series average cloud top brightness temperature IR1 channel data. The compilation of these two parameters was conducted to find out the relationship of the average cloud top brightness temperature for one hour with the incident and the amount of rainfall that occurred before the time of observation in the same time period. For example, for the amount of precipitation at 00 to 01 UTC, the analysis of the relationship of events and the amount of precipitation with the average cloud top brightness temperature for one hour is starting from The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 285
00 to 01 UTC and consist of cloud top brightness temperature data at 00:10, 00:20, 00:30, 00:40, 00:50, and 01:00 UTC. 3. Analysis a. Comparing the rainfall events data (per-hour) with the average cloud top brightness temperature IR1 channel data for one hour at the same time period. b. Grouping the comparing data into two : 1. Group A: there are rain at the observation time with colder average cloud top brightness temperatures than -50 °C 2. Group B: there are rain at the observation time with warmer average cloud top brightness temperatures than -50 °C The treshold which used is based on the previous research that has been done by Panjaitan (2013) to analyze the cloud brightness temperature with rainfall events in Sepinggan Balikpapan Meteorological Station. . c. Calculating the percentage of rainfall event two groups respectively to determine the relationship and distribution of cloud top brightness temperature with the rainfall events. d. Further analysis for Group B to find out the character of cloud top brightness temperature in every rainfall events throughout February 2016 at the observation location.
Results and Discussion The observation and recording of precipitation result in Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station shows that there are 154 events data throughout February 2016 with a variety of events ranging from low intensity to heavy precipitation. Rain events occur as much as 28 days and no rain event occur one time on 13 February 2016. The heavier rain event intensity occurred on 6th of February 2016 with the amount of precipitation for 24 hours reached 65.8 mm. The comparison and relation between average cloud top brightness temperature and hourly precipitation data (per seven days interval) shows in Figure 2. The precipitation value as trace (TTU) was regarded as "0".
a
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b
Figure 2. Graphic of brightness temperature and amount of precipitation (7 days interval). a) 1st7th February 2016, b) 8th-15th February 2016, c) 16st-22nd February 2016, d) 23rd-29th February 2016. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 287
Based on Figure 2 there are variations in the average of cloud top brightness temperature for each rain events which observed. The results shows that from 154 rainfall events data, 60 (38.96%) events of the total rain events were accompanied by colder average cloud top brightness temperature than -50 °C (Group A), and 94 (61.04%) events of the total rain events were accompanied by the warmer average cloud top brightness temperature than -50 °C (Group B). Details of precipitation from rain events in group A are as follows: 1. Amount of Precipitatiton 0-5 mm = 51 events 2. Amount of Precipitatiton 5-10 mm = 4 events 3. Amount of Precipitatiton 10-20 mm = 2 events 4. Amount of Precipitatiton > 20 mm = 3 events While the details for rain events in group B are as follows: 1. Amount of Precipitatiton 0-5 mm = 84 events 2. Amount of Precipitatiton 5-10 mm = 6 events 3. Amount of Precipitatiton of 10-20 mm = 3 events 4. Amount of Precipitatiton > 20 mm = 1 event Rain events in group B are very interesting for further analysis. Based on data analysis of top cloud brightness temperature per 10 minutes it was known that within one hour (rain event period) there were some data which has brightness temperature of cloud top colder than -50 °C, even though the average of top cloud brightness temperature is warmer than -50 °C. Rain event with that state is classified as group C. There were 26 (27.66%) rain events of the total events in group B and there are 9 (34.61%) events of rain in group C with the amount of precipitation more than 1 mm for one hour. The data are presented in Table 1. Details of the rainfall amount that occurred as follows: 1. Amount of Precipitatiton 0-5 mm = 21 events 2. Amount of Precipitatiton 5-10 mm = 3 events 3. Amount of Precipitatiton 10-20 mm = 2 events 4. Amount of Precipitatiton > 20 mm = 0 occurrences Table 2. The rainfall events from group C which have average cloud top brightness temperature < -50 oC Date
Time (UTC)
The average of cloud top brightness temperature (0C)
Amount of precipitation (mm)
Brightness temperature < 50 °C
Brightness temperature (0C)
1
5-6
-1,833333333
8,9
-62,5
2
6-7
-29,11666667
0,2
√ √
8-9
-42,95
0,1
9 - 10
-40,95
0
5 6 8
10 - 11 14 - 15 12 -13 15 - 16
9 10
11
3-4
-26,03333333 -48,88333333 -38,81666667 -30,1
1,7 0 0,3 0,4 0
14 - 15
-48,48333333
0,8
17 - 18
-37,15
0,3
4-5 13 - 14 14 - 15
14
-40,7
9 - 10 2-3
-34,83333333 -35,7 -47,96666667 -20,55 -35,84
0 0 0 0 0.7
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
-56 -57,7 -53 -60,7 -56,8 -58,9 -53,1 -51,1 -53,7 -51,1 -57,1 -53,2 -52,9 -55,7 -60,1
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4-5 16
5-6 6-7
22
5-6 12 - 13
23 25
8-9 8-9
-41,48571429 -38,27142857 -43,55 -11,3 -28,51428571 -40,9 -0,814285714
0.0 15,8 2,6 2,6 0,0 0,0 20
26
7-8
-44,9
10
27
9 - 10
-32,25
6,2
13 - 14
-46,7
1,4
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
-66,7 -53,2 -50,3 -67,5 -56,8 -61,1 -74,5 -72,4 -58,9 -53,7
The further analysis was done to see the characteristic of precipitation cloud from all three groups. Rain events in group B were not accompanied with colder cloud top temperature than -50 0C within time period of rain, is hypothesized occur because the possibility of parallax error in Himawari8 satellite observation angle. Himawari -8 is at 128,2 0E and the top cloud is at 112.7 E0 which with that posisition the possibility of parallax error in cloud top projection to observation point might be happen. It means that the cloud top brightness temperature which shown at the some point or interest area is not always reflects the real value of that point. It can be assumed because there are might be a change of observation point for cloud top projection in the imagery. The analysis for the possibility of parallax error is done for the rain event on 8th of February 2016 at 7 to 8 UTC. The analysis was conducted using the cloud contour imagery which extracted with -50 0C as the maximum temperature. This analysis was done to see the characteristic of cloud around interest area. The imagery shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Cloud contour imagery on 8th of February 2016 at 7 to 8 UTC . Black circle is the interest area and red circle is cloud coverage. The Figure 3 shows that above the interest area there is no cold cloud detected as a trigger of the rainfall. The cold cloud with the cloud top temperature reach -77.5 0C was detected on the left side of interest area. This case is match with the hypothesis about parallax error of satellite observation angle for detect the presence of cloud which trigger the rain event at that time. Therefore the cloud top brightness temperature which showed at the time of rainfall event is not colder than -50 0C. The analysis for the possibility of parallax error is conducted too for the rain event which accompanied by cold cloud top temperature case. The analysis conducted using cloud contour imagery as suggest before which shown at Figure 4 for rain event on 6th of February 2016 at 18 to 19 UTC. The analysis shows that there are cold cloud above the interest area with cloud top temperature reach The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 289
72 0C. This cloud is regarded as the trigger of rainfall event. If it connected with the possibility of parallax error, actually this cloud was not exactly above the interest area. Altough there is parallax error, with its large coverage area the cloud still can be hypothesized occur above the interest area and as the trigger of the rain at that time.
Figure 3. Cloud contour imagery on 6th of February 2016 at 18 to 19 UTC . Black circle is the interest area and red circle is cloud coverage.
Conclusion Based on a comparative analysis of the average cloud top brightness temperature within a period of one hour with hourly rainfall data, the result shows that the distribution of the average cloud top brightness temperature during the rainfall events were observed in the Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station were highly variable. The rainfall event may occur in the colder average top cloud brightness temperature than -50 0C (group A) or warmer than -50 0C (Group B). There are 60 (38.96%) events in Group A of the total rainfall events and in group B occurs as much as 94 (61.04%) events with the various amount and intensity of precipitation. The results of futher analysis for the percentage of rain events in group B yields a new group named the Group C. Group C is a group of rainfall event that occurred with the warmer average cloud top brightness temperature than -50 0C in a condition which the brightness temperature of cloud top is colder than -50 °C. The number of rain events in the group C is 26 (27.66%) times of group B total rainfall events. Group C analysis results shows that the rainfall events occurred in range from 0 to 20 mm and for amount of precipitation more than 1 mm is 9 (34.61%) events. In general can be said that with the warmer average cloud top brightness temperature than -50 o C, rain events in the region of Perak I Surabaya Meteorological Station still can occur. The condition occurs in two circumstance, those are when in the same period time of rain there are colder or warmer cloud top brightness temperature than -50 °C. The result of the the analysis for precipitation cloud characteristic shows that for the rain event which not accompanied by colder cloud top temperature than -50 oC can occurs becuase an parallax error of cloud observation angle. This parallax error causes the cloud with top cloud temperature value colder than -50 oC not exactly detected above the interest area.
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Acknowledgment The authors would like to say thank you for those who have helped in completing this paper especially for Mr. Andersen L Panjaitan and the data provider BMKG. Authors hope with this paper, we can all understand the relationship between brightness temperature of satellite data and the rainfall event. There are many flaws in this paper, to the critic and suggestion could be delivered to my email.
References Aryani. (2013). Pembuatan Peta Potensi Curah Hujan dengan Menggunakan Citra Satelit MTSAT di Pulau Jawa. E-Journal UNDIP. Handoko, (1994). Klimatologi Dasar. Pustaka Jaya. Himawari-8 Infrared Channel Data. Subbidang Pengelolaan Citra Satelit BMKG. ftp://202.90.199.115 Panjaitan, B. (2013). Analisis Hubungan Suhu Kecerahan dari Satelit Kanal Inframerah dengan Hujan Pada Bulan Februari 2013 Di Stasiun Meteorologi Balikpapan. www.academia.edu. Parwati., Suwarsono., Ayu, K., Kartasamita, M., (2009). Penentuan Hubungan Antara Suhu Kecerahan Data Mtsat Dengan Curah Hujan Data Qmorph. Penginderaan Jauh Journal. Vol. 6, 2009, hal 32-42. Tahir, W., Ibrahim, Z., Ramli, S. (2009). Geostasionary Meteorological Satellite-Based Quantitative Rainfall Estimation (GMS-Rain) For Flood Forecasting. Malaysian Journal of Civil Engineering. Vol.21 (1), 1-16. Winarso, P. A. (2011). Analisa Cuaca I. Book. State Collage of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysic Jakarta.
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HOTSPOT TEMPERATURE ESTIMATION BASED ON HIMAWARI-8 USING MODIS Nenden Wardani*, Alek Taufik Rahman, and Aprilia Susilowati Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics, Pondok Betung, South Tangerang, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Himawari-8 data are used by BMKG for operational purposes. Himawari-8 channel IR-4 can be used to monitor the temperature of the heat source. Himawari-8 satellite image data channel IR-4 used satellite data dated August 12 to 15, 2015 at 06 UTC. MODIS data is used as reference in the form of coordinates of hot spots on August 12 to 14, 2015 at 06 UTC. On the coordinates of the point value of temperature observed by Himawari-8 satellite imagery used a SATAID applications. Analysis of the results obtained limit temperature values (threshold) that considered hot spots on Himawari-8 satellite images is 35 . This value is obtained after the temperature observed on the Himawari-8 satellite image coordinates of hot spots obtained from MODIS sensing began on 12 – 14 August, 2015, then the temperature values obtained were made on average. The threshold tested on IR4 Himawari-8 satellite image dated August 15, 2015 as a point cooordinates of hot spots based sensing by satellite Himawari-8 Keywords: himawari-8, hotspot, satellite treshold, SATAID
Introduction Forest fire is one of biggest problems that affect the balance of nature which cause the detriment in the terms of economy and politic. In the term of economy, it probably causes massive losses and devastation of forest natural resources and also interference on the balance of forest ecology. In the term of politic, forest fire may ruins relationship between neighbored countries due to the haze. The haze that appeared will disrupt the traffic and also polluting the air. Therefore, in order to anticipate those problems, an effort to monitor the hotspots is needed, especially by utilizing remote sensing technology (inderaja). The utilization of remote sensing technology (inderaja) is expected to be able to provide accurate information, to cover large area relatively fast (Binery, 2013) As a state institution which is obliged to provide weather information and weather service to the people, Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) also provide spreading hotspots data. The data can be obtained from satellite image of Terra and Aqua that are equipped with MODIS censor. BMKG have several ground receiver satellites namely MODIS, NOAA, Himawari-8 and FY2C. Those ground receiver satellites of BMKG are deployed at 31 points across Indonesia (Hartoyo, 2007) Hotspot detection by MODIS data can be done by using channels that have wavelength of 11 um and 4 um. This censors can’t penetrate clouds, smoke and aerosol. It would be so detrimental if conflagration occurred because the area would be covered by smoke. This accident usually occur during wildfires, hence amount of detected hotspots probably fewer than actual number (Binery, 2013). In addition, the utilization of Himawari-8 is expected to be able to monitor the spread of hotspots, and the satellite data will be regularly received every 10 minutes by BMKG in Jakarta.
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Materials and Methods This paper has two kinds of data namely satellite image data of Himawari-8 Channel IR-4 and hotspot coordinate data from MODIS image. Both of data are obtained from BMKG, particularly Subdivision of Management of Satellite Data. The used data of Himawari-8 satellite image is dated on 12th until 15th of August 2015 and also MODIS hotspot coordinate data which is chosen with level of confidence above 80%. The method is processing data of Himawari-8 satellite image IR-4 use SATAID. The processing data of SATAID uses temperature data obtained from MODIS with level of confidence above 80%, then analyze the temperature value on Himawari-8 satellite image. Moreover, we can also use statistic method by counting average values which are obtained from analyzing temperature values on Himawari-8 on 12th -14th of August 2015, in accordance with the MODIS hotspot coordinate. Then, hotspot map processing method is based on Himawari-8 image, to use the application of GRADS.
Results and Discussion Hotspot coordinates of MODIS on 12th of August 2015 06 UTC, there are 17 points with level of confidence above 80% shown in Figure 1. The hotspot coordinate to be used to analyze the temperature values on Himawari-8 satellite image on August 12th 2015 shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1. MODIS Hotspot
Figure 2. Himawari-8 Channel IR4
Hotspot coordinates of MODIS on 13th of August 2015, there are 47 points with level of confidence above 80%. shown in Figure 3. The hotspot coordinate to be used to analyze the temperature values on Himawari-8 satellite image on August 13th 2015 shown in Figure 4.
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Figure 3. MODIS Hotspot
Figure 4. Himawari-8 Channel IR4
Hotspot coordinates of MODIS on 14th of August 2015 , there are 21 points with level of confidence above 80% shown in Figure 5. The hotspot coordinate to be used to analyze the temperature values on Himawari-8 satellite image on August 12th 2015 shown in Figure 6.
Figure 5. MODIS Hotspot
Figure 6. Himawari-8 Channel IR4
According to analysis of temperature values on Himawari-8 satellite image which is in accordance to hotspot coordinate of MODIS on 12th-14th of August by using SATAID, found average of temperature values that is 35 . This result is considered as a threshold that will be made to be hotspot map based on Himawari-8 satellite image on 15th of August 2015. After processing data by GRADS, here is the hotspot map from Himawari-8 satellite image shown in Figure 8.
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Figure 7. MODIS Hotspot
Figure 8. Himawari-8 Hotspot
Conclusion According to the explanations above, we can make conclusion that the analysis of temperature values on Himawari-8 image is in accordance with MODIS hotspot coordinates by using SATAID, from 12th-14th of August 2015, found that the average of temperature values is 35 . This result is considered as a threshold that will be made to be hotspot map based on Himawari-8 satellite image on 15th of August 2015 an then it will be compared to hotspot map of MODIS on the same date. We will find the similarity of spreading hotspots pattern between hotspot map of Himawari-8 and MODIS. Thus, we expect Himawari-8 could provide supporting data in purpose to monitor the spread of hotspot when MODIS data is unreadable. Acknowledgment The authors wish to thank Satellite Imagery Management Sub Division, Center for Public Meteorology, Indonesian Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics for providing the hotspot/fire locations and infrared weather satellite data. We would also like to thank many other which we cannot name them personally who gave us their hands to accomplish this works.
References Adriyanto, R. (2009). Interpretasi Citra Satelit. Modul Diklat Teknis Meteorologi Publik. Jakarta. Binery. (2013). Estimasi Nilai Suhu Hotspot Berbasis Data MTSAT Menggunakan Data Modis. Jurnal STMKG. Hartoyo, A. S. (2007). Manajemen Data Radar dan Data Satelit Cuaca. Jurnal BMKG, 7(2), 147-148 Haryoko, U. Adriyanto, R., & Khotimah, M. K. (2008). Manual Pengoperasian SATAID (Satellite Animation and Interactive Diagnosis). Deputi Bidang Sistem Data dan Informasi BMKG. Jakarta. Lillesand, T. M. & Kiefer, R. W. (1990). Penginderaan Jauh dan Interpretasi Citra. Diterjemahkan oleh Dulbahri, P. Suharsono, Hartono, & Suharyadi. Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta. Zakir, A. & Hidayah, T. (2009). Interpretasi Citra Satelit dan Radar. Workshop BMKG. Jakarta. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 295
COMMUNITYBASED DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL ECONOMIC SCIENCE
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IDENTIFICATION OF LEADING SECTORS IN NORTH SUMATERA PROVINCE Fahmi W. Kifli1 and Arif Umami2 1
Departement of Agribusiness, Faculty of Agriculture INSTIPER Yogyakarta Departement of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture INSTIPER Yogyakarta
2
*Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Regional economic development is determined by the resource of every region and resulted in commodities. The Economic base theory explains that leading sector and nonleading sector has a role as an economic structure of region. The aim of this research was to identify leading sectors in North Sumatra Province. This research used descriptive analysis method. The GRDP of North Sumatra Province and the country's GDP by Industrial Origin at Constant Basic Prices 2000 period 1999-2014 were used as the data. Location Quotient (LQ) and Dynamic Location Quotient (DLQ) were used to analyzeGross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP)in North Sumatra period 1999-2014. LQ analysis indicated that the basis economic sectors in North Sumatra province were agriculture sector; electricity, gas and water supply sectors; building sector; trade, hotels and restaurants sectors and; transport and communications sectors. As for the non-basis sectors were: mining industries, manufacturers, financial companies, leasing and business services and services sector. Results of the analysis DLQ analysis revealed that mining and quarrying sector, industrial and processing sector and Building sector were expected as basis sectors in the future Keywords : location quotient, dynamic location quotient, economic sector Introduction In autonomy era, each region is responsible for controlling and monitoring their budget. There is no effective control system for the entire situation. Therefore, the region is expected to select and take an effective implementation of the control system and supervision. Reformation era which has spawned the desire to attain regional autonomy in a clear, tangible and accountable, is demanding a paradigm shift in the implementation of local development and governance. Mardiasmo (2004) suggested that the local government today must change the orientation of vertical accountability be accountable to the public (Horizontal Accountability). Communities as regional stakeholders become interested parties in regional development. Therefore, providing a series of information and explanation of the activities and performance of the local government to local shareholders and stakeholders become very important for the implementation of public accountability. Information and availability of data in this connection obviously become very necessary to evaluate organization's performance. Its data and results will be a feedback for performance improvement in the future. Controlling and monitoring system depends on the conditions and characteristics of each region. In this case, the central government is just a builder and steering (Halim, 2002). At present, its implementation demands activity and community participation as subjects of regional development because the results will be felt directly itself. The efforts becoming independent country need acceleration in development itself and output equalization. Economic development becomes an important thing to chase the lag from other countries. However, high development should be followed by better wealth equalization. The The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 297
economic development aims to increase the wealth of citizen which can be achieved through economic growth. The measurement and GDP growth per capita in a monetary minus inflation rate) are an economic benchmark which is used to determine the wealthy of a nation state (Todaro, 2004). GDP is one of economic indicator to determine the progress of development itself. Development is not just increasing real incomes but also it must be sustainable, steady and accompanied by changes in attitudes and social habits that previously inhibited economic advances. (Hamid, 2005). District development is important in terms of national development and it is a part of integral domestic development in increasing equalization of wealth, stabilization of citizen. The aim of development is the consummate strong foundation to be developed country independently. Regional development should consider special character of every district more (Kuncoro, 2000). Economic growth is the increase in revenue per capita in the long term (Boediono, 2001). It can be said if the level of economic activity is higher than the results achieved in the previous period. High economic growth and sustainable is the main condition for sustainable development. Population growth means that the economy needs to be increased, then the required income also increased. According to Tambunan (2001), this can only be obtained through an increase in aggregate revenue (goods and services) or GDP each year. Djojohadikusomo (1994) mentioned that economic growth is characterized by three main characteristics, namely: (1) per capita income growth in the real definition, (2) distribution of the labor force by sector production activities into livelihoods, and (3) the distribution of people in the community. The district development aim is not only to increase participation of citizen but also to strengthen the national unity. Sjafrizal (1997) explained that main policy needs to consider regional development based on the potential of a citizen in the local level. The aim of district development is to increase the regional standard of living and wealth through effective and efficient development to reach regional autonomy (Kartasasmita, 1996). District economic development is a process consist of new institutional establishment, new alternative industrial establishment, recovery of provided labor to produce best goods and services, identification of new markets, knowledge transfer and new company development (Arsyad, 1999). Nopirin (1996) explained that development of methods to analyze the economy in a district is important. Since, they are a tool to collect data about relevant district economy and its process as well, in which can be used to be guidance for determining action and accelerate existed growth rate. The economic growth is related to provided good and services which can be determined by GRDP from year to year. There are three main components in economic growth, such as: capital Accumulation, citizen growth and technology progress (Todaro, 2000). Investment conducted by local government mainly not for collecting profits, but to create a high multiplier effect to help citizen inproviding basic needs of goods, public service and development. Current development theory does not explain district economic development both comprehensively and completely, hence, it is needed to construct alternative approach plan. Nopirin (1996) explained that this approach is a synthesis and reconstruction of existed concepts in order to give a basic framework of district economic development. Table 1. New paradigm of regional economic growth theory Component
Old Concept
New Concept
Vacancy
The more availability of workplaces, the more availability of job vacancy
The companies should develop job vacancy suitable for the local citizens
Basic Development
The Development of Economic Sector
The development of new economic institutions
Location Asset
Comparative Excellence of Physical Asset
Competitiveness excellence based on environment quality
Knowledge resource
Labor Availability
Knowledge as the basic of economic generator
Source: Nopirin (1996) The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 298
Soegijoko (1997) stated that regional economic development determined by the resource of every region and resulted in commodities. A natural resource is an asset which can be used to produce goods and services in short term period. The Economic base theory explains that the main factor of economic growth in a certain region has a direct connection between a demand for goods and services from the outside of the region (Arsyad, 1999). Its theory explains also the economic structure of the region such as Leading sector and non-leading sector. Sectors who serve domestic and foreign market include as leading sectors. Meanwhile, sectors that only serve domestic market are called non-leading sectors (Richardson, 1991).
Materials and Methods Type of data The research data consists of secondary data: Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) in North Sumatera Province and Gross Domestic Product Data (GDP) based on business, in 1999-2014 of Constant Basic Price (CBP) 2000. Analysis of LQ LQ analysis was used to determine the economic leading or basis sectors in a region. Its technical calculation is comparing the percentage contribution of a specific sector in GRDP with the percentage contribution of the same sector in national GDP. Formula of LQ according to Bendavid-Val in Adisasmita (2005) : V R / VR ..................................................................................... LQ = 1 V /V 1 Where : LQ = Index of LQ Coefficient R V1 = GRDP of i sector in North Sumatra Province VR = GDP of i sector at national level V1 = Total of GRDP in North Sumatra Province V = Total of GDP at national level Criteria of LQ ; LQ ≥ 1 means that sector as basis /leading sector LQ < 1 means that sector as non-basis sector
(1)
Analysis of Dynamic Location Quotient (DLQ) Suyatno (2002) described that analysis of DLQ is used to overcome the weaknesses of LQ that only describing in a certain time and static. DLQ’s analysis is another variant of LQ that knows the change of a sectoral reposition. DLQ
=
[(1+ g1R) / (1+ gR)]t [(1+ G1) / (1+ G)]t ................................................ (2)
Which: DLQ = Index of DLQ coefficient g1R = GRDP growth rate of i sector in North Sumatra Province gR = GRDP Growth rate in North Sumatra Province G1 = GDP growth rate of i sector at national level G = GDP growth rate at national level t = period of analysis
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As for calculating the rate of growth.; r = (Pt/P0)1/t – 1 Which: r = Growth rate Pt = GRDP at the end of the analysis P0 = GRDP in the early years of the analysis t = Period of analysis Criteria DLQ ; • DLQ ≥ 1 means that the sector can still be expected to be a basis or leading sector in the future. • DLQ <1 means that the sector cannot be expected to be a basis or leading sector in the future.
Results and Discussion Analysis of Location Quotient ( LQ) Analysis of LQ is a method to determine basic sectors and non-sector economic bases in a region. Basis sectors in a region is indicated by LQ value more than one, (LQ> 1), whereas non-basis is determined with LQ’s value less than one (LQ <1). Table 2. Analysis of LQ economic sectors in North Sumatra province (period 1999-2014) Constant Basic Prices (CBP) 2000 No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Sector Agriculture Mining and Quarrying Industry and Processing Electricity, Gas, and Water Building Trade, Hotel, and Restaurant transportation and communication Finance, leasing and business services services
Mean percentage of economic contribution (%) period 1999-2014 1,80 0,13 0,86 1,20 1,03 1,04 1,35 0,82 0,92
Based on analysis of LQ, sectors as the sector basis (value LQ> 1) include agriculture sector, electricity, gas and water supply sectors, building sector, trade, hotels and restaurants sectors, transport and communications sectors. While, sectors as the non-sector basis (value of LQ <1 ) which, namely: mining and quarrying sector; industrial and processing sector;financial, leasing and business services sectors; and services sector. LQ coefficient values greater over the years indicated a major contribution to the economic sector GRDP (Table 2 ). The construction sector’s contribution was also increasing every year despite the building sector was the sector of non-basis in the province of North Sumatra. Table 3. Percentage of economic sector contribution to the GDP in North Sumatra province period 1999-2014 Constant Basic Prices 2000 (in %) No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Sector Agriculture Mining and Quarrying Industry and Processing Electricity, Gas, and Water Building
Mean percentage of economic contribution (%) period 1999-2014 0,26 0,01 0,22 0,01 0,07 The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 300
6. 7. 8. 9.
Trade, Hotel, and Restaurant transportation and communication Finance, leasing and business services services
0,17 0,09 0,07 0,09
Optimizing the performance of all sectors is necessary in order to provide higher contribution to boost economic growth in North Sumatra Province. The agricultural sector gave its contribution an average of 0.26% (see Table 3). Bendavid-Val (1991) gave the measurement to the degree of specialization with the following criteria: 1. If LQ coefficient of a sector is greater than one (LQ> 1), this means the degree of specialization of that sector at the regional level is greater than the same sector at the national level. That sector is a sector basis or leading sector in which must be developed as a regional economic driver. 2. If LQ coefficient of a sector is equal to one (LQ = 1), this means the degree of specialization of the sector at the regional level is equal to the same sector at the national level. 3. If LQ coefficient of a sector is smaller than one (LQ <1), it means the degree of specialization of the sector at the regional level is smaller with the same sector at the national level. The sector is a sector of non-bases and less potential to be developed as a regional economic driver. 4. If the LQ coefficient of a sector is the higher, the ability of that sector to compete also will be higher as well. Analysis of Dynamic Location Quotient (DLQ) Location Quotient (LQ) have weaknesses. They are static and only provide an overview at a particular time. Therefore, another variant of LQ is used, coefficient Dynamic Location Quotient (DLQ), to determine re-positioning of the sectors. Data in Table 4 above showed the value of the coefficient DLQ towards economic sector in North Sumatra province, which there are three sectors into a leading or basis sector in the future. The sectors which have a coefficient DLQ> 1, these sectors are the mining and quarrying sector, industrial sector and processing sector and building sector. Conditions in these three sectors is much more nuanced, important thing that distinguishes these three sectors are where the mining - quarrying and manufacturing sector, in the beginning, are the non-leading then they turned into a leading sector in the future, while the construction sector is a leading sector that continues its role in the future. Table 4. Analysis of LQ and DLQ on economic sectors in North Sumatra province. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Sector Agriculture Mining and Quarrying Processing Industry Electricity, Gas and Water Building Trade, Hotel and Restaurant Transportation and Communications Finance, Leasing and Business Services Services
LQ 1,80 0,13 0,86 1,20 1,03 1,04 1,35 0,82 0,92
Coefficient DLQ 0,90 542,09 1,24 0,00 312388,56 0,02 0,00 0,38 0,86
Based on analysis of LQ, basis and non-basis sectors are static, whereas based on analysis of DLQ are dynamic. Analysis LQ only provides an overview at a particular time, while analysis DLQ can be used to predict the direction of growth sectors of the economy in the future. In other words, leading or basis sector is dynamic area that is determined not only by the growth of the sector itself, but also greatly affected other sectors. Local economy is largely determined by the growth of other economic sectors and regions nationwide, hence, cooperation between economic sectors and interregional cooperation is needed (Wiryamarta & Mulyo, 2009). The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 301
Conclusion Therefore, it can be concluded that there were 5 basis sectors (LQ> 1) based on analysis of LQ in North Sumatra Province during period 1999 - 2014 Constant Basic Prices 2000, namely: agriculture sector; electricity, gas and water supply sectors; building sector; trade, hotels and restaurants sectors and; transport and communications sectors. While, the non-basis sectors (LQ <1) were the mining and quarrying sector; industrial and processing sector; financial, leasing and business services sector; and services sector. Based on Analysis of DLQ. There are three sectors into a sector basis in the future: the mining and quarrying sector, industrial and processing sector; and the building sector. The government of North Sumatera should increase the efficacy of basic sectors in their region, especially in the agricultural sector to improve its contribution and support economic development. Integrative planning among sectors should be strong and increase the growth and build strong cooperation in all economic sector. Last, cooperation among districts should be strengthened in terms of increasing the citizen wealth and create active participation of citizen in development.
References Adisasmita, R. (2005). Dasar-Dasar Ekonomi Wilayah. Edisi Pertama. Graha Ilmu: Yogyakarta. Arsyad, L. (1999). Ekonomi Pembangunan. Edisi Keempat. STIE YKPN. Yogyakarta. Boediono. (1985). Teori Pertumbuhan Ekonomi. Edisi Pertama, BPFE. Yogyakarta. Djojohadikusumo, S. (1994). Perkembangan pemikiran Ekonomi, Dasar Teori Ekonomi Pertumbuhan dan Ekonomi Pembangunan. LP3ES. Jakarta. Halim, A. (2002). Akuntansi dan Pengendalian Pengelolaan Keuangan Daerah. Edisi Pertama, UPP AMP YKPN. Yogyakarta. Hamid, E. S. (2005). Ekonomi Indonesia dari Sentralisasi ke Desentralisasi. UII Press. Yogyakarta. Kartasasmita, G. (1996). Membangun Pertanian Abad 21 : Menuju Pertanian Berbudaya Industri. BAPPENAS. Jakarta. Kuncoro, M. (2000). Ekonomi Pembangunan, Teori, Masalah dan Kebijakan. Edisi Pertama. UPP AMP YKPN. Yogyakarta. Mardiasmo. (2004). Otonomi dan Manajemen Keuangan Daerah. Penerbit Andi. Yogyakarta. Nopirin. (1996). Globalisasi dan Regionalisasi Ekonomi : Indikator dan Trend Ekonomi Daerah. Puslit Pengkajian Ekonomi dan Bisnis UGM. Yogyakarta. Sjafrizal. (1997). Pertumbuhan Ekonomi dan Ketimpangan Regional Wilayah Indonesia Bagian Barat. Prisma LP3ES. Jakarta. Soegijoko, B. T. T., & Kusbiantoro, B. S. (1997). Perencanaan Pembangunan di Indonesia. Seri Bunga Rampai. Raja Grasindo. Jakarta. Tambunan, T. T. H. (2001). Perekonomian Indonesia : Teori dan Temuan Empiris. Ghalia Indonesia. Jakarta. _________. (1998). Krisis Ekonomi Indonesia Penyebab dan Penanggulangannya. LP3ES. Jakarta. Todaro, M. P. (2000). Economic Development. Seventh Edition. Addison Wesley. Longman, Inc. Wiryamarta, F., & Mulyo, J. H. (2009). Kinerja Sektor Pertanian di Propinsi Riau pada Era Otonomi Daerah. Fakultas Pertanian Gadjah Mada. Yogyakarta.
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PROCESSING OF WASTE PAPERS FOR ART PAPER IN BIOVILLAGE CONCEPT PRESPECTIVE Widya Fatriasari1*, Fahriya Puspita Sari1, Raden Permana Budi Laksana1, Firda A.Syamani1, Enung Sri Mulyaningsih2 and Euis Hermiati1 1
Research Center for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia 2 Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract To manage the Cibinong Science Center Botanical Garden (CSC-BG) more effectively, in term of waste management, biovillage concept is a promising approach. There are three key points in biovillage concept including integrated program, zero waste zone, and research activities model. Clustering system based on program suitability is used to build integrated activities among research centers (RC) in CSC-BG. Research Center for Biomaterials LIPI has tried to contribute in creating added value from waste papers. Processing of waste paper which were produced from administrative and research activities to become art paper is a simple technology approach. It is possible to be applied in educational environment, household, factories, or office zones. Wastes Classification based on their types is the first step thas has to be done to utilize them effectively. To obtain the better recycled paper properties, the addition of virgin fiber as long fiber source to reinforce paper strength is required. The art paper can be used to produce various art products. Afterwards these products could become financial sources to drive the economy of surrounding communities in CSC-BG. In the future, biovillage concept in CSC-BG is expected to be used as model to apply in other regions. Keywords: art paper; CSC-BG; waste paper; recycling technology; biovillage concept Introduction Cibinong Science Center-Botanical Garden (CSC-BG) covers several Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)’s Research Centers (RC) which are under coordinated by Life Sciences Deputy, (RC for Biotechnology, RC for Biology, and RC for Biomaterials), and Earth Sciences Deputy (RC for Limnology). Besides that, Center for Innovation under the Scientific Services Deputy who delivers ready technology from researcher to the users is also located ini CSC-BG. In their working activities, many organic and inorganic wastes were produced. So far, the most paper waste is resulted in administrative daily activities and it has not been managed optimally, yet. In order to create zero waste environmental, utilization of waste paper for art paper by using recycling technology is one promising approach. Life Sciences Deputy has priority program to create integrated program in CSC-BG to utilize bioresources by green technology application. Biovillage model was developed by mastering technology in bioresource utilization. Integrated program can become a way in connecting core competency from each RC in CSC-BG. By introducing simple technology, Biovillage Program is expected can contribute to CSC communities economy improvement. Then public community will more aware of the LIPI existence especially when RCs in CSC-BG desiminate related technology and training services to the community. Beside that, connectivity amongst research activities in the Biovillage Program is tried to be initiated. In Biovillage Concept, CSC-BG will become storefront of research results which integrated with zero waste concept. In addition, the technology which is The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 303
implemented in Biovillage Program is a simple technology that can be adopted and replicated easily in the other region (interview of Head of RC Biotechnology in Antara, 2016). Waste is always produced by humans in their daily activities and it is needed to be properly managed. The waste volume tends to increase sharply affected by people dense and amount increment mainly in big cities such as Jakarta. Waste paper problems relate with management of all waste types. They include technical and operational aspect, social aspect, law aspect, financial support, and institutional management. Reducing waste volume before sent to final disposal location (TPA) is proposed. That action will reduce cost of bringing the waste into TPA (Wiyono, 2001). Waste paper is one type of municipal solid wastes (MSW) including in the organic waste material which can be degraded in the environment by microrganism. Only 1.12 million ton of waste paper per years has been recovered by scavengers then sold to the recycling paper industries (Wiyono, 2001). Now days, the other common use of waste paper is for food wrapping. However, the ink content in waste paper can give negative effect on human health because of ink migration to the food. Therefore, the conversion of waste paper into art paper can become solution to increase added value of waste materials. Besides that, this utilization will help to create zero waste environment. In the term of art paper, waste paper is a source of secondary fiber obtained through recycling treatment. Development of art paper industry is estimated has a huge economic potency. It is supported by Indonesian fiber sources from both wood and non woody materials. In pulp and paper industry, fast growing species wood has become main raw materials. The availability of raw materials is become crucial concern to be considered. Therefore, to ensure the continuity of raw materials supply, this wood species is also planted in Plantation Forest (HTI). Paper and paperboard cover about 40% of the annual industrial wood harvest (WWF, 2016). To produce 1 tons paper in newspaper size or 8 layer in A4 size is needed about 10-17 wood tree (Rainforest Information Center in Anonim, 2012). The number of wood needed in pulp and paper production has been identified as one biggest cause of deforestation in some parts of Indonesia such as in Sumatera Island, over the past 20 years (Butler 2004). About 400 million tons per year of paper have been produced in the world in which more than half of the production is made up by US, China, Japan and Canada. During 2010- 2025, the highest growth in production and consumption of paper in China is estimated about 67 and 29 million tons (WWF, 2016). This consumption reached 394 million tons and is expected to be 490 million tons in 2020. Many human activities use paper in various form in which a part of it will become waste (Ministry of Industry, 2016). Regarding this situation, reduce, reuse and recycle of the waste paper is important way to minimize the destruction of forest resources and environment. And in this prespective, conversion waste paper into art paper in CSC-BG become an actual action of LIPI in saving natural resources. This article discusses about development of concept model in CSC-BG to reduce waste paper and recycling it for production of art paper. And also economic prospect of art paper production unit in Biovillage Program will be accessed. Curent situation of paper production The government expects paper production can reach 11 million tons in 2015 and it increases 5.8% than that of paper production in 2014. About 43.3% of paper produced is for export market whose value of US$ 2.3 billions. The installed capacity of paper industry tends stagnant in 2 last year. It is affected by implementation of wood legality verification system (SVLK) for all forest based products and export declaration (DE). In the future, Ministry of Industry has targeted to use waste paper for raw material of paper industry. To support this goal, regional industrial departement introduces community awarness to separate waste paper from others type of waste. About 50% of paper industries has been used waste paper in their production. Waste paper in paper industry is often utilized as short fibers mixed with virgin fiber (short and long fiber). The waste paper demand accounts 7 million tons in which 64.3% of it is still imported (Ministry of Industry, 2016). In the future, this import capacity can be reduced gradually by utilization non wood fibers. Figure 1 shows recycled fiber share in paper production. At 2020, the contribution of recycled fiber will be expected increase by 17% compared to its production at 2010 (WWF, 2016). Waste paper can play significant contribution as main recycled fiber sources.
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Paper production (million tonnes)
In the daily life, the highest consumer of paper is found in the school, colleges, universities, and office areas. Waste paper is produced during academic writing, or supporting activities. It covers 10% of MSW. Therefore, there is a high potency of paper waste which can be used and converted into useful materials. 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
350
212
188 150
2010
2020
Year Recycled fiber
Virgin fiber
Figure 1. Composition of recycled fiber and virgin fiber in paper production Waste paper clasification Various paper types which are available in the market affect the availability of waste paper obtained. The characteristic of waste paper types determined their suitable capability to be recycled (Wahyono, 2001). The paper production process, fiber sources, sizing agent addition contribute in the paper properties. Each paper type has been made based on their goal. List of waste paper types and current paper price is summarized in Table 1. Based on our observation, the most waste paper obtained in CSC-BG area is HVS for writing paper or administrative and scientific report. Table 1. Waste paper types and their predicted prices Waste paper types*
Contributor
Estimated price (Rp)*
Frequency to be found in CSC-BG High
Carton or board Duplex
1500-2500 1000-4000
White paper/HVS
3000-4000
Newspaper Notebook, handbook, Handout King paper Phone book Newsprint Cement bags
1500-2500 1500-3000 2000-1500 1000-1500 1500-1700 2000-2500
Medium V V
Low
Very low/none
V V V V V V V
RC Biomaterial RC Biomaterial RC Biomaterial & RC BiologyZoologi division RC Biomaterial RC Biomaterial RC Biomaterial RC Biomaterial RC Biomaterial RC Biomaterial
*Source: Anonim, 2016 Propose system of paper waste management To support a good waste management, the collecting and separation waste based on main waste type is the first step which has been performed in CSC-BG. Basicly, waste types can be classified in three kind including organic waste, non organic waste and residual waste. For easier handling, three The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 305
garbage dumps, namely for plastic based waste, for waste paper, and for other waste types (residual waste) are provided. They have been placed at several access points in every Research Center building inside CSC-BG area including RC for Biomaterials building. All employee has been informed before the system start to be implemented. Figure 2 shows the placement planning of garbage dumps in RC for Biomaterials both on the first and second floor. Every day, the waste paper was taken from garbage dumps then collected in big plastic bags and then stored in Biovillage House located beside RC for Biomaterials building. Then waste paper was separated based on the waste types before further processing. The propose of waste management system is demonstrated in Figure 3. This activity has potency to be integrated both direct and undirectly with the other activities in Biovillage Program or RC office management in CSC-BG. For next expectation, this waste management system can be adopted by the other RC with any adjustment.
Figure 2. Placement of garbage dumps in RC for Biomaterials building
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Development technique for separating waste types
Placement garbage dumps in access point
Production various paper art product, educational training, expose and exibition
Collecting waste paper and waste paper types
Recycling of waste paper for art paper
Figure 3. Waste management system to utilize waste paper Factors affecting in pulp and paper production Pulp is raw material to make paper sheet. This pulp is produced by pulping of wood or non woody materials. Generally, many pulping method can be used to produce pulp including mechanical pulping, chemical pulping i.e soda, kraft pulping, and sulphite pulping, and semi-chemical pulping. Naturally, lignocellulosic material contains three major chemical components, namely cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which build up cell wall of plant, where cellulose is the major component in plant cell wall. Those three components can be fractionated and then converted into functional materials, in paper production. Each lignocellulosic material has special characteristics depending on the site growth, wood or non wood species, and silviculture treatment. The woody species can be grouped into hardwood as short fiber sources and softwood as long fiber sources. Raw material from non wood species can be classified by its source including leaves fiber (pineaple, abaca, agave), fruit fiber (cotton and coir) and stem fiber (bamboo, bagasse, jute, kenaf, Imperata cylindrica). The chemical component variation of lignocellulosic materials shows in Table 2. A higher content of lignin in softwood compared to hardwood tends to result a lower paper properties in which lignin can interfere pulping process. In paper making, high cellulose content with low lignin content will produce better paper properties. Therefore, pulping process goal of lignocellulosic materials is to remove lignin as much as possible. Besides that, fiber dimension and derived fiber dimension has also contributed on the paper properties resulted.
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Table 2. Chemical component of lignocellulosic materials Lignocellulosic materials
Fiber sources
a
Cellulose (%)
Hemicellulose (%)
Lignin (%)
Stem
40-55
24-40
18-25
a
Stem
45-50
25-35
25-35
a
Fruit
45
35
15
Stem
25-40
35-50
10-30
Stem
30
50
15
Leaves
15-20
80-85
0
Stem
45
31.4
12.0
Stem
25
35.7
6.4
Stem
52.45
25.97
12.72
Fruit
43.75
26.22
17.35
Stem
41.65-46.5
25.3-33.8
24.98-32.5
Stem
40.22
18.40
31.29
Hardwood Softwood Corn cobs a
Grasses a
Wheat straw a
Leaves a
Switch grass a
Coastal bermuda grass b
Sugarcane bagasse c
Empty oil fruit bunch (EFB) c,d
Sorgum bagasse Imperata cylindrica e a
Sources : Reshamwala et al (1995), Cheung and Anderson (1997), Boopathu (1998) and Dewes and Hunsche (1998) b
c
d
d
in Sun and Cheng (2002). Chen et al. 2011, Fatriasari et al. 2016a, Fatriasari et al. 2015a, Syafwina et al. (2002), e Sutiya et al, 2012
General process in pulping process and some parameters affecting the pulp and paper properties are summarized in Figure 4. Pulping process also results by-product namely black liquor which contains high lignin content. Black liquor might be used as energy source or recycled to obtain chemical reagen needed in pulping process. Pulp parameters that affected pulp properties which used be observed are pulp yield, delignification selectivity and kappa number. Pulp yield is used to figure out the effectivity of pulping process, the higher pulp yield means the lower weight loss during pulping process. In general, chemical pulping results pulp yield in range of 40-55% (Karlsson et al., 2006). A low kappa number with high pulp yield and viscosity is considered as beneficial parameter in kraft pulping. Therefore, the most pulp and paper mill in the world uses Kraft pulping as pulping method in pulp and paper production. Tensile index Burst index Opacity Brightness level Breaking length
Kappa number Delignification selectivity Pulp yield
Raw material
Pulping process to remove lignin
Chips
Chemical component Anatomical characteristics (fiber dimension and derived fiber dimension)
Pulp containing high cellulose
Black liquor containing high lignin content
Paper sheet
Refining Beating Sizing agent addition Bleaching
Figure 4. Flow chart pulp and paper production The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 308
Processing waste paper for art paper As mention before waste paper mainly white paper waste paper arised from RCs activities in CSC-BG has been collected and then further has been proccessed to produce art paper. The general process in art paper production which has been done in RC Biomaterials is showed in Figure 5. Repulping treatment and beating is the most important step in recycling of waste paper. To optimize the process, the waste paper has been cut by paper slicers and then soaked for 24 hours. Recycling paper contains amount of short fibers. To improve recycled paper properties, addition of virgin fiber is required to reinforce the paper properties. Waste paper slices
Soaking for 24 hours
Repulping by beating treatment for 15 min, color addition
Pulp suspension
Open soda pulping for 2 h, 1000C using sodium hydroxide as pulping chemicals
Various derived products
Alang-alang pulp
Sheet formation using screen T29 and plywood sheets
Sun drying
Art paper
Figure 5. Production art paper from office waste paper in CSC-BG In this study, we use Imperata cylindrida (alang-alang grass in Indonesia) as main virgin fiber sources. This fiber provides long fiber and help to make good performance in inter fiber bonding of paper sheet formation. Utilization of alang-alang grass for reinforcing fibers has two advantages i.e to overcome the environmental problem and to increase economical prospect of alang-alang grass as invasive plant for art paper. Alang-alang grass can be found easily around CSC-BG, it can support in continuity of art paper production. Observation on the chemical component and anatomical characteristic of alang-alang in South Kalimantan has been reported before. Alang-alang fiber has long fiber with high lignin content. Based on its derived fiber dimension indicated alang-alang grass includes as quality II which suitable for art paper and packaging paper (Sutiya et al., 2002). Open soda pulping of alang-alang grass has been used for pulp production because it is easy to be performed and only need simple equipment and technology. After pulping finished, soften chips were separated from black liquor by filtration and then they are washed using tap water until produced alkali free pulp. Beating recycled waste paper pulp mixed with alang-alang pulp (ratio of 1:1) has been conducted in beater hollander. Beating treatment is to separate bundle fiber into single fiber. Both internal and external fibrillation has been occurred after beating treatment. Increase contact area of fibers will facilitate a good fiber bonding in paper sheet formation. Economical aspect of art paper and derived product As a small art paper production unit in CSC-BG, the number of paper sheets which can be produced depends on the availability of plywood sheet as medium used in sheet formation. The more plywood available, the more paper sheets can be dried. The weather condition has also determined drying rate of art paper. Considering the availability of equipment and weather condition, in one production cycle about 30 art paper sheets can be produced. Within 8 working hours in one day, the total art paper which can be produced ranges 90-100 paper sheets. Based on some approach and assumption, techno-economic analysis of art paper produced can be sold at Rp. 1600 (size A2). Art The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 309
paper made from banana stems produced by Banana Paper Bandung, West Java Indonesia has been available in the market in price of Rp. 4000/ size A2. Production of banana art paper is focused for export and domestic market. The banana art paper has obtained the award as innovative product. Art paper production from recycled paper reinforced by alang-alang grass has an opportunity to be developed seriously. The simple technology can also be introduced widely to communities, office area, factories area and school area. Various useful derived products have been produced using these art papers. And on that art products, skeleton leaves can be added which has been colored by soaking in textile color. To prepare skeleton leaves, fresh leaves are soaked in water containing microorganism for 1-2 weeks to remove its chlorophile. After that, this skeleton leaves can be glued onto art paper based products. The product-appearance looks more interesting and has a higher price. This simple technology has been introduced to the educational and environmental community by training for 1-2 days at RC Biomaterials. Positive response from participant has been obtained after training has finished. It means art paper processing from waste paper program has been successful to introduce LIPI responsibility to the communities.
Conclusion In conclusion, waste paper in CSC-BG has been collected and then processed to produce art paper. Simple recycling technology is used for repulping waste paper slices. Alang-alang grass fibers has been utilized as reinforcing in waste paper pulp. The presence of alang-alang grass is required as long fiber sources, considering waste paper mainly contains secondary short fibers. White paper is the most waste paper types found in CSC-BG. Waste management in Biovillage Concept is needed to be developed in CSC-BG to increase added value of paper waste in form of derived products. This system supports in creating zero waste region by application an integrated activities in Biovillage Program. To give more significant contribution to communities, exhibition and training are two important steps approach. The art paper processing from waste paper has economical potency which can be developed to be additional income for communities.
Acknowledgment I would like to thank to Reseach Center for Biotechnology which funding this activities as one of Biovillage Project including in Priority Program of Life Sciences Deputy at Financial Year 2016.
References Anonim. (2012). Kita dan environmental cost. http://www.kompasiana.com/nurediyanto/kita-danenvironmental-cost_551877d9a333114f07b664af [Access on 5 November 2016] Anonim (2016). Jenis kertas bekas: harga pasaran terbaru. http://mesinpercetakan.com/jenis-kertasbekas-harga-pasaran-terbaru/ [Access on 06 November 2016] Antara. 2016. LIPI tawarkan konsep biovillage untuk daerah. http://www.antaranews.com/berita/581506/lipi-tawarkan-konsep-biovillage-untuk-daerah. Published 23 September 2016. [Access on 5 November 2016] Butler, R. (2004). Pulp and paper production from rainforest. http://kids.mongabay.com/elementary/505a.html [Acess on 5 November 2016] Chen, W. H., Tu, Y. J., Sheen, H. K. (2011). Disruption of sugarcane bagasse lignocellulosic structure by means of dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment with microwave-assisted heating. Applied Energy, 88, 2726-2734
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Fatriasari, W., Anita, S. H., Risanto, L. (2016a). Microwave assisted acid pretreatment of oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) to enhance its fermentable sugar production. Waste Biomass Valor.,1-13. Published online 21 May 2016 Fatriasari, W., Supriyanto, Iswanto, A. H. (2015a). The kraft pulp and paper properties of sweet sorghum bagasse (Sorghum bicolor L Moench). J. Eng. Technol. Sci., 47 (2), 149-159 Karlsson, H., Lorentzen, Wettre. (2006). Fibre guide, Fiber Analysis and Process Application in The Pulp and Paper Industry. AB Lorentzen & Wttre, Box 4, SE-164 93, Kista, Sweden Ministry of Industry. (2016) Produksi kertas diprediksi capai 11 juta ton. http://www.kemenperin.go.id/artikel/11364/Produksi-Kertas-Diprediksi-Capat-11-Juta-Ton [Access on 7 November 2016] Sun, Y., Cheng, J. (2002). Hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials for ethanol production: a review. Bioresource Technol., 83, 1-11 Sutiya, B., W. T.Istikowati, A.Rahmadi, Sunardi. (2002, January). Kandungan kimia dan sifat serat alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica) sebagai gambaran bahan baku pulp dan kertas. Bioscientiae, 9(1), 8-19 Syafwina, S., Honda, Y., Watanabe, T., Kuwahara, M. (2002). Pretreatment of oil palm empty fruit bunch by white-rot fungi for enzymatic saccarification. Wood Res.,89, 19–20 Wiyono, S. (2001). Pengelolaan sampah kertas di Indonesia. Jurnal Teknologi Lingkungan, 2(3), 276280 WWF. (2016). Pulp and Paper. http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/deforestation/forest_sector_transformation/pulp_and_pa per/. [Access on 5 November 2016]
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ADVANCED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
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DESIGN SOFTWARE FOR PULSE OXIMETER ACCURACY TESTING USING LabVIEW Siddiq Wahyu Hidayat*1, Irawan Sukma, Wuwus Ardiatna Research Center for Quality System and Testing Technology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Puspiptek Region, Setu-South Tangerang 15314, Indonesia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Pulse oximeter is one of important medical devices that indirectly monitors the oxygen saturation of a patient’s blood at hospitals, by reading blood oxygen saturation (SaO2) indirectly using photoplethysmographic (PPG) sensors. With such a very important function, it is necessary to test the accuracy of a pulse oximeter while monitoring the patient's condition. The pulse oximeter testing method is based on ISO 80601-2-61, subclause 201.12.1.101, required to do test of the accuracy of sensor in a pulse oximeter. Currently, P2SMTP - LIPI test the accuracy of a pulse oximeter sensor by a pulse oximeter simulator to replace the functionality of human blood. In this paper, LabVIEW software has been made to simplify the testing of pulse oximeter sensor accuracy by controlling the output of pulse oximeter simulator using computer and report the results of testing. The system has been created can be used to determine the accuracy of SpO2 and the approximate value of the accuracy of a pulse oximeter easily and quickly before the blood sample test was conducted in accordance with the standards Keywords: testing, pulse oximetry, LabVIEW
Introduction Pulse oximeter function is to display the average rate and hemoglobin oxygen saturation of arterial blood vessels (Khandpur, 2003). Oxygen saturation value (SpO2) generated by the pulse oximeter is expressed by % while the average rate by BPM (beats per minute). The results of oxygen saturation is a physiological parameter measurement allows the identification of critical situations of the circulatory and pulmonary systems (Laghrouche et al, 2010). Pulse oximeter is used to clamp the finger or earlobe of the patient. Examples of the use of finger pulse oximeter can be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Finger pulse oximeter (User Manual, 2011) The Pulse Oximeter have photoplethysmographic (PPG) sensor consist of pair of LEDs, red and infrared of two different wavelengths (660 nm and 940 nm) connected back to back and the other side The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 313
it has a photo detector. Finger placing between the LED the ratio (R) between the intensities of two different lights is measured (Samuel & Thilagavthi, 2014). The layout of the pulse oximeter sensor and the position of the human finger can be seen in Error! Reference source not found..
Figure 2. Pulse oximeter sensor (Samuel & Thilagavthi, 2014) Pulse oximeter has an important function which is to monitoring the patient's condition at the hospital. Therefore, it needs to be tested the performance of a pulse oximeter, especially the accuracy of the sensor inside a pulse oximeter probe. The accuracy of a pulse oximeter probe testing conducted with a pulse oximeter simulator Index 2MF. It was created by Fluke Biomedical as can be seen in Figure 3. Simulator pulse oximeter has an artificial optical fingerprint, the function is to replace the role of human fingers (User Manual, 2008). The optical fingerprint sensors have LED and photo detector that can be set through the simulator wavelength pulse oximeter, generate and determine the average rate of oxygen saturation.
Figure 3. Testing accuracy pulse oximeter use index 2 mf Pulse oximeter accuracy testing at P2SMTP LIPI is still done by manual operation. It is done by pressing the button on the LCD simulator to determine the output value and the average rate of the oxygen saturation which is spend a lot of time in testing. Moreover the test report printing is still using an ordinary method.
Materials and Methods In this paper, we will create a tool, which can be used to simplify the testing accuracy of pulse oximeter, using LabVIEW. Program was created to control simulator, to generate a pulse oximeter oxygen saturation value and the average rate and enable to display graphs and tables of test results. Program also create test reports in the form of Microsoft Word (Yoppy, Sadrach et al., 2011). Simulator pulse oximeter index 2 MF fluke The Index 2MF SpO2 Simulator (hereafter the simulator) allows accurate verification of pulse oximeters by allowing to test them in a variety of ways. The Simulator provides simulations that allow thorough testing of the complete pulse oximeter, including the optical sensors. The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 314
The light emitting diodes (LED's) of a pulse oximeters shine two types of light near infrared light (at 940 nanometers) and red light (at 660 nanometers) wavelengths that pass through the skin and which are absorbed by both the oxyhemoglobin and the reduced hemoglobin. These light beams pass through the index finger of a patient to photo detectors on the opposite side of the pulse oximeter. Error! Reference source not found. shows a typical pulse oximeter configuration, noting the location of the red and infrared LED's (User Manual, 2008).
Figure 4. Artificial finger simulator pulse oximeter Fluke (User Manual, 2008) LabVIEW LabVIEW developed by National Instrument. LabVIEW is a software graphical development with the most functioning for signal acquisition, measurement analysis and data presentation. LabVIEW give flexibility on programming method and have ActiveX Technology that allows Windows applications to communicate with other software (Travis & Kring, 2006). And it also has two main screen display screen front panel and block diagram. Front screen panel used by the user to invoke a particular tool or object. The command has been invoked, which can be regulated function on through on-screen programming block diagram. Test method Pulse oximeter simulator has a serial communication port, so it is possible to communicate pulse oximeter with other equipment. In this paper, the computer performs serial communication with a pulse oximeter simulator to control the output of the pulse simulator, connected to PC using RS-232 to USB adapter. Serial communication parameters between the computer and pulse oximeter simulator must be the same, which are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Parameter serial communication Parameter Port Baud Rate Data Bits Parity Stop Bits Flow Control
Value Com 5 9600 8 None 1.0 None
Computer communicates with the pulse oximeter by sending command via serial communicator port. The string data command is based on the user manual from Fluke Biomedical. The example of command list is shown in Table 2.
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Table 2. Parameter serial communication(User Manual, 2008)
Parameter
Command
Writing Command
Oxygen Saturation
OXY
[OXY 90]
Heart Rate
BPM
[BPM 70]
Q
[Q]
Quit from Communication
Information Set 90 % value saturation oxygen Set 70 BPM value heart rate Quit
Oxygen saturation and average value of heart rate range were set based on ISO 80601-2-61, 79% - 100% for the oxygen saturation and 60 BPM - 105 BPM for the average value of heart rate.
Results and Discussion Pulse oximeter sensor is connected to the output of Fluke Index 2MF SPO2 Simulator. Simulator is connected to computer via the RS232 port. Computer controls simulator through this port. Overview SPO2 accuracy testing system shown on Figure 5.
Figure 5. Testing accuracy pulse oximeter using LabVIEW Programs was created with LabVIEW software, which is consists of several "Flat Sequence Structure" that represent each step in the process. Error! Reference source not found. is represent the entire process of the program.
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Figure 6. Flowchart of a pulse oximeter testing program The first step, to customize the configuration between the simulator and the patient's pulse oximeter monitor, then adjust the communication between the computer and pulse oximeter simulator. The second step, take the format of test sequences that have been stored in a file on computer. This file consists of 10 test sequences, each of which contains command to control the simulator output levels of oxygen saturation (command [OXY ...]) and average heart beat (command [BPM ...]). For example, in the first row on the format contains the command string "[OXY100] [BPM60]". Then program will parse the command to get the numerical value of oxygen levels and blood pressures using a pattern match function of the format used. The fourth step is to display the initial view, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Diagram pulse oximeter accuracy
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The fifth step is sending commands to control the output of patient monitor that gets input from the simulator. This data is also displayed in the "SET O2" value and "SET BPM" value on the program screen display. Furthermore, the operator should wait the oxygen saturation and average heart rate reading on patient monitor to the fixed value. The sixth step, the operator should write down the readings of SpO2 from patient monitor in the "HASIL O2" textbox and "NILAI BPM" textbox. The seventh step, the operator will press the "MASUKKAN DATA" button so the program will save the data that has been given and at the same time will update the results table. Then the program will process the next command line. Similarly, the program runs repeatedly until the entire row format test sequence is executed, in this case there are 10 times of the test. The final result as shown in Error! Reference source not found. and also displayed a graph comparison of set point with the results in Error! Reference source not found..
Figure 8. Graphic of accuracy oximeter saturation and average heart beat The last step, the operator should press “CETAK DATA” button. The program will transfer the existing data on this display in the form of Microsoft Word documents. This test results document will easily to be printed and saved, as shown in Error! Reference source not found..
Figure 9. Test result document .doc
Conclusion From this paper, we conclude that the LabVIEW software result simplify the testing process, faster and easier. The operator do not have to operate the pulse oximeter simulator, but only operate computer. The testing data result is also easy for further analyzed because it was stored in the computer. The problems that exist are ISO 80601-2-61 standard does not allow the use of a patient The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 318
simulator to validate the accuracy of pulse oximeter equipment. Nevertheless, this tool is very useful for the development of SpO2 as a first step to test SpO2 quickly and easily, before validating them with blood tests in accordance with the standards, which would require a more expensive cost. Recommendation for the next research is doing collaboration with researchers who have the competencies to test the blood samples to determine the oxygen saturation levels. In order to verify this paper result, by testing blood samples as required by the standard, so that the software can be improved.
Acknowledgment We would like to thank to P2SMTP-LIPI for financial support and research facilities as well as all those who assist in the implementation of research, so that the research can be done properly.
References Khandpur, R. S. (2003). Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. Laghrouche, M., Haddab, S., Lotmani, S., Mekdoud, K., & Ameur, S. (2010). Low-Cost Embedded Oximeter. Measurement Science Review, 10(5), 176–179. http://doi.org/10.2478/v10048-0100030-6 Samuel, S. P., & Thilagavthi, B. (2014). Embedded Based Low Cost Pulse Oximeter. IOSR Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering, 9(1), 7–10. Travis, J., & Kring, J. (2006). LabVIEW For Everyone: Graphical Programming Made Easy and Fun, Third Edition. USA: Prentice Hall. User Manual. (2008). Index 2MF. Fluke Biomedical, (September). User Manual. (2011). CMS50DL Pulse Oximeter. Contec Medical System Co., LTD. Yoppy, Sadrach, J., W. Hidayat, S., & H. Rahmat, A. (2011). Applicvation Software For Volumetric Infusion Pump Accuracy Testing Based on IEC 60601-2-24. Instrumentation Scientific Publication, 35.
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Time Schedule Day 1 15 November 2016 08.30 - 09.00 Registration 08.30 - 09.00 Coffee Morning 09.00 - 09.10 Opening ceremony of HSS-ISSH 2016 09.10 - 09.25 Opening remarks LIPI by Prof. Sulaeman Yusuf, LIPI 09.25 - 09.40 Opening remarks by Prof. Takashi Watanabe-RISH, Kyoto Univ. 09.40 - 09.45 Photo session 09.45 - 10.00 Brief introduction on new collaborative project between LIPI – RISH by Prof. Toshiaki Umezawa Lecture Session I 10.00 - 10.40 Lecture 1 (Assoc. Prof. Masaru Kobayashi – GSA, Kyoto Univ.) – Plant Nutrition 10.40 - 11.20 Lecture 2 (Assoc. Prof. Masahiro Sakamoto – GSA, Kyoto Univ.) – Plant Molecular Biology 11.20 - 12.00 Lecture 3 (Prof. Daisuke Shibata - Kazusa DNA Research Institute) - Bioinformatics 12.00 - 13.00 Lunch Lecture Session II 13.00 - 13.30 Poster session I 13.30 - 14.10 Lecture 4 (Prof. Cecep Kusmana -IPB) - Forest Ecology 14.10 - 14.50 Lecture 5 (Dr. Himlal Baral - CIFOR) – Forestry Issue 14.50 - 15.30 Lecture 6 (Robertus Heru Triharjanto - LAPAN) - Satellite Technology Parallel Session of ISSH 15.30 - 17.00 Parallel session 1 17.00 - 17.05 Closing Day 1 18.30 - 21.00 Banquet Day 2 16 November 2016 08.30 - 09.00 Registration 08.30 - 09.00 Coffee Morning Lecture Session III 08.30 - 09.10 Lecture 7 (Assist. Prof. Takuro Mori - RISH, Kyoto Univ.) -Wood Structure 09.10 - 09.50 Lecture 8 (Dr. Euis Hermiati - LIPI) - Wood Adhesive from Natural Latex 09.50 - 10.30 Lecture 9 (Assoc. Prof. Kenji Umemura - RISH, Kyoto Univ) - Wood Based Material 10.30 - 11.10 Lecture 10 (Prof. Naoki Shinohara - RISH, Kyoto Univ.) - Wireless Power Transmission 11.10 - 11.50 Lecture 11 (Dr. Danny H Natawidjaja - LIPI) - Earth Science and Dissaster 11.50 - 12.00 JST Funding Program for International Collaborative Research (Masahito Yano - JST) 12.00 - 13.00 Lunch Parallel Session of ISSH 13.00 - 13.30 Poster session II 13.30 - 14.30 Parallel session 2 14.30 - 15.30 Parallel session 3 15.30 - 15.45 Announcement of the best presentation 15.45 - 16.00 Closing ceremony
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Participants Name A. Heru Prianto Adesna Fatrawana Adi Nugraha Adik Bahanawan Adri B Putra Agung Sumarno Agus Mulyadi Ahmad Thontowi Aldi Bahrul Nurdiansyah Alif Kurniawan Ambar Yuswi Perdani Ambinari Rachmi Putri Ananto Nugroho Anna Maria Kusumaningayu Apri Heri Iswanto Aprilia Susilowati Apriwi Zulfitri Arien Dwitrie Astuti Kusumorini Aulia Nisa'ul Khoir Bramantyo Wikantyoso Bugi Ratno Budiarto Cecep Kusmana Chin-Cheng Yang Daisuke Shibata Danny Hilman Natawidjaja Deani Dara Dede Heri Yuli Yanto Dedi Darnaedi Deddy Triyono N.A Desak Made Malini Desak Made Malini Dian Anggraini Indrawan Dika Supyandi Dwi Ajias Pramasari Effendi Parlindungan Sagala Ejha Larasati Siadari
Institution Indonesian Institute of Sciences Bogor Agricultural University Padjadjaran University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Mercubuana University Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Indonesian Institute of Sciences Institute Technology of Bandung University of Sumatera Utara Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences State of Islamic University Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Bogor Agricultural University Kyoto University, Japan Kazusa DNA Research Institute Indonesian Institute of Sciences Bogor Agricultural University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Padjadjaran University Padjadjaran University Forest Product Research and Development Center Padjadjaran University Bogor Agricultural University Sriwijaya University Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 322
Name Eka Fatmawati Tihurua Eka Lestari Eko Widodo Eldia Anggidenia Elvi Yetti Erlin Herlinawati Erma Yulihastin Esti Rini Satiti Euis Hermiati Fadel Muhammad Madjid Fahmi W. Kifli Fahriya Puspita Sari Faid Abdul Manan Faizatul Falah Fazhar Akbar Femmy Marsitha B Fiqolbi Nuro Firda Aulya Syamani Firda Yanuar Pradani Ghvirly Ramadhani Gravinda P Perdana Haris Setyaningrum Harmastini Sukiman Hary Widjajanti Hendra Helmanto Herry Samsi Himlal Baral I Made Sudiana Irawan Sukma Ismadi Ismail Budiman Iwan Setiawan Jan Dicky Chandra Jauhar Khabibi Joko Sulistyo Joko Wiratmo Kenji Umemura Kurnia Wiji Prasetyo Laila Hanum Liesbetini Haditjaroko Lilik Astari
Institution Institute Technology of Bandung Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Jambi University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Institute Technology of Bandung Forest Product Research and Development Center Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics INSTIPER Yogyakarta Indonesian Institute of Sciences Bogor Agricultural University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesia Ministry of Health Bogor Agricultural University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Darussalam University of Gontor Indonesian Institute of Sciences Sriwijaya University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences CIFOR Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Padjadjaran University Sponsor Jambi University Gadjah Mada University Institute of Technology Bandung Kyoto University, Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences Sriwijaya University Bogor Agricultural University Indonesian Institute of Sciences The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 323
Name Linar Humaira Linda Kriswati Liseu Nurjanah Lisman Suryanegara Lutfi Nia Kholida Mamoru Yamamoto Masahiro Sakamoto Masaihto Yano Masaru Kobayashi Maulida Oktaviani Messalina L Salampessy Miranti Putri Ridwan Gucci Mochamad Dhio Satriyo Gandhi Muhamad Aditio Ramadian Muhammad Tahmid Naoki Shinohara Nenden Wardani Ni Putu Ratna Ayu Krishanti Nuril Hidayati Nuriyanah Nuryati Park Sehwi Priscilia Priska Wisudawaty Pujo Sasmito R. Noviani Raden Permana Budi Laksana Rahayu Fitriani Wangsa Putrie Rahma Nur Komariah Reny Andriyanty Rie Takada Riksfardini Annisa Ermawar Ririn Dyah Wijayanti Rizka Erwin Lestari Robertus Heru Triharjanto Rohmah Pari Rosita Dewi Rosmanida Ruminta
Institution Nusa Bangsa University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Kyoto University, Japan Kyoto University, Japan Japan Science and Technology Agency Kyoto University, Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences Nusa Bangsa University Jambi University Bogor Agricultural University Institute of Technology Bandung Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Kyoto University, Japan Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Bogor Agricultural University Gadjah Mada University Bogor Agricultural University Mercubuana University Bogor Agricultural University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Jambi University Nusa Bangsa University Bogor Kyoto University, Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesia State College of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Indonesian National Institute of Aeronautics and Space Forest Product Research and Development Forest Research and Development Centre Airlangga University Padjadjaran University The 6th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere Humanosphere Science School 2016 Bogor, 15 – 16 November 2016 324
Name Ruth Melliawati Ryosuke Kajita Satoru Mitani Sena Maulana Shigeru Hanano Siddiq Wahyu Hidayat Sim Ngan Tjhiang Chandra Subyakto Sudarmanto Sukma Surya Kusumah Sulaeman Yusuf Sunil Sharma Syaiful Anam Sylvia J. R. Lekatompessy Takashi Watanabe Takuro Mori Teguh Darmawan Titik Kartika Tiwit Widowati Toshiaki Umezawa Triastuti Tsuyoshi Aoyama Urip Perwitasari Wahyu Dwianto Widya Fatriasari Widya Rizky Amalia Yashanti Berlinda Paradisa Yusup Amin Didik Widyatmoko Bambang Sunarko Fauzan Ali Dwi Eny Djoko Setyono Agus Suhatman Vita Novianti Endang Sukara
Institution Indonesian Institute of Sciences Kyoto University, Japan JICA, Japan Bogor Agricultural University Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences Sponsor Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Kyoto University, Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences CIFOR Mercubuana University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Kyoto University, Japan Kyoto University, Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Kyoto University, Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences Kyoto University, Japan Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Bogor Agricultural University Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences Padjadjaran University Indonesian Institute of Sciences
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Organized by : Research Center for Biomaterials LIPI Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH) Kyoto University