ELEMENTS OF THE GOTHIC IN MELVILLE AND ... - Open Collections

ELEMENTS OF THE GOTHIC I N M E L V I L L E AND CONRAD by PENELOPE L E E CONNELL B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ,

1968

A T H E S I S SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILMENT

OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Master o f Arts i n t h e Department o f English

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e required

standard

THE UNIVERSITY

OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA

August,

1969

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ABSTRACT T h i s t h e s i s h a s two p u r p o s e s . the gradual ily

transformation

those of the v e i l

original their

of

i s to

certain Gothic t r a i t s ,

and t h e D o p p e l g a n g e r .

Moby-Dick.

by J o s e p h C o n r a d .

The s e c o n d

L o r d J i m . The S e c r e t S h a r e r ,

i n t e r m s o f G o t h i c i s m , and by t h i s strengthen

from t h e i r

successful

have r e s u l t e d

i s to

interpret

and B e n i t o

Cereno

and t o

from the a u t h o r s '

in their

to

i n d i c a t e how careful

attempts t o h i d e from t h e i r c r i t i c s the

and d i l e m m a s

of

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n both

some common i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

c e r t a i n others

trace

primar-

f o r m i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l G o t h i c t o t h e manner

use

Beliefs

The f i r s t

and

moral

works.

When C o l e r i d g e w r o t e t h e R i m e , he was i n t r o d u c i n g a new and v e r y i m p o r t a n t sea.

setting

into Gothic l i t e r a t u r e :

Because of t h e f o r m l e s s n e s s of t h e sea,

suddenness of i t s icious killer, imaginable

unknowns, i t

purposes i n Moby-Dick. quaintance

because of

change i n appearance from s e r e n i t y

and b e c a u s e i t s is

glassy surface hides

the

to malun-

obviously w e l l - s u i t e d to M e l v i l l e ' s

He makes u s e

of his readers'

w i t h G o t h i c t a l e s i n p o r t r a y i n g Ahab and

who s t r u g g l e f o r

the

self-knowledge

by f a c i n g t h e s e a

acIshmael,

and

its

terrors. In Lord Jim. t h e unseen

C o n r a d u s e s t h e same i n i t i a l

agent o f d e s t r u c t i o n

from J i m ' s l i f e ,

and p r o m p t s

which takes a l l

situation: security

i n him a quest l i k e t h a t

of

the

A n c i e n t M a r i n e r o r the Wandering veil

Jew.

He

e x i s t s behind a

w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s , as i t does i n Moby-Dick, B e n i t o

Cereno.

and most G o t h i c n o v e l s , t h e i n a b i l i t y

to

m o r a l i s s u e s and a c t a c c o r d i n g t o p e r s o n a l m o r a l

clarify beliefs.

This moral ambiguity i s o f t e n phrased i n other terms, namely t h e d u a l i t y o f b e i n g , t h e "good"-"bad" w h e r e two

dichotomy,

a s p e c t s o f t h e same p e r s o n a r e o f t e n s e p a r a t e d by

a v e i l o f some s o r t ; t h i s c a n be s e e n i n s u c h s t o r i e s Stevenson's Dr. J e k v l l

and Mr. H y d e . W i l d e ' s D o r i a n G r a y ,

and P o e ' s W i l l i a m W i l s o n . Secret Sharer. s h o w i n g how

as

I t i s also the case w i t h

I n t h i s s t o r y , C o n r a d makes a p o i n t

The of

t h e m o r a l dilemma w h i c h L e g g a t t ' s p r e s e n c e

e v o k e s i s d e a l t w i t h by t h e c a p t a i n — b u t n o t , I f e e l , the captain's

to

credit.

The v e i l

and t h e d o u b l e m o t i f s i n t h e s e

stories

r e v e a l an i n t e r e s t i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ; t h o u g h i n e a r l y G o t h i c t h e y a r e l i t t l e more t h a n p l o t d e v i c e s , t h e y become i n C o n rad c e n t r a l concerns, through which the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of h i s s t o r i e s may

be e f f e c t e d .

Thus, as I have t r i e d

show, G o t h i c i s m , f a r f r o m b e i n g a m i n o r and

to

short—lived

t y p e o f f i c t i o n which d i e d out i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e last

c e n t u r y , e x e r t s a p o t e n t and c e n t r a l i n f l u e n c e i n s u c h

l i t e r a t u r e a s M e l v i l l e ' s and

Conrad's.

"As f a r back as 1927," says D. P. Varma i n h i s book The

Gothic Flame. Michael S a d l e i r r a i s e d a p e r t i n e n t question: It remains t o i n q u i r e where, when i t s great days were over, the G o t h i c romance took r e f u g e . T h i s quest i o n s t i l l remains unanswered.! f

1

Thus r a i s e d again, the problem o f what happened to Gothic l i t e r a t u r e can now

be seen as more important

than ever, f o r

modern c r i t i c s have awakened to the f a c t t h a t the t r a d i t i o n was did

not born o f the whim of Horace Walpole, nor

i t e x i s t merely to g r a t i f y the t r a n s i t o r y p l e a s u r e o f

the u n l e t t e r e d p u b l i c .

W r i t e r s o f Gothic l i t e r a t u r e

lowed a t r e n d , c e r t a i n l y ; but i t was u l a r t a s t e ; r a t h e r i t was of

Gothic

fol-

not the t r e n d o f pop-

the next step i n the e v o l u t i o n

l i t e r a t u r e — a r e v o l t from what had

gone b e f o r e , an

p l o r a t i o n of emotion and the senses i n a new e x p r e s s i o n of a r t i n a comparatively

new,

way,

ex-

and

different,

the and

t h e r e f o r e more e f f e c t i v e medium—the n o v e l . The c e n t r a l a t t r i b u t e of the Gothic i s c o n t r a s t — a n obvious The

statement, but one i m p l y i n g tremendous p o t e n t i a l .

reasons

f o r t h i s dichotomy a r e f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .

F i r s t o f a l l , the Gothic i s a r e j e c t i o n o f the n e o c l a s s i c t r a d i t i o n , with i t s b e l i e f i n the p e r f e c t i b i l i t y o f man, u l t i m a t e t r u t h of reason,

the e x i s t e n c e of a r e a s o n i n g

t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f the u n i v e r s e , and In the works of the "graveyard

s c h o o l " o f poets,

so

the God,

forth.

a l l these

assumptions begin t o be undermined:

most important,

death

a c q u i r e s a p o w e r — - i m p l i c i t i n i t s "unknown" q u a l i t y — w h i c h i s s t r o n g e r than f a i t h o r reason.

And

as soon as these

a b s t r a c t s are questioned, the magnitude o f man to

the u n i v e r s e i s r e v e r s e d .

two

in relation

T h i s appears t o be both a

p l e a s i n g and a f r i g h t e n i n g t h i n g , s i n c e i t not o n l y f r e e s man

of a l l s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , but a l s o reduces h i s cap-

a c i t y t o c o n t r o l h i s own still

fate.

The f i r s t G o t h i c w r i t e r s ,

of course l i v i n g i n a n e o c l a s s i c age,

imagined

situa-

t i o n s i n which, although chaos had a p p a r e n t l y r e p l a c e d o r d e r , t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s n e v e r t h e l e s s were a b l e t o overcome the known i n the name of goodness, truth , e t c . -

itself,

The very unknown

i n f a c t , was made t o be an agent o f r i g h t

Moral purpose i s always o f g r e a t importance

un-

reason.

i n the G o t h i c ,

but nowhere so much as i n the e a r l y p a r t o f the t r a d i t i o n , where no a c t i o n o r o c c u r r e n c e — d o w n t o the very not operate f o r moral

purposes.

Thus t h e dichotomy was ficial

thing.

ghost—s»does

a t f i r s t very much a super-

The presence o f a v i l l a i n presupposed

t h a t of

a hero, the f i r s t embodying a l l v i c e and the o t h e r a l l v i r t u e i n the same way,

the haunted c a s t l e and the i d y l l i c

landscape

e x i s t e d t o g e t h e r , as d i d the n a t u r a l and the s u p e r n a t u r a l , t h e v e i l and t h e r e a l i t y behind i t .

As the genre

however, i t became more d i f f u s e and more s u b t l e .

developed, Main themes

l i k e the t r u n k s o f t r e e s i n a f o r e s t , grew branches t h e twigs i n t e r t w i n e d i n s e p a r a b l y .

o f which

To take a simple example,

3 t h e h e r o - v i l l a i n dichotomy t h e unsympathetic or his

the man

became confused, b l e n d i n g i n t o

but r i g h t e o u s man,

the p a t h e t i c

evil-doer,

of mystery whose crimes b r i n g h i m s e l f t o r u i n

v i c t i m s to t h e i r r i g h t f u l p l a c e i n s o c i e t y .

and

And,

Although the B y r o n i c Hero bears a s t r o n g p h y s i c a l resemblance to Mrs. R a d c l i f f e s Gothic V i l l a i n s , he has been ensouled and humanized, and t h i s i s a crucial difference.2 f

These i n d e f i n a b l e shadings are a l s o p s y c h o l o g i c a l , f o r the f i g u r e s who

emerged were such as the B y r o n i c hero and the

J e k y l l - H y d e doubles who

have abounded i n l i t e r a t u r e ever

since. In

a sense, t h e G o t h i c can be s a i d t o have been con-

s c i o u s l y developed as a form, because

the v a r i o u s themes and

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which we t h i n k o f as Gothic were added, a few a t a time, t o produce c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s .

The

main i n g r e d i e n t s — t h e m e , s e t t i n g , c h a r a c t e r s , and mood—were e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e f i r s t major w r i t e r s , Walpole and Ann cliffe. response. first

L a t e r , refinements were added t o sharpen

Rad-

emotional

The l a b y r i n t h image, f o r example, suggested a t

the m o t i f s o f escape, imprisonment,

and f e a r of the

unknown; l a t e r were added the d e t a i l s o f s t i n k i n g corpse and o o z i n g w a l l s t o f u r t h e r induce h o r r o r i n the reader and t o imply t o r t u r e , a f t e r which the m o t i f took on p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s (as i n P o e s The P i t and the Pendulum, where f

he s t r e s s e s e x p l i c i t l y the concept o f mental t o r t u r e ) and

4 added t o i t s canon images o f t h e l a b y r i n t h o f t h e mind o r soul.

T h i s i s not t o say t h a t a l a t e r concept i s not em-

bodied i n an e a r l i e r work; i t i s simply t h a t when Walpole uses the l a b y r i n t h image, he p r o b a b l y does not mean as much as Poe does i n employing t h e same d e v i c e ; Poe has h i s own i m a g i n a t i o n as w e l l as t h e e a r l i e r works t o draw upon. A l l t h i s accounts f o r t h e s t r u c t u r a l c l e f t i n t h e G o t h i c genre from one p e r s p e c t i v e ; t h e r e i s , however, another cause, p r o b a b l y more c e n t r a l than t h e l i t e r a r y which induced t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e G o t h i c .

revolution

T h i s i s t h e sim-

p l e f a c t t h a t i t i s t h e combination o f two e n t i r e l y

different

c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s , one l i t e r a r y and t h e o t h e r not necess a r i l y so.^ The f i r s t i s t h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n o f England, which d u r i n g t h e l a s t h a l f o f t h e E i g h t e e n t h Century was predominantly t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f s e n s i b i l i t y .

Sensibility

i m p l i e s d e l i c a c y o f emotion as a supreme v i r t u e ; c h a r a c t e r s embodying t h i s refinement were t h e h e r o e s — a n d h e r o i n e s — o f this literature.

S e t a g a i n s t a background

o f decorum, t h e i r

r e a c t i o n s were c e n t e r e d i n t h e beauty o f n a t u r e i n i t s g e n t l e r moods and i n t h e m i n u t i a e o f human e x i s t e n c e , t h a t i s , t h e u n i v e r s a l p a r t i c u l a r i z e d and made p e r t i n e n t t o t h e common man r a t h e r than t h e c l a s s i c a l hero.

T h i s background p r o v i d e d

ample m a t e r i a l f o r R a d c l i f f e ' s d e l i c a c y o f treatment; her f i n e a d d i t i o n and h a n d l i n g o f suspense combined w i t h her und e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e methods o f Richardson and h i s s c h o o l made t h e G o t h i c i n her hands a powerful form.

5 The o t h e r c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e came from what E i n o R a i l o c a l l s t h e German G o t h i c , as opposed t o the E n g l i s h Gothic."^ A h i g h l y developed f o l k - l o r e , f u l l o f mystery

and the super-

n a t u r a l , e x i s t e d on the Continent and e s p e c i a l l y i n Germany in

the E i g h t e e n t h Century; i t was

g r a d u a l l y r e v e a l e d to Eng-

l i s h c u l t u r e d u r i n g t h i s time, as p e o p l e began both t o t r a v e l e x t e n s i v e l y i n Europe and t o i n t e r e s t themselves i n i t s l i t t e r a t u r e and t r a d i t i o n s .

Matthew Gregory Lewis, another o f

t h e g r e a t G o t h i c w r i t e r s , t r a n s l a t e d and transposed many German s t o r i e s i n t o E n g l i s h , both u s i n g them i n h i s own and w r i t i n g i n t h e i r s t y l e .

works

He developed horror-romanticism,

t h e g r a p h i c d e t a i l s o f the macabre, i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t e r r o r romanticism, which employs the power o f s u g g e s t i o n r a t h e r than d e s c r i p t i o n t o c r e a t e i t s e f f e c t s .

Lewis i n t r o d u c e d

something more important than the German s t y l e which, p o o r l y , soon degenerated; in

the themes and elements

h i s works, many o f them new

embodied

t o t h e E n g l i s h , transformed

Eighteenth-century l i t e r a t u r e i n t o true Gothic. as the Wandering Jew

used

Such m o t i f s

and the Faust-legend, t o name the most

obvious, became dominant t r a i t s i n the new

genre.

E n g l i s h and German G o t h i c blended e a s i l y simply because they were o p p o s i t e s ; one heightened the e f f e c t o f the o t h e r , and the goal was, sensuous e x p e r i e n c e .

a f t e r a l l , t o t a l empathy and

And the t r a n s i t i o n from

full

melancholy

r e c o l l e c t i o n s induced by s t r o l l i n g through a midnight

grave-

y a r d t o t h e imagined experience o f b e i n g l o c k e d l i v i n g i n t o

6

a c o f f i n was

not a hard one to make.

The Gothic mode was next g e n e r a t i o n , and proved

u t i l i z e d by the Romantics o f the an e x c e l l e n t one w i t h which to

r e - e v a l u a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e and purpose o f man,

a study promp-

t e d by extreme d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t on the p a r t o f t h i n k e r s f e l t t h e impulse to search i n two

d i r e c t i o n s f o r happiness:

e i t h e r "back t o n a t u r e " or forward through mentation

who

s c i e n t i f i c experi-

to an i d e a l o f s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e .

Both these

im-

p u l s e s are m i r r o r e d i n the G o t h i c , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a t e r G o t h i c ; t h e e a r l i e r w r i t e r s , i n c l u d i n g Lewis and M a t u r i n , however, were more i n c l i n e d to subordinate them to t h e i r main design, which seems to have been to p o r t r a y t h e i s o l a t i o n o f

man

from h i s f e l l o w s , f o l l o w e d by the t h w a r t i n g o f h i s d e s i g n s and the f r u s t r a t i o n o f h i s f u t u r e happiness. f r u s t r a t i o n was

Though t h i s

morally j u s t i f i e d , i t often c a r r i e d

overtones

o f p o e t i c i n j u s t i c e ; the r e a d e r i s g i v e n to f e e l t h a t a great man,

be he good or bad,

should be admired f o r h i s greatness-

and mourned a t h i s d o w n f a l l .

T h i s i s the f e e l i n g which 1

b e l i e v e gave r i s e to the s o - c a l l e d B y r o n i c heroes, and mately to the modern heroes,

ulti-

those o f Conrad, Osborne, and

Camus. Xt has commonly been assumed t h a t t h e Gothic genre, which does not seem to be b l e s s e d by any d e a t h l e s s

author,

i s an i n f e r i o r though popular and i n t e r e s t i n g type, which q u i c k l y l o s t a l l p r e t e n t i o n s t o greatness and faded out of s i g h t as. a genre.

Such a b e l i e f i s based on

misapprehension

7 o f the meaning of G o t h i c . d i s c u s s e s t h i s problem:

In The Stones of Venice.

Ruskin

the Gothic

c h a r a c t e r i t s e l f i s made up of many mingled i d e a s , and can c o n s t i t u t e only i n t h e i r union. That i s to say, p o i n t e d arches do not c o n s t i t u t e G o t h i c , nor v a u l t e d r o o f s , nor f l y i n g b u t t r e s s e s , nor grotesque s c u l p t u r e s ; but a l l or some o f these t h i n g s , and many o t h e r t h i n g s w i t h them, when they come together so as t o have l i f e . 5 Thus, to get back to S a d l e i r * s and Varma s statement, f

we

should not be a s k i n g where the Gothic romance has gone, but what has become o f the G o t h i c elements which were so c a r e f u l l y designed to produce c o n t r o l l e d emotional e f f e c t s i n t h e reader.^ In t r u t h , i t i s easy enough to f i n d such m o t i f s as t h e Wandering Jew

and the shadow o r d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y i n most

modern and n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f i c t i o n . ^ made use o f i n a manner which f u l l y

But they are seldom

e x p l o i t s the G o t h i c t r a d -

i t i o n and y e t i s s u b t l e enough t o j u s t i f y t h e i r study t h a t p o i n t of view.

from

Herman M e l v i l l e , f o r one, used the genre

t o a c h i e v e what c o u l d be c a l l e d the masterpiece o f G o t h i c l i t e r a t u r e , Moby-Dick. semi-transformed

T h i s book i s a unique combination

of

m o t i f s , s t i l l v i s i b l y G o t h i c , but at times

t r a n s c e n d i n g any l i t e r a r y l a b e l .

He wrote the work i n

51, a f t e r h a v i n g o b t a i n e d , i n 1849, O t r a n t o . and Frankenstein.9

1850-

Vathek. The C a s t l e o f

The f a c t t h a t he o b t a i n e d

t h r e e Gothic works t h e y e a r b e f o r e he began Mobv-Dick

these may

p o s s i b l y have some s i g n i f i c a n c e , e s p e c i a l l y coupled w i t h the

8 common knowledge o f t h e e f f e c t on M e l v i l l e o f Hawthorne's w r i t i n g , s i n c e Hawthorne i s i n many ways as " G o t h i c " a w r i t e r as R a d c l i f f e , j i s . I wish then t o c o n s i d e r M e l v i l l e as a Gothic w r i t e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n connection with Mobv-Dick.

Such a study

will

not, however, f u l l y s a t i s f y t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e development o f t h e G o t h i c ; M e l v i l l e d i d not, I f e e l , metamorphose t h e form i n a l l i t s a s p e c t s — r a t h e r he showed how i t c o u l d be done.

I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t o f t h e Gothic i s

myth, t h a t i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s seem t o be a s p e c t s o f myth, and t h a t Joseph Conrad i s one w r i t e r who c a r r i e s t h e G o t h i c to t h i s l i m i t .

The d i s t a n c e between e a r l y G o t h i c w r i t e r s

and Conrad i s , however, very great, and cannot be covered without

some i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p s by

which G o t h i c i s m

developed.

At f i r s t , around t h e t u r n o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h

century,

the elements o f t h e G o t h i c were adopted wholesale by t h e Romantic poets, although they used them f o r v a r i o u s new r e a sons.

Rather than c a t a l o g u e these elements as they appeared

i n t h e age immediately

succeeding t h e G o t h i c , I t h i n k i t

would be more v a l u a b l e t o d i s c u s s them as they were modulated by t h e i r most important

Romantic advocate,

Coleridge."*"^

By

v i r t u e o f both The Rime o f t h e A n c i e n t Mariner and "Kubla Khan," but e s p e c i a l l y t h e Rime. C o l e r i d g e deserves t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f having most t e l l i n g l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e d i r e c t i o n which t h e Gothic would take.

The Rime has e x e r c i s e d immense

9

i n f l u e n c e over a l l the l i t e r a t u r e which f o l l o w e d i t .

I t also

has the v i r t u e , not o n l y o f embodying almost every G o t h i c element, but a l s o o f h a v i n g bound a new

one i n s e p a r a b l y t o

t h e genre; t h i s i s the sea element, which begins i n E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e w i t h Robinson C r u s o e . ^ a work a k i n t o the G o t h i c i n i t s concern w i t h i s o l a t e d man

and moral v a l u e s .

"Trust a

boat on the h i g h seas to b r i n g out the I r r a t i o n a l t h a t

lurks

a t the bottom o f every thought, sentiment, s e n s a t i o n , emot i o n , " says C o n r a d , ^

s t a t i n g s u c c i n c t l y the a r t i s t i c f o u n -

d a t i o n C o l e r i d g e d i s c e r n e d f o r making h i s t a l e a

sea-voyage.

S e t t i n g i s probably the most important o f a l l G o t h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; i t d e f i n e s the atmosphere, p r e d e s t i n e s the a c t i o n s o f the c h a r a c t e r s and even the c h a r a c t e r s themselves, and f o r c e s i s s u e s o f a cosmic n a t u r e by embodying unknown forces.

I t r e p r e s e n t s the r e a l i t y t o be understood and i s

i t s e l f the o b s t a c l e t o be overcome b e f o r e t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g can be reached; i t i s an enigma s u g g e s t i v e o f the e x i s t e n c e and absence o f God.

The sea i s o b v i o u s l y more v i a b l e f o r

t h e s e purposes than the l a n d . ility,

I t i s the i n v e r s i o n of stab-

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the immediate

p o s s i b i l i t y o f death

from unsuspected o r unknown s o u r c e s . There i s , one knows not what sweet mystery about t h i s sea, whose g e n t l y awful s t i r r i n g s seem t o speak o f some hidden s o u l beneath . . . . And meet i t i s , t h a t over t h e s e s e a - p a s t u r e s , w i d e - r o l l i n g watery p r a i r i e s and P o t t e r s F i e l d s o f a l l f o u r c o n t i n e n t s , the waves should r i s e and f a l l , and ebb and f l o w u n c e a s i n g l y ; f o r here, m i l l i o n s o f mixed shades and shadows, drowned dreams, somnambulisms, r e v e r i e s ; 1

10 a l l t h a t we c a l l l i v e s and s o u l s , l i e dreaming, dreaming, s t i l l . . . . The same waves wash the moles o f the new-built C a l i f o r n i a n towns . . . and l a v e the faded but s t i l l gorgeous s k i r t s of A s i a t i c l a n d s , o l d e r than Abraham; w h i l e a l l between f l o a t milky-ways o f c o r a l i s l e s , and lowl y i n g , e n d l e s s , unknown A r c h i p e l a g o e s , and imp e n e t r a b l e Japans. Thus t h i s mysterious, d i v i n e P a c i f i c zones the world's whole bulk about; makes a l l c o a s t s one bay to i t ; seems the t i d e - b e a t i n g h e a r t of earth.13 F u r t h e r , t h e sea can embody both death and t h e o v e r coming o f death—-the

escape i n t o a new

expiate o l d crimes.

Almost

l i f e and the chance to

a l l Gothic heroes are wanderers,

d e p r i v e d of t h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r happiness and s o c i a l a c c e p t ance, i f not a l t o g e t h e r , then a t l e a s t u n t i l they perform a redemptive

a c t o f some d e s c r i p t i o n .

t h e p r o t o t y p e o f t h i s man, burden,

The A n c i e n t Mariner i s

f o r c e d t o bear at f i r s t a t a n g i b l e

u n t i l he l e a r n s the s e c r e t o f h i s r i t u a l

and completes

expiation

the f i r s t a c t o f s e l f - s a l v a t i o n , and

t h e bearer of an i n t a n g i b l e burden,

thereafter

the p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e p r e -

s e n t a t i o n of h i s o r i g i n a l s i n , which o b l i g e s him t o p e r i o d i c a l l y r e - c r e a t e h i s crime and h i s penance i n t o

infinity.

The Mariner i s l u c k y , however ( i f i t can be c a l l e d l u c k ) , to have escapedithe l u r e o f the sea, to be possessed once a g a i n of

a l i f e - w i s h and t o be a b l e to experience some j o y i n h i s

existence.

M e l v i l l e says i n Mobv-Dick t h a t

. . . Death i s o n l y a l a u n c h i n g i n t o the r e g i o n o f the s t r a n g e U n t r i e d ; i t i s but the f i r s t s a l u t a t i o n t o the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of the immense Remote, t h e W i l d , the Watery, the Unshored; t h e r e f o r e , t o t h e d e a t h - l o n g i n g eyes o f such men, who s t i l l have

11 l e f t i n them some i n t e r i o r compunctions a g a i n s t s u i c i d e , does t h e a l l - c o n t r i b u t e d and a l l - r e c e p t i v e ocean a l l u r i n g l y spread f o r t h h i s whole p l a i n o f unimaginable, t a k i n g t e r r o r s , and wonderful, newl i f e adventures; and from t h e h e a r t s o f i n f i n i t e P a c i f i e s , t h e thousand mermaids s i n g t o t h e m — 'Come h i t h e r , broken-hearted; here i s another l i f e without t h e g u i l t o f i n t e r m e d i a t e death; here a r e wonders s u p e r n a t u r a l , without d y i n g f o r them. Come h i t h e r ! bury t h y s e l f i n a l i f e which, t o your now e q u a l l y abhorred and a b h o r r i n g , landed world, i s more o b l i v i o u s than death.' (MD402) The Mariner i s a b l e t o escape t h i s s e d u c t i o n , but only a t great cost to himself.

He almost l o s e s h i s s o u l as do Faust

and Melmoth, but not q u i t e ; i t i s only " a t an u n c e r t a i n hour," every once i n a w h i l e , t h a t he i s possessed by t h e need o f r i t u a l e x p i a t i o n .

H i s crime has not been a p o s i t i v e

o n e — a n i n s a t i a b l e d e s i r e f o r wealth o r p o w e r — b u t a n e g a t i v e o n e — a momentary, unconscious a c t , unpremeditated and i n stantly regretted.

I t i s a crime a g a i n s t l i f e , but not a

d i r e c t a t t a c k on God; t h e r e f o r e i t i s n o t h i s s o u l he f o r f e i t s , but h i s r i g h t t o i n n o c e n t o b l i v i o n . the

The s h o o t i n g o f

a l b a t r o s s i s i d e n t i c a l i n f a c t w i t h Lord Jim's l e a p i n g

from t h e Patna. and both t h e M a r i n e r and J i m pay f o r t h e i r s i n s i n s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r ways. for

I n both cases, t h e reason

t h e a c t i s unknown, c o n s c i o u s l y a t l e a s t , and no explana-

t i o n i s forthcoming.

The b a l d f a c t i s enough.

By i n t r o d u c i n g t h e sea element, C o l e r i d g e made more s u b t l e t h e dichotomies a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n t h e G o t h i c . The f o r m l e s s n e s s o f water was more s a t i s f y i n g t o him than t h e shadow o f dungeons; h i s aim, t h e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e i n t a n g i b l e ,

12 was

g r e a t l y aided by

even the o p p o r t u n i t y

t o use

I t must be noted, however, t h a t h i s aim was

sea

still

imagery.

very

t o t h a t which Walpole s t a t e d i n h i s second p r e f a c e to

close The

C a s t l e o f Otranto. where he s a i d " t h a t h i s o b j e c t i n t h i s t a l e was

to make the s u p e r n a t u r a l

p o r t r a y a l of characters placed C o l e r i d g e takes t h i s one

appear n a t u r a l , by

the

i n unusual circumstances.""^

step f u r t h e r i n d e c i d i n g w i t h

Wordsworth t h a t h i s . . . endeavours should be d i r e c t e d to persons and c h a r a c t e r s s u p e r n a t u r a l , or at l e a s t romantic; y e t so as to t r a n s f e r from our inward n a t u r e a human i n t e r e s t and a semblance o f t r u t h s u f f i c i e n t to p r o c u r e f o r these shadows o f i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t w i l l i n g suspension o f d i s b e l i e f f o r the moment, which c o n s t i t u t e s p o e t i c f a i t h . 1 5 He has

begun that p r o c e s s d i s c u s s e d

i n the P r e f a c e

to

Lyrical

B a l l a d s which accounts f o r the added impact o f a work through the establishment few

o f an e n t i r e s e t t i n g by the use o f j u s t a

words: I t i s supposed, t h a t by t h e a c t o f w r i t i n g [ i n a p a r t i c u l a r way] . . . an author makes a formal engagement t h a t he w i l l g r a t i f y c e r t a i n known h a b i t s o f a s s o c i a t i o n ; t h a t he not only t h u s a p p r i s e s the Reader t h a t c e r t a i n c l a s s e s o f i d e a s and e x p r e s s i o n s w i l l be found i n h i s book, but t h a t o t h e r s w i l l be c a r e f u l l y excluded.

Therefore,

C o l e r i d g e makes use of Gothic m o t i f s f o r a f u r t h e r

purpose than the simple a r o u s a l o f deep emotion which i s i n i t s e l f also e s s e n t i a l to h i s

aim.

13 He wishes,

f i r s t o f a l l , t o g i v e h i s t a l e an aura of

u n i v e r s a l i t y and v a l i d i t y .

T h i s i s q u i c k l y accomplished

by

s u g g e s t i n g the extreme age o f the Mariner, which coupled with the power o f h i s gaze and the i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d from the Argument t h a t he has t r a v e l l e d the l e n g t h and breadth o f the e a r t h , i n d i c a t e s t o the reader t h a t the Mariner i s proba b l y l i k e Melmoth or Faust. ("He

His supernatural a t t r i b u t e s

h o l d s him with h i s g l i t t e r i n g eye" combined with h i s

"strange power of speech") a r e a l s o s t a t e d immediately.

The

t a l e develops i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l l y G o t h i c manner; i t i s s e t i n the f a r south and juxtaposed to the wedding-party s e t t i n g which augments the M a r i n e r ' s i s o l a t i o n and the medieval

tone

o f the narrative.U

into

t h e underworld

There are i n d i c a t i o n s of a descent

( " M e r r i l y d i d we drop / Below the k i r k

. .

.")

which p a r a l l e l the descent i n t o the grave, dungeon, or c a t a comb and the l i f e - j o u r n e y o f the accursed wandereii. descent i s common i n both c l a s s i c a l and Gothic t a l e s . c l i f f e a n imagery o f strange landscapes, f r i g h t f u l

This Rad-

sounds,

t h e appearance of the a l b a t r o s s out of m i s t and f o g , and strongly-marked

r e l i g i o u s and moral overtones show C o l e -

r i d g e ' s a f f i l i a t i o n with E n g l i s h G o t h i c ; h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of l u r i d c o l o u r s , the g r a p h i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d "slimy t h i n g s [ t h a t ] crawl with l e g s / Upon the s l i m y s e a , " the r e a l i s m o f " I b i t my

arm,

I sucked the b l o o d , " the agony o f death i n

"Each turned h i s f a c e w i t h g h a s t l y pang, / And cursed

me

w i t h h i s eye" and "With heavy thump, a l i f e l e s s lump, / They

dropped

down one by o n e " ~ a l l these r e v e a l the i n f l u e n c e of

Lewis's German Gothicism. But i t i s what C o l e r i d g e makes o f a l l these m o t i f s , i n c l u d i n g t h e sun p e e r i n g "as i f through a dungeon-grate," t h e a l l e g o r i c a l L i f e - i n - D e a t h , the awful s t o r m s , ^ d r e a m - v i s i o n s — e s p e c i a l l y i n Part V I E — t h a t portant.

and

the

i s the most im-

P a r t VII i s , i n many ways, the calm of awareness

a f t e r the storm.

Within i t ,

t h e r e f l e c t i v e p a r t o f the poem,

t h e Mariner communicates h i s understanding o f what has happened to him;

he e v a l u a t e s h i s experience, but

from the Hermit's p o i n t o f view. mit, another i s o l a t e d b e i n g who man

and God,

As soon as he sees the Heri s y e t i n communion w i t h both

he f e e l s t h a t t h e Hermit

understand him;

essentially

alone has the power t o

l a t e r he r e a l i z e s t h a t the Hermit

i s one

a c l a s s of people with whom he can and must e s t a b l i s h r a p p o r t ; another i s the Wedding-Guest. u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s not enough:

The problem

of

this

i s that

the Mariner needs to be s h r i v e n .

The p h r a s i n g o f the Hermit's q u e s t i o n , "What manner o f

man

a r t thou?" l e a v e s no doubt t h a t h e has not t h i s e x t r a a b i l i t y ; h i s own

experience i s not as deep as the Mariner's

he can o n l y l e a r n from him, not t e a c h or c u r e . M a r i n e r ' s words, "To him my The problem

tale I

and

(Note the

teach.")

of h i s b e i n g e t e r n a l l y unshriven a r i s e s

p a r t l y as a r e s u l t of the G o t h i c dichotomy of the poem:

the

Mariner has been put i n a p o s i t i o n where he should have seen "God's f o o t upon the t r e a d l e o f the loom," understood t o t h e

15 fullest

extent

the workings of the u n i v e r s e

and

o f God

become aware, not o n l y of the l i t t l e n e s s o f man, man's r e c r e a t i v e powers to b u i l d and

but

in i t ,

a l s o of

u l t i m a t e l y to c o n t r o l

the world through knowledge o f a l l i t s p a r t s .

But

unlike

P i p ' s i n Mobv-Dick. the M a r i n e r ' s s o u l does not descend i n t o the depths to see i t s m y s t e r i e s ,

e i t h e r of l e v i a t h a n or

c o r a l i n s e c t ; he remains on the s u r f a c e .

the

H i s experience i s

such t h a t he i s enabled to take the f i r s t s t e p — t h e

loving

o f God's c r e a t u r e s at t h e i r w o r s t — b u t he cannot r e l a t e the h o r r o r o f h i s encounter with t r u t h t o the f a c t t h a t people who

have not been submitted to h i s experience can s t i l l

exist

h a p p i l y i n the world by worshipping an e s s e n t i a l l y dead Therefore

he i s an o u t c a s t ,

God.

a b l e i n r a r e moments t o achieve

union w i t h c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s , but more eager i n r e a l i t y f o r g e t the deeper knowledge which has

i s o l a t e d him

t o attempt t o walk "with a goodly company" and does not

He has been a f r a i d t h a t God

learned

out of h i s d e s p a i r the need to l o v e , and

exist,

has

has made

to God.

i r o n y i s , f i r s t t h a t he l e a r n s by l o v i n g abhorred and

forever,

" a l l together

pray."

t h e unfounded assumption t h a t l o v e i s the key

to

The

creatures,

second t h a t he h i m s e l f can never be l o v e d , b e i n g a source

o f t e r r o r , f o r c e d to wander e t e r n a l l y , and only r a r e l y a b l e t o f i n d someone who dear God

who

understands him.

l o v e t h us, / He made and

He

states that

l o v e t h a l l , " but

own

e x i s t e n c e d e n i e s t h a t b e l i e f ; he i s u n f o r g i v e n

and

condemned by God

t o wretched and

"the

lonely

by

his man,

immortality.

16 The case o f Pip i s d i f f e r e n t . gone mad

He i s s a i d to have

a f t e r the r e v e l a t i o n o f wisdom t o him, but "man's

i n s a n i t y i s heaven's sense," and what P i p comes t o i s "that c e l e s t i a l thought, which, t o reason, i s absurd and

frantic."

By t h i s " c e l e s t i a l thought" he i s exempted from the M a r i n e r ' s burden, h i s God"

and " f e e l s then uncompromised, i n d i f f e r e n t

(MD347).

as

Pip can be i n d i f f e r e n t w h i l e the Mariner

cannot because Pip has seen t h a t the world w i l l work i n a r e a s o n a b l e c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t way,

and has l e a r n e d as w e l l t o

l o v e even the most f e a r e d of men,

Ahab.

The Mariner has

no

such substance f o r h i s b e l i e f s . I t i s noteworthy,

a l s o , t h a t P i p , who

was

"carried

down a l i v e t o wondrous depths, where s t r a n g e shapes o f the unwarped p r i m a l world g l i d e d to and f r o b e f o r e h i s p a s s i v e eyes" (MD347) i s r e b o r n i n a s t a t e of p r e - F a l l which i s a l s o wisdom, and h i s communication,

innocence

from then on,

i s a k i n d o f f o r m u l a i c or r i t u a l speech which the

still-

c o r r u p t crew cannot comprehend, but which some o f them f e e l n e v e r t h e l e s s has sense and import.

H i s only deviation

t h i s i s when he condemns h i s former s e l f , who

from

drowned, as i f

he ( t h e former) were an e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e , e v i l person

now

i n torment, w h i l e h i s p r e s e n t s e l f i s i n a state, o f g r a c e . Ahab i s aware o f t h i s , as i s Starbuck, who

says t h a t " P i p ,

i n t h i s s t r a n g e sweetness o f h i s l u n a c y , b r i n g s heavenly vouchers o f a l l our heavenly homes." f i c a t i o n of s o u l a f t e r h i s e x p e r i e n c e .

P i p becomes a p e r s o n i The Mariner,

who

17 does have "strange power of speech," i s y e t not i n t h i s s t a t e ; ^ though the same e f f e c t i s achieved because he can be understood by a p a r t i c u l a r person of any language.

He

has c e r t a i n l y become a d i f f e r e n t person than b e f o r e , but s i n c e he must f o r e v e r undergo the agony o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , he i s f o r e v e r bound t o the knowledge o f what he was and s t i l l

l i v e s i n p a r t t h a t former

before

life.

Thus the Mariner i s t o a great extent a t r u l y G o t h i c creation.

He i s possessed o f the b u r n i n g h e a r t and power o f

gaze o f Schedoni, the urgent n e c e s s i t y and shadow o f c r i m i n a l i t y of Manfredj

the tone o f the f i r s t p a r t o f the poem

suggests h i s former c h a r a c t e r and i s a c o n t r a s t t o h i s appearance

t o the Wedding-Guest.

20

P a r a l l e l to t h i s

appear-

ance are the c o n t r a s t s of m i s t and c l e a r v i s i o n , storm calm, the s h i p and the Hermit's d w e l l i n g - p l a c e (which be i n t e r p r e t e d to suggest the decay o f the

and might

Church:

He k n e e l s at morn, and noon, and He hath a c u s h i o n plump: I t i s the moss t h a t wholly h i d e s The r o t t e d o l d oak-stump).21

eve-

With t h i s broad b a s i s from which to work, we can t u r n t o a c l o s e a n a l y s i s o f Mobv-Dick. w i t h s e t t i n g , because

now

I w i l l deal f i r s t

i t i s the determiner, i n Gothicism, o f

both mood and c h a r a c t e r , and from these t h r e e a l l G o t h i c traits

evolve. The a r t i s t i c medium best s u i t e d t o the p o r t r a y a l o f

t e r r o r - r o m a n t i c i s m i s probably the t h e a t r e , i n which the

18

most d e l i c a t e emotions can be brought i n t o p l a y through sens i t i v e use o f such e f f e c t s as l i g h t i n g and g i v e n the d i s t i n c t impression

sound.

t h a t M e l v i l l e was

form w h i l e s t i l l

is

aware o f

t h i s f a c t , and made Mobv-Dick as t h e a t r i c a l as he w i t h i n the novel

One

could

r e t a i n i n g enough s t r u c t u r e

t o s u s t a i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p o s i t i o n .

The

dramatic p o t e n t i a l i n Mobv-Dick heightens the aura o f Gothi c i s m i n s e t t i n g and Moby D i c k (which may "The lah;

character. be,

The

f i r s t appearance of

s y m b o l i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , l i n the chapter

S p i r i t - S p o u t " ) ; the sudden m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n o f 2 2

the i n t e r s p e r s i n g o f "The

Blacksmith," Lowering" and

"The

and the s e v e r a l gams; the storms o f "The "The

Candles"; and o f course the

c h a p t e r s ("Dusk" and

as w e l l .

First

"dialogue"

" M i d n i g h t — T h e F o r e c a s t l e Bulwarks,"

f o r example) are o b v i o u s l y Gothic

Town-Ho's S t o r y , "

Fedal-

dramatic, but they are p e c u l i a r l y

Melmoth the Wanderer and The Monk are

not

j u s t s t o r i e s ; they are conglomerates o f s t o r i e s bound by l o o s e framework.

S i m i l a r l y the sudden s w i t c h of mood

s e t t i n g from the Pequod t o the Golden Inn

a

and

is artistically

v a l i d and not incongruous; nor i s the p r o v i d i n g of P e r t h ' s background a d i s t r a c t i o n , f o r i t g i v e s , as do the we

have o f Starbuck's and

Ahab's home l i f e ,

a depth t o

i n d i v i d u a l which makes h i s f a t e more p o i g n a n t . i n t u r n g i v e s g r e a t e r range to theme.

glimpses the

T h i s depth

In Moby-Dick, c h a r a c -

t e r background, f o r example, o f t e n seems to r e v e a l a g u i l t motif.

Such " s c e n e - s h i f t s " a l s o o p e r a t e on a p u r e l y

"interest" level.

Chapter

e n t i r e t y i n a few

l i n e s and

d o n ' t want t h u n d e r j we

122,

which

in its

summed up c o m p l e t e l y i n

want rum"

strophe, just a f t e r the powerful

"We

(MD420) comes a t t h e p o i n t

where suspense b e g i n s t o b u i l d q u i c k l y

s o l i l o q u y i n "The

c a n be q u o t e d

f o r the f i n a l

cata-

e f f e c t o f Ahab's g r e a t

Candles."

T h i s b r o a d d i s c u s s i o n may

h e l p t o show, t h e n , t h a t

M e l v i l l e employs t h e g e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f s e t t i n g v e r y fully,

using at f i r s t

care-

a l o n g , slow b u i l d - u p t o h i s dramatic

moments ( t w e n t y - s e v e n

chapters precede

the appearance of

Ahab; t h i r t y - f i v e t h e n a i l i n g o f t h e doubloon t o t h e and

fifty

ally

t h e s i g h t i n g o f t h e p h a n t o m Moby D i c k ) , and

fin-

d e v e l o p i n g t h e a c t i o n so q u i c k l y t h a t an e p i l o g u e i s

n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e t h e needed mechanics o f p l o t . d o e s he i n t e r w e a v e G o t h i c e l e m e n t s

of s e t t i n g to

t h e f o r e b o d i n g atmosphere which pervades

the

romantic

landscapes, ^ 2

green

soul."

The

ball.

With

heighten

settings,

"nothing particular

to

i n d u c i n g o n l y "a damp, d r i z z l y November i n my R a d c l i f f e a n landscape

wish i n Ishmael, death-wish

then

f i e l d s set i n a picture-frame,

dreamy, e n t r a n c i n g , but t o I s h m a e l , i n t e r e s t me,"

How

novel?

Moby-Dick opens w i t h a monologue about

his

mastj

and

o f beauty

produces a

death-

he g o e s t o s e a a s t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f

by a n o t h e r m e a n s , ^ h i s " s u b s t i t u t e f o r p i s t o l 2

this and

a p h i l o s o p h i c a l f l o u r i s h C a t o t h r o w s h i m s e l f upon

s w o r d ; I q u i e t l y t a k e t o t h e s h i p " (MD12).

I f the act of

g o i n g t o sea i s a s u r r o g a t e s u i c i d e , t h e n t h e s e t t i n g o f

20 Mobv-Dick. i t may of

be presumed, i s a p a r a l l e l one to the world

the dead i n t h a t i t l i e s beyond h i s o r d i n a r y l i f e ,

a new

type of e x i s t e n c e .

and i s

Thus i s one o f the dominant Gothic

m o t i f s — t h e concern with death as a sensuous experience to be undertaken once.

out of boredom and c u r i o s i t y — e s t a b l i s h e d

at

T h i s c u r i o s i t y i s the m o t i v a t i o n behind many G o t h i c

figures

a c t i o n s ! — t h e n a r r a t o r of Poe's "The Man

1

o f the

Crowd," f o r example, Stevenson's Dr. J e k y l l o r , preeminently, Goethe's F a u s t .

And

i n s o f a r as t h e journey o f Ishmael i s a

journey through a k i n d o f Hades o r Purgatory, then the sea as s e t t i n g i n Mobv-Dick r e p r e s e n t s P u r g a t o r y . ^ 2

ville's

ut u

Mel-

sea i s a s p e c i a l one, w i t h f a r more a s p e c t s than the

s u r f a c e C o l e r i d g e r e v e a l s i n the Rime.

I t c o n t a i n s both the

" u n e a r t h l y , f o r m l e s s , c h a n c e l i k e a p p a r i t i o n " o f the g i a n t s q u i d (MD237), and "submarine b r i d a l chambers and n u r s e r i e s " (MD327) and " l o v e l i n e s s unfathomable" (MD406); the d e l i g h t s of

a s o l i t a r y , wandering e x i s t e n c e and the h o r r o r o f P i p ' s

extreme l o n e l i n e s s .

I t i s a l s o p e r s o n i f i e d by M e l v i l l e

a power which " f o r ever and f o r e v e r " w i l l d e r " man,

as

" i n s u l t and mur-

and which " i s a l s o a f i e n d t o i t s own

offspring

.

. . s p a r i n g not the c r e a t u r e s which i t s e l f hath spawned;"

it

i s s u b t l e , and " i t s most dreaded

c r e a t u r e s " are described

i n terms o f " d e v i l i s h b r i l l i a n c e and beauty," " r e m o r s e l e s s , " " c a r r y i n g on e t e r n a l war gan"

(MD235-236).

" d a i n t y " and

s i n c e the world

be-

The sea i s thus p a r a l l e l t o the image o f

t h e haunted c a s t l e and i t s surroundings, about which hangs,

21

a c c o r d i n g t o Poe, "an atmosphere p e c u l i a r t o themselves and t h e i r immediate v i c i n i t y — a n atmosphere which [has] no a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e a i r o f heaven, . . . a p e s t i l e n t and m y s t i c vapour."

26

I t c o n t a i n s , as does t h e haunted

c a s t l e , a l l the

i n d e f i n a b l e instruments o f f e a r , i n c l u d i n g p e n e t r a t i n g darkness, and s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s — f o r example, t h e s q u i d i s c a l l e d a " s t r a n g e s p e c t r e " and a "white ghost" i n Chapter

59;

Moby Dick i s a "grand hooded phantom," a "plumed and g l i t t e r i n g god," " t h e g l i d i n g great demon o f the seas o f l i f e " (MD162);

of

and t h e c r e a t u r e s o f t h e deep a r e "strange shapes

t h e unwarped p r i m a l world" (MD347) and " g u i l t y

transformed i n t o

. . . these f i s h

. . . condemned t o swim

e v e r l a s t i n g l y without any haven i n s t o r e " s u f f e r s from g u i l t : if

beings

(MD201).

Also i t

" u n r e s t i n g l y heaved t h e b l a c k sea, as

i t s vast t i d e s were a c o n s c i e n c e ; and t h e great mundane

s o u l were i n anguish and remorse f o r t h e l o n g s i n and s u f f e r i n g i t had b r e d " If

(MD201).

the sea i s a Gothic persona

t h e Pequod i s even more t r u l y s o . e a s i l y be p e r s o n i f i e d , because,

i n Moby-Dick, then

F i r s t , t h e s h i p can more

l i k e Conrad's N a r c i s s u s . i t

must withstand "the abysses o f sea and s k y " ? 2

i b l e vxolence o f t h e winds,"''

40

and "the i n v i s -

and be f o r e v e r a l e r t t o r e -

peated a t t a c k made with no warning:

"A b i g , foaming sea came

out o f t h e m i s t ; i t made f o r t h e s h i p , r o a r i n g w i l d l y .

. . .

The s h i p r o s e t o i t as though she had soared on wings." ^ 2

There i s not, however, t h e f u l l measure o f p i t y and l o v e

22

given t h e Fequod by M e l v i l l e as Conrad i m p l i e s f o r h i s s h i p s . The

Pequod i s c a l l e d "she," but r a t h e r f o r convention's

sake

than i n terms o f endearment; she i s t h e v i c t i m o f malign i n t e n t from s e v e r a l q u a r t e r s , but h a r d l y gains i n s t a t u r e by t h a t .

Even the c h o i c e by Ishmael, o r r a t h e r Yojo, o f

the Pequod i s a matter o f chance and i s e n t i r e l y She

impersonal.

i s not a p p e a l i n g because she i s t r i m , p r e t t y , o r even

s t u r d y ; r a t h e r she i s a s h i p o f death. grotesque, with a "claw-footed

She i s a n c i e n t and

look about h e r : "

worn and w r i n k l e d . . . a p p a r e l l e d l i k e any barb a r i c E t h i o p i a n emperor . . . a t h i n g o f t r o p h i e s . A cannibal of a c r a f t , t r i c k i n g herself f o r t h i n the chased bones o f her enemies. . . . her unpanelled, open bulwarks were garnished l i k e one continuous 3aw, w i t h t h e l o n g sharp t e e t h o f t h e sperm whale . . . her h e r e d i t a r y f o e . . . . A noble c r a f t , but somehow a most melancholyI A l l n o b l e t h i n g s a r e touched with t h a t . (MD67-68) The

grotesqueness and n o b i l i t y a r e p r o j e c t i o n s onto t h e s h i p

o f Ahab's c h a r a c t e r .

He has armed h i s inward s e l f and h i s

s h i p f o r t h e c o n t e s t he p l a n s , warping t h e s h i p ' s n a t u r a l grace,

though not d i m i n i s h i n g i t .

The Pequod's n o b i l i t y i s

emphasized, however, only i n her connection

with Ahab,30 be-

cause i n s o f a r as he must be a worthy adversary h i s b e i n g i s magnified

t o encompass t h e whole s h i p ; the

Pequod i s Ahab's body and he i s her s o u l . 3 1 d e s t r u c t i o n , then,

f o r Moby Dick,

As t h e agent o f

and t h e t o o l o f Ahab, t h e Pequod i s a c -

cursed and not t o be admired o r p r a i s e d .

Even Ahab says

t h a t t o go t o h i s "grave-dug b e r t h , " t o h i s c a b i n , t h a t i s ,

is

"like

going down i n t o one's tomb"

The bowels of

( M D 1 1 2 ) .

t h e s h i p r e p r e s e n t t h e Gothic dungeon, catacombs tomb, a p l a c e of c l o s e , c o n f i n e d spaces, "The

c a b i n lamp . . . was

fitful

uncertain

burning f i t f u l l y ,

lights—

and c a s t i n g

shadows upon the o l d man's b o l t e d door . . .

i s o l a t e d subterraneousness

or

( M D 3 9 5 ) >

The

o f the c a b i n made a c e r t a i n hum-

ming s i l e n c e to r e i g n t h e r e .

.

. "

( M D 4 2 1 ) .

Below decks i s

a l s o the p l a c e f o r mental i n q u i e t u d e ; s t a n d i n g b e f o r e Ahab's door, "Starbuck

seemed w r e s t l i n g w i t h an a n g e l ; " even he

who

r e p r e s e n t s the power of c o n v e n t i o n a l goodness on the s h i p f a l l s v i c t i m i n v o l u n t a r i l y to e v i l thoughts which he h a r d l y r e c o g n i z e s as such.

And

w i t h i n the c a b i n , Ahab's words

"came h u r t l i n g from out t h e o l d man's tormented s l e e p " ( M D 4 2 3 ) ; ^

2

he seems possessed

by demons.

s h i p i s l i k e the bowels o f h e l l ,

The

i n t e r i o r of the

and from i t seem to. come

F e d a l l a h and h i s c r e w — " D i d n ' t I hear 'em

i n the

(MD188) says S t u b b — a n d the " f i e r c e f l a m e s " try-works,

deed"

o f the

( M D 3 5 3 )

which t r a n s f o r m the Pequod i n t o a t r u l y

s h i p i n the s t y l e of the F l y i n g Dutchman: drove on,

hold?"

"The

Gothic

burning ship

as i f r e m o r s e l e s s l y commissioned to some v e n g e f u l

( M D 3 5 3 ) .

When the try-works are i n o p e r a t i o n ,

the

s h i p i s a f u n e r a l pyre "burning a c o r p s e , " an embodiment o f hell;

the scene of suggested

torture—"the boiling o i l . . .

seemed a l l eagerness t o l e a p i n t o t h e i r f a c e s ; " the agent of

the crew's r e d u c t i o n t o savagery;33

a

n

(

j "the m a t e r i a l

c o u n t e r p a r t o f her monomaniac commander's s o u l "

( M D 3 5 4 ) .

24 From t h i s evidence i t seems t h a t the Pequod i s a v e h i c l e c a r r y i n g the u n s u s p e c t i n g Ishmael from h i s " i n s u l a r Tahiti,

full

of peace and

j o y " to the " a p p a l l i n g ocean" from (MD236).

which a r i s e " a l l the h o r r o r s o f the half-known l i f e " It

i s a f a m i l i a r t r i c k of Gothicism

t h a t the agent of

s t r u c t i o n comes i n the d i s g u i s e of a s a v i o r . v i d e s many good examples:

The Monlc p r o -

M a t i l d a i s a demon i n disguise,*

the d e v i l , o f f e r i n g to take Ambrosio beyond the o f the I n q u i s i t i o n , k i l l s

him.

f l e e s w i t h the b l e e d i n g nun Pequod.

The

"rush on with a s t o n i s h i n g s w i f t n e s s most dangerous p r e c i p i c e s , and

coach i n which Raymond

. . . dashed down the

i

n

swiftness

l i k e manner, the

s a v i o r of I s h m a e l s s a n i t y ( o r so he s a y s ) : f

s h i p , as i f manned by p a i n t e d

the

agents; the coach-horses

seemed to viewin

w i t h the r a p i d i t y o f the winds."34

s a i l o r s i n wax,

t o r e on through a l l the s w i f t madness and

t h e connection

clutches

i s a c l o s e r p a r a l l e l to

They are both s u p e r n a t u r a l

demoniac waves" ( M D 2 0 2 ) . 3 5

de-

"the day

silent a f t e r day

gladness o f

the

S e v e r a l o t h e r passages suggest

o f the Pequod and

example, "the p r e t e r n a t u r a l n e s s ,

some o c c u l t element.

For

as i t seemed, which i n many

t h i n g s i n v e s t e d the Pequod" (MD200) l e a d s the mariners to b e l i e v e t h a t the s p i r i t - s p o u t i s always c a s t by Moby Dick, who

i s l u r i n g them on to d e s t r u c t i o n i n "savage s e a s . "

"strange

forms i n the water" and

" i n s c r u t a b l e sea-ravens"

f o l l o w e e l o s e to the Pequod. "as though they deemed our some d r i f t i n g , u n i n h a b i t e d

Also,

c r a f t ; a t h i n g appointed t o

ship

desolation

. . . " (MD201).

There a r e a l s o many omens o f

disaster.

The s m a l l f i s h which f o l l o w t h e Pequod l e a v e her

"with shuddering f i n s " when she c r o s s e s the wake o f t h e homeward bound Gonev.

And t h e Pequod r e c e i v e s a " g h o s t l y

baptism" o f death when she f a i l s t o escape the sound o f t h e corpse d r o p p i n g from the D e l i g h t i n t o t h e sea, t h e f l y i n g bubbles

from which "might have s p r i n k l e d her h u l l "

(MD442),

so c l o s e i s she t o i t . I t might be expected

t h a t t h e Pequod would g a i n

sympathy d u r i n g t h e times o f storm, but M e l v i l l e never a c t u a l l y d e p i c t s t h e s h i p a t such times; t h e focus i s always on man a g a i n s t t h e elements.

The f i r s t

storm, indeed, t h e one

w i t h which t h e book v i r t u a l l y opens, i s over b e f o r e t h e Pequod i s even

seen.

Storm i s , o f course, a major G o t h i c m i l i e u ; and i t i s e n t i r e l y f i t t i n g t h a t Ishmael should f i r s t come t o New Bedford on "a very dark and dismal n i g h t , b i t i n g l y c o l d and c h e e r l e s s " (MD17).

The wind, the f r o s t , t h e " b l o c k s o f

b l a c k n e s s " Ishmael encounters

serve two purposes:

t h e estab-

l i s h m e n t o f a bleak atmosphere o f d e s o l a t i o n and t h e f o r e shadowing o f t h e dismal end o f t h e n o v e l .

S e v e r a l Gothic

m o t i f s a r e e f f e c t i v e l y brought i n t o p l a y as Ishmael, turned from f i r s t one door, then another,

goes "by i n s t i n c t " towards

t h e water past many e v i l omens, and f i n a l l y by e n t e r i n g P e t e r C o f f i n * s Spouter-Inn;

escapes the g a l e

"Rather

ominous i n

26 t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c o n n e c t i o n , thought I . name i n Nantucket"

But i t i s a common

(MD18).

Ishmael's entry i n t o the i n n i s symbolic o f more than simply t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f h i s death-wish; i t h e l p s e x p l a i n h i s c h o i c e o f the Pequod. s i n c e they are s i m i l a r l y w h a l e - l i k e i n appearance;

i t a l s o suggests h i s e n t r y i n t o the whale, thus

c l o t h i n g him i n the aura o f the B i b l i c a l Jonah; i t c a r r i e s the to

subconscious i m p l i c a t i o n o f acceptance o f and submission the unknown ("in the d e s t r u c t i v e element immerse").

All

t h e s e are i d e a s c o n t a i n e d i n G o t h i c i s m ; and M e l v i l l e embodies them a l l i n the " i n d e f i n i t e , h a l f - a t t a i n e d , unimaginable l i m i t y " ( M D 2 0 ) of a t r u l y Gothic symbol—the

sub-

o i l - p a i n t i n g of

"shades and shadows" t h a t hangs i n the entry t o the i n n . T h i s s t r a n g e p i c t u r e r e v e a l s the Pequod'.s f a t e , i f i t can o n l y be p r o p e r l y r e a d .

Ishmael, w i t h a vague concept o f i t s

meaning, f a i l s to i n t e r p r e t i t c o r r e c t l y ; i n s t e a d he passes i t by and becomes n a i v e l y concerned w i t h d e s c r i b i n g the h o r r i b l e t r o p h i e s on the w a l l and the p o i s o n s o l d from between the ally

jaws o f death.

A l t o g e t h e r , the Spouter-Inn i s a t y p i c -

o u t f i t t e d outlaws' h a b i t a t i o n o f the k i n d found i n

S c h i l l e r ' s The Robbers.

I t has the d i s m a l aspect o f a cave,

to t h e v i e w i n g o f which the howling o f the wind o u t s i d e i s a fitting

accompaniment.

T h i s o v e r t u r e t o the two great storms o f the novel h a r d l y does more than s e t the mood and foreshadow trials.

further

The next storm, a sudden s q u a l l , appears w i t h a l l

27 the unexpectedness

o f the two phenomena which accompany

i t —

t h e f i r s t sperm whale t o be s i g h t e d , and F e d a l l a h and h i s crew o f "dusky phantoms" (MD187).

T h i s s q u a l l has a p e c u l i -

a r l y G o t h i c p r o p e r t y ; i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f as a v e i l ,

through

which Ishmael i n Starbuck's boat passes, and h a v i n g passed, is

resurrected: I s u r v i v e d myself; my death and b u r i a l were l o c k e d up i n my c h e s t . I looked around t r a n q u i l l y and c o n t e n t e d l y , l i k e a q u i e t ghost w i t h a c l e a n cons c i e n c e s i t t i n g i n s i d e the b a r s o f a snug f a m i l y vault. Now then, thought I, . . . here goes f o r a c o o l , c o l l e c t e d d i v e at death and d e s t r u c t i o n , and the d e v i l f e t c h the hindmost. (MD197) The appearance o f the water when whales s u r f a c e to

spout, as M e l v i l l e d e s c r i b e s i t (MD192-193)* i s s i m i l a r enough t o the e f f e c t o f the s q u a l l f o r the d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e one to merge i m p e r c e p t i b l y i n t o the other; suddenly Ishmael i s no l o n g e r i n "the charmed, churned c i r c l e of the hunted sperm whale," but " r u n n i n g through a s u f f u s i n g wide v e i l o f mist; n e i t h e r ship nor boat t o be seen" (MD193). W h i l e i n t h i s s t a t e o f b l i n d n e s s , Ishmael f e e l s the " s q u a l l , whale, and harpoon

. . . a l l blended t o g e t h e r , " the

first

two b e i n g evidence of the power o f n a t u r a l f o r c e s and the l a t t e r evidence o f the impotence

of man,

f o r the whale es-

capes, and the crew are thrown i n t o "the waves c u r l i n g and h i s s i n g around us l i k e the e r e c t e d c r e s t s o f enraged p e n t s " (MD194).3

6

ser-

W a i t i n g i n d e s p a i r f o r the dawn, s t i l l

enveloped i n m i s t , and o f course unaided by the " i m b e c i l e

28 c a n d l e , " the crew are suddenly aware o f "a f a i n t c r e a k i n g . . . .

The sound came nearer and nearer* the t h i c k m i s t s

were dimly p a r t e d by a huge, vague form" (MD195).^ unknown immensity

This

i s the Pequod. which i s s e a r c h i n g not i n

hopes o f r e s c u e , but f o r some token o f the boat *s d e s t r u c tion. T h i s experience appears t o be a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r I s h m a e l s c e n t r a l moment o f awareness, ,

Try-Works."

the r e v e r s a l o f

Up u n t i l Chapters 48 and 4 9 ,

detached o b s e r v e r .

There a r e o n l y -two

"The

Ishmael i s the c h a p t e r s i n which

he c o u l d not p o s s i b l y p a r t i c i p a t e , both o f which he c o u l d e a s i l y be supposed to i n v e n t j u s t from the rumor which would a r i s e on board.

A f t e r he has passed through the v e i l , how-

ever, he becomes t o t a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e crew and t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a l l the c h a r a c t e r s . ^

into

I t i s as i f he

does indeed become a ghost, a b l e t o understand by p l a c i n g h i m s e l f i n the minds o f the p r o t a g o n i s t s .

What he l o s e s i n

detachment would thus be compensated f o r by the heightened awareness,

which a l l o w s f o r g r e a t e r emotional involvement

and a n e a r e r approach t o the i n d e f i n a b l e which

Ishmael—and

M e l v i l l e — s t r u g g l e t o communicate throughout the whole o f t h e book.

Having submitted h i m s e l f , however, Ishmael becomes

t h e p r i s o n e r o f those i n whom he e x i s t s .

His r e a l i z a t i o n of

t h i s comes i n "The Try-Works," when he views i n h o r r o r the savagery of h i s shipmates, "the redness, the madness, the ghastliness . . .

o f the f i e n d shapes b e f o r e me, c a p e r i n g

29 h a l f i n smoke and h a l f i n f i r e , " and t h e t e r r i b l e purpose o f t h e i r voyaging.

I n s t a n t l y he r e c o i l s :

f e e l i n g , as o f death, came over me. grasped the t i l l e r ,

"A s t a r k , bewildered

C o n v u l s i v e l y my hands

but w i t h t h e c r a z y c o n c e i t t h a t t h e t i l -

l e r was, somehow, i n some enchanted

way, i n v e r t e d . "

knowledge t r i g g e r s r e j e c t i o n and immediate r e l i e f :

His "How

g l a d and how g r a t e f u l t h e r e l i e f from t h i s unnatural h a l l u c i n a t i o n o f t h e n i g h t , and t h e f a t a l contingency o f b e i n g brought by t h e l e e ! " (MD354)

Ishmael*s

moral nature now r e -

a s s e r t s i t s e l f ; he r e p e a t s " u n c h r i s t i a n Solomon's wisdom": tn

the

man t h a t wandereth out o f t h e way o f understanding

s h a l l remain

1

( i . e . even w h i l e l i v i n g )

o f t h e dead.'"

* i n the c o n g r e g a t i o n

He does not, however, r e j e c t t h e v a l u e o f t h e

incomprehensible when i n t u i t i v e l y grasped; he does not c u r s e h i s n a i v e s e l f as P i p c u r s e s h i s cowardly

self.

Ishmael can

be s a i d t o have p r o f i t e d c o n s c i o u s l y , w h i l e P i p * s p r o f i t i s unconscious, i n t h a t he does not r e c o g n i z e i n h i s new s e l f the s a l v a t i o n of h i s s o u l .

Ishmael

has l e a r n e d t h a t

he who dodges h o s p i t a l s and j a i l s , and walks f a s t c r o s s i n g graveyards, . . . c a l l s Cowper, Young, P a s c a l , Rousseau, poor d e v i l s a l l o f s i c k men | . . not t h a t man i s f i t t e d t o s i t down on tombstones, and break the green damp mould w i t h unfathomably wondrous Solomon. (MD355) The s q u a l l o f "The F i r s t Lowering" l e a d s Ishmael t o a s t a t e o f t o t a l empathy; t h e i n v e r s i o n o f "The Try-Works" awakens him t o t h e dangers o f h i s enchantment. he i s entrapped,

But by now

f o r c e d by h i s former submission t o undergo

30 a l l the events l e a d i n g to the f i n a l b a t t l e w i t h Moby D i c k . His

eyes opened t o the t r u e n a t u r e o f h i s journey, he a t -

tempts t o d i s a s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f from t h e Pequod and i t s inhabitants, f i n a l l y

succeeding o n l y at the e l e v e n t h hour.

The s q u a l l i n the middle o f the book, then, has the dual e f f e c t of c l o u d i n g Ishmael s T

reason w h i l e a l l o w i n g him

a c c e s s t o p h i l o s o p h i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l unknowns, a t a time when the elements of mystery visible

shape.

and suspense begin to take

I t has even more o f fbreshadowing than

c o n t a i n e d i n the f i r s t storm; now

was

t h e r e are the added i m p l i -

c a t i o n s t h a t demons from t h e nether world guide Ahab i n h i s purpose, t h a t the Pequod i s a d e s t r o y e r t o those she should p r o t e c t (note the ambiguity i n "the i v o r y Pequod b e a r i n g down upon.her boats w i t h o u t s t r e t c h e d s a i l s , l i k e

a wild

hen

a f t e r her screaming brood"-|-MD193), and t h a t the w h a l i n g voyage might be u n s u c c e s s f u l .

The imagery

suggests e t e r n a l

darkness, damnation, h o r r o r i n the white water, u n n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e s and p r e s e n c e s .

S t a r b u c k s p e r v e r s i o n o f mind, f

so t h a t he madly pursues the whale when the o t h e r boats have r e t u r n e d t o the s h i p , i s more ominous than the i n a b i l i t y

of

t h e crew t o make any motion to p r e s e r v e t h e i r boat, or t h e i r i n c a p a c i t y t o see.

The a b s o l u t e dominance o f the sea over

t h e human powers of goodness and wisdom (embodied i n S t a r buck) i s c l e a r l y manifested here. Thus the s q u a l l i s p r o o f o f the f e e l i n g ,

adequately

developed but never i n s i s t e d upon, t h a t even without the

31 demon-powers i n v e s t e d i n the white whale, even without guidance of the s a t a n i c F e d a l l a h , tend to c h a l l e n g e out,

s t i l l Ahab should not

the f o r c e s o f n a t u r e .

i t i s by a low

t r i c k o n l y t h a t man

see the whale; i f i t was

the

As Ishmael p o i n t s i s even enabled to

not o b l i g e d to expose i t s e l f

breathe, i t would never be caught by such a p e t t y

to

being.

There are F a u s t i a n overtones i n t h i s r e c u r r e n t theme. his

pre-

tremendous egoism, Ahab dares a t t a c k the gods,

F e d a l l a h , h i s Mephistopheles, t o govern him

In

allowing

i n s p i t e of

bad

omens, i n s p i t e of Starbuck, i n s p i t e of h i s n a t u r a l emot i o n s of tenderness.

He

assumes t h a t he has

been t e s t e d

and

p r e p a r e d f o r the a c t of k i l l i n g Moby Dick, t h a t he i s a chosen one,

a Prometheus, born of " c l e a r f i r e " to worship

i n d e f i a n c e , not

fear.

A l l t h i s becomes c l e a r at the time o f "the d i r e s t all

of

storms, the Typhoon," d u r i n g which Ahab gains i n e p i c

s t a t u r e before h i s crew who

are tempted at l a s t t o r a i s e "a

h a l f mutinous c r y " (MD418).

H e n c e f o r t h he r u l e s by t e r r o r ,

not by l o v e ; h i s g r e a t e r

experience enables him

t o conquer

his

s u p e r s t i t i o u s seamen by u s i n g n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e s t o h i s

own

ends.

The

e p i c s i m i l e which c l o s e s Chapter 119,

"The

C a n d l e s , " i s an image both o f Ahab and of the Gothic

pro-

tagonist: As i n the h u r r i c a n e t h a t sweeps the p l a i n , men f l y the neighborhood of some l o n e , g i g a n t i c elm, whose very h e i g h t and s t r e n g t h but render i t the more unsafe, because so much more a mark f o r

32 t h u n d e r b o l t s ' so at those l a s t words o f Ahab's many of the mariners d i d run from him i n a t e r r o r of dismay. (MD418) Ahab's weakness does indeed

l i e i n h i s greatest

strength,

and

i s the very t h i n g t o be f e a r e d j he has set h i m s e l f

and

t a l l e r than a l l other men

i t i o n i n "The

apart

(note h i s a n a l y s i s of h i s pos-

Doubloon"), thus marking h i m s e l f out f o r the

vengeance of God.

The

thunderbolt

i s the very weapon he

i n t i m a t e s has caused the jagged s c a r on h i s body, and o p i n i o n i s shared by the crew, who

this

t h i n k i t i s the s i g n of

combat with the gods: T h r e a d i n g i t s way out from among h i s grey h a i r s , and c o n t i n u i n g r i g h t down one s i d e of h i s tawny scorched f a c e and neck, t i l l i t disappeared i n h i s c l o t h i n g , you saw a s l e n d e r r o d - l i k e mark, l i v i d l y w h i t i s h . I t resembled t h a t p e r p e n d i c u l a r seam sometimes made i n the s t r a i g h t , l o f t y trunk o f a great t r e e , when the upper l i g h t n i n g t e a r i n g l y d a r t s down i t , . . . l e a v i n g the t r e e s t i l l greenl y a l i v e , but branded. Whether t h a t mark was born with him, or whether i t was the s c a r l e f t by some desperate wound, no one c o u l d c e r t a i n l y say. . . . an o l d Gay-Head I n d i a n among the crew, s u p e r s t i t i o u s l y a s s e r t e d t h a t not t i l l he was f u l l y f o r t y y e a r s o l d d i d Ahab become t h a t way branded, and then i t came upon him, not i n the f u r y o f any m o r t a l f r a y , but i n an elemental s t r i f e at sea. 39 (MD110) T h i s s c a r would seem to be a v e r s i o n o f the Brand o f a common a t t r i b u t e among Gothic

Cain,

heroes.

I have d i s c u s s e d the storms and the h e l l - s e t t i n g s (as i n "The

Try-Works") as being the most o b v i o u s l y

o f the scenes i n Mobv-Dick.

Gothic

The p a s t o r a l , or at l e a s t

p e a c e f u l , l a n d - or sea-scapes have as much of the Gothic i n

33

them.

To a much g r e a t e r extent than t h e storms,

however,

they serve purposes f a r beyond those e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e works o f R a d c l i f f e and t h e E n g l i s h s c h o o l . purposes i n v o l v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p l i c a t i o n . settings are of interest The the novel. given,

G e n e r a l l y these Two o f these

here.

f i r s t concerns

the question of the w r i t i n g of

Most o f i t i s i m p l i e d ; very few glimpses a r e

jiust as t h e words " b l a z i n g eyes" w i l l conjure up t h e

t o r t u r e d physiognomy o f a G o t h i c o r B y r o n i c hero, so t h e s t y l e o f M e l v i l l e ' s w r i t i n g and h i s thematic

structure place

t h e whole book i n t o a framework, the frame b e i n g t h e image of

t h e c o n s c i o u s a r t i s t s t r u g g l i n g t o communicate h i s e x p e r i -

ence through

h i swriting.

T h i s i s a common G o t h i c d e v i c e ,

having i t s roots i n the e p i s t o l a r y l i t e r a t u r e of s e n s i b i l i t y and e x i s t i n g i n t h e Gothic w i t h the v a r i a t i o n s o f c o n f e s s i o n a l , o l d manuscript,

diary, etc.

Frankenstein follows i n

t h i s t r a d i t i o n , as do Poe's Ms Found i n a B o t t l e and some o f the works o f R i d e r Haggard.

The s i g h t o f M e l v i l l e - I s h m a e l

s i t t i n g and dreaming at h i s desk i s c o n t i n u a l l y

juxtaposed

w i t h the s i g h t o f t h e voyage and t h e stormy events o f i t . And

he c o n t i n u a l l y makes us aware o f h i s problems as a r t i s t :

" I almost d e s p a i r o f p u t t i n g i t [ t h i s vagueness] i n t o comp r e h e n s i b l e form . . . y e t . . . e x p l a i n myself I must" (MD163); t h i s i s always M e l v i l l e ' s concern.^° The second p a s t o r a l s e t t i n g o f i n t e r e s t p e r t a i n s t o t h e C o l e r i d g e a n passages o f Mobv-Dick.

These passages occur

34 a t t h r e e times:

when M e l v i l l e i s d i s c u s s i n g t h e past l i v e s

o f t h e m a r i n e r s — t h e b l a c k s m i t h ' s (MD400-402), f o r example, o r Starbuck's and Ahab's (Chapter 132); when he i s speaking p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y (Chapters 47 and 114); and f i n a l l y when t h e m a r i n e r s a r e under some s u p e r n a t u r a l i n f l u e n c e .

Of the l a s t ,

"The S p i r i t - S p o u t " o f f e r s t h e b e s t example: Days, weeks passed, and under easy s a i l , t h e i v o r y Pequod had s l o w l y swept a c r o s s f o u r s e v e r a l cruising-grounds . . . I t was w h i l e g l i d i n g through these l a t t e r waters t h a t one serene and moonlight n i g h t , when a l l t h e waves r o l l e d by l i k e s c r o l l s o f s i l v e r ; and by t h e i r s s b f t , s u f f u s i n g s e e t h i n g s , made what seemed a s i l v e r y s i l e n c e , n o t a s o l i t u d e : on such a s i l e n t n i g h t a s i l v e r y j e t was seen f a r i n advance o f t h e white bubbles a t t h e bow. L i t up by t h e moon, i t looked c e l e s t i a l ; seemed some plumed and g l i t t e r i n g god u p r i s i n g from t h e sea. . . . t h e r e r e i g n e d , t o o , a sense o f p e c u l i a r dread a t t h i s f l i t t i n g a p p a r i t i o n , as i f i t were t r e a c h e r o u s l y beckoning us on and on, i n order t h a t t h e . monster might t u r n round upon;us, and rend us a t l a s t i n t h e remotest and most savage seas. These temporary apprehensions, so vague but so awful, d e r i v e d a wondrous potency from t h e c o n t r a s t i n g s e r e n i t y o f t h e weather, i n which, beneath a l l i t s b l u e blandness, some thought t h e r e l u r k e d a d e v i l i s h charm, as f o r days and days we voyaged a l o n g , through seas so w e a r i l y , lonesomely m i l d , t h a t a l l space, i n repugnance t o our v e n g e f u l errand, seemed v a c a t i n g i t s e l f o f l i f e b e f o r e our u r n - l i k e prow. (MD199-201) I n t h i s l a s t paragraph, M e l v i l l e has e x p l i c a t e d t h e G o t h i c ism i n h i s method, f o r i t i s i n g r e a t p a r t by such c o n t r a s t s as these t h a t Moby-Dick grows.

Aware t h a t over-excitement

d u l l s t h e senses, as C o l e r i d g e knew, M e l v i l l e s e t the most t e r r i b l e a c t i o n s i n calms; Moby D i c k a r i s e s , l i k e t h e s p i r i t spout and t h e seamen's apprehensions, i n t h e midst o f calm,

35 and changes t h e serene atmosphere i n t o one o f w a i t i n g and dread, j u s t as t h e submerged o b j e c t which s t r i k e s t h e Patna r e v e r s e s t h e mood o f t h e s e t t i n g t h e r e . preceded

Swift action i s

and f o l l o w e d by l a n g u i d d e s c r i p t i o n s and q u i e t

m e d i t a t i o n , which do more t o rouse suspense than t h e main— t a i n i n g o f h o r r i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n c o u l d ever do.

The c o n t r a s t

r e f i n e s t h e emotion, as i n t h i s passage t h e m i l d weather tempers t h e m a r i n e r s

1

f e a r s t o a f o r e b o d i n g which, i n i t s

u n c e r t a i n t y and seeming l a c k o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n , t h e b e t t e r p r e p a r e s them and t h e reader f o r t h e strangeness

o f what

happens. I have suggested

t h a t s e t t i n g determines

mood and

c h a r a c t e r i n t h e G o t h i c , and t h a t from these t h r e e G o t h i c i s m develops.

I have attempted t o d e a l w i t h s e t t i n g from t h i s

p o i n t o f view.

The establishment o f mood i s next i n import-

ance, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e i t c o n t a i n s t h e o t h e r two i n i t s e l f . Nothing,

as J . M. S. Tompkins says, was so important t o

G o t h i c w r i t e r s as atmosphere: . . . t h e c e n t r e o f i n t e r e s t i s impersonal; i t i s t h e . . . landscape, . . . f o r complete e x p r e s s i o n o f which we r e q u i r e both t h e v i c t i m and t h e t y r a n t . The r a i s o n d ' e t r e o f h e r [ R a d c l i f f e * s ] books i s not a s t o r y , nor a c h a r a c t e r , nor a moral t r u t h , but a mood, t h e mood o f a s e n s i t i v e dreamer b e f o r e G o t h i c b u i l d i n g s and p i c t u r e s q u e scenery. Story and c h a r a c t e r s a r e . . . as i t were, organs through which these grim p l a c e s speak, p l a c e d t h e r e t o r e c e i v e and t r a n s m i t t h e f a i n t rumours t h a t c l i n g about them . . .41

36

S e t t i n g developed, then, as an a i d to t h e establishment o f mood.

We

evoked

t h e Gothic atmosphere—even though h i s primary

lay

have seen how

effectively Melville's

settings aim

i n another d i r e c t i o n . The next s t e p , f o r Walpole and R a d c l i f f e , a t l e a s t ,

was

t o d i s c o v e r "what s o r t o f i n c i d e n t s s u i t e d such

imposing

scenes," and what k i n d s o f c h a r a c t e r s would have p e r s o n a l i t i e s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e landscapes from which they emerged.^

2

The m y s t e r i o u s shadow-types o f the unconscious were e v o l v e d and blended w i t h the p r o t o t y p e s :

Manfred

o f Otranto, "whose

p a s s i o n s wanted l i t t l e f u e l t o throw them i n t o a b l a z e , " 4 3 Ambrosio, his

"The Man

o f H o l i n e s s , " w i t h "a c e r t a i n s e v e r i t y i n

l o o k and manner t h a t i n s p i r e d u n i v e r s a l awe;"

nor c o u l d

many " s u s t a i n t h e glance o f h i s eye, at once f i e r y and pene t r a t i n g - " 4 4 Schedoni, whose f i g u r e was s t r i k i n g , but not so from grace; . . . as he s t a l k e d a l o n g , wrapt i n the b l a c k garments of h i s o r d e r , t h e r e was something t e r r i b l e i n i t s a i r ; something almost superhuman . . . h i s p h y s i o g nomy . . . bore the t r a c e s o f many p a s s i o n s . . . . 4 5 T h i s t r i u m v i r a t e combines a l l t h e major t r a i t s o f t h e herovillain,

who

i s , as Axton says i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to Melmoth

t h e Wanderer, "a two-sided personage,

a f i g u r e o f great

power, l a t e n t v i r t u e , and p e r s o n a l magnetism t r a g i c a l l y s t a i n e d by c r i m i n a l i t y . " 4 ° at

The o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , generated

the same time i n a s e n s i t i v e c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g of major and

secondary themes, grew always from t h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p p o s i t e s :

37 Theodore and Manfred, M a t i l d a and Antonia, Agnes and b l e e d i n g nun; peated,

such p a i r i n g s and c o n t r a s t i n g s , e n d l e s s l y r e -

e x p l o i t t h e involvement

emotions to the f u l l e s t . of

the

o f the i m a g i n a t i o n and

the

V a r i a t i o n i n c h a r a c t e r and depth

p s y c h o l o g i c a l understanding

i n c r e a s e d as time progressed;

A x t o n s a n a l y s i s , i m p l i e s c l e a r l y the coming o f the B y r o n i c f

hero; and the impulses to wander, t o search, e t c . , common to t h e Gothic hero, are understandably r e s t l e s s n e s s as Axton d e s c r i b e s i t . t e e n t h Century

the r e s u l t o f the

hero s f

The w r i t e r s o f the Nine-

had more than j u s t i n c r e a s e d knowledge o f

and

i n t e r e s t i n the p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n t h e i r G o t h i c c h a r a c t e r s ; they had an added r e a l i z a t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s ; and an i n c r e a s e d mastery over t h e i r a r t which allowed f o r more i n t e n s i v e , c o n s c i o u s m a n i p u l a t i o n of symbol and image p a t t e r n s .

A l s o , they seem to have f e l t

unencumbered

by the moral (and r e l i g i o u s ) r e s t r a i n t of t h e i r times because, beyond the mere s u r f a c e o f t h e i r work, they were aware t h a t t h e i r i d e a s were not g e n e r a l l y understood lic.

by the r e a d i n g pub-

As l o n g as they p r o v i d e d the c o n v e n t i o n a l p l o t , t h e r e -

f o r e , they c o u l d work out symbolic w i t h comparative

and p h i l o s o p h i c meaning

freedom.4-7

C h a r a c t e r c r e a t i o n i n Mobv-Dick appears to have been accomplished

i n some such convoluted f a s h i o n .

The book Mel-

v i l l e s t a r t e d by w r i t i n g , p a r t o f which appears to be p r e served i n the f i r s t twenty o r so c h a p t e r s , would presumably have been a c o n v e n t i o n a l romance, and Ishmael the " y o u t h f u l

38

h e r o " o f the Theodore and P i e r r e t y p e — a moral agent and r e c o r d e r o f the events of the s t o r y . proved

the

Hawthorne''s symbolism

the needed c a t a l y s t * t h e complexity of each c h a r a c t e r

i n the f i n a l Mobv-Dick d i s p l a y s a h i g h degree o f i m a g i n a t i v e development o f Gothic c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s . Because Ahab i s so o b v i o u s l y a Gothic personage, i t may

be best t o d i s c u s s the t r a n s m u t a t i o n o f G o t h i c i s m i n him

first.

H i s relationship© t o the s e t t i n g , e s p e c i a l l y t o the

Pequod. has a l r e a d y been mentioned, as have o t h e r c l u e s t o his

n a t u r e — h i s s c a r , f o r example, h i s egoism, and h i s super-

m o r t a l combat w i t h the gods. Ahab o f o l d , thou knowest, was

He i s a r o y a l person;

a crowned k i n g ! " ( 7 7 ) .

a r e o t h e r important t r a i t s , however: ibility

and sudden unexpected

"...

his i n i t i a l

There

invis-

t r a n s i t i o n from presence t o

l i v i n g being; h i s i s o l a t i o n ; the unusual s i g n s o f emaciation, as i f he has been i n f i r e and y e t not burned;48 h i s i n v i n c i b l e a p p e a r a n c e — " shaped i n an u n a l t e r a b l e mould" (MD110), the " i n f i n i t y

of f i r m e s t f o r t i t u d e ,

. . . unsurrenderable

w i l f u l n e s s , i n the f i x e d and f e a r l e s s

. . . glance" of h i s

" t r o u b l e d master-eye," the " c r u c i f i x i o n i n h i s f a c e ; i n a l l t h e nameless r e g a l o v e r b e a r i n g d i g n i t y of some mighty — a l l

t h i s i s t o be expected,

woe"

being conventionally Gothic.

. . . German t a s t e , as r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e work t h a t found i t s way i n t o England, came t o connote w i l d extravagance o f sentiments and i n c i d e n t , p a s s i o n wound up t o the h i g h e s t p i t c h , h o r r o r , grotesqueness, and the e x p r e s s i o n o f a l l these i n i n f l a t e d language.

39 M e l v i l l e ' s treatment o f Ahab i s c o n s i s t e n t with h i s h a n d l i n g of

t h e " a c t i o n " c h a p t e r s , and both show p a r t i c u l a r

evidence

of

the type of G o t h i c i s m Tompkins d e f i n e s here (p. 289).

A

t r a c e o f s u b t l e t y appears i n Ahab's body p a r t a k i n g o f t h e body o f t h e whale, and v i c e v e r s a .

Ahab stands "on l i f e

and

death'f^ (MD200)} i f the whale-bone stands f o r death, then Ahab's f a t e , t o be bound t o death i n the form o f the whale, i s made c l e a r from t h e b e g i n n i n g .

T h i s union o f man

and

whale i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g l y p r e f i g u r e d i n M e l v i l l e ' s c h a p t e r "Of t h e Monstrous P i c t u r e s o f Whales."

Here he speaks o f

t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f Vishnu, the P r e s e r v e r , i n h i s Matse Avatar — " h a l f man

and h a l f whale, so as o n l y t o g i v e the t a i l

the l a t t e r " (MD225).

Now

of

M e l v i l l e has made a c u r i o u s seeming

e r r o r i n s a y i n g t h a t the p o r t r a i t of t h i s Matse Avatar i s found i n the Elephanta temple, because t h i s temple i s a c t u a l l y d e d i c a t e d to S i v a , god o f d e s t r u c t i o n and reproduction.49 He appears t o have wished t o t r a n s p o s e t o the whale a l l t h e authority—mythic

and o t h e r w i s e — h e

c o u l d , t o uphold h i s

c o n c e p t i o n o f l e v i a t h a n as p o t e n t i a l l y

evil.

I n s o f a r as Ahab (more, i n a sense, than Moby D i c k ) resembles the Matse Avatar, he a c q u i r e s t h i s a u t h o r i t y

as

w e l l , and g a i n s i n s t a t u r e over the G o t h i c hero-villain.$® Reasonably

c o n s i d e r e d , however, t h i s union i s secondary t o

another i n which he i s a p a r t n e r . to

This i s his relationship

F e d a l l a h , which i s of major importance as r e g a r d s h i s

c h a r a c t e r and the m o t i v a t i o n ( c o n t i n u i n g , not i n i t i a l ) hind h i s actions.

be-

40 The Parsee i s a d e v i l - f i g u r e , probably more p u r e l y G o t h i c than any o t h e r i n the book. ance, a c t i o n s — a l l

H i s c h a r a c t e r , appear-

a r e d e s c r i b e d i n terms o f h e l l ,

evil,

death* but t h e r e i s a l s o some complexity i n h i s purpose. A c c o r d i n g t o Stubb, the Parsee has power over Moby D i c k : "'the d e v i l t h e r e i s t r y i n g t o come round him [Ahab] . . . and then h e ' l l s u r r e n d e r Moby D i c k ' " (MD275).

Yet i n h i s

c a p a c i t y as prophet, F e d a l l a h has a bond with t h e whale, who i s a l s o d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g a " p r e d e s t i n a t i n g head" (MD468).

To t h e degree t h a t e i t h e r has a purpose, i t i s t o

c l a i m Ahab f o r h e l l ; b l a c k and white, they command a spectrum o f e v i l ;

from l o a t h l y w r i t h i n g h a t r e d t o t h e s p o t l e s s

flame o f pure t e r r o r , they evoke a l l t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f damnation.

The appearance

the f i r s t lah

of the s p i r i t - s p o u t — s y m b o l i c a l l y

s i g h t i n g o f Moby D i c k — c o m e s s h o r t l y a f t e r F e d a l -

h i m s e l f i s i n t r o d u c e d , and they d i s a p p e a r t o g e t h e r a t

t h e end.

The i n t e r i m i s overshadowed by t h e i r j o i n t p r e -

t e r n a t u r a l i n f l u e n c e over Ahab and a l l t h e s h i p . The f i r s t Ishmael's

i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e Parsee's e x i s t e n c e i s

glimpse o f h i s shadowy body as he goes aboard; h i s

e f f e c t here i s t o impart an atmosphere o f uneasiness, t o i n v e s t t h e s h i p w i t h powerful i n v i s i b l e presences. headsman, h i s purpose his

As Ahab's

i s t o guide him t o t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f

d e s i r e , but a t t h e same time t o a c t as middleman i n t h e

working-out

o f h i s own prophecy

o f Ahab's death.

(it is

s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Ahab i s aware t h a t "he was now both c h a s i n g

41 and b e i n g chased t o h i s deadly end" by "inhuman a t h e i s t i c a l d e v i l s [who] were i n f e r n a l l y c h e e r i n g him on w i t h t h e i r c u r s e s " (MD321).) As f a r as Ishmael i s concerned, the Parsee "remained

a m u f f l e d mystery t o t h e l a s t " (MD199); n e v e r t h e -

l e s s t h e r e are c l u e s to h i s r a i s o n d ' e t r e .

Starbuck c a l l s

him Ahab's " e v i l shadow" (MD459), and such he i s — t h e

physi-

c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ahab's unholy purpose, t h e embodiment o f t h e madness which overpowers

the r e s t o f Ahab's b e i n g .

As the c l i m a x o f the book nears, F e d a l l a h becomes l e s s shadowy and, l i k e Ahab, e v e r - p r e s e n t .

"Though such a potent

s p e l l seemed s e c r e t l y t o j o i n the twain; openly, and to the awe-struck

crew, they seem p o l e - l i k e asunder'

1

(MD437).

This

i s because F e d a l l a h i s drawing i n t o h i m s e l f the inhumanity o f Ahab, making him a t r u e o p p o s i t e t o F e d a l l a h , i n the same way

t h a t Hyde, as he becomes s t r o n g e r i n e v i l , l e a v e s J e k y l l

more p u r e l y good, more p i t i a b l e , i n h i s weakness.

This

p o i n t i s made over and over near t h e end. . . . even as Ahab's eyes so awed the crew's, the i n s c r u t a b l e Parsee*s g l a n c e awed h i s . . . . Such an added, g l i d i n g strangeness began t o i n v e s t t h e t h i n F e d a l l a h now; such c e a s e l e s s shudderingsfs; shook him; t h a t t h e men l o o k e d dubious at him; h a l f u n c e r t a i n . . . whether indeed he were a m o r t a l substance, o r e l s e a tremulous shadow c a s t upon the deck by some unseen being's body. And t h a t shadow was always h o v e r i n g t h e r e . (MD438) Again, Ahab and F e d a l l a h stand always f i x e d l y g a z i n g upon each o t h e r ; as i f i n the Parsee Ahab saw h i s forethrown shadow, i n Ahab the Parsee h i s abandoned substance.

42 And y e t , somehow . . . Ahab seemed an i n d e pendent l o r d j t h e Parsee but h i s s l a v e . S t i l l a g a i n both seemed yoked t o g e t h e r , and an unseen t y r a n t d r i v i n g them* the l e a n shade s i d i n g the s o l i d r i b . (MD439) The of

"unseen t y r a n t " appears t o r e f e r t o Fate, o f the power whose e x i s t e n c e Ahab i s too w e l l aware.

The

seeming

l o r d - s l a v e r e l a t i o n s h i p M e l v i l l e found i n t e r e s t i n g enough t o develop

a few y e a r s a f t e r i n B e n i t o Cereno; with t h a t t a l e

b e f o r e us, we can i n t u i t h i s reason f o r s k e t c h i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p here, and a s c r i b e some o f the h o r r o r o f the BaboCereno a l l i a n c e t o Ahab and F e d a l l a h . signs of fearing Fedallah.

Note t h a t Ahab g i v e s

When he d e c i d e s t o ascend

the

mast t o l o o k f o r Moby Dick, he eyes h i s crew f o r a t r u s t worthy s a i l o r , "but shunning F e d a l l a h " ( M D 4 3 9 ) * Starbuck

chooses

i n whose hands to p l a c e h i s l i f e . The s t r a i n o f the voyage ennobles Ahab, who

h i m s e l f inhumanly pursued

"to h i s deadly end."

r e v e a l e d i n a deeply sympathetic

sees

This i s

and C o l eridgean _sim.il e:

. . . Ahab's brow was l e f t gaunt and r i b b e d , l i k e the b l a c k sand beach a f t e r some stormy t i d e has been gnawing i t , without b e i n g a b l e t o drag the f i r m t h i n g from i t s place.51 Thus the Parsee r e p r e s e n t s the shadow-side, i n Jungian terms, of Ahab's nature, t h i s development b e i n g a p r o g r e s s i o n from the "two-sided personage" o f e a r l y G o t h i c , and a s t e p beyond the "double" m o t i f o f " W i l l i a m W i l s o n " o r The P i c t u r e of D o r i a n G r a v . ^

2

Nevertheless i t s t i l l

betrays

43 the more p r i m i t i v e mode o f h a n d l i n g of the e a r l i e r w r i t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n such c h a p t e r s as "The Needle," which f o r a l l i t s s u s p e n s e f u l n e s s , has f o r anyone not among the Pequod's crew t h e v a l u e o f a cheap t r i c k ; o r "The C h a r t , " where t h e d e p i c t i o n o f Ahab as G o t h i c hero, f o r a l l i t s i n t e r e s t , i s conventional: Often, when f o r c e d from h i s hammock by exhausting and i n t o l e r a b l y v i v i d dreams o f the n i g h t , . . . the very t h r o b b i n g o f h i s l i f e - s p o t became i n s u f f e r a b l e anguish; and when, as was sometimes the case, t h e s e s p i r i t u a l t h r o e s i n him heaved h i s b e i n g up from i t s base, and a chasm seemed opening i n him, from which f o r k e d flames and l i g h t n i n g s shot up, and accursed f i e n d s beckoned him to l e a p down among them; when t h i s h e l l i n h i m s e l f yawned beneath him, a w i l d c r y would be heard through the s h i p ; and with g l a r i n g eyes Ahab would b u r s t from h i s s t a t e room, as though e s c a p i n g from a bed t h a t was on f i r e . . . . c r a z y Ahab, the scheming, unappeasedly s t e a d f a s t hunter o f the white whale; t h i s Ahab t h a t had gone t o h i s hammock, was not t h e agent t h a t so caused him t o b u r s t from i t i n h o r r o r a g a i n . The l a t t e r was the e t e r n a l , l i v i n g p r i n c i p l e o r s o u l i n him; and i n s l e e p , b e i n g f o r xfe t h e time d i s s o c i a t e d from the c h a r a c t e r i z i n g mind, which at o t h e r times employed i t f o r i t s o u t e r v e h i c l e o r agent, i t spontaneously sought escape from the s c o r c h i n g c o n t i g u i t y o f the f r a n t i c t h i n g . . . . t h a t purpose, by i t s own sheer i n v e t e r a c y of w i l l , f o r c e d i t s e l f a g a i n s t gods and d e v i l s i n t o a k i n d o f self-assumed, independent b e i n g o f i t s own. Nay, c o u l d g r i m l y l i v e and burn, w h i l e t h e common v i t a l i t y t o which i t was c o n j o i n e d , f l e d h o r r o r s t r i c k e n from the unbidden and u n f a t h e r e d b i r t h . T h e r e f o r e , the tormented s p i r i t t h a t g l a r e d out o f b o d i l y eyes, when what seemed Ahab rushed from h i s room, was f o r t h e time but a vacated t h i n g , a f o r m l e s s somnambulistic being, a ray o f l i v i n g l i g h t , t o be s u r e , but without an o b j e c t t o c o l o r , and t h e r e f o r e a blankness i n i t s e l f . God h e l p thee, o l d man, t h y thoughts have c r e a t e d a c r e a t u r e i n thee; and he whose i n t e n s e t h i n k i n g thus makes him a Prometheus; a v u l t u r e feeds upon t h a t h e a r t f o r ever; t h a t v u l t u r e the very creature&he c r e a t e s . (MD174-175)

44 I have quoted

a t l e n g t h from t h i s paragraph

o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the G o t h i c d e t a i l i n i t . all,

because

F i r s t of

t h e dream-world i s as powerful an i n f l u e n c e i n Gothic

l i t e r a t u r e as i t i s i n Ahab's l i f e ;

also t h i s p a r t i c u l a r

dream i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f Ishmael's ( M D 3 3 ) , submission t o nameless, d r e a d f u l phantoms.

both

indicating

The v i v i d n e s s

suggests Poe's h e i g h t e n i n g o f the sensory p e r c e p t i o n which c h a r a c t e r i z e s Roderick Usher, the n a r r a t o r of "The H e a r t , " and D o r i a n Gray.

Tell-Tale

A l e a p i n t o the p i t o f h e l l marks

t h e untimely end of many a h e r o - v i l l a i n ; here i t i s approp r i a t e i n t h a t Ahab, born o f f i r e and b e a r i n g i t s mark, f e e l s t h a t he w i l l u l t i m a t e l y be claimed by i t — t h e f i r e i s h i s f a t h e r 5 3 (unusual or unknown p a t e r n i t y i s another m o t i f s i g n i f y i n g the Gothic v i l l a i n ;

the hero's b i r t h i s g e n e r a l l y

unknown a t f i r s t and the means o f h i s v i c t o r y at l a s t .

Note

t h a t Ishmael i s s e l f - s t y l e d an "orphan" and mentions a f a i r y t a l e - l i k e stepmother i n connection w i t h h i s dream;) and i t s o p p o s i t e , darkness, the p i t , i s "the unrecognized

mother-

symbol," the Jungian n e g a t i v e anima, which however much he thinks to f l e e i t ,

overcomes Ahab at l a s t . 54

The s c h i z o p h r e n i c q u a l i t y o f the c a p t a i n ' s mind i s t h e next d e t a i l of i n t e r e s t ; i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t M e l v i l l e i s c o n s c i o u s l y m a n i p u l a t i n g the a s p e c t s o f Ahab's mind from t o t a l unity to t o t a l d i s u n i t y .

Here, he i s i n a middle

s t a t e i n which, w h i l e awake, he can c o n t r o l the dark

forces;

but when he s l e e p s , they run rampant and d r i v e out the s t a b -

i l i z i n g s o u l , l e a v i n g him possessed by h i s Purpose, without t h e " l i v i n g p r i n c i p l e " and t h e r e f o r e "a vacated t h i n g , " an animated corpse, a disembodied

agent.

5 5

That which p o s s e s -

ses him must a l s o be i n some measure "a deep sense o f g u i l t , " which P. L. T h o r s l e v says i s " l i k e the brand o f C a i n , "

5 6

Such a b e i n g Id D o r i a n Gray, haunted by h i s c o n s c i e n c e , t h e picture.

I t ( t h e p i c t u r e ) i s i n r e a l i t y the good o r pure

which has been almost e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e d from h i m s e l f , and which m i r r o r s h i s e v i l n a t u r e , as l o n g as he w i l l l e t i t , a c o r r e c t i v e t o him.57

as

Lord Harry o c c u p i e s roughly the same

p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o D o r i a n as F e d a l l a h does to Ahab, t h e p i c t u r e b e i n g p a r a l l e l e d by Starbuck. The scene as a whole i s a l s o q u i t e Hawthornesque; note e s p e c i a l l y "Egotism, o r the Bosom Serpent."

When the

snake "gnaws" Roderick E l l i s t o n , he h i s s e s h i s words, " t e s t i f y i n g h i s agony by i n t r i c a t e w r i t h i n g s ; " the snake i s here "•a dark f a n t a s y , and what i t t y p i f i e s was itselfft."58

S e v e r a l o f E l l i s t o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are rem1

i n i s c e n t o f Ahab's. gnaw them.

as shadowy as

They both c r e a t e the c r e a t u r e s which

Nor i s the a l l e g o r y i n t h i s i n s t a n c e any more

marked i n Hawthorne than i n M e l v i l l e . One

s h o r t q u o t a t i o n w i l l complete the study here o f

Ahab as G o t h i c h e r o - v i l l a i n . crew to f u r t h e r h i s own obey him:

T h i s concerns h i s use o f the

ends, so t h a t they are w i l l i n g t o

46

. . . C a p t a i n Ahab was by no means unobservant of the paramount forms and usages o f the sea. . . . behind those forms and usages, as i t were, he sometimes masked h i m s e l f ; i n c i d e n t a l l y making use o f them f o r o t h e r and more p r i v a t e ends than they were l e g i t i m a t e l y intended t o subserve. . . . For be a man's i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y what i t w i l l , i t can never assume the p r a c t i c a l , a v a i l a b l e supremacy over o t h e r men, without the a i d o f some s o r t of e x t e r n a l a r t s and entrenchments, always, i n themselves, more or l e s s p a l t r y or base. (MD129) T h i s i s another s i d e of the v e i l m o t i f a l r e a d y mentioned c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the s q u a l l , e q u a l l y G o t h i c i n e f f e c t , w i l l be r e v e a l e d by The M i n i s t e r ' s Black V e i l . The

as

Picture

o f D o r i a n Gray. The Monk. The Masque o f the Red Death, many o t h e r s t o r i e s .

Of those named here, the f i r s t

in

and

and

l a s t have t h e c l o s e s t a f f i n i t y with Ahab's p s y c h o l o g i c a l v e i l because

the masks i n them are d e l i b e r a t e l y assumed

f o r a purpose not immediately known.

L i k e Manfred,

i s not so c o n c e r n e d — ' e s p e c i a l l y once he g e t s t o

Ahab

sea—over

what the crew t h i n k s o f him t h a t he f e e l s the need t o p r o v i d e excuses; l i k e Ambrosio, however, he does not wish t o e x c i t e comment, and i s ever w i l l i n g t h a t a wrong reason f o r h i s b e h a v i o r be i n f e r r e d , r a t h e r than a c o r r e c t given.

one

He g i v e s no reason f o r p e r s o n a l l y p r e p a r i n g a spare

whale-boat

f o r the hunt, f o r example, and the crew assumes

t h e Pequod's owners were simply not informed o f h i s l u s t f o r p e r s o n a l whaling. own

They never dream he has shipped h i s

oarsmen, or t h a t h i s s o l e i n t e r e s t i n the voyage i s

Moby D i c k and not p r o f i t .

Masked i n t e n t i o n s thus s e r v e

47 t o i s o l a t e Ahab completely from the r e s t of mankind and p l a c e him among t h e world of f i e n d s and phantoms, whose ways and reasons are e q u a l l y m y s t e r i o u s . We

can t u r n now

t o Ishmael, who

more mysterious than h i s c a p t a i n . p a r t t o the wandering

Jew,

i s i n many ways even

He i s of course a c o u n t e r -

and roams, as the Mariner teaches,

when he i s compelled t o do so.

In a l l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , he i s

a dreamer, m o r a l i z e r , and p h i l o s o p h e r .

I t i s because he, o f

a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n the n o v e l , i s the n a r r a t o r t h a t

we

have the c e t o l o g i c a l c h a p t e r s , t h e d i s c u s s i o n s o f whiteness, t h e symbolic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of mat-making, and the focus on Ahab as the agent of r e a l i z i n g ( i . e . a c t i n g out) wishes.

Ishmael 's 1

In f a c t Ishmael c l o a k s the events and the people

i n the p a r t i c u l a r atmosphere o f the Gothic romance.

The

opening scene of the n o v e l , a v e r s i o n o f t h e b r o o k - i d y l l s e t t i n g which Varma d e s c r i b e s as s t a l e without the c o n t r a s t o f terror-romanticism,59 ±

s

who

though

q u i c k l y t h r u s t a s i d e by

Ishmael,

"not i g n o r i n g what i s good" i s " q u i c k t o p e r c e i v e

a h o r r o r , and c o u l d s t i l l be s o c i a l w i t h i t — w o u l d they l e t me"

(MD16); " t h e y " appears t o r e f e r t o the r e s t o f s o c i e t y ,

from whose p r o t e c t i v e taboos Ishmael longs t o be

free.

As hero, Ishmael d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f more i n terms o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l than p h y s i c a l appearance.

He j u x t a p o s e s him-

s e l f and the c o n d i t i o n s o f h i s l i f e with s e v e r a l types o f p e o p l e — C a t o , landsmen, a m e t a p h y s i c a l p r o f e s s o r , an a r t i s t , N a r c i s s u s , a Commodore or Cook, a s h i p ' s passenger, a con-

48 t e s t a n t f o r the P r e s i d e n c y — a n d a l l o w s h i s own emerge through t h e c o n t r a s t s .

character to

He appears t o have an a f f i n i t y

w i t h the p r o f e s s o r , the a r t i s t , and N a r c i s s u s which i s expanded d u r i n g t h e ensuing c h a p t e r s to form an i n t e r e s t i n g v a r i a t i o n o f the "young h e r o " f i g u r e o f G o t h i c r o m a n c e — t h e Theodore o r Raymond, the young Don J u a n — o f the n o v e l . l i n g e r s about Ishmael an uneasy

sense ( f o r the reader) o f h i s

b e i n g c o n t i n u a l l y f o l l o w e d by the s p e c t r e who s i d e when he was cut

a child.

There

I t was

s a t at h i s bed-

invoked then by h i s h a v i n g

"some caper o r o t h e r , " p r o b a b l y symbolic of o r i g i n a l s i n ;

i n h i s case, the a n t i p a t h y f o r h i s step-mother who him, as he c o n s i d e r s , i n o r d i n a t e l y f o r a s l i g h t He remembers t h a t she "somehow or o t h e r was whipping me,

punishes

misdemeanour.

a l l the time

or sending me t o bed s u p p e r l e s s " (MD32); i n

t h i s case, he " f e l t d r e a d f u l l y

. . .

a great d e a l worse than

I have ever done s i n c e " (MD33) but repentance i s r e p l a c e d by a "bitter

sigh."

T h i s i s Ishmael's i n i t i a t i o n i n t o "the

step-mother world, so l o n g c r u e l — f o r b i d d i n g — "

(MD443),

which he spends the r e s t o f h i s l i f e r e j e c t i n g and which he t r i e s t o escape.

from

But the g u i l t i n c u r r e d i s h i s

c o n s t a n t companion. J . M. S. Tompkins d e a l s w i t h the r i s i n g of

importance

g u i l t as Gothicism comes i n t o i t s own: The a t t i t u d e of the romantic mind towards g u i l t was undergoing an important change o f f a s h i o n d u r i n g the l a s t t e n y e a r s o f the e i g h t e e n t h cent u r y . Whereas the f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t o f contemp l a t i o n had been repentance and e x p i a t i o n , the

49 i n t e r e s t now s h i f t s t o the p a s s i o n a t e excesses t h a t precede them, and p r e s e n t l y repentance ceases to be the most popular s e q u e l t o crime, and y i e l d s to a p i c t u r e s q u e d e f i a n c e . ° 0 " P i c t u r e s q u e d e f i a n c e " seems too g e n t l e a phrase to apply to Ahab's r a v i n g , y e t i t i m p l i e s an a c t i v e movement which i s too s t r o n g f o r Ishmael's p a s s i v i t y . it

Guilt i n Melville

has,

seems, come another s t e p a l o n g the road to modernity

and

become, i n Ishmael's case a t l e a s t , a B a r t l e b y - l i k e a v o i d ance which i s mute, not a s s e r t i v e n e g a t i v i s m . A seeming d i g r e s s i o n may

illuminate t h i s point.

The

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of I s h m a e l s "disappearance" i n the middle f

Mobv-Dick which I suggested t h a t i s , Ishmael may c h a r a c t e r s , who

of

above can be f u r t h e r expanded;

be, i n one sense, a l l the o t h e r major

can be s a i d to r e p r e s e n t a s p e c t s of h i s

p e r s o n a l i t y — A h a b b e i n g the "dark s i d e " of h i s nature, Queequeg the p r i m i t i v e , Stubb the i r r e s p o n s i b l e , and so f o r t h . I f t h i s were the case, then as t h e "voyage" p r o g r e s s e s , coming more dangerous and the c o n f l i c t s more apparent

be-

and

d e s p e r a t e , Ishmael's p e r s o n a l i t y would " s p l i t , " much as i t d i v i d e d under the i n f l u e n c e o f h i s f e a r and g u i l t his

step-mother, u n t i l each o f these v o i c e s was

a separate person.

concerning

embodied i n

Whether o r not t h i s i s s t r i c t l y t r u e , i t

does seem to f u r t h e r support the i d e a o f a p r o j e c t i o n

onto

Ahab o f Ishmael's wishes. These two

c h a r a c t e r s a r e the o p p o s i t e s i d e s of the

same d o u b l o o n — t h e aged, weather-beaten c a p t a i n , narrow of

50 purpose and c l i n g i n g i r o n - l i k e to h i s i d e n t i t y , and the "romantic, melancholy, and absent-minded young" Ishmael, " d i s g u s t e d w i t h the c a r k i n g c a r e s o f e a r t h , and s e e k i n g sentiment i n t a r and b l u b b e r " (MD139),

who

by t h e b l e n d i n g cadence of waves w i t h thoughts, . . . l o s e s h i s i d e n t i t y ; takes the mystic ocean at h i s f e e t f o r t h e v i s i b l e image o f t h a t deep, b l u e , bottomless soul, p e r v a d i n g mankind and nature; and every s t r a n g e , h a l f - s e e n , g l i d i n g , b e a u t i f u l t h i n g t h a t eludes him . . . seems to him the embodiment o f those e l u s i v e thoughts t h a t o n l y people the s o u l by c o n t i n u a l l y f l i t t i n g through i t . In t h i s enchanted mood, thy s p i r i t ebbs away t o whence i t came; becomes d i f f u s e through time and space . . . (MD149) Ishmael i s , i n f a c t , d e s i r o u s o f l o s i n g h i s i d e n t i t y ; i t i s the

purpose o f h i s voyage.

And he succeeds i n f o r g o i n g h i s

i n d i v i d u a l i t y i n o r d e r to l i v e v i c a r i o u s l y i n the l i v e s o f the

r e s t o f the crew.

i s made uneasy:

In t h i s d i v i s i o n o f s e l f , however, he

f i r s t by P i p ' s m i s f o r t u n e , immediately

a f t e r which he e x t o l s the b e n e f i t s o f s o c i a l "let

integration:

us squeeze hands a l l round; nay, l e t us a l l squeeze

o u r s e l v e s i n t o each o t h e r " (MD349); and second by the murderous d i s u n i t y o f Ahab's b e i n g , the "nervous s t e p " (MD141) of

t h e man

goaded by the demon which l e a v e s " s t i l l

stranger

f o o t p r i n t s — t h e f o o t p r i n t s o f h i s one u n s l e e p i n g , e v e r - p a c i n g thought" (MD140).

T r u l y d u r i n g the c o u r s e o f the n o v e l ,

Ishmael l e a r n s how

f o o l i s h he was to attempt t o shuck o f f

the

bonds o f s o c i e t y ; some r e s t r a i n t and some u n i t y i s nec-

essary; the u n l e a s h i n g o f emotions, as Ambrosio, Hyde, and

51 D o r i a n Gray d i s c o v e r , l e a d s o n l y to a n n i h i l a t i o n .

What

Ishmael appears to d e s i r e i s union with n a t u r e , with h i m s e l f b e i n g j u s t a s m a l l p a r t of t h a t whole, but he i s too

inex-

p e r i e n c e d to r e a l i z e the t r e a c h e r y o f n a t u r a l f o r c e s which w i l l l u r e him on j u s t to k i l l him up,

but swallow him,

him.

The water w i l l not buoy

i f he chances t o s l i p i n t o i t , and

t h e " h a l f - s e e n , g l i d i n g , b e a u t i f u l t h i n g " he glimpses sea below may

i n the

be the shark or s q u i d .

In terms o f the y o u t h f u l , i n i t i a t e - h e r o , Ishmael's experience

served to awaken h i s c a p a c i t y f o r

as w e l l as to u n f o l d the mysterious My

self-knowledge

n i g h t - w o r l d before

him.

b e l i e f i s t h a t , w i s h i n g to make h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h i s

world

as c l e a r as p o s s i b l e under the mask of a c o n v e n t i o n a l

sea-voyage such as Typee or Omoo, M e l v i l l e a p p r o p r i a t e d G o t h i c hero convention

as the best through which both t o

v e i l and r e v e a l h i s i n t e n t i o n s . to

the

Ishmael i s the one who

has

l e a r n what l i e s beyond "the f l o o d g a t e s of the wonder

w o r l d , " as he c a l l s i t — t h e c h a r a c t e r o f the world under the surface. site,

He

i s too w i l l i n g to be t r u s t i n g .

Ahab, h i s oppo-

knows the " i n s c r u t a b l e m a l i c e " (MD144) t h a t i s t h e r e ,

and

sees i t as embodied i n the white whale which maimed him

for

no reason.

t u i t s , t h a t man at

He

i s c o n s c i o u s l y aware of what Ishmael i n -

i s i n the g r i p o f nature, t o be s t r u c k down

w i l l by "some unknown but s t i l l

reasoning t h i n g [that]

p u t s f o r t h the mouldings of i t s f e a t u r e s from behind the r e a s o n i n g mask."

un-

As f a r as Ahab i s concerned, t h i s mask i s

52 Moby D i c k ' s f a c e l e s s f r o n t , and t h e reasoner behind i t ,

"be

t h e white whale agent, or be the white whale p r i n c i p a l , " i s what he aims t o s t r i k e . I f man w i l l s t r i k e , s t r i k e through the mask! How can the p r i s o n e r reach o u t s i d e except by t h r u s t i n g through t h e w a l l ? To me, t h e white whale i s t h a t w a l l , shoved near t o me. (MD144) Ahab f e e l s h i m s e l f goaded by the reasoner, which has pushed t h e shape o f Moby D i c k c l o s e t o induce him to attempt subdue i t . i t s own

I f man

to

i s ever t o r u l e , he must meet nature on

terms and overcome i t . I t i s not Ahab's d e s i r e to do t h i s which renders him

i n s a n e ; i t i s h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t he w i l l succeed.

Starbuck

h i m s e l f f e e l s the d e s i r e t o triumph over n a t u r e , as i s i n d i c a t e d by h i s c o n t i n u i n g t o chase the whale i n the s q u a l l , but he knows t h a t e v e r y t h i n g c o n s p i r e s a g a i n s t t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f k i l l i n g Moby D i c k .

The very s t r e n g t h of the beast, a s i d e

from any s u p e r n a t u r a l p o r t e n t s , would t e l l him t h a t .

However,

brave as he might be, i t was t h a t s o r t o f b r a v e r y , c h i e f l y v i s i b l e i n some i n t r e p i d men, which, w h i l e g e n e r a l l y a b i d i n g f i r m i n t h e c o n f l i c t w i t h seas, o r wind, o r whales, o r any . . . o r d i n a r y i r r a t i o n a l h o r r o r s o f the world, y e t cannot w i t h s t a n d those more t e r r i f i c , because more s p i r i t u a l t e r r o r s . . . (MD104) I n o t h e r words, he has l e a r n e d the l e s s o n s Ahab has not l e a r n e d ; he has passed the k i n d o f t e s t t h a t t h i s voyage i s t o Ishmael.

But t h e r e i s too much o f Ahab i n Ishmael f o r

53 him ever t o become l i k e Starbuck; he has not h i s "deep n a t u r a l r e v e r e n c e " (MD103) but r a t h e r Ahab's i r r e v e r e n c e s t r i k e the sun i f i t i n s u l t e d me"

[MD144]).

("I'd

For j u s t

Ahab's mania f o r vengeance i s based on the i n i t i a l

as

loss of

h i s l e g , so Starbuck's s t r o n g f a i t h forms the b a s i s f o r h i s b e l i e f , i n spite of a l l ,

i n the power of God.

"Starbuck i s

Stubb r e v e r s e d , " says Ahab, "and StuBb i s Starbuck" (MD452); t h e two r e p r e s e n t the p o l e s o f too much f a i t h and and too

caring,

little. I n a r e a l sense, then, Starbuck i s the r e p r e s e n t a -

t i v e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s o c i e t y i n the n o v e l .

Gothicism deals

i n p a r t with the need t o escape from b i n d i n g s o c i a l

systems,

and i n s o f a r as Starbuck e x t o l s t h e v i r t u e s o f these

systems,

he i s the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n t h i s n o v e l o f what i s b e i n g r e jected.

H i s i s an outdated, u s e l e s s d o c t r i n e o f avoidance

r a t h e r than a c t i v e r e j e c t i o n or r e s i s t a n c e .

He i s as much

an adversary of Ahab's as the whale i s , but i n h i s goodness l i e s h i s weakness; Ahab i s a b l e t o overcome Starbuck when t h e mate c o n f r o n t s him, and i s spared at Starbuck's hands because he cannot condone murder, even f o r the sake o f righteousness.

T h i s extremism

d e s t r o y s him as s u r e l y as

Ahab's does. Gothic w r i t e r s were f o r the most p a r t aware of the grasp i n which the religious d o c t r i n e s o f d i f f e r e n t

faiths

h e l d t h e i r s o c i e t y , and were eager t o reduce the submission of s o c i e t y to r e l i g i o n .

While the Spanish I n q u i s i t i o n

and

v a r i o u s c r u e l " s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s " l e n t themselves t o adaptation—and

a d o p t i o n — b y t h e w r i t e r s o f t h e G o t h i c , because o f

t h e s u b j e c t matter they a f f o r d e d , i t would be f o o l i s h t o suppose, t h a t i n t r y i n g t o a v o i d and p r o t e s t t h e bonds o f s o c i e t y , they d i d not see t o what extent t h e power o f t h e Church opposed them.

Although condemnation o f r e l i g i o u s

b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s g r a d u a l l y became more popular

and more

widespread, t h e e a r l y Gothic w r i t e r s , such as Walpole and Lewis, t r i e d t o show by c o n t r a s t and example which C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e s were o r were not b e i n g f o l l o w e d .

They d i d not

advocate t h e t o t a l r e j e c t i o n o f f a i t h , but t h e i r t i o n f o r a c c e p t i n g i t changed.

rationaliza-

T h e i r own s t r o n g l y - r o o t e d

b e l i e f s , coming i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e i r d e s i r e t o oppose h y p o c r i s y and f a l s e h o o d , r e s u l t e d i n another o f t h e thematic schisms b a s i c t o Gothicism t h e form.

and r e f l e c t e d i n every aspect o f

Gothic c o n t r a s t and Gothic moral

indetermination

a r e t h e r o o t s f o r t h e c o n t i n u i n g c e n t r a l importance o f theol o g i c a l concerns i n Gothic

literature.

As we have seen, Starbuck*s s o c i a l i s r e l i g i o u s i n nature: r e l i g i o u s i n Gothicism

restrictiveness

because o f t h i s , and because t h e i s p e r v a s i v e , i t may be w e l l t o men-

t i o n , before l e a v i n g t h i s t o p i c , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f Father Mapple.

The monk o r holy man i n t h e Gothic i s , as might be

expected, one o f two types; he i s e i t h e r t h e l i v i n g

proof

o f God's s o l i c i t u d e f o r man as i n Jerome i n The C a s t l e o f Otranto.

o r t h e h y p o c r i t i c a l s i n n e r who " p r o t e s t s too much"

55 by c l o a k i n g h i m s e l f i n the vestments o f the p r i e s t . Ambrosio and Schedoni two

are the l a t t e r type.

Both

Which o f these

F a t h e r Mapple r e p r e s e n t s i s d i f f i c u l t t o say.

Melville

d e s c r i b e s him as p h y s i c a l l y i s o l a t e d and s p i r i t u a l l y

with-

drawn from h i s congregation, and t h e r e i s a touch of the l u d i c r o u s i n h i s " t r u l y s a i l o r - l i k e but s t i l l

reverential

d e x t e r i t y " (MD42) and h i s "'Starboard gangway, t h e r e ! . . . l a r b o a r d gangway to s t a r b o a r d ! M i d s h i p s ! M i d s h i p s ! * "

(MD44).

N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e r e i s a sense o f l o n e l i n e s s and d e s o l a t i o n i n t h i s i s o l a t o which suggests t h a t l i k e Ahab, he has covered t h a t h i s God

i s u n c a r i n g , even m a l i c i o u s .

dis-

Out

of

t h e p i t y o f h i s h e a r t , he has d e d i c a t e d h i s l i f e to c o n c e a l i n g t h i s t r u t h from h i s f e l l o w s so t h a t when they f e e l

the

u n m e r c i f u l g r i p o f t h e storm, they w i l l y e t have hope.

He

c l a i m s to be p r e a c h i n g "the T r u t h t o the f a c e o f But i s he?

Falsehood."

The answer i n d i c a t e d here i s no, f o r Father Map-

p l e i s l e f t c o v e r i n g " h i s f a c e w i t h h i s hands . . . alone i n the p l a c e , " the very p i c t u r e o f the doom he has voiced: it,

"Yea,

woe

to him who,

just

as the great P i l o t Paul

has

w h i l e p r e a c h i n g to o t h e r s i s h i m s e l f a castaway!" (MD50).

Perhaps he i s speaking o f a t r u t h and a f a l s e h o o d which are not of the c o n v e n t i o n a l

church.

C e r t a i n l y M e l v i l l e seems to have wished Father Mapp l e *s sermon to be taken s e r i o u s l y , i n p a r t at l e a s t . c o n t a i n s as much foreshadowing

It

as other s e r i o u s i n c i d e n t s

d o — t h e p i c t u r e on the Spouter-Inn*s

w a l l , f o r example.

It

56 i s d r a m a t i c a l l y r e a l i z e d as a Gothic t a l e i n i t s e l f ,

includ-

i n g t h e p o e t i c i n t e r l u d e common i n Gothic s t o r i e s , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f Jonah i n terms of h i s g u i l t , h i s " e v i l eye" (MD46), and h i s t a k i n g r e f u g e i n a " c o n t r a c t e d h o l e , sunk, too,

be-

neath the s h i p ' s w a t e r - l i n e , " f e e l i n g the burden of "ponderous misery

[which] drags him drowning down t o s l e e p . "

The

storm i s an agent of r e t r i b u t i o n and the s i g n of h i s g u i l t . I t may

be noted f u r t h e r t h a t M e l v i l l e o f f e r s

two

d e f i n i t e p a r o d i e s o f r e l i g i o n , i n o l d F l e e c e ' s sermon and i n Queequeg's worship

of Yojo, and one i n d i c a t i o n o f the f a i l u r e

o f r e l i g i o n i n Starbuck*

and i t would seem l o g i c a l to assume

t h a t he would a l s o p o r t r a y the agony which the l o s s o f b e l i e f can produce.

Father Mapple may

be p a r a l l e l t o t h e Hermit i n

t h e Rime, except t h a t he i s f u l l y aware of how oak

r o t t e n i s the

stump on which he k n e e l s . What i s Gothic about t h e c h a r a c t e r s I have d i s c u s s e d

here--Ahab, F e d a l l a h , Ishmael,

Starbuck, and F a t h e r M a p p l e —

i s , broadly speaking, t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p with the

super-

n a t u r a l , c e r t a i n aspects o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s ( e v i l

eye,

wandering nature, e t c . ) , t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e i r s e t t i n g s , and t h e i r i s o l a t i o n from mankind* what i s more than Gothic l i e s i n "the way

i n which t h e i r f a n a t i c i s m s a r e

analyzed, i n the d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n given to t h e i r impulses."

0 2

hidden

M e l v i l l e i s the a n a l y s t par e x c e l l e n c e j

wit-

ness, f o r example, i n what r e v e l a t o r y l i g h t the doubloon throws the people who

approach i t .

"Untouchable and immacu-

l a t e , " i t i s at l e a s t a t r i p a r t i t e symbol, b e i n g "the white whale's t a l i s m a n , " "the image o f t h e rounder globe, which, l i k e a magician's g l a s s , t o each and every man

i n t u r n but

m i r r o r s back h i s own mysterious s e l f " (MD359), and t h i r d , "a s i g n t h a t t h i n g s grow d e s p e r a t e " (MD363).

Further, i t i s a

symbol o f both t h e sun ( F e d a l l a h , the Z o r o a s t r i a n , bows bef o r e i t ) and t h e moon, f o r i t s l i g h t i s a l l r e f l e c t e d , not i n w a r d l y generated.

I t m i r r o r s sea and l a n d , and though

"through the l i v e l o n g n i g h t s shrouded w i t h t h i c k darkness" (MD359)> i s m y s t i c a l l y p r e s e r v e d i n i t s p l a c e .

These a r e

but a few o f i t s "meanings," y e t they r e v e a l t h a t as t a l i s man,

t h e doubloon s e r v e s the same purposes as i t s c o u n t e r -

p a r t s i n other Gothic novels. The Monk i s a good example.

The p o r t r a i t o f the V i r g i n i n I t a c h i e v e s a purpose o p p o s i t e

t o the one f o r which i t seems t o e x i s t j t h i s f a l s i t y

paral-

l e l s t h e f a c t about t h e doubloon, t h a t whatever i s seen i n it

i s i n v e r t e d by i t s m i r r o r - l i k e p r o p e r t y o f r e f l e c t i o n .

As the p o r t r a i t expresses Ambrosio*s t r u e n a t u r e , so the doubloon r e f l e c t s t h e i n n e r mental substance o f those who read i t ;

and as t h e p o r t r a i t i s an image o f t h e f a l s i t y o f

r e l i g i o n i n The Monk (and almost a l l the r e l i g i o u s

figures

here are f a l s e ) , so t h e doubloon shows the f a l s i t y o f material

v a l u e s and t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f a t t a i n i n g t o s p i r i t u a l Another good example i s Hawthorne's s t o r y ,

ones.

"The

Great C a r b u n c l e , " i n which s e v e r a l people, n o t a b l y an o l d man

named t h e Seeker, "condemned to wander among the

mountains u n t i l the end of t i m e , "

0,5

search f o r a jewel which

i s o f t e n , l i k e the doubloon, "shrouded

with t h i c k

darkness,"

and which changes i t s c h a r a c t e r — a n d i t s a c c e s s i b i l i t y — d e pending on the a t t i t u d e o f t h e s e a r c h e r . o f t h e Seeker's

Thus the success

endeavour i s shown by h i s death*

the Cynic

i s b l i n d e d by the stone " f o r the w i l f u l b l i n d n e s s o f h i s former l i f e ; " 4 the l o v e r s alone g a i n the wisdom t o r e j e c t 0

it,

and are content merely

to perpetuate i t s legend.

I n t e r e s t e d as M e l v i l l e i s i n symbolic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o r e v e a l t r u t h , he seems t o have been aware t h a t the l e s s s p e c i f i c he was,

t h e c l o s e r he would enable h i s readers t o

come t o h i s a c t u a l meaning.

Thus the many examples of the

compounded good and e v i l i n whiteness.

Thus a l s o h i s use o f

c o n t r a s t r a t h e r than e x p l i c a t i o n ; and thus h i s a r t i s t i c o f t h e v e i l m o t i f which he may

use

have taken d i r e c t l y from h i s

Gothic sources. I have s e v e r a l times r e f e r r e d t o the v e i l image as G o t h i c , and o f i t s use as such i n Mobv-Dick.

I t may

be w e l l

t o expand the p o i n t somewhat, s i n c e the image i s a f a i r l y complex one, it.

and s i n c e Conrad a l s o makes p a r t i c u l a r use o f

I t i n c l u d e s , t o begin with, s e v e r a l o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d

images:

first,

darkness; t h e m i s t or f o g , and the c l o a k o r

mask, a l l p r o v i d i n g d i r e c t concealment. devices.

They are p r o t e c t i v e

I n D o r i a n Gray. D o r i a n no sooner d i s c o v e r s a change

i n h i s p o r t r a i t ' s f e a t u r e s than he draws a c u r t a i n b e f o r e i t . His action i s psychologically repressive.

It i s protective

59 for

the moment, but n o t s u l t i m a t e l y , because i f he had

s h i e l d e d h i m s e l f from the f a c t o f h i s changing would p o s s i b l y not have d e s t r o y e d h i m s e l f .

not

nature,

he

Often i n G o t h i c -

ism the mask or v e i l r e p r e s e n t s s o c i e t y ' s i n s t i n c t t o h i d e i t s own

u g l i n e s s ; t h i s i s what Dorian's c u r t a i n

symbolizes.

The u g l i n e s s i n c r e a s e s underneath, but s o c i e t y i s p r o t e c t e d from i t ; n e v e r t h e l e s s t h i s s e l f - i m p o s e d b l i n d n e s s

forebodes

t h e i n e s c a p a b l e , c e r t a i n a n n i h i l a t i o n of s o c i e t y . Here we can see the s t r u c t u r a l n e c e s s i t y o f the m o t i f i n Gothicism.

Most G o t h i c w r i t e r s shape t h e i r

around one c e n t r a l i d e a :

stories

t h a t the unknown must be faced

conquered b e f o r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l (who by n a t u r e and who

veil

i s o f t e n an

and

aristocrat

r e p r e s e n t s mankind i n general) can use h i s

f r e e w i l l to mature and p r o g r e s s i n , with, or f o r the sake of,

the s o c i a l framework.

The manner i n which t h e unknown

o r the v e i l i s p i e r c e d , however, i s c r u c i a l .

Ishmael p i e r c e s

t h e mask o f the unknown and emerges i n t a c t , but "a sadder a w i s e r man;" stroyed.

Oedipus p e n e t r a t e s the same v e i l and i s de-

In the former case, the s o c i e t y i s not m a t e r i a l l y

b e n e f i t e d ; i n the l a t t e r , i t i s saved

i f not redeemed.

E a r l y Gothic w r i t e r s , t e n d i n g towards the l a t t e r g i v e way

situation,

to more p e s s i m i s t i c authors, such as I b e l i e v e

C o l e r i d g e and M e l v i l l e are, who a r e capable of b e i n g saved;

seem to f e e l t h a t few

people

to them the r e s t of s o c i e t y i s

knowingly, or at l e a s t u n c a r i n g l y b l i n d , and t h e r e f o r e doomed.

and

60 Thus i s the v e i l , which i s sometimes d e p i c t e d as darkness, a f o g , or a mask, a p e c u l i a r l y Gothic d e v i c e . Many v a r i a t i o n s on t h i s theme grow around the c e n t r a l cept.

con-

There are, f o r example, t h i n g s which seem to be what

they a r e not:

images i n m i r r o r or water, f o r example, or

"living" portraits. s p e c i a l depth.

Who

The p o r t r a i t image i s o f t e n given i s to say, f o r example, which (up u n t i l

t h e moment of h i s death) i s the r e a l D o r i a n — t h e person or the p i c t u r e ?

More o f the t r u e D o r i a n hangs behind the c u r -

t a i n ; t h e person i s a sham, a mask, not the r e a l i t y , but the i d e a l i z a t i o n ( i n appearance) t i v e extremely r a r e l y .

o f a p o t e n t i a l which i s opera-

D i f f e r e n t t y p e s of "double"

a l s o p r o v i d e concealment.

One o b j e c t o f t e n r e p r e s e n t s d i f -

ferent things to d i f f e r e n t people: b e i n g may

imagery

t h e ghost and the l i v i n g

be s u b s t i t u t e s f o r each o t h e r , as may

two

c a l people, such as Poe d e p i c t s i n W i l l i a m W i l s o n .

identiFinally,

t h e images of the dream-world and the unconscious are sometimes d e p i c t e d as "doubles" of one k i n d or another. Used as a G o t h i c m o t i f , the v e i l has as i t s primary purpose the h e i g h t e n i n g of the atmosphere and the g e n e r a l l y by means of suspense.

emotions,

I t s effectiveness i n doing

t h i s i s f a i r l y obvious and f a i r l y p r i m i t i v e .

L a t e r , an a u x i l -

i a r y purpose emerges, which i s t o d e f i n e r e a l i t y and/or T h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s most s u c c e s s f u l when s t a t e d so t h a t v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s may

truth.

symbolically

be i n f e r r e d ; when, i n

o t h e r words, i t shades b l a c k and white i n t o gray, b r e a k i n g

61

down a l l c e r t a i n t y and e s t a b l i s h i n g new c r i t e r i a and t r u e . gray—the it

The v e i l i s the p a l p a b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e enigma.

Thus i t c o n t a i n s both good and bad. I f

c o u l d be p i e r c e d , one o r t h e o t h e r would emerge, but i n

f a c t the attempt to p i e r c e i t l e a d s t o s p i r i t u a l tion. it

of false

annihila-

The awareness o f i t s e x i s t e n c e and t h e acceptance o f

are the safest goals. I t i s not as i f we do not know what l i e s beyond t h i s

intangible barrier.

Behind R a d c l i f f e * s v e i l i s death.

w r i t e r s p u t t h e r e not death, but t h e world o f t h e dead. s u p e r n a t u r a l l i e s beyond t h e mist i n t o which Pym

Later The

drifts.

The M i n i s t e r ' s b l a c k v e i l , i t may be assumed, hides i n t a n g i b l e y e t almost p a l p a b l e s i n ; and s i n as crime i s one manif e s t a t i o n o f J e k y l l ' s o t h e r , dark s e l f ,

hidden

him as s i n i s hidden behind t h e k i n d e s t f a c e . veil

(Hyde?) i n Under Agnes*

( f o r t h e b l e e d i n g nun i s impersonating Agnes) t h e r e i s

a s o u l i n anguish,

animated by

guilt.

There are, then, some who go beyond t h e v e i l and s u r v i v e i n one form o r another. again, t h e p r o t o t y p e .

The A n c i e n t Mariner i s ,

J u s t as important

a r e those c h a r a c t e r s

who l i v e t h e experience v i c a r i o u s l y and g a i n i n s i g h t annihilation. three. of

without

The Wedding-Guest, Ishmael, and Marlow a r e

What i s t r u e o f t h e major p r o t a g o n i s t s i s a l s o t r u e

them t o a degree.

l a y e r s to the v e i l .

With t h e Mariner, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l The i n i t i a l one i s t h e "mist and snow"

through which he enters a s u r r e a l i s t i c world o f strange

dream-noises and green i c e - f l o e s ( s u r e l y they c o n t a i n t h e e s s e n t i a l , unseen t h r e a t that t h e sea c o n t a i n s ) . i s i n t h i s world, f o g i t came."

While he

" d i d c r o s s an A l b a t r o s s , / Thorough t h e

The Mariner

kills it,

but a s i d e from t h e

momentary, n a t u r a l d i s a p p r o v a l o f h i s f e l l o w s , t h e r e i s no immediate change.

They mistake t h e sun and breeze f o r good

s i g n s , but these m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , l i k e t h e storm which s p r i n g s up when Jonah i s a t sea, symbolize

h i s g u i l t and a r e made

c o n c r e t e i n t h e a l b a t r o s s when i t i s hung around h i s neck. So f a r , then, t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e v e i l c o n v e n t i o n a l Gothic t h e m e s — d e a t h , crime,

reveals

g u i l t and i t s

p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n , and s p i r i t u a l s t a g n a t i o n .

Definite

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p o i n t s a t which t h e Mariner

passes

through subsequent l a y e r s o f t h e v e i l would simply

invite

disagreement; however, one would seem t o be "When t h a t strange

s h i p drove suddenly / Betwixt

us and t h e Sun" ( U .

174-375)»

and another where t h e Mariner

f e e l s he has d i e d and

become a ghost (11.304-307).

The important

t h i n g about h i s

f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e unknown i s t h a t he becomes l e s s and l e s s a b l e t o again be a b s o l u t e l y human.

Each step i s

l i k e a moment o f awareness, and between t h e moments a r e dream-sequences which r e v e a l h i s i n c r e a s i n g alienation.

subconscious

The u l t i m a t e v e i l through which t h e Mariner

must r e p e a t e d l y go, i s t h e one which s e p a r a t e s h i s s e a r c h i n g and

h i s trance s t a t e s .

And t h i s i s probably

t h e most mean-

i n g f u l one, because i t has something o f the c h a r a c t e r o f a

63 web

as w e l l as a f o g — e n g u l f i n g and i m p r i s o n i n g those

whom i t spreads. own

before

I t b l i n d s the v i c t i m Wedding-Guest to h i s

world w h i l e i t imparts

i n n e r v i s i o n , but when h i s eyes

open again, he i s as o l d as Rip Van Winkle o r Ishmael, as a l i e n a t e d as B a r t l e b y , and more l i k e l y than not, Now,

C o l e r i d g e ' s avowed purpose was

mad.

to " t r a n s f e r

from our inward nature a human i n t e r e s t and a semblance o f t r u t h , " to f i n d the t r u t h i n f i c t i o n and conscious, world.

r e a l i t y i n the

un-

to f i n d meaning i n the supposedly f a l s e or dream

And

w h i l e C o l e r i d g e moved from the s u p e r n a t u r a l

the n a t u r a l , "Mr.

Wordsworth . . . was

to

to propose to h i m s e l f

as h i s o b j e c t , to g i v e the charm of n o v e l t y to t h i n g s of every day, natural; "

and to e x c i t e a f e e l i n g analogous to the superi n other words, he was

6 5

working from the

other

s i d e o f the v e i l , n a t u r a l t o s u p e r n a t u r a l , to achieve

the

same union C o l e r i d g e worked towards, and the same one ( i n s p i t e of C o l e r i d g e ' s o p i n i o n of G o t h i c l i t e r a t u r e ) intended: natural."

"the marriage of the s u p e r n a t u r a l with

Walpole the

6 7

With Moby-Dick. I have attempted t o show how union ism,

i s more completely

achieved

w i t h the t o o l s of

this Gothic-

so t h a t a work d e l v i n g f u r t h e r i n t o the l a b y r i n t h o f

the human mind and e x i s t e n c e was

i t s conception

created.

o f the reasons f o r human

The u n d e r l y i n g themes of the

Gothic

n o v e l , which C o l e r i d g e began.to e x p l o r e and which M e l v i l l e extended, are again broadened and

deepened i n the works of

64 Joseph Conrad.

Now I have a l r e a d y s a i d t h a t I b e l i e v e t h a t

the G o t h i c , when taken t o t h e extreme, becomes myth.

This

tendency h a r d l y e x i s t s a t a l l i n The C a s t l e o f Otranto. but it

can be d i s c o v e r e d i n Melmoth t h e Wanderer.

Mobv-Dick i s

68 a leviathan-myth,

but has many other concerns as w e l l .

Lord Jim, on t h e o t h e r hand, can be l a r g e l y i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e myth o f t h e young initiate-hero.°^

Y e t i t can a l s o be

s a i d t o have been handled as a G o t h i c t a l e o f t h e E n g l i s h s t y l e , s u g g e s t i v e , r a t h e r than d e s c r i p t i v e , o f beauty and horror

alike. Conrad's aims do indeed

appear t o have been very

c l o s e t o those o f Walpole and C o l e r i d g e quoted above. .

. . have never sought i n t h e w r i t t e n word a n y t h i n g

"I else

but a form o f t h e B e a u t i f u l " c o u l d as w e l l have been Radc l i f f e ' s as Conrad's statement.*

70

And i n t h e "Author's

Note" t o W i t h i n t h e T i d e s , he w r i t e s f u r t h e r : . . . t h e mere f a c t o f d e a l i n g with matters outs i d e t h e g e n e r a l run o f everyday experiences l a i d me under t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f a more scrupulous f i d e l i t y t o t h e t r u t h o f my own s e n s a t i o n s . The problem was to make u n f a m i l i a r t h i n g s c r e d i b l e . To do t h a t I had t o c r e a t e f o r them, t o reproduce f o r them, t o envelop them i n t h e i r proper atmosphere o f a c t u a l i t y . 7 1 ( i t a l i c s mine.) A g a i n i t i s t h e atmosphere as s e t t i n g which i s t h e f i r s t sideration.

con-

Next come the c h a r a c t e r s , not c h a r a c t e r s f o r

t h e i r own sake, but now f o r t h e sake o f t h e i r p a s s i o n s , f o r the sake o f t h e human t r u t h they r e v e a l .

Conrad d e s c r i b e d

h i m s e l f as a " t r a n s l a t o r o f p a s s i o n s i n t o speech,"''

5

confes-

s i n g at the same time to what Lewis found too t r u e , t h a t "to render

a c r u c i a l p o i n t o f f e e l i n g s i n terms o f human speech

i s r e a l l y an i m p o s s i b l e t a s k .

W r i t t e n words can o n l y form a

71 s o r t of t r a n s l a t i o n . " '

0

Again we

a r e reminded o f Ishmael's

words, " e x p l a i n myself I must, e l s e a l l these c h a p t e r s might be naught" (MD163). his

" t r a n s l a t i o n " w i t h the emotional

understanding way:

Yet t h e r e i s a way

of the t r u t h of any

"only a meticulous

i n t e n s i t y necessary

for

s i t u a t i o n ; i t i s Lewis's

p r e c i s i o n of statement would b r i n g

out the t r u e h o r r o r behind (LJ24).

f o r Conrad to imbue

the a p p a l l i n g f a c e o f t h i n g s "

The d i f f e r e n c e between Lewis and Conrad here i s

t h a t Lewis's statements are i n themselves h o r r i b l e , whereas any

one o f Conrad's statements o f f a c t , taken by i t s e l f , i s

not h o r r i b l e . ity

They seem n a t u r a l and

cannot be c o n s i d e r e d

s e t t i n g and c h a r a c t e r .

e x p l i c a b l e , but i n r e a l -

apart from such o t h e r " f a c t s " "The

suspense of e x t e r n a l

as

circum-

s t a n c e i s de-emphasized i n f a v o r of i n c r e a s i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l concern with moral ambiguity."74

Conrad's i n s t i n c t i s f o r

G o t h i c t e r r o r , not Gothic h o r r o r , because he knows t h a t " r e a l i t y c o u l d not be h a l f as bad, a p p a l l i n g , and imagination"

vengeful

(LJ83).

not h a l f as

anguishing,

as the c r e a t e d t e r r o r o f . . .

So he t u r n s e x t e r n a l circumstance

p s y c h o l o g i c a l circumstance.

What the unknown c o n s i s t s o f ,

as The M y s t e r i e s o f Udolpho shows, i s not as bad as what t h i n k s i t does.

into

one

I f t h i s were not so, no c r i t i c would have

66 taken R a d c l i f f e to t a s k f o r her n a t u r a l i s t i c

explanations.

The accomplishment o f Conrad's design, l i k e M e l v i l l e ' s , p a r a l l e l e d to some extent t h a t of the Gothic n o v e l i s t s ,

and

h i s use of Gothic m o t i f s f u r t h e r e d t h e i r design to t h a t

ex-

tent.

In l i t e r a t u r e as much as i n a r c h i t e c t u r e , the q u a l i t y

o f G o t h i c i s m cannot be rendered stituents.

i n t o essence,

(Yet i t i s g r e a t e r than the sum

but i n t o con-

of i t s m o t i f s -

g r e a t e r because o f mood, which i s evoked by the m o t i f s but which i s d i f f e r e n t from them because i t cannot e x i s t apart from them, while they can each e x i s t alone.)

I n s o f a r as a

G o t h i c m o t i f i s present i n a a work o f a r t , t h a t work i s G o t h i c ; t h e more such elements t h a t are p r e s e n t , the more Gothic i s t h e work. We

should not t h i n k , because the e v o l u t i o n o f h o r r o r -

and t e r r o r - r o m a n t i c i s m has d i s g u i s e d the e a r l y Gothic

char-

a c t e r i s t i c s i n l i t e r a t u r e , t h a t Gothicism no l o n g e r e x c i t e s t h e same emotions. and t h e senses

S u b l i m i t y of f e e l i n g , i n which the mind

are u n i t e d , n a t u r a l l y l e a v e s an

indelible

i m p r e s s i o n on the reader, and i s t h e r e f o r e t o be by t h e a r t i s t .

attempted

S i n c e the mind can j u s t i f y the a c t i o n s and

emotions of the body without

b e i n g a b l e to v e r b a l i z e an under-

s t a n d i n g of them, t h e r e e x i s t s a union o f mind and body which cannot be e x p l i c a t e d f o r the reader without him of l i k e emotions.

Conrad was

the a r o u s a l i n

interested i n achieving

t h i s e x t r a - l i n g u i s t i c s u b l i m i t y i n Lord Jim. not, as Mobv-Dick i s , a Gothic n o v e l .

Lord Jim i s

But elements of

G o t h i c i s m are s t r o n g i n i t . t h e s e elements

And through examination of

we can d i s c e r n t h e i r gradual metamorphosis

i n t o myth. To j u s t i f y my

f e e l i n g t h a t Conrad used the Gothic i n

h i s f i c t i o n , I wish to c o n s i d e r f o r a moment h i s s h o r t s t o r y "The

Inn of the Two Witches."

I t s c e n t r a l p l o t i s Gothic,

and was used as such by W i l k i e C o l l i n s i n "A T e r r i b l y Bed."

The d i f f e r e n c e between the two

g i v e s an i n s i g h t i n t o the way

stories

themselves

the Gothic has been

In c o n t r a s t w i t h C o l l i n s , Conrad l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f the s t o r y .

Strange

developed.

c o n c e n t r a t e s on the

psycho-

The same b u i l d - u p o f f o r e -

shadowing marks each t a l e , but Conrad t e r y and f e a r by p r e s e n t i n g Tom

s t r e n g t h e n s t h a t mys-

C o r b i n * s body, so t h a t mere

Death i t s e l f i s not to be f e a r e d as i t i s i n C o l l i n s *

tale.

Fear c o n t r o l s Byrne; Roderick Usher*s c o n v i c t i o n , " I must abandon l i f e and reason t o g e t h e r , i n some s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e grim phantasm, FEAR," expresses what Byrne f e e l s , t h a t "comp l e t e t e r r o r had p o s s e s s i o n of him" and t h a t "he would have t o d i e b e f o r e the morning."

Conrad

s t r e s s e s on the one hand

t h e a b s o l u t e t r u t h to the f a c t s o f the s t o r y , w h i l e on the o t h e r hand conceding t h a t i m a g i n a t i o n i s p o t e n t l y at work. Thus he e f f e c t s t h e union o f the r e a l and the s u p e r n a t u r a l which i s so important t o G o t h i c i s m .

(One i s reminded of The

Shadow-Line, where Conrad uses the same technique.)

The

g i n n i n g o f the s t o r y e s t a b l i s h e s an a i r o f a u t h o r i t y

and

archaism—though

Conrad

immediately

denies the l a t t e r

be-

effect,

68 thus making t h e s t o r y more contemporary,

c l o s e r t o the r e a d e r .

The " l o s t manuscript" d e v i c e i s common i n G o t h i c t a l e s . t h e r e s t , Conrad

For

e s t a b l i s h e s a c o n v e n t i o n a l framework, empha-

s i z i n g t h e romanticism and " w i l d gloomy" atmosphere o f t h e s e t t i n g and t h e s t o r y i t s e l f , of

t h e i n v i n c i b i l i t y and goodness

Tom, and n o t a b l y , the n a i v e t e o f Edgar Byrne.

Byrne i s

young, ready to accept at f a c e value whatever he i s t o l d (which c h a r a c t e r i s t i c induces him t o b e l i e v e t h e Spanish dwarf's two c o n t r a d i c t o r y addresses t o him, both times w i t h out q u e s t i o n and both times t o Tom's d e t r i m e n t ) , and e a s i l y led

t o see t h i n g s as o t h e r s wish him t o .

The o n l y depth o f

human u n d e r s t a n d i n g he d i s p l a y s ^ r e s u l t s i n h i s i n f e r r i n g p e t t y covetousness i n the Spanish dwarf.

There are c o n t i n u a l

a l l u s i o n s t o t h e presence o f t h e d e v i l and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e one-eyed w i n e - s e l l e r and h i s witches o f aunts which foreshadow t h e events i n t h e f o r e s t , y e t which seem a t t h e same time c a l c u l a t e d t o r e v e a l t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e o f Byrne, who i s induced to t h i n k i m a g i n a t i v e l y r a t h e r than r a t i o n a l l y , because he h a l f b e l i e v e s i n the s u p e r n a t u r a l powers o f those around him. Thus i t i s t h a t , m e t a p h o r i c a l l y speaking, Byrne walks i n t o t h e darkness, "the n i g h t which f e l l age over h i s eyes."

He a l l o w s h i s emotions

l i k e a band-

t o govern

him—

"he f e l t r a t h e r than saw"—because h i s mind has become b l i n d ed t o a c t u a l i t y .

H i s subconscious takes him over and p r e -

s e n t s each sequence o f events i m a g i n a t i v e l y * thus t h e f o r e s t

i n n "rise[s] from the ground" and comes " g l i d i n g t o meet him, dumb and p a l l i d , from some dark r e c e s s o f the n i g h t . "

His

e n t r y i n t o i t and i n t o the f o r e s t s i g n i f i e s the a s s e r t i o n o f t h e subconscious mind, i n t o which he must p e n e t r a t e as a t e s t to prove h i s l o y a l t y and h i s m a n l i n e s s .

Tom's r e l a -

t i o n s h i p to him i s d e s c r i b e d i n p r e c i s e l y the terms t h a t a f r i e n d l y watchdog's t o a c h i l d would be.

Only i n t h i s

story,

the o n l y dog which p r e s e n t s i t s e l f i s an "unclean i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e E v i l One

. . .

an unlucky presage."

Thus t h e r e are s e v e r a l a s p e c t s t o Byrne's need t o s e c u r e Tom's s a f e t y . over Tom. known.

F i r s t , he must a s s e r t h i s l e a d e r s h i p

Second, he must purge h i m s e l f of f e a r o f the un-

T h i r d , he must e x p l o r e h i s own

knowledge of h i m s e l f .

dark nature t o g a i n

A l l these are accomplished by h i s

entry i n t o the house and h i s s e a r c h f o r the coxswain; trial

the

he undergoes i s a k i n d o f i n i t i a t i o n i n t o manhood. W h i l e Byrne i s i n the house, the a c t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o

f o l l o w the c o n v e n t i o n a l G o t h i c p a t t e r n .

The f l i c k e r i n g can-

d l e , by t h e l i g h t of which Byrne i s l e d to h i s room, t h e presence o f i n e x p l i c a b l e death, "the h a u n t i n g sound of Tom's v o i c e , " t h e a n x i e t y which "had never taken a d e f i n i t e shape" — a l l

t h e s e d e v i c e s a r e more o b v i o u s l y G o t h i c i n t h i s

than i n any o f Conrad's other works.

story

I t i s as i f he were

here u s i n g them to d i s g u i s e some other aspect of t h e s t o r y . I t c o u l d be t h a t , although these v a r i o u s d e v i c e s form an o s t e n s i b l e t e s t f o r Byrne which he o s t e n s i b l y passes, he does

70 not a c t u a l l y achieve the m a t u r i t y the reader i s l e d t o bel i e v e he s h o u l d . z a l e s why

He

awakens as i f from a dream t o ask Gon-

the gypsy wished him deaL though he has had

o f the a v a r i c e which prompted Tom's murder.

He

proof

accepts

w i t h h i s u s u a l unthinkingness the assurance " t h a t e v e r y t h i n g f i t t i n g has been done" even though the murder of — a n d probably o f h i s two

Bernardino

aunts a l s o — c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h i s

" e v e r y t h i n g f i t t i n g , " and h i s c o n s c i e n c e i s q u e l l e d by s i m p l i s t i c moral r e f l e c t i o n which c l o s e s the a f f a i r : p a s s i o n f o r g o l d i s p i t i l e s s i n the very o l d

the "the

..."

I f , however, Conrad d i d use the conventions of Gothi c i s m t o mask a c u r r e n t of i r o n y i n h i s s t o r y , he more o f t e n seems t o i n v e r t t h i s procedure

so t h a t i t i s the Gothicism

which i s hidden and transformed, which appears on the s u r f a c e .

and t h e d o u b t f u l m o r a l i t y

T h i s i s perhaps the case with

Lord Jim, w r i t t e n f i f t e e n y e a r s b e f o r e "The Inn o f the Witches,"

Two

and a good example of h i s more customary method of

p r e s e n t i n g the t e r r o r o f the unknown.

The two

stories

t a i n many of the same elements i n v a r y i n g combinations, r e v e a l a remarkable

conand

contrast i n effect.

I t i s more important w i t h Lord Jim than with MobyD i c k t o d i s c u s s f i r s t the w e l l - s p r i n g s of G o t h i c i s m — s e t t i n g , mood, and c h a r a c t e r — a n d s e t t i n g i s again the primary sideration. it

con-

As much as i n any of the e a r l y G o t h i c n o v e l s ,

i n f l u e n c e s the main c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r r e a c t i o n s ' i t

i s a l s o a u s e f u l v e h i c l e f o r r e v e a l i n g the c h a r a c t e r s t o the

71 reader. and,

To a great extent, i t i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l

landscape,

as with Moby-Dick, much o f t h e most important

imagery

i s again connected with the s e a .

In C o l e r i d g e ' s Rime, t h e Mariner We were the f i r s t t h a t ever Into t h a t s i l e n t s e a .

says burst

These two l i n e s f o l l o w a mad w h i r l o f a c t i o n , n o i s e , storm, s w i f t movement, and t h e prime i n i t i a t o r o f a c t i o n , t h e shooti n g of the albatross.

Coming at t h i s p o i n t , they have t h e

same e f f e c t as t h e l o u d bang which awakens a s l e e p e r from a tumultuous nightmare t o t h e profound and a b s o l u t e s i l e n c e o f a darkened house.

I n t h e Rime, they precede t h e most v i v i d

scene i n the whole poem, t h e s t i l l

sea and s h i p , l i f e l e s s

under t h e bloody sun. Conrad opens Lord Jim with t h i s same d e v i c e , and i t has t h e same v i v i d e f f e c t .

A f t e r a sudden rush o f a c t i v i t y ,

i n which Jim's person and h i s t o r y a r e d e s c r i b e d , some o f h i s experiences

and f a i l u r e s , t h e d e v a s t a t i n g r e s u l t o f t h e sea's

anger, h i s a c c i d e n t and recovery, h i s o p i n i o n o f h i m s e l f and o t h e r s , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the Patna and her occupants; a l l t h i s i s d e p i c t e d i n a few pages, suddenly Conrad the s i l e n t s h i p " c l e a v i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y

after

presents

t h e great calm o f t h e

waters under t h e i n a c c e s s i b l e s e r e n i t y o f t h e sky" (LJ16), l e a v i n g "a white r i b b o n o f foam t h a t vanished

at once, l i k e

t h e phantom o f a t r a c k drawn upon a l i f e l e s s sea by t h e

phantom o f a steamer" ( L J 1 4 ) . which " g l i d e d past day

The r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e sun,

. . . and sank m y s t e r i o u s l y

a f t e r day, enforces

into the sea"

t h e u n i v e r s a l , monotonous q u i e t o f

t h e world, "with t h e b l a c k speck o f t h e moving h u l l remaining everlastingly i n i t s centre" This utter s t i l l n e s s ,

(LJ15).^

i n which J i m i s "penetrated

the great c e r t i t u d e o f unbounded s a f e t y and peace" has

(LJ15),

f o r him t h e a t t r i b u t e o f a l l o w i n g him t o enter h i s

l i c dream-world* i t i s t h e image o f h i s confidence

by

idyl-

i n him-

s e l f and i n h i s environment t o provide,fs-ultimately, t h e "coming event" which w i l l i n c r e a s e h i s s t a t u r e t o t h e h e r o i c , and

f o r which " h i s eyes . . . seemed t o gaze h u n g r i l y "

But

t h i s c e r t i t u d e which p o s s e s s e s him i s "read on t h e s i l e n t

aspect

of nature."

Like the p i l g r i m s

i r o n s h e l l of t h e i r f i r e - s h i p , " naive. has

1

(LJ16).

mistaken t r u s t i n " t h e

J i m s t r u s t i n nature i s f

He has y e t t o l e a r n , as Ishmael does, t h a t t h e sea

a c a r e l e s s and d e s t r u c t i v e power which i s "not so o f t e n

made apparent," and that t h e r e a r e many shades i n t h e danger o f adventures and g a l e s , and i t i s o n l y now and then t h a t t h e r e appears . . . a s i n i s t e r v i o l e n c e o f i n t e n t i o n — t h a t i n d e f i n a b l e something which f o r c e s i t upon t h e mind t h a t . . . these elemental f u r i e s a r e coming at him with a purpose o f m a l i c e , with a s t r e n g t h beyond c o n t r o l , with an u n b r i d l e d c r u e l t y . . . (LJ10) The

sea as landscape i n Lord Jim,

I s h m a e l s sea. f

then, has t h e f o r c e o f

The unexpected appearance o f a d e s t r u c t i v e

element i n i t , be i t submerged deadwood, storm ("the s h i p

73 quivered

...

as i f the thunder had growled deep down i n 7A

the

waterB [ L J 2 2 ] ) , o r whale,'

s h i f t s Jim's world from the

romantic t o the t e r r o r landscape: the

"suddenly the calm sea,

sky without a c l o u d , appeared f o r m i d a b l y i n s e c u r e i n

t h e i r i m m o b i l i t y , as i t p o i s e d on the brow o f yawning s t r u c t i o n " (LJ21).

de-

These very a s p e c t s i n which he found

hope a r e the ones he comes to f e a r .

Again, as i n the G o t h i c

n o v e l , the agent o f d e s t r u c t i o n comes i n the d i s g u i s e o f a help-mate.

Jim goes t o sea t o f i n d adventure, and h i s wish

is ironically

fulfilled.

As John O l i v e r P e r r y p o i n t s out, . . . one o f the undeniable triumphs o f Conrad's work i s t h e achievement o f a profound sense o f mystery and o p p r e s s i v e dimness and gloom, whether i t be i n a t o r r e n t i a l downpour at sea, an imp e n e t r a b l e j u n g l e , or a man's soul.77 Jim's jump i s from the i d y l l i c world o f h i s romantic imaginat i o n " i n t o an everlasting deep h o l e " ( L J 8 2 ) , t h e "abyss o f u n r e s t " ( L J l l ) which p a r a l l e l s the G o t h i c p r i s o n , or

tomb:

(LJ88).

"We

were l i k e men

labyrinth,

w a l l e d up q u i c k i n a roomy grave" _

And as i n "The F i r s t Lowering," the s q u a l l

hits

suddenly, and "they were b l i n d e d and h a l f drowned w i t h r a i n " (LJ82).

In t h i s sequence, the f l i m s y v e i l which has

always

s h e l t e r e d Jim from r e a l i t y assumes the p r o p e r t y o f a b l i n d i n g mask behind which he l i v e s and through which few can penet r a t e , and then o n l y r a r e l y .

Marlow c a l l s these moments

"those b i z a r r e and e x c i t i n g glimpses through the f o g " ( L J 8 3 ) .

74 Jim l i v e s now

i n another world.

has claimed him. to

As Zabel says, "The unknown

Dream or appearance has become a r e a l i t y

which h i s e x i s t e n c e i s now

condemned."* ^ 7

"The Patna case," as i t comes t o be c a l l e d , i s f o l lowed by the f r u s t r a t i n g t r i a l

and s e v e r a l y e a r s o f i n c o n -

c l u s i v e wandering, p a r a l l e l i n a sense t o the Mariner's journeying.

I t culminates i n the c o o l dark atmosphere o f

S t e i n ' s house.

To t h i s house Marlow comes f o r what Zabel

c a l l s the " h i g h e r c o u n s e l " w i t h which t o guide Jim and hims e l f when h i s own

r e s o u r c e s run dry and he needs S t e i n ' s 70

"philosophic In

vision."'

7

Lord Jim. S t e i n i s a k i n d of f o c a l p o i n t i n h i s

a b i l i t y t o d i s t i l l i n t o pure and simple meaning the confus i o n s o f Jim's e x i s t e n c e . t h e Hermit

H i s r d l e i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of

i n the Rime, and h i s surroundings a r e the secluded,

q u i e t ones of a p r i e s t - l i k e man,

withdrawn from the world

but a b l e to pass judgement on i t .

Each room seems

but empty," and

"Only one c o r n e r " of h i s

dining-room,

"very d i m l y - l i t . "

f o r example, i s v i s i b l e ;

c i o u s apartment melted (LJ146).

"imposing

"the r e s t o f the spa-

i n t o s h a p e l e s s gloom l i k e a cavern"

The reception-rooms

are

u n i n h a b i t e d and u n i n h a b i t a b l e , c l e a n , f u l l o f s o l i t u d e and of s h i n i n g t h i n g s t h a t l o o k as i f never beheld by the eye of man[,] They are c o o l on the h o t t e s t days, and you enter them as you would a scrubbed cave underground. . . . The waxed f l o o r r e f l e c t e d . . . as though i t had been a sheet of f r o z e n water. (LJ249-250)

75 T h i s d w e l l i n g - p l a c e i s l i k e the G o t h i c hermit's f o r e s t cave, a r e t r e a t from l i f e ,

a symbolic tomb.

around t h e w a l l s are "catacombs

In "a sombre b e l t "

o f b e e t l e s " (LJ146), each

w i t h i t s i n s c r i p t i o n s t o t h e dead.

G l a s s f a i r y - t a l e cases

entomb l o v e l y b u t t e r f l i e s , each i n s e c t seemingly about t o quiver into exquisite l i f e . r e p r e s e n t human l i f e ,

These "specimens" appear t o

the b e a u t i f u l and t h e u g l y , which

S t e i n , w i t h the s e n s i t i v i t y o f a c o n n o i s s e u r , has attempted to

s e p a r a t e i n o r d e r t o render them more e s s e n t i a l l y simple

and " t r u e " t o study.

Because they can be so d i v i d e d , they

h o l d more o f p e r f e c t i o n than man the

Having mastered

a r t of d i s t i l l a t i o n to e s s e n t i a l t r u t h , S t e i n i s able to

d e f i n e Jim's problem. Jim

can h o l d .

But u n l i k e S t e i n ' s o t h e r specimens,

i s a l i v e ; hence S t e i n i s unable to express the u l t i m a t e

answer, though he seems t o f e e l

it.

S t e i n i s something o f a s p i r i t - s h a p e , a "shadow." L i k e F a t h e r Mapple, he i s i s o l a t e d , and even more withdrawn, though he has t h e same deep i n t e r e s t i n mankind. his

"Sometimes

head would d i s a p p e a r completely i n a g r e a t e r u p t i o n o f

smoke and a sympathetic growl would come out from t h e c l o u d " (LJ152). the

Marlow, i n coming t o S t e i n , has come t o t h e s o u r c e ,

i n d i s c e r n i b l e c e n t r e which i s pure knowledge.

Stein i s

a source o f l i g h t i n a dark world, a world symbolized by his

house: He l i t a two-branched c a n d l e s t i c k and l e d the way. We passed through empty dark rooms, e s c o r t e d by

76

gleams from t h e l i g h t s S t e i n c a r r i e d . They g l i d e d a l o n g the waxed f l o o r s , sweeping here and t h e r e over the p o l i s h e d s u r f a c e o f the t a b l e , l e a p e d upon a fragmentary curve o f a p i e c e o f f u r n i t u r e , o r f l a s h e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y i n and out o f d i s t a n t m i r r o r s , w h i l e the forms o f two men and the f l i c k e r o f two flames c o u l d be seen f o r a moment s t e a l i n g s i l e n t l y a c r o s s the depths of a c r y s t a l l i n e v o i d . . . . Jim's . . . i m p e r i s h a b l e r e a l i t y came t o me . . . 1 saw i t v i v i d l y , as though i n our p r o g r e s s through the l o f t y s i l e n t rooms amongst f l e e t i n g gleams o f l i g h t and the sudden r e v e l a t i o n s o f human f i g u r e s s t e a l i n g with f l i c k e r i n g flames w i t h i n unfathomable and p e l l u c i d depths, we had approached n e a r e r to a b s o l u t e T r u t h , which, l i k e Beauty i t s e l f , f l o a t s e l u s i v e , obscure, h a l f submerged, i n the s i l e n t s t i l l waters of mystery. (LJ155) T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n transcends many s i m i l a r ones i n which the G o t h i c n a r r a t o r o r p r o t a g o n i s t i s l e d by l a m p l i g h t through m y s t e r i o u s v a u l t s ; f o r example, i n The C a s t l e of Otranto. Isabella f e l t f o r the door; and . . . entered t r e m b l i n g i n t o the v a u l t . . . I t gave her a k i n d o f momentary joy t o p e r c e i v e an.imperfect nary of clouded moonshine gleam from the r o o f o f the v a u l t . . . She advanced e a g e r l y towards t h i s chasm . . . °0 But by Conrad's time, l i g h t has more symbolic meanings than knowledge and s a f e t y ; he knows t h a t f u l l

"light

s t r o y e d the assurance which had i n s p i r e d

...

shadows" (LJ154).

. . . dei n the d i s t a n t

The Gothic flame has gained an o p p o s i t e

p r o p e r t y — • - d e s t r u c t i o n , as i n E g y p t i a n mythology the sun b r i n g s both l i f e and

death.

As Eino R a i l o p o i n t s out,

77 . . . an e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e o f t h e landscape s u r rounding the haunted c a s t l e i s an i d y l l i c scene, intended t o form a c o n t r a s t t o the a u s t e r e and sublime, t o a c t as a s o o t h i n g element between the storms o f p a s s i o n . Without i t the p i c t u r e would l a c k the b a l a n c e upon which t h e r o m a n t i c i s t s e t s s p e c i a l value.81 The gardens around S t e i n ' s house a r e more n o t i c e a b l y than i s t h e house i t s e l f

idyllic

(which i s , t o some e x t e n t , a haunted

c a s t l e ) , and have, f u r t h e r , an a i r o f a r t i f i c i a l i t y

which

r e c a l l s t h e i r Eastern s e t t i n g : I wandered out . . . i n t o t h e gardens, those famous gardens o f S t e i n , i n which you can f i n d every p l a n t and t r e e o f t r o p i c a l lowlands. I f o l l o w e d the course o f t h e c a n a l i s e d stream, and sat f o r a l o n g time on a shaded bench near t h e ornamental pond, where some waterfowl w i t h c l i p p e d wings were d i v i n g and s p l a s h i n g n o i s i l y . The branches o f c a s u a r i n e - t r e e s behind me swayed l i g h t l y , i n c e s s a n t l y . . . [ a ] mournful and r e s t l e s s sound . . . . I was f a s c i n a t e d by t h e exq u i s i t e grace and beauty o f t h a t f l u t e d grove, crowned w i t h p o i n t e d l e a v e s and f e a t h e r y heads, the l i g h t n e s s , the v i g o u r , t h e charm as d i s t i n c t as a v o i c e o f t h a t unperplexed l u x u r i a t i n g l i f e . (LJ251-252) T h i s scene conveys the same sense o f remoteness and d e l i c a t e beauty t h a t t h e I t a l i a n s e t t i n g s o f G o t h i c i s m do.

As Varma

explains, T h i s l o n g i n g f o r the South, f o r an a l i e n and d i s t a n t s e t t i n g , i s t y p i c a l o f the romantic a t t i t u d e , and r e f l e c t s t h e e f f o r t o f t h e G o t h i c mind t o break away from the f e t t e r s o f homely e x p e r i e n c e . The southern s e t t i n g made p o s s i b l e t r u l y romantic e f f e c t s ; i t was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h monasteries and mysterious monastic l i f e . . . .82

78 S t e i n ' s garden a l s o e x h i b i t s great d e t a i l i n i t s arrangement, and

t h i s profusion of l i t t l e

tractive in itself, richness of d e t a i l . i s the k i n d o f gem his

t h i n g s , each complete and

i s mirrored

at-

i n the Gothic penchant f o r

" S t e i n " means stone or gem,

and

Stein

one would expect t o f i n d i n the middle o f

p e a c e f u l , thought- and memory-provoking world.

He

forms

t h e p h i l o s o p h i c c e n t r e o f the book, c a p t u r i n g the essence o f Jim's e x i s t e n c e and He

e x p l a i n i n g i t s meaning.

and h i s house are a l s o the gateway to Patusan,

where s e t t i n g again expands to encompass another complete world—for and

each o f the landscapes i n Lord Jim i s a d i f f e r e n t

e n t i r e world. Of a l l the p l a c e s d e s c r i b e d i n Lord Jim. Patusan i s

perhaps the c l o s e s t t o e a r l y G o t h i c .

I t i s a kingdom s e t

a p a r t from the world where c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e new,

are

"entirely

e n t i r e l y remarkable" (LJ157) f o r an o u t s i d e r , but i n

itself,

i t i s very o l d ; the r e s t o f the world passes i t by,

" l e a v i n g i t s p l a i n s and

v a l l e y s , i t s o l d t r e e s and

i t s old

8^ mankind, n e g l e c t e d

and i s o l a t e d .

. ." (LJ162).

J

It i s

"one

o f the l o s t , f o r g o t t e n , unknown p l a c e s o f the e a r t h ;

. . .

obscure . , ." (LJ232);

"splen-

did

r u l e r s , " i t i s now

once a l a n d of g l o r y , l e d by i n an extreme s t a t e o f decay;

"the

g l o r y has departed, the S u l t a n i s an i m b e c i l e youth with thumbs on h i s l e f t (LJ163).

hand and

. , . a miserable

" U t t e r i n s e c u r i t y " i s the norm, and

seems l i t e r a l l y

r o t t i n g away.

two

population" the

country

I t i s l i k e a p r i s o n , and

Jim

is,

i n Fatusan, e q u a l l y c a p t i v e and k i n g .

ever seems a b l e t o l e a v e :

0 4

Only t h e moon

" g l i d i n g upwards . . . i t f l o a t e d

away . . . as i f escaping from a yawning grave i n g e n t l e triumph" ( L J 1 5 9 ) . ^

5

When i t appears f o r a moment t o have

f a l l e n i n t o t h e chasm between t h e h i l l s ,

i t s r a y s shine "as

i f from a c a v e r n " and make a l l t h e o b j e c t s around Marlow d e a t h - l i k e , "as i f t h e e a r t h had been one grave."

(LJ231).^

6

T h i s shadowy, decomposing l a n d e x e r t s i n t r u e G o t h i c s t y l e a " s u b t l e i n f l u e n c e " (LJ191) over Jim, who c o n t a i n s i n h i m s e l f t h e only l i g h t i n t h e s e t t i n g . lay

over t h i s v a s t and monotonous landscape;

on i t as i f i n t o an abyss. . is

"A brooding

.

. " (LJ190).

gloom

the l i g h t

fell

The l a n d devoured t h e sunshine

The only l i g h t which does make an impression

t h e moonlight, and i t i s not,

as Ishmael says, "the only

t r u e lamp" (MD354), but one o f t h e " l i a r s , " g i v i n g r e a l i t y o n l y t o shadows and robbing a l l e l s e , except Jim, o f l i f e . As i n Mobv-Dick. t h e most important

actions of the

87 book o f t e n happen i n darkness under t h e moon's i n f l u e n c e . As t h e moon, l i k e t h e luminous mist, obscures some shapes and a l t e r s o t h e r s t i l l

they

a r e " f o r e i g n t o one's memory and

c o l o u r s [ a r e ] i n d e f i n a b l e t o t h e eye" (LJ231),

t h e moon f u n c -

t i o n s i n Lord J i m as a v e i l and as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l m i r r o r . When Jewel, f o r example, c o n f r o n t s Marlow by t h e r i v e r and he begins h i s "exorcism"

o f t h e " s p e c t r e " which haunts him-

s e l f and Jim, they a r e " i n t h e dark."

Jim goes by

s e e i n g " and c a l l s out "What? No l i g h t s ! " (LJ230).

"without The moon

80 r i s e s d i r e c t l y a f t e r , with t h e appearance o f h a v i n g

fallen-

t h e r e i s "a b l a c k c r a c k r i g h t a c r o s s i t s f a c e " and i t g i v e s off

a "mournful e c l i p s e - l i k e l i g h t " (LJ231).

Here i t sym-

b o l i z e s t o t a l l a c k o f communication—a p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e . The u n r e a l i t y d e s c r i b e d here i s important t h e t r u t h about t h e p l a c e i t s e l f :

because i t r e v e a l s

i t i s a dream-world,

c r e a t e d by J i m s g r e a t need and communicated t o o t h e r s by T

illusion. left

Marlow says he " f e l t t h a t when tomorrow I had

i t f o r ever, i t would s l i p out o f e x i s t e n c e , " and he

t r i e s t o continue i t s e x i s t e n c e by speaking and thus handing on " i t s very e x i s t e n c e , i t s r e a l i t y — t h e t r u t h d i s c l o s e d i n a moment o f i l l u s i o n "

(LJ232).

The Gothicism i n t h e Patusan passage has undergone a t r a n s f e r e n c e from a p h y s i c a l t o a mental s t a t e .

Marlow

s t a t e s t h i s w i t h i n t h e s t o r y by s a y i n g "the whole r e a l t h i n g has l e f t

behind t h e d e t a i l e d and amazing impression o f a

dream" (LJ228).

Jim's endeavour t o make h i s dream r e a l i t y

has had j u s t t h e r e v e r s e e f f e c t .

He has begun i n r e a l i t y ,

but t h e l a s t episode o f h i s l i f e i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f Poe, i n t h a t i t i s a dream p a s s i n g f o r r e a l i t y — a

sham, y e t one from

which, u n l i k e t h e n a r r a t o r o f "The Premature B u r i a l , " he never awakes. Patusan as G o t h i c s e t t i n g l a c k s o n l y one t h i n g — a n d a haunted c a s t l e i s h a r d l y a necessary

a d d i t i o n t o what i s

a l r e a d y e s s e n t i a l l y a ghost s t o r y ( t h e ghost b e i n g o f t h e l i v i n g , n o t t h e dead s e l f ) .

oo

But t h e l a c k o f i t , when t h e

81 n o v e l i s viewed i n t h i s l i g h t , i s meaningful

i n a way.

Jim

has not the same k i n d of power as a Gothic h e r o - v i l l a i n ,

not

t h e k i n d which can be r e l a t e d t o such a p h y s i c a l , man-made edifice.

H i s dilemma i s too u n i v e r s a l , and Jim i s governed

more i n s t i n c t i v e l y by the f o r c e s of n a t u r e . home; he cannot Patusan

go back t o England,

A l s o , he has

no

and he i s as a l i e n t o

and i t s people as i f "he had descended upon them

from the c l o u d s " (LJ164 and

175).

The f i n a l scene I wish t o c o n s i d e r i n Lord Jim i s t h e f r a m i n g d e v i c e which makes i t "a t a l e w i t h i n a t a l e " i n t h e same way

t h a t many Gothic s t o r i e s are, although not t o

such a g r e a t extent as, say, Melmoth. o r even Moby-Dick. L i k e Heart of Darkness, the f i r s t

p a r t of the s t o r y

(after

t h e f o u r i n t r o d u c t o r y chapters) i s r e l a t e d by Marlow t o a s e l e c t group of men

a f t e r d i n n e r , f o r a purpose which we

assume t o be moral r e v e l a t i o n . of

The darkness,

may

the p r o x i m i t y

t h e sea, the s i t u a t i o n of the l i s t e n e r s o u t s i d e i n the

n i g h t , a l l induce the s t a t e where the b o r d e r - l i n e between dream and r e a l i t y f a d e s . for

the quick, unconscious

This setting i s neutral, allowing a b s o r p t i o n o f the l i s t e n e r s

into

t h e " s t o r y " which p a r a l l e l s the Wedding-Guest's immediate involvement.

But w i t h Lord Jim, t h i s i n i t i a l

framework

seems so sketchy t h a t i t i s h a r d l y more than a convention. M e l v i l l e found the " c o n v e n t i o n " o f t h e w r i t e r o f a story a u s e f u l p a r a l l e l to depict the a r t i s t s t r u g g l i n g to communicate by w r i t i n g out h i s e x p e r i e n c e .

Within

this

82 framework, t h e r e i s one s t o r y i n s e t , n a r r a t e d by him to "a l o u n g i n g c i r c l e of my

Spanish

f r i e n d s " (MD2G8), which,

be-

s i d e s the more c a s u a l tone and the i n t e r j e c t e d comments o f t h e f r i e n d s , a l l o w s M e l v i l l e - I s h m a e l an added advantage. i s not about the Pequod. but i t i s about Moby D i c k .

It

The

d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r s p e c t i v e a l l o w s f o r many a c t i o n s which are l o g i c a l i n c o n n e c t i o n with the white w h a l e — t h e mutiny, planned murder, the heightened

supernaturalism

the

explicitly

s t a t e d , e t c . — y e t which c o u l d not happen on board the Pequod simply because Ahab i s c a p t a i n .

E x c i t i n g as a n a r r a t i v e o f

mutiny i s , mutiny a g a i n s t Ahab would d e s t r o y the whole s t r u c t u r e o f the book.

Through use o f h i s c o n v e n t i o n a l

however, M e l v i l l e c o u l d i n c l u d e t h i s and

framework,

any other a c t i o n he

wished. Yet Conrad, who

employs from the s t a r t o f the

novel

the l o o s e r , more m a l l e a b l e n a r r a t i v e framework, i n s e r t s

the

r e s t r i c t i v e l e t t e r d e v i c e , and by the d e l i b e r a t e n e s s of

this

s t e p , proves t h a t both d e v i c e s , l i k e a l l the other

aspects

o f the book, s i g n i f y more than the mere convention.

In Heart

o f Darkness. Marlow i s t e l l i n g h i s own

s t o r y ; he has

person-

In Lord Jim, he

gives

a l l y undergone the t o t a l experience. h i s experience

by r e l a t i n g someone e l s e ' s — J i m ' s .

Conrad

has s t r u c t u r e d the book so t h a t at the b e g i n n i n g the i s a t h i s c l o s e s t to Jim; s i g h t by s e v e r a l means:

reader

g r a d u a l l y he i s removed from c l o s e by the a d d i t i o n of the second

r a t o r , Marlow; by the p a r a l l e l d e s c r i p t i o n o f B r i e r l y ;

narby

83 t h e c h a r a c t e r s who

t e l l Marlow about Jim, and so

U l t i m a t e l y t h e r e i s a " p r i v i l e g e d man," doubles f o r Conrad's reader.

the reader,

who

Both are removed i n time

y e a r s " ) and space ("the h i g h e s t f l a t of a l o f t y .

forth.

("two

building

. . he drew the heavy curtains?' [LJ242]) from Jim, but

emotionally, the e f f e c t i s i n v e r s e .

As Jim recedes

from

s i g h t , understanding of him grows, and with i t , empathy; u l t i m a t e l y he i s c o n s t a n t l y emerging and merging; he i s one w i t h us.

Suppose t h a t t h e r e i s f o r every man

an i n v i s i b l e s e l f ; t h a t g e n e r a l l y t h e s e two but sometimes a man

a visible

and

e x i s t i n union,

f e e l s t h a t more o f h i s s e l f e x i s t s i n

one o f these s t a t e s and a l i e n a t e s him from the o t h e r — t h i s o c c a s i o n a l s t a t e i s not a permanent, but a f l u i d one. low,

and the r e a d e r , f e e l t h i s way

about Jim.

Mar-

When "the

r e a l i t y o f h i s e x i s t e n c e comes t o me w i t h an immense . . . f o r c e , " Marlow f e e l s h i m s e l f " l i k e an evoked ghost." Jim i s a l s o a t times "a disembodied

Yet

s p i r i t " l e a v i n g behind

t h e r e a l i t y of Marlow's l i f e t o wander "amongst the p a s s i o n s of for

t h i s e a r t h " (LJ300).

In terms o f Gothicism, they

double

the c o n t r a s t i n g aspects o f each o t h e r . In

the end, then, the r e a d e r i s u n i t e d w i t h b o d i l e s s ,

pure emotion.

T h i s i s t h e f i n a l consequence o f the book's

s t r u c t u r e , as governed

by the framework.

The a r o u s a l of

f e e l i n g , e x p l i c a b l e or not (but p r e f e r a b l y not) i s i n a sense Conrad's aim as much as i t i s t h e aim o f G o t h i c w r i t e r s . N e i t h e r wants d e f i n i t i o n ; w r i t t e n words are a poor

"transla-

84 tion."

There must be r a t h e r a t r a n s f e r e n c e o f unchanged

emotion, a t r a n s f e r e n c e w i t h which words do not i n t e r f e r e , from t h e c h a r a c t e r t o t h e r e a d e r .

T h i s i s one o f Conrad's

accomplishments i n Lord Jim; he makes t h e emotions o f c h a r a c ter

and r e a d e r i n t e r f u s e .

Thus we not only understand Jim,

but

a l s o Marlow s wish and need not t o make a f i n a l 1

state-

ment, and Jewel's i n a b i l i t y t o understand h e r husband's because she needs words. to

fate

I f t h e reader c o n t i n u e s t h e attempt

d e f i n e what he knows about Jim, he ends up i n Jewel's

predicament. °^ Thus f i n a l l y i t can be suggested t h a t s e t t i n g i n Lord J i m i s n o t so much a matter o f p l a c e as o f s t a t e . S t e i n ' s world m i r r o r s h i s way o f l i f e and h i s a t t i t u d e ; Jim's m i r r o r s the p a i n f u l i n c e r t i t u d e s o f h i s wandering existence.

Both s e t t i n g s a r e Marlow's i n that they e x i s t

o n l y when he speaks them, and then they a r e t h e image o f what Ishmael c a l l s "the ungraspable phantom o f l i f e the

. . .

key t o i t a l l " (MD14). C e r t a i n l y t h e "phantom o f l i f e " i s a key t o Jim's

character.

I have j u s t c a l l e d him a wanderer,

c a s t was ever so u n w i l l i n g t o roam. of

but no o u t -

He i s a c u t e l y c o n s c i o u s

t h e advantages he l e a v e s behind him.

U n l i k e Heyst, he

has no b e l i e f t h a t uninvolvement i s t h e best code t o l i v e by. His

c o n s t a n t d e s i r e i s t o g a i n by g i v i n g o f h i m s e l f , but

when he s t a r t s out, t h i s d e s i r e i s not d i s i n t e r e s t e d ; t h e g a i n i s t h e important t h i n g .

Because he has not t h e s e l f -

85 l e s s n e s s he needs, he l o s e s t h e t h i n g he values good r e p u t a t i o n .

most—his

U l t i m a t e l y he appears t o reach Marlow s t

understanding, t h a t from t h e name t o t h e t h i n g i s but a s t e p . He makes a c o n s c i o u s move t o gain back s e l f - e s t e e m

by f u l -

f i l l i n g h i s t r u s t , regardless of the opinion of others.

He

atones f o r t h e deaths o f Dain Waris and t h e p i l g r i m s by t h e 90

s a c r i f i c e o f t h a t p a r t o f h i m s e l f which has betrayed h i m .

7

In terms o f e a r l y Gothicism, t h e many aspects o f J i m t h a t appear t o give him a m u l t i p l e p e r s o n a l i t y would sent t h e v a r i o u s s i d e s o f h i s n a t u r e — h i s f o r death, f o r o p p o r t u n i t y ,

repre-

heroism, h i s d e s i r e

f o r fame, and so f o r t h .

But here

t h i s i s not the case.

The v e i l s , shadowy f i g u r e s , l i n g e r i n g

f o r m s — t h e s e represent

Jim as he appears t o Marlow.

And,

t o Marlow, the meaning o f an episode was not i n s i d e l i k e a k e r n e l but o u t s i d e , e n v e l o p i n g t h e t a l e which brought i t out only as a glow b r i n g s out a haze, i n t h e l i k e n e s s o f one o f these misty h a l o s t h a t sometimes a r e made v i s i b l e by t h e s p e c t r a l i l l u m i n a t i o n o f moonshine.91 The

framework around t h e s t o r y narrows f o r Marlow

t w i c e and becomes a p i c t u r e - f r a m e . central figure.

The f i r s t

Both times Jim i s t h e

time, "the mist o f h i s f e e l i n g s "

s h i f t s and J i m "appear[s] t o my s t a r i n g eyes d i s t i n c t o f form and pregnant with vague appeal l i k e a symbolic f i g u r e in

a p i c t u r e " (LJ96).

L i k e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e whale i n t h e

Spouter-Inn, and l i k e t h e symbolic form o f Queequeg, t h e m a t e r i a l o f meaning, but not t h e c l u e t o d i s c o v e r i n g i t , i s

86 a p p r e h e n s i b l e i n Jim. of

He i s not t o t a l l y v i s i b l e ; "the m i s t

h i s f e e l i n g s " i s not s t a t i c and soon c l o s e s again b e f o r e

him. As Marlow l e a v e s Patusan f o r the l a s t time, he again l e t s t h e s e t t i n g become suspended, "with i t s l i f e

arrested,"

(LJ237) so t h a t he can always r e c a p t u r e the people i n i t as they were t o him. with h i m — s t e p s foreshadows his

But Jim comes p a r t way

a l o n g the r i v e r

out of the p i c t u r e i n which he belongs

(this

h i s f i n a l a c t o f l e a v i n g h i s people and shows

y e a r n i n g to go back to "the world he had

renounced").

He i s out o f f o c u s ; Marlow can never be " c e r t a i n o f

him."

A G o t h i c p o r t r a i t o f a person i s a s u r r o g a t e f o r him, e x i s t i n g when he does not, e n a b l i n g him t o "know" what i s happening then he i s absent, and a l l o w i n g him t o i n f l u e n c e people and events.

The p o r t r a i t i s the " s o u l " — g e n e r a l l y

t h e s o u l as moral a g e n t — a n d in

i t s appearance

can be i n t e r p r e t e d

d i f f e r e n t ways, as i s t h e p i c t u r e o f P i e r r e ' s f a t h e r ( i n

Pierre).

The f a c t t h a t Marlow cannot see Jim c l e a r l y i s an

image f o r the i n n e r ambiguity t h a t Jim f e e l s , and a l s o r e f l e c t s Marlow*s own of

emotions,

f o r i n a c c e p t i n g him as

us" he acknowledges the presence of Jim's heroism

escapism i n h i m s e l f .

"one and

"Us" d i f f e r e n t i a t e s the l i v i n g , whose

l i v e s i n c l u d e dilemmas l i k e Jim's, from the inanimate, those who

do not have and cannot comprehend a complex p e r s o n a l i t y .

T h e i r p o r t r a i t s c a p t u r e them c o m p l e t e l y .

"They e x i s t as i f

under an enchanter's wand;" Marlow says of the g i r l

t h a t her

87

r e f l e c t i o n on the f l o o r i s " f r o z e n " (LJ250); she i s " i n e r t " (LJ300) by the end,

e x i s t i n g but not

Jim, however, i s d i f f e r e n t . glimpses o f him;

alive. At f i r s t

Marlow gets

a t l a s t he can't see him at a l l .

Jim does

a c t u a l l y seem to evaporate; he seems to become "the mist i n which he moved and had h i s b e i n g " ( L J 9 3 ) . to

bind h i s v i s i b l e to h i s i n v i s i b l e s e l f .

policeman,

He i s never

able

L i k e the n a t i v e

he a c t s "as though h i s m i g r a t i n g s p i r i t were s u f -

f e r i n g exceedingly from t h a t unforeseen n a t i o n " (LJ113).

. . . avatar—incar-

I t i s as i f h i s body i s the a l b a t r o s s t o -

which h i s s p i r i t i s chained, and i t c o n t i n u a l l y drags at f o r c i n g him t o a c t i o n s he would not otherwise perform.

him,

When

he f o r g e t s i t and e n t e r s h i s dream-world, i t a c t s i n s t i n c t i v e l y ; when he c o n t r o l s i t , he f o r c e s i t to stand on for

trial

i t s i n s t i n c t i v e a c t i o n s — b e f o r e B r i e r l y and Doramin,

perhaps b e f o r e Marlow and J i m a h i m s e l f — a n d

pay the p r i c e o f

a n n i h i l a t i o n f o r i t s crimes. In

a second

sense, Jim's v e i l d i v i d e s the people o f

t h e p h y s i c a l world from those o f h i s i m a g i n a t i v e l i f e ,

those

whom Marlow c a l l s "the extravagant ghosts and a u s t e r e shades t h a t were the d i s a s t r o u s f a m i l i a r s o f h i s y o u t h " These f r i e n d s encourage him t o stand t r i a l ;

(LJ113).

Marlow and h i s

world i n v i t e him t o h i d e and evade, and are s u r p r i s e d when he i n s i s t s on " e a t i n g d i r t , " as B r i e r l y p u t s i t . watches Jim gaze "as though he had been haunted."

Marlow His face

r e f l e c t s emotions "as a magic m i r r o r would r e f l e c t the

glid-

88 i n g passage o f u n e a r t h l y shapes. d e c e i t f u l ghosts

. . . ."

Why?

Jim's f a c e i s a window.

"shades" and the " r e a l " people can see each o t h e r , and

d i s t r u s t each o t h e r , through him. is

by

H i s movements "imply d i s d a i n " o f

h i s p h y s i c a l acquaintances. The

He l i v e d surrounded

on Marlow*s s i d e of Jim.

Significantly,

the v e i l

I t i s from the p h y s i c a l world

t h a t he needs p r o t e c t i o n , because he i s unable to cope w i t h itj

he i s not a f u l l member o f i t , he i s s t i l l

t r a i l i n g the

c l o u d s of g l o r y which make him a c h i l d to i t . U n l i k e the Mariner, Jim i s d r i v e n by n a t u r a l , r a t h e r than s u p e r n a t u r a l agents.

He i s d r i v e n by those people

spread the Patna case ( i n whatever uncanny way) and S t e i n e f f e c t the removal Jim d e s i r e s .

who

u n t i l Marlow

from the world t h a t they

feel

I n doing so, they i r o n i c a l l y u n i t e him with

t h e people o f h i s i m a g i n a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g both the i n h a b i t a n t s o f Patusan and such f i g u r e s as h i s attendant O p p o r t u n i t y . "Was

i t still

tainly

v e i l e d ? " (LJ241) Marlow*s l i s t e n e r s ask.

f o r Marlow, but s u r e l y not f o r Jim, who

Cer-

i n Patusan,

t h e l a n d of h i s dreams, sees and a c c e p t s h i s o p p o r t u n i t y , thereby becoming the hero he always i s i n h i s dreams.

He i s

a l s o under the i n f l u e n c e of t h e shadowy f i g u r e s and h i s own i n v i s i b l e s e l f when he goes t o stand before Doramin.

At

t h i s time i f a t no o t h e r , Jim i s i n c o n t r o l o f h i s t o t a l self.

And

accepted Opportunity, alone, l i k e Good Deeds,

accompanies him t o " h i s own claims

him.

world of shades"

(LJ300) which

89 It

i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o observe s e v e r a l r e v e r s a l s from

Jfefae Patna t o t h e Patusan e p i s o d e s . i s mechanical a t f i r s t ,

Nature, as already noted,

and almost m a l e v o l e n t , i n Patusan.

A l s o , vague f i g u r e s assume r e a l i t y i n Patusan, and p h y s i c a l ones become f o r m l e s s . the

There i s a "vague white form e r e c t i n

shadow" (LJ85) o f the porch on which Jim and Marlow t a l k ,

which foreshadows

"the g i r l ,

i n a t r a i l i n g white gown, her

b l a c k h a i r f a l l i n g as low as her w a i s t . . . .

E r e c t and

swaying, she seemed t o g l i d e without t o u c h i n g the e a r t h . . ." ( L J 2 1 7 ) .

She i s "an u n e a r t h l y b e i n g , a l l i n w h i t e "

(LJ212), the f i t companion f o r Jim who

i s always i n white;

they are "two white forms very c l o s e . . . t h e i r s o f t murmurs" b e i n g " l i k e a self-comunion o f one b e i n g c a r r i e d on i n two tones" (LJ204).

She i s one o f the shades which i s a p a r t o f

him and a r e a l i t y i n h i s dream-world.

Brown, on the o t h e r

hand, i s from the p h y s i c a l world and thus appears i n Patusan to

be a shadow.

He and h i s men,

" i n v i s i b l e i n the m i s t , "

f l o a t down the r i v e r " f a d i n g s p e c t r a l l y without t h e - s l i g h t e s t sound." (LJ287)

They " r e t i r e d as they had come—unseen," but

t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e changes them, as p e n e t r a t i o n o f the v e i l changes Ishmael.

They r e t u r n t o c i v i l i z a t i o n

"parched,

y e l l o w , g l a s s y - e y e d , w h i s p e r i n g s k e l e t o n s " (LJ291). The f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f Jim i n c l u d e s the aspect which s u p e r f i c i a l l y i s G o t h i c — t h e matter o f h i s d o u b l e . "I

7

am w i l l i n g to b e l i e v e each o f us has a guardian a n g e l , "

Marlow o f f e r s , " i f you

. . . w i l l concede to me t h a t each o f

us has a f a m i l i a r d e v i l as w e l l " ( L J 2 7 ) . he sees p a s t Jim's shoulder?

Which i s i t t h a t

I t i s a presence t h a t Jim him-

s e l f i s s u b c o n s c i o u s l y always aware of; i t i s t h i s uncomf o r t a b l e sense of the d i f f e r e n c e between h i s outward inward appearance t h a t he t h i n k s o t h e r s can sense

and

(LJ34).^

But what he t h i n k s i s p r a c t i c a l l y v i s i b l e i s h i s own

Doppel-

iganger. as Marlow has the i n s i g h t to r e a l i z e : He was not speaking t o me, he was o n l y speaking b e f o r e me, i n a d i s p u t e with an i n v i s i b l e persona l i t y , an a n t a g o n i s t i c and i n s e p a r a b l e p a r t n e r of h i s e x i s t e n c e — a n o t h e r possessor o f h i s s o u l . . . i t was a s u b t l e and momentous q u a r r e l as t o t h e t r u e essence of l i f e . . . (LJ68) Jim i s here t r y i n g to defend to

j u s t i f y the weakness of h i s body i n some way.94

t h i n k me

1

best he can. "for

"You

a cur^ /* he argues with i t , "but what would you

have done?"

Forced to l i v e with h i m s e l f , he must do

the

As he paces back and f o r t h , he r a i s e s h i s

a gesture t h a t seemed to put out o f h i s way

i n t r u d e r " (LJ92). try

h i m s e l f to h i s i n v i s i b l e shade,

an

arm

invisible

I t can be s a i d i n h i s f a v o r t h a t Jim does

c o n t i n u a l l y to r e j e c t the shadow-world and come to terms

w i t h the " r e a l " one u n t i l , once i n Patusan, he can act out his

wishes i n a more c o n g e n i a l

setting.

Jim has many of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the convent i o n a l Gothic hero. slightly

The

i n j u r y to h i s l e g , which lames him

(LJ11), only m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f once a f t e r the

n i n g , and t h a t i s when he i s about to e n t e r Patusan

begin-

and

Marlow n o t i c e s "an i n v i s i b l e h a l t i n h i s g a i t " (LJ169),

the

echo of the " s u b t l e unsoundness o f the man"

(LJ66).

He

looks

p h y s i c a l l y l i k e Walpole's Theodore, and has the same shy p o l i t e n e s s o f manner.

For t a l i s m a n he has S t e i n ' s r i n g ,

the

symbol o f h i s greatness, and the s u p e r n a t u r a l g i f t s he i s c r e d i t e d with are a c q u i r e d while he has the r i n g . Among the legends which accompany Jim's r i s e to h e r o i c s t a t u r e , one of the most G o t h i c concerns Jewel. and Jim "came t o g e t h e r under the shadow of a l i f e ' s

She

disaster,

l i k e k n i g h t and maiden meeting t o exchange vows amongst haunted r u i n s " (LJ224).

In Jewel, Jim f i n d s a necessary

p a r t o f h i m s e l f , what Dr. Gose c a l l s "the warm f i r e of humani t y " which h e l p s him perform one o f the redemptive which he gains h i s s t a t u r e as mythic hero.^5 and j e w e l , he can assume h i s r i g h t f u l

With both

position.

i t is

i t i s "best concealed

about t h e person o f a woman" (LJ201) who of

ring

There i s ,

however, a myth which surrounds the jewel i t s e l f : supposed to be a p r i c e l e s s emerald;

a c t s by

has the a t t r i b u t e s

a p r i e s t e s s ; i t has a l o n g and u n f o r t u n a t e h i s t o r y , b e i n g

p o s s i b l y the stone "which i n the o l d times had brought

wars

and u n t o l d c a l a m i t i e s " t o the country i n which i t was.

In

V i c t o r y . i t was Heyst's involvement i n the person of Lena, which brought t i e s w i t h Patusan N e i t h e r man, his

with humanity, notably death t o him;

Jim's

are l i k e w i s e p a r t i c u l a r i z e d i n Jewel.

when o t h e r s are i n v o l v e d i n h i s l i v i n g up to

t r u s t , s h i r k s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and both pay the

p r i c e o f involvement.

full

In Jim's case, h i s c o n n e c t i o n with

Jewel i s one o f the s p e c i f i c t h i n g s which adds a mythic q u a l i t y to h i s

heroism.

Even b e f o r e he reaches Patusan, r o l e as Gothic hero emerge. his

v a r i o u s c l u e s to h i s

While he i s s t i l l

a water-clerk,

boat "comes f l y i n g out of the m i s t " with the speed of

t h e Pequod or Raymond s coach i n The Monk, and the same maniT

f e s t a t i o n accompanies h i s a r r i v a l i n Patusan:

the headman's

sons " d i d not n o t i c e the speed of the canoe u n t i l he p o i n t e d out to them the amazing phenomenon" (LJ174).

When he escapes

t h e p a l i s a d e , he remarks h i m s e l f t h a t "the e a r t h seemed f a i r l y t o f l y backwards under h i s f e e t " (LJ182). f l y i n g t e r r o r " (LJ183) to the v i l l a g e r s , who comes, s h r i e k w i t h g r i e f and c u r s e him

"He

when he

(LJI75);

was

a

first

i n true

G o t h i c manner, he i s a " b l e s s i n g . . . heralded by

terrors"

(LJ174), the agents o f good and bad b e i n g i n G o t h i c i s m gene r a l l y the o p p o s i t e to what they seem at f i r s t

sight.

Marlow n o t i c e s t h a t w i t h Jim i n i t , "the boat f a i r l y (LJ238).

He has power above t h a t o f o r d i n a r y men,

r e p u t a t i o n o f i n v i n c i b l e , s u p e r n a t u r a l power . . .

flew"

"the a tower of

s t r e n g t h i n h i m s e l f . . . i n v u l n e r a b l e " (LJ260), "an c i b l e host i n h i m s e l f " (LJ244).

Even

invin-

He has "a s t a r e t h a t . . .

seemed to probe t h e h e a r t o f some awful v i s i o n "

(LJ74).

There i s a l s o i n Jim much o f the pathos o f the B y r o n i c hero.

He i s a nameless and l o n e l y person,

ant t o the world.

terribly

unimport-

"Everyman" i s one meaning o f James; no

one c a r e s what h i s l a s t name i s . Marlow r e p o r t s i t as "James

93 So-and-so"

(LJ115)•

With Engstrom & Blake, he i s c a l l e d

e i t h e r "Mr. James" o r " M i s t e r What*s-your-name?" and thus his

i n c o g n i t o , and h i s u n i v e r s a l i t y , are p r e s e r v e d .

The

moments o f Jim's deepest l o n e l i n e s s are probably when, a f t e r the

t r i a l i s over, he accompanies Marlow back to h i s rooms: He was rooted t o the spot, but c o n v u l s i v e shudders ran down h i s back . . . The massive shadows, c a s t a l l one was from the s t r a i g h t flame o f t h e c a n d l e , seemed possessed o f gloomy c o n s c i o u s n e s s . . . I heard . . . sounds wrung from a racked body, from a weary s o u l . . . he stood on the b r i n k of a v a s t p b s c u r i t y , l i k e a l o n e l y f i g u r e by the shore o f a sombre and h o p e l e s s ocean . . . he stood s t r a i g h t as an arrow, f a i n t l y v i s i b l e and s t i l l ; and the meaning o f t h i s s t i l l n e s s sank to the bottom o f my s o u l . . . Even the law had done w i t h him. (LJ124-125)

Jim's stance here foreshadows t h e l a s t glimpse Marlow ever has o f him, when a g a i n he i s a b s o l u t e l y i s o l a t e d from humanity,

"only a speck, a t i n y white speck" (LJ242), watching

Marlow s a i l out t o sea. A sense o f u t t e r h e l p l e s s n e s s i s the most "un-Gothic" q u a l i t y about J i m .

The f u t i l i t y o f s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t F a t e

i s a Gothic m o t i f , but Jim's attempts are more than f u t i l e . U n l i k e Ahab, he does not d e c l a r e open war and d e s t r o y hims e l f ; u n l i k e Ishmael, who to his

a t t h e time merely submits h i m s e l f

events, he never ceases t r y i n g t o understand h i m s e l f and p o s i t i o n i n the world.

Only a f t e r he has subdued h i s

enemies i n Patusan does he f e e l somewhat s e c u r e , but even then Marlow's v i s i t reminds him t h a t he only e x i s t s i n t h a t

94 t i n y , obscure country; he i s n o n - e x i s t e n t humanity.

H i s death i s h a r d l y even a tragedy,

t h e cause f o r which he died? make way wise. ful

f o r the r e s t o f f o r who

knows

H i s death does not seem to

f o r the r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f order, moral or o t h e r -

I t seems t o t a l l y n i h i l i s t i c .

Through him,

the

right-

l e a d e r has been murdered, and when Jim d i e s , youth,

s e c u r i t y a l l d i e with him. exist.

The

hope,

Patusan as a country ceases

a u t h o r i t y of the white,

c i v i l i z e d world

to

i s no

l o n g e r t h e r e to h o l d i t t o g e t h e r , f o r e i t h e r development o r e x p l o i t a t i o n , and Doramin i s too o l d t o reassume c o n t r o l . T h i s a p p a r e n t l y u s e l e s s a n n i h i l i a t i o n has, i t s meaning i n Marlow. mer,

escapes to t e l l

however,

He o n l y , l i k e Ishmael and the M a r i -

" t h i s amazing Jim-myth" (LJ201).

Why?

For Jim's s a k e — " f o r the l a y i n g of what i s the most o b s t i n a t e ghost

o f man's c r e a t i o n , o f the uneasy doubt u p r i s i n g

l i k e a m i s t , s e c r e t and gnawing l i k e a worm, and more c h i l l i n g than the c e r t i t u d e o f death" of

the answer.

knowledge of man so sound.

( L J 3 9 ) — t h i s i s only part

The f a c t o f Jim's e x i s t e n c e puts Marlow's t o the t e s t :

"He

had no business to look

I thought t o m y s e l f — w e l l ,

wrong l i k e t h a t . . . "

(LJ31).

i f t h i s s o r t can

To r e - e s t a b l i s h h i s f a i t h i n

h i m s e l f , Marlow. must know of Jim's l i f e , its . to

hidden

r e a l i t y " (LJ17).

f e l l o w " (LJ33).

" i t s secret truth,

F u r t h e r , he f e e l s

. . the most obvious o f sentiments see the e f f e c t o f a f u l l

go

...

"curiosity

i t h e l d me

there

i n f o r m a t i o n upon t h a t young

95 T h i s i s e x a c t l y the m o t i v a t i o n

behind t h e a c t i o n s o f

the n a r r a t o r o f Poe's "The Man o f t h e Crowd": h i s t o r y , * I s a i d t o myself,

n,

How w i l d a

' i s w r i t t e n w i t h i n t h a t bosom!*

Then came a c r a v i n g d e s i r e t o keep t h e man i n v i e w — t o know 96 more o f him."

What more t h e n a r r a t o r wishes t o know i s

a l s o more about h i m s e l f , because t h e r e i s a s u b t l e bond j o i n i n g them.

They a r e the same l o n e l y man, needing always

t o be among p e o p l e . h i s own m o t i v a t i o n s

The n a r r a t o r i s s e a r c h i n g to know what are, and h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n implies a

c r i m i n a l t a i n t i n h i s nature.

This i s hardly s u r p r i s i n g ,

s i n c e i t i s t h e element o f s i n which man keeps hidden from h i m s e l f most o f t e n .

What Marlow i s faced with i n J i m may

be j u s t some such element, some undetected flaw i n h i m s e l f which has, i n Jim,

come t o t h e s u r f a c e .

He does

repeatedly

c a l l Jim "one o f u s , " and he c a r e f u l l y s i n g l e s him out t o f o l l o w , f o r a reason he h i m s e l f doesn't know: tell

"why?

Can't

. . .» ( L J 2 7 ) . T h i s same s o r t o f r e l a t i o n s h i p comes out i n Conrad's

foremost D Q P P e l g a n g e r t a l e , The S e c r e t S h a r e r .

Both Conrad

and M e l v i l l e explore i n t h e i r s h o r t e r s t o r i e s the landscape o f the mind, andaboth employ, as does Poe, c e n t r a l Gothic m o t i f s with which t o do s o . The S e c r e t Sharer and Benito Cereno a r e prominent examples:

i n t h e former, t h e dual

p e r s o n a l i t y i s as f u l l y d i s p l a y e d as i t i s i n Dostoyevsky's The

Double: i n the l a t t e r , t h e immense d e s t r u c t i v e power o f

s o c i a l b i a s e s and the near i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f approaching

96 t r u t h from w i t h i n a s o c i a l framework i s a c e n t r a l

concern.

Both t a l e s are enclosed i n many more o f the t r a p p i n g s of G o t h i c i s m than j u s t these two main themes, but because t h e p e r c e p t i o n with which these two

are h a n d l e d — a

of

percep-

t i o n f a r beyond t h a t found i n merely c o n v e n t i o n a l Gothic t a l e s — t h e y provide excellent material f o r p a r t i c u l a r analysis. Conrad makes such a p o i n t i n The S e c r e t Sharer of Leggatt and the c a p t a i n ' s b e i n g doubles t h a t i t i s hard t o see t h a t they are not doubles to the same extent t h a t , say, J e k y l l and Hyde are doubles, because c a l nor o p p o s i t e .

they are n e i t h e r

The c a p t a i n i s an i n d i v i d u a l i s t .

identiHe i s

used t o the bonds of s o c i e t y , but wishes to m a i n t a i n some freedom

from t h e i r r e s t r i c t i v e n e s s now

and then.

( T h i s same

wish i s one of the primary m o t i v a t i o n s i n Gothicism.)

He

seems content enough i n the ordered surroundings he d e s c r i b e s , but wishes, on the o t h e r hand, t o be alone with h i s s h i p ("with a l l t h a t m u l t i t u d e of c e l e s t i a l bodies s t a r i n g down a t one, the comfort o f q u i e t communion with her was good.

gone f o r

And t h e r e were a l s o d i s t u r b i n g sounds by t h i s

time

\ 07 .

. . .")

7

and t o be a b s o l u t e l y f r e e o f the l a n d :

"I r e -

j o i c e d i n t h e great s e c u r i t y of the sea as compared w i t h the 08 u n r e s t o f the l a n d o f man

. . . ."*°

He was

probably the same s o r t

as h i s second mate appears to b e — p e r f e c t l y

efficient

a t a j o b , but not under any s p e c i a l o b l i g a t i o n , f r e e to low h i s own

whims i n any circumstance ("The

fol-

matey-observed

97 r e g r e t f u l l y t h a t he

'could not account f o r t h a t young f e l -

low's whims'" (SS22).

He says t h a t " a l l the a l t e r n a t i v e s

which were l i k e l y to f a c e me

on the high seas" were f a m i l i a r

"except the novel r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f command" (SS23).

Now,

when he wishes to do something unusual, such as keep the watch h i m s e l f , he i s made to f e e l the e c c e n t r i c i t y of what i s a s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d enough t h i n g to d o — e x c e p t f o r a captain.

Suddenly he i s again under the r e s t r i c t i o n s o f

ety, e x e r c i s i n g i t s power now which he i s r e s p o n s i b l e , and It

soci-

as a group f o r which and

to

f o r whom an example must be

set.

i s no wonder t h a t he responds p o s i t i v e l y t o the s i t u a t i o n

on d i s c o v e r i n g Leggatt,

even though i t i s aberrant

from the

norm; t h i s i s p o s s i b l y j u s t what he has been seeking.

There

i s no question but t h a t Leggatt

i s a c r i m i n a l o f some s o r t ,

for

suspicious (besides

he i s at f i r s t

h e s i t a n t and

being

naked i n the middle of the s e a ) , y e t h i s presence i s never i n q u i r e d about.

Instead,

the c a p t a i n i d e n t i f i e s with

b e f o r e he i s even out o f the water ("A t i o n was

him

mysterious communica-

e s t a b l i s h e d already between us two"

[SS26J),

and

rushes to c l o t h e the swimmer as he h i m s e l f i s c l o t h e d , " i n a s l e e p i n g s u i t o f the

. . . g r a y - s t r i p e p a t t e r n " (SS26) which 99

i s the emblem of the c r i m i n a l . he can r e b e l by harbouring

Subconsciously,

Leggatt,

accept

by the landsmen's law

feels

and d e r i v e s v i c a r i o u s

p l e a s u r e from the knowledge t h a t Leggatt through him,

he

i s untouched,

(the c a p t a i n w i l l

the a u t h o r i t y of t h i s law when i t i s the l a n d

not he

98 wishes to be done w i t h ) . t u n i t y to sublimate his

He may

a l s o be g l a d of the oppor-

h i s w o r r i e s over h a n d l i n g the s h i p to

concern over L e g g a t t . ^

0 0

He

i s g l a d f o r the chance t o

dupe h i s crew and the Sephora's c a p t a i n : I had been too f r i g h t e n e d not to f e e l vengeful; I f e l t I had him on the run, and I meant to keep him on the run. My p o l i t e i n s i s t e n c e must have had something menacing i n i t . . . ( S S 4 3 ) The

c r i m i n a l element i n h i s nature (my

inal" will

use o f the word

s i g n i f y here o n l y the c a p t a i n ' s d e s i r e to

from the s o c i a l norm) i s manifested

when Leggatt

deviate

comes aboard

as the p a r t i c u l a r symbol of h i s r e j e c t i o n of s o c i e t y . g a t t s presence b r i n g s i t out ,

mate's youth induces him

i n him,

"crim-

Leg-

j u s t as the second

to i d e n t i f y with i t i n s n e e r i n g

the w h i s k e r s — a n a c t i o n he manages to suppress.

Leggatt,

b e i n g an unknown j u s t as the c a p t a i n i s , evokes an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n because they two

at

overt

are the only " s t r a n g e r s "

on

board, whereas the c a p t a i n and the second mate are a l i e n t o each other,

and t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n between them i s

never f u l l y r e a l i z e d . Once he has made the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of h i m s e l f master with Leggatt law,

as o p e r a t i v e , s u c c e s s f u l f l o u t e r o f

the c a p t a i n i s i n a d e l i c a t e p o s i t i o n .

t r a y Leggatt

keep Leggatt

the

cannot

be-

without h i m s e l f becoming an instrument o f

the

s o c i e t y a g a i n s t which he i s r e b e l l i n g .

Nor

He

as

can he t h i n k t o

i n d e f i n i t e l y ; he wishes t o stay w i t h i n

s o c i a l order to some extent,

the

as h i s e a r l y comments show, and

99 k e e p i n g Leggatt would t h e r e f o r e be a b e t r a y a l o f s e l f ,

both

s i n c e he would be o s t r a c i z e d and s i n c e Leggatt would hencef o r t h be t h e dominant aspect o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , i n t h a t he would have t o c o n s i d e r him f i r s t .

Further, disposing of

Leggatt would mean t h a t t h e c a p t a i n was s u p p r e s s i n g i n hims e l f a l l t h e impulses towards i n d i v i d u a l i t y .

Leggatt,must

be p r e s e r v e d , t h e r e f o r e , both as separate e n t i t y and as aspect o f t h e c a p t a i n ' s n a t u r e . G l i d i n g i n c o n c e i v a b l y c l o s e t o K o h - r i n g i s t h e answer. I t means d i s r e g a r d i n g f o r t h e moment h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e s o c i e t y ( t h i s c o n t r a s t and union o f o p p o s i t e impulses i n one nature b e i n g an e x t e n s i o n o f the same c o n t r a s t i n t h e G o t h i c h e r o - v i l l a i n ) , and thus f u l l y pendence.

establishing h i s inde-

At t h e same time, i t s i g n i f i e s s a v i n g o f t h e

o t h e r , t h e ( i n t h i s case) c r i m i n a l s e l f i n t a c t j t h a t i s , r e t a i n i n g h i s p e r s o n a l i t y as a whole.

The c r i m i n a l

self

needs t o be saved because t h e c a p t a i n , about t o succumb t o s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , must f e e l t h a t he can r e b e l i f he wants t o ; t h a t he w i l l never be another C a p t a i n Archbold. On top o f a l l t h i s , he has s u c c e s s f u l l y purged h i m s e l f o f t h e dark s i d e o f h i s nature, so t h a t h e n c e f o r t h he has every r i g h t t o "the p e r f e c t communion o f a seaman w i t h h i s f i r s t command" (SS61), now t h a t Leggatt i s separated from h i m s e l f . Here we see, then, an i n t e r e s t i n g v a r i a t i o n on t h e u s u a l Gothic h a n d l i n g o f t h e theme.

N e i t h e r acceptance nor

r e j e c t i o n i s what t h e c a p t a i n wants, but t h e power to accept

100 or r e j e c t .

He wants to be c a p t a i n o f h i m s e l f , but he i s

unsure o f both h i m s e l f and h i s new

r o l e ; he has t o l e a r n t o

f i t h i m s e l f i n t o a d i f f e r e n t s l o t i n the s o c i a l s c a l e from the one

to which he i s used.

As l o n g as he continues

to

i s s u e o r d e r s which do not stem from acceptance o f the c o r r e c t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , he w i l l be d i s c o n t e n t e d .

And

since h i s

o r d e r s come from h i s mistaken sense o f h i m s e l f , he must l e a r n more of h i m s e l f before he can be re-accepted ety as c a p t a i n .

Leggatt

by

soci-

would seem to r e p r e s e n t the p a r t

o f h i m s e l f which i s out of j o i n t with h i s b e i n g accepted his

new

in

role. I have s a i d t h a t Leggatt

doubles of the J e k y l l - H y d e

and

the c a p t a i n are not

type; r a t h e r , Leggatt

o f p a r t o f the c a p t a i n s n a t u r e . f

i s an image

Whichever emotion p l a y s

most s t r o n g l y w i t h i n a person at a given moment i s the most l i k e l y to be r e f l e c t e d i n a m i r r o r ; the c a p t a i n , though I had been faced by my o f a sombre and p a r t of h i m s e l f .

own

one "as

r e f l e c t i o n i n the depths

immense m i r r o r " ( S S 2 7 ) ,

sees the

"Leggatt"

The water i n which the swimmer i s f i r s t

v i s i b l e i s another such m i r r o r .

Looking

i n t o "the d a r k l i n g

g l a s s y shimmer" ( S S 2 4 ) , he sees h i s f e e l i n g s of r e j e c t i o n g r a d u a l l y , l i t t l e by l i t t l e ,

take the form o f a man,

finally

complete "to the f a c e upturned e x a c t l y under mine'.' ( S S 2 5 ) . Leggatt

i s i n v i s i b l e to everyone but the c a p t a i n (as i s the

double i n D o s t o y e v s k y s s t o r y ) , and never speaks above a 1

whisper ( i n which tone o f v o i c e W i l l i a m W i l s o n s double a l s o T

101 always speaks), nor does he appear, except at t h e moments o f acceptance

and s e p a r a t i o n , above deck; thus h i s s u b o r d i n a t e

r e l a t i o n to t h e c a p t a i n i s m a i n t a i n e d .

Total identity i s

r e j e c t e d by Leggatt when he g i v e s up t h e hat, o r c o n v e r s e l y , when i t f a i l s t o f i t h i s head: Had the cap f i t , had i t not f a l l e n o f f Leggatt*s head, had t h e c a p t a i n and Leggatt indeed been doubles, t h e s h i p would have t o r n her bottom out on the rocks o f Koh-Ring [ s i c ] . 1 0 1 But t h i s r e j e c t i o n i s a p o s i t i v e t h i n g , c o n s i d e r e d from Leggatt*s p o i n t o f view.

I t i s , as P o r t e r W i l l i a m s

suggests, one s t e p towards h i s redemption.

It i s , like

t h e a l b a t r o s s which f a l l s from t h e mariner's neck when he b l e s s e s t h e water-snakes, a dual s y m b o l — h i s mark while he wears i t , p a r t i a l redemption tain.

identifying

and the s i g n o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c e o r

when he l e a v e s i t behind t o help the cap-

Leggatt i s u n l i k e the Wandering Jew and l i k e the

Mariner i n t h a t he i s able t o shuck the symbol o f h i s g u i l t ( t h e Wandering Jew can o n l y h i d e i t ) ,

but a l l t h r e e , and

Ishmael a l s o , become themselves

t h e symbol o f t h e i r

crimes.

L e g g a t t swims towards Koh-ring,

" l i k e the very gateway o f

Erebus," " l i k e t h e gate o f the e v e r l a s t i n g n i g h t , " " t o take h i s punishment," as the l a s t l i n e says, f o r he has been won, i n e f f e c t , by a s o r t o f L i f e - i n - D e a t h ; he i s a l i v e i n h i m s e l f but dead t o t h e world (a s u i c i d e ) :

". . . 'The man hath

penance done, / And penance more w i l l do.'"

102 In connection with t h e hat, the c a p t a i n i s r e a l l y the person t o d i s c u s s .

He,

l o s e s h i s and then r e j e c t s and they presumably

l i k e Jim, has r e j e c t e d i t (Jim the canvas c o v e r i n g f o r h i s head),

thus defy the power o f the sun.

Without

t h e c o v e r i n g f o r t h e i r heads (symbolic of h u m i l i t y b e f o r e God),

they run the r i s k of madness:

I was

going mad

had l o s t my

" I suppose you t h i n k T

. . . And w e l l you may,

i f you remember I

cap;'" a t t h e same time the unconcern

for this

p o s s i b i l i t y - - " * I d i d n ' t bother myself at a l l about the sun over my

head'" ( L J 9 2 ) — s m a c k s

of egoism:

'And you s h a l l go?' she s a i d , s l o w l y . He bent h i s head. 'Ah!' she exclaimed, . . . 'you are mad or f a l s e ' . .-. He was f u l l y dressed as f o r every day, but without a h a t . . . . 'For the l a s t time,' she c r i e d , menacingly, ' w i l l you defend y o u s e l f ? * 'Nothing can touch me,* he s a i d i n a l a s t f l i c k e r of superb egoism. (LJ297) Of course one cannot out o f hand apply a l l t h i s to the capt a i n , but t h e r e does seem t o be some s i m i l a r i t y between t h e way

he and Jim regard t h e i r

their respective tales, about the way

environment

and t h e r e i s something

(SS60).

egotistical

the c a p t a i n e v a l u a t e s h i s g i v i n g the hat t o

L e g g a t t — " t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f my flesh.

at t h e b e g i n n i n g of

sudden p i t y

f o r h i s mere

I t had been meant t o save h i s homeless head Coming from the C a p t a i n , who

i s as weak and

..." uncer-

t a i n and as homeless as Leggatt, the person he i s h e l p i n g , t h i s might

seem a condescension; on the o t h e r hand, he

naturally rejoice

that h i s a c t of kindness f o r another

might had

103 unexpectedly

benefitted himself.

then, a moral ambiguity

The hat may r e p r e s e n t ,

i n keeping w i t h i t s o r i g i n a l owner's.

I t stands f o r both a brand

( w h i l e he has i t ) and a b l e s s i n g

(when he l o s e s i t ) t o Leggatt; l i k e w i s e i t r e p r e s e n t s f o r the c a p t a i n e i t h e r kindness o r a c e r t a i n h y p o c r i s y . ambiguity

gains i t s importance

This

from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a c t

which produces i t not o n l y saves t h e c a p t a i n and h i s present s h i p , but i n d i c a t e s what type of man he w i l l be i n t h e f u t u r e - - f o r h i s r e f l e c t i o n s upon s i g h t i n g i t a r e t h e f i r s t he makes a f t e r h i s f e a r s , and h i s c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Leggatt, have ended.

And somehow these r e f l e c t i o n s a r e e q u i v o c a l .

There i s never a sense o f h i s g r a t e f u l n e s s to Leggatt; i n deed, " I h a r d l y thought

o f my o t h e r s e l f ; " t h e c a p t a i n never

so much as wonders i f Leggatt l e f t t h e hat on purpose, but simply assumes "he d i d n ' t bother" t o r e t r i e v e i t .

Consider-

i n g t h e bad p o s i t i o n t h e c a p t a i n knows Leggatt i s i n — " h i d d e n f o r e v e r from a l l f r i e n d l y f a c e s , t o be a f u g i t i v e and a vagabond on t h e e a r t h , w i t h no brand o f t h e c u r s e t o stay a s l a y i n g h a n d " — a n d t h a t Leggatt f e e l s a need f o r f r i e n d s h i p and p r o t e c t i o n , as he says a t t h e beginning, t h i s i s as odd as t h e c a p t a i n ' s l a s t thought

assumption

o f Leggatt's b e i n g

"a f r e e man, a proud swimmer," going t o meet t h e "new dest i n y " which i s " h i s punishment."

The moment when t h e c a p t a i n

t r i e s t o t h r u s t the hat on Leggatt's head i s a l s o ambiguous t o some e x t e n t .

H i s g e s t u r e i s o b v i o u s l y a p r o t e c t i v e one,

but i n view o f h i s p r e c e d i n g thought, may i t not a l s o be

t h a t he i s t r y i n g t o "brand" Leggatt? thought had come t o me

. . . .")

("I wonder what he

I f so, the a c t i o n would

i n c l u d e t h e urge t o remove t h e brand o f s e p a r a t i o n from

him-,

s e l f , so t h a t he c o u l d be accepted as one with the crew and the ship. To sum

up, then, t h e hat i s t h e symbol o f moral

ambiguity, i t s absence suggests egoism,

and i t s presence the

o u t c a s t o r a l i e n person, o r the person humbled b e f o r e God.

J

Ahab i s s t r i p p e d o f h i s hat by a b l a c k eagle which drops i t i n t o t h e sea, foreshadowing h i s own

end and p r e p a r i n g him,

as i t were, f o r the s a c r i f i c e .

Ishmael c a l l s the l o s s o f

t h e hat an e v i l omen (MD441).

And i f we r e t r a c e our s t e p s

back through G o t h i c l i t e r a t u r e to i t s o s t e n s i b l e source, The C a s t l e o f Otranto, we

f i n d the hat m o t i f i n use a l s o as a

moral agent' "the enormous helmet

. . . shaded w i t h a p r o -

p o r t i o n a b l e q u a n t i t y o f b l a c k f e a t h e r s " takes an a c t i v e p a r t i n c r u s h i n g wrong and r e s t o r i n g goodness t o the t h r o n e . 1 0 4 The hat i t s e l f , o f course, i s unimportant; but what i t sugg e s t s — t h e e x i s t e n c e o f moral wrong—needs f u r t h e r

consid-

eration. I have attempted t o show how

the changing emphasis

on a p a r t i c u l a r Gothic m o t i f shows the development

from

b l a c k - w h i t e moral c o n s i d e r a t i o n s to a deeper study o f what i s t r u e , good, r e a l , and what i s n o t .

The v e i l ,

f o r example,

f i r s t used as a mere d i v i d e r between the known and the unknown, becomes a t e s t or unusual s t a t e through which

the

105 p r o t a g o n i s t must pass, and consideration,

is finally

since i t palpably

i n i t s e l f the main

a f f e c t s what i s r e a l ,

r e a l i z e d , o r t r u e — t h i s i s e a s i l y seen i n connection Lord Jim.and, as I w i l l show, with B e n i t o

Cereno.

or

with

The

hat

i s a c l u e to another change of t h i s k i n d , drawing our t i o n as i t does to the moral ambiguity i n h e r e n t n a t u r e of L e g g a t t s double, the f

atten-

i n the

captain.

I t i s n a t u r a l to assume t h a t as "good" and

"bad"

merge i n t o the gray o f l a t e r Gothicism, the triumph o f over the other becomes n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e . concerning

the hat,

one

By h i s r e f l e c t i o n s

the c a p t a i n r e v e a l s that h i s concern i s

mainly f o r h i m s e l f j i n f a c t t h e r e i s even a touch o f smugness i n h i s unconcerned abandonment o f Leggatt once he has what he wants h i m s e l f .

He

has done the " r i g h t " t h i n g i n making i t as

easy as p o s s i b l e f o r Leggatt to reach the s a f e t y o f u t t e r , lifelong loneliness.

I f God

He might f e e l the same way

were p e r s o n i f i e d i n the Rime.

about h a v i n g saved the M a r i n e r

f o r a r o v i n g l i f e of good deeds.

R o d e r i c k Usher may

have so

j u s t i f i e d to h i m s e l f h i s attempt at d i s p e l l i n g f e a r o f

the

unknown by p l a c i n g h i s s i s t e r i n the torture-chamber f o r a grave ( t h i s statement b e i n g based on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t he b u r i e s her to l e a r n f o r h i m s e l f what b u r i a l i s l i k e ) . T h i s k i n d of moral ambiguity i s given c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s by M e l v i l l e i n Benito

Cereno, which i s s e t i n a

w a s t e — a t sea near "a s m a l l , d e s e r t , u n i n h a b i t e d where the moral ambiguity of Nature i s apparent:

Gothic

island"

106 The morning was one p e c u l i a r t o t h a t c o a s t . E v e r y t h i n g was mute and calm; e v e r y t h i n g gray. The sea . . . seemed f i x e d , and was s l e e k e d a t t h e s u r f a c e l i k e waved l e a d . . . The sky seemed a gray s u r t o u t . F l i g h t s o f t r o u b l e d gray fowl, k i t h and k i n with f l i g h t s o f t r o u b l e d gray vapors . . . skimmed low and f i t f u l l y over t h e waters, as swallows over meadows b e f o r e storms. Shadows p r e s e n t , foreshadowing deeper shadows t o come.105 Into t h i s gray d r i f t s t h e San Dominick, with

"vapors

p a r t l y m a n t l i n g t h e h u l l " as she e n t e r s t h e harbour which i s l i k e w i s e "wimpled by the same low, c r e e p i n g c l o u d s . " — w h o s e f l a w o r wound i s , l i k e Jim's, i n v i s i b l e :

Delano

"a s i n g u -

l a r l y u n d i s t r u s t f u l good n a t u r e " — i s c u r i o u s t o p e n e t r a t e t h e v e i l and f i n d out what l i e s beyond on t h e strange s h i p . What he sees i s b l a c k and white no l o n g e r blended i n t o enigma. contained:

He senses, indeed sees, i n what t h e e v i l i s

i n t h e decay and d i s o r d e r over which t h e s a i l o r s

have no c o n t r o l *

i n t h e symbols o f power wielded by the oakum-

p i c k e r s and t h e s i x h a t c h e t - p o l i s h e r s who " c l a s h e d t h e i r h a t c h e t s t o g e t h e r , l i k e cymbals,

w i t h a barbarous d i n * " and i n

the c o n t r o l over Don Benito which Babo o b v i o u s l y has, and which " b l u n t - t h i n k i n g " Delano so s t u p i d l y m i s i n t e r p r e t s . But so s t r o n g i s the i n f l u e n c e o f h i s own world over him, t h e world which covers up what i t does not wish t o see, t h a t Delano v e i l s t h e t r u t h u n w i t t i n g l y i n t h e d e l i c a c i e s o f gentility.

When he s t e p s on board, he operates on h i s own p r e -

c o n c e p t i o n s r a t h e r than on t h e f a c t s :

". . . C a p t a i n Delano

took t o negroes, not p h i l a n t h r o p i c a l l y , but g e n i a l l y , as other men t o Newfoundland dogs."

just

T h i s u n t h i n k i n g response,

107 based of

on h i s b e l i e f i n the s t u p i d i t y and " b l i n d

attachment"

Negroes, f i t as they are " f o r a v o c a t i o n s about one's

person.

. . . n a t u r a l v a l e t s , " p r e c l u d e s h i s t h i n k i n g of

t h e Negroes i n any other way.

H i s o p i n i o n o f the decay o f

t h e Spanish r a c e c o l o r s h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of both the Dominick and Don

Benito:

"why

San

wonder at incompetence, i n

youth, s i c k n e s s , and g e n t i l i t y u n i t e d ? " His f i r s t

impression o f the s h i p , " l i k e a whitewashed

monastery a f t e r a thunderstorm,"

governs the terms he uses

t h e r e a f t e r ; i n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, he seems to have always been u n c o n s c i o u s l y aware o f the p o t e n t i a l h o r r o r i n h e r e n t i n religion. of

H i s sense of uneasiness i s aroused by the

dark cowls . . . and other dark moving f i g u r GS

Black F r i a r s p a c i n g the c l o i s t e r s . " a s t e r y " with death:

"throngs

• • • dS Ot

He a s s o c i a t e s the "mon-

"Her k e e l seemed l a i d , her r i b s put t o -

gether, and she launched,

from E z e k i e l s V a l l e y o f Dry Bones;" f

" l i k e mourning weeds, dark f e s t o o n s of seagrass swept t o and fro

. . . with every h e a r s e - l i k e r o l l of the h u l l . "

f u r t h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f her i s w i t h the Dark Ages:

His "Battered

and mouldy, the c a s t e l l a t e d f o r e c a s t l e seemed some a n c i e n t t u r r e t , l o n g ago taken by a s s a u l t , and then l e f t

t o decay."

Having c o n s t r u c t e d i n h i s mind a s u i t a b l e s e t t i n g f o r t h e Spanish I n q u i s i t i o n , he f u r n i s h e s i t w i t h "grotesque of

engine[s]

torment" which a r e a l s o compatible with t h e c h u r c h - l i k e

i n t e r i o r , a wash-stand " l i k e a f o n t , " a "claw-footed o l d t a b l e " under a "meagre c r u c i f i x , " "two

long, sharp-ribbed

108 s e t t e e s . . . uncomfortable t o look a t as i n q u i s i t o r ' s r a c k s , " a b a s i n "scooped out, so as . . . t o r e c e i v e the chin."

M e l v i l l e juxtaposes

these d e t a i l s , coming from t h e

" r i t u a l murder" scene o f B e n i t o ' s b e i n g shaven, with the comfort and s e r e n i t y o f Delano's conscious

feelings.^

As

0 0

the s h a v i n g begins, he i s "more s o c i a b l y i n c l i n e d than a t any other p r e v i o u s p e r i o d o f t h e day," "amused" and " p l a y f u l , " even though B e n i t o ' s f a c e g r a d u a l l y comes to assume a " t e r r i f i e d aspect," lessly,

" l i k e as i f , " Delano muses thought-

"he h i m s e l f were t o be done f o r . "

Such scenes be-

come more and more obvious as t h e s t o r y proceeds, with Delano unconsciously still

aware o f t h e t r u t h s he c o n s c i o u s l y s t a t e s , but

b l i n d e d by h i s p r e c o n c e p t i o n s .

The s e p a r a t i o n o f b l a c k

and white i s s t r i k i n g i n Babo and B e n i t o , who a r e presented i n t a b l e a u f a s h i o n with the Spaniard b l a c k , "who

. . . was k n e e l i n g a t h i s f e e t . . . h i s d i s -

engaged f a c e . . . turned openly c a s t one." looked

l o o k i n g down a t t h e

up i n t o h i s master's down-

I n t h e same manner Leggatt

a t each o t h e r .

t o a l i k e mental schism

and t h e c a p t a i n

This separation i s the overt

first

parallel

i n Delano, where h i s unconscious i s

s t r u g g l i n g t o t e a r t h e " s c a l e s . . . from h i s eyes."^°7 c l o s e s t i t comes t o success

The

i s p o s s i b l y t h e moment when " i n

the b l a c k he saw a headsman, and i n t h e white a man at t h e block."

He glimpses t h e t r u t h but i t s l i p s away, as does

the s p e c t r e from Marlow when he t h i n k s he has "got the s p e c t r e by t h e t h r o a t at l a s t " (LJ228) but s h o r t l y

afterwards

109

admits he f e l t "the d e m o r a l i z a t i o n of my

utter defeat"

(LJ233). Nor i s t h e r e any

s i g n of Delano's u l t i m a t e over-

coming of h i s weakness; perhaps because he never has to

actually

undo t h e knot he i s handed, he does not seem t o see t h a t

the e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f e v i l

i s not a simple m a t t e r .

In

1 0 8

f a c t , the moral decay he imputes t o B e n i t o i s i n a sense more p r e s e n t i n h i m s e l f .

H i s " f l a s h of r e v e l a t i o n " p e r t a i n s

o n l y to t h i s one i n c i d e n t ; f o r the r e s t , 'the p a s t i s passed; why m o r a l i z e upon i t ? Forget it. See, yon b r i g h t sun has f o r g o t t e n i t a l l , and the b l u e sea, and the b l u e sky; these have turned over new l e a v e s . ' But B e n i t o cannot so much as look at t h e outward s i g n of intense e v i l

("the

b l a c k — w h o s e b r a i n , not body, had schemed

and l e d the r e v o l t " ) : ed."

"When pressed by the judges he

Benito d i e s of i t .

to p r o t e c t h i m s e l f from i t , reassume h i s mask? o t h e r matters to be an a s t u t e man,

be.

faint-

The i n f e r e n c e would seem to be t h a t the s t r e n g t h o f

such e v i l makes i t f a t a l .

his

such

Does Delano, He seems i n

i n command o f h i m s e l f and

s h i p as The S e c r e t Sharer's c a p t a i n c l a i m s at the end to Both men

appear, i n f a c t , to be b e t t e r than the

average.

The young c a p t a i n has f e l t the need to separate h i m s e l f from men,

p o s s i b l y i n order to l e a r n more of h i m s e l f (a separa-

t i o n the Sephora's c a p t a i n never a c h i e v e d ) , and Delano i s k i n d l y and j u s t i n s p i t e o f h i s a i r o f s u p e r i o r i t y and a tendency to take n e e d l e s s r i s k s upon h i m s e l f .

Perhaps he

110 has simply, l i k e Jim,

never

been t e s t e d by those events of the sea t h a t show i n t h e l i g h t o f day the i n n e r worth of a man, the edge of h i s temper, and the f i b r e o f h i s s t u f f ; t h a t r e v e a l the q u a l i t y o f h i s r e s i s t a n c e and the s e c r e t t r u t h of h i s p r e t e n s e s , not only to o t h e r s but a l s o t o h i m s e l f . (LJ10) And when t h e t e s t comes, perhaps he simply has not the moral f i b r e of an Ishmael or a Marlow, both of whom know when, f o o l i s h a r not, they must become f u l l y i n v o l v e d i n the l i v e s o f people more i n t e n s e l y a l i v e than they are, must accept t h e i n t e r - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t o t a l l y , become Ahab and K u r t z

and

the A n c i e n t Mariner, b e f o r e they can be s a i d t o be a l i v e

and

f r e e d from t h e s e p u l c h r a l c i t y i n which mankind e x i s t s .

Per-

haps he i s l i k e the n a r r a t o r o f B a r t l e b v . who

also leaves

t h e reader w i t h the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t although he has had

the

chance to r e c o g n i z e a deep t r u t h about h i m s e l f and mankind, he has turned a s i d e at the l a s t moment, a f r a i d he

cannot

support the k i n d of p e n e t r a t i o n which he has seen d e s t r o y another.

This penetration or i l l u m i n a t i o n i s l i k e that

s u p p l i e d by the candle which Kurtz cannot

see, but by which

he p e r c e i v e s the m o n s t r o s i t y of the n i g h t . I f , then, h a v i n g d i s c o v e r e d how

easy i t i s t o

mistake

and b e f r i e n d e v i l more t e r r i b l e than death, he does sublimate t h e knowledge i n t u i t i v e l y i n h i s i n s t i n c t f o r s u r v i v a l , i t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Delano should welcome again the metap h o r i c gray with which nature v e i l s her raw powers.

Nor,

c o n s i d e r i n g h i s o p t i m i s t i c and k i n d l y bent of mind, i s i t

Ill unusual same. fire"

f o r him t o attempt

t o coerce Benito i n t o doing t h e

But t h e Spaniard has looked "too l o n g i n t h e face o f (MD354) n o t t o be i n j u r e d .

s i l i a n c y o f mind t o r a l l y

He h a s no l o n g e r t h e r e -

under Delano's unconscious

h i m t o b l o t o u t h i s new k n o w l e d g e : has

c a s t s u c h a shadow u p o n y o u ? '

cue t o

"'you a r e saved:

what

'The n e g r o . ' "

"The h o r r o r , t h e h o r r o r , " i s i n e f f e c t h i s a n s w e r . L i k e K u r t z a n d t h e M a r i n e r , he i s t h e u n w i l l i n g of a p e r c e p t i o n which d i s a b l e s him f o r l i f e ing

among men, mak-

h i m an o u t c a s t , a n I s o l a t o , i n c a p a b l e o f e n d u r i n g i n a

s o c i a l framework.

Now t h i s i s j u s t t h e c o n d i t i o n t h e p o r -

t r a y a l o f w h i c h I have s u g g e s t e d

e a r l i e r i s t h e main d e s i g n

o f s u c h G o t h i c w r i t e r s a s L e w i s and M a t u r i n . now i s , t o what e x t e n t i s t h e same theme s t i l l in

recipient

ConraM?

My

question

a G o t h i c one

B e c a u s e t h e theme o f i s o l a t i o n a p p e a r s t o me t o

b e most f u l l y

e x p l i c a t e d i n Heart

o f Darkness. I wish t o

d i s c u s s i t f o r a moment i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h a t s t o r y . I t would appear from t h e f o r e g o i n g study t h a t G o t h i c i s m i s embodied i n c e r t a i n m o t i f s o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

through

t h e u s e o f w h i c h a g i v e n s t o r y , theme, o r i d e a i s d e v e l o p e d . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n b r o a d l y be c a l l e d t h e s e t t i n g , s i n c e they

c o n t a i n a s i n a box t h e g i v e n theme o r i d e a .

d o e s t h a t make t h e g i v e n theme G o t h i c ?

But

I f t h e s e t t i n g i s in@%

j u s t t h a t — a s e t t i n g w h i c h e x e r t s no i n f l u e n c e , t h e a n s w e r i s no.

B u t , i n some c a s e s , when t h e s e t t i n g a c t u a l l y i n -

f l u e n c e s t h e theme, i t d o e s .

T h u s J i m , K u r t z , a n d Ahab a r e

112 G o t h i c c h a r a c t e r s both because o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n herent i n themselves and because o f t h e i r immersion i n t h e i r environments, which govern them, t o a s i g n i f i c a n t both mentally and p h y s i c a l l y .

extent,

Marlow and Ishmael, on the

o t h e r hand, a r e Gothic i n themselves,

but s i n c e t h e i r en-

vironments do not sway them u n t i l they submit

themselves,

they a r e not Gothic i n that way, as K u r t z and Ahab a r e . To repeat a r e l a t e d p o i n t , s e t t i n g r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e a l i t y t o be understood

i n Gothicism, and i s simultaneously

t h e o b s t a c l e t o t h a t understanding.

T h e r e i n l i e s much o f

t h e Gothicism o f Heart o f Darkness. I t i s from Heart o f Darkness t h a t we l e a r n that f o r Marlow "the meaning o f an episode was not i n s i d e l i k e a k e r n e l but o u t s i d e . " ly,

Now i n L o r d Jim, we a r e g i v e n ( o b l i q u e -

i t i s t r u e ) t h e k e r n e l as w e l l as the "misty h a l o " which

comprises

the rest of the story.

I n Heart o f Darkness even

more than i n Benito Cereno. t h e s e t t i n g ( p h y s i c a l and psychol o g i c a l ) i s the v e i l , meaning r e s i d e s .

the misty h a l o , the enigma, where t h e

There i s no k e r n e l given t o p a r a l l e l the

M a r i n e r ' s k i l l i n g o f the a l b a t r o s s o r Jim's jump from t h e Patna.

We simply presume t h a t one e x i s t s * most l i k e l y i t

i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f K u r t z ' s awareness o f t h e p o t e n t i a l i n h i m s e l f and the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i t s f u l f i l m e n t at t h a t time i n the f o r e s t ; but i t might as e a s i l y be some p h y s i c a l a c t which i s t h e t r i g g e r f o r and outward m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s inward

illumination.

I t s absence from the s t o r y b e t r a y s

113 its

unimportance.

The meaning i s i n the f o r e s t

itself.

The sea as Gothic becomes here the f o r e s t as G o t h i c ; to

Conrad, sea and f o r e s t are v i r t u a l l y

The

interchangeable.

Eldorado E x p e d i t i o n goes " i n t o t h e p a t i e n t w i l d e r n e s s ,

t h a t c l o s e d upon i t as the sea c l o s e d over a d i v e r " (HD33). M a r l o w s entry i n t o i t , then, i s l i k e Ishmael's going t o sea. 1

Ishmael sees t h a t n o t h i n g can change water:

" t h a t same

ocean" t h a t "whelmed a whole w o r l d " " r o l l s now f l o o d i s not y e t s u b s i d e d " (MD235). time becomes i n f i n i t e . up t h a t r i v e r was

. . . Noah's

When one i s a t sea,

So i t i s w i t h the f o r e s t :

"Going

l i k e t r a v e l l i n g back to t h e e a r l i e s t

be-

g i n n i n g s o f the world, when v e g e t a t i o n r i o t e d on the e a r t h and the b i g t r e e s were k i n g s " (HD34).

In t h i s t i m e l e s s

world, Marlow*s p a s t becomes a dream f o r him.

Yet he knows,

as Ishmael does of the sea, t h a t the w i l d e r n e s s i s f i e n d i s h and

s u b t l e (MD235), t h a t " i t s most dreaded c r e a t u r e s g l i d e

under" the apparent

surface:

t h i s s t i l l n e s s of l i f e d i d not i n the l e a s t r e semble a peace. I t was the s t i l l n e s s of an implacable f o r c e brooding over an i n s c r u t a b l e intention. I t looked a t you with a v e n g e f u l aspect. (HD34) It

i s nolswonder then t h a t K u r t z shares P i p ' s f a t e ; "the i n -

f i n i t e o f h i s s o u l " i s destroyed among the "strange shapes of

the unwarped p r i m a l w o r l d "

mad.

(MD347):

"•

• • h i s soul

was

Being alone i n the w i l d e r n e s s , i t had looked w i t h i n

itself,

and,

by Heavens! I t e l l you, i t had

gone mad."

(HD68).

114 He has come to P i p ' s s t a t e , "to t h a t c e l e s t i a l

thought,

which, t o reason, i s absurd and f r a n t i c ; and weal o r f e e l s then uncompromised, i n d i f f e r e n t as h i s

God."

The i n d i f f e r e n c e appears t o be what induces t o become h i s own

woe,

Kurtz

and h i s people's god; Marlow r e c o g n i z e s

t h a t t h e r e i s no use i n a p p e a l i n g to him i n the name of anyother.

He has stepped o u t s i d e of the "charmed c i r c l e " of

both c o n v e n t i o n a l r e l i g i o n and s o c i a l mores. As Gothic hero, K u r t z has some of t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f Frankenstein's monster.

Sent to the w i l d e r n e s s as a conse-

quence o f r e l i g i o u s z e a l f o r the betterment t h e simple e x e r c i s e o f our w i l l we

o f mankind—"'By

can exert a power f o r good

p r a c t i c a l l y unbounded'" (HD51)—he becomes d i s t o r t e d by h i s impatience

of " c i v i l i z e d " men,

and uses h i s power f o r pur-

poses q u e s t i o n a b l e to those " c i v i l i z e d " men. o f Prometheus-Faust who

i s damned by h i s own

He i s a s o r t humanity, which

l i m i t s him i n the very a c t o f h i s r i s i n g above i t .

Even h i s

e x a l t a t i o n i s degradation; he i s a " p i t i f u l J u p i t e r , " coming g o d - l i k e to the savages "with thunder and l i g h t n i n g " but r i s i n g up " l o n g , p a l e , i n d i s t i n c t , l i k e a vapour exhaled the e a r t h " ( H D 6 6 ) b e f o r e Marlow. o f death"

by

He i s "an animated image

( H D 6 0 ) , y e t he has l e a r n e d a l l the s e c r e t s of

life,

" a l l the wisdom, and a l l t r u t h , and a l l s i n c e r i t y " ( H D 7 2 ) . Perhaps t h i s i s one o f h i s most G o t h i c t r a i t s :

he d e s i r e s

l i k e Faust or D o r i a n Gray to experience a l l t h i n g s , but h i s c e n t r a l experience i s the awareness o f the c o r r u p t i o n o f

115 society.

Along w i t h t h i s understanding,

he seems t o f e e l

t h a t knowledge, a t l e a s t , can be salvaged and r e a p p l i e d , by h i m s e l f , to the attainment o f h i s p l a c e as savage

god.

U l t i m a t e l y , however, the knowledge he must have used i s t h e knowledge o f the myth with which he i n v e s t e d h i m s e l f . K u r t z ' s o t h e r Gothic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u n i t e many of t h e themes I have d i s c u s s e d .

He e x i s t s a t the c e n t r e of

Marlow's d r e a m - w o r l d — h i s words "had behind them, t o

my

mind, the t e r r i f i c s u g g e s t i v e n e s s o f words heard i n dreams, o f phrases spoken i n a nightmare"

(HD67).

Besides the G o t h i c

c o n t r a s t s i n h i s nature, he d i s p l a y s the d u a l i t y of b e i n g , which i s common t o the G o t h i c :

"the shade of K u r t z f r e q u e n t -

ed t h e bedside of the hollow sham . . ." (HD69); he i s the u l t i m a t e of what o t h e r s see i n themselves him

and p r o j e c t

onto

( K u r t z ' s c o u s i n , the o r g a n i s t , f o r example, p i c t u r e s

K u r t z as a great m u s i c i a n ) ; i n p a r t i c u l a r he i s Marlow's double; he i s a l s o the h e a r t of t h e f o r e s t , e x i s t i n g i n union w i t h "the w i l d and gorgeous a p p a r i t i o n o f a woman" (HD61) who i s t h e m i r r o r - o p p o s i t e of h i s Intended.

Marlow i s so c l o s e l y

i d e n t i f i e d with him as to a c t u a l l y p i c k up K u r t z ' s e x i s t e n c e when he d i e s b e f o r e he i s ready, and out t o the end" (HD71).

"dream the nightmare

He i s "numbered w i t h the dead" when

K u r t z l i e s dying, and he accepts " t h i s unforeseen p a r t n e r s h i p " (HD69) m a t t e r - o f - f a c t l y . J u s t as much as are K u r t z ' s v o i c e and K u r t z ' s former t h e o r i g i n a l K u r t z " who

s e l f , so i s Marlow "the shade of f r e q u e n t s h i s bedside.

L i k e the

116 c a p t a i n of The S e c r e t Sharer l o o k i n g down a t Leggatt i n the dark water, Marlow l o o k s "at him as you peer down at a who

man

i s l y i n g at the bottom of a p r e c i p i c e where the sun

never s h i n e s . " (HD70); and l a t e r , when he i s s t a n d i n g by t h e Intended*s

door, Kurtz "seemed t o s t a r e at me out o f

t h e g l a s s y p a n e l — s t a r e with t h a t wide and immense s t a r e embracing, His

condemning, l o a t h i n g a l l the u n i v e r s e " ( L J 7 5 ) .

p e n e t r a t i n g v o i c e i s h e n c e f o r t h "the whispered

H o r r o r ! The H o r r o r ! "

Indeed,

c r y , The

t h i s whisper conveys the es-

sence of what t h e s u b l i m i n a l s e l f , i n the G o t h i c , g e n e r a l l y seems to say.

I t i s an exposure o f the d i s g u s t i n g and

hor-

r i b l e — a n d the immoral. The union o f " t h a t Shadow" r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e dark s i d e of human n a t u r e as moral agent, with " t h i s wandering and tormented

t h i n g " (HD67) r e p r e s e n t i n g K u r t z as seeker

and both i n i t i a t e i n t o and p r i e s t o f "abominable t e r r o r s " and "abominable s a t i s f a c t i o n s " ( H D 7 2 ) — t h i s union i n K u r t z s i g n i f i e s the k i n d o f awareness which Ishmael

or the Mariner

come t o possess, and which they pass on to t h e i r I n s o f a r as he i s these two,

listeners.

he i s claimed, as i t were, by

L i f e - i n - D e a t h , hence h i s s t r o n g v o i c e i n a d e a t h l y body. He

seems to Marlow t o e x i s t between l i f e

end, he l i v e s i n Marlow, who come back i n t o l i f e ;

and death; at the

i s h i s s u r r o g a t e and who

but a l s o i n h i s Intended, who

image of death, an "eloquent phantom . . . f a m i l i a r Shade" (HD78).

a tragic

has

i s an and

To the s e p u l c h r a l c i t y he i s dead,

but to the w i l d e r n e s s a l s o he i s l o s t .

"

up the r i v e r from the heart of darkness,

He has come back but not, except i n

Marlow, as f a r as "the k n i t t i n g o l d woman . . . end of [ t h e ] a f f a i r y ( H D 6 6 ) .

a t the o t h e r

H i s b e i n g l o s t t o both worlds

a c t u a l l y makes him more o f a mythic

figure.

Marlow assumes

he has "made a b a r g a i n f o r h i s s o u l w i t h the d e v i l ; " and

the

d e v i l i s indeed "too much o f a d e v i l " to a l l o w him to r e t a i n h i s "high seat amongst the d e v i l s of the land" (HD50). t h e l e s s , though K u r t z as K u r t z d i e s , K u r t z as mythic does not, and h a v i n g c o n s c i o u s l y and s u c c e s s f u l l y h i s own

Neverhero

achieved

a p o t h e o s i s , he can be s a i d to u n i t e mythic

and

Gothic

110

t r a i t s i n hxmself.

x

T h i s i s a step which M e l v i l l e does not seem to a l l o w h i s c h a r a c t e r s to take.

Ahab i s not t r u l y mythic,

h i s quest i s ; Ishmael i s mythic as i s Jim, who

to a degree, but not so much

more c o n s c i o u s l y r e a l i z e s h i s own

p o t e n t i a l , and who,

though

heroic

l i k e K u r t z , seems to g a i n added v i t a l i t y

from h i s expanded r o l e . "The marriage

of the n a t u r a l and the s u p e r n a t u r a l "

i s s u r e l y what t h e j o i n i n g of myth with the G o t h i c a c h i e v e s . Can myth, then, be the p l a c e where, as Varma p u t s i t , G o t h i c romance took r e f u g e ? " unusual

Not,

"the

I f e e l , except i n a

few

cases, but t h a t does not mean t h a t G o t h i c i s m does

not tend toward i t .

Begun as a conglomerate of d e v i c e s

s i g n e d to produce a c e r t a i n emotional

e f f e c t , i t has

de-

again

d i v i d e d i n t o v a r i o u s d e v i c e s , p r e s e n t i n v a r y i n g numbers

118 and degrees, used to evoke the o r i g i n a l f e e l i n g they

sug-

gested, as w e l l as t h a t p e r t i n e n t t o t h e i r new

Melville

use.

g a i n s f o r Ahab a whole c h a r a c t e r which he need o n l y mould t o his

own

d e v i c e s t o f i t him i n t o h i s thematic m a t e r i a l .

s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m i n h e r e n t i n the G o t h i c h e r o - v i l l a i n ,

The

the

impatience with death, and the tremendous egotism, add t o Ahab's c h a r a c t e r a r e a l i s m and a ready acceptance o f h i s maniacal designs which M e l v i l l e would, without the G o t h i c t r a d i t i o n , have t o work f a r harder to a t t a i n , even t o t h e p o i n t of f l a w i n g the r e s t of the n o v e l .

The same i s t r u e

of K u r t z ; h i s mysterious power over both b l a c k s and

whites

need never be proven, need h a r d l y be shown, i n f a c t , but i s u n q u e s t i o n i n g l y accepted as the b a s i s on which Conrad

builds.

Nor i s i t any more than n a t u r a l t h a t legends of magical deeds grow around Jim, who

seems to speak through a dream-

l i k e haze, c r e a t i n g t h e i l l u s i o n of an untouchable, like

man. The "staying-power" o f the G o t h i c a l s o has

to

god-

do w i t h i t s form.

something

This consists primarily i n setting,

without which no s t o r y e x i s t s , and, s i n c e i t comes with the b e g i n n i n g o f the c o n s c i o u s p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y which the n o v e l form e s p e c i a l l y encourages,

G o t h i c i s m makes use o f

themes which are modern i n t h a t they are e n i g m a t i c a l and f u l l of c o n t r a s t . veil.)

(Witness the many m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of the

The more the p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y i n c r e a s e d , t h e

more w r i t e r s were o b l i g e d to employ enigma i n o r d e r t o

119

i n c l u d e t h e f u l l range o f meaning and m a n i f o l d aspects which comprise

truth.

concerned

M e l v i l l e and Conrad

both were p a r t i c u l a r l y -

to make statements about t h e i r moral u n i v e r s e ,

which they saw changing around them.

Empathy, understanding

t r a n s c e n d i n g words and e x p r e s s i b l e o n l y through i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , v i c a r i o u s but deep emotional t h e s e were t h e i r g o a l s .

emotional

experience—

I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o make a worth-

w h i l e d e f i n i t i v e statement

about Jim, t o understand him by

statement

o f any k i n d , but i t i s n o t i m p o s s i b l e t o f e e l as

he f e l t .

S i m i l a r l y , no one can know t h e t r u t h o f t h e cap-

t a i n ' s emotions i n The S e c r e t Sharer; t h e r e are t r u t h s , e l u c i d a t e d by t h e understanding o f him and h i s double which G o t h i c i s m can c l a r i f y .

The t r u t h s a r i s i n g from t h e same

conventions i n Benito Cereno say something Delano,

definite

about

t h e modern man i n t h e Gothic s e t t i n g , but what i t

i s depends, as f a r as I can see, on t h e degree t o which t h e reader f e e l s h i s s e t t i n g i n f l u e n c e s him. Perhaps what I imply here i s t h e one t r a i t which almost a l l G o t h i c s t o r i e s have i n common:

t h e presence o f

both a t e l l e r and a l i s t e n e r , t h e p r o t o t y p i c a l example being, o f course, t h e Mariner and t h e Wedding-Guest.

There must be

an i n i t i a t e i n t o t h e c e n t r a l experience, who f e e l s t h e comp u l s i o n t o pass h i s experience on t o t h e few chosen s o u l s capable o f understanding i t .

The c r i t e r i o n f o r j u d g i n g who

t h e s e people a r e l i e s s o l e l y with the t e l l e r , who has been made i n t u i t i v e l y aware o f t h e c r i t e r i o n and o f who t h e

120 l i s t e n e r s must be.

A l l the s t o r i e s which I have here d i s -

cussed show some v a r i a t i o n o f t h a t

prerequisite.

And i n

u n f o l d i n g t h e i r s t o r i e s from t h i s b a s i s , M e l v i l l e and Conrad demonstrate an i m a g i n a t i v e use and r e s h a p i n g o f t h e Gothic which amounts t o a n e a r - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e form; they have s e l e c t e d

from i t those concepts which have meaning

f o r them, and which inform t h e i r s t o r i e s with t h e heightened p e r t i n e n c y and u n i v e r s a l i t y o f m a s t e r - n o v e l i s t s .

NOTES 1

D.

P. Varma, The Gothic Flame (New

York, 1966), p.

173. P e t e r L. T h o r s l e v J r . , The B y r o n i c Herot P r o t o t y p e s ( M i n n e a p o l i s , 1962), p. 8. 2

Types and

^Eino R a i l o , f o r one, d i s c u s s e s t h i s at l e n g t h i n The Haunted C a s t l e (London, 1927). A l s o see J . M. S. Tompk i n s * The Popular Novel i n England. 1770&1880. pp. 243ff. She f e e l s t h a t the two stages o f t h e development of the G o t h i c romance were 1) i t s establishment i n p o p u l a r i t y by R a d c l i f f e , Walpole, the Lee s i s t e r s , the E l i z a b e t h a n dramat i s t s ; and 2) i t s embellishment by the t r a n s l a t i o n of German s t o r i e s — H e r m a n of Unna (1794), f o r example. S i n c e i t was Walpole who a c t u a l l y d i d most.of the t r a n s l a t i o n s , however; s i n c e he never wrote a s t o r y o r p l a y which was s i m i l a r i n tone t o those of R a d c l i f f e and her s c h o o l ; and s i n c e t h e i r works, s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t i n s t y l e , were p u b l i s h e d about t h e same time, I t h i n k t h a t Tompkins* "stages o f development" were not a c t u a l s t a g e s as such. Walpole and R a d c l i f f e should not i n my o p i n i o n be c l a s s e d t o g e t h e r i n t h i s way. ^ R a i l o uses these terms i n d i s c u s s i n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each type of G o t h i c . 5w. E. Buckley, ed., Prose o f the V i c t o r i a n P e r i o d (Boston, 1958), p. 362. 6 l t i s important to r e f l e c t , i n c o n n e c t i o n with t h i s i n q u i r y , t h a t t h e s e elements were so o f t e n repeated, and so e f f e c t i v e l y used, t h a t even now t h e i r very mention w i l l evoke i n t h e r e a d e r ' s mind the f u l l aura o f mystery and f e a r , w i t h a l l the accessory t r a p p i n g s of t e r r o r - r o m a n t i c i s m ; t h i s i s a f a c t which t h e a r t i s t may c o n s c i o u s l y use to h i s own advantage. 7 l t seems t o me t h a t t h e e f f e c t of Freud and Jung on G o t h i c i s m may p o s s i b l y have been adverse. °Mobv-Dick was c a l l e d t h i s by R. D. Hume, "Gothic Versus Romantic: A R e v a l u a t i o n o f the Gothic Novel," PMLA. Vol.IXKjyNo. 3 (Mar. 1969), pp.. 287 and 290. ^He was a l s o i n p o s s e s s i o n of the works o f Byron, C h a t t e r t o n , S h e l l e y , Southey, Poe, and Hawthorne; Burke's Essay On the Sublime. C o l e r i d g e ' s B i o g r a p h i a L i t e r a r i a . De Quincey's C o n f e s s i o n s , some Goethe, a t r a n s l a t i o n of The Bravo of Venice by M. G. Lewis, S c h i l l e r ' s Ghost-Seer, a work c a l l e d Lays and Legends of t h d Rhine, and some Dickens

122

and S c o t t . See M. S e a l t s ' M e l v i l l e ' s Reading (Madison, 1966). There i s a l s o a comment i n d i c a t i n g h i s i n t e r e s t : "as M e l v i l l e observed: 'With The C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o . Walp o l e s t r u c k an unexplored v e i n o f romance.'" Varma, p. 7 2 . ( I can't f i n d where M e l v i l l e made t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n . ) •^Although " o f a l l the Romantic poets Percy Bysshe S h e l l e y was most deeply s a t u r a t e d w i t h G o t h i c d i a b l e r i e , " he does not enjoy t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f C o l e r i d g e , and thus has n o t the i n f l u e n c e . See Varma, p. 1 9 7 f f . As f o r Byron, " b i o g r a p h i c a l l y , he i s p r a c t i c a l l y the archetype o f the G o t h i c - r o m a n t i c hero, but as a romantic poet he f i t s o n l y u n e a s i l y the type d e l i m i t e d by Wordsworth, Keats, and S h e l l e y . " Hume, p. 2 8 9 . I t h i n k Byron added a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o t h e Gothic w h i l e C o l e r i d g e i n c r e a s e d i t s scope. T h i s i s q u i b b l i n g , i n a sense, because of t h e great importance o f t h e s o — c a l l e d " B y r o n i c " hero, though Hume makes a good case f o r the term's b e i n g a misnomer. l ^ I t might a l s o be p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r G u l l i v e r ' s T r a v e l s here, s i n c e i t was t h e i n s p i r a t i o n f o r much s e a f i c t i o n even though i t i s a l s o a s a t i r e o f t h a t genre. 12 Joseph Conrad, Lord Jim, ed. Morton Dauwen Z a b e l , R i v e r s i d e E d i t i o n s (Boston, 1 9 5 8 ) , pp* 8 8 - 8 9 . A l l page numb e r s a r e to t h i s e d i t i o n and are c i t e d i n t h e t e x t . 1 3 erman M e l v i l l e , Mobv-Dick. eds. H a r r i s o n Hayford and H e r s h e l Parker, Norton C r i t i c a l E d i t i o n (New York, 1 9 6 7 ) , pp. 3 9 9 - 4 0 0 . A l l page numbers a r e to t h i s e d i t i o n and are c i t e d i n the t e x t . H

•^Varma, p. 54. 15samuel T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , B i o g r a p h i a L i t e r a r i a . i n The P o r t a b l e C o l e r i d g e . I . A. R i c h a r d s , ed. (New York, 1 9 6 7 ) , p. 518. T h e P o e t i c a l Works o f Wordsworth. Oxford Standard Authors (New York, 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 7 3 4 . l o

•""•The marriage m o t i f i s i t s e l f common i n t h e G o t h i c , and i s g e n e r a l l y emblematic o f s e x u a l f r u s t r a t i o n , as i n The C a s t l e of O t r a n t o . Jane Eyre, and even Mobv-Dick. i n which Ahab says o f h i s w i f e t h a t he married and widowed her i n t h e same moment. In the Rime i t seems t o s e t o f f the M a r i n e r ' s f r u s t r a t e d attempt at s o c i a l u n i o n . 7

18

A p e r f e c t Gothic storm:

123 The upper a i r b u r s t i n t o l i f e ! And a hundred f i r e - f l a g s sheen, To and f r o they were h u r r i e d about! And to and f r o , and i n and out, The wan s t a r s danced between. And And And The

the coming wind d i d r o a r more l o u d , t h e s a i l s d i d s i g h l i k e sedge; t h e r a i n poured down from one b l a c k c l o u d ; Moon was a t i t s edge.

The t h i c k black c l o u d was c l e f t , and s t i l l The Moon was at i t s s i d e : L i k e waters shot from some h i g h c r a g , The l i g h t n i n g f e l l w i t h never a j a g , A r i v e r steep and wide. The l o u d wind never reached t h e s h i p , Yet now the s h i p moved on! Beneath t h e l i g h t n i n g and the Moon The dead men gave a groan. The f i g u r e o f L i f e - i n - D e a t h may be t h e one t o whom Ahab speaks when he and Ishmael see i n t o and through the D e l i g h t . ^ S e e D. W. Harding, "The Theme of t h e Ancient M a r i n er ." The Importance o f S c r u t i n y (New York, 1948). In t h i s a r t i c l e H a r d i n g d e a l s w i t h t h e M a r i n e r ' s i n a b i l i t y to a t t a i n t o t a l acceptance i n t o s o c i e t y . 2 Q

S e e Harding, p. 180.

^ T h e moss would be r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e , and the--oakstump t h e image o f the Church. 2

2 2

S e e p. 109.

" B u t here i s an a r t i s t . He d e s i r e s t o p a i n t you the dreamiest, s h a d i e s t , q u i e t e s t , most e n c h a n t i n g b i t o f romantic l a n d s c a p e i n a l l t h e v a l l e y o f t h e Saco. What i s the c h i e f element he employs? There stand h i s t r e e s , each w i t h a h o l l o w trunk, as i f a hermit and a c r u c i f i x were w i t h i n ; and here s l e e p s h i s meadow, and t h e r e s l e e p h i s c a t t l e ; and up from yonder c o t t a g e goes a s l e e p y smoke. Deep i n t o d i s t a n t woodlands winds a mazy way, r e a c h i n g t o o v e r l a p p i n g spurs o f mountains bathed i n t h e i r h i l l - s i d e b l u e . But though the p i c t u r e l i e s thus t r a n c e d , and though t h i s p i n e - t r e e shakes down i t s s i g h s l i k e l e a v e s upon t h i s shepherd's head, y e t a l l were v a i n , u n l e s s the shepherd's eye w e r e - f i x e d upon the magic stream b e f o r e him." (MD13) J

124 ^The c o n t r a s t between l a n d and sea i s one theme o f t h i s chapter; a l s o see t h e end o f Chapter 58. Tompkins g i v e s a good example o f t h e " R a d c l i f f e a n landscape o f beauty" i n The Popular Novel i n England i n Appendix IV on pages 379-380. ^ S e e M i r c e a E l i a d e ' s Myth and R e a l i t y (New York, 1963), p. 81. Mobv-Dick may p o s s i b l y be a myth o f t h e r e b i r t h o f man from t h i s v i e w p o i n t : t h a t Ishmael reaches a chaos, an "end," e n t e r s t h e Spouter-Inn and t h e w h a l e - l i k e P e q u o d — t h a t i s , r e - e n t e r s t h e womb o r t h e stomach o f t h e sea-monster which i n mythology i s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e womb of Mother E a r t h — a n d then undergoes a s e r i e s o f experiences which culminate i n r e b i r t h . When reborn, he i s p u r i f i e d o f a l l extremes o f emotion; he has e x o r c i s e d t h e demons both of world-weariness and o f madness. H i s l i n k with t h e c o f f i n , both a t t h e b e g i n n i n g (Peter C o f f i n ) and t h e end, i m p l i e s t h a t out o f l i f e comes death and out o f death comes l i f e . Expressed thus, t h e book can a l s o imply a journey through the underworld, death b e i n g t h e v e i l which Ishmael p i e r c e s t w i c e . The underworld i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e womb, and both p a r a l l e l t h e subconscious. Such r e b i r t h s , a c c o r d i n g t o E l i a d e , a r e not simple r e p e t i t i o n s o f t h e f i r s t , but m y s t i c a l , s p i r i t u a l r e b i r t h s g i v i n g "access t o a new mode o f e x i s t e n c e , " and repeated r i t u a l l y . "In o t h e r words, we here have a c t s o r i e n t e d toward t h e v a l u e s o f S p i r i t , not behavior from t h e realm o f p s y c h o - p h y s i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y V ( p . 81). H i s i d e a i s l i k e Wordsworth's, t h a t "our b i r t h i s but a s l e e p and a f o r g e t t i n g " between times o f absolute/complete knowledge. 2

26

^"E. H. Davidson, ed., S e l e c t e d W r i t i n g s o f Edgar A l l a n Poe (Boston, 1956), p. 97. H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as Poe. J o s e p h Conrad, Three Great T a l e s (New York, 1962), Nigger o f t h e N a r c i s s u s , p . 24. References w i l l be t o t h i s e d i t i o n and w i l l be c i t e d as Nigger. 2 7

2 8

N i g g e r . p. 38.

2 9

N i g g e r , p. 45.

30ine more common d e s c r i p t i o n i s i m p l i e d i n such words as "the Pequod t h r u s t her v i n d i c t i v e bows i n t o t h e c o l d m a l i c i o u s waves" ( M D 9 7 ) . 31»For t h e t h i r d time my s o u l ' s ship s t a r t s up on t h i s voyage, Starbuck" (MD462). 32A1SO see t h e f i r s t and pp. 174-175.

paragraph o f Ch. 97, p. 355,

125 33"xheir tawny f e a t u r e s , now a l l begrimed with smoke and sweat, t h e i r matted beards, and the c o n t r a s t i n g b a r b a r i c b r i l l i a n c y of t h e i r teeth, a l l these were s t r a n g e l y r e v e a l e d i n the c a p r i c i o u s emblazonings o f the works. As they n a r r a t e d t o each other t h e i r unholy adventures, t h e i r t a l e s of t e r r o r t o l d i n words o f m i r t h ; as t h e i r u n c i v i l i z e d l a u g h t e r f o r k e d upwards out o f them, l i k e the flames from the f u r n a c e ; as t o and f r o , i n t h e i r f r o n t , the harpooneers wildly g e s t i c u l a t e d with t h e i r huge pronged f o r k s . . ." (MD353). 34M. G. Lewis, The Monk. New York, Grove P r e s s , I n c . (1959), p. 167. A l l r e f e r e n c e s are t o t h i s e d i t i o n . 3 % o t e the Rime, l i n e s 115-119: Day a f t e r day, day a f t e r day, We stuck, nor b r e a t h nor motion; As i d l e as a p a i n t e d s h i p Upon a p a i n t e d ocean, and l i n e s 422-423: "•But why d r i v e s on t h a t s h i p so f a s t Without or wave or wind?'" A l s o note t h a t the l i n e s of Mobv-Dick quoted here come near the end o f Chapter 51 and are immediately f o l l o w e d by the chapter c a l l e d "The A l b a t r o s s , " a f t e r a s h i p o f the same name which i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s f a s h i o n : "As i f the waves had been f u l l e r s , t h i s c r a f t was bleached l i k e the s k e l e t o n o f a stranded walrus. A l l down her s i d e s , t h i s s p e c t r a l appearance was t r a c e d w i t h l o n g channels o f reddened r u s t , w h i l e a l l her spars and r i g g i n g were l i k e the t h i c k branches o f t r e e s f u r r e d over w i t h h o a r - f r o s t . Only her lower s a i l s were s e t . A w i l d s i g h t i t was t o see her long-bearded l o o k o u t s at those t h r e e mast-heads. They seemed c l a d i n the s k i n s o f b e a s t s , so t o r n and bepatched the raiment t h a t had survived nearly four years of c r u i s i n g . Standing i n i r o n hoops n a i l e d t o the mast, they swayed and swung over a f a t h omless sea; and though, when the s h i p s l o w l y g l i d e d c l o s e under our s t e r n , we s i x men i n t h e a i r came so n i g h t o each o t h e r t h a t we might almost have leaped from the mast-heads o f one s h i p t o those o f the other; y e t , those f o r l o r n - l o o k i n g fishermen, m i l d l y e y e i n g us as they passed, s a i d not one word t o our own l o o k - o u t s , w h i l e the quarterdeck h a i l was heard from below . . ." (MD203). T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i s s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f the s h i p o f the "Night-mare LIFE-IN-DEATH," and i s a l s o s t r i k i n g l y c l o s e to the episode i n The N a r r a t i v e of A r t h u r Gordon Pvm i n which t h e Grampus passes c l o s e under the bows of a Dutch b r i g of which a l l the crew are dead. One corpse seems t o make grotesque encouraging g e s t u r e s o f p a t i e n c e when a s e a g u l l i s g o r g i n g i t s e l f on i t s back. See Poe. pp. 318-319.

126 ^ The whole passage i s l i k e M i l t o n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f hell. Note e s p e c i a l l y t h e Gothic tone o f : "The wind i n c r e a s e d t o a howlj t h e waves dashed t h e i r b u c k l e r s t o g e t h e r , t h e whole s q u a l l r o a r e d , f o r k e d , and c r a c k l e d around us l i k e white f i r e upon t h e p r a i r i e , i n which, unconsumed, we were b u r n i n g ; immortal i n these jaws o f death!" ( 1 9 4 ) 3 ? T h i s i s p o s s i b l y another o f t h e very end o f Pym.

echo o f Poe, t h i s

time

^"Ishmael's w i l l i n g n e s s t o take t h i s step i s shown i n h i s over-eagerness t o p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h t h e crew i n "Ahab's quenchless f e u d " (MD155), t o make i t h i s own. The " s t r o n g e r I shouted, and more d i d I hammer" r e v e a l s t h a t he does not want t o be an Ishmael; he wants t o walk "with a goodly company" and " a l l t o g e t h e r p r a y . " "The Mat-Maker" both r e i n f o r c e s t h e r e a d e r ' s knowledge o f t h i s d e s i r e and shows t h a t i t i s not y e t e n t i r e l y r e a l i z e d . S e e P a r a d i s e L o s t . Book I , 1 1 . 5 9 9 - 6 0 8 : . . . Darkened so, y e t shone Above them a l l t h e A r c h a n g e l : but h i s f a c e Deep s c a r s o f thunder had entrenched, and c a r e Sat on h i s faded cheek, but under brows Of d a u n t l e s s courage, and c o n s i d e r a t e p r i d e W a i t i n g revenge. C r u e l h i s eye, but c a s t Signs o f remorse and p a s s i o n , t o behold The f e l l o w s o f h i s crime, t h e f o l l o w e r s r a t h e r ( F a r o t h e r once beheld i n b l i s s ) , condemned For everanow t o have t h e i r l o t i n p a i n — " 3 9

° A l s o see F e i d e l s o n ' s Symbolism and American t u r e (Chicago, 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. 28-35, i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . 4

41

T o m p k i n s , p.

42

Litera-

255.

Tompkins, p. 2 5 4 .

^ H o r a c e Walpole, The C a s t l e o f Otranto (London, p. 5 8 . H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as Walpole. 4 4

1958),

T h e Monk, p . 4 5 .

A n n R a d c l i f f e , The I t a l i a n ( D u b l i n , 1 7 9 7 ) , pp. 5 3 - 5 4 . The d e s c r i p t i o n i n t h i s passage i s complete w i t h a l l t h e det a i l s o f the Gothic v i l l a i n . 4 5

C h a r l es Robert M a t u r i n , Melmoth t h e Wanderer. I n t r o d . by W. F. Axton ( L i n c o l n , Neb., 1 9 6 1 ) , pp. x - x i . Axton goes on togssay: 4 6

127 "He i s d e l i b e r a t e l y made l a r g e r than l i f e , and h i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y human q u a l i t i e s are exaggerated, perhaps as evidence of a growing romantic f a i t h i n the w i l l and the power o f the w i l l to c r e a t e environment. U l t i m a t e l y , the t y p i c a l G o t h i c h e r o - v i l l a i n i s more a p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o j e c t i o n than a r e a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , f o r he p e r s o n i f i e s the moral r e b e l l i o n of h i s times a g a i n s t a s t i f l i n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n . He i s man a l i e n a t e d from an orthodox s o c i e t y i n which i n h e r i t e d i n s t i t u t i o n s have been c o r r u p t e d i n t o meaningless c l i c h e s o r mechanical codes o f outward c o n f o r m i t y , or a p p r o p r i a t e d by the powers-that-be as instruments t o p r e s e r v e a t y r a n n i c a l and s e l f i s h s t a t u s quo. As o l d as the p r o t a g o n i s t o f Jacobean revenge-tragedy, the damnable but admirable h e r o - v i l l a i n of h i g h G o t h i c f i c t i o n i s a personage whose e v i l i s the r e s u l t o f t h e c l a s h between h i s p a s s i o n a t e nature and powerf u l i n d i v i d u a l w i l l and the u n n a t u r a l r e s t r a i n t s o f convent i o n , orthodoxy, o r t r a d i t i o n . E q u a l l y a v i c t i m of despotism and an e x p l o i t e r o f i t , he has been p e r v e r t e d by an authori t a r i a n environment so t h a t he both t u r n s i t t o the g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f h i s w i l l f o r power and i s t w i s t e d by h i s e f f o r t t o break away from i t or t o undermine i t . H i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y permanently threatened, he t h i r s t s to r e a l i z e h i m s e l f i n tyranny at the same time t h a t he i s g u i l t i l y aware of h i s evil. Thus, i n d r a m a t i s i n g t h e c o n f l i c t i n g elements of the h e r o - v i l l a i n *s nature, the author shapes him i n t o an implement f o r a t t a c k i n g those a n c i e n t r e s t r a i n t s which b i n d the modern i n d i v i d u a l s t r u g g l i n g t o make h i m s e l f i n h i s own p a t t e r n . " P l e a s e note that Schedoni's c h a r a c t e r i s more p r i m i t i v e than those o f t h e o t h e r two, and shows l i t t l e evidence o f humanity. ^ M e l v i l l e ' s " d e p i c t i o n o f a u n i v e r s e both g o d l e s s and p u r p o s e l e s s was, and he knew i t , i n e f f e c t a blasphemy from the p o i n t o f view of orthodoxy and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m a l i k e . The shock upon h i s contemporary p u b l i c ( i f they had w i d e l y understood) c o u l d be compared t o the e f f e c t t h a t Robinson J e f f e r s ' theology might have had upon Queen V i c t o r i a . " John Parke, "Seven Moby-Dicks," i n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Ameri c a n L i t e r a t u r e . C h a r l e s F e i d e l s o n , J r . , and Paul Brodtkorb, J r . , eds. (New York, 1959), p. 93. " ^ A c c o r d i n g to p. 194, where the s q u a l l " c r a c k l e d around [Ishmael] l i k e a white f i r e . . . i n which, uncon— sumed, we were b u r n i n g , " t h i s image may imply t h a t Ahab i s "immortal i n these jaws o f d e a t h . " The k i n d o f i m m o r t a l i t y meant i s probably l i k e t h a t p r o p h e s i e d i n Macbeth, i n d i c a t i n g that n a t u r a l f o r c e s c o u l d not k i l l him. In a symbolic sense Moby D i c k i s by no means a n a t u r a l f o r c e . * See the B o b b s - M e r r i l l E d i t i o n o f Moby-Dick, ed. C h a r l e s F e i d e l s o n , J r . , p. 347, n. 4. y

128 ° I f we can a l s o accept t h a t the Pequod i s the body of which Ahab i s t h e mind o r s o u l , then we can strengthen t h i s comparison of Ahab and whale i n a l l the r e f e r e n c e s which l i k e n t h e Pequod to a whale and v i c e v e r s a ; f o r example, note t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y when "seen through the darkness of t h e n i g h t , . . . the two—ship and whale, seemed yoked t o g e t h e r l i k e c o l o s s a l b u l l o c k s . . . " (MD248). 5

51

N o t e t h e Rime. 11. 226-227: "And thou a r t l o n g , and l a n k , As i s the r i b b e d s e a - s a n d . "

and brown,

52The l i t e r a t u r e o f the decadents m a i n t a i n s the p e c u l i a r f l a v o u r of the G o t h i c , as w e l l as i t s general themes; t h i s book I b e l i e v e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y G o t h i c i n i t s h a n d l i n g of the double m o t i f , the boredom w i t h any l i f e but t h a t o f heightened senses and e x p e r i e n c e , and the u n d e r l y i n g g u i l t connected w i t h D o r i a n ' s " F a u s t - c o m p l e x , " i f I may so term i t . 53

See page 417.

^ I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f American L i t e r a t u r e , p . 99. T h i s study of Ahab i s a l t o g e t h e r , I t h i n k , a very p e n e t r a t i n g one. Parke does not push t h e "mother-symbol" i d e a , but one f e e l s the v a l i d i t y of h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n with " t h e feminine p r i n c i p l e of r e l a t e d n e s s " (see p . 90), the wholesome e f f e c t o f which i s denied the Pequod and her crew. 55There i s a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h i s passage i n B r o d t k o r b ' s I s h m a e l ' s White World (New Haven, 1965), p p . 63-65, which should be n o t e d , because Brodtkorb i s d i s c u s s i n g here the concepts of " s e l f " and " o t h e r " i n r e l a t i o n to Ahab. r

fi.

The

B v r o n i c Hero. p . 8.

' N o t e e s p e c i a l l y Chapter 20 o f the book: " I n hypocr i s y he had worn the mask o f goodness" i s the p i c t u r e ' s judgement of h i s one "good d e e d . " " F o r c u r i o s i t y ' s sake he had t r i e d the d e n i a l o f s e l f . He r e c o g n i z e d t h a t now . . . . The p i c t u r e . . . had kept him awake at n i g h t . . . . I t had brought melancholy a c r o s s h i s p a s s i o n s . I t s mere memory had marred many moments of j o y . I t had been l i k e conscience to him. Yes, i t had been c o n s c i e n c e . He would d e s t r o y i t . " Oscar W i l d e , The P i c t u r e of D o r i a n Gray (Harmondsworth, M i d d l e s e x , 1965), 246-247. Dorian's ultimate s i n i s his f a i l u r e to accept r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s c r i m e s ; because he r e j e c t s h i s own e v i l , any p o t e n t i a l goodness, i n s t e a d o f b e i n g i n t e g r a t e d i n t o h i s own b e i n g , i s i n t h e end o u t s i d e o f him, i n t h e p i c t u r e on the w a l l . J

129 ^Hawthorne: S e l e c t e d T a l e s and Sketches, i n t r o d . by H. H. Waggoner (New York, 1967), pp. 201-202. H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as Hawthorne. 59

V a r m a , pp. 157-158.

6o

Tompkins,

p.

285.

See Ishmael's White World, p. 35 and n. 5 on pp. 155-156. 62 James J u s t u s , "Beyond G o t h i c i s m : Wuthering H e i g h t s and an American T r a d i t i o n , " Tennessee S t u d i e s i n L i t e r a t u r e . V ( i 9 6 0 ) , 28. J u s t u s i s here s p e a k i n g o f development of t h e G o t h i c i n America and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n C h a r l e s Brockden Brown; but t h i s statement appears to be e q u a l l y t r u e o f any Gothic w r i t e r s i n c e Brown. ^Hawthorne, p. 151. 64

Hawthorne, p. 164.

6 5

C o l e r i d g e , p.

518.

" . . . t h e human mind i s c a p a b l e o f b e i n g e x c i t e d without the a p p l i c a t i o n o f gross and v i o l e n t s t i m u l a n t s . . . The i n v a l u a b l e works o f our e l d e r w r i t e r s . . . a r e d r i v e n i n t o n e g l e c t by f r a n t i c n o v e l s , s i c k l y and s t u p i d German t r a g e d i e s , and d e l u g e s o f i d l e and extravagant s t o r i e s i n v e r s e — . . . t h i s d e g r a d i n g t h i r s t a f t e r outrageous stimulation . . . " Wordsworth, p. 735b. W a l t e r A l l e n , The E n g l i s h Novel: A Short (Harmondsworth, 1965), p . 93.

6 7

History

Critical

S e e Northrop Frye, Anatomy o f C r i t i c i s m : Four Essays (NewiYork, 1968), e s p e c i a l l y pp. 186-206. 6 8

S e e E l l i o t t B. Gose, J r . , "Pure E x e r c i s e o f Imagina t i o n : A r c h e t y p a l Symbolism i n Lord Jim." PMLA. LXXIX (March, 1964), 140a. 6 9

70 From "A F a m i l i a r P r e f a c e " to A P e r s o n a l Record: quoted i n G. H . B a n t o c k , "The Two ' M o r a l i t i e s * o f Joseph Conrad," Essays i n C r i t i c i s m . I l l ( A p r i l , 1953), p\ 127. 71

7

( N e w York, 1926), p.

^ I b i d . , p. x i .

7 3

I b i d . , p. x.

viii.

130

74

Hume, p. 2 8 5 .

•'••'There are many phrases i n Lord Jim, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h i s passage, s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f both Mobv-Dick and t h e Rime. Compare, f o r example: "a s i l v e r y j e t was seen f a r i n advance o f t h e white bubbles at t h e bow" (MD199) and " [ t h e sun was] p r e s e r v i n g the same d i s t a n c e ahead o f h e r advancing bows" (LJ14), where tone and words a r e s i m i l a r ; "the s h i p . . . b l a c k and smouldering i n a luminous i n t e n s i t y " (LJ14) and the f i r e - s h i p (LJ15) w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Pequod i n "The Try-Works" ( M D 3 5 3 - 3 5 4 ) ; " I t seemed to him [ i . e . Jim] he was w h i r l e d around" ( L J 8 ) and "The Try-Works" ( M D 3 5 4 ) ; "At f i r s t I t seemed a l i t t l e speck" (Rime. 1. 1 4 9 ) and "the b l a c k speck o f t h e moving h u l l " ( L J 1 5 ) ; Marlow's "strange i n a b i l i t y to hold my tongue" ( L J 3 2 ) and the M a r i n e r ' s compuls i o n t o speak. W. U. Ober's "Heart of Darkness: The A n c i e n t M a r i n e r a Hundred Y e a r s L a t e r " suggests f u r t h e r p a r a l l e l s i n Marlow's and the M a r i n e r ' s r o l e s which are a p p l i c a b l e to Lord J i m . T h e typhoon, the whale, and t h e w h i r l p o o l a r e , m y t h o l o g i c a l l y speaking, one and t h e same. 7 6

77

" J o h n O l i v e r P e r r y , " A c t i o n , V i s i o n , o r V o i c e : The Moral Dilemmas i n Conrad's T a l e - T e l l i n g . " JMFS. X ( S p r i n g 1964), 11. ^ I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Lord Jim, p. xxx. L o r d Jim- P- x x i .

7 Q

8 o

W a l p o l e , p. 3 7 .

8 1

P.

157.

8 2

p.

61.

8^

°Note that Almayer's house i s "new but a l r e a d y d e c a y i n g " (quoted by Zabel i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Lord Jim p . x ) , as i s Heyst's s e t t l e m e n t , though j u s t a few y e a r s old, a ghostly, decaying place. S e e p.

8 4

191.

A l s o see p. 176: "we had watched the moon f l o a t away above t h e chasm between the h i l l s l i k e an a s c e n d i n g s p i r i t out o f a grave. . ." The moon i s d e s c r i b e d as " s i n i s t e r " and " g l o a t i n g . " Marlow guesses t h a t "once b e f o r e Patusan had been used as a grave f o r some s i n " (LJ157). D

N o t e the s i m i l a r i t y with "The Wasteland," 3 8 5 - 3 8 9 and 395-405. 8 6

11.

131

87

"The moon i s intended t o awaken a n o c t u r n a l atmosphere f r a u g h t with mystery and t i n g e d w i t h f a n t a s y , f e a r , and sadness. I t l e n d s an i n d i s t i n c t and weird shape to each f e a t u r e . " Varma, p. 59. 88

Y e l t o n has i n t e r e s t i n g l y analysed the s p e c t r a l imagery i n Mimesis and Metaphor pp. 172-174. He c a l l s i t , "together w i t h imagery o f the abyss and the r e l a t e d cosmic and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l imagery, . . . [an] o b s e s s i v e metaphoric" m o t i f which h e l p s determine the r e a d e r * s response " a t t h e s u b l i m i n a l and s u g g e s t i v e l e v e l . . . " p . 174. °Xonrad has much to say about the f o r c e of words i n t h i s n o v e l . L i k e M e l v i l l e o r d e r i n g h i s c a t e g o r i e s o f whales, he o r d e r s h i s c h a r a c t e r s : "There i s a weird powa? i n the spoken word. . . . A l l at once, on the blank page, under t h e very p o i n t o f the pen, . . . Chester and h i s a n t i q u e p a r t n e r . . . would dodge i n t o view with s t r i d e and g e s t u r e . . . I would watch them f o r awhile. No! They were too phantasmal and extravagant t o enter i n t o anyone's f a t e . And a word c a r r i e s f a r — v e r y f a r — d e a l s d e s t r u c t i o n through time as the b u l l e t s go f l y i n g through space. I said nothing . . ." (LJ125). To Jewel, "each pronounced word had a v i s i b l e shape" (LJ203). "Words a l s o belong to the s h e l t e r e d conception o f l i g h t and o r d e r which i s our r e f u g e . I had them ready . . ." (LJ225). sobbing c a t c h o f her b r e a t h a f f e c t e d him [Jim] beyond the power o f words" (LJ214)• Jim taught Jewel how t o speak E n g l i s h , the language o f her god, and u n w i t t i n g l y allowed words to shape her c h a r a c t e r by thus g i v i n g them a s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o her. Words are never the means, but t h e end, to Jewel. Yet they are dangerous, and inadequate. " I , t o o , " says Marlow, "who a moment ago had been so sure o f t h e power o f words, and now was a f r a i d t o speak . . . It was the f e a r of l o s i n g him t h a t kept me s i l e n t . . . " (LJ12Q) I t i s the same f e a r which makes Jewel speak. Note f u r t h e r the P r e f a c e t o The Nigger of the Narc i s s u s i n Three Great T a l e s . 8

9°Jim knows, and t e l l s Marlow, t h a t the f a c t p i l g r i m s d i d not d i e does not o b v i a t e h i s g u i l t .

the

91 Joseph Conrad, Heart o f Darkness. Norton C r i t i c a l Ed. (New York, 1963), p. 5. A l l r e f e r e n c e s are to t h i s e d i t i o n and w i l l h e r e a f t e r be c i t e d i n the t e x t as HD. 92 ". . . Conrad employs the f i c t i o n a l s t r a t e g y o f the Doppelganger. o b j e c t i f y i n g the a l t e r ego, the o t h e r s e l f that t h e daytime c o n f r o n t s . But i n adopting the d e v i c e o f the Doppelganger he does not, l i k e the German romantics, 7

132 venture i n t o the realm o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l , nor l i k e Dostoyevsky ("The Double") i n t o the realm o f mental a l i e n a t i o n , nor l i k e Stevenson or Poe ("William Wilson") i n t o some ambiguous realm combining t h e two. He remains, as always, f a i t h f u l t o h i s concept of the humanly p o s s i b l e . " Y e l t o n , pp. 272273. I agree with a l l o f t h i s statement except t h a t p a r t c o n c e r n i n g the "mental a l i e n a t i o n " and the "ambiguous realm." Jim's a l i e n a t i o n seems to me t o be m e n t a l — i n the b a s i c sense t h a t he cannot t h i n k as o t h e r men do; Marlow, i n order t o understand him, has t o a c h i e v e that same a l i e n a t i o n of mind i n h i m s e l f . And i n s o f a r as Marlow sees that K u r t z has aimed f o r godhead and gained i t i n a sense, and as he f e e l s hims e l f to be K u r t z ' s a l t e r ego, they both s u r e l y d w e l l p a r t i a l l y at l e a s t i n an "ambiguous realm" o f t h a t general type. A t one p o i n t he i s mistaken f o r "one of them n i g g e r s " by the Patna's c h i e f engineer ( L J 6 7 ) . For h i s p a r t , Jim sees t h e c h i e f "moving, b i g , b i g — a s you see a man i n a m i s t , i n a dream" ( L J 8 7 ) . 9 3

a A

^"Jim's s h o c k i n g encounter with h i m s e l f at the moment o f h i s jump from the Patna . . . i s a paradigm o f the encounters of the c o n s c i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y w i t h the s t r a n g e r w i t h i n , t h e s t r a n g e r who i s the very s e l f of the s e l f . . . Dorothy Van Ghent, The E n g l i s h Novel; Form and F u n c t i o n (New York, 1961), p. 229. 9 5

G o s e , p.

9 6

P o e , p.

145. 135.

97 Joseph Conrad, "Heart o f Darkness" and "The S e c r e t S h a r e r . " ed. A l b e r t J . Guerard, S i g n e t Ed. (New York, 1950), p. 20. H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as SS i n the t e x t . 98 H i s b e l i e f i n the s e c u r i t y o f the sea, of course, i s a token of h i s forthcoming d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . 99 I n c i d e n t a l l y , no c r i t i c seems t o ask why i t might be t h a t Leggatt, w h i l e s t i l l i n the water, asks t o speak t o t h e c a p t a i n , the person who would be s u r e l y l e a s t l i k e l y t o h e l p him escape. -*- As T. E. Boyle suggests i n Symbol and Meaning i n t h e F i c t i o n o f Joseph Conrad (The Hague, 1965), p. 135. 00

B o y l e , p. 142. Boyle a c t u a l l y f e e l s t h a t the capt a i n i s of b e t t e r s t u f f than L e g g a t t . H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t the c a p t a i n "has been pushed as f a r as Legg a t t was, and though h i s response i s the same i n k i n d , i t i s l 0 1

133 n o t a b l y d i f f e r e n t i n degree. He i s c l e a r l y a d i f f e r e n t man from Leggatt, c l e a r l y not the k i n d of man t o l o s e h i s s e l f possession e n t i r e l y i n a c r i s i s . " His conclusion i s that "Conrad has brought him near to i n s a n i t y , but has p e r m i t t e d him to r e c o g n i z e the p a r a d o x i c a l nature of e v i l and t o pass t h e shadow-line which separates youth from m a t u r i t y . He has p e r m i t t e d him to r e l a t e h i m s e l f to humanity and to h i s c r a f t . " While I agree t h a t Leggatt and the c a p t a i n are r e a l l y not the same at a l l , I f e e l t h a t Leggatt i s not the k i n d of man to compromise h i m s e l f and r i s k the l i v e s of h i s crew; i n f a c t , he o f f e r s h i m s e l f , c e r t a i n i n the knowledge t h a t the moment has come f o r him to s a c r i f i c e h i s l i f e f o r the crew, s i n c e Archbold i s i n c a p a b l e o f making the c o r r e c t moral d e c i s i o n . T h e r e f o r e , the c a p t a i n ' s d e c i s i o n to s a c r i f i c e the whole crew to h i s own p e r v e r t e d d e s i r e t o save h i m s e l f i n s a v i n g Leggatt, seems to me l e s s c r e d i t a b l e than L e g g a t t ' s more C h r i s t i a n s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . P o r t e r W i l l i a m s , J r . , "The Brand o f C a i n i n 'The S e c r e t Sharer',» MFS, X ( S p r i n g 1964), 28. This a r t i c l e i s h e l p f u l i n c o n n e c t i o n with my t h e s i s , f o r obvious reasons. W i l l i a m s s t r e s s e s t h a t "the t r a d i t i o n a l brand upon Cain's forehead was r e a l l y a mark of God's compassion and not a stigma" (p. 28) and shows how Leggatt i s a C a i n f i g u r e . C a i n , l i k e Ishmael, i s "a f u g i t i v e and a vagabond i n the e a r t h " (Genesis i v , 14). Comparison of Conrad's treatment o f Leggatt with Axton's d i s c u s s i o n of therprdblems of the G o t h i c h e r o - v i l l a i n i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s s o c i e t y i n the I n t r o d u c t i o n to Melmoth the Wanderer, pp. x - x i , shows j u s t how f a r Conrad has come from the c o n v e n t i o n a l h a n d l i n g o f t h i s theme by e a r l y Gothic w r i t e r s . 1 0 2

T h e egoism can a l s o be i n t e r p r e t e d as a good t h i n g — a s , f o r example, the s e l f - r e s p e c t necessary to t h e h e a l t h y development of p e r s o n a l i t y . T h i s f a c t makes i r o n i c the knowledge t h a t egoism i n v i t e s the wrath of God. Like t h e k i l l i n g of L a i u s , which p e r m i t t e d Oedipus to r u l e w h i l e b e i n g the u l t i m a t e reason f o r h i s d o w n f a l l , the s t r i p p i n g o f the hats from Ahab, the c a p t a i n , and even Jim, should be t h e s i g n o f t h e i r m a t u r i t y even w h i l e i t i n v i t e s d i s a s t e r down upon them. J

1 0

4 w a l p o l e , p.

28.

% e r m a n M e l v i l l e , " B i l l y Budd" and "The P i a z z a T a l e s " (New York, 1961), p. 154. H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as Benito Cereno. 1 0

R. H. F o g l e , M e l v i l l e ' s S h o r t e r T a l e s (Norman, Okla., 1960), p. 142. 1 0 o

134 H i s c o n s c i o u s i s unconscious, and v i c e v e r s a ; t h i s v e i l i s a l s o d e s c r i b e d as a "mask" to be " t o r n away." 108 Fogle p o i n t s out, the b l a c k - e v i l , white-good dichotomy i s not so c u t - a n d - d r i e d as a l l t h a t . Babo has on h i s s i d e the argument t h a t h i s enslavement by the whites i s e v i l , and B e n i t o ' s extreme d e b i l i t y does suggest a c e r t a i n moral decay present b e f o r e t h e mutiny, which i n f a c t may have made the mutiny e a s i e r . The e x p l a n a t i o n enclosed i n B e n i t o ' s d e c l a r a t i o n seems to me p r i m i t i v e and po s s i b l y unnecessary, somewhat l i k e R a d c l i f f e ' s attempts t o e x p l a i n away her s u p e r n a t u r a l effects. I t s e x c l u s i o n might have strengthened d e p i c t i o n o f Delano's m o r a l i t y at t h e end. A s

0 n e of the t h i n g s f o r which the w i l d e r n e s s stands i s Hades; the savage woman, the image of the w i l d e r n e s s ' s "tenebrous and p a s s i o n a t e s o u l " (HD62) appears i n Marlow's i m a g i n a t i o n as "bedecked w i t h powerless charms, s t r e t c h i n g her brown arms over the g l i t t e r of the i n f e r n a l stream, the stream o f darkness" (HD78). 1 0 9

110 d e f i n i t i o n o f myth" which I am u s i n g i s t h a t o f T h r a l l and Hibbard i n A Handbook to L i t e r a t u r e (New York, I960), r e v i s e d by C. Hugh Holman f o r the Odyssey P r e s s : "Myth: Anonymous s t o r i e s having t h e i r r o o t s i n t h e primi t i v e f o l k - b e l i e f s o f races or n a t i o n s and p r e s e n t i n g supern a t u r a l episodes as a means o f i n t e r p r e t i n g n a t u r a l events i n an e f f o r t to make c o n c r e t e and p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c i a l p e r c e p t i o n o f man or a cosmic view. Myths d i f f e r from LEGENDS i n t h a t they have l e s s of h i s t o r i c a l background and more o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l . " I n s o f a r as t h e Gothic moves away from t h e h i s t o r i c a l romance, i t seems to me to move from legend towards myth. T n e

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED A l l e n , W a l t e r . The E n g l i s h Novel: A Short C r i t i c a l H i s t o r y . Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books L t d . , 1965. Andreas, Osborne. Joseph Conrad: A Study i n Non-Conformity. New York: P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , 1959. A r v i n , Newton. American Pantheon. i n g Co., I n c . , 1967. . Herman M e l v i l l e . 1957.

New York: D e l l P u b l i s h -

New York: V i k i n g Compass Books,

Baines, Jocelyn. Joseph Conrad: A C r i t i c a l Biography. New York: McGraw-Hill, I960. Bantock, G. H. "The Two ' M o r a l i t i e s ' o f Joseph Conrad." Essavs i n C r i t i c i s m . I l l ( A p r i l 1953), 125-141. Bate, W a l t e r Jackson. From C l a s s i c t o Romantic: Premises o f T a s t e i n Eighteenth-Century England. New York: Harper and Row, P u b l i s h e r s , 1961. Baum, P a u l ! F r a n k l i n . 312-314.

"A Source."

MLN, XXXIII (May 1918),

Beebe, Maurice, H a r r i s o n H a y f o r d and Gordon Roper. "Criticism o f Herman M e l v i l l e : A S e l e c t e d C h e c k l i s t . " MFS. V I I I , No. 3 (Autumn 1962). Benson, C a r l . "Conrad's Two S t o r i e s o f I n i t i a t i o n . " LXIX (March 1954), 46-56.

PMLA,

Bewley, Marius. "The Poetry o f C o l e r i d g e . " The Importance of " S c r u t i n y . " New York: George W. Stewart P u b l i s h e r , I n c . , 1948. B l u e f a r b , Sam. "The S e a - M i r r o r and Maker o f C h a r a c t e r i n F i c t i o n and Drama." E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , X L V I I I , No. 9 (December 1959), 501-510. Boulger, James D. Twentieth Century I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f "The Rime o f t h e A n c i e n t M a r i n e r . " Englewood C l i f f s , N.J.: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1969. Boyle, Ted E. "Marlow's ' L i e ' i n Heart o f Darkness." SSF. I (Winter 1964), 159-163. . Symbol and Meaning i n t h e F i c t i o n o f Joseph Conrad. The Hague, P a r i s , London: Mouton and Co., 1965.

136 Brady, Marion B. "Conrad's Whited S e p u l c h e r . " E n g l i s h , XXIV (October 1962), 24-29.

College

B r a s w e l l , W i l l i a m . M e l v i l l e ' s R e l i g i o u s Thought: An Essay i n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . New York: Pageant Book Co., 1959. Brobfckorb, P a u l , J r . Ishmael's White World: A Phenomenologi c a l Reading o f "Moby-Dick." New Haven and London: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965. Buckley, W i l l i a m E., ed. Prose o f t h e V i c t o r i a n Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n Co., 1958.

Period.

Byron, Lord George Noel Gordon. The P o e t i c a l Works of Lord Byron. London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966. Canby, Henry S e i d e l . Brace, 1922.

Definitions.

New York: H a r c o u r t

Chase, R i c h a r d . The American Novel and i t s T r a d i t i o n . den C i t y , N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., I n c . , 1957. . Herman M e l v i l l e : A C r i t i c a l Macmillan Company, 1949.

Study.

New

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