International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 4(2), pp. 0031-0039, 2016 Available online at http://www.ijsrpub.com/ijsres ISSN: 2322-4983; ©2016; Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://dx.doi.org/10.12983/ijsres-2016-p0031-0039
Full Length Research Paper Bacteriological and Physicochemical Characteristics of Kaptai Lake Water in Terms of Public Health Significance Rasel Barua1*, Suman Barua2, 3*, Fatema-Tuz-Zohora1, Rajesh Mutsuddi4, Mohammad Seraj Uddin1, Hiroshi Hasegawa5, Ismail M. M. Rahman6* 1
Department of Microbiology, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan 3 Department of Applied and Environmental Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh 4 Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh 5 Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan 6 Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, 1 Kanayagawa, Fukushima-Shi, Fukushima 960-1296, Japan *Corresponding author(s):
[email protected] (RB);
[email protected] (SB);
[email protected] (IMMR) 2
Received 25 January 2016; Accepted 31 March 2016
Abstract. Kaptai Lake (KL), which is one of the largest artificial freshwater lakes of South-east Asia, is located in the Rangamati district of Bangladesh and also the major dwelling place of the indigenous ethnic minorities. The lake water is consumed for drinking and other domestic purposes by the population living in islands within the lake without any intermediate purifying process. In the current study, the bacteriological, physicochemical and metal characteristics of the lake water have been measured to investigate the lake water quality regarding the health concerns in comparison with the limits set by WHO, USEPA and Bangladesh EQS. The heterotrophic plate count for the lake water samples were between ~75 and ~244 cfu mL–1 and was in compliance with the USEPA limit of 500 cfu mL–1. However, the coliform count was in the range of 40.6 to 14017, and was above the standard limits set for drinking use. All the water samples also showed positive presence of Enterococcus spp., Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Vibrio spp. The physicochemical analysis confirms that the water temperature (26–27 C), pH (7.5–7.8), electrical conductivity (108–113 µS cm–1), total dissolved solids (53–55 ppm), total hardness (42–43 ppm), total alkalinity (11–11.5 ppm), chloride (0.9–1.8 ppm) and dissolved oxygen (4.1–4.8 ppm) were within the limits of the guideline values. The concentrations (mg L–1) of toxic metal-species, e.g., lead (4.025–5.128), cadmium (0.008–0.020) and nickel (0.199–0.288) were found to be higher than the recommended regulatory limits, while the contents of copper (0.099–0.301), manganese (0.179–0.291) and zinc (1.989–2.278) were within the acceptable range. The findings from our work indicate that the water of KL is unsuitable for drinking use in terms of bacteriological and metal characteristics and might pose a long-term health risk to its consumers. Keywords: Kaptai Lake; Drinking water; Water quality; Coliform; Toxic metal
or not in terms of drinking, safety of human contact, and for the health of ecosystems (Schleiger, 2000). Water-borne diseases are responsible for emerging and recurring infectious diseases worldwide, whereas about 80% of the public health problems have been caused from contaminated water (Marshall et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2007; O'Reilly et al., 2007; Peace and Mazumder, 2007; Jayana et al., 2009). Water contaminated with pathogenic bacteria is the potential carrier for transferring various infectious diseases to human (Sadeghi et al., 2007). Cholera, salmonellosis and shigellosis are the most common gastrointestinal diseases transmitted through water that is contaminated with feces of patients (Cabral, 2010). Drinking water should be free from turbidity,
1. INTRODUCTION The freshwater resources, consisting only 3% of the entire water reserve of the earth (Wilson and Carpenter, 1999), has been an important component of the biosphere as well as an essential element to ensure the sustenance of living beings (Jackson et al., 2001). The freshwater resources become inadequately renewable due to the exponential growth of human population, extensive urbanization, rapid industrialization and intensive agriculture practices (Fischer and Heilig, 1997; Douglas et al., 2002; Dale et al., 2005; Grimm et al., 2008). Water quality, which represents the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water, tells whether water is polluted 31
Barua et al. Bacteriological and Physicochemical Characteristics of Kaptai Lake Water in Terms of Public Health Significance
color, odor, as well as disease-causing organic and inorganic substances that may cause adverse physiological effects (Bhatt et al., 1999). In Bangladesh, especially in the marginal locations, safe source of drinking water supply is limited and the population depends on the tubewell, pond, lakes, etc. Tube-well exploited the underground water and labeled as a safer source of drinking water until a large-scale geogenic arsenic-contamination is reported. On the other hand, the biggest obstacle of consuming surface water for the potable purpose is its possibility of exposure to pathogenic bacteria (Rahman et al., 2003; 2011a; 2011b; 2013). Kaptai Lake (KL) located in the district of Rangamati and 68.5 km away from Chittagong metropolitan city, is the largest man-made reservoir in South-east Asia. The lake was created during the construction of a dam on the Karnaphuli River, which is flowing in the southeastern part of Bangladesh, for generating hydroelectricity (Fernando, 1980; Karmakar et al., 2011). As a consequence of the dam construction and creation of the lake, a large hilly area was submerged resulting in massive changes in the ecosystem (Newman, 1974). The indigenous population was also forced to move in more hilly places or the small islands formed within the lake. All the people living surrounding the lake becomes dependent on the lake water to meet the requirement of drinking, domestic or other purposes and the consumption is done without any intermediate processing (Ahmed et al., 2001; Chakma, 2008). The objective of our current work is to evaluate the quality of KL water in terms of drinking water standards. The water of KL has been studied before to assess the
biodiversity of flora and fauna as well as the fish cultures (Chowdhury and Mazumder, 1981; Alam et al., 2006). However, to the best of our knowledge, the assessment of KL water regarding drinking standards correlating the health risks to the people due to water consumption for the potable purpose is not addressed before. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Collection of Water Samples The KL is situated in the southeastern part of Bangladesh, occupying an average surface area of 58300 ha with a water reserve of 525 × 106 m3 (Uddin et al., 2014). Water samples were collected from seven spots [Bashwar Tila (KL 1), Raikhon Mukh (KL 2), Rainchon Bazar (KL 3), Middle of Rainchon Bazar and Bridge Ghat (KL 4), Bridge Ghat (KL 5), Bikasher Tila (KL 6) and Bachnir Tila Jele para (KL 7)] and the spots were selected based on the water collection points of the inhabitants of the lake (Figure 1). The water samples were collected in March 2015 at the end of winter season. Samples for microbiological analysis were collected in sterile sampling bottles, placed in sampling buckets containing ice blocks to maintain a 2–8 C temperature, transported to the laboratory within 3–6 h of collection and preserved at 4 C until analysis. The samples for physicochemical and metal analyses were collected in clean high-density polyethylene screw-capped bottles.
Fig. 1: Map of Kaptai lake and the sampling locations (Source: Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh)
32
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 4(2), pp. 0031-0039, 2016
cultures were streaked on M-Enterococcus agar base for Enterococcus spp., bismuth-sulphite agar for Salmonella spp., cetrimide agar for Pseudomonas spp. and thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose agar for Vibrio spp. The visible colonies from the plates were transferred to nutrient agar slants and further investigated for identification. The selected colonies were then subjected to microscopic observation, standard biochemical tests and identified according to the Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology (Buchanan and Gibbons, 1974). All the experiments were performed in triplicates. The media used for microbiological analysis were purchased from HiMedia (Mumbai, India).
2.2. Microbiological Analysis To assess the microbiological characteristics of the KL water, tests for the heterotrophic plate count (HPC) and total coliform count (TCC) as well as the analysis to check the presence of some selected pathogenic bacteria were conducted. The HPC was done by the standard pour plate technique and the Most Probable Number (MPN) method was followed for TCC (Dubey and Maheshwari, 2011). The 0.1, 1, 10 mL water samples were inoculated into the lactose broth medium and double-strength medium was used for 10 mL sample. After incubation at 37 C for 24 h, lactose broth containing Durham tubes were observed for any gas production. The tubes with the positive gas production were further tested to confirm the presence of coliform by streaking on eosin methylene blue (EMB) agar media. When bacterial growth was found on the EMB plate, the culture from EMB plate was inoculated into lactose broth media to assess the acid and gas production. Simultaneously, nutrient agar slants were also streaked on the growth-positive EMB agar plate for staining and biochemical study. The presence of the four selected pathogenic bacteria (Enterococcus spp., Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Vibrio spp.) in the water samples was checked by microscopic, cultural and biochemical analysis. After enrichment of the samples in peptone broth, selective media were used to enhance the growth of the target bacteria and to inhibit the growth of other bacteria. The enriched
2.3. Analysis of Physicochemical Parameters The chemicals and reagents were of analytical grade as used throughout the study and the apparatuses were also within the limit of precise accuracy. The parameters studied to assess the physical and chemical characteristics were temperatures, total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness (TH), total alkalinity (TA), chloride concentration (Cl–) and dissolved oxygen (DO). All the chemicals and reagents used for physico-chemical parameter analysis were from MERCK (Darmstadt, Germany). The analytical techniques used for sample analysis, under the standard protocols as described elsewhere (Clesceri et al., 1998), are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: The standard analytical techniques followed for sample analysis Parameters* TA TH EC TDS Cl– pH DO
Method Titration method EDTA Titrimetric Method Instrumental, Analyzed in situ Instrumental, Analyzed in situ Argentometric titration method pH metry, Instrumental, Analyzed in situ Membrane Electrode Method, Analyzed in situ
Instrument Used – – Combo meter, Model–HI 98129, HANNA, Mauritius. Combo meter, Model–HI 98129, HANNA, Mauritius. – Combo meter, Model–HI 98129, HANNA, Mauritius. DO meter, Model–970, Jenway, England.
*TA, Total Alkalinity; TH, Total Hardness; EC, Electrical conductivity; TDS, Total dissolved solids; Cl–, Chloride; DO, Dissolved oxygen.
Table 2: Respective growth of the isolated microorganisms on selective growth media Sample KL 1 KL 2 KL 3 KL 4 KL 5 KL 6 KL 7
E. coli1 + + + + + + +
Enterococcus spp.2 + + + + + + +
Salmonella spp.3 + + + + + + +
Pseudomonas spp.4 + + + + + + +
Vibrio spp.5 + + + + + + +
‘+’ indicates presence of respective bacteria Growth Media: 1 Eosin Methylene Blue, 2M-Enterococcus agar, 3Bismuth-sulphite agar, 4Cetrimide agar, 5Thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose agar
copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and nickel (Ni). The Agilent 200 series atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA) was used to measure
2.4. Analysis for Metal Concentration The water samples have also been analyzed for the contents of following potentially toxic metal species: 33
Barua et al. Bacteriological and Physicochemical Characteristics of Kaptai Lake Water in Terms of Public Health Significance
the metal contents. The instrument setting and operational conditions were determined in accordance with the specifications from the manufacturer.
(US EPA, 2003). The HPC denotes the total amount of bacteria present in water as well as the microbial load in water (Aksu and Vural, 2004). A lower value of HPC in lake water was also observed in a study on Ahor lake, Ghana (Amfo-Out et al., 2011), which is being used for the recreational purposes. The HPC count of drinking water may vary from <1 to >104 cfu mL–1, which is known to be influenced by water pH, temperature, residual chlorine and incorporable organic matter contents (LeChevallier et al., 1980). However, a high number in HPC count in drinking water does not indicate a significant health risk (Allen et al., 2004).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1. Microbiological Characteristics The lake water samples were analyzed for HPC and MPN indexing to assess the microbiological characteristics that are the important indicator of water quality. All the samples have HPC count within 250 cfu mL–1 (Figure 2), whereas the standard limit of the viable count in drinking water is ~500 cfu mL–1 300
HPC (cfu mL-1)
250 200 150 100 50 0 KL 1
KL 2
KL 3
KL 4
KL 5
KL 6
KL 7
Sampling locations
Fig. 2: Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) of Kaptai lake water sample in colony forming unit per mL (cfu mL–1)
MPN index (100 mL-1)
180 150 120 90 60 30 0 KL 1
KL 2
KL 3
KL 4
KL 5
KL 6
KL 7
Sampling locations
Fig. 3: Coliform presence or the most probable number (MPN) index per 100 mL of Kaptai lake water sample
The TCC is used as indicators of potential contamination by pathogens, viruses or parasites in a water body. The TCC in the water samples using the standard MPN indexing method was found to vary in the range of ~4 to ~140 per 100 mL (Figure 3). According to WHO and Bangladesh EQS, the TCC should be 0 per 100 mL of drinking water. All the KL water samples were found to be coliform positive and, hence, is potentially dangerous for human
consumption. Some of the inhabitants live in proximity use the KL as dumping sites for human and animal feces and thus contaminate the water. Naturally, 102–104 fold more thermo-tolerant coliform species contained in per gram of fresh feces of human and animal (Gleeson and Gray, 1997). Water contaminated with these feces can cause disease in infants, young children, elderly people or other severely immune-compromised people. 34
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 4(2), pp. 0031-0039, 2016
To confirm the potential contamination by human pathogens, the presence of several bacterial pathogens, namely Enterococcus spp., Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Vibrio spp., were determined using microscopic, cultural and biochemical tests (Tables 2 and 3). We found that all KL samples were contaminated with the mentioned pathogens. All those pathogens are responsible for gastrointestinal problems with the symptoms of diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, fever, abdominal pain, etc., and also the major etiological agents of many waterborne outbreaks (Craun et al., 2006). Human waste, wildlife excretes, fishing activities, people bathing with skin lesions, etc. are the possible sources of contamination of the isolated pathogens. It was documented that storm events and stream flow events are also responsible for contamination of lake water by these pathogens (Jamieson et al., 2005). However, the types and occurrence of disease in the dwellers near KL were not recorded. Our data indicates that the KL water is contaminated with pathogenic bacteria
and therefore, the lake water is unsuitable for drinking and household use. 3.2. Physicochemical Characteristics The values of pH, EC, TDS, TH, TA, Cl– and DO of KL water are found within the permissible range of regulatory limits (Table 4). The water-TH, indicative of the capacity of water to react with soap, is due to the dissolved polyvalent metallic ions from sedimentary rocks, seepage and runoff from soils. The water having a TH value of greater than 500 ppm is considered as aesthetically unacceptable. There is no convincing evidence of adverse health effects in human due to water-TH, while different epidemiological studies suggested its positive impact against various diseases, e.g., cardiovascular disease (Masironi et al., 1979; Leoni et al., 1985; Smith and Crombie, 1987; Dzik, 1989). Hence, the lower value of water-TH in KL indicates the possibility of an adverse impact on the health of the consumers.
Table 3: Biochemical properties of the isolated microorganisms from Kaptai lake water Biochemical property Microscopic shape Gram staining Motility Catalase Oxidase Methyl Red (MR) Voges-Proskauer (VP) Indole Citrate Urease H2S production Glucose Lactose Manitol Sucrose
E. coli Enterococcus spp. Salmonella spp. Pseudomonas spp. Rods Cocci Rods Rods Negative Positive Negative Negative Motile Non motile Motile Motile Positive Negative Positive Positive Negative Negative Negative Positive Positive – Positive Negative Negative Positive Negative Negative Positive Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Positive Positive Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Positive Negative Positive Positive Positive Negative Positive Positive Negative Negative Positive Positive Positive Positive Variable Positive Negative Negative ‘–’ indicates that the test was not done, as MR is not referred for gram-positive bacteria
Vibrio spp. Rods Negative Motile Positive Positive Negative Negative Positive Positive Negative Negative Positive Negative Positive Positive
Table 4: Physicochemical parameters (meanSD) of Kaptai lake water Sample code KL 1 KL 2 KL 3 KL 4 KL 5 KL 6 KL 7 Standard value*
Temp. C 270.5 260.5 270.5 270.5 280.6 270.5 270.5 20–30
pH 7.690.09 7.750.10 7.650.08 7.740.10 7.760.09 7.750.07 7.460.09 6.5–8.5
EC µS cm–1 1131.5 1122.4 1121.7 1081.3 1121.5 1102.1 1101.4 700–3000
TDS ppm 54.60.62 53.50.59 53.60.51 53.30.71 53.40.56 52.50.53 54.10.68 1000
TH ppm 430.36 430.46 420.58 420.45 420.55 420.41 420.49 200–500
TA ppm 11.50.19 11.00.23 11.30.21 11.30.25 11.00.20 11.50.27 11.00.28 <20
Cl– ppm 1.780.31 0.900.16 1.330.23 1.330.19 1.330.15 1.330.12 1.330.21 150–600
DO ppm 4.20.27 4.30.24 4.80.31 4.80.29 4.80.35 4.10.26 4.40.28 6.0
*Ahmed and Rahman (2000) **TA, Total Alkalinity; TH, Total Hardness; EC, Electrical conductivity; TDS, Total dissolved solids; Cl –, Chloride; DO, Dissolved oxygen
The water-EC is a measure of the ionic activity and contents of dissolved ions in a water-body in a proportional perspective. The water-TDS is used to describe the contents of inorganic salts and soluble organic matter as originated from natural sources,
sewage, urban and agricultural run-off, or industrial wastewater (WHO/UNEP and GEMS, 1989). A water-TDS value less than 900 ppm is fairly acceptable to the consumers regarding palatability of drinking-water (Bruvold and Ongerth, 1969; WHO, 35
Barua et al. Bacteriological and Physicochemical Characteristics of Kaptai Lake Water in Terms of Public Health Significance
2003a). There is no health-based guideline value proposed for water-TDS, because it is more of an aesthetic rather than a health hazard (WHO, 2003a). Chlorides are widely distributed in natural waterbodies as salts of sodium, potassium, or calcium. A 45 mg daily intake of chloride is sufficient for children, while the recommended limit for an adult is 9 mg (Wesson et al., 1969). A detectable taste can be felt if the concentration of chloride exceeds 250 ppm, but it happens mostly due to associated cations. There are no available health specific guidelines for chloride in drinking water (WHO, 2003b). The water-pH is an indicator of hydrogen ion concentration in the water and it is controlled by the carbon dioxide–bicarbonate–carbonate equilibrium system in the natural water. The water temperature
causes a lowering in pH with an increase in the temperature. The recommended range for water-pH to be consumed for drinking is between 6.5 and 8.5 (WHO, 2007). The water-pH of KL is in the range of 7.46 to 7.75 and within the acceptable range. The water-TA is a measure of buffering capacity or ability to react with strong acids at a designated pH and can render unpalatable taste to water. However, the waterTA observed in KL samples are within the acceptable limit. The DO, which is an imperative regulator of chemical processes and biological activity within a water-body and inversely affected due to the watertemperature, might influence the odor, clarity and taste of water. The water-DO in KL is in between 4.1 and 4.8 and below the recommended guideline values.
Table 5: Heavy metal concentration (mg L–1; meanSD) in Kaptai lake water Sample KL 1 KL 2 KL 3 KL 4 KL 5 KL 6 KL 7 *Standard value (Bangladesh) *Standard value (WHO)
Cu
Mn
Zn
Pb
Cd
Ni
0.2110.057 0.2310.062 0.0990.026 0.2500.067 0.2610.070 0.1940.052 0.3010.081 1 2
0.2300.032 0.2400.033 0.1790.024 0.2410.033 0.2590.036 0.2110.029 0.2910.040 0.1 0.4
2.0010.103 2.0190.104 2.0980.108 1.9890.103 2.2130.114 2.0030.103 2.2780.118 5 3
4.1230.428 4.9830.517 4.0990.426 5.0090.520 5.1280.533 4.0250.418 5.0780.527 0.05 0.01
0.0100.004 0.0200.007 0.0080.003 0.0090.003 0.0100.004 0.0090.003 0.0110.004 0.005 0.003
0.2020.027 0.2130.028 0.1990.026 0.2190.029 0.2210.029 0.2010.026 0.2880.038 0.10 0.02
*BBS and UNICEF (2011)
carcinogenicity due to Ni was reported in several studies (Fernando, 1980; WHO, 2004; Wuana and Okieimen, 2011).
3.3. Concentration of Metals The assessment of metal concentrations in KL water indicates an acceptable presence of Cu, Mn and Zn, a moderately increased content of Cd and Ni, and an excessively higher Pb content (Table 5). The sources for Pb in lake waters is attributed to various causes, which includes agricultural discharge, spilling of leaded petrol, discharge from lead–acid battery, burning of fuels, military activities, etc. (Makokha et al., 2008; Wuana and Okieimen, 2011; Van der Kuijp et al., 2013). In KL, petrol boats are commonly used for fishing and transportation of local people living in the marginal areas and islands within the lake and can be a source of spilled leaded petrol. The people in islands also use the lead-acid battery as a primary source of power supply. Gasoline and coals used in nearby highways can be the source of Pb via leaching to lake water through soil discharge. Military activities are carried out intermittently either the inner or outer region of KL, which can contribute to Pbintrusion in the lake water. A higher Pb-concentration can cause brain, nerve and kidney damage in children, digestive disturbances, blood disorders, and hypertension (Wuana and Okieimen, 2011). Damage in the kidney due to Cd, skin allergy and
4. CONCLUSION The inhabitants of marginal areas and islands within the vicinity of KL consume the lake water for drinking without any intermediate purifying process. In our study, we have compared the water-quality of KL in terms of microbiological, physico-chemical and metal standards set for drinking purpose use of any water-body. The overall water-quality indicates the unsuitability of lake water for drinking use, and a prolonged consumption might cause significant health problems to the indigenous communities dependent on the lake water. Hence, the government should take necessary steps to increase awareness among the people and provide clean water for the community living in this area. Acknowledgment The authors acknowledge the contribution of M. Mazharul Islam, Assistant professor, Department of Soil science, University of Chittagong for his help in 36
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 4(2), pp. 0031-0039, 2016
metal analysis and of M. Easin Arfat, Department of Microbiology, University of Chittagong for his support in field work.
Bangladesh. CHT Indigenous Jumma Association Australia, Australia. Chowdhury S, Mazumder A (1981). Limnology of lake Kaptai. I. Physicochemical features. Bangladesh Journal of Zoology, 9: 59–72. Clesceri LS, Greenberg AE, Eaton AD (1998). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. APHA-AWWA-WEF [APHAAmerican Public Health Association, AWWAAmerican Water Works Association, WEFWater Environment Federation], Washington, D.C. Craun MF, Craun GF, Calderon RL, Beach MJ (2006). Waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States. Journal of Water and Health, 4: 19–30. Dale V, Archer S, Chang M, Ojima D (2005). Ecological impacts and mitigation strategies for rural land management. Ecological Applications, 15: 1879–1892. Douglas I, Hodgson R, Lawson N (2002). Industry, environment and health through 200 years in Manchester. Ecological Economics, 41: 235– 255. Dubey RC, Maheshwari DK (2011). Practical Microbiology. S. Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi, India. Dzik AJ (1989). Cerebrovascular disease mortality rates and water hardness in North Dakota. South Dakota Journal of Medicine, 42: 5–7. Fernando C (1980). The fishery potential of manmade lakes in Southeast Asia and some strategies for its optimization. In: Soerianegara, S (Ed.). Biological Resource Management for Economic Development in Southeast Asia. BIOTROP Special Publication, Indonesia, pp. 25–38. Fischer G, Heilig GK (1997). Population momentum and the demand on land and water resources. In: Greenland, DJ, Gregory, PJ, Nye, PH (Eds.). Land Resources: On the Edge of the Malthusian Precipice? CAB International, Wallingford, England, pp. 9–29. Gleeson C, Gray NF (1997). The Coliform Index and Waterborne Disease. E & FN SPON, London; New York. Grimm NB, Grove JM, Pickett STA, Redman CL (2008). Integrated approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological systems. In: Marzluff, JM, Shulenberger, E, Endlicher, W, Alberti, M, Bradley, G, Ryan, C, Simon, U, ZumBrunnen, C (Eds.). Urban Ecology. Springer US, pp. 123–141. Jackson RB, Carpenter SR, Dahm CN, McKnight DM, Naiman RJ, Postel SL, Running SW
REFERENCES Ahmed KKU, Hambrey JB, Rahman S (2001). Trends in interannual yield variation of reservoir fisheries in Bangladesh, with special reference to Indian major carps. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management 6: 85–94. Ahmed MF, Rahman MM (Eds.) (2000). Water Supply & Sanitation: Rural and Low Income Urban Communities. ITN-Bangladesh, Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Aksu H, Vural A (2004). Evaluation of microbiological risks in drinking water. Tesisat, 98: 120–131. Alam MJ, Islam M, Sharmin R, Iqbal M, Chowduray M, Munna G (2006). Impact assessment due to rural electrification in hill tract of Bangladesh for sustainable development. International Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, 3: 391–402. Allen MJ, Edberg SC, Reasoner DJ (2004). Heterotrophic plate count bacteria—what is their significance in drinking water? International Journal of Food Microbiology, 92: 265–274. Amfo-Out R, Wiafe ED, Kocke BB (2011). Assessment of water quality in Ahor Lake – Ghana. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 5: 1093–1099. BBS, UNICEF (2011). Bangladesh National Drinking Water Quality Survey of 2009 (http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/BNDWQS_ 2009_web.pdf). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics and UNICEF, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bhatt L, Lacoul P, Lekhak H, Jha P (1999). Physicochemical characteristics and phytoplanktons of Taudaha lake, Kathmandu. Pollution Research, 18: 353–358. Bruvold WH, Ongerth HJ (1969). Taste quality of mineralized water. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 61: 170–174. Buchanan RE, Gibbons NR (1974). Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. Cabral JP (2010). Water microbiology. Bacterial pathogens and water. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7: 3657–3703. Chakma K (2008). Proposal for Improving Water, Sanitation, Health and the Environment of the Kaptai Lake Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), 37
Barua et al. Bacteriological and Physicochemical Characteristics of Kaptai Lake Water in Terms of Public Health Significance
(2001). Water in a changing world. Ecological Applications, 11: 1027–1045. Jamieson R, Joy DM, Lee H, Kostaschuk R, Gordon R (2005). Transport and deposition of sedimentassociated Escherichia coli in natural streams. Water Research, 39: 2665–2675. Jayana BL, Prasai T, Singh A, Yami KD (2009). Assessment of drinking water quality of madhyapur-thimi and study of antibiotic sensitivity against bacterial isolates. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology, 10: 167– 172. Jones AQ, Majowicz SE, Edge VL, Thomas MK, MacDougall L, Fyfe M, Atashband S, Kovacs SJ (2007). Drinking water consumption patterns in British Columbia: An investigation of associations with demographic factors and acute gastrointestinal illness. Science of the Total Environment, 388: 54–65. Karmakar S, Sirajul Haque SM, Mozaffar Hossain M, Shafiq M (2011). Water quality of Kaptai reservoir in Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. Journal of Forestry Research, 22: 87–92. LeChevallier MW, Seidler RJ, Evans T (1980). Enumeration and characterization of standard plate count bacteria in chlorinated and raw water supplies. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 40: 922–930. Leoni V, Fabiani L, Ticchiarelli L (1985). Water hardness and cardiovascular mortality rate in Abruzzo, Italy. Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal, 40: 274–278. Makokha AO, Mghweno LR, Magoha HS, Nakajugo A, Wekesa JM (2008). Environmental lead pollution and contamination in food around Lake Victoria, Kisumu, Kenya. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2: 349–353. Marshall JK, Thabane M, Garg AX, Clark WF, Salvadori M, Collins SM (2006). Incidence and epidemiology of irritable bowel syndrome after a large waterborne outbreak of bacterial dysentery. Gastroenterology, 131: 445–450. Masironi R, Piša Z, Clayton D (1979). Myocardial infarction and water hardness in the WHO myocardial infarction registry network. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 57: 291–299. Newman P (1974). Environmental impact. Part I. Development of a semi-quantitatie parameter and its implications. Journal of Environmental Systems, 4: 97–108. O'Reilly CE, Bowen AB, Perez NE, Sarisky JP, Shepherd CA, Miller MD, Hubbard BC, Herring M, Buchanan SD, Fitzgerald CC, Hill V, Arrowood MJ, Xiao LX, Hoekstra RM, Mintz
ED, Lynch MF, Group OW (2007). A waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis with multiple etiologies among resort island visitors and residents: Ohio, 2004. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 44: 506–512. Peace T, Mazumder A (2007). Tracking patterns of enteric illnesses in populations and communities. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115: 58–64. Rahman IMM, Majid MA, Nazimuddin M, Huda ASMS (2003). Status of arsenic in groundwater of some selected areas of Chittagong district. The Chittagong University Journal of Science, 27: 7–12. Rahman IMM, Begum ZA, Nakano M, Furusho Y, Maki T, Hasegawa H (2011a). Selective separation of arsenic species from aqueous solutions with immobilized macrocyclic material containing solid phase extraction columns. Chemosphere, 82: 549–556. Rahman IMM, Islam MM, Hossain MM, Hossain MS, Begum ZA, Chowdhury DA, Chakraborty MK, Rahman MA, Nazimuddin M, Hasegawa H (2011b). Stagnant surface water bodies (SSWBs) as an alternative water resource for the Chittagong metropolitan area of Bangladesh: physicochemical characterization in terms of water quality indices. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 173: 669–684. Rahman IMM, Begum ZA, Sawai H, Maki T, Hasegawa H (2013). Decontamination of spent iron-oxide coated sand from filters used in arsenic removal. Chemosphere, 92: 196–200. Sadeghi G, Mohammadian M, Nourani M, Peyda M, Eslami A (2007). Microbiological quality assessment of rural drinking water supplies in Iran. Journal of Agriculture & Social Sciences, 3: 31–33. Schleiger SL (2000). Use of an index of biotic integrity to detect effects of land uses on stream fish communities in west-central Georgia. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 129: 1118–1133. Smith WC, Crombie IK (1987). Coronary heart disease and water hardness in Scotland–is there a relationship? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 41: 227–228. Uddin K, Islam A, Basak S, Rahman M, Bashar M, Mahmud Y (2014). Species composition and abundance of fishes in the brush shelter fishery of kaptai lake. Bangladesh Research Publications Journal, 10: 233–237. US EPA (2003). List of drinking water contaminants and maximum contaminant levels (EPA 816-F03-016). United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. 38
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 4(2), pp. 0031-0039, 2016
Van der Kuijp TJ, Huang L, Cherry CR (2013). Health hazards of China’s lead-acid battery industry: A review of its market drivers, production processes, and health impacts. Environmental Health, 12: 61. Wesson LG, Erslev AJ, Mulrow PJ, Goffinet JA (1969). Physiology of the Human Kidney. Grune & Stratton, New York. WHO (2003a). Total dissolved solids in drinkingwater–Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality (WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/16). World Health Organization, Geneva. WHO (2003b). Chloride in drinking-water– Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality (WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/03). World Health Organization, Geneva.
WHO (2004). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva. WHO (2007). pH in drinking-water–Revised background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality (WHO/SDE/WSH/07.01/1). World Health Organization, Geneva. WHO/UNEP, GEMS (1989). Global Freshwater Quality. Alden Press, Oxford. Wilson MA, Carpenter SR (1999). Economic valuation of freshwater ecosystem services in the United States: 1971–1997. Ecological Applications, 9: 772–783. Wuana RA, Okieimen FE (2011). Heavy metals in contaminated soils: A review of sources, chemistry, risks and best available strategies for remediation. ISRN Ecology 2011.
39
Barua et al. Bacteriological and Physicochemical Characteristics of Kaptai Lake Water in Terms of Public Health Significance
Mr. Rasel Barua is a Lecturer at the Department of Microbiology, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. He has achieved his honors and master’s degree in microbiology from the same department. He is interested in the study of metal toxicity on microorganisms.
Mr. Suman Barua is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Applied and Environmental Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. He received Monbukagakusho fellowship (2015–2018) for doctoral study at Kanazawa University, Japan with Dr. Hiroshi Hasegawa in the field of environmental analytical chemistry.
Ms. Fatema-Tuz-Zohora is a master’s student in the Department of Microbiology, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. She completed her honors degree securing the highest GPA in her class. She also received the NST fellowship 2015 from the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of Bangladesh.
Mr. Rajesh Mutsuddi is a research student of the M.Phil. course in the Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, and working with Dr. Ismail M. M. Rahman. He has completed his honors and master’s degree from the same department. He is interested in the research of waste management.
Dr. Mohammad Seraj Uddin is serving as an Associate Professor at the Department of Microbiology, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. He received his PhD degree in 2013 from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA. Currently, he is working on controlling of diseases that are spreading through microorganisms.
Dr. Hiroshi Hasegawa is currently working as a Professor at the Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Japan. He received his D.Sc. degree in 1997 from Kyoto University, Japan. His research specialties are hydrosphere chemistry, analytical chemistry, and environmental dynamic analysis.
Dr. Ismail M.M. Rahman is currently working as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan. He received his Ph.D. degree in 2011 from Kanazawa University, Japan. His research interest includes study on the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere.
